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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Results.", "Summaries.", "Most successful players.", "Multiple medalists." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Only four nations have won titles in the history of the Women's World Cup. The first tournament was held in 1953 in Chile, with participation of ten national teams. Despite of losing to Brazil in the final round, the United States won inaugural title. The next tournament which was held in 1957 in Brazil, marked beginning of long-time rivalry between US team and Soviet team who debuted at the World Championship. The first official match between these teams was played on last day of the tournament, it was also decisive match of the championship. Soviet players led after first half (27–24), but in the second half Americans managed to achieve victory (51–48) and to won second World title. The third World Championship was held in 1959 in Moscow, Soviet Union. Due to international political tensions caused by the Cold War, United States and its allies didn't participate at this tournament, thus only 8 Eastern Bloc countries were able to play at the championship. In the absense of US team, Soviet team won their maiden World title while Bulgaria took silver medals and Czechosovakia finished third. But at the next World Championship which was held in 1964 in Peru, all these Eastern European teams also occupied whole podium – Soviet Union won second title in row, Czechosovakia won silver medals, Bulgaria took bronze while United States finished only at fourth place. This tournament marked the beginning of the era of dominance of the Soviet Union in world women's basketball which lasted for next two decades. Under leadership of head coach Lidiya Alekseyeva, Soviet team won three next World Championships held in 1967 (Czechoslovakia), 1971 (Brazil) and 1975 (Colombia). The vast majority of medals at these tournaments were won by Eastern European and East Asian teams while United States even failed to qualify into final round. In general, from 1959 to 1975 Soviet team won record five titles in a row by winning all their 40 matches with margin of 10 points and more. Therefore, it was not surprising when Soviet Union won inaugural women's Olympic tournament which was held in 1976 in Montreal, Canada (by winning all five matches). Despite of losing to Japan and Soviet Union, United States managed to finish second and capture silver medals while Bulgaria took Olympic bronze. Unfortunately, the next world women's basketball major tournaments were clouded by series of political boycottes caused by the Cold War. Firstly, Soviet Union and four other Eastern Bloc countries withdrew from next World Championships which was held in 1979 in South Korea. Despite of losing to hosts (82–94), United States won all other matches and captured gold medals thanks to better head-to-head point difference among Top 3 teams. It was third World title for US team and the first since 1957. On next year United States boycotted 1980 Olympic tournament which was held in Moscow, Soviet Union. In their absence, Soviet team captured second Olympic title relatively easy by winning all 6 matches while Bulgaria and Yugoslavia took silver and bronze medals respectively. Therefore, the next World Championship which was held in 1983 in Brazil became the first international major competition for seven years with participation of all world's top teams. Soviet Union captured their sixth World title by winning all 10 matches but this victory was most difficult one. In the final group round, Soviet team won match against United States with margin of only one point (85–84) after losing 40–49 at the end of first half. Later in the final match between these two teams Soviets lost first half with score of 37–40, but also managed to achieve victory with margin of only two points (84–82). Both those matches proved that advantage of Soviet team became not such overwhelming like it was before. China won their first World Championship medal after victory over South Korea in a bronze medal match (71–63). Next year Soviet Union and Hungary boycotted 1984 Olympic tournament which was held in Los Angeles, United States thus allowing hosts to win their maiden Olympic title. South Korea and China took silver and bronze Olympic medals respectively. Fortunately, all world's top teams were able to take part at the next World Championship which was held in 1986 in Soviet Union. One month before start of tournament, United States won basketball tournament at the 1986 Goodwill Games in Moscow by beating Soviet Union with great margin of 23 points (83–60). Both reigning Olympic Champions (United States) and World Champions (Soviet Union) won all their group and semifinal matches, and then met in the final match in Moscow. In this final, US team once again proved own superiority by winning with margin of 20 points (108–88) thus ending remarkable winning streak of Soviet team at the World Championships which lasted 56 consecutive matches. This victory became turning point which marked beginning of the era of dominance of United States in world women's basketball. At the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, US team defended their Olympic title by beating Yugoslavia in the final match (77–70) while Soviet team surprisingly failed to reach final and unexpectively finished only at third place for first time in their history. At the next World Championship which was held in 1990 in Malaysia, Soviet Union lost in the second group round to Czechosovakia (79–82) and Yugoslavia (63–64) and finished only at fifth place. It was first and only time when Soviet team failed to reach podium at the international competition where they participated. Like two years ago, United States and Yugoslavia met in the final match, and US team achieved victory again (88–78) by winning sixth World title. Two years later United States went to 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, Spain in a status of obvious favorites - especially after Yugoslavian team was banned from competition because of United Nations sanctions. However, the former Soviet players who completed for Unified Team as a result of Soviet Union's dissolution in December 1991, managed to achieve surprising success after shocking victory over United States in semifinals (79–73) and victory over China in the final match (76–66). US team finished at the disappointing third place. There was last participation of Soviet basketball at the international competitions and true \"true swan song\" of Soviet team which ceased to exist after that. The 12th World Championship was held in Australia in 1994, after the dissolution of Soviet Union, SFR Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. Slovakia became only newly-formed national team who managed to qualify to this World Championship. In such situation, United States aimed to return at first position. However, they surprisingly lost semifinal match to Brazil (107–110) and once again finished only at the third place. In the final match, Brazil beat China (96–87) thus breaking US-Soviet duopoly on World Championship which lasted for 37 years. Two years later United States took revenge at the home 1996 Olympic tournament at Atlanta by beating Brazil in the final match with margin of 24 points (111–87). This victory marked beginning of US dominance at the Olympic Games – from 1996 to 2016, they won six Olympic titles in a row with remarkable winning streak of 49 consecutive matches at Olympic tournaments. The 13th World Championship took place in 1998 in Germany. Russian team participated at this tournament for first time after dissolution of Soviet Union. In the second group round, they lost to United States with great margin of 36 points (60–96) but then managed to reach final where met with US team again. In the final match, United States faced with much stronger resistance – Russia led with margin of 9 points after first half (28–37), but in the second half US team managed to reach advantage and achieved final victory (71–65). Australia won World Championship bronze medals for first time in their history. The similar story took place at the next World Championship which took place in 2002 in China – United States defeated Russian team at the preliminary round with margin of 34 points (89–55) but later they faced with stronger resistance from Russian side in the final. Despite of this, US team won final match with margin of 5 points (79–74) and captured seventh World title while Australia took bronze medals for second time in a row. At the next 2006 World Championship in Brazil, Russian team lost to United States at the preliminary round (80–90) and then lost two more matches at the group stage. But after group stage, Russia achieved remarkable victory by beating US team in semifinals (75–68). It was only first defeat of United States for 12 years at the either Olympic Games or World Championships (and the last till nowadays). They finished only at third place after beating hosts in a bronze medal match (99–59). After this success, Russia was unable to show the same resistance to Australian team who won final match with margin of 17 points (91–74). Therefore, Australia became only fourth national team to win either Olympic or World title in the history of women's basketball. The next World Championship took place in 2010 in Czech Republic. Many people waited for another match between United States and Russia in playoffs. Both teams won all their group matches but then Russia suffered shocking defeat to Belarus in the quarterfinals (53–70). The defending champions, Australia also surprisingly lost quarterfinal match to hosts - Czech team (68–79). In the semifinals, Czech Republic beat Belarus in overtime (81–77) and reach final match for the first time after dissolution of Czechoslovakia. However, in the final match United States looked stronger and managed to return World title after victory with margin of 20 points (89–69). Spain won World Championship medals for first time in their history after beating Belarus in a bronze medal match (77–68). The next two World Championships were held without participation of Russian team who failed to qualify to these tournaments. In 2014 US team repeated their success by beating Spain in the final match (77–64). The home team, Turkey managed to reach semifinals for first time in history but failed to win medals after losing to Australia in a bronze medal match (44–74). At the next 2018 World Championship in Spain, United States captured gold again after victory over Australia in a final match (73–56). Therefore, US team won seven of last nine World Championships and captured their 10th World title. The home team, Spain reached podium for third time in a row after victory over Belgium in a bronze medal match (67–60).", "", "Note: From 1953 through 1979 the medalists were decided in a league format instead of in a knockout tournament; results of the final round matches are shown.", "Boldface denotes active basketball players and highest medal count among all players (including these who not included in these tables) per type.", "The table shows those who have won at least 4 medals in total at the World Cups." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Acting career.", "1994–99: Beginnings.", "2000–08: \"Gilmore Girls\" and film roles.", "2009–present: Broadway debut and \"Parenthood\".", "Other ventures.", "Writing.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lauren Helen Graham was born on March 16, 1967, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Her mother, Donna Grant, was a fashion buyer, and her father, Lawrence Graham, is a candy industry lobbyist who has been president of the National Confectioners Association. Graham was raised in her father's Catholic faith (her maternal grandfather was a Baptist minister); she is of Irish, English, and Scottish descent. When Graham's father worked for the Agency for International Development in Vietnam, Lauren lived for a few years in Japan (her mother also grew up there, as the daughter of a missionary). Graham was five years old when her parents divorced and she moved to the Virginia suburbs of the Washington, DC metropolitan area with her father, who became a congressional staffer, while her mother left to pursue an artistic career, and lived in London until her death in 2005, at the age of 61. Graham also spent a few of her childhood years in Southampton, New York. Graham has a half-sister and a half-brother from her father's second marriage and a British half-sister, Shade Grant, from her mother's second marriage, who works at a talent agency. As a girl, Graham rode horses competitively, but soon switched to acting, honing her talent at Langley High School, where she took part in the drill team and graduated in 1984. She earned her actor's Equity Card in 1988 after two years in summer stock at the Barn Theatre in Augusta, Michigan. Graham went to New York University, but then transferred to Barnard College. She graduated from Barnard College of Columbia University in 1988 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English Literature. After moving to Texas in 1992, Graham earned a Master of Fine Arts degree in Acting Performance from Southern Methodist University.", "", "After completing her education, Graham moved back to New York City where she earned her living as a waitress and as a tutor teaching SAT test prep for The Princeton Review. While she aspired to become an actress, she made publicity appearances wearing the costume of Striker, the dog mascot of the US-based 1994 FIFA World Cup. In 1995, she relocated to Hollywood. She appeared in various commercials for products such as Dimetapp and Lean Cuisine and hosted free preview weekends on The Movie Channel. Between 1996 and 1997, Graham became a regular guest star on several hit NBC shows. She played a graduate student who caught the eye of Dick on \"3rd Rock from the Sun\"; Richard's overly-optimistic girlfriend on \"Caroline in the City\"; and Jerry's speed-dial ranking girlfriend on \"Seinfeld.\" She played a Hollywood producer who had a love interest in Detective Rey Curtis in a three-part episode of \"Law & Order,\" where she acted opposite Scott Cohen, who would later play one of Graham's love interests (Max Medina) on \"Gilmore Girls.\" She also portrayed an antagonizing but friendship-starved efficiency expert on \"NewsRadio.\" In addition to her many guest starring and co-starring roles on prime-time television, Graham starred in four failed sitcoms, including \"Townies\" (with Molly Ringwald and Jenna Elfman); the short-lived sitcom \"Lush Life\" (with Lori Petty and Karyn Parsons); and \"M.Y.O.B\", which was burned off by NBC in the summer months before the premiere of \"Gilmore Girls\".", "In 2000, Graham landed her breakthrough role as Lorelai Gilmore on \"Gilmore Girls\" – a witty \"thirty-something\" raising her teenage daughter in small town Connecticut. Graham said she felt \"really connected to the material\" and the script for the series resonated with her due to its complexities: \"To me, this was one of the first times that I looked at something and I was like, 'It's serious and it's funny! It's deep and it's light,' especially then, I had never seen before.\" For her work she received a nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series (Drama) at the 2002 Golden Globe Awards and nominations at the 2001 and 2002 SAG Awards. Beginning with Season 7 episode \"To Whom It May Concern\" and continuing throughout the rest of the season, Graham served as a producer on \"Gilmore Girls.\" \"TV Guide\" reported that she received the position in an attempt to persuade her to sign for an eighth season. By the series' end, Graham wanted to move on. \"I didn't feel we had anything without our creators,\" she reflected. Graham returned to her guest-starring roots when she portrayed herself in two episodes of NBC's \"Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip\". Graham has also appeared in the second season of Bravo's \"Celebrity Poker Showdown,\" co-hosted by Dave Foley of \"Newsradio\". After winning her preliminary match, she came in second to another former \"Newsradio\" star, Maura Tierney, in the championship game. Graham's film roles encompass several NYU student films and multiple major studio releases, including \"Sweet November\", \"Bad Santa\", \"The Pacifier\", \"Because I Said So\", and \"Evan Almighty\". Graham has said that she enjoys playing in short films, and acting in the Williamstown Theatre Festival. She has performed in numerous short films, including the 15-minute-long \"Gnome\". In 2007, Graham signed a seven-figure development deal with NBC in one of the year's richest TV talent pacts. Graham has also worked as the voice-over announcer in national advertising for Kellogg's various Special K products in 2007, and for American Express ads in 2008 introducing the Plum Card, which is targeted towards small and growing businesses.", "Graham made her Broadway debut as Miss Adelaide in the revival of \"Guys and Dolls\", which began preview performances at the Nederlander Theatre on February 5, 2009, and opened on March 1, 2009. Reviews for the production were mixed. The production closed June 14, playing 121 shows and 28 previews. It was announced in January 2009 that Graham would star in the comedy pilot, \"The Bridget Show\" (previously \"Let It Go\") for ABC playing a talk show host and self-help guru who fails to follow her own advice during a breakup. However, the pilot was not given a series order. In October 2009, it was announced that Graham would replace Maura Tierney in the television series \"Parenthood\" as single mother Sarah Braverman. Tierney left the show to seek treatment for cancer. The series debuted on NBC the following year, and ran for a total of six seasons. In June 2010, it was confirmed that Graham would star in the upcoming \"Scream 4\", but she left the project on June 30, 2010. In July 2012, Graham was a guest judge in the first episode of Season 10 of the reality television series \"Project Runway\". In 2015, Graham appeared in the adventure drama film \"Max\", playing the mother of an American marine killed in Afghanistan who subsequently adopts his Malinois dog. Graham said she based her character on her grandparents who had different types of strength and that she felt connected to the film due to many in the film's choir having come from a church her grandfather attended. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky and Joe Neumaier felt her role was too limited. The year also saw Graham beginning to appear recurrently in \"The Odd Couple\", playing Gaby, the former wife of the series' main protagonist Oscar, and appear in an episode of the hidden camera comedy \"Repeat After Me\". Graham's first film in 2016 was the comedy-drama \"Joshy\". Jesse Hassenger and Michael Arbeiter noted her small role in the film. In October 2016, Graham appeared in \"\", playing the mother of Griffin Gluck's character. As a result of her own distaste for portions of her youth, Graham related to the title, sparking her initial interest in participating. That year Graham also reprised her role as Lorelai Gilmore on Netflix's reunion series, \"\". Graham said she first realized \"Gilmore Girls\" was still the subject of active interest when girls too young to have watched the series when it initially aired approached her during her Broadway debut \"Guys and Dolls\", and admitted to crying while reading the script as she believed \"it was just beautiful and fitting and what I wanted it to be and hoped for.\" Graham reflected that the project had more support from the beginning than any other she had been involved with and she continuously teared up out of appreciation for those working on the series and being able to reprise her role. In October 2017, Graham appeared in three episodes of HBO's acclaimed comedy \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\", which returned after a six-year hiatus. She also voices the character Oxana Hauntley in the Disney Junior animated series \"Vampirina\". Starting in 2020, Graham was a featured actress on the NBC show \"Zoey's Extraordinary Playlist\". She played Zoey’s (Jane Levy) boss, Joan. As part of this role she both signs and dances to hit songs such as Wrecking Ball, Tik Tok, and Satisfied.", "Graham has graced the cover of numerous magazines, including \"Health\", \"Self\", \"Seventeen\", \"Redbook\", \"Good Housekeeping\", \"Ladies' Home Journal\", and \"Parade.\" She has appeared in a television commercial for AT&T and voiced commercials for Kellogg's and American Express.", "Graham's debut novel, \"Someday, Someday, Maybe\" (2013), was released by Ballantine Books (of Random House) on April 30, 2013. The comedic novel is a fictionalization of her experiences trying to become an actress in 1990s New York. In May 2013, the book entered the New York Times best seller list. Graham signed a deal with Warner Bros. Television and Ellen DeGeneres' production company A Very Good Production to adapt it into a TV series. Graham wrote the screenplay for a pilot episode but it was not picked up for filming. In November 2016, Graham's second book was published: a collection of personal essays titled \"Talking as Fast as I Can: from Gilmore Girls to Gilmore Girls (and Everything in Between)\". It was also a \"New York Times\" best seller. Graham has adapted the novel \"The Royal We\" into a screenplay for CBS Films; she finished the script in mid-2017. She has optioned the rights for the novel \"Windfall\" by Jennifer E. Smith, Graham's book editor. Published in April 2018, Graham's third book, \"In Conclusion, Don't Worry About It\" focuses on \"advice for graduates and reflections on staying true to yourself\" and was her third \"New York Times\" best seller.", "Since 2010, Graham has been in a relationship with actor Peter Krause. They first met in 1995 when they both appeared in the sitcom \"Caroline in the City\", then became a couple while playing brother and sister on \"Parenthood\". They live together in Los Angeles. In the mid-1990s, Graham was roommates with actress Connie Britton. Graham owns an apartment in Manhattan and a house in Los Angeles. Graham remains involved with her Catholic faith by occasionally attending Mass. She is a registered member of the Democratic Party and voted for Hillary Clinton in the 2016 United States presidential election." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Setting.", "Prologue.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Marketing and release.", "Reception.", "Sales.", "Critical reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Like \"Gothic\", \"Gothic II\" is set on the medieval styled isle Khorinis. Places include the City of Khorinis, the monastery of the fire mages, farms and woods. The mine valley of part I is also in the game, though it has changed. Of the old camp only the castle remains, the new camp has turned into a region of ice, and the swamp camp is made inaccessible by a fence built by the orcs. The final place visited in the game is Irdorath, a dungeon similar to the temple in Gothic. Khorinis is a rich area with beautiful farms and dense forests. The main trade resource of Khorinis is the magic ore delivered from its prison colony to the King, who is fighting the orcs on the mainland. Most of the farms in Khorinis are owned by one landowner who has hired mercenaries to protect him and his farms from the militia when they try to collect taxes from the farms. This has caused Khorinis to be on the edge of a civil war. The city is low on food and relies on travelling merchants as the ships from the mainland have stopped coming because of the war. People in Khorinis believe in three gods. Adanos, the god of water and balance. Innos, the god of fire and good. Beliar, the god of evil and darkness.", "After the barrier around the prison colony was destroyed, ore supplies for the kingdom have stopped. The king decides to send Lord Hagen with 100 paladins to the island to secure ore. On Khorinis, prisoners that escaped the camp raided the country and seeing as the militia was unable to protect them; some farmers formed an alliance with the refugees and no longer paid allegiance to the king. Evil did not disappear with the Sleeper being banned as with his last cry the Sleeper summoned the most evil creatures. Xardas felt this and rescued the Nameless Hero from under the ruins of the Sleeper's temple, where he has laid for weeks, becoming weak.", "The Nameless Hero is instructed by Xardas on the new danger, an army of evil that has gathered in the mine valley, led by dragons. Xardas sends the Hero to Lord Hagen, leader of the paladins, to retrieve the Eye of Innos, an artifact which makes it possible to speak with the dragons and learn more about their motivation. The Nameless Hero starts to the City of Khorinis and after he found a way to enter the city, he learns he has to join one of the factions – the militia, the fire mages or the mercenaries – to be permitted entrance to Lord Hagen. When finally meeting the head of the paladins, the Nameless Hero is first sent into the mine valley, which is now overrun by Orcs, to bring back evidence of the dragons. In the castle, the former old camp, Garond heads the mission of the paladins. He also knows about the dragons, since the castle has already been attacked by them, but is only willing to write a notice on it for Lord Hagen, after the Nameless Hero has gathered information on the status in the mines. By the time the Hero exits the valley with the note about the dragons, the evil forces have become aware of his quest. Seekers are spread throughout the isle, with the goal to kill him. Presented with the note Lord Hagen is willing to give the Eye of Innos to the Hero and sends him to the monastery of the fire mages to retrieve it. But shortly before the Hero arrives there, the eye was stolen. The Hero chases after the thief, but just arrives in time to witness Seekers destroy the Eye of Innos. A smith can repair the amulet, but for the magical power to be restored, a ritual with high mages representing the three gods is necessary. Vatras, the water mage, prepares the ritual and represents Adanos. With former fire mage Xardas representing Beliar, Pyrokar, head of the fire mages, joins the ritual reluctantly to represent Innos. The mages manage to restore the power of the Eye of Innos and so the Hero can head back to the valley to destroy the four dragons that live there. After all of the dragons are killed, the Hero travels to Xardas' tower to report to him, but the mage is gone. The Hero is given a note from Xardas by Lester, telling him he was to find more information in the fire mages' monastery, in the book 'The Halls of Irdorath'. The book contains a sea map, showing the way to the isle Irdorath, one of the ancient temples of Beliar that once disappeared. The hero assembles a crew and gets a ship and a captain for that ship to sail to Irdorath and confront the leader of the dragons, and avatar of Beliar – the undead dragon. After the hero slays the dragon, Xardas teleports into the cave and absorbs its soul, making him an avatar of Beliar. After the hero returns to the ship, Xardas appears and tells him that they will see each other again. The game ends with the ship sailing into the distance toward Myrtana.", "The game engine is basically a modified version of the \"Gothic\" engine. The texture resolution has been improved by a factor 4 and the world is said to be three times as detailed as in the first game. While the graphics are less detailed than other engines of the time, there is almost no loading time.", "The German version of the game was published by JoWooD and released on November 29, 2002. In the United Kingdom and Scandinavia, the game was released on June 13, 2003. The US release by Atari followed a few months later on October 28. However, according to Piranha Bytes, Atari did not officially confirm the US release to them, so they did not spread the word about this release for months. On October 17, 2005 publisher JoWood announced that Aspyr Media was going to publish four of their titles in North America, one of them being \"Gothic II Gold\", which includes \"Gothic II\" as well as the expansion pack \"Gothic II - Night of the Raven\". Aspyr Media released \"Gothic II Gold\" on November 29, 2005. In Germany, \"Gothic II\" is also available in a \"Collector's Edition\", together with the add-on and \"Gothic\". An English demo version of the game which contains the first part was released on March 17, 2005, when the game was released in several new territories.", "", "Following high sales projections, \"Gothic II\" became a commercial success and was JoWood's largest-ever hit by early 2003. In the German market, it debuted at #1 on GfK's weekly computer game sales charts in December, topping popular rivals like \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\". Tobias Simon of Gameswelt noted that it shot \"directly from zero to #1\" upon release. After dropping to #3 in its second and third weeks, it finished the final calendar week of 2002 in second place, behind \"Anno 1503\". German firm Media Control ultimately ranked \"Gothic II\" as the German market's second-biggest computer game seller of December, again behind \"Anno\". \"Gothic II\" continued to hold position 2 on GfK's charts for the first two weeks of January 2003, before falling to places fifth, fourth and tenth over its following three weeks, respectively. Despite exiting the top 10 in the sixth week of 2003, \"Gothic II\" received a \"Gold\" award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) by the end of January, for sales of at least 100,000 units across Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The game retained sixth place on Media Control's monthly chart for February, and by June had spent seven consecutive months in the firm's top 30, claiming 15th that month. After two 17th-place finishes in July and August, it climbed back to 14th in September 2003. By February 2004, \"Gothic II\" had sold 200,000 units, while its expansion pack had achieved 100,000 sales. In early 2005, Koch Media launched its \"Hammerprice\" line of budget games, which repackaged older titles at a €10 price point. \"Gothic II\" was among the first games released on the label, alongside titles such as \"\" and \"\". Selling around 200,000 units in this new form, \"Gothic II\" became one of Koch's most successful Hammerprice games by 2007. Throughout Europe, \"Gothic II\" sold 500,000 units by January 2005.", "While \"Gothic II\" received very high reviews in the German press, it did not fare as well in North America, where the game received \"generally favorable reviews\" according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. One of the reasons for the overall worse reviews were the graphics. The translation of the script and the voice acting in the English version were also criticized, and were felt by critics to be out of place and poorer than in the German version. Much of the voice acting criticism falls upon the change in the voice for the character Diego. Douglas L. Erickson of \"Computer Games Magazine\" called \"Gothic II\" \"a role-playing experience in the truest sense.\" He summarized, \"Rarely inconsistent, often frustrating, and always flexible, the world of \"Gothic II\" is, for lack of a more appropriate term, the most believable virtual place you can visit.\" \"Gothic II\" won \"PC Gamer US\"s 2003 \"Best Roleplaying Game\" award. The editors called it \"a return to the roots of classic fantasy roleplaying on the PC\" and noted its \"beautifully detailed nonlinear 3D world\". It was also nominated for RPG Vault's \"RPG of the Year\", \"Outstanding Achievement in Music\" and \"Outstanding Achievement in Sound\" awards, all of which went to \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origin.", "Marcomannic Wars.", "Later history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "It is believed their name derives possibly from the Proto-Germanic forms of \"march\" (\"frontier, border\") and \"men\", \"*Markōmanniz\", which would have been rendered in Latin form as \"Marcomanni\". The Marcomanni first appear in historical records as confederates of the Suebi of Ariovistus fighting against Julius Caesar in Gaul (modern France), having crossed the Rhine from present-day southern Germany. The exact position of their lands at this time is not known. The fact that their name existed before the Romans had territory near the Danube or Rhine raises the question of which border they lived near in order to explain their name. Their name may echo an earlier demarcation between the northern Germanic tribes of the Jastorf cultural circle, and those of the Celtic maximum expansion during the earlier and later Iron Age of La Tene dominance throughout Europe, that from findings in the archaeological record pressed North through with some influence as far as into Jutland, but mostly remained separated South and settled in oppida over today Thuringia and Saxony along the Hercynian forest, intrinsically connected to the major trade roads that went into the more evolved centers of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia all still Celtic regions then. It has been suggested that they may have lived near the conjunction of Rhine and Main river, at the areas formerly inhabited but left deserted by the Helvetii and Taurisci. However the historian Florus reports that Drusus erected a mound of their spoils during his campaign of 12-9 BC, after defeating the Tencteri and Chatti, and before next turning to Cherusci, Suevi, and Sicambri, suggesting that they were not close to any obvious border at the time. According to the accounts of Tacitus (Germ. 42), Paterculus (2.108), Pliny the Elder, and Strabo (vii. p. 290) they eventually moved into the large area previously occupied by the Boii, specifically in a region already called \"Baiohaemum\", where their allies and fellow Suevi the Quadi lived. This was described as being within the Hercynian forest and was possibly in the region of modern Bohemia, although this is not certain. By 6 BC, their king, Maroboduus, had established a powerful kingdom there that Augustus perceived as a threat to Rome. Before he could act, however, the revolt in Illyria intervened. Eventually Maroboduus was deposed and exiled by Catualda (AD 19). Catualda was in turn deposed by Vibilius of the Hermunduri the same year, and succeeded by the Quadian Vannius. Around 50 AD, Vannius was himself also deposed by Vibilius, in coordination with his nephews Vangio and Sido. Tacitus, in the late 1st century mentions (\"Germania\" I.42) the Marcomanni as being under kings appointed by Rome.", "In the 2nd century AD, the Marcomanni entered into a confederation with other peoples including the Quadi, Vandals, and Sarmatians, against the Roman Empire. This was probably driven by movements of larger tribes, like the Goths. According to the historian Eutropius, the forces of the emperor, Marcus Aurelius, battled against the Marcomannic confederation for three years at the fortress of Carnuntum in Pannonia. Eutropius compared the war, and Aurelius's success against the Marcomanni and their allies, to the Punic Wars. The comparison was apt in that this war marked a turning point and had significant Roman defeats; it caused the death of two Praetorian Guard commanders. The war began in 166, when the Marcomanni overwhelmed the defences between Vindobona and Carnuntum, penetrated along the border between the provinces of Pannonia and Noricum, laid waste to Flavia Solva, and could be stopped only shortly before reaching Aquileia on the Adriatic Sea. The war lasted until Aurelius's death in 180. It would prove to be only a limited success for Rome; the Danube river remained as the frontier of the empire until the final fall of the West.", "The Christianisation of the Marcomanni, at least into a Roman orthodox form of Christianity, seems to have occurred under their queen, Fritigil (wife of an unnamed king) in the mid fourth century. She corresponded with Ambrose of Milan to bring about the conversion. This was the last clear evidence of the Marcomanni having a polity. It was possibly on the Roman side of the Danube by this time. Soon after, the Pannonian and Danubian area went into a long period of turmoil. After crossing the Rhine in 406 and the Pyrenees in 409, a group of Suevi, who had migrated together with Vandals and Alans, established themselves in the Roman province of Gallaecia (modern Galicia and northern Portugal), where they were considered \"foederati\" and founded the Suebi Kingdom of Gallaecia. These Suevi were probably a mix of Suevian groups from the area north of Danube and Pannonian basin such as the Marcomanni, Quadi and Buri. There, Hermeric swore fealty to the emperor in 410. Bracara Augusta, the modern city of Braga in Portugal, previously the capital of Roman Gallaecia, now became the capital of the Suebic Kingdom. The Danubian area meanwhile became the core of Attila the Hun's empire, and within it there seem to have been many Suebians. One group of them managed to reform into an independent group after the Battle of Nedao in 454, like many other groups who emerged from Attila's confederation. These Suevi eventually came into conflict with the Ostrogoths, who had been on the losing side at Nadao. Jordanes, the historian of the Goths, reported (\"Getica\" 280) that after the Battle of Bolia, the Ostrogoths attacked the Suevi (ruled by a man named Hunimund, who also seems to have led an attack on Passau) by crossing the Danube when frozen, and going into a high Alpine area held by the confederates of the Suevi at this time, the Alamanni. (He said that several streams start in this area which enter the Danube with a loudly.) The region held by these Suevi was described as having Bavarians to the west, Franks to the east, Burgundians to the south, and Thuringians to the north. The text seems to indicate that these Suevi had moved into the Alamannic area but that these specific Suevi were seen as distinct from both Alamanni and Bavarians. This was also the first mention of Bavarians and they are also often proposed to have had Marcomanni in their ancestry. According to historians such as Herwig Wolfram: The Marcomanni and the Quadi gave up their special names after crossing the Danube, in fact both the emigrants and the groups remaining in Pannonia became Suebi again. The Pannonian Suebi became subjects of the Huns. After the battle at the Nadao they set up their kingdom, and when it fell, they came, successively under Herulian and Longobard rule, south of the Danube under Gothic rule, and eventually again under Longobard rule. There is a runic alphabet called the Marcomannic runes, but they are not believed to be related to the Marcomannic people." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Membership.", "Agenda.", "Resolutions.", "Resolution numbering scheme.", "Budget.", "Elections.", "Regional groups.", "Sessions.", "Regular sessions.", "General debate.", "Special sessions.", "Emergency special sessions.", "Subsidiary organs.", "Committees.", "Main committees.", "Other committees.", "Commissions.", "Boards.", "Councils and panels.", "Working Groups and other.", "Seating.", "Reform and UNPA.", "Sidelines of the General Assembly." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first session of the UN General Assembly was convened on 10 January 1946 in the Methodist Central Hall in London and included representatives of 51 nations. The next few annual sessions were held in different cities: the second session in New York City, and the third in Paris. It moved to the permanent Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City at the start of its seventh regular annual session, on 14 October 1952. In December 1988, in order to hear Yasser Arafat, the General Assembly organized its 29th session in the Palace of Nations, in Geneva, Switzerland.", "All 193 members of the United Nations are members of the General Assembly, with the addition of Holy See and Palestine as observer states. Further, the United Nations General Assembly may grant observer status to an international organization or entity, which entitles the entity to participate in the work of the United Nations General Assembly, though with limitations.", "The agenda for each session is planned up to seven months in advance and begins with the release of a preliminary list of items to be included in the provisional agenda. This is refined into a provisional agenda 60 days before the opening of the session. After the session begins, the final agenda is adopted in a plenary meeting which allocates the work to the various Main Committees, who later submit reports back to the Assembly for adoption by consensus or by vote. Items on the agenda are numbered. Regular plenary sessions of the General Assembly in recent years have initially been scheduled to be held over the course of just three months; however, additional work loads have extended these sessions until just short of the next session. The routinely scheduled portions of the sessions normally commence on \"the Tuesday of the third week in September, counting from the first week that contains at least one working day\", per the UN Rules of Procedure. The last two of these Regular sessions were routinely scheduled to recess exactly three months afterwards in early December, but were resumed in January and extended until just before the beginning of the following sessions.", "The General Assembly votes on many resolutions brought forth by sponsoring states. These are generally statements symbolizing the sense of the international community about an array of world issues. Most General Assembly resolutions are not enforceable as a legal or practical matter, because the General Assembly lacks enforcement powers with respect to most issues. The General Assembly has authority to make final decisions in some areas such as the United Nations budget. The General Assembly can also refer an issue to the Security Council to put in place a binding resolution.", "From the First to the Thirtieth General Assembly sessions, all General Assembly resolutions were numbered consecutively, with the resolution number followed by the session number in Roman numbers (for example,, which was the 1514th numbered resolution adopted by the Assembly, and was adopted at the Fifteenth Regular Session (1960)). Beginning in the Thirty-First Session, resolutions are numbered by individual session (for example Resolution 41/10 represents the 10th resolution adopted at the Forty-First Session).", "The General Assembly also approves the budget of the United Nations and decides how much money each member state must pay to run the organization. The Charter of the United Nations gives responsibility for approving the budget to the General Assembly (Chapter IV, Article 17) and for preparing the budget to the Secretary-General, as \"chief administrative officer\" (Chapter XV, Article 97). The Charter also addresses the non-payment of assessed contributions (Chapter IV, Article 19). The planning, programming, budgeting, monitoring and evaluation cycle of the United Nations has evolved over the years; major resolutions on the process include General Assembly resolutions: 41/213 of 19 December 1986, 42/211 of 21 December 1987, and 45/248 of 21 December 1990. The budget covers the costs of United Nations programmes in areas such as political affairs, international justice and law, international cooperation for development, public information, human rights, and humanitarian affairs. The main source of funds for the regular budget is the contributions of member states. The scale of assessments is based on the capacity of countries to pay. This is determined by considering their relative shares of total gross national product, adjusted to take into account a number of factors, including their per capita incomes. In addition to the regular budget, member states are assessed for the costs of the international tribunals and, in accordance with a modified version of the basic scale, for the costs of peacekeeping operations.", "The General Assembly is entrusted in the United Nations Charter with electing members to various organs within the United Nations system. The procedure for these elections can be found in Section 15 of the Rules of Procedure for the General Assembly. The most important elections for the General Assembly include those for the upcoming President of the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council, the Human Rights Council and the International Court of Justice. Most elections are held annually, with the exception of the election of judges to the ICJ, which happens triennially. The Assembly annually elects five non-permanent members of the Security Council for two year terms, 18 members of the Economic and Social Council for three year terms and 14-18 members of the Human Rights Council for three year terms. It also elects the leadership of the next General Assembly session, i.e. the next President of the General Assembly, the 21 Vice-Presidents and the bureaux of the six main committees. Elections to the International Court of Justice take place every three years in order to ensure continuity within the court. In these elections, five judges are elected for nine year terms. These elections are held jointly with the Security Council, with candidates needing to receive an absolute majority of the votes in both bodies. The Assembly also, in conjunction with the Security Council, selects the next Secretary-General of the United Nations. The main part of these elections are held in the Security Council, with the General Assembly simply appointing the candidate that receives the Council's nomination.", "The United Nations Regional Groups were created in order to facilitate the equitable geographical distribution of seats among the Member States in different United Nations bodies. Resolution 33/138 of the General Assembly states that “the composition of the various organs of the United Nations should be so constituted as to ensure their representative character.” Thus, member States of the United Nations are informally divided into five regions, with most bodies in the United Nations system having a specific number of seats allocated for each regional group. Additionally, the leadership of most bodies also rotates between the regional groups, such as the presidency of the General Assembly and the chairmanship of the six main committees. The regional groups work according to the consensus principle. Candidates who are endorsed by them are, as a rule, elected by the General Assembly in any subsequent elections.", "", "The General Assembly meets annually in a regular session that opens on the third Tuesday of September, and runs until the following September. Sessions are held at United Nations Headquarters in New York, unless changed by the General Assembly by a majority vote. The regular session is split into two distinct periods, the main and resumed parts of the session. During the main part of the session, which runs from the opening of the session until Christmas break in December, most of the work of the Assembly is done. This period is the Assembly's most intense period of work and includes the general debate and the bulk of the work of the Main Committees. The resumed part of the session, however, which runs from January until the beginning of the new session, includes most thematic debates, consultation processes led by the President of the General Assembly, and working group meetings.", "The general debate of each new session of the General Assembly is held the week following the official opening of the session, typically the following Tuesday, and is held without interruption for nine working days. The general debate is a high-level event, typically attended by Member States' Heads of State or Government, government ministers and United Nations delegates. At the general debate, Member States are given the opportunity to raise attention to topics or issues that they feel are important. In additional to the general debate, there are also many other high-level thematic meetings, summits and informal events held during general debate week. The General debate is held in the General Assembly Hall at the United Nations Headquarters in New York.", "Special sessions, or UNGASS, may be convened in three different ways, at the request of the Security Council, at the request of a majority of United Nations members States or by a single member, as long as a majority concurs. Special sessions typically cover one single topic and end with the adoption of one or two outcome documents, such as a political declaration, action plan or strategy to combat said topic. They are also typically high-level events with participation from heads of state and government, as well as by government ministers. There have been 30 special sessions in the history of the United Nations.", "In the event that the Security Council is unable, usually due to disagreement among the permanent members, to come to a decision on a threat to international peace and security, the General Assembly may call an emergency special session in order to make appropriate recommendations to Members States for collective measures. This power was given to the Assembly in Resolution 377(V) of 3 November 1950. Emergency special sessions can be called by the Security Council, if supported by at least seven members, or by a majority of Member States of the United Nations. If enough votes are had, the Assembly must meet within 24 hours, with Members being notified at least twelve hours before the opening of the session. There have been 10 emergency special sessions in the history of the United Nations.<ref name=\"RULES/PROCEDURE\"></ref>", "The General Assembly subsidiary organs are divided into five categories: committees (30 total, six main), commissions (six), boards (seven), councils (four) and panels (one), working groups, and \"other\".", "", "The main committees are ordinally numbered, 1–6: The roles of many of the main committees have changed over time. Until the late 1970s, the First Committee was the Political and Security Committee (POLISEC) and there was also a sufficient number of additional \"political\" matters that an additional, unnumbered main committee, called the Special Political Committee, also sat. The Fourth Committee formerly handled Trusteeship and Decolonization matters. With the decreasing number of such matters to be addressed as the trust territories attained independence and the decolonization movement progressed, the functions of the Special Political Committee were merged into the Fourth Committee during the 1990s. Each main committee consists of all the members of the General Assembly. Each elects a chairman, three vice chairmen, and a rapporteur at the outset of each regular General Assembly session.", "These are not numbered. According to the General Assembly website, the most important are: Other committees of the General Assembly are enumerated.", "There are six commissions: Despite its name, the former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) was actually a subsidiary body of ECOSOC.", "There are seven boards which are categorized into two groups: a) Executive Boards and b) Boards", "The newest council is the United Nations Human Rights Council, which replaced the aforementioned UNCHR in March 2006. There are a total of four councils and one panel.", "There is a varied group of working groups and other subsidiary bodies.", "Countries are seated alphabetically in the General Assembly according to English translations of the countries' names. The country which occupies the front-most left position is determined annually by the Secretary-General via ballot draw. The remaining countries follow alphabetically after it.", "On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented a report, \"In Larger Freedom\", that criticized the General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus that it was passing watered-down resolutions reflecting \"the lowest common denominator of widely different opinions\". He also criticized the Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on \"the major substantive issues of the day, such as international migration and the long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism\". Annan recommended streamlining the General Assembly's agenda, committee structure, and procedures; strengthening the role and authority of its president; enhancing the role of civil society; and establishing a mechanism to review the decisions of its committees, in order to minimize unfunded mandates and micromanagement of the United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of their responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements in UN effectiveness. The reform proposals were not taken up by the United Nations World Summit in September 2005. Instead, the Summit solely affirmed the central position of the General Assembly as the chief deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations, as well as the advisory role of the Assembly in the process of standard-setting and the codification of international law. The Summit also called for strengthening the relationship between the General Assembly and the other principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues that required coordinated action by the United Nations, in accordance with their respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), is a proposed addition to the United Nations System that eventually could allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over the world. In the General Debate of the 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, said \"The United Nations has exhausted its model and it is not simply a matter of proceeding with reform, the twenty-first century demands deep changes that are only possible with a rebuilding of this organisation.\" He pointed to the futility of resolutions concerning the Cuban embargo and the Middle East conflict as reasons for the UN model having failed. Venezuela also called for the suspension of veto rights in the Security Council because it was a \"remnant of the Second World War [it] is incompatible with the principle of sovereign equality of States\". Reform of the United Nations General Assembly includes proposals to change the powers and composition of the U.N. General Assembly. This could include, for example, tasking the Assembly with evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, increasing the power of the assembly vis-à-vis the United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive and less repetitive.", "The annual session of the United Nations General Assembly is accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on the \"sidelines\" of the Assembly meeting. The diplomatic congregation has also since evolved into a week attracting wealthy and influential individuals from around the world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian and environmental to business and political." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Publication and release.", "Critical response.", "Predecessors and sequels.", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Video games.", "Translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "During the summer holidays with his aunt Petunia and uncle Vernon, 15-year-old Harry Potter and his cousin Dudley are attacked by Dementors. After openly using magic to save Dudley and himself, Harry is expelled from Hogwarts, but his expulsion is postponed pending a hearing at the Ministry of Magic. Harry is whisked off by a group of wizards including Mad-Eye Moody, Remus Lupin, and several new faces, including Nymphadora Tonks, a bubbly young Metamorphmagus (a witch or wizard who can change his or her appearance without a potion or spell), and Kingsley Shacklebolt, a senior Auror, to Number 12, Grimmauld Place, the childhood home of Sirius Black. The building also serves as the headquarters of the Order of the Phoenix, of which Mr. and Mrs. Weasley and Sirius are also members. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger explain that the Order is a secret organisation led by Hogwarts headmaster Albus Dumbledore dedicated to fighting Lord Voldemort and his followers, the Death Eaters. From the members of the Order, Harry, Ron, Hermione, Ginny Weasley and Fred and George Weasley learn that Voldemort is seeking an object he did not have prior to his first defeat and assume this object to be a weapon of some sort. Harry learns the Ministry of Magic, led by Cornelius Fudge, is refusing to acknowledge Voldemort's return because of the panic and chaos doing so would cause. Harry also learns the Daily Prophet has been running a smear campaign against him and Dumbledore. At the hearing, Harry is cleared when Dumbledore provides evidence that Harry was fully within his rights to use magic against the Dementors, questioning how the creatures (normally Azkaban guards) were let loose in suburban Britain. At Hogwarts, Dolores Umbridge, a senior employee in the Ministry of Magic, becomes the new Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher. Like Fudge, she refuses to believe Voldemort has returned. She and Harry often clash, with her punishing Harry by having him carve the words \"I must not tell lies\" into the back of his own hand with a cursed quill. She also refuses to teach her students how to perform defensive spells, prompting Harry, Ron, and Hermione to form their own Defence Against the Dark Arts group with students from Gryffindor, Ravenclaw, and Hufflepuff. However, Umbridge, who throughout the year blatantly tries to interfere with Hogwarts affairs, bans clubs not approved by her. Dobby the house elf informs them about Room of Requirement, in which the group, now called Dumbledore's Army, meets in secret to learn and practice defensive spells under Harry's instruction. Meanwhile, Rubeus Hagrid has not yet returned from the secret mission Dumbledore gave him at the end of the previous book and is absent for the first part of the school year. Upon his return, Harry, Ron, and Hermione learn his mission, which was mostly unsuccessful, was to find the last giants and prevent their joining Voldemort. Professor Umbridge steadily amasses more and more power and influence at the school, beginning to inspect the work of other teachers, such as Hagrid's Care of Magical Creatures lessons, clearly intending to sack him. One night, Harry dreams through the eyes of Voldemort's snake Nagini, who is possessed by Voldemort. Nagini attacks and seriously injures Arthur Weasley. Harry tells Professor McGonagall and Dumbledore, and Mr. Weasley is rescued. Dumbledore arranges for Harry to take Occlumency lessons with Professor Snape to protect his mind against further invasions by Voldemort. Umbridge begins making increasingly overt changes at the school, sacking Professor Trelawney, the Divination teacher, although Dumbledore quickly assigns the centaur Firenze to take her place, which outrages Umbridge, who is prejudiced against non-humans. Soon after, Umbridge is given a tip-off about Dumbledore's Army by Marietta Edgecombe, a friend of Harry's crush Cho Chang. Despite Dobby's warning, the gang are caught and get into trouble with Fudge. When Dumbledore takes responsibility for the illegal organisation, he is forced into hiding. Dolores Umbridge becomes headmistress, and Fred and George cause pandemonium around the school in revenge. During one Occlumency lesson, Snape is called away. Harry, left alone, looks into Dumbledore's Pensieve, which Snape has borrowed, and sees a memory of Snape's time as a Hogwarts student. Harry is shocked to witness his father, James Potter, and Sirius bullying and humiliating Snape. Snape catches Harry and, enraged, refuses to continue his lessons. Distraught at this revelation of his father's character, Harry talks to Sirius and Lupin using Floo powder in the fireplace in Umbridge's office and learns more about his parents and their background. After helping Harry break into Umbridge's office, Fred and George leave Hogwarts to start a joke shop in Diagon Alley. Suspecting he will be the next teacher Umbridge sacks, Hagrid confesses to Harry, Ron, and Hermione that he has brought his giant half-brother, Grawp, to Hogwarts and hidden him in the Forbidden Forest, intending to eventually introduce him to human society. Hagrid asks the three of them to look after Grawp if he must leave the school. Sure enough, Umbridge leads a party of Aurors to attack Hagrid in his house one night. Hagrid overpowers them and flees the school. McGonagall, trying to disrupt the violence, is badly injured and put in St. Mungo's Hospital. On the last day of O.W.L. exams, Harry has a vision of Sirius being tortured by Voldemort in the Department of Mysteries. Harry again uses Umbridge's office fireplace to contact the Order of the Phoenix's headquarters and check whether the vision was genuine, which Kreacher, Sirius' house elf seemingly confirms, just before Umbridge catches Harry and his friends. Summoning Snape, Umbridge intends to use Veritaserum to question Harry, but Snape claims to have no further stocks of the potion left. As Snape is also a member of the Order, Harry cryptically tells him of Sirius, which Snape claims to not understand. Umbridge, now enraged, reveals she was the one who ordered the Dementor attack on Harry, to either silence or discredit him. She also decides to use the illegal Cruciatus Curse on Harry to interrogate him, but Hermione intervenes, convincing Umbridge that they are hiding a weapon of Dumbledore's in the Forbidden Forest. Harry and Hermione lead her into an area of the forest inhabited by centaurs, where Umbridge provokes them into taking her captive. Grawp arrives and clashes with the centaurs before they can do the same to Harry and Hermione, allowing them to escape. Luna, Ron, Ginny, and Neville join them in the forest, and all six fly to the Ministry on thestrals, expecting to find and rescue Sirius. However, once in the Department of Mysteries, they find that he isn't there, and the scene is entirely unlike Harry's vision. However, he finds a glass sphere bearing his and Voldemort's names. Death Eaters led by Lucius Malfoy attack in order to capture the sphere, which is a recording of a prophecy concerning Harry and Voldemort, the object that Voldemort has been trying to obtain the whole year. As only the subjects of prophecies (in this case, Harry or Voldemort) can remove them from the shelves, Harry was lured here with his vision, falsely planted by Voldemort. During a heated fight, Neville accidentally kicks and smashes the prophecy. Harry and his friends, soon joined by members of the Order, battle with the Death Eaters. During the fight, Bellatrix Lestrange kills Sirius. Voldemort himself arrives to kill Harry, but Dumbledore appears and duels Voldemort to a stalemate. Unable to kill Dumbledore, Voldemort possesses Harry, in an attempt to get Dumbledore to kill Harry. Harry fights off the possession, and Voldemort escapes just as Fudge appears. Having directly seen Voldemort, Fudge has no choice but to accept the truth. In his office, Dumbledore explains that Snape understood Harry's cryptic warning and contacted Sirius to confirm he was still at Grimmauld Place. After Harry did not return from the Forbidden Forest, Snape deduced where he had gone and alerted the Order, enabling them to save Harry and his friends. Dumbledore reveals that during the Christmas holidays, Kreacher interpreted a command of Sirius's as an order to leave the house and went to Narcissa Malfoy, the wife of Lucius, and told her about Harry and Sirius's close relationship. Voldemort used Kreacher's information to lure Harry to the Department of Mysteries by planting the vision that Sirius was in danger there. Owing Harry a full explanation, Dumbledore reveals the full contents of the prophecy, made by Sybil Trelawney herself. The prophecy had foretold the birth of someone with the power to defeat Voldemort. The prophecy also states that eventually, one of them would kill the other. Although the prophecy pointed to either Harry or Neville, Voldemort believed it to refer to Harry, which is why he had tried to kill him as a baby. Dumbledore also reveals that Harry must stay with the Dursleys for one last summer because, by taking Harry into her home, Aunt Petunia, Lily's older sister, seals the protection Harry's mother afforded him when she died. As long as he is at Number Four, Privet Drive, he is safe from Voldemort and his followers. Overwhelmed with the weight of the prophecy and deeply mourning the loss of Sirius, Harry grows sullen, although the wizarding community, now knowing the truth of what he was saying, affords him greater respect. Motivated by his friends and loved ones, Harry decided that he will face the future head on as he returns to the Dursleys once more.", "\"Potter\" fans waited three years between the releases of the fourth and fifth books. Before the release of the fifth book, 200 million copies of the first four books had already been sold and translated into 55 languages in 200 countries. As the series was already a global phenomenon, the book forged new pre-order records, with thousands of people queuing outside book stores on 20 June 2003 to secure copies at midnight. Despite the security, thousands of copies were stolen from an Earlestown, Merseyside warehouse on 15 June 2003.", "\"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" was met with mostly positive reviews and received several awards. In 2004, the book was cited as an American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults and as an American Library Association Notable Book. It also received the Oppenheim Toy Portfolio 2004 Gold Medal, along with several other awards. The novel was also well received by critics. Rowling was praised for her imagination by \"USA Today\" writer Deirdre Donahue. Most negative reviewers were concerned with the violence contained in the novel and with morality issues occurring throughout the book. \"The New York Times\" writer John Leonard praised the novel, saying \"\"The Order of the Phoenix\" starts slow, gathers speed and then skateboards, with somersaults, to its furious conclusion...As Harry gets older, Rowling gets better.\" However, he also criticised \"the one-note Draco Malfoy\" and the predictable Lord Voldemort.", "\"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" is the fifth book in the \"Harry Potter\" series. The first book in the series, \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone,\" was first published by Bloomsbury in 1997 with an initial print-run of 500 copies in hardback, 300 of which were distributed to libraries. By the end of 1997, the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9-to-11-year-olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The second novel, \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", was published in the UK on 2 July 1998. \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" was published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999. \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" was published 8 July 2000, simultaneously by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" is the longest book in the series, yet it is the second shortest film at 2 hours and 18 minutes. After the publishing of \"Order of the Phoenix\", the sixth book of the series, \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\", was published on 16 July 2005 and sold 9 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\", was published 21 July 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.", "", "In 2007, \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" was released in a film version directed by David Yates and written by Michael Goldenberg. The film was produced by David Heyman's company, Heyday Films, alongside David Barron. The budget was reportedly between £75 and 100 million (US$150–200 million), and it became the unadjusted eleventh-highest-grossing film of all time and a critical and commercial success. The film opened to a worldwide 5-day opening of $333 million, the third best of all time, and grossed $940 million total, second to \"\" for the greatest total of 2007.", "A video game adaptation of the book and film versions of \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" was made for Microsoft Windows, PS2, PS3, Xbox 360, PSP, Nintendo DS, Wii, Game Boy Advance, and Mac OS X. It was released on 25 June 2007 in the U.S., 28 June 2007 in Australia, and 29 June 2007 in the UK and Europe for PlayStation 3, PSP, PlayStation 2, Windows, and 3 July 2007 for most other platforms. The games were published by Electronic Arts. The book is also depicted in the 2011 video game \"\".", "The first official foreign translation of the book appeared in Vietnamese on 21 July 2003, when the first of twenty-two installments was released. The first official European translation appeared in Serbia and Montenegro in Serbian by the official publisher \"Narodna Knjiga\" in early September 2003. Other translations appeared later (e.g. in November 2003 in Dutch and German). The English-language version has topped the bestseller list in France, whereas in Germany and the Netherlands, an unofficial distributed translation process was started on the internet." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Resources.", "Efficiency.", "Types.", "Horizontal axis.", "Vertical axis.", "Darrieus wind turbine.", "Giromill.", "Savonius wind turbine.", "Parallel.", "Design and construction.", "Components.", "Turbine monitoring and diagnostics.", "Recent developments in technology.", "New designs.", "Blade materials.", "Glass and carbon fibers.", "Hybrid reinforcements.", "Nano-engineered polymers and composites.", "Costs.", "Non-blade materials.", "Material supply.", "Recycling.", "Wind turbines on public display.", "Small wind turbines.", "Wind turbine spacing.", "Operability.", "Maintenance.", "Repowering.", "Demolition.", "Comparison with fossil-fuel turbines.", "Advantages.", "Disadvantages.", "Records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The windwheel of Hero of Alexandria (10 AD – 70 AD) marks one of the first recorded instances of wind powering a machine in history. However, the first known practical wind power plants were built in Sistan, an Eastern province of Persia (now Iran), from the 7th century. These \"Panemone\" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical drive shafts with rectangular blades. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in the gristmilling and sugarcane industries. Wind power first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. The first historical records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around 1190. By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of the Rhine delta. Advanced wind turbines were described by Croatian inventor Fausto Veranzio. In his book Machinae Novae (1595) he described vertical axis wind turbines with curved or V-shaped blades. The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland. Some months later American inventor Charles F. Brush was able to build the first automatically operated wind turbine after consulting local University professors and colleagues Jacob S. Gibbs and Brinsley Coleberd and successfully getting the blueprints peer-reviewed for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio. Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United Kingdom, electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries", "Wind Power Density (WPD) is a quantitative measure of wind energy available at any location. It is the mean annual power available per square meter of swept area of a turbine, and is calculated", "Conservation of mass requires that the amount of air entering and exiting a turbine must be equal. Accordingly, Betz's law gives the maximal achievable extraction of wind power by a wind turbine as 16/27 (59.3%) of the rate at which the kinetic energy of the air arrives at the turbine. The maximum theoretical power output of a wind machine is thus 16/27 times the rate at which kinetic energy of the air arrives at the effective disk area of the machine. If the effective area of the disk is A, and the wind velocity v, the maximum theoretical power output P is: where \"ρ\" is the air density. Wind-to-rotor efficiency (including rotor blade friction and drag) are among the factors affecting the final price of wind power. Further inefficiencies, such as gearbox losses, generator and converter losses, reduce the power delivered by a wind turbine. To protect components from undue wear, extracted power is held constant above the rated operating speed as theoretical power increases at the cube of wind speed, further reducing theoretical efficiency. In 2001, commercial utility-connected turbines delivered 75% to 80% of", "Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former being both older and more common. They can also include blades, or be bladeless. Vertical designs produce less power and are less common.", "Large three-bladed horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) with the blades upwind of the tower produce the overwhelming majority of wind power in the world today. These turbines have the main rotor shaft and electrical generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a yaw system. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator. Some turbines use a different type of generator suited to slower rotational speed input. These don't need a gearbox and are called direct-drive, meaning they couple the rotor directly to the generator with no gearbox in between. While permanent magnet direct-drive generators can be more costly due to the rare earth materials required, these gearless turbines are", "Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. One advantage of this arrangement is that the turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective, which is an advantage on a site where the wind direction is highly variable. It is also an advantage when the turbine is integrated into a building because it is inherently less steerable. Also, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, improving accessibility for maintenance. However, these designs produce much less energy averaged over time, which is a major drawback. The key disadvantages include the relatively low", "\"Eggbeater\" turbines, or Darrieus turbines, were named after the French inventor, Georges Darrieus. They have good efficiency, but produce large torque ripple and cyclical stress on the tower, which contributes to poor reliability. They also generally require some external power source, or", "A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch to reduce the torque pulsation and is self-starting. The advantages", "These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, \"Flettner\" vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power", "The parallel turbine is similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan. It uses the ground effect. Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a unit producing 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in the 1980s.", "Wind turbine design is a careful balance of cost, energy output, and fatigue life.", "Wind turbines convert wind energy to electrical energy for distribution. Conventional horizontal axis turbines can be divided into three components: A 1.5 (MW) wind turbine of a type frequently seen in", "Due to data transmission problems, structural health monitoring of wind turbines is usually performed using several accelerometers and strain gages attached to the nacelle to monitor the gearbox and equipment. Currently, digital image correlation and", "Wind turbine rotor blades are being made longer to increase efficiency. This requires them to be stiff, strong, light and resistant to fatigue. Materials with these properties are composites such as polyester and epoxy, while glass fiber and carbon fiber have been used for the reinforcing. Construction may use manual layup or injection molding.", "Companies seek ways to draw greater efficiency from their designs. A predominant way has been to increase blade length and thus rotor diameter. Retrofitting existing turbines with larger blades reduces the work and risks of redesigning the system. The current longest blade", "Materials commonly used in wind turbine blades are described below.", "The stiffness of composites is determined by the stiffness of fibers and their volume content. Typically, E-glass fibers are used as main reinforcement in the composites. Typically, the glass/epoxy composites for wind turbine blades contain up to 75% glass by weight. This increases the stiffness, tensile and compression strength. A promising composite material is glass fiber with modified compositions like S-glass,", "Instead of making wind turbine blade reinforcements from pure glass or pure carbon, hybrid designs trade weight for cost. For example, for an 8 m blade, a full replacement by carbon fiber would save", "Additions of small amount (0.5 weight %) of nanoreinforcement (carbon nanotubes or nanoclay) in the polymer matrix of composites, fiber sizing or interlaminar layers can improve fatigue resistance, shear or compressive strength, and fracture toughness of the composites by 30% to 80%. Research has also shown that incorporating small amounts of carbon nanotubes (CNT) can increase the lifetime up to 1500%.", ", a wind turbine may cost around $1 million per megawatt. For the wind turbine blades, while the material cost is much higher for hybrid glass/carbon fiber blades than all-glass fiber blades, labor costs", "Wind turbine parts other than the rotor blades (including the rotor hub, gearbox, frame, and tower) are largely made of steel. Smaller turbines (as well as megawatt-scale Enercon turbines) have begun using aluminum alloys for these components to make turbines lighter and more efficient. This trend may grow if fatigue and strength properties can be improved.", "A study of the material consumption trends and requirements for wind energy in Europe found that bigger turbines have a higher consumption of precious metals but lower material input per kW generated. The current material consumption and stock was compared to input materials for various onshore system sizes. In all EU countries the estimates for 2020 doubled the values consumed in 2009. These countries would need to expand their resources to meet the estimated demand for 2020. For example, currently the EU has 3% of world supply of fluorspar and it requires 14% by", "Interest in recycling blades varies in different markets and depends on the waste legislation and local economics. A challenge in recycling blades is related to the composite material, which is made of a thermosetting matrix and glass fibers or a combination of glass and carbon fibers. Thermosetting matrix cannot be remolded to form new composites. So the options are either to send the blade to landfill,", "A few localities have exploited the attention-getting nature of wind turbines by placing them on public display, either with visitor centers around their bases,", "Small wind turbines may be used for a variety of applications including on- or off-grid residences, telecom towers, offshore platforms, rural schools and clinics, remote monitoring and other purposes that require energy where there is no electric grid, or where the grid is unstable. Small wind turbines may be as small as a fifty-watt generator for boat or caravan use. Hybrid solar and wind powered units are increasingly being", "On most horizontal wind turbine farms, a spacing of about 6–10 times the rotor diameter is often upheld. However, for large wind farms distances of about 15 rotor diameters should be more economical, taking into account typical wind turbine and land costs. This conclusion has been reached by research conducted by Charles Meneveau of", "", "Wind turbines need regular maintenance to stay reliable and available. In the best case turbines are available to generate energy 98% of the time. Modern turbines usually have a small onboard crane for hoisting", "Installation of new wind turbines can be controversial. An alternative is repowering, where", "Older turbines were in some early cases not required to be removed when reaching the end of their life. Some still", "", "Wind turbines produce electricity at between two and six cents per kilowatt hour, which is one of the lowest-priced renewable energy sources. As technology needed for wind turbines continued to improve, the prices decreased as well. In addition, there is currently no competitive market for wind energy, because wind is a freely available natural resource, most of which", "Wind turbines can be very large, reaching over tall and with blades long, and people have often complained about their visual impact. Environmental impact of wind power includes effect on wildlife, but can be mitigated if proper monitoring and mitigation strategies are implemented. Thousands of birds, including rare species, have been killed by the blades of wind turbines, though wind turbines contribute relatively insignificantly to anthropogenic avian mortality. Wind farms and nuclear power stations are responsible for between 0.3 and 0.4 bird deaths per gigawatt-hour (GWh) of electricity while fossil fueled power stations are responsible for about 5.2 fatalities per GWh. In 2009, for every bird killed by a wind turbine in the US, nearly 500,000 were killed by cats and another 500,000 by buildings. In comparison, conventional coal", "\"See also List of most powerful wind turbines\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "President.", "Members.", "Observer Inter-Governmental Autonomous Organisations.", "Functional commissions.", "Active.", "Disbanded.", "Specialised agencies.", "\"World Economic and Social Survey 2011: The Great Green Technological Transformation\".", "Reform of the Economic and Social Council.", "Chamber design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The president of the Council is elected for a one-year term and chosen from the small- or mid-sized powers represented on the Council at the beginning of each new session. The presidency rotates among the United Nations Regional Groups to ensure equal representation. Ambassador Mona Juul of Norway was elected as the seventy-fifth President of the Economic and Social Council on 25 July 2019.", "The Council consists of 54 Members States, which are elected yearly by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms. Seats on the Council are allocated ensuring equitable geographic rotation among the United Nations regional groups, with 14 being allocated to the African Group, 11 to the Asia-Pacific Group, 6 to the Eastern European Group, 10 to the Latin American and Caribbean Group and 13 to the Western European and Others Group.", "Participation on a continuing basis: Participation on an \"ad hoc\" basis:", "", "The following are the active functional commission of the Council:", "The following commissions were disbanded by the Council and replaced by other bodies:", "The specialized agencies of the United Nations are autonomous organizations working within the United Nations System, meaning that while they report their activities to the Economic and Social Council, they are mostly free to their own devices. Each individual agency must negotiate with the Council as to what their relationship will look and work like. This leads to a system where different organizations maintain different types of relationships with the Council. Some were created before the United Nations existed and were integrated into the system, others were created by the League of Nations and were integrated by its successor, while others were created by the United Nations itself to meet emerging needs. The following is a list of the specialized agencies reporting to the Council:", "In a report issued in early July 2011, the UN called for spending nearly US$2 trillion on green technologies to prevent what it termed \"a major planetary catastrophe\", warning that \"It is rapidly expanding energy use, mainly driven by fossil fuels, that explains why humanity is on the verge of breaching planetary sustainability boundaries through global warming, biodiversity loss, and disturbance of the nitrogen-cycle balance and other measures of the sustainability of the earth's ecosystem\". UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon added: \"Rather than viewing growth and sustainability as competing goals on a collision course, we must see them as complementary and mutually supportive imperatives\". The report concluded that \"Business as usual is not an option\".", "Governance of the multilateral system has historically been complex and fragmented. This has limited the capacity of ECOSOC to influence international policies in trade, finance and investment. Reform proposals aim to enhance the relevance and contribution of the council. A major reform was approved by the 2005 World Summit on the basis of proposals submitted by secretary-general Kofi Annan. The Summit aimed to establish ECOSOC as a quality platform for high-level engagement among member states and with international financial institutions, the private sector and civil society on global trends, policies and action. It was decided to hold biennial high-level Development Cooperation Forums at the national-leadership level by transforming the high-level segment of the Council to review trends in international development cooperation and promote greater coherence in development activities. At the Summit it was also decided to hold annual ministerial-level substantive reviews to assess progress in achieving internationally agreed development goals (particularly the Millennium Development Goals). These \"Annual Ministerial Reviews\" will be replaced by the High-Level Political Forum from 2016 onwards after the new post-MDG/post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals are agreed. Subsequent proposals by the High-Level Panel Report on System-Wide Coherence in November 2006 aimed to establish a forum within the ECOSOC as a counter-model to the exclusive clubs of the G8 and G20. The Forum was to comprise 27 heads of states (L27, corresponding to half of ECOSOC's membership) to meet annually and provide international leadership in the development area. This proposal, however, was not approved by the General Assembly.", "The Economic and Social Council Chamber in the United Nations Conference Building was a gift from Sweden. It was conceived by Swedish architect Sven Markelius, one of the 11 architects in the international team that designed the UN headquarters. Wood from Swedish pine trees was used in the delegates' area for the railings and doors. The pipes and ducts in the ceiling above the public gallery were deliberately left exposed; the architect believed that anything useful could be left uncovered. The \"unfinished\" ceiling is a symbolic reminder that the economic and social work of the United Nations is never finished; there will always be something more which can be done to improve living conditions for the world's people." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Polar exploration.", "The Soviet Union.", "Recent history.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Hydrology.", "Climate.", "Nature.", "Marine mammals.", "Critically endangered cetaceans.", "Human activity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "There are two candidates for the discovery of Franz Josef Land. The first was the Norwegian sealing vessel \"Spidsbergen\", with captain Nils Fredrik Rønnbeck and harpooner Johan Petter Aidijärvi. They sailed northeast from Svalbard in 1865 searching for suitable sealing sites, and they found land that was most likely Franz Josef Land. The account is believed to be factual, but an announcement of the discovery was never made, and their sighting therefore remained unknown to subsequent explorers. This was at the time common to keep newly discovered areas secret, as their discovery was aimed at exploiting them for sealing and whaling, and exposure would cause competitors to flock to the site. Russian scientist N. G. Schilling proposed in 1865 that the ice conditions in the Barents Sea could only be explained if there was another land mass in the area, but he never received funding for an expedition. The Austro-Hungarian North Pole Expedition of 1872–74 was the first to announce the discovery of the islands. Led by Julius von Payer and Karl Weyprecht of Austria–Hungary on board the schooner \"Tegetthoff\", the expedition's primary goal was to find the Northeast Passage and its secondary goal to reach the North Pole. Starting in July 1872, the vessel drifted from Novaya Zemlya to a new landmass, which they named in honor of Franz Joseph I (1830–1916), Emperor of Austria. The expedition contributed significantly to the mapping and exploration of the islands. The next expedition to spot the archipelago was the Dutch Expedition for the Exploration of the Barents Sea, on board the schooner \"Willem Barents\". Constrained by the ice, they never reached land.", "Benjamin Leigh Smith's expedition in 1880, aboard the barque \"Eira\", followed a route from Spitsbergen to Franz Josef Land, landing on Bell Island in August. Leigh Smith explored the vicinity and set up a base at Eira Harbour, before exploring towards McClintock Island. He returned the following year in the same vessel, landing at Grey Bay on George Land. The explorers were stopped by ice at Cape Flora, and \"Eira\" sank on 21 August. They built a cottage and stayed the winter, to be rescued by the British vessels \"Kara\" and \"Hope\" the following summer. These early expeditions concentrated their explorations on the southern and central parts of the archipelago. Nansen's \"Fram\" expedition was an 1893–1896 attempt by the Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen to reach the geographical North Pole by harnessing the natural east–west current of the Arctic Ocean. Departing in 1893, \"Fram\" drifted from the New Siberian Islands for one and a half years before Nansen became impatient and set out to reach the North Pole on skis with Hjalmar Johansen. Eventually, they gave up on reaching the pole and instead found their way to Franz Josef Land, the nearest land known to man. They were thus able to establish that there was no large landmass north of this archipelago. In the meantime the Jackson–Harmsworth Expedition set off in 1894, set up a base on Bell Island, and stayed for the winter. The following season they spent exploring. By pure chance, at Cape Flora in the spring of 1896, Nansen stumbled upon Frederick George Jackson, who was able to transport him back to Norway. Nansen and Jackson explored the northern, eastern, and western portions of the islands. Once the basic geography of Franz Josef Land had become apparent, expeditions shifted to using the archipelago as a basis to reach the North Pole. The first such attempt was conducted by the National Geographic Society-sponsored American journalist Walter Wellman in 1898. The two Norwegians, Paul Bjørvig and Bernt Bentsen, stayed the winter 1898-9 at Cape Heller on Wilczek Land, but insufficient fuel caused the latter to die. Wellman returned the following year, but the polar expedition itself was quickly abandoned when they lost most of their equipment. Italian nobleman Luigi Amedeo organized the next expedition in 1899, on the \"Stella Polare\". They stayed the winter, and in February and again in March 1900 set out towards the pole, but failed to get far. Evelyn Baldwin, sponsored by William Ziegler, organized the Ziegler Polar Expedition of 1901. Setting up a base on Alger Island, he stayed the winter exploring the area, but failed to press northwards. The expedition was largely regarded as an utter failure by the exploration and scientific community, which cited the lack of proper management. Unhappy with the outcome, Ziegler organized a new expedition, for which he appointed Anthony Fiala, second-in-command in the first expedition, as leader. It arrived in 1903 and spent the winter. Their ship, \"America\", was crushed beyond repair in December and disappeared in January. Still, they made two attempts towards the pole, both of which were quickly abandoned. They were forced to stay another year, making yet another unsuccessful attempt at the pole, before being evacuated in 1905 by the \"Terra Nova\". The first Russian expedition was carried out in 1901, when the icebreaker \"Yermak\" traveled to the islands. The next expedition, led by hydrologist Georgy Sedov, embarked in 1912 but did not reach the archipelago until the following year because of ice. Among its scientific contributions were the first snow measurements of the archipelago, and the determination that changes of the magnetic field occur in cycles of fifteen years. It also conducted topographical surveys of the surrounding area. Scurvy set in during the second winter, killing a machinist. Despite lacking prior experience or sufficient provisions, Sedov insisted on pressing forward with a march to the pole. His condition deteriorated and he died on 6 March. \"Hertha\" was sent to explore the area, and its captain, I. I. Islyamov hoisted a Russian iron flag at Cape Flora and proclaimed Russian sovereignty over the archipelago. The act was motivated by the ongoing First World War and Russian fears of the Central Powers establishing themselves there. The world's first Arctic flight took place in August, 1914, when Polish aviator (one of the first pilots of the Russian Navy) Jan Nagórski overflew Franz Josef Land in search of Sedov's group. \"Andromeda\" set out for the same purpose; while failing to locate them, the crew were able to finally determine the non-existence of Peterman Land and King Oscar Land, suspected lands north of the islands.", "Soviet expeditions were sent almost yearly from 1923. Franz Josef Land had been considered \"terra nullius\" – land belonging to no one – but on 15 April 1926 the Soviet Union declared its annexation of the archipelago. Emulating Canada's declaration of the sector principle, they pronounced all land between the Soviet mainland and the North Pole to be Soviet territory. This principle has never been internationally recognized. Both Italy and Norway protested. Norway was first and foremost concerned about its economic interests in the area, in a period when Norwegian hunters and whalers were also being barred from the White Sea, Novaya Zemlya and Greenland; the Soviet government, however, largely remained passive, and did not evict Norwegian hunting ships during the following years. Nor did the Soviets interfere when, in 1926, several foreign ships entered the waters in search of the vanished airship \"Italia\". Norway attempted both a diplomatic solution and a Lars Christensen-financed expedition to establish a weather station to gain economic control over the islands, but both failed in 1929. Instead the Soviet icebreaker \"Sedov\" set out, led by Otto Schmidt, landed in Tikhaya Bay, and began construction of a permanent base. The Soviet government proposed renaming the archipelago Fridtjof Nansen Land in 1930, but the name never came into use. In 1930 the Norwegian Bratvaag Expedition visited the archipelago, but was asked by Soviet authorities to respect Soviet territorial water in the future. Other expeditions that year were the Norwegian-Swedish balloon expedition led by Hans Wilhelmsson Ahlmann on \"Quest\" and the German airship \"Graf Zeppelin\". Except for a German weather station emplaced during the Second World War, these were the last Western expeditions to Franz Josef Land until 1990. Soviet activities grew rapidly following the International Polar Year in 1932. The archipelago was circumnavigated, people landed on Victoria Island, and a topographical map was completed. In 1934–35 geological and glaciological expeditions were carried out, cartographic flights were flown, and up to sixty people stayed the winters between 1934 and 1936, which also saw the first birth. The first drifting ice station was set up out of Rudolf Island in 1936. An airstrip was then constructed on a glacier on the island, and by 1937 the winter population hit 300. Activity dwindled during the Second World War and only a small group of men were kept at Rudolf Island, remaining unsupplied throughout the war. They never discovered Nazi Germany's establishment of a weather station, named Schatzgräber, on Alexandra Land as part of the North Atlantic weather war. The German station was evacuated in 1944 after the men were struck by trichinosis from eating polar bear meat. Apparent physical evidence of the base was discovered in 2016. The Cold War produced renewed Soviet interest in the islands because of their strategic military significance. The islands were regarded as an \"unsinkable aircraft carrier\". The site of the former German weather station was selected as the location of a Soviet aerodrome and military base, Nagurskoye. With the advent of intercontinental ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union changed its military strategy in 1956, abolishing the strategic need for an airbase on the archipelago. The International Geophysical Year of 1957 and 1958 gave a new rise to the scientific interest in the archipelago and an airstrip was built on Heiss Island in 1956. The following year the geophysical Ernst Krenkel Observatory was established there. Activity at Tikhaya Bay was closed in 1959. Because of the islands' military significance, the Soviet Union closed off the area to foreign researchers, although Soviet researchers carried out various expeditions, including in geophysics, studies of the ionosphere, marine biology, botany, ornithology, and glaciology. The Soviet Union opened up the archipelago for international activities from 1990, with foreigners having fairly straightforward access.", "The base on Graham Bell Island was abandoned in the early 1990s. The military presence at Nagurskoye was reduced to that of a border post, and the number of people stationed at Krenkel Observatory were reduced from seventy to a dozen. The archipelago and the surrounding waters was declared a nature reserve in April 1994. The opening of the archipelago also saw the introduction of tourism, most of which takes place on Russian-operated icebreakers. In 2011, in a move to better accommodate tourism in the archipelago, the Russian Arctic National Park was expanded to include Franz Josef Land. However, in August 2019, Russia abruptly withdrew its approval for a Norwegian cruise ship to visit the islands. In 2012, the Russian Air Force decided to reopen the Graham Bell Airfield as part of a series of reopenings of air bases in the Arctic. A major new base, named the \"Arctic Trefoil\" for its three lobed structure, was constructed at Nagurskoye. It can maintain 150 soldiers for 18 months and has an area of 14,000 square meters. In 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin visited the archipelago to protect Russia's interests in the Arctic. In August 2019, a geographic expedition by Russian Northern Fleet discovered several new islands in the archipelago. They were previously buried under Vylki Glacier until part of it melted. In April 2020, the archipelago was used by the Russian Airborne Forces to performed the world's first HALO paradrop from the lower border of the Arctic stratosphere. The crews of Il-76 aircraft practiced at the northernmost airfield of the country on the island of Franz Josef Land. Not only, did the commandos endure the partial oxygen of the stratosphere common under the HALO technique; they encountered deep freeze conditions mitigated by military tested oxygen tanks and uniforms. Challenges to the Arctic mission included undirected terrain, in the absence of ground navigation systems. During the exit of the mission, the paratroopers spent a day, during which they conducted classes on survival in Arctic conditions and built shelters from snow.", "The archipelago constitutes the northernmost part of Russia's Arkhangelsk Oblast, located between 79°46′ and 81°52′ north and 44°52′ and 62°25′ east. It is situated north of Novaya Zemlya and east of the Norwegian archipelago of Svalbard. Located within the Arctic Ocean, Franz Josef Land constitutes the northeastern border of the Barents Sea and the northwestern border of the Kara Sea. The islands are from the North Pole and from the Yamal Peninsula, the closest point of the Eurasian mainland. The archipelago falls within varying definitions of the Asia–Europe border, and is therefore variously defined as part of Asia or of Europe. Cape Flighely, situated at 81°50′ north, is the northernmost point in Eurasia and the Eastern Hemisphere, and of either Europe or Asia, depending on the continental definition. It is the third-closest landmass to the North Pole. The archipelago comprises 191 uninhabited islands with a combined area of. These stretch from east to west and from north to south. One can categorize the islands into three groups, a western, central and eastern, separated by the British Channel and the Austrian Strait. The central group is further divided into a northern and southern section by the Markham Strait. Graham Bell Island is separated from the eastern group by the Severo–Vostochnyi Strait. There are two named island clusters: Zichy Land north of Markham Sound; and Belaya Zemlya to the extreme northeast. The straits are narrow, between several hundred meters to wide. They reach depths of, below the shelf of the Barents Sea. The largest island is Prince George Land, which measures. Three additional islands exceed in size: Wilczek Land, Graham Bell Island and Alexandra Land. Five more islands exceed : Hall Island, Salisbury Island, McClintock Island, Jackson Island and Hooker Island. The smallest 135 islands constitute 0.4 percent of the archipelago's area. The highest elevation is a peak on Wilczek Land, which rises above mean sea level. Victoria Island, located to the west of Alexandra Land, is administratively part of the archipelago, but the island is not geographically part of the island group and is closer to Svalbard, located from Kvitøya.", "Geologically the archipelago is located on the northern edge of the Barents Sea Platform, within an area where Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are exposed. The area has four units separated by regional erosion surfaces. The Upper Paleozoic unit is poorly exposed and was created by folding during the Caledonian period. The Lower Mesozoic unit, consisting of coastal and marine sediments from the Upper Triassic period, is present on most islands and on the bottom of the straits and consists of limestones, shales, sandstones and conglomerate. The Upper Mesozoic unit dominates in the southern and western parts, consisting of massive effusive rocks made up of basaltic sheets separated by volcanic ashes and tuffs, mixed with terrigenous rocks with layers of coal. The Mesozoic-Tertiary unit remains mostly on the sea floor and consist of marine quartz sandstones and shales. Plate tectonics of the Arctic Ocean created basalt lavas and dolerite sheets and dykes in the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous periods. The land is rising by per year, due to the melting of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet c. 10,000 years ago.", "Franz Josef Land is dominated by glaciation, which covers an area of, or 85 percent of the archipelago. The glaciers have an average thickness of, which would convert to. This would alone give a eustatic rise in sea level should it melt. Large ice-free areas are only found on the largest islands, such as the Armitage Peninsula of George Land, the Kholmistyi Peninsula of Graham Bell Island, the Central'naya Susha of Alexandra Land, the Ganza Point of Wilczek Land and the Heyes Island. Most of the smaller islands are unglaciated. Streams only form during the runoff period from May through early September. Permafrost causes most of the runoff to take place on the surface, with streams only forming on the largest islands. The longest river is long and forms on George Land, while there are several streams on Alexandra Land, the longest being. There are about one thousand lakes in the archipelago, the majority of which are located on Alexandra Land and George Land. Most lakes are located in depressions caused by glacial erosion, in addition to a smaller number of lagoon lakes. Their sizes vary from to. Most are only deep, with the deepest measured at. The sea currents surrounding the archipelago touch eastern Svalbard and northern Novaya Zemlya. The cold Makarov Current flows from the north and the Arctic Current flows from the northwest, while the warmer Novaya Zemlya Current flows from the south. The latter has temperatures over, while the bottom water lies below. The southern coastal regions of the archipelago experience currents from east to west. Average velocity is between per second. The tidal component in coastal areas is per second. Pack ice occurs throughout the year around the entire island group, with the lowest levels being during August and September. One-year winter ice starts forming in October and reaches a thickness of. Icebergs are common year-round.", "The main forces influencing the climate are the glaciation and sea ice. At 81° north the archipelago experiences 141 annual days of midnight sun, from 12 April to 30 August. During the winter it experiences 128 days of polar night from 19 October to 23 February. Even during summer the angle of the sun ray spreads the limited radiated energy over a large area. Further cooling is caused by the high amount of cloudiness. The sea starts to freeze in late September and reaches its annual maximum in March, at which time ninety-five percent of the sea is ice-covered. The ice starts to decrease in May and suffers a major melting in June, with the minimum occurring in August or early September. During winter, high-pressure weather and clear skies cause radiation loss from the ground, sending temperatures down to. Low-pressure weather gives strong winds and precipitation, with temperature spells creeping up to and above the freezing point. During shifts the temperatures can change by within hours. Coastal stations experience mean January temperatures of between and, varying heavily from year to year depending on the degree of cycles in weather patterns. During summer the temperatures are a lot more even and average at between and at Hayes Island. Fog is most common during the summer. Average annual precipitation at the coastal stations is between, with the wettest months being from July through September. Elevated areas can experience considerably higher precipitation. Franz Josef Land is significantly colder than Spitsbergen, which experiences warmer winter averages, but is warmer than the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.", "The climate and permafrost limits soil development in the archipelago. Large areas are void of soil, with permafrost polygons being the most common site for soil to occur. The soil typically has incomplete soil profiles and polygonal form with rich content of iron and either neutral or slightly acidic. The brown upper humus layers have three percent organic matter, increasing to eight percent in the southern-most islands. Arctic desert soils occur on the eastern group islands, while the areas near the edge of the glaciers can give semi-bog arctic soil. The flora varies between islands, based on the natural conditions. On the least thriving islands vegetation is limited to lichen growing on stones. Vegetation typically covers five to ten percent of the ground surface, with notable exceptions under bird colonies where it can reach one hundred percent. Vegetation varies with the altitude: up to there is a belt of grass-moss arctic desert, then moss-lichen arctic desert to, then lichen arctic desert up to and above lifeless snow desert, with occasional lichens on nunataks and snow algae on glacier surfaces. Trees, shrubs and tall plants cannot survive. About 150 species of bryophytes dominate the grassy turf, of which two-thirds are mosses and a third liverworts. The most common species are \"Aulacomnium\", \"Ditrichum\", \"Drepanocladus\", \"Orthothecium\" and \"Tomenthypnum\". More than 100 species of lichen are found on the island, the most common being \"Caloplaca\", \"Lecanora\", \"Lecidea\", \"Ochrolechia\" and \"Rinodina\". There are sixteen species of grass and about 100 species of algae, most commonly Cyanophyta and Diatomea. Fifty-seven species of vascular plants have been reported. The most common are Arctic poppy and saxifraga, which grow everywhere, independent of habitat, with the latter's nine species being found on all islands. Common plants in wet areas are \"Alopecurus magellanicus\" (alpine meadow-foxtail grass), buttercups and polar willow. \"Alopecurus magellanicus\" and \"Papaver dahlianum\" are the tallest plants, able to reach heights of. More than one hundred taxa of single-cell pelagic algae have been identified around the archipelago, the most common being \"Thalassiosira antarctica\" and \"Chaetoceros decipiens\". The bloom takes place between May and August. Of the roughly fifty species of zooplankton, calanoids dominate, with \"Calanus glacialis\" and \"Calanus hyperboreus\" constituting the greater portion of the biomass. On the sea bottom there are 34 species of macroalgae and at least 500 species of macrofauna. Most common are crustaceans such as amphipods and shrimps, polychaetes and echinoderms, such as sea bristles. The ice scouring causes there to be little life in the littoral zone, but the sublittoral zone () is dominated by laminaria, most commonly \"Laminaria sachcharina\", and red algae, such as \"Phycodrys rubens\". There are 33 species of fish in the waters, none of which are abundant or commercially exploitable. The most common are polar cod, which reach lengths of, and liparidae. There are no endemic species within the archipelago. Forty-one species of birds have been documented in the archipelago, of which fourteen breed. These are dominated by seabirds such as fulmar, kittiwake, Brünnich's guillemot, black guillemot and little auk are common throughout the archipelago, while seven other species prefer nesting on flat tundra: common eider, purple sandpiper, Arctic skua, glaucous gull, ivory gull, Arctic tern and snow bunting. Some ivory gulls, little auks and Brünnich's guillemots opt to spend the winter on the islands. The polar bear population of Franz Josef Land lies within the Barents Sea subpopulation, which also includes polar bears inhabiting Svalbard and the western coast of Novaya Zemlya. In 2004, the Barents Sea subpopulation was estimated at 2,650. There is also a population of Arctic fox, which typically have their territories near seabird habitats.", "Being declared as a marine mammal sanctuary, the island has rich biodiversity of rare marine mammals. Three species of seals habit the archipelago. Harp seal is the most common, although it breeds in the White Sea. Slightly less common is the bearded seal. Walruses were previously hunted, dramatically reducing the formerly abundant species. They have been internationally protected since 1952 and their numbers have since been on the rise, with between one and three thousand walruses living in the archipelago. The population is common with Svalbard and northern Novaya Zemlya. Minke whales, humpback whale, and beluga whales are commonly seen around the island, and less commonly orcas and narwhales, with the archipelago being located on the northern edge of their summer range. Fin whales were newly confirmed to migrate into the waters.", "Occasionally there are sightings of the bowhead whale. The Russian Arctic stock of this species, ranging from Cape Farewell in Greenland and Svalbard/Spitsbergen areas to East Siberian Sea is considered to be the most endangered of all populations in the world. The waters around Franz Josef Land are seemingly the most important place for this stock.", "Tourism travel to the archipelago is severely limited. There is no infrastructure to support tourists and the only way to reach the islands is by icebreaker, typically operating out of Murmansk. In 2012 there were only eight successful landings on the islands. A contributing factor to the low utilization is the difficulty of obtaining permissions and frequent closing of the Kola Bay to accommodate military exercises. The most frequent service is a three-week North Pole tour with Russian nuclear-powered icebreaker \"50 Let Pobedy\", which stops by the islands en route. The most popular destinations are areas with bird cliffs and walrus colonies, such as Cape Flora on Northbrook Island and Cape Rubini on Hooker Island, as well as historical remains such as Nansen's hut on Jackson Island. Tourists are commonly landed by helicopter. For purposes of amateur radio awards the islands count as a separate international \"entity\". Activity by operators has become less frequent, though does occasionally occur." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Dénes König Prize." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kőnig was born in Budapest, the son of mathematician Gyula Kőnig. In 1907, he received his doctorate at, and joined the faculty of the Royal Joseph University in Budapest (today Budapest University of Technology and Economics). His classes were visited by Paul Erdős, who, as a first year student, solved one of his problems. Kőnig became a full professor there in 1935. To honor his fathers' death in 1913, Kőnig and his brother György created the Gyula Kőnig prize in 1918. This prize was meant to be an endowment for young mathematicians, however was later devaluated. But the prize remained as a medal of high scientific recognition. In 1899, he published his first work while still attending High School in a journal \"Matematikai és Fizikai Lapok\". After his graduation in 1902, he won first place in a mathematical competition \"Eötvös Loránd\". Shortly after he wrote the first of two book collections \"Matematikai Mulatságok\" (Mathematical Entertainments). He spent four semesters at the university in Budapest and his last five in Göttingen, during which he studied under the famous mathematicians József Kürschák and Hermann Minkowski. He then received his doctorate in 1907 due to his dissertation in geometry, that same year he began working for the Technische Hochschule in Budapest and remained a part of the faculty till his death in 1944. At first he started as an assistant in problem sessions, in 1910 he was promoted to \"oberassistant\", and then promoted to \"Privatdocent\" in 1911 teaching nomography, analysis situs (later to be known as topology), set theory, real numbers and functions, and graph theory (the name \"graph theory\" didn't appear in the university catalogue until 1927). During this time he would be a guest speaker giving mathematics lecture for architecture and chemistry students, in 1920 these lectures made their way into book form. at the Technische Hochschule. From 1915 to 1942 he was on a committee to judge school contests in mathematics, collecting problems for these contests, and organizing them. Then in 1933 he was elected as secretary of the society and in 1942 he became the chairman of this committee. He then decided to make edits in the society's journal during his time on the committee till his death. Kőnig's activities and lectures played a vital role in the growth of graph theoretical work of: László Egyed, Paul Erdős, Tibor Gallai, György Hajós, József Kraus, Tibor Szele, Pál Turán, Endre Vázsonyi, and many others. He went on to write the first book on graph theory \"Theorie der endlichen und unendlichen Graphen\" in 1936. This marked the beginning of graph theory as its own branch of mathematics. Then in 1958, Claude Berge wrote the second book on graph theory, \"Théorie des Graphes et ses applications\", following Kőnig. After the occupation of Hungary by the Nazis, he worked to help persecuted mathematicians. On October 15, 1944 the National Socialist Arrow Cross Party took over the country. Days later on October 19, 1944 he committed suicide to evade persecution from the Nazis being a Hungarian Jew.", "The Dénes König Prize is a prize established and given by the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Activity Group on Discrete Mathematics to an early career researcher for outstanding research in an area of discrete mathematics. The first award was given in 2008, and it had been given biennially thereafter. The award is named after Dénes Kőnig, a Hungarian mathematician who was an earlier pioneer of discrete mathematics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Beginning.", "Soviet dominance.", "Rise of Yugoslavia.", "New winners emerge.", "Qualification.", "Competition format.", "Medal table.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first championships was held three years after the establishment of FIBA, in 1935. Switzerland was chosen as the host country, and ten countries joined. Only one qualifying match was played between Portugal and Spain. With a complicated formula, the final would see Latvia as champions. According to the rule at the time, the winner had to hold the following games. The following two tournaments would be won by Lithuania and would see the introduction of Egypt which would compete in EuroBasket until 1953 winning one championship at home in 1949 along the way. The 1941 edition of the tournament was scheduled be held in Lithuania as well, but was cancelled due to WWII.", "After the 1946 edition saw the first jump shot performed by Italian player Giuseppe Stefanini, the following edition would see the Soviet Union compete in their first edition in the 1947 edition and would see the Soviets win the first of eleven out of the next thirteen European championships. During the 50s, the Soviet Union won four of the five competitions held during the decade with the only tournament that they did not win being the 1955 edition. This was won by Hungary as they finished top while the Soviets finished in third place. It was also during that edition that the thirty-second shot clock was introduced, which changed the style of basketball. The Soviets would take out all of the championships during the 60s with them having a fifty-five game winning streak which would be broken by Yugoslavia in 1969. For Yugoslavia, they were starting to come to challenge the Soviets with the main player in Radivoj Korac aiding the team to two silvers and a bronze medal, in his career which stopped in 1967. The 1960s would see also a change in how the competition was viewed and run with FIBA putting a limit on the number of countries that entered to 16 with qualifiers being the way to bring them down to that number as it first appeared in 1963. The following edition would see the competition not be held in one city with Tbilisi joining Moscow in hosting games and in 1967 the first modern games were held, because the games were televised and international media were present.", "The 1970s were the competition between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. During the decade Yugoslavia won three gold medals and the Soviet Union taking out the remaining two. After the Soviets took out 1971, the 1973 edition would finally see Yugoslavia take out their first championship after Spain defeated the Soviets in the semi-finals to qualify for their first final since the first edition way back in 1935. Yugoslavia would finally have a chance to defeat the Soviets as at home, they would get the chance to defeat them and they did as they won by six points to take home 1975 edition. After following that up in 1977, the Soviets would get their revenge in the final round at EuroBasket 1979 when they defeated them 96–77 to qualify through to the final where they would defeat Israel who shocked the basketball world as they defeated Yugoslavia in the opening round by a point. Brewing under the Soviets and Yugoslavs, the west was starting to appear with the 1980s seeing the change happen. In 1983, the western side of Europe tasted success with Italy defeating Spain in the final to record their first of two titles. An important development happened in the following edition which was held in Germany. That edition saw the first three-point arc being used.", "Greece would win the next edition in 1987 at home and followed that with a silver medal at the 1989 edition in Yugoslavia.EuroBasket 1991 was the first EuroBasket tournament in which currently active NBA players, that had also already played in an official NBA regular season game were allowed to participate. It would also be the first edition where the Soviets weren't entered into the competition, as the USSR didn't qualify for the main tournament and afterwards collapsed. Yugoslavia would take the title, but afterwards war would split the country up with Jure Zdovc being a \"casualty\" after Slovenia declared independence, two days into the tournament. 1993 saw a shock winner, with Germany taking the championship at home with a one-point victory over Russia. After being suspended in 1993, FR Yugoslavia came back and took the trophy after defeating Lithuania, which was making its first appearance, since it had been a country of the Soviet Union. But politics came into play with the crowd protesting \"Lithuania is the champions\", while the Croatian team who had defeated Greece for bronze step down from the podium in protest of the war that was happening at the time.", "24 European teams take part in the final competition. The qualification format that existed until the 2011 EuroBasket permitted 16 teams to compete. Eight spots were determined by the host nation and the top seven finishers of the previous EuroBasket. The remaining Division A teams compete in a qualification tournament. There, they were divided into four groups. Each group played a double round-robin. The top team in each group qualified for EuroBasket. The best three of the four runners-up also qualified. Of the ten teams that did not qualify in the qualification tournament, the six best got another chance in the additional qualification round. The remaining four competed in a relegation round, with two being sent to Division B for the next qualification cycle (and replaced by the two best teams from Division B). The final spot was determined by the additional qualifying round. The six teams were divided into two groups of three, with each group playing a double round-robin. The top team in each group played in the final against the other group's top team; the winner of that game received the final EuroBasket qualification spot. In 2015, the national team of Iceland became the smallest nation to ever qualify for a EuroBasket final stage at the population of around 330.000 people. The team was led by the former Dallas Maverick, Jón Arnór Stefánsson followed by a great performance which drove them through the qualifiers. In 2017, Iceland made back to back qualification to a EuroBasket final stage, then led by the young Martin Hermansson.", "EuroBasket has used a number of different formats, ranging from the simple round-robin used in 1939, to a three-stage tournament, and now a two-stage tournament that is currently in use. The current format begins with a preliminary round. The twenty-four qualified teams are placed into four groups of six, and each group plays a round-robin tournament. The top four teams in each group (16 overall) advance to the knockout stage. The knockout stage is a 16-team single-elimination tournament, with a bronze medal game for semi-final losers and classification games for the quarterfinal losers to determine fifth to eighth places.", "The medal table below lists the national teams according to the respective table published by FIBA. Countries in \"italics\" no longer compete at the EuroBasket.", "Below are the lists of all players voted as the MVPs and the Top Scorers of each EuroBasket edition. Krešimir Ćosić and Pau Gasol are the only players to win the MVP award twice. Nikos Galis and Radivoj Korać were the Top Scorers 4 times each." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Antiquity.", "Medieval period.", "Hospitaller rule.", "French occupation and British rule.", "Present day.", "Places of interest.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The plateau on which Mdina is built has been inhabited since prehistory, and by the Bronze Age it was a place of refuge since it was naturally defensible. The Phoenicians colonized Malta in around the 8th century BC, and they founded the city of Maleth on this plateau. It was taken over by the Roman Republic in 218 BC, becoming known as Melite. The Punic-Roman city was about three times the size of present-day Mdina, extending into a large part of modern Rabat. According to Early Modern interpretation the Acts of the Apostles, when Paul the Apostle was shipwrecked on Malta in 60 AD, he was greeted by Publius, the governor of Melite, and he cured his sick father. According to tradition, the population of Melite converted to Christianity, and Publius became the first Bishop of Malta and then Bishop of Athens before being martyred in 112 AD. Very few remains of the Punic-Roman city survive today. The most significant are the ruins of the Domvs Romana, in which several well-preserved mosaics, statues and other remains were discovered. Remains of the podium of a Temple of Apollo, fragments of the city walls and some other sites have also been excavated.", "At some point following the fall of the Western Roman Empire, a retrenchment was built within the city, reducing it to its present size. This was done to make the city's perimeter more easily defensible, and similar reductions in city sizes were common around the Mediterranean region in the early Middle Ages. Although it was traditionally assumed that the retrenchment was built by the Arabs, it has been suggested that it was actually built by the Byzantine Empire in around the 8th century, when the threat from the Arabs increased. In 870, Byzantine Melite, which was ruled by governor Amros (probably Ambrosios), was besieged by Aghlabids led by Halaf al-Hādim. He was killed in the fighting, and Sawāda Ibn Muḥammad was sent from Sicily to continue the siege following his death. The duration of the siege is unknown, but it probably lasted for some weeks or months. After Melite fell to the invaders, the inhabitants were massacred, the city was destroyed and its churches were looted. Marble from Melite's churches was used to build the castle of Sousse. According to Al-Himyarī, Malta remained almost uninhabited until it was resettled in 1048 or 1049 by a Muslim community and their slaves, who built a settlement called Medina on the site of Melite. Archaeological evidence suggests that the city was already a thriving Muslim settlement by the beginning of the 11th century, so 1048–49 might be the date when the city was officially founded and its walls were constructed. The layout of the new city was completely different to that of ancient Melite. Mdina still has features typical of a medina, a legacy of the period of Arab rule. The Byzantines besieged Medina in 1053–54, but were repelled by its defenders. The city surrendered peacefully to Roger I of Sicily after a short siege in 1091, and Malta was subsequently incorporated into the County and later the Kingdom of Sicily, being dominated by a succession of feudal lords. A castle known as the \"Castellu di la Chitati\" was built on the southeast corner of the city near the main entrance, probably on the site of an earlier Byzantine fort. The population of Malta during the fifteenth century was about 10,000, with town life limited to Mdina, Birgu and the Gozo Citadel. Mdina was comparatively small and partly uninhabited and by 1419, it was already outgrown by its suburb, Rabat. Under Aragonese rule, local government rested on the \"Università\", a communal body based in Mdina, which collected taxation and administered the islands' limited resources. At various points during the fifteenth century, this town council complained to its Aragonese overlords that the islands were at the mercy of the sea and the saracens. The city withstood a siege by Hafsid invaders in 1429. While the exact number of casualties or Maltese who were carried into slavery is unknown, the islands suffered depopulation in this raid.", "When the Order of Saint John took over in Malta in 1530, the nobles ceremoniously handed over the keys of the city to Grand Master Philippe Villiers de L'Isle-Adam, but the Order settled in Birgu and Mdina lost its status as capital city. In the 1540s, the fortifications began to be upgraded during the magistracy of Juan de Homedes y Coscon, and in 1551 the city withstood a brief Ottoman attack. During the Great Siege of Malta in 1565, Mdina was the base of the Order's cavalry, which made occasional sorties on the invading Ottomans. On 7 August 1565, the cavalry attacked the unprotected Ottoman field hospital, which led in the invaders abandoning a major assault on the main fortifications in Birgu and Senglea. The Ottomans attempted to take Mdina in September so as to winter there, but abandoned their plans when the city fired its cannon, leading them to believe that it had ammunition to spare. After the siege, Maltese military engineer Girolamo Cassar drew up plans to reduce Mdina's size by half and turning it into a fortress, but these were never implemented due to protests by the city's nobles. The fortifications were again upgraded in the mid-17th century, when the large De Redin Bastion was built at the centre of the land front. Mdina suffered severe damage during the 1693 Sicily earthquake, although no casualties were reported the 13th-century Cathedral of St. Paul was partially destroyed, and it was rebuilt by Lorenzo Gafà in the Baroque style between 1697 and 1703. On 3 November 1722, newly elected Grand Master António Manoel de Vilhena issued orders for the restoration and renovation of Mdina. This renovation was entrusted to the French architect and military engineer Charles François de Mondion, who introduced strong French Baroque elements into what was still a largely medieval city. At this point, large parts of the fortifications and the city entrance were completely rebuilt. The remains of the \"Castellu di la Chitati\" were demolished to make way for Palazzo Vilhena, while the main gate was walled up and a new Mdina Gate was built nearby. Several public buildings were also built, including the Banca Giuratale and the Corte Capitanale. The last major addition to the Mdina fortifications was Despuig Bastion, which was completed in 1746.", "On 10 June 1798, Mdina was captured by French forces without much resistance during the French invasion of Malta. A French garrison remained in the city, but a Maltese uprising broke out on 2 September of that year. The following day, rebels entered the city through a sally port and massacred the garrison of 65 men. These events marked the beginning of a two-year uprising and blockade, and the Maltese set up a National Assembly which met at Mdina's Banca Giuratale. The rebels were successful, and in 1800 the French surrendered and Malta became a British protectorate. From 1883 to 1931, Mdina was linked with Valletta by the Malta Railway.", "Today, Mdina is one of Malta's major tourist attractions, hosting about 750,000 tourists a year. No cars (other than a limited number of residents, emergency vehicles, wedding cars and horses) are allowed in Mdina, partly why it has earned the nickname 'the Silent City'. The city displays an unusual mix of Norman and Baroque architecture, including several palaces, most of which serve as private homes. An extensive restoration of the city walls was undertaken between 2008 and 2016.", "The following are a number of historic and monumental buildings around Mdina:", "Founded in 2006, the Mdina Knights F.C. play in the third division league of the Malta Football Association." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Present status.", "Future prospects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Provisions to form a new UN agency to oversee the decolonization of dependent territories from colonial times was made at the San Francisco Conference in 1945 and were specified Chapter 12 of the Charter of the United Nations. Those dependent territories (colonies and mandated territories) were to be placed under the international trusteeship system created by the United Nations Charter as a successor to the League of Nations mandate system. Ultimately, eleven territories were placed under trusteeship: seven in Africa and four in Oceania. Ten of the trust territories had previously been League of Nations mandates; the eleventh was Italian Somaliland. In order to implement the provisions on the trusteeship system, the General Assembly passed resolution 64 on Dec. 14, 1946, which provided for the establishing of the United Nations Trusteeship Council. The Trusteeship Council held its first session in March 1947. In March 1948, the United States proposed that the territory of Mandatory Palestine be placed under UN Trusteeship with the termination of the British Mandate in May 1948 (see American trusteeship proposal for Palestine). However, the US did not make an effort to implement this proposal, which became moot with the declaration of the State of Israel. Under the Charter, the Trusteeship Council was to consist of an equal number of United Nations Member States administering trust territories and non-administering states. Thus, the Council was to consist of (1) all U.N. members administering trust territories, (2) the five permanent members of the Security Council, and (3) as many other non-administering members as needed to equalize the number of administering and non-administering members, elected by the United Nations General Assembly for renewable three-year terms. Over time, as trust territories attained independence, the size and workload of the Trusteeship Council was reduced. Ultimately, the Trusteeship Council came to include only the five permanent Security Council members (China, France, the Soviet Union/Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the United States), as the only country administering a Trust Territory (the United States) was a permanent member. With the independence of Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, in 1994, there presently are no trust territories, leaving the Trusteeship Council without responsibilities. (Since the Northern Mariana Islands was a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands and became a commonwealth of the USA in 1986, it is technically the only area to have not joined as a part of another state or gained full independence as a sovereign nation.) The Trusteeship Council was not assigned responsibility for colonial territories outside the trusteeship system, although the Charter did establish the principle that member states were to administer such territories in conformity with the best interests of their inhabitants.", "Its mission fulfilled, the Trusteeship Council suspended its operation on 1 November 1994, and although under the United Nations Charter it continues to exist on paper, its future role and even existence remains uncertain. The Trusteeship Council is currently () headed by Anne Gueguen, with Jonathan Guy Allen as vice-president, although the sole current duty of these officers is to meet with the heads of other UN agencies on occasion. According to the United Nations website: By a resolution adopted on 25th of May 1994, the Council amended its rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion required -- by its decision or the decision of its President, or at the request of a majority of its members or the General Assembly or the Security Council. The chamber itself is still used for other purposes. Following a three-year refurbishment, restoring its original design by Danish architect, Finn Juhl, the chamber was re-opened in 2013.", "The formal elimination of the Trusteeship Council would require the revision of the UN Charter, which is why it has not been pursued. Other functions for the Trusteeship Council have been considered. The Commission on Global Governance's 1995 report recommends an expansion of the trusteeship council. Their theory is that an international regulatory body is needed to protect environmental integrity and the global commons on the two-thirds of the world's surface that is outside national jurisdictions. However, in March 2005, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan proposed a sweeping reform of the United Nations, including an expansion of the Security Council. As this restructuring would involve significant changes to the UN charter, Annan proposed the complete elimination of the Trusteeship Council as part of these reforms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Union Republics of the Soviet Union.", "Other non-union Soviet republics.", "Autonomous Republics of the Soviet Union.", "The republics at the dissolution of the Soviet Union." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, a Union Republic was a sovereign Soviet socialist state that had united with other Soviet Republics in the USSR. Article 81 of the Constitution stated that \"the sovereign rights of Union Republics shall be safeguarded by the USSR\". In the final decades of its existence, the Soviet Union officially consisted of fifteen Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs). All of them, with the exception of the Russian Federation (until 1990), had their own local party chapters of the All-Union Communist Party. Outside the territory of the Russian Federation, the republics were constituted mostly in lands that had formerly belonged to the Russian Empire and had been acquired by it between the 1700 Great Northern War and the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. In 1944, amendments to the All-Union Constitution allowed for separate branches of the Red Army for each Soviet Republic. They also allowed for Republic-level commissariats for foreign affairs and defense, allowing them to be recognized as \"de jure\" independent states in international law. This allowed for two Soviet Republics, Ukraine and Byelorussia, (as well as the USSR as a whole) to join the United Nations General Assembly as founding members in 1945. All of the former Republics of the Union are now independent countries, with ten of them (all except the Baltic states, Georgia and Ukraine) being very loosely organized under the heading of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Baltic states assert that their incorporation into the Soviet Union in 1940 (as the Lithuanian, Latvian, and Estonian SSRs) under the provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact was illegal, and that they therefore remained independent countries under Soviet occupation. Their position is supported by the European Union, the European Court of Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Council and the United States. In contrast, the Russian government and state officials maintain that the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states was legitimate. Constitutionally, the Soviet Union was a federation. In accordance with provisions present in the Constitution (versions adopted in 1924, 1936 and 1977), each republic retained the right to secede from the USSR. Throughout the Cold War, this right was widely considered to be meaningless; however, the corresponding Article 72 of the 1977 Constitution was used in December 1991 to effectively dissolve the Soviet Union, when Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus seceded from the Union. In practice, the USSR was a highly centralised entity from its creation in 1922 until the mid-1980s when political forces unleashed by reforms undertaken by Mikhail Gorbachev resulted in the loosening of central control and its ultimate dissolution. Under the constitution adopted in 1936 and modified along the way until October 1977, the political foundation of the Soviet Union was formed by the Soviets (Councils) of People's Deputies. These existed at all levels of the administrative hierarchy, with the Soviet Union as a whole under the nominal control of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, located in Moscow within the Russian SFSR. Along with the state administrative hierarchy, there existed a parallel structure of party organizations, which allowed the Politburo to exercise large amounts of control over the republics. State administrative organs took direction from the parallel party organs, and appointments of all party and state officials required approval of the central organs of the party. Each republic had its own unique set of state symbols: a flag, a coat of arms, and, with the exception of Russia until 1990, an anthem. Every republic of the Soviet Union also was awarded with the Order of Lenin.", "The number of the union republics of the USSR varied from 4 to 16. In majority of years and at the later decades of its existence, the Soviet Union consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics. Rather than listing the republics in alphabetical order, the republics were listed in constitutional order, which, particularly by the last decades of the Soviet Union, did not correspond to order either by population or economic power.", "The Turkestan Soviet Federative Republic was proclaimed in 1918 but did not survive to the founding of the USSR, becoming the short-lived Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic of the RSFSR. The Crimean Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Socialist Republic of Taurida) was also proclaimed in 1918, but did not became a union republic and was made into an autonomous republic of the RSFSR, although the Crimean Tatars had a relative majority until the 1930s or 1940s according to censuses. When the Tuvan People's Republic joined the Soviet Union in 1944, it did not become a union republic, and was instead established as an autonomous republic of the RSFSR. The leader of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Todor Zhivkov, suggested in the early 1960s that the country should become a union republic, but the offer was rejected. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the Soviet Union proposed to annex Northern Afghanistan as its 16th union republic in what was to become the Afghan Soviet Socialist Republic.", "Several of the Union Republics themselves, most notably Russia, were further subdivided into Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSRs). Though administratively part of their respective Union Republics, ASSRs were also established based on ethnic/cultural lines.", "Under Mikhail Gorbachev, \"openness\" and \"restructuring\" were intended to liberalise and open up the Soviet Union. However, they had a number of effects which caused the power of the republics to increase. First, political liberalization allowed the governments within the republics to gain legitimacy by invoking democracy, nationalism, or a combination of both. In addition, liberalization led to fractures within the Communist Party which resulted in reduced ability to govern the Union effectively. The rise of nationalist and right-wing movements, notably led in Russia by Boris Yeltsin, in the previously homogeneously Communist political system led to the crumbling of the Union's foundations. With the central role of the Communist Party removed from the constitution, the Communist Party lost its control over the political system and was banned from operating after an attempted coup d'état. Throughout the unravelling of the restructuring, the Soviet government attempted to find a new structure which would reflect the increased power of the republics. Some autonomous republics, like Tatarstan, Checheno-Ingushetia, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Crimea, Transnistria, Gagauzia sought the union statute in New Union Treaty. Efforts to found a Union of Sovereign States proved unsuccessful and the republics began to secede from the Union. By 6 September 1991, the Soviet Union's State Council recognized the independence of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania bringing the number of union republics down to 12. On 8 December 1991, the remaining leaders of the republics signed the Belavezha Accords which agreed that the USSR would be dissolved and replaced with a Commonwealth of Independent States. On 25 December, President Gorbachev announced his resignation and turned all executive powers over to Yeltsin. The next day the Council of Republics voted to dissolve the Union. Since then, the republics have been governed independently with some adopting significantly more liberal policies while others, particularly in Central Asia, have retained leadership personnel from the Soviet time to this day." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Coverage.", "Languages with incomplete coverage.", "Quotation marks.", "History.", "Code page layout.", "Similar character sets.", "ISO/IEC 8859-15.", "Windows-1252.", "Mac Roman.", "Other." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following languages:", "ISO-8859-1 was commonly used for certain languages, even though it lacks characters used by these languages. In most cases, only a few letters are missing or they are rarely used, and they can be replaced with characters that are in ISO-8859-1 using some form of typographic approximation. The following table lists such languages. The letter \"ÿ\", which appears in French only very rarely, mainly in city names such as L'Haÿ-les-Roses and never at the beginning of words, is included only in lowercase form. The slot corresponding to its uppercase form is occupied by the lowercase letter \"ß\" from the German language, which did not have an uppercase form at the time when the standard was created.", "For some languages listed above, the correct typographical quotation marks are missing, as only,, and are included. Also, this scheme does not provide for oriented (6- or 9-shaped) single or double quotation marks. Some fonts will display the spacing grave accent (0x60) and the apostrophe (0x27) as a matching pair of oriented single quotation marks, but this is not considered part of the modern standard.", "ISO 8859-1 was based on the Multinational Character Set used by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in the popular VT220 terminal in 1983. It was developed within the European Computer Manufacturers Association (ECMA), and published in March 1985 as ECMA-94, by which name it is still sometimes known. The second edition of ECMA-94 (June 1986) also included ISO 8859-2, ISO 8859-3, and ISO 8859-4 as part of the specification. The original draft of ISO 8859-1 placed French \"Œ\" and \"œ\" at code points 215 (0xD7) and 247 (0xF7), as in the ECMA-94. However, the delegate from France, being neither a linguist nor a typographer, falsely stated that these are not independent French letters on their own, but mere ligatures (like \"fi\" or \"fl\"), supported by the delegate team from Bull Publishing Company, who regularly did not print French with \"Œ/œ\" in their house style at the time. An anglophone delegate from Canada insisted in retaining \"Œ/œ\" but was rebuffed by the French delegate and the team from Bull. These code points were soon filled with × and ÷ under the suggestion of the German delegation. Then things went even worse for the French language, when it was again falsely stated that the letter \"ÿ\" is \"not French\", resulting in the absence of the capital \"Ÿ\". In fact, the letter \"ÿ\" is found in a number of French proper names, and the capital letter has been used in dictionaries and encyclopedias. These characters were added to ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999. BraSCII matches the original draft. In 1985, Commodore adopted ECMA-94 for its new AmigaOS operating system. The Seikosha MP-1300AI impact dot-matrix printer, used with the Amiga 1000, included this encoding. In 1990, the very first version of Unicode used the code points of ISO-8859-1 as the first 256 Unicode code points. In 1992, the IANA registered the character map ISO_8859-1:1987, more commonly known by its preferred MIME name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the Internet. This map assigns the C0 and C1 control codes to the unassigned code values thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value.", "In the original draft, however, Œ was at codepoint 215 (0xD7) and œ was at codepoint 247 (0xF7).", "", "ISO/IEC 8859-15 was developed in 1999, as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. It provides some characters for French and Finnish text and the euro sign, which are missing from ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required the removal of some infrequently used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics:,,,,,,, and. Ironically, three of the newly added characters (,, and ) had already been present in DEC's 1983 Multinational Character Set (MCS), the predecessor to ISO/IEC 8859-1 (1987). Since their original code points were now reused for other purposes, the characters had to be reintroduced under different, less logical code points. ISO-IR-204, a more minor modification, had been registered in 1998, altering ISO-8859-1 by replacing the universal currency sign (¤) with the euro sign (the same substitution made by ISO-8859-15).", "The popular Windows-1252 character set adds all the missing characters provided by ISO/IEC 8859-15, plus a number of typographic symbols, by replacing the rarely used C1 controls in the range 128 to 159 (hex 80 to 9F). It is very common to mislabel Windows-1252 text as being in ISO-8859-1. A common result was that all the quotes and apostrophes (produced by \"smart quotes\" in word-processing software) were replaced with question marks or boxes on non-Windows operating systems, making text difficult to read. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters, and that behavior was later standardized in HTML5.", "The Apple Macintosh computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman in 1984. It was meant to be suitable for Western European desktop publishing. It is a superset of ASCII, and has most of the characters that are in ISO-8859-1 and all the extra characters from Windows-1252 but in a totally different arrangement. The few printable characters that are in ISO 8859-1, but not in this set, are often a source of trouble when editing text on Web sites using older Macintosh browsers, including the last version of Internet Explorer for Mac.", "DOS had code page 850, which had all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 had (albeit in a totally different arrangement) plus the most widely used graphic characters from code page 437. Between 1989 and 2015, Hewlett-Packard used another superset of ISO-8859-1 on many of their calculators. This proprietary character set was sometimes referred to simply as \"ECMA-94\" as well." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Business and political career.", "IOC Presidency.", "Family.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Juan Antonio Samaranch was born on 17 July 1920 in Barcelona as the third of six children in a wealthy Catalan family. In 1938, during the Spanish Civil War, he was conscripted to serve as a medical assistant in the Spanish Republican Armed Forces. Samaranch's political sympathies were for the Nationalists, and he deserted to Nationalist-held territory by way of France. On 1 December 1955, he married Maria Teresa Salisachs Rowe. With Salisachs Rowe, he had two children: Juan Antonio Junior, currently a member of the International Olympic Committee, and Maria Teresa. Samaranch started his studies at the Business School of Barcelona, which he completed in London and the US, and obtained a diploma from the Barcelona Higher Institute of Business Studies (IESE). During his studies, he practised roller hockey, for which he created World Championships in 1951 and which the Spanish team won. A member of the Falange in Francoist Spain, Samaranch held various political positions in municipal and national government: he became a city councilor for the city of Barcelona responsible for sport in 1954, then Delegate for Physical Education and Sport in the Spanish Parliament in 1967. Samaranch was appointed President of the provincial council of Barcelona in 1973, until he resigned four years later, when he was appointed Spanish Ambassador to the Soviet Union and Mongolia after the resumption of diplomatic relations between the two countries. Maintaining an active career within the Olympic Movement, Samaranch was elected Vice-President of the International Mediterranean Games Committee for the second edition of the Games in Barcelona in 1955. On several occasions, he was appointed Chef de Mission: for the Winter Games in Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), the Summer Games in Rome (1960), and the Summer Games in Tokyo (1964). For the Rome and Tokyo Games, he was also President of the Spanish delegation. Elected a member of the Spanish Olympic Committee in 1956, he became its President in 1967 until 1970. He was elected as an IOC member in 1966. Two years later, Avery Brundage appointed him Head of Protocol (1968–1975 and 1979–1980). A member of the Executive Board (1970–1978 and 1979–1980), he was IOC Vice-President from 1974 to 1978. Elected to the IOC presidency in the first round of voting on 16 July 1980 at the 83rd Session, he succeeded Lord Killanin on 3 August that year. Samaranch acceded to the IOC presidency during the troubled political period of the Games of the XXII Olympiad in Moscow. He sought to defend the Olympic movement and raise its profile on his numerous trips and meetings with heads of state and sports leaders. In 1981, he obtained for the IOC the status of non-governmental international organisation and became the first IOC President, after Pierre de Coubertin, to establish himself in Lausanne. He was also in favour of the integration of women into the Olympic Movement, and during the Baden-Baden Congress gained permission for women to become members of the IOC. At his instigation, the IOC became involved in various initiatives to promote women and sport. Samaranch managed to include both the NOC of the People's Republic of China and that of Chinese Taipei; with the assistance of Kéba Mbaye, he contributed to the reintegration of South Africa into the Olympics after the abolition of apartheid; he visited Sarajevo during the civil war to express Olympic solidarity; and the two Koreas marched under the same flag at the opening ceremony in Sydney. For sport, he intensified the IOC's support to organise Paralympic Games as from the Winter Games in Sarajevo in 1984. He also made doping a priority issue by launching research and control programmes. The creation of the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999 allowed the IOC Medical Commission to extend its scope of action. He also oversaw the end of Olympic amateurism, with full eligibility for all professional athletes being given for the 1992 games. Finally, it was under his presidency that the Summer and Winter Games were organised two years apart, instead of in the same year. Among the reforms to the running of the IOC, he imposed a new financial policy which allowed for the increase in revenues and the diversification of resources. Thanks to a large share of the revenues generated by agreements with TV channels, he restructured Olympic Solidarity in 1981 and provided assistance to National Olympic Committees in difficulty, and developed action plans to contribute to the universality of the Games. In 1991 he received the title of Marqués from the King of Spain for his involvement in the Olympic Movement. On 23 June 1993, the inauguration of the Olympic Museum, representing the memory and spirit of modern Olympism, the work of his career, crowned his presidency. On 16 July 2001, he left the seat of the IOC presidency to Jacques Rogge. Samaranch became Honorary Life President of the IOC and was awarded the Gold Olympic Order upon standing down from the presidency. The IOC also voted to change the name of the Olympic Museum to the Samaranch Museum. He died on 21 April 2010 at the age of 89, in Barcelona.", "After actively participating in the Spanish Civil War, Samaranch studied commerce at IESE Business School in Barcelona. He had a short career as a sports journalist for \"La Prensa\", which ended in his dismissal in 1943 for criticising the supporters of Real Madrid C.F. after that club's 11–1 defeat of FC Barcelona, and then joined his family's textile business. He joined the board of La Caixa, Spain's largest savings bank, in 1984, and served as President of the board from 1987 to 1999. He remained as honorary president from his retirement in 1999 to his death. Samaranch served on the municipal government of Barcelona, with responsibility for sports, from 1955 to 1962. He was a \"procurador\" (member of the lower house) of the Cortes Españolas during the last decade of the Franco regime, from 1964 until the restoration of democracy in 1977. From 1967 to 1971, he also served as \"national delegate\" (minister) for sports, and from 1973 to 1977 he was the president of the \"diputación\" (governing council) of the Province of Barcelona. He was appointed Spanish ambassador to the Soviet Union and Mongolia in 1977, immediately after the restoration of diplomatic relations between the countries: this post helped him to gain the support of the Soviet bloc countries in the election to the presidency of the IOC, held in Moscow in 1980. He had been the \"chef de mission\" of the Spanish team at a number of Olympic events, before he was appointed Government Secretary for Sports by Spanish Head of State Francisco Franco in 1967. He also became the president of the Spanish National Olympic Committee and a member of the IOC. He was vice-president of the IOC from 1974 to 1978.", "Samaranch became President elect in 1980 at the 83rd IOC Session (15–18 July) which was held in Moscow prior to the 1980 Summer Olympics—and took office soon after the Games. During his term, Samaranch made the Olympic Games financially healthy, with big television deals and sponsorships. Although the 1984 Summer Olympics were still boycotted by the Soviet bloc, the number of IOC participating member nations increased at every Games during Samaranch's presidency. Samaranch also wanted the best athletes to compete in the Olympics, which led to the gradual acceptance of professional athletes. One achievement of Samaranch was the financial rescue of the IOC, which was in financial crisis in the 1970s. The games themselves were such a burden on host cities that it appeared that no host would be found for future Olympiads. Under Samaranch, the IOC revamped its sponsorship arrangements (choosing to go with global sponsors rather than allowing each national federation to take local ones), and new broadcasting deals, commercialising the Olympics and making them more economically viable. He was awarded the 1990 Seoul Peace Prize. It became a tradition for Samaranch, when giving the President's address at the close of each Summer Olympics, to praise the organisers at each Olympiad for putting on \"the best ever\" Games. In 2001, Samaranch did not apply for the presidency again. He was succeeded by Jacques Rogge. He then became Honorary President for Life of the International Olympic Committee. Samaranch served the second-longest term as the head of the IOC, 21 years, the longest being that of Pierre de Coubertin (29 years). Following his retirement, Samaranch played a major role in Madrid's bid for the 2012 and 2016 Olympics, though both were unsuccessful. In 1991, he was raised into the Spanish nobility by King Juan Carlos of Spain and given the hereditary title of \"Marqués de Samaranch\" (\"Marquess of Samaranch\"), this in recognition of his contribution to the Olympic movement.", "Samaranch married María Teresa Salisachs Rowe, known as \"Bibí\" (26 December 193116 September 2000), on 1 December 1955. She died in Spain while he was attending the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. Two children were born of this marriage: his elder child and daughter, María Teresa Samaranch Salisachs (born 1956), has been president of the Spanish Federation of Sports on Ice since 2005, while his younger child and son, Juan Antonio Samaranch Salisachs (born 1959), has been a member of the International Olympic Committee since 2001.", "Samaranch died of cardio-respiratory failure in the Hospital Quirón in Barcelona on 21 April 2010, having suffered ill health for several years prior to his death. As a recipient of the Gold Medal of the Generalitat de Catalunya, Samaranch was laid in state in the Palau de la Generalitat. His funeral mass was held in the Cathedral of Santa Eulalia, on 22 April 2010 and was attended by representatives of the Spanish royal family and of the Olympic movement. He was buried at the Montjuïc Cemetery. After his death, in June 2010 the Juan Antonio Samaranch Olympic and Sport Museum and the Olympic Hall Juan Antonio Samaranch, formerly Olympic Hall Zetra, in Sarajevo were renamed in his honour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Empire of Japan (1868–1945).", "Postwar Japan (1945–present).", "1945 to 1999.", "Since 1999.", "Protocol.", "Public schools.", "Present-day perception.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"\"Kimi\"\" has been used either as a noun to indicate an emperor or one's lord (i.e., master) since at least the Heian period. For example, the protagonist of \"the Tale of Genji\" is also called. But before the Nara period, the emperor was often called \"\"opokimi\"\" (great lord); so it is controversial whether or not the word \"\"kimi\"\" in \"\"kimigayo\"\" had meant emperor originally. In the Kamakura period, \"Kimigayo\" was used as a festive song among samurai and then became popular among the people in the Edo period. In the later part of the Edo period, \"Kimigayo\" was used in the Ōoku (harem of Edo Castle) and Satsuma-han (now Kagoshima Prefecture) as a common festive new year song. In those contexts, \"\"kimi\"\" never meant the emperor but only the Tokugawa shōgun, the Shimazu clan as rulers of the Satsuma-han, guests of honor or all members of festive drinking party. After the Meiji Restoration, samurai from Satsuma-han controlled the Imperial Japanese government and they adopted \"Kimigayo\" as the national anthem of Japan. From this time until the Japanese defeat in World War II, \"Kimigayo\" was understood to mean the long reign of the emperor. With the adoption of the Constitution of Japan in 1947, the emperor became no longer a sovereign who ruled by divine right, but a human who is a symbol of the state and of the unity of the people. The Ministry of Education did not give any new meanings for \"Kimigayo\" after the war; this allowed the song to mean the Japanese people. The Ministry also did not formally renounce the pre-war meaning of \"Kimigayo\". In 1999, during the deliberations of the Act on National Flag and Anthem, the official definition of \"Kimi\" or \"Kimi-ga-yo\" was questioned repeatedly. The first suggestion, which was given by Chief Cabinet Secretary Hiromu Nonaka, stated that \"kimi\" meant the \"emperor as the symbol of Japan\", and that the entire lyrics wish for the peace and prosperity of Japan. He referred to the new status of emperor as established in Article 1 of the Constitution of Japan as the main reason for these suggestions. During the same session, Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi confirmed this meaning with a statement on June 29, 1999: \"\"Kimi\"\" indicates the Emperor, who is the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people, and whose position is derived from the consensus-based will of Japanese citizens, with whom sovereign power resides. And, the phrase \"Kimigayo\" indicates our State, Japan, which has the Emperor enthroned as the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people by the consensus-based will of Japanese citizens. And it is reasonable to take the lyric of \"Kimigayo\" to mean the wish for the lasting prosperity and peace of such country of ours. Parties opposed to the Liberal Democratic Party, which was in control of the government at the time Obuchi was prime minister, strongly objected to the government's meaning of \"kimi\" and \"Kimigayo\". From the Democratic Party of Japan, members objected, due to the lack of any historical ties to the meaning. The strongest critic was Kazuo Shii, the chairman of the Communist Party of Japan, who strongly claimed that \"Japan\" could not be derived from \"Kimigayo\", because the lyrics only mention wishing for the emperor to have a long reign. Shii also objected to the use of the song as the national anthem because for a democratic nation, a song about the emperor is not appropriate.", "", "The lyrics first appeared in the \"Kokin Wakashū\", a poetry anthology, as an anonymous poem. The poem was included in many anthologies, and was used in a later period as a celebration song of a long life by people of all social statures. Unlike the form used for the current national anthem, the poem originally began with \"\"Waga Kimi wa\"\" ('my lord') instead of \"\"Kimiga Yo wa\"\" ('my lord's reign'). The first lyrics were changed during the Kamakura period, while the rest of the lyrics stayed the same. Because the lyrics were sung on formal occasions, such as birthdays, there was no sheet music for it until the 19th century. In 1869, John William Fenton, a visiting Irish military band leader, realized there was no national anthem in Japan, and suggested to Iwao Ōyama, an officer of the Satsuma Clan, that one be created. Ōyama agreed, and selected the lyrics. The lyrics may have been chosen for their similarity to the British national anthem, due to Fenton's influence. After selecting the anthem's lyrics, Ōyama then asked Fenton to create the melody. After being given just two to three weeks to compose the melody and only a few days to rehearse, Fenton debuted the anthem before the Japanese Emperor in 1870. This was the first version of \"Kimigayo\". This was discarded because the melody \"lacked solemnity\", according to the Japanese government although others believe it is because the melody was actually \"unsingable\" for the Japanese. However, this version is still performed annually at the \"Myōkōji\" temple in Yokohama, where Fenton served as a military band leader. \"Myōkōji\" serves as a memorial to him. In 1880, the Ministry of the Imperial Household adopted a new melody composed by Yoshiisa Oku and Akimori Hayashi. The composer is often listed as Hiromori Hayashi, who was their supervisor and Akimori's father. Akimori was also one of Fenton's pupils. Although the melody is based on a traditional mode of Japanese court music, it is composed in a mixed style influenced by Western hymns, and uses some elements of the Fenton arrangement. The German musician Franz Eckert applied the melody with Western style harmony, creating the second and current version of \"Kimigayo\". The government formally adopted \"Kimigayo\" as the national anthem in 1888 and had copies of the music and lyrics sent overseas for diplomatic ceremonies. By 1893, \"Kimigayo\" was included in public school ceremonies due to the efforts of the then Ministry of Education. At the turn of the 20th century, \"Kimigayo\" was beginning to be closely associated with the idea of honoring the Emperor. It was also associated as a part of Japanese education. However, opinions expressed in an Osaka paper in 1904 calls \"Kimigayo\" a song for the imperial family and not the state as a whole. Uchimura Kanzo, a Christian leader in Japan, stated at the turn of the 20th century that \"Kimigayo\" is not the anthem of Japan by saying the song's purpose is to praise the emperor. According to Kanzo, a national anthem should express the feelings of the people, and not of the divine emperor. The Japanese were not familiar with \"Kimigayo\" as the anthem until there was a surge of celebrations after victories in the First Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Wars. Previously, papers were critical of fellow Japanese who could not sing \"Kimigayo\" properly at ceremonies overseas. During World War II, the Japanese Empire ordered that schoolchildren, both from its homeland and its colonies, were to sing the \"Kimigayo\" anthem and salute Emperor Hirohito every morning.", "", "During the American occupation of Japan, there were no directives by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers to restrict the use of \"Kimigayo\" by the Japanese government. This was different from the regulations issued that restricted the use of the \"Hinomaru\" flag. Along with the encouragement to use \"Kimigayo\" in the schools to promote defense education and patriotism, the national broadcaster NHK began to use the song to announce the start and ending of its programming.", "The \"Act on National Flag and Anthem\" was passed in 1999, choosing both the \"Hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" as Japan's national symbols. The passage of the law stemmed from a suicide of a school principal in Hiroshima who could not resolve a dispute between his school board and his teachers over the use of the \"Hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\". Prime Minister Keizō Obuchi of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) decided to draft legislation to make the \"Hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" official symbols of Japan in 2000. His Chief Cabinet Secretary, Hiromu Nonaka, wanted the legislation to be completed by the 10th anniversary of the coronation of Akihito as Emperor. This is not the first time legislation was considered for establishing both symbols as official. In 1974, with the backdrop of the 1972 return of Okinawa to Japan and the 1973 oil crisis, Prime Minister Kakuei Tanaka hinted at a law being passed legalizing both symbols. Main supporters of the bill were the LDP and the Komeito (CGP), while the opposition included the Social Democratic Party (SDPJ) and Communist Party (CPJ), who cited the connotations both symbols had with the war era. The CPJ was further opposed for not allowing the issue to be decided by the public. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party of Japan (DPJ) could not develop party consensus on it. President of the DPJ, Naoto Kan stated that the DPJ must support the bill because the party already recognized both symbols as the symbols of Japan. Deputy Secretary General and future prime minister Yukio Hatoyama thought that this bill would cause further divisions among society and the public schools. Before the vote, there were calls for the bills to be separated at the Diet. Waseda University professor Norihiro Kato stated that \"Kimigayo\" is a separate issue more complex than the \"Hinomaru\" flag. Attempts to designate only the \"Hinomaru\" as the national flag by the DPJ and other parties during the vote of the bill were rejected by the Diet. The House of Representatives passed the bill on July 22, 1999, by a 403 to 86 vote. The legislation was sent to the House of Councilors on July 28 and was passed on August 9. It was enacted into law on August 13.", "The lyrics and musical notation of the anthem are given in the second appendix of the Act on National Flag and Anthem. As for the sheet music itself, it displays a vocal arrangement with no mention of tempo and all of the lyrics in hiragana. The anthem is composed in 4/4 (common time) in the Dorian mode. The Act on National Flag and Anthem does not detail how one should show respect during performances of \"Kimigayo\". In a statement made by Prime Minister Obuchi, the legislation will not impose new regulations on the Japanese people when it comes to respecting the flag or anthem. However, local government bodies and private organizations sometimes suggest or demand certain protocols be followed. For example, an October 2003 directive by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government required teachers to stand during the national anthem at graduation ceremonies. While standing, the teachers are required to sing \"Kimigayo\" while facing the \"Hinomaru\". United States military personnel are required by regulations to render honors with a hand salute, or when in civilian dress, to place their right hand over their heart when \"Kimigayo\", \"The Star-Spangled Banner\", or any other national anthem is performed. The Act on National Flag and Anthem also does not dictate when or where \"Kimigayo\" should be played. The anthem, however, is commonly played at sporting events inside of Japan, or at international sporting events where Japan has a competing team. At \"sumō\" tournaments, \"Kimigayo\" is played before the awards ceremony.", "Since the end of World War II, the Ministry of Education has issued statements and regulations to promote the usage of both the \"Hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\" at schools under their jurisdiction. The first of these statements was released in 1950, stating that it was desirable, but not required, to use both symbols. This desire was later expanded to include both symbols on national holidays and during ceremonial events to encourage students on what national holidays are and to promote defense education. The Ministry not only took great measures to explain that both symbols are not formally established by law, they also referred to \"Kimigayo\" as a song and refused to call it the national anthem. It was not until 1977 that the Ministry referred to \"Kimigayo\" as the national anthem (, kokka) of Japan. In a 1989 reform of the education guidelines, the LDP-controlled government first demanded that the \"Hinomaru\" flag must be used in school ceremonies and that proper respect must be given to it and to \"Kimigayo\". Punishments for school officials who did not follow this order were also enacted with the 1989 reforms. The 1999 curriculum guideline issued by the Ministry of Education after the passage of the \"Law Regarding the National Flag and Anthem\" decrees that \"on entrance and graduation ceremonies, schools must raise the flag of Japan and instruct students to sing the \"Kimigayo\" (national anthem), given the significance of the flag and the song.\" Additionally, the ministry's commentary on 1999 curriculum guideline for elementary schools note that \"given the advance of internationalization, along with fostering patriotism and awareness of being Japanese, it is important to nurture school children's respectful attitude toward the flag of Japan and \"Kimigayo\" as they grow up to be respected Japanese citizens in an internationalized society.\" The ministry also stated that if Japanese students cannot respect their own symbols, then they will not be able to respect the symbols of other nations.", "According to a survey conducted by TV Asahi, most Japanese people perceived \"Kimigayo\" as an important, yet a controversial song even before the passage of the \"Act on National Flag and Anthem\" in 1999. However, a poll in the same year conducted by the Mainichi Shimbun found that most respondents opposed legislation making it the national anthem or felt the Diet should take more time in passing such a law. Many Japanese students, who must sing the song at entrance and graduation ceremonies, say they cannot understand the old and obsolete language of the lyrics and are not educated on its historical uses. Controversies surrounding the use of the anthem in school events still remain.", "Japan's national anthem is deemed the world's most controversial due to its post-war history. Schools have been the center of controversy over both it and the national flag. The Tokyo Board of Education requires the use of both \"Kimigayo\" and flag at events under their jurisdiction. The order requires school teachers to respect both symbols or risk losing their jobs. In 1999, several teachers in Hiroshima refused to put up the anthem while the Hiroshima Education Board demanded that they do so. As the tension arose between them, a vice-principal committed suicide. A similar incident in Osaka in 2010 also occurred, with 32 teachers refusing to sing the song in a ceremony. In 2011, nine more teachers joined the rebellion, along with another eight in 2012. Hashimoto Toru, the mayor of Osaka, slated the teachers as \"[i]t was good that criminals [teachers] who are intent on breaking the rules [of not singing the state anthem] have risen to the surface [public]\". Some have protested that such rules violate the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the \"freedom of thought, belief and conscience\" clause in the Constitution of Japan, but the Board has argued that since schools are government agencies, their employees have an obligation to teach their students how to be good Japanese citizens. Teachers have unsuccessfully brought criminal complaints against Tokyo Governor Shintarō Ishihara and senior officials for ordering teachers to honor the \"Hinomaru\" and \"Kimigayo\". After earlier opposition, the Japan Teachers Union accepts the use of both the flag and national anthem; the smaller All Japan Teachers and Staffs Union still opposes both symbols and their use inside the school system. In 2006, Katsuhisa Fujita, a retired teacher in Tokyo, was threatened with imprisonment and fined 200,000 yen (roughly 2,000 US dollars) after he was accused of disturbing a graduation ceremony at Itabashi High School by urging the attendees to remain seated during the playing of the national anthem. At the time of Fujita's sentence, 345 teachers had been punished for refusing to take part in anthem related events, though Fujita is the only man to have been convicted in relation to it. On September 21, 2006, the Tokyo District Court ordered the Tokyo Metropolitan Government to pay compensation to the teachers who had been subjected to punishment under the directive of the Tokyo Board of Education. The then Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi commented, \"It is a natural idea to treat the national anthem importantly\". The ruling was appealed by the Metropolitan Government. From October 23, 2003 to 2008, 410 teachers and school workers were punished for refusing to stand and sing the anthem as ordered by school principals. Teachers can also be punished if their students do not stand while \"Kimigayo\" is played during school ceremonies. On 30 May 2011 and 6 June 2011, two panels of the Supreme Court of Japan ruled that it was constitutional to require teachers to stand in front of the Hinomaru and sing the Kimigayo during school ceremonies. In making the ruling, the panels ratified the decision of the Tokyo High Court in ruling against 13 teachers who had asked for court relief after being disciplined between 2003 and 2005 for refusing to stand and sing the anthem. Outside of the school system, there was a controversy regarding \"Kimigayo\" soon after the passage of the 1999 law. A month after the law's passage, a record containing a performance of \"Kimigayo\" by Japanese rock musician Kiyoshiro Imawano was removed by Polydor Records from his album \"Fuyu no Jujika\". Polydor did not want to attract harassment from far-right groups. In response, Imawano re-released the album through an independent label with the track in question." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Europe.", "North America." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In some European countries, cooked and often smoked wiener sausages bought fresh from supermarkets, delicatessens and butcher shops may be called by a name (such as in German or French) which translates in English as \"Vienna sausage.\" Traditionally, they are made from spiced ham. Wieners sold as Vienna sausage in Europe have a taste and texture very much like North American \"hot dogs\" or \"frankfurters\", but are usually longer and somewhat thinner, with a very light, edible casing. European Vienna sausage served hot in a long bun with condiments is often called a \"hot dog\", referring not to the wiener itself, but to the long sandwich as a whole.", "After having been brought to North America by European immigrants, \"Vienna sausage\" came to mean only smaller and much shorter smoked and canned wieners, rather than link sausage, beginning about 1903. However, they have no federal standard of identity. North American vienna sausages are made similarly to pork wieners, finely ground to a paste consistency and mixed with salt and various spices, such as cloves, coriander, nutmeg, garlic powder, onion powder and finely ground, dry red pepper. The sausages are stuffed into a long casing, sometimes smoked, always thoroughly cooked and beginning in the 1950s, the casings were removed. The sausages are then cut into short segments for canning and further cooking. They are available plain (in a gelatin, similar to aspic) or with a variety of flavorings, such as smoke, mustard, chili or barbecue sauces. Consumption of Vienna sausages peaked in the 1940s to 1970s, but has declined since then." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Early years (1991-1996).", "Breakthrough and stardom (1997-1999).", "Late career (2000-2003).", "Comebacks and post-retirement activities.", "ATP Champions Tour." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Rafter turned professional in 1991. During the course of his career, he twice won the men's singles title at the US Open and was twice the runner-up at Wimbledon. He was known for his serve-and-volley style of play.", "Rafter won his first tour-level match in 1993, at Wimbledon. He reached the third round, before losing to Andre Agassi. He also reached the semifinals in Indianapolis. He defeated Pete Sampras in the quarterfinals in three tight sets, before losing to Boris Becker in the semifinals. Rafter finished 1993 with a ranking of 66. Rafter won his first career singles title in 1994 in Manchester. Prior to 1997, this was the only ATP singles title he had won.", "Rafter's breakthrough came in 1997. At that year's French Open, he reached the semifinals, falling in four sets to two time former champion Sergi Bruguera. Then, he surprised many by winning the US Open, defeating Andriy Medvedev, Magnus Norman, Lionel Roux, Andre Agassi, Magnus Larsson, and Michael Chang before beating Greg Rusedski in a four-set final; he was the first non-American to win the title since Stefan Edberg in 1992. This was his first Grand Slam title, and catapulted him ahead of Chang to finish the year ranked #2 in the world (behind only Pete Sampras). The unexpected nature of his US Open title led many, including Hall-of-famer and four-time US Open champion John McEnroe to criticise Rafter as a \"one-slam wonder\". Rafter had a particularly strong year in 1998, winning the Canadian Open and the Cincinnati Masters (Andre Agassi (1995), Andy Roddick (2003), and Rafael Nadal (2013) are the only other players to have won both of these tournaments in the same year). Rafter defeated ninth-ranked Richard Krajicek in the Toronto final and second-ranked Pete Sampras in the Cincinnati final. When asked about the difference between himself and Rafter following their titles, Sampras responded, \"10 grand slams\". He added that a tennis player must come back and win a Grand Slam again in order to be considered great. Entering the U.S. Open as the defending champion, Rafter reached the final by defeating Hicham Arazi, Hernán Gumy, David Nainkin, Goran Ivanišević and Jonas Björkman before besting Sampras in a five-set semifinal. Rafter then defended his US Open title by defeating fellow Australian Mark Philippoussis in four sets, committing only five unforced errors throughout the match. Altogether, Rafter won six tournaments in 1998, finishing the year No. 4 in the world. Rafter won the Australian Open men's doubles title in 1999 (partnering Jonas Björkman), making him one of few players in the modern era to win both a singles and doubles Grand Slam title during their career (fellow countryman Lleyton Hewitt would later achieve this feat in 2001). He and Björkman also won a doubles titles at the ATP Masters Series event in Canada (1999) At the 1999 French Open, Rafter drew future world No. 1 and 20-time Grand Slam champion Roger Federer in the first round, making him the first-ever opponent of Federer in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament. Rafter defeated him in four sets. Rafter then reached the Wimbledon semifinals for the first time in 1999, losing in straight sets to Agassi. This was the first of three consecutive years that the two met in the Wimbledon semifinals. July 1999 saw Rafter holding the world No. 1 men's singles ranking for one week, making him the shortest-reigning world No. 1 in ATP Tour history. As the two-time defending US Open champion, Rafter lost in the first round of the tournament, retiring in the fifth set against Cédric Pioline after succumbing to shoulder tendinitis. Rafter's shoulder injury wound up being serious enough to necessitate surgery. Due to injury, Rafter was unable to play in the 1999 Davis Cup final won by Australia; however, he won important matches in the earlier rounds to help the team qualify.", "Rafter's ranking had fallen to No. 21 by the time he reached the Wimbledon final in July 2000. In the semifinals, he defeated Agassi 7–5, 4–6, 7–5, 4–6, 6–3. The match was hailed as a classic, particularly because of their contrasting playing styles, with Agassi playing primarily from the baseline and Rafter attacking the net. Rafter faced Sampras in the final, who was gunning for a record-breaking seventh Wimbledon title overall (and seven in the past eight years). While Rafter made a strong start to the match and took the first set, after the match he would claim that he had \"choked\" part way through the second set, and was then not able to get back into his game. Sampras won in four sets. Rafter played on the Australian Davis Cup Team that lost in the final in 2000 (to Spain) and 2001 (to France). Rafter played on the Australian teams that won the World Team Cup in 1999 and 2001. In 2001, Rafter reached the semifinals of the Australian Open. Despite holding a two sets to one lead and having the support of the home crowd, Rafter lost the match to Agassi in five sets. Later in the year, Rafter again reached the Wimbledon final. For the third straight year, he faced Agassi in the semifinals and won in yet another five-setter, 2–6, 6–3, 3–6, 6–2, 8–6. Much like the previous year's semifinal, this match also received praise for the quality of play that the two men displayed. In the final, he squared off against Goran Ivanišević, who had reached the Wimbledon final three times before but had slid down the rankings to World No. 125 following injury problems. In a five-set struggle that lasted just over three hours, Ivanišević prevailed. He played his last match at the Davis Cup final, winning the singles rubber but losing the doubles rubber. Rafter did not play any tour matches in 2002. He spent the year recovering from injuries. In January 2003, he announced his retirement from professional tennis, stating that he had lost all motivation to compete at the top level.", "The 5,500-seat centre court of the Queensland Tennis Centre in Brisbane, Australia, was named \"Pat Rafter Arena\" in Rafter's honour. In 2002, he won the Australian of the Year award. This created some controversy, as he had spent much of his career residing in Bermuda for tax purposes. Rafter did return at the beginning of the 2004 season to play doubles at two tournaments only; the 2004 Australian Open and the 2004 AAPT Championships (in Adelaide). However, he lost in round one of both events, playing alongside Joshua Eagle. He was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame and inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2006. On Australia Day 2008, Rafter was inducted into the Australian Tennis Hall of Fame. In 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, Rafter was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for his role as a \"sports legend\". In October 2010, Rafter was announced as Australia's Davis Cup captain. Rafter stood down as Australia's Davis Cup captain on 29 January 2015. He was succeeded by Wally Masur. On January 12, 2014, Rafter--then aged 41--announced that he would be partnering current Australian number one Lleyton Hewitt in the doubles draw of the 2014 Australian Open. The comeback, however, was short-lived, as the pair went down in straight sets to eventual runner-ups Eric Butorac and Raven Klaasen in the first round.", "At the 2009 AEGON Masters Tennis, Rafter lost his opening round robin match against the 1987 Wimbledon Champion Pat Cash 2–6, 6–2, 10–6. In a much anticipated match and replay of the 2001 Wimbledon final, Rafter faced Goran Ivanišević. Rafter won the match when Ivanisevic retired while serving for the opening set, 3–5. Despite his performance, the retirement was enough to push Rafter into the final against Stefan Edberg. In what is described as a spell-binding serve-and-volley showdown, Rafter won the match 6–7, 6–4, 11–9. This represented the first time that Rafter was able to defeat Edberg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early career.", "1990–1994: Clay dominance.", "1995.", "1996: Ankle injury.", "1997: Comeback.", "Later career.", "Outside tennis career.", "Singles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bruguera won a total of 14 top-level singles titles and 3 doubles titles. His career-high singles ranking was World No. 3. He is currently the director of the Bruguera Tennis Academy Top Team.", "Bruguera was Spain's national junior champion in 1987. He turned professional in 1988. In his first full year on the tour, 1989, he won the Cairo Challenger title as a qualifier, defeating Jordi Arrese in the final, and reached the semifinals in Rome. He reached 4th round in the French Open in 1989 and finished the year ranked world No. 26, and was named the ATP's newcomer of the year.", "Bruguera earned a reputation as a top clay court player in the early 1990s, reaching singles finals at Gstaad and Geneva, and capturing doubles titles in Hamburg (his 1st ATP Masters 1000 title in doubles) partnering Jim Courier (whom, ironically, would play against Bruguera later in 1993 French Open the men's singles final) in Florence, partnering Horacio de la Peña in 1990; reaching singles finals at Barcelona and Gstaad along with titles in Estoril, Monte Carlo (his 1st ATP Masters 1000 title in singles), and Athens, and a doubles title at Geneva, partnering Marc Rosset in 1991; reaching singles finals at Estoril, Bordeaux, and Athens along with titles in Madrid, Gstaad and Palermo in 1992. Bruguera rose to even further prominence in 1993. During the French Open, Bruguera reached quarterfinals without dropping a set, including a rare triple bagel (6–0, 6–0, 6–0) at the second round against Thierry Champion, this remains the last time a player recorded a triple bagel in a singles match at a grand Slam event. He then defeated Pete Sampras in 4 sets and Andrei Medvedev in straight sets in the semifinals, Bruguera reached his first Grand Slam final at the French Open, where he faced two-time defending champion and then World No. 2 Jim Courier. Courier was overwhelmingly favoured to win his third title, but ultimately Bruguera won a gruelling five-set final that lasted 4 hours, becoming the first Spaniard to win French Open since Andrés Gimeno in 1972. It was also the last time a man won a Grand Slam singles title with wins over both of the top two seeds until Stanislas Wawrinka won the Australian Open in 2014. He continued his top clay court player reputation by reaching finals at Milan (his first final on Carpet), Barcelona, Madrid, and Palermo, while capturing an additional 4 titles at Monte Carlo (his 2nd ATP Masters 1000 title in singles), Gstaad, Prague, and Bordeaux (his 1st hard court title) besides Roland Garros. He finished the year ranked World No. 4. In 1994 Bruguera maintained his dominance on clay and successfully defended his title at the French Open while only dropping 2 sets in the entire tournament, defeating, once again, Medvedev in straight sets in the quarterfinals and Courier in 4 sets in the semifinals, along with fellow Spaniard Alberto Berasategui in 4 sets in the final. He reached finals at Dubai (his 2nd hard court final), Monte Carlo (his 3rd ATP Masters 1000 final in singles), and Madrid, and captured titles at Gstaad and Prague besides Roland Garros. In August he reached his career-high ranking of World No. 3 and finished the year ranked World No. 4. He was the first Spaniard to finish 2 consecutive years in Top 5. It is also his 4th consecutive year winning at least 3 clay titles in singles. Between 1990–1994 he reached 25 top-level clay tournament finals in singles and 3 top-level clay tournament finals in doubles, out of which he captured 13 clay titles in singles and 3 clay titles in doubles.", "With Thomas Muster \"officially\" starting his reign as the new King of Clay, Bruguera was not able to keep up his dominance on clay like he did the previous years, but was still able to play at a decent level. Coming into 1995 French Open as the two-time defending champion, he only dropped one set en route to semifinals, where he was defeated by 1989 French Open champion Michael Chang in tight straight sets (4–6, 6–7, 6–7), ending his 19-match win streak at Roland Garros. He only reached 1 top-level final, which is his 4th Masters 1000 final, his first in Rome (on clay), where he was defeated in 4 sets by Muster. In December, he tore 2 ligaments on his right ankle while training, which put him in an even worse condition and prevented him to make any significant impact during 1996 season.", "He returned to competitive playing in February, having not yet fully recovered from the injury. In 1996 French Open Bruguera was taken out by Sampras in an epic 5-set match in the second round. The highlight of the year was when Bruguera won the men's singles silver medal at the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta. He was defeated in straight sets in the final by Andre Agassi. It was also the only top-level final he reached this year. His Year-End Ranking slipped from previous year's No. 13 to No. 81 much thanks to his injuries.", "Opening 1997 Bruguera was the first ever opponent of Lleyton Hewitt in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament, at the Australian Open. Bruguera defeated him in straight sets. This year Bruguera returned strongly from injury previous season and reached finals at Milan, Key Biscaine (his 5th Masters final and his 1st on hard), and Umag. Bruguera also played an excellent tournament at the French Open reaching the final for the third time, en route to the final he defeated former champion and 2nd Seed Michael Chang in the fourth round, then rising star and future World No. 1 Patrick Rafter in the semifinals. But an almost unknown Brazilian player ranked No. 66 named Gustavo Kuerten, who defeated two former champions and notable players en route to the final, defeated Bruguera in straight sets without much effort, although Bruguera was heavily favoured to win his 3rd title at Roland Garros. Bruguera earned the ATP's Comeback Player of Year award in 1997 after returning from an ankle injury the previous year and improving his Year-End Ranking from World No. 81 to World No. 8.", "After 1997, due to injuries, Bruguera was far from his best game. He lost concentration and started to increase his errors during his matches, losing one of his great virtues, his solid style. From 1998 until his retirement only is remarkable the final (1999) and the winning (2000) in the Challenger Open Castilla y León (considered best challenger tournament of the world by this date) and the final in San Marino in 2000.", "Bruguera is a long-time fan of the Los Angeles Lakers and would often attend their games while playing at tournaments in the United States. During Miami Masters on 28 March 1997, right after the semifinals where he defeated World No. 1 Sampras, Bruguera sank three shots (layup, free throw, top of key) during a time-out of a game between the Lakers and the Miami Heat to earn US$500. This money was given to ATP Charities in his name. Bruguera has also played semi-professional Football in his native Spain. In a 2006 interview featuring questions from fans by the BBC Sport website, a question was asked about the frequent comparisons between Roger Federer and Sampras. In his reply, Bruguera claimed that Federer is ten times better than Sampras.", "1. Bruguera withdrew due to a lower back injury at Round Robin Stage after playing the first 2 matches, and was replaced by then World No. 10 Tim Henman." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1978–1981).", "Classic line-up (1981–1986).", "Line-up changes, \"Calm Before the Storm\" release and departure of Conrad Lant (1987–1988).", "Return to scene at the behest of Abaddon: The \"Demolition Man\" Dolan age (1988–1992).", "Reunion of classic line-up (1995–1999).", "Recent work (1999–present).", "Reunion of the Venom '89/'90 line-up under the name \"Venom Inc.\".", "Musical style and influences.", "Legacy and influence.", "Criticism.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Venom's original personnel came from three different bands: Guillotine, Oberon and Dwarfstar. The original Guillotine featured Jeffrey Dunn and Dave Rutherford on guitars, Dean Hewitt on bass guitar, Dave Blackman on vocals, and Chris Mercater on drums who replaced Paul Burke, the original drummer when the band was founded. Blackman and Mercater were later also replaced by drummer Anthony Bray and vocalist Clive Archer. Later, Dean Hewitt was replaced by Alan Winston on bass. Around that time a number of personnel changes occurred. Clive Archer, Eric Cook, Tony Bray and Ian Kell formed a band while working at Reyrolles. Ian Kell was replaced in mid-1978. In late 1979, Conrad Lant replaced Dave Rutherford. Lant later switched to bass after the departure of Winston. The band members took on new stage names. Archer became \"Jesus Christ\", Lant \"Cronos\", Tony Bray \"Abbadon\", and Jeff Dunn \"Mantas\". Prime influences of the formative band were Black Sabbath, Judas Priest, Motörhead, and Kiss. Other musicians that have influenced Venom are Deep Purple, Sex Pistols, the Who, the Tubes, Van Halen, the Rolling Stones, and Elvis Presley. Since the beginning of their career, Venom have often used \"Satanic\" lyrics and imagery. However, such references were mostly for shock value. In late 1979 Lant introduced the band to his original song ideas as he didn't want to keep playing the same cover songs, and with Dunn he began writing new songs for the band. Lant had yet composed songs like \"Sons of Satan\", \"Bloodlust\" and \"Welcome To Hell\", while Dunn had yet composed songs like \"Angel Dust\", \"Red Light Fever\", \"Buried Alive\", \"Raise The Dead\" and \"Live Like An Angel, Die Like a Devil\". Dunn and Lant redefined together these songs with a mutual collaboration and then, after a few weeks Lant recorded a rehearsal session on a basic cassette recorder which he played for the label he worked for, although as the band rehearsed in an old church hall the sound was not good. In April 1980, Lant was able to persuade the label to give him some free studio time and the band recorded a three-song demo. Soon after, six more tracks were recorded for just £50, with Lant taking vocal duties on the song \"Live Like an Angel\". Archer then left the band, and Venom's line-up became a trio.", "Venom's professional recording debut was the 1981 single \"In League with Satan\"/\"Live Like an Angel\", which was released by Neat Records. Later that year they released their full-length debut, \"Welcome to Hell\". \"Welcome to Hell\" was a big influence on future thrash bands. Venom's music was faster and harsher than most heavy metal contemporaries and while Satanism and other dark topics had been featured in metal before, the subject had rarely been more prominent. Lant was quoted as saying that this celebration of evil subjects was inspired by the perceived need to out-do musicians like Ozzy Osbourne of Black Sabbath, who would \"sing about evil things and dark figures, and then spoil it all by going: 'Oh, no, no, please, God, help me!'\" Their second album, 1982's \"Black Metal\", is cited as perhaps the most important influence in the development of black metal, thrash metal, death metal, and other related styles that are often grouped under the extreme metal umbrella. Many defining elements of these genres are first found in the lyrics and song titles created by Lant, his unique singing style and larger than life presence. Venom's first two albums inspired cult followings to this day. While many of their NWOBHM peers (like Iron Maiden) had found measures of popular success or critical acclaim, or (like Def Leppard) were moving away from heavy metal towards hard rock, Venom were still regarded by critics as \"a trio of buffoons\". In 1984, Venom recorded the \"At War with Satan\" album, an epic 20-minute title track, with substantial influences of many different musical styles, which took up the first side of the LP. The title track written by Lant, was a deliberate way for him to shove a middle finger up to the critics who said Venom couldn't play. The B-side was focused on the rapid-fire, three-minute \"scorchers\" Venom were known for, including \"Stand Up And Be Counted\". A live video, \"The 7th Date of Hell Venom Live at Hammersmith Odeon\", was also released that year. In 1985, Venom released their fourth studio album, \"Possessed\", which was recorded in a stately home, and saw a band enjoying their success with different chefs being flown in every day during the album's recording, lavish parties of sex, drugs and rock n' roll. By this time Venom had released several singles (\"Warhead\", \"Die Hard\" and \"Manitou\" to name a few) and live EPs (\"The Assault Series\" including \"Canadian Assault\", \"American Assault\" and \"French Assault\"). Cronos and Abaddon appeared on the \"Combat Tour Live: The Ultimate Revenge\" video with Slayer and Exodus. Cronos cites the \"Possessed\" album as underestimated. \"I don't think there's any songs that are kind of overlooked, I just think some songs maybe weren't recorded as well as we could have recorded them. Like say for example on the \"Possessed\" album, I still think there are great songs\". During March/April of '86, Venom the band seems ready to record the fifth album (then never released), called \"Deadline\", but internal relationships begin to deteriorate. A live album, \"Eine Kleine Nachtmusik\", and a second live video, \"Alive in '85\", were released in 1986. Dunn then left the band to release a solo album.", "Two guitarists, Mike Hickey and Jim Clare, were hired to replace Dunn. Their fifth album, 1987's \"Calm Before the Storm\", moved away from Satanic themes in favour of \"sword and sorcery\" material. This was a new direction for Venom, although it didn't last long with only a short Japanese and Brazilian tour in 1986, so the band decided to split, and Lant, Clare and Hickey all left to form Lant's solo band Cronos.", "Bray was left as the only group member, but he was able to convince Music for Nations for a deal to release a new Venom album on the Under One Flag label, using \"Deadline\" demo tracks which were recorded with previous line-ups but never released. In 1988, Bray offered a vocals/bass role to Tony Dolan (The Demolition Man) from Atomkraft. Bray and Dolan wrote new material prior to Dunn's rejoining the band along with rhythm guitarist Al Barnes. Together they recorded \"Prime Evil\" (1989), \"Tear Your Soul Apart\" (1990) and \"Temples of Ice\" (1991). Barnes then left the band, and Steve White from Atomkraft was hired as his replacement. They released \"The Waste Lands\" in 1992, also without success. Music for Nations refused to release any more Venom albums, so Dolan and Dunn quit, effectively disbanding Venom. Bray continued to release compilation and live albums up to 1995. Nonetheless, Dolan, Dunn and Bray continued performing as a trio.", "In 1995, Lant, Dunn and Bray reunited the \"classic\" line-up, beginning by headlining the Waldrock Festival on 24 June 1995. They recorded and self-released the \"Venom '96\" EP with four re-recorded old tracks and one new song, resulting in a record deal with the SPV label. Following this was a live CD/video box set, \"The Second Coming\", composed entirely of songs from their classic era such as \"Welcome to Hell\", \"Countess Bathory\", \"In Nomine Satanas\" and \"Black Metal\". An album, \"Cast in Stone\", was next released in 1997, split between two discs which was one of all new material and the other with re-recordings of popular early-'80s songs.", "By time 1999 arrived, it was time to supply SPV with the second album in their deal and internal conflicts between members of the band did not take long. Eric Cook (manager of Venom) and Abaddon met each other and decided not to work with Cronos again. Abaddon wrote a letter to Cronos, with the intent of firing him out of the band. The letter written by the drummer communicates that the role of Cronos in the band and his service is no longer necessary and that he would carry on the band with Jeff \"Mantas\" Dunn and other people. So Cronos called the German record company SPV/Steamhammer to communicate the situation of the band. and wish everyone good luck for whatever they decide to do. At that point the record company furiously refused point blank to have a line-up of Venom who had no Cronos in the band. After that, Cronos answered Abaddon telling him: \"You can't kick the Devil out of hell, I’m firing you!\". Despite this, the band tried to invite Abaddon to play with them again but Bray did not want to perform on the album and he was replaced by a nu-metal drummer called \"Anton\" whom, among other things, was the younger Lant brother. This line-up released \"Resurrection\" in 2000 on SPV. However, in 2002 Dunn was next to leave the group and Lant replaced him with a US guitarist, Mike Hickey, who had already taken part in the 1987 release, \"Calm Before the Storm,\" and Cronos solo albums. In late 2005, Venom released a career-spanning four-disc box set, \"MMV\", which includes an exclusive mini-poster of the band's seven-date tour of Europe with Metallica and a 60-page picture book, with interviews and pictures. The set includes all their best-known songs, along with rarities like live tracks, demos and outtakes. This line-up of the band released the \"Metal Black\" album in 2006. In 2007 Mike Hickey left the band and guitarist Stuart \"Rage\" Dixon joined the band and this line-up released the record \"Hell\" the following year. In 2009 drummer Danny \"Dante\" Needham joined the band and Lant wrote that this will be known as \"The Epic Line-Up of Venom\", and they set off on a full South American tour. After headlining festivals around the world for the next couple of years gaining in popularity, they released the \"Fallen Angels\" album on 28 November 2011. Venom released their fourteenth studio album, \"From the Very Depths\", on 27 January 2015. The band also played one song, \"Rise\", they were working on in the studio, live for the audience at Rockfest 2014. A three-track EP, \"100 Miles to Hell\", was released on 22 December 2017. Their fifteenth album, \"Storm the Gates\", was released on 14 December 2018.", "In April 2015, in anticipation of a date of the M-pire of Evil (Mantas and Demolition Man band) at the Keep It True Festival in Germany, the organizers of the festival, asked Mantas and Demolition Man if they could play the songs of Venom with Abaddon. Mantas had not talked to Abaddon since 1998. So after thinking a bit, the two ex-Venom played along with Abaddon without having done any rehearsals for the show. At this point the three brought together the Venom line-up of 1988–1992 under the name of Venom Inc. for the sake of the fans (instead of the name \"Iron & Steel\", that was initially conceived by the members themselves). On 3 February 2017, Venom Inc. signed with Nuclear Blast and released their first album, \"Avé\", on 11 August 2017. The two singles off the album were \"Dein Fleisch\" and \"Ave Satanas\". After playing on the Blood Stained Earth Tour 2017, the band continued to play until the beginning of March 2018, when at the end of the Australian tour, Abaddon asked for a break from the band's activity (due to the birth of his daughter, Anja) and agreed that he would be temporarily replaced by the band's front of house engineer Jeramie Kling for a period of one or two months (until April 2018) to complete the European tour before he came back. However, following some internal disagreements, Abaddon was fired and replaced by Kling. Meanwhile, Kling (from The Absence) took his place on the band's European tour and on recordings for the next record.", "As Venom were one of the first incarnations of extreme metal, influencing many thrash metal, black metal, death metal, and other extreme metal bands, their exact genre has been a topic of debate. Venom have been labelled various genres by members of the press. Most prominent genres are black metal, thrash metal, and speed metal. Cronos insists on calling it black metal, without passing judgment on the genre that later would flourish in Norway:", "\"Welcome to Hell\" influenced several later bands. Venom's music helped shape the development of many thrash metal bands, specifically the \"Big Four of Thrash\" (who in turn were highly influential): Metallica, Slayer, Anthrax, and Megadeth (Metallica opened for Venom on an early 1980s tour, and Venom opened for Metallica and Slayer on the \"Ride the Lightning\" tour, and Slayer played with them and Exodus on the \"Combat Tour\" in 1985). Venom would also be of extreme importance to the black metal scene and even the early death metal scene, with numerous bands copying styles, themes, and imagery from the band, such as the Swiss band Hellhammer (later to become Celtic Frost), whom also helped pioneer the genres. Music critic Bradley Torreano wrote that Venom \"caught the attention of both metalheads and punks, the band was emulated by the former and turned into camp icons by the latter.\" Henry Rollins once compared the band to Spinal Tap. Although they did not make it to MTV's top 10 heavy metal bands list, they were given an \"honorable mention\". Reflecting on Venom's 40th anniversary, Cronos said that without Venom, well known bands such as Metallica or Slayer wouldn't exist. He explained, \"We were the band that was influenced by Motörhead and the Sex Pistols, but we took their sound and made something completely new out of it. We were completely new; no one had heard anything like us. And of course, unbeknown to us, in America there were these kids who were listening to our records and then shaping what we were doing into their own thing. Slayer would be an example of that. And I agree, without us those bands either wouldn’t exist, or would sound very different from the way they do.\" He also cited the line-up consisting of himself, along with guitarist Stuart \"Rage\" Dixon and drummer Danny \"Danté\" Needham as \"the best one we've ever had.\"", "While many fans and musicians see Venom as an important band, their music has nonetheless been the subject of debate. The biggest criticism is Satanism, which is the main driving force behind the band's music and album covers. Cronos explained in 2008 that the reasoning behind it is for entertainment purposes. Critic Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic writes that though \"Welcome to Hell\" influenced \"literally thousands\" of bands, Venom were \"critically reviled\". Critic James Christopher Monger, however, declares that the members of Venom 'grew as musicians' as their careers progressed. Ethnographer Keith Kahn-Harris argues that Venom's limited technical skill, particularly early in their career, was a profound, though inadvertent factor in Venom's influence: being unable to mimic more technically proficient metal of their predecessors or peers, Venom instead opted to focus on sheer speed, creating music that was inspired by earlier metal, yet simultaneously innovative.", "Studio albums EPs Live albums UK singles Compilation albums Box sets" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Prelude.", "Action.", "Retreat.", "Aftermath and significance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S.) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The objective was to deny the islands to the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and secure starting points for a campaign to isolate the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The Guadalcanal campaign would last six months. Taking the Japanese by surprise, by nightfall on 8 August, the Allied forces, mainly consisting of U.S. Marines, had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands, as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal (later completed and named Henderson Field). Allied aircraft operating out of Henderson became known as the \"Cactus Air Force\" (CAF) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal. In response, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army—a corps-sized formation headquartered at Rabaul under Lieutenant-General Harukichi Hyakutake—with the task of retaking Guadalcanal. On 19 August, various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on the island. Due to the threat posed by Allied aircraft, the Japanese were unable to use large, slow transport ships to deliver their troops and supplies to the island, and warships were used instead. These ships—mainly light cruisers and destroyers—were usually able to make the round trip down \"the Slot\" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to air attacks. Delivering troops in this manner, however, prevented most of the heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, from being delivered. In addition, they expended destroyers, which were desperately needed for commerce defense. These high-speed runs occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the \"Tokyo Express\" by the Allies and \"Rat Transportation\" by the Japanese. Due to the heavier concentration of Japanese surface combat vessels and their well-positioned logistical base at Simpson Harbor, Rabaul, and their victory at the Battle of Savo Island in early August, the Japanese had established operational control over the waters around Guadalcanal at night. However, any Japanese ship remaining within range—about —of American aircraft at Henderson Field, during the daylight hours, was in danger of damaging air attacks. This persisted for the months of August and September, 1942. The presence of Admiral Scott's task force at Cape Esperance represented the U.S. Navy's first major attempt to wrest night time operational control of waters around Guadalcanal away from the Japanese. The first attempt by the Japanese Army to recapture Henderson Field was on 21 August, in the Battle of the Tenaru, and the next, the Battle of Edson's Ridge, from 12–14 September; both failed. The Japanese set their next major attempt to recapture Henderson Field for 20 October and moved most of the 2nd and 38th infantry divisions, totalling 17,500 troops, from the Dutch East Indies to Rabaul in preparation for delivering them to Guadalcanal. From 14 September to 9 October, numerous Tokyo Express runs delivered troops from the Japanese 2nd Infantry Division as well as Hyakutake to Guadalcanal. In addition to cruisers and destroyers, some of these runs included the seaplane carrier, which delivered heavy equipment to the island including vehicles and heavy artillery other warships could not carry because of space limitations. The Japanese Navy promised to support the Army's planned offensive by delivering the necessary troops, equipment, and supplies to the island, and by stepping up air attacks on Henderson Field and sending warships to bombard the airfield. In the meantime, Major General Millard F. Harmon—commander of United States Army forces in the South Pacific—convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley—overall commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific—that the marines on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive. Thus, on 8 October, the 2,837 men of the 164th Infantry Regiment from the U.S. Army's Americal Division boarded ships at New Caledonia for the trip to Guadalcanal with a projected arrival date of 13 October. To protect the transports carrying the 164th to Guadalcanal, Ghormley ordered Task Force 64 (TF 64), consisting of four cruisers (,,, and ) and five destroyers (,,,, and ) under U.S. Rear Admiral Norman Scott, to intercept and combat any Japanese ships approaching Guadalcanal and threatening the convoy. Scott conducted one night battle practice with his ships on 8 October, then took station south of Guadalcanal near Rennell Island on 9 October, to await word of any Japanese naval movement toward the southern Solomons. Continuing with preparations for the October offensive, Japanese Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa's Eighth Fleet staff, headquartered at Rabaul, scheduled a large and important Tokyo Express supply run for the night of 11 October. \"Nisshin\" would be joined by the seaplane carrier to deliver 728 soldiers, four large howitzers, two field guns, one anti-aircraft gun, and a large assortment of ammunition and other equipment from the Japanese naval bases in the Shortland Islands and at Buin, Bougainville, to Guadalcanal. Six destroyers, five of them carrying troops, would accompany \"Nisshin\" and \"Chitose\". The supply convoy—called the \"Reinforcement Group\" by the Japanese—was under the command of Rear Admiral Takatsugu Jojima. At the same time but in a separate operation, the three heavy cruisers of Cruiser Division 6 (CruDiv6)—,, and, under the command of Rear Admiral Aritomo Gotō—were to bombard Henderson Field with special explosive shells with the object of destroying the CAF and the airfield's facilities. Two screening destroyers— and —accompanied CruDiv6. Since U.S. Navy warships had yet to attempt to interdict any Tokyo Express missions to Guadalcanal, the Japanese were not expecting any opposition from U.S. naval surface forces that night.", "", "At 08:00, on 11 October, Jojima's reinforcement group departed the Shortland Islands anchorage to begin their run down the Slot to Guadalcanal. The six destroyers that accompanied \"Nisshin\" and \"Chitose\" were,,,,, and. Gotō departed the Shortland Islands for Guadalcanal at 14:00 the same day. To protect the reinforcement group's approach to Guadalcanal from the CAF, the Japanese 11th Air Fleet, based at Rabaul, Kavieng, and Buin, planned two air strikes on Henderson Field for 11 October. A \"fighter sweep\" of 17 Mitsubishi A6M3 Zero fighters swept over Henderson Field just after mid-day but failed to engage any U.S. aircraft. Forty-five minutes later, the second wave—45 Mitsubishi G4M2 \"Betty\" bombers and 30 Zeros—arrived over Henderson Field. In an ensuing air battle with the CAF, one G4M and two U.S. fighters were downed. Although the Japanese attacks failed to inflict significant damage, they did prevent CAF bombers from finding and attacking the reinforcement group. As the reinforcement group transited the Slot, relays of 11th Air Fleet Zeros from Buin provided escort. Emphasizing the importance of this convoy for Japanese plans, the last flight of the day was ordered to remain on station over the convoy until darkness, then ditch their aircraft and await pickup by the reinforcement group's destroyers. All six Zeros ditched; only one pilot was recovered. Allied reconnaissance aircraft sighted Jojima's supply convoy from Guadalcanal between Kolombangara and Choiseul in the Slot at 14:45 on the same day, and reported it as two \"cruisers\" and six destroyers. Gotō's force—following the convoy—was not sighted. In response to the sighting of Jojima's force, at 16:07 Scott turned toward Guadalcanal for an interception. Scott crafted a simple battle plan for the expected engagement. His ships would steam in column with his destroyers at the front and rear of his cruiser column, searching across a 300 degree arc with SG surface radar in an effort to gain positional advantage on the approaching enemy force. The destroyers were to illuminate any targets with searchlights and discharge torpedoes while the cruisers were to open fire at any available targets without awaiting orders. The cruiser's float aircraft, launched in advance, were to find and illuminate the Japanese warships with flares. Although \"Helena\" and \"Boise\" carried the new, greatly improved SG radar, Scott chose \"San Francisco\" as his flagship. At 22:00, as Scott's ships neared Cape Hunter at the northwest end of Guadalcanal, three of Scott's cruisers launched floatplanes. One crashed on takeoff, but the other two patrolled over Savo Island, Guadalcanal, and Ironbottom Sound. As the floatplanes were launched, Jojima's force was just passing around the mountainous northwestern shoulder of Guadalcanal, and neither force sighted each other. At 22:20, Jojima radioed Gotō and told him no U.S. ships were in the vicinity. Although Jojima's force later heard Scott's floatplanes overhead while unloading along the north shore of Guadalcanal, they failed to report this to Gotō. At 22:33, just after passing Cape Esperance, Scott's ships assumed battle formation. The column was led by \"Farenholt\", \"Duncan\", and \"Laffey\", and followed by \"San Francisco\", \"Boise\", \"Salt Lake City\", and \"Helena\". \"Buchanan\" and \"McCalla\" brought up the rear. The distance between each ship ranged from. Visibility was poor because the moon had already set, leaving no ambient light and no visible sea horizon. Gotō's force passed through several rain squalls as they approached Guadalcanal at. Gotō's flagship \"Aoba\" led the Japanese cruisers in column, followed by \"Furutaka\" and \"Kinugasa\". \"Fubuki\" was starboard of \"Aoba\" and \"Hatsuyuki\" to port. At 23:30, Gotō's ships emerged from the last rain squall and began appearing on the radar scopes of \"Helena\" and \"Salt Lake City\". The Japanese, however, whose warships were not equipped with radar, remained unaware of Scott's presence.", "At 23:00, the \"San Francisco\" aircraft spotted Jojima's force off Guadalcanal and reported it to Scott. Scott, believing more Japanese ships were likely still on the way, continued his course towards the west side of Savo Island. At 23:33, Scott ordered his column to turn towards the southwest to a heading of 230°. All of Scott's ships understood the order as a column movement except Scott's own ship, \"San Francisco\". As the three lead U.S. destroyers executed the column movement, \"San Francisco\" turned simultaneously. \"Boise\"—following immediately behind—followed \"San Francisco\", thereby throwing the three van destroyers out of formation. At 23:32, \"Helena\"s radar showed the Japanese warships to be about away. At 23:35, \"Boise\"s and \"Duncan\"s radars also detected Gotō's ships. Between 23:42 and 23:44, \"Helena\" and \"Boise\" reported their contacts to Scott on \"San Francisco\" who mistakenly believed the two cruisers were actually tracking the three U.S. destroyers that were thrown out of formation during the column turn. Scott radioed \"Farenholt\" to ask if the destroyer was attempting to resume its station at the front of the column. \"Farenholt\" replied, \"Affirmative, coming up on your starboard side,\" further confirming Scott's belief that the radar contacts were his own destroyers. At 23:45, \"Farenholt\" and \"Laffey\"—still unaware of Gotō's approaching warships—increased speed to resume their stations at the front of the U.S. column. \"Duncan\"s crew, however, thinking that \"Farenholt\" and \"Laffey\" were commencing an attack on the Japanese warships, increased speed to launch a solitary torpedo attack on Gotō's force without telling Scott what they were doing. \"San Francisco\"s radar registered the Japanese ships, but Scott was not informed of the sighting. By 23:45, Gotō's ships were only away from Scott's formation and visible to \"Helena\"s and \"Salt Lake City\"s lookouts. The U.S. formation at this point was in position to cross the T of the Japanese formation, giving Scott's ships a significant tactical advantage. At 23:46, still assuming that Scott was aware of the rapidly approaching Japanese warships, \"Helena\" radioed for permission to open fire, using the general procedure request, \"Interrogatory Roger\" (meaning, basically, \"Are we clear to act?\"). Scott answered with, \"Roger\", meaning only that the message was received, not that he was confirming the request to act. Upon receipt of Scott's \"Roger\", \"Helena\"—thinking they now had permission—opened fire, quickly followed by \"Boise\", \"Salt Lake City\", and to Scott's further surprise, \"San Francisco\". Gotō's force was taken almost completely by surprise. At 23:43, \"Aoba\"s lookouts sighted Scott's force, but Gotō assumed that they were Jojima's ships. Two minutes later, \"Aoba\"s lookouts identified the ships as American, but Gotō remained skeptical and directed his ships to flash identification signals. As \"Aoba\"s crew executed Gotō's order, the first American salvo smashed into \"Aoba\"s superstructure. \"Aoba\" was quickly hit by up to 40 shells from \"Helena\", \"Salt Lake City\", \"San Francisco\", \"Farenholt\", and \"Laffey\". The shell hits heavily damaged \"Aoba\"s communications systems and demolished two of her main gun turrets as well as her main gun director. Several large-caliber projectiles passed through \"Aoba\"s flag bridge without exploding, but the force of their passage killed many men and mortally wounded Gotō. Scott—still unsure who his ships were firing at, and afraid they might be firing on his own destroyers—ordered a ceasefire at 23:47, although not every ship complied. Scott ordered \"Farenholt\" to flash her recognition signals and upon observing that \"Farenholt\" was close to his formation, he ordered the fire resumed at 23:51. \"Aoba\", continuing to receive damaging hits, turned to starboard to head away from Scott's formation and began making a smoke screen which led most of the Americans to believe that she was sinking. Scott's ships shifted their fire to \"Furutaka\", which was following behind \"Aoba\". At 23:49, \"Furutaka\" was hit in her torpedo tubes, igniting a large fire that attracted even more shellfire from the US ships. At 23:58, a torpedo from \"Buchanan\" hit \"Furutaka\" in her forward engine room, causing severe damage. During this time, \"San Francisco\" and \"Boise\" sighted \"Fubuki\" about away and raked her with shellfire, joined soon by most of the rest of Scott's formation. Heavily damaged, \"Fubuki\" began to sink. \"Kinugasa\" and \"Hatsuyuki\" chose turning to port rather than starboard and escaped the Americans' immediate attention. During the exchange of gunfire, \"Farenholt\" received several damaging hits from both the Japanese and the American ships, killing several men. She escaped from the crossfire by crossing ahead of \"San Francisco\" and passing to the disengaged side of Scott's column. \"Duncan\"—still engaged in her solitary torpedo attack on the Japanese formation—was also hit by gunfire from both sides, set afire, and looped away in her own effort to escape the crossfire. As Gotō's ships endeavored to escape, Scott's ships tightened their formation and then turned to pursue the retreating Japanese warships. At 00:06, two torpedoes from \"Kinugasa\" barely missed \"Boise\". \"Boise\" and \"Salt Lake City\" turned on their searchlights to help target the Japanese ships, giving \"Kinugasa\"s gunners clear targets. At 00:10, two shells from \"Kinugasa\" exploded in \"Boise\"s main ammunition magazine between turrets one and two. The resulting explosion killed almost 100 men and threatened to blow the ship apart. Seawater rushed in through rents in her hull opened by the explosion and helped quench the fire before it could explode the ship's powder magazines. \"Boise\" immediately sheered out of the column and retreated from the action. \"Kinugasa\" and \"Salt Lake City\" exchanged fire with each other, each hitting the other several times, causing minor damage to \"Kinugasa\" and damaging one of \"Salt Lake City\"s boilers, reducing her speed. At 00:16, Scott ordered his ships to turn to a heading of 330° in an attempt to pursue the fleeing Japanese ships. Scott's ships, however, quickly lost sight of Gotō's ships, and all firing ceased by 00:20. The American formation was beginning to scatter, so Scott ordered a turn to 205° to disengage.", "During the battle between Scott's and Gotō's ships, Jojima's reinforcement group completed unloading at Guadalcanal and began its return journey unseen by Scott's warships, using a route that passed south of the Russell Islands and New Georgia. Despite extensive damage, \"Aoba\" was able to join \"Kinugasa\" in retirement to the north through the Slot. \"Furutaka\"s damage caused her to lose power around 00:50, and she sank at 02:28, northwest of Savo Island. \"Hatsuyuki\" picked up \"Furutaka\"s survivors and joined the retreat northward. \"Boise\" extinguished her fires by 02:40 and at 03:05 rejoined Scott's formation. \"Duncan\"—on fire—was abandoned by her crew at 02:00. Unaware of \"Duncan\"s fate, Scott detached \"McCalla\" to search for her and retired with the rest of his ships towards Nouméa, arriving in the afternoon of 13 October. \"McCalla\" located the burning, abandoned \"Duncan\" about 03:00, and several members of \"McCalla\"s crew made an attempt to keep her from sinking. By 12:00, however, they had to abandon the effort as bulkheads within \"Duncan\" collapsed causing the ship to finally sink north of Savo Island. American servicemen in boats from Guadalcanal as well as \"McCalla\" picked up \"Duncan\"s scattered survivors from the sea around Savo. In total, 195 \"Duncan\" sailors survived; 48 did not. As they rescued \"Duncan\"s crew, the Americans came across the more than 100 \"Fubuki\" survivors, floating in the same general area. The Japanese initially refused all rescue attempts but a day later allowed themselves to be picked up and taken prisoner. Jojima—learning of the bombardment force's crisis—detached destroyers \"Shirayuki\" and \"Murakumo\" to assist \"Furutaka\" or her survivors and \"Asagumo\" and \"Natsugumo\" to rendezvous with \"Kinugasa\", which had paused in her retreat northward to cover the withdrawal of Jojima's ships. At 07:00, five CAF Douglas SBD-3 Dauntless dive bombers attacked \"Kinugasa\" but inflicted no damage. At 08:20, 11 more SBDs found and attacked \"Shirayuki\" and \"Murakumo\". Although they scored no direct hits, a near miss caused \"Murakumo\" to begin leaking oil, marking a trail for other CAF aircraft to follow. A short time later, seven more CAF SBDs plus six Grumman TBF-1 Avenger torpedo bombers, accompanied by 14 Grumman F4F-4 Wildcats, found the two Japanese destroyers from Guadalcanal. In the ensuing attack, \"Murakumo\" was hit by a torpedo in her engineering spaces, leaving her without power. In the meantime, \"Aoba\" and \"Hatsuyuki\" reached the sanctuary of the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands at 10:00. Rushing to assist \"Murakumo\", \"Asagumo\" and \"Natsugumo\" were attacked by another group of 11 CAF SBDs and TBFs escorted by 12 fighters at 15:45. An SBD placed its bomb almost directly amidships on \"Natsugumo\" while two more near misses contributed to her severe damage. After \"Asagumo\" took off her survivors, \"Natsugumo\" sank at 16:27. The CAF aircraft also scored several more hits on the stationary \"Murakumo\", setting her afire. After her crew abandoned ship, \"Shirayuki\" scuttled her with a torpedo, picked up her survivors, and joined the rest of the Japanese warships for the remainder of their return trip to the Shortland Islands.", "Captain Kikunori Kijima—Gotō's chief of staff and commander of the bombardment force during the return trip to the Shortland Islands after Gotō's death in battle—claimed that his force had sunk two American cruisers and one destroyer. \"Furutaka\"s captain—who survived the sinking of his ship—blamed the loss of his cruiser on bad air reconnaissance and poor leadership from the 8th fleet staff under Admiral Mikawa. Although Gotō's bombardment mission failed, Jojima's reinforcement convoy was successful in delivering the crucial men and equipment to Guadalcanal. \"Aoba\" journeyed to Kure, Japan, for repairs that were completed on February 15, 1943. \"Kinugasa\" was sunk one month later during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal. Scott claimed that his force sank three Japanese cruisers and four destroyers. News of the victory was widely publicized in the American media. \"Boise\"—which was damaged enough to require a trip to the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard for repairs—was dubbed the \"one-ship fleet\" by the press for her exploits in the battle, although this was mainly because the names of the other involved ships were withheld for security reasons. \"Boise\" was under repair until 20 March 1943. Although a tactical victory for the U.S., Cape Esperance had little immediate strategic effect on the situation on Guadalcanal. Just two days later on the night of 13 October, the Japanese battleships and bombarded and almost destroyed Henderson Field. One day after that, a large Japanese convoy successfully delivered 4,500 troops and equipment to the island. These troops and equipment helped complete Japanese preparations for the large land offensive scheduled to begin on 23 October. The convoy of U.S. Army troops reached Guadalcanal on 13 October as planned and were key participants for the Allied side in the decisive land battle for Henderson Field that took place from 23–26 October. The Cape Esperance victory helped prevent an accurate U.S. assessment of Japanese skills and tactics in naval night fighting. The U.S. was still unaware of the range and power of Japanese torpedoes, the effectiveness of Japanese night optics, and the skilled fighting ability of most Japanese destroyer and cruiser commanders. Incorrectly applying the perceived lessons learned from this battle, U.S. commanders in future naval night battles in the Solomons consistently tried to prove that American naval gunfire was more effective than Japanese torpedo attacks. This belief was severely tested just two months later during the Battle of Tassafaronga. A junior officer on \"Helena\" later wrote, \"Cape Esperance was a three-sided battle in which chance was the major winner.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Grand Slam performance timeline.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Newcombe played several sports as a boy before devoting himself to tennis. He was the Australian junior champion from 1961 to 1963 and was a member of Australia's Davis Cup winning team in 1964. He won his first Grand Slam title in 1965 by taking the Australian Championships doubles title with fellow Australian Tony Roche. That same year, the duo won the Wimbledon doubles title. They teamed to win the Australian doubles championship three more times, Wimbledon another four times and the US Championships in 1967, the French Championships in 1967, and the French Open in 1969. They won 12 Grand Slam titles, which remained the all-time record for a men's doubles team until 2013, when it was surpassed by Bob and Mike Bryan. Newcombe's powerful serve and volley was the backbone of his attacking game. He frequently came up with a second-serve ace. He was the top ranked amateur in the world in 1967 according to Lance Tingay, although Rex Bellamy ranked him second behind Roy Emerson. As a professional, Newcombe was the joint world No. 1 player in 1970 and 1971. In singles play, he was a two-time winner of the Australian Open, a three-time winner of Wimbledon, and a two-time winner of the US Open. In January 1968, he signed a three-year professional contract with Lamar Hunt's World Championship Tennis (WCT) and became part of the \"Handsome Eight\", the original eight WCT players. As a member of the WCT professional tour group and the Players' Union, Newcombe was banned by the International Tennis Federation from competing in the 1972 Wimbledon Championships and he joined the ATP boycott of the event in 1973. Newcombe was the last of the Australians who dominated tennis in the 1950s, 60s and 70s. In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, included Newcombe in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time. Newcombe was captain of the Australian Davis Cup team from 1995 until 2000. He was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 1985 and in 1986 his achievements were recognized with his induction into the International Tennis Hall of Fame.", "", "Source: ITF" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Controversy.", "Playing style.", "Political career.", "Personal life.", "Career statistics.", "Singles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "At the beginning of his career in 1966, Năstase travelled around the world competing with his good friend Ion Țiriac. Together, they represented Romania in the Davis Cup competition, being three times runners up: in 1969, 1971, and 1972. In singles, Năstase won his first tournament at Cannes on 16 April 1967. His first victories against top players happened in 1969 in Stockholm, where he defeated Tony Roche and Stan Smith before losing to Nikola Pilić in a three-set final. Năstase became one of the best players in 1970, with many experts ranking him as the sixth-best player in the world at that time, behind the Australians Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, John Newcombe, and Tony Roche and the American Arthur Ashe. Năstase's high ranking resulted from his success at the Italian Open in Rome and at the U.S. Indoor Open in Salisbury, Maryland. With Tiriac, Năstase won the men's doubles title at the French Open. In 1971, Năstase was the runner-up at the French Open, where he lost the final in four sets to Jan Kodeš. In December, Năstase won his first Masters Grand Prix title, finishing in front of Stan Smith in a round robin competition. In 1972, he became the No. 2 in the world, owing to his winning the US Open in a five-set final over Arthur Ashe. This tournament was the only event of the year in which all the best players participated. Two months before, at Wimbledon, Năstase narrowly lost to Stan Smith in an epic five-set final, one of the most exciting championship matches there. Although Smith took the title, public sympathy lay with the volatile Romanian. In the Davis Cup, Năstase was undefeated in singles until losing to Stan Smith in the final played on clay in his native Bucharest. In December at the year-end tour finals, Năstase took revenge against Smith, winning his second consecutive Masters Grand Prix title. In 1973 Năstase won 17 tournaments, including the French Open, a doubles title at Wimbledon, and a third Masters title. He was the undisputed world No. 1 that year. In the Davis Cup, he won seven of eight singles rubbers, including a victory over Tom Okker, the \"Flying Dutchman.\" In matches against the other top players, Năstase was 1–0 against Newcombe and 1–1 against Smith. The Romanian won the French Open without dropping a set (a feat repeated by Björn Borg in 1978 and 1980 and by Rafael Nadal in 2008, 2010 and 2017), and he won the French Open (clay), Rome (clay) and Queen's Club (grass) in succession, a feat never repeated in the open era, though Borg won Rome, the French Open, and Wimbledon in succession in 1978, and Nadal won the French Open, Queen's Club, and Wimbledon in succession in 2008. Năstase was seeded No. 2 for Wimbledon 1973, behind the defending champion Stan Smith. When the newly formed ATP withdrew its players from the tournament following the suspension by the ITF of Yugoslav Nikola Pilić, only three ATP players (Năstase, Roger Taylor and Ray Keldie) defied the boycott and were fined by the ATP's disciplinary committee. Nastase was promoted to No. 1 seed for the players in the subsequently weakened field and publicly stated his support for the ATP action but insisted that as a serving Captain, he was under orders from the Romanian army and government to compete and thus could not boycott the tournament. Some contemporary press speculation and later biographies have suggested, Năstase contrived to lose his fourth-round match to American Sandy Mayer, but to have lost any earlier to a considerably less able player would have been too obvious. Năstase has never publicly commented on this speculation. In 1974, he was the only player to qualify for both the WCT Finals and the Masters Grand Prix finals. As usual, Năstase played well in the Masters, in particular against Newcombe in the semifinals. (Năstase finished his career with a 4–1 record versus Newcombe, losing only their first match in 1969.) The Romanian, however, lost the final to Guillermo Vilas in five sets. For the fifth consecutive year, Năstase reached the Masters Grand Prix final in 1975, where he defeated Björn Borg in three straight sets. During the first half of 1976, Năstase won four tournaments (Atlanta WCT, Avis Challenge Cup WCT, US Open Indoor, and La Costa), and head-to-head, he led Connors 2–1, Vilas 1–0, Ashe 1–0, and Borg 2–0. Năstase did not enter the Australian Open, which was again avoided by most of the top players. Năstase was prevented from entering the French Open because he participated in World Team Tennis. In the second half of the year, third-seeded Nastase lost in straight sets to Borg in the men's singles final of Wimbledon and in the semifinals of the US Open. Năstase won three other tournaments during the second half of the year, the Pepsi Grand Slam, South Orange, and the four-man tournament of Caracas, Venezuela, in October (not to be confused with the Caracas WCT tournament in March), making seven tournament championships for the year. Năstase was the world No. 3, behind Connors and Borg. In 1977, Năstase finished No. 9 in the ATP rankings. He was a quarterfinalist at the French Open and at Wimbledon (losing to Borg), and participated in the WCT Finals. It was during his quarterfinal match at Wimbledon that Năstase had a memorable row with umpire Jeremy Shales. Shales called him \"Năstase\" when asking him to move to the advantage court, \"like a master speaks to a naughty schoolboy.\" (Năstase has also said Shales asked him to pick up a piece of paper that had blown onto the court, saying, \"Năstase, pick up that paper.\") Năstase angrily replied, \"You call me Mr. Năstase!\". Since this incident umpires have always used a courtesy title when addressing the players directly. \"Mr. Nastase\" later became the title of his autobiography. He was still one of the 20 best players in 1978. At Wimbledon, he again reached the quarterfinals, losing to Okker after defeating Roscoe Tanner. Năstase retired from the tour in October 1985 at the age of 39 after playing in the Grand Prix de Tennis de Toulouse where he lost in the second round to Jakob Hlasek, although he did play the challenger tournament at Dijon in June 1988.", "In 1977, Năstase used a'spaghetti string' (double-strung) racquet to end Guillermo Vilas's 46 match winning streak. The racquet was known for creating large amounts of top spin and unpredictable bounces. Vilas considered quitting the match in protest of the racquet. A few days later, the ATP banned the use of such racquets. During the US Open in 1979, Năstase was defaulted from his match against John McEnroe. The umpire had previously docked Năstase a point in third set and then a game in the fourth for arguing and stalling. A near riot followed as the crowd disagreed with the umpire's decision, by throwing beer cans and cups on court. The match was eventually restarted with the umpire being replaced before McEnroe ran out the winner. In 1994 Năstase, Davis Cup captain of his country, was banned for an away match against Great Britain, following his conduct in a tie against South Africa. In 2017, while captaining his country's Fed Cup team against Great Britain, Năstase was overheard commenting about Serena Williams' unborn child and asked Britain's Fed Cup captain Anne Keothavong for her room number. Năstase had previously made unfounded comments about Williams allegedly doping. Before the Great Britain and Romania began their two-day World Group play-off, Năstase had allegedly stormed in to the media centre to confront British journalists over the reporting of his comments the previous day. Năstase could only find Press Association tennis correspondent Eleanor Crook before launching into a tirade about the reporting. During the second rubber, he was ejected from the stadium for unsportsmanlike conduct. In a statement the International Tennis Federation (ITF) additionally confirmed that Năstase had his accreditation removed and would take no further part in the tie. The next day, the ITF provisionally suspended Năstase under the Fed Cup Regulations for a breach of the Fed Cup Welfare Policy; meaning that he was banned from the site of any ITF event. When Năstase was ejected from the stadium he met Crook again and, separated by a large number of security guards, verbally attacked her. The next day, despite being banned from the venue, Năstase reappeared and went to have lunch in the onsite restaurant. He additionally sent flowers to the British team. On 21 July 2017, he was suspended by the ITF until 2021. Williams released a statement on social media branding the comments about her unborn child as racist, noting that it saddened her that we live in a society where these comments can be made. Năstase then apologised on social media regarding the comments he made about Williams, but made comments about Konta speaking to the umpire which upset him. In a further interview with the BBC, Năstase justified his comments to Konta stating that he only abused her after being ejected from the court and did so as a fan rather than a captain. Năstase additionally added that he regretted his behaviour in the incident. Nastase was not invited to the French Open and Wimbledon following his suspension. The Madrid Open, however, invited Nastase to be part of the prize giving ceremony, which was won by Simona Halep (another Romanian player). This was a move that was deemed irresponsible by the WTA who had revoked Nastase's privileges while the ITF carried out its investigation. Further allegations of inappropriate behaviour included Pam Shriver claiming Năstase would frequently in a joking manner ask if she was still a virgin. After about thirty occasions of this happening, Shriver asked him to stop saying that, which he did. Dominique Monami, captain of the Belgium team, then mentioned that Năstase had abused her in the round prior to the match with Great Britain. Monami later added that Năstase was abusive for two games during the Elise Mertens and Irina-Camelia Begu match.", "Considered one of the most gifted tennis players in history, Ilie Năstase was noted both for his sorcery with the racket and his ability to entertain, amusing spectators with his antics and mimicry. Even during a crucial phase of a match, he was likely to do something bizarre that would entertain the crowd. Nicknamed the \"Bucharest Buffoon\", Năstase could master all the shots, playing either baseline or serve-and-volley. One of the fastest players, he is remembered for his magnificent lobs and retrieves. Năstase could apply a discomfiting spin to his shots, being an expert at putting the ball just beyond an opponent's reach. His greatest weakness was a fragile nervous system and erratic temperament, but when he maintained his concentration during a match, he could conjure up the most devastating tennis, being regarded as a tennis magician or an artist creating with great originality and panache. Năstase pioneered a distinctive tennis shot, a backward, over-the-shoulder wrist-flick useful as a last resort in recovering lobs. Tennis writer Bud Collins dubbed the shot the \"Bucharest Backfire\" after Năstase. According to \"The Independent\", Năstase is best remembered for being one of the best players never to win the singles title at Wimbledon, for his tantrums, and his good looks.", "He holds the rank of Major General in the Romanian military. He entered politics in the 1990s, making an unsuccessful run for mayor of Bucharest in 1996. Elected to the Romanian Senate for a Bucharest seat in 2012, he initially sat for the Conservative Party, switching to the National Union for the Progress of Romania in July 2015, after the former party ceased to exist.", "Năstase has been married five times: his first wife was Dominique Grazia, a Belgian fashion model, whom he married at the age of 26, and with whom he has a daughter, Nathalie. They were married for ten years. His second wife was American actress Alexandra King, whom he married in 1984 and with whom he adopted two children, Nicholas and Charlotte. His third wife was Romanian fashion model Amalia Teodosescu, whom he married in 2004. They have two children, Alessia and Emma Alexandra. After they split up in 2010, he married Romanian fashion model Brigitte Sfăt in 2013; their marriage ended in 2018. In 2019 he married Ioana Simion. \"Maxim\" has placed Năstase at number 6 on its top ten \"Living Sex Legends\" list, as he is reputed to have slept with over 2,500 women. Năstase's own estimate of 800–900 was too low for the writer of his biography who wanted a larger number, to improve his reputation, as it evidently did. After hearing this, his third wife, Amalia, said that she was happy to have conquered such a man. Năstase met Amalia at a Sting concert and married her in a Greek Orthodox ceremony on 5 June 2004 followed by a civil ceremony in July of the same year. They divorced in February 2010, after six years of marriage. As he played for the Army's sports club Steaua, he was an employee of the Ministry of Defence.. He was granted the rank of retired Major General. On 25 May 2018, Năstase was arrested twice within a six-hour span in one day for drunk driving and riding a scooter through a red light.", "", "\"Qualifying matches and walkovers are neither official match wins nor losses.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Occurrence and history.", "Nomenclature.", "Physical properties.", "Chemical properties.", "Synthesis.", "Reactions.", "Nucleotides.", "Theoretical aspects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The pyrimidine ring system has wide occurrence in nature as substituted and ring fused compounds and derivatives, including the nucleotides cytosine, thymine and uracil, thiamine (vitamin B1) and alloxan. It is also found in many synthetic compounds such as barbiturates and the HIV drug, zidovudine. Although pyrimidine derivatives such as uric acid and alloxan were known in the early 19th century, a laboratory synthesis of a pyrimidine was not carried out until 1879, when Grimaux reported the preparation of barbituric acid from urea and malonic acid in the presence of phosphorus oxychloride. The systematic study of pyrimidines began in 1884 with Pinner, who synthesized derivatives by condensing ethyl acetoacetate with amidines. Pinner first proposed the name “pyrimidin” in 1885. The parent compound was first prepared by Gabriel and Colman in 1900, by conversion of barbituric acid to 2,4,6-trichloropyrimidine followed by reduction using zinc dust in hot water.", "The nomenclature of pyrimidines is straightforward. However, like other heterocyclics, tautomeric hydroxyl groups yield complications since they exist primarily in the cyclic amide form. For example, 2-hydroxypyrimidine is more properly named 2-pyrimidone. A partial list of trivial names of various pyrimidines exists.", "Physical properties are shown in the data box. A more extensive discussion, including spectra, can be found in Brown \"et al.\"", "Per the classification by Albert six-membered heterocycles can be described as π-deficient. Substitution by electronegative groups or additional nitrogen atoms in the ring significantly increase the π-deficiency. These effects also decrease the basicity. Like pyridines, in pyrimidines the π-electron density is decreased to an even greater extent. Therefore, electrophilic aromatic substitution is more difficult while nucleophilic aromatic substitution is facilitated. An example of the last reaction type is the displacement of the amino group in 2-aminopyrimidine by chlorine and its reverse. Electron lone pair availability (basicity) is decreased compared to pyridine. Compared to pyridine, \"N\"-alkylation and \"N\"-oxidation are more difficult. The p\"K\" value for protonated pyrimidine is 1.23 compared to 5.30 for pyridine. Protonation and other electrophilic additions will occur at only one nitrogen due to further deactivation by the second nitrogen. The 2-, 4-, and 6- positions on the pyrimidine ring are electron deficient analogous to those in pyridine and nitro- and dinitrobenzene. The 5-position is less electron deficient and substituents there are quite stable. However, electrophilic substitution is relatively facile at the 5-position, including nitration and halogenation. Reduction in resonance stabilization of pyrimidines may lead to addition and ring cleavage reactions rather than substitutions. One such manifestation is observed in the Dimroth rearrangement. Pyrimidine is also found in meteorites, but scientists still do not know its origin. Pyrimidine also photolytically decomposes into uracil under ultraviolet light.", "As is often the case with parent heterocyclic ring systems, the synthesis of pyrimidine is not that common and is usually performed by removing functional groups from derivatives. Primary syntheses in quantity involving formamide have been reported. As a class, pyrimidines are typically synthesized by the principal synthesis involving cyclization of β-dicarbonyl compounds with N–C–N compounds. Reaction of the former with amidines to give 2-substituted pyrimidines, with urea to give 2-pyrimidinones, and guanidines to give 2-aminopyrimidines are typical. Pyrimidines can be prepared via the Biginelli reaction. Many other methods rely on condensation of carbonyls with diamines for instance the synthesis of 2-thio-6-methyluracil from thiourea and ethyl acetoacetate or the synthesis of 4-methylpyrimidine with 4,4-dimethoxy-2-butanone and formamide. A novel method is by reaction of \"N\"-vinyl and \"N\"-aryl amides with carbonitriles under electrophilic activation of the amide with 2-chloro-pyridine and trifluoromethanesulfonic anhydride:", "Because of the decreased basicity compared to pyridine, electrophilic substitution of pyrimidine is less facile. Protonation or alkylation typically takes place at only one of the ring nitrogen atoms. Mono-\"N\"-oxidation occurs by reaction with peracids. Electrophilic \"C\"-substitution of pyrimidine occurs at the 5-position, the least electron-deficient. Nitration, nitrosation, azo coupling, halogenation, sulfonation, formylation, hydroxymethylation, and aminomethylation have been observed with substituted pyrimidines. Nucleophilic \"C\"-substitution should be facilitated at the 2-, 4-, and 6-positions but there are only a few examples. Amination and hydroxylation has been observed for substituted pyrimidines. Reactions with Grignard or alkyllithium reagents yield 4-alkyl- or 4-aryl pyrimidine after aromatization. Free radical attack has been observed for pyrimidine and photochemical reactions have been observed for substituted pyrimidines. Pyrimidine can be hydrogenated to give tetrahydropyrimidine.", "Three nucleobases found in nucleic acids, cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U), are pyrimidine derivatives: In DNA and RNA, these bases form hydrogen bonds with their complementary purines. Thus, in DNA, the purines adenine (A) and guanine (G) pair up with the pyrimidines thymine (T) and cytosine (C), respectively. In RNA, the complement of adenine (A) is uracil (U) instead of thymine (T), so the pairs that form are adenine:uracil and guanine:cytosine. Very rarely, thymine can appear in RNA, or uracil in DNA, but when the other three major pyrimidine bases are represented, some minor pyrimidine bases can also occur in nucleic acids. These minor pyrimidines are usually methylated versions of major ones and are postulated to have regulatory functions. These hydrogen bonding modes are for classical Watson–Crick base pairing. Other hydrogen bonding modes (\"wobble pairings\") are available in both DNA and RNA, although the additional 2′-hydroxyl group of RNA expands the configurations, through which RNA can form hydrogen bonds.", "In March 2015, NASA Ames scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Architecture and design.", "Development history.", "Characteristics.", "1996 renovation.", "Use after the Olympic Games.", "Famous football games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Olympic Stadium was designed by architect Jan Wils, and is one of the finest examples of Amsterdamse School architecture, complementing the surrounding neighbourhood designed by H.P. Berlage. The design won the Olympic gold medal in the architecture competition at the 1928 Olympics. The concrete second ring that was added in 1937 to the north and south wing of the stadium was also designed by Jan Wils.", "The original plan of Jan Wils consisted of an extension of the Harry Elte stadium that was situated next to the current Olympic Stadium. This plan was rejected as the municipal government of Amsterdam had planned an important urban development programme in that area, and wanted to demolish the stadium as soon as possible. The second plan was almost fully executed, and consisted of a new Olympic Stadium that was situated more westward. In January 1926, the Amsterdam municipal government, the National Olympic Committee and the NV Nederlandsch Sportpark—the owner of the Harry Elte stadium—reached an agreement; after the Olympic Games of 1928, the Harry Elte stadium would be demolished and the NV Nederlandsch Sportpark would be the owner of the Olympic Stadium. Starting in January 1926, the area in which the stadium was to be built was elevated by means of 750,000 cubic metres of sand. This phase was completed in October of that year and in the same month the construction of the pile foundation began. On 18 May 1927, the ceremonial first stone was placed by Prince Hendrik. Some two million stones would follow.", "The football pitch measures 114 by 75 metres. The athletics track around it is eight metres wide and has a perimeter of 400 metres. The cycle track around the athletics track was nine metres wide had a perimeter of 500 metres. It also hosted the equestrian jumping, field hockey, gymnastics and korfball (demonstration) events. The capacity of the stadium is subject to controversy as the exact capacity was kept secret to press and public during the Games to evade the remark that the stadium's capacity was only marginally bigger than the Harry Elte stadium. It is said that two configurations could be set up in the stadium; one with 21,537 seats and 12,618 standing rooms (33,255 total) and one with 16,197 seats and 25,236 standing rooms (41,433 total). After the Games the NOC admitted that the capacity of the stadium was somewhere near 31,600. Additional seats could be added on the cycle track, which would increase the capacity with 5,900. The 1928 Olympics introduced the idea of the Olympic Flame. The flame burned for the first time ever in a tall tower, known as the Marathon tower, adjacent to the Olympic Stadium. In the top of the Marathon tower, four balconies are situated which were used during the Games by horn blowers. Above these balconies four speakers from Philips were attached, from which results and messages were broadcast into the Olympic area, a novelty at the time. The bowl on top which carried the Olympic flame was known to Amsterdammers as \"the ashtray of KLM pilots\". A permanent Olympic flame burning during the tournament was also an Olympic first.", "In 1987 the city government announced plans to demolish the stadium. The stadium was saved, however, when it was listed as a national monument. Renovation started in 1996, and the stadium was refurbished into the original construction of 1928. The second ring of 1937 was removed, and the stadium was made suitable for track and field competitions again. The original bicycle track was also removed to enable the use of the space beneath the seats for offices. The stadium was reopened by the Prince of Orange on 13 May 2000. In 2007, the area around the stadium was renovated as part of larger urban renewal project covering the entire Olympic area. North of the stadium 969 houses were completed in 2008. In the same year, the islands in the river Schinkel to the west of the stadium were suited with tennis fields and football pitches, an athletics track and a park. The Stadionplein square in front of the stadium is also to be renovated, which is expected to begin in 2010. Two new bridges were also built around the stadium: to the south there is a new bridge suitable for all traffic, the Na Druk Gelukbrug, and to the Schinkel islands in the west there is a cyclists and pedestrian bridge, called Jan Wilsbrug.", "The stadium hosted several international matches of the Dutch national football team, the first one being the game against Uruguay (0–2) during the Summer Olympics on 30 May 1928. The last one was a friendly on 6 September 1989 against Denmark (2–2). After the Olympics, the stadium was used regularly for various sporting events, including athletics, speedway, field hockey and cycling. The 1954 Tour de France, for example, started outside the stadium. However, it was football that remained the most popular. It was both the home ground of Blauw Wit and BVC Amsterdam (later merged into FC Amsterdam), while AFC Ajax used the stadium for games in which the crowd was expected to exceed the capacity of its own De Meer Stadion (in practice, most of their international matches) or for midweek games which required the use of floodlights, with which the De Meer was not initially suited. Ajax continued this arrangement until the completion of the Amsterdam Arena in 1996, since 2018 renamed the Johan Cruijff Arena. The Olympic Stadium was the host venue for the 1987 FIM Speedway World Championship Final. The event, held for the first and only time over two days (thus consisting of two separate meetings with the riders aggregate score determining their placing), was won by defending World Champion Hans Nielsen from Denmark. Second was fellow Dane and former twice (1984 and 1985) World Champion Erik Gundersen, while finishing third was American rider Sam Ermolenko (himself a future World Champion in 1993). The speedway track was laid out over the stadiums existing athletics track. The only Dutchman in the field Henny Kroeze (who had been seeded to the Final so as to have at least one Dutch rider in the field), finished 16th and last in the Final after scoring only one point over the two days with the point coming in his 5th and final ride of the first day. The Amsterdam Admirals played their inaugural season in the World League of American Football in 1995, and the 1996 season, at the stadium, prior to moving to the Amsterdam ArenA. The stadium hosted World Bowl '95. The stadium hosted the 2016 European Athletics Championships. Because of this, an athletics track was added to the plan for the nearby Park Schinkeleilanden at the last moment. The athletics track in that nearby park, which could be a warming up track when using the main track in the Olympic Stadium for racing, was opened in 2008. The stadium also serves as the start and finish of the Amsterdam Marathon, held every October. In 2014, the stadium was temporarily fitted with a long track speedskating rink, and hosted the Dutch national championships in Allround and Sprint. This was repeated in 2018 to host the World Allround Championships.[https://www.parool.nl/stadsgids/olympisch-stadion-wordt-weer-omgetoverd-tot-schaatsbaan~a4533323/ ] The stadium is also a tourist attraction. Tourists especially come from the Netherlands, Germany, Greece, Belgium, and Canada, and tours are available in Dutch, German, Greek, English and French.", "Famous games, apart from the Olympic Games, include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Guadalcanal Campaign.", "Supply crisis.", "Battle.", "Prelude.", "Action.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "On August 7, 1942, Allied forces landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings were meant to deny the Japanese access to bases that they could use to threaten supply routes between the US and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of neutralizing the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings began the six-month Guadalcanal campaign. The nearly 2,000 to 3,000 Japanese personnel on the islands were taken by surprise, and by nightfall on August 8, the 11,000 Allied troops, under the command of Lieutenant General Alexander Vandegrift, secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as the Japanese airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal, later renamed \"Henderson Field\" by the Allies. Allied aircraft operating from Henderson were called the \"Cactus Air Force\" (CAF) after the Allied code name for Guadalcanal. To protect the airfield, the US Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point. Reinforcements over the next two months increased the number of US troops at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal to more than 20,000. In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army's 17th Army, a corps-sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake, the task of retaking the island. The first units of the 17th Army began to arrive there on August 19. Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field, the Japanese were rarely able to use large, slow transport ships or barges to deliver troops and supplies to the island; instead, they used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal. The Japanese warships, mainly light cruisers and destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, were usually able to make the round trip down \"The Slot\" to Guadalcanal and back in a single night, thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack. Delivering the troops in this manner, however, prevented most of the soldiers' heavy equipment and supplies, such as heavy artillery, vehicles, and much food and ammunition, from being carried to Guadalcanal with them. These high speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the \"Tokyo Express\" by Allied forces and \"Rat Transportation\" by the Japanese. The Japanese attempted several times between August and November 1942 to recapture Henderson Field and drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal, to no avail. The last attempt by the Japanese to deliver significant additional forces to the island failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal of November 12–15. On November 26, Japanese Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura took command of the new Eighth Area Army at Rabaul. The new command encompassed both Hyakutake's 17th Army in the Solomons and the 18th Army in New Guinea. One of Imamura's first priorities upon assuming command was the continuation of the attempts to retake Henderson Field and Guadalcanal. However, the Allied attempt to take Buna in New Guinea changed Imamura's priorities; it was considered a more severe threat to Rabaul, and Imamura postponed further major reinforcement efforts to Guadalcanal to concentrate on the situation in New Guinea.", "Due to a combination of the threat from CAF aircraft, US Navy PT boats stationed at Tulagi, and a cycle of bright moonlight, the Japanese had switched to using submarines to deliver provisions to their forces on Guadalcanal. Beginning on November 16, 1942, and continuing for the next three weeks, 16 submarines made nocturnal deliveries of foodstuffs to the island, with one submarine making the trip each night. Each submarine could deliver 20 to 30 tons of supplies, about one day's worth of food, for the 17th Army, but the difficult task of transporting the supplies by hand through the jungle to the frontline units limited their value to sustain the Japanese troops on Guadalcanal. At the same time, the Japanese tried to establish a chain of three bases in the central Solomons to allow small boats to use them as staging sites for making supply deliveries to Guadalcanal, but damaging Allied airstrikes on the bases forced the abandonment of this plan. On November 26, the 17th Army notified Imamura that it faced a critical food crisis. Some front-line units had not been resupplied for six days and even the rear-area troops were on one-third rations. The situation forced the Japanese to return to using destroyers to deliver the necessary supplies. Eighth Fleet personnel devised a plan to help reduce the exposure of destroyers delivering supplies to Guadalcanal. Large oil or gas drums were cleaned and filled with medical supplies and food, with enough air space to provide buoyancy, and strung together with rope. When the destroyers arrived at Guadalcanal they would make a sharp turn, the drums would be cut loose, and a swimmer or boat from the shore could pick up the buoyed end of the rope and return it to the beach, where the soldiers could haul in the supplies. The Eighth Fleet's Guadalcanal Reinforcement Unit, based in the Shortland Islands and under the command of Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka, was tasked by Mikawa with making the first of five scheduled runs using the drum method on the night of November 30. Tanaka's unit was centered on the eight ships of Destroyer Squadron (Desron) 2, with six destroyers assigned to carry from 200 to 240 drums of supplies apiece, to Tassafaronga at Guadalcanal. Tanaka's flagship along with acted as escorts. The six drum-carrying destroyers were,,,,, and. To save weight, the drum-carrying destroyers left their reloads of Type 93 torpedoes (Long Lances) at the Shortlands, leaving each ship with eight torpedoes, one for each tube. After the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, US Vice Admiral William Halsey, commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific, had reorganized US naval forces under his command, including, on November 24, the formation of Task Force 67 (TF67) at Espiritu Santo, comprising the heavy cruisers,,, and, the light cruiser, and four destroyers (,,, and ). US Rear Admiral Carleton H. Wright replaced Thomas Kinkaid as commander of TF67 on November 28. Upon taking command, Wright briefed his ship commanders on his plan for engaging the Japanese in future; he expected night battles around Guadalcanal. The plan, which he had drafted with Kinkaid, stated that radar-equipped destroyers were to scout in front of the cruisers and deliver a surprise torpedo attack upon sighting Japanese warships, then vacate the area to give the cruisers a clear field of fire. The cruisers were then to engage with gunfire at a range of. The cruisers' floatplanes would scout and drop flares during the battle. On November 29, Allied intelligence personnel intercepted and decoded a Japanese message transmitted to the 17th Army on Guadalcanal alerting them to Tanaka's supply run. Informed of the message, Halsey ordered Wright to take TF67 to intercept Tanaka off Guadalcanal. TF67, with Wright flying his flag on \"Minneapolis\", departed Espiritu Santo at just before midnight on November 29 for the run to Guadalcanal. En route, destroyers and, returning from a convoy escort assignment to Guadalcanal, were ordered to join up with TF67. Lacking the time to brief the commanding officers of the joining destroyers of his battle plan, Wright assigned them a position behind the cruisers. At 17:00 on November 30, Wright's cruisers launched one floatplane each for Tulagi to drop flares during the expected battle that night. At 20:00, Wright sent his crews to battle stations. Tanaka's force departed the Shortlands just after midnight on November 30 for the run to Guadalcanal. Tanaka attempted to evade Allied aerial reconnaissance aircraft by first heading northeast through Bougainville Strait before turning southeast and then south to pass through Indispensable Strait. Paul Mason, an Australian coastwatcher stationed in southern Bougainville, reported by radio the departure of Tanaka's ships from Shortland, and this message was passed to Wright. At the same time, a Japanese search aircraft spotted an Allied convoy near Guadalcanal and communicated the sighting to Tanaka who told his destroyer commanders to expect action that night and that, \"In such an event, utmost efforts will be made to destroy the enemy without regard for the unloading of supplies.\"", "", "At 21:40 on November 30, Tanaka's ships sighted Savo Island from Indispensable Strait. The Japanese ships were in line ahead formation, interval, in the order of \"Takanami\", \"Oyashio\", \"Kuroshio\", \"Kagerō\", \"Makinami\", \"Naganami\", \"Kawakaze\", and \"Suzukaze\". At this same time, TF67 entered Lengo Channel en route to Ironbottom Sound. Wright's ships were in column in the order \"Fletcher\", \"Perkins\", \"Maury\", \"Drayton\", \"Minneapolis\", \"New Orleans\", \"Pensacola\", \"Honolulu\", \"Northampton\", \"Lamson\", and \"Lardner\". The four van destroyers led the cruisers by and the cruisers steamed apart. At 22:40, Tanaka's ships passed south of Savo about offshore from Guadalcanal and slowed to as they approached the unloading area. \"Takanami\" took station about seaward to screen the column. At the same time, TF67 exited Lengo Channel into the sound and headed at towards Savo Island. Wright's van destroyers moved to a position slightly inshore of the cruisers. The night sky was moonless with between and of visibility. Because of extremely calm seas which created a suction effect on their pontoons, Wright's cruiser floatplanes were delayed in lifting off from Tulagi harbor, and would not be a factor in the battle. At 23:06, Wright's force began to detect Tanaka's ships on radar near Cape Esperance on Guadalcanal about away. Wright's destroyers rejoined the column as it continued to head towards Savo. At the same time, Tanaka's ships, which were not equipped with radar, split into two groups and prepared to shove the drums overboard. \"Naganami\", \"Kawakaze\", and \"Suzukaze\" headed for their drop-off point near Doma Reef while \"Makinami\", \"Kagerō\", \"Oyashio\", and \"Kuroshio\" aimed for nearby Tassafaronga. At 23:12, \"Takanami's\" crew visually sighted Wright's column, quickly confirmed by lookouts on Tanaka's other ships. At 23:16, Tanaka ordered unloading preparations halted and \"All ships attack.\"", "At 23:14, operators on \"Fletcher\" established firm radar contact with \"Takanami\" and the lead group of four drum-carrying destroyers. At 23:15, with the range, Commander William M. Cole, commander of Wright's destroyer group and captain of \"Fletcher\", radioed Wright for permission to fire torpedoes. Wright waited two minutes and then responded with, \"Range on bogies [Tanaka's ships on radar] excessive at present.\" Cole responded that the range was fine. Another two minutes passed before Wright responded with permission to fire. In the meantime, the US destroyers' targets escaped from an optimum firing setup ahead to a marginal position passing abeam, giving the American torpedoes a long overtaking run near the limit of their range. At 23:20, \"Fletcher\", \"Perkins\", and \"Drayton\" fired a total of 20 Mark 15 torpedoes towards Tanaka's ships. \"Maury\", lacking SG radar and thus having no contacts, withheld fire. At the same time, Wright ordered his force to open fire. At 23:21, \"Minneapolis\" complied with her first salvo, quickly followed by the other American cruisers. Cole's four destroyers fired star shells to illuminate the targets as previously directed then increased speed to clear the area for the cruisers to operate. Because of her closer proximity to Wright's column, \"Takanami\" was the target of most of the Americans' initial gunfire. \"Takanami\" returned fire and launched her full load of eight torpedoes, but was quickly hit by American gunfire and, within four minutes, was set afire and incapacitated. As \"Takanami\" was destroyed, the rest of Tanaka's ships, almost unnoticed by the Americans, were increasing speed, maneuvering, and preparing to respond to the American attack. All of the American torpedoes missed. Historian Russell S. Crenshaw, Jr. postulates that had the twenty-four Mark 15 torpedoes fired by US Navy destroyers during the battle not been fatally flawed, the outcome of the battle might have been different. Tanaka's flagship, \"Naganami\", reversed course to starboard, opened fire and began laying a smoke screen. The next two ships astern, \"Kawakaze\" and \"Suzukaze\", reversed course to port. At 23:23, \"Suzukaze\" fired eight torpedoes in the direction of the gunflashes from Wright's cruisers, followed by \"Naganami\" and \"Kawakaze\" which fired their full loads of eight torpedoes at 23:32 and 23:33 respectively. Meanwhile, the four destroyers at the head of the Japanese column maintained their heading down the Guadalcanal coast, allowing Wright's cruisers to pass on the opposite course. Once clear of \"Takanami\" at 23:28, \"Kuroshio\" fired four and \"Oyashio\" fired eight torpedoes in the direction of Wright's column and then reversed course and increased speed. Wright's cruisers maintained the same course and speed as the 44 Japanese torpedoes headed in their direction. At 23:27, as \"Minneapolis\" fired her ninth salvo and Wright prepared to order a course change for his column, two torpedoes, from either \"Suzukaze\" or \"Takanami\", struck her forward half. One warhead exploded the aviation fuel storage tanks forward of turret one and the other knocked out three of the ship's four firerooms. The bow forward of turret one folded down at a 70-degree angle and the ship lost power and steering control. Thirty-seven men were killed. Less than a minute later a torpedo hit \"New Orleans\" abreast of turret one and exploded the ship's forward ammunition magazines and aviation gasoline storage. The blast severed the ship's entire bow forward of turret two. The bow twisted to port, damaging the ship's hull as it was wrenched free by the ship's momentum, and sank immediately off the aft port quarter. Everyone in turrets one and two perished. \"New Orleans\" was forced into a reverse course to starboard and lost steering and communications. A total of 183 men were killed. Herbert Brown, a seaman in the ship's plotting room, described the scene after the torpedo hit: \"Pensacola\" followed next astern in the cruiser column. Observing \"Minneapolis\" and \"New Orleans\" taking hits and slowing, \"Pensacola\" steered to pass them on the port side and then, once past, returned to the same base course. At 23:39, \"Pensacola\" took a torpedo abreast the mainmast. The explosion spread flaming oil throughout the interior and across the main deck of the ship, killing 125 of the ship's crew. The hit ripped away the port outer driveshaft and the ship took a 13-degree list and lost power, communications, and steering. Astern of \"Pensacola\", \"Honolulu's\" captain chose to pass \"Minneapolis\" and \"New Orleans\" on the starboard side. At the same time, the ship increased speed to, maneuvered radically, and successfully transited the battle area without taking any damage while maintaining main battery fire at the rapidly disappearing Japanese destroyers. The last cruiser in the American column, \"Northampton\", followed \"Honolulu\" to pass the damaged cruisers ahead to starboard. Unlike \"Honolulu\", \"Northampton\" did not increase speed or attempt any radical maneuvers. At 23:48, after returning to the base course, \"Northampton\" was hit by two of \"Kawakaze's\" torpedoes. One hit below the waterline abreast the after engine room, and four seconds later, the second hit further aft. The after engine room flooded, three of four shafts ceased turning, and the ship listed 10 degrees to port and caught fire. Fifty men were killed. The last ships in Wright's column, \"Lamson\" and \"Lardner\", failed to locate any targets and exited the battle area to the east after being mistakenly fired on by machine guns from \"New Orleans\". Cole's four destroyers circled completely around Savo Island at maximum speed and reentered the battle area, but the engagement had already ended. Meanwhile, at 23:44 Tanaka ordered his ships to break contact and retire from the battle area. As they proceeded up Guadalcanal's coast, \"Kuroshio\" and \"Kagerō\" fired eight more torpedoes towards the American ships, which all missed. When \"Takanami\" failed to respond to radio calls, Tanaka directed \"Oyashio\" and \"Kuroshio\" to go to her assistance. The two destroyers located the burning ship at 01:00 on December 1 but abandoned rescue efforts after detecting American warships in the area. \"Oyashio\" and \"Kuroshio\" quickly departed the sound to rejoin the rest of Tanaka's ships for the return journey to the Shortlands, which they reached 10 hours later. \"Takanami\" was the only Japanese warship hit by American gunfire and seriously damaged during the battle.", "\"Takanami\"'s surviving crew abandoned ship at 01:30, but a large explosion killed many more of them in the water, including the destroyer division commander, Toshio Shimizu, and the ship's captain, Masami Ogura. Of her crew of 244, 48 survived to reach shore on Guadalcanal and 19 of them were captured by the Americans. \"Northampton\"'s crew was unable to contain the ship's fires and list and began to abandon ship at 01:30. The ship sank at 03:04 about from Doma Cove on Guadalcanal (). \"Fletcher\" and \"Drayton\" rescued the ship's 773 survivors. \"Minneapolis\", \"New Orleans\", and \"Pensacola\" were able to sail the to Tulagi by the morning of December 1, where they were berthed for emergency repairs. The fires on \"Pensacola\" burned for 12 hours before being extinguished. \"Pensacola\" departed Tulagi for rear area ports and further repair on December 6. After construction of temporary bows from coconut logs, \"Minneapolis\" and \"New Orleans\" departed Tulagi for Espiritu Santo or Sydney, Australia on December 12. All three cruisers required lengthy and extensive repairs. \"New Orleans\" returned to action in August, \"Minneapolis\" in September, and \"Pensacola\" in October 1943. The battle was one of the worst defeats suffered by the US Navy in World War II, third only to the Attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Savo Island. The battle, along with the losses suffered during the Battle of Savo Island, Cape Esperance and the Naval Battles of Guadalcanal temporarily left the US Navy with only four operational heavy cruisers and nine light cruisers in the entire Pacific Ocean. In spite of his defeat in the battle, Wright was awarded the Navy Cross, one of the highest American military decorations for bravery, for his actions during the engagement. Mitigating to some degree the destruction of his task force, Wright, in his after-action report, claimed that his force sank four Japanese destroyers and damaged two others. Halsey, in his comments on Wright's report, placed much of the blame for the defeat on Cole, saying that the destroyer squadron commander fired his torpedoes from too great a distance to be effective and should have \"helped\" the cruisers instead of circling around Savo Island. The recriminations did not affect Cole's career; he had won a Navy Cross of his own for actions during the Naval battles of Guadalcanal, and continued to lead destroyer squadrons in the Pacific, later being promoted to rear admiral. Tanaka claimed to have sunk a battleship and two cruisers in the battle. The results of the battle led to further discussion in the US Pacific Fleet about changes in tactical doctrine and the need for technical improvements, such as flashless powder. It was not until eight months later that the naval high command recognized there were serious problems with the functioning of the torpedoes. The Americans were still unaware of the range and power of Japanese torpedoes and the effectiveness of Japanese night battle tactics. In fact, Wright claimed that his ships must have been fired on by submarines since the observed position of Tanaka's ships \"make it improbable that torpedoes with speed-distance characteristics similar to our own\" could have caused such damage, though Tanaka states that his torpedoes were fired at a range as short as three miles. The Americans did not recognize the true capabilities of their Pacific adversary's torpedoes (particularly the surface-ship-fired Type 93 \"Long Lance\") and night tactics until well into 1943. After the war, Tanaka said of his victory at Tassafaronga, \"I have heard that US naval experts praised my command in that action. I am not deserving of such honors. It was the superb proficiency and devotion of the men who served me that produced the tactical victory for us.\" In spite of their defeat in the battle, the Americans had prevented Tanaka from landing the desperately needed food supplies on Guadalcanal, albeit at high cost. A second Japanese supply delivery attempt by ten destroyers led by Tanaka on December 3 successfully dumped 1,500 drums of provisions off Tassafaronga, but strafing American aircraft sank all but 310 of them the next day before they could be pulled ashore. On December 7, a third attempt by 12 destroyers was turned back by US PT boats off Cape Esperance. The next night, two US PT boats torpedoed and sank the Japanese submarine as it attempted to deliver supplies to Guadalcanal. Based on the difficulties experienced trying to deliver food to the island, the Japanese Navy informed Imamura on December 8 that they intended to stop all destroyer transportation runs to Guadalcanal immediately. After Imamura protested, the navy agreed to one more run to the island. The last attempt to deliver food to Guadalcanal by destroyers in 1942 was led by Tanaka on the night of December 11 and consisted of 11 destroyers. Five US PT boats met Tanaka off Guadalcanal and torpedoed his flagship, severely damaging the destroyer and injuring Tanaka. After Tanaka transferred to \"Naganami\", \"Teruzuki\" was scuttled. Only 220 of the 1,200 drums released that night were recovered by Japanese army personnel on shore. Tanaka was subsequently relieved of command and transferred to Japan on December 29, 1942. On December 12, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite opposition from Japanese Army leaders, who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken from the Allies, on December 31, 1942 Japan's Imperial General Headquarters, with approval from the Emperor, agreed to the evacuation of all Japanese forces from the island and the establishment of a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia. The Japanese evacuated their remaining forces from Guadalcanal over three nights between February 2 and February 7, 1943, conceding the hard-fought campaign to the Allies. Building on their success at Guadalcanal and elsewhere, the Allies continued their campaign against Japan, ultimately culminating in Japan's defeat and the end of World War II." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Cognitive aspects.", "Behavioural aspects.", "Physiological aspects.", "Comorbidity.", "Causes.", "Genetics.", "Social experiences.", "Cultural influences.", "Substance-induced.", "Psychological factors.", "Mechanisms.", "Neurotransmitters.", "Brain areas.", "Diagnosis.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "Psychotherapies.", "Medications.", "SSRIs.", "Other drugs.", "Epidemiology.", "History.", "Terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In cognitive models of social anxiety disorder, those with social phobias experience dread over how they will present to others. They may feel overly self-conscious, pay high self-attention after the activity, or have high performance standards for themselves. According to the social psychology theory of self-presentation, a sufferer attempts to create a well-mannered impression towards others but believe they are unable to do so. Many times, prior to the potentially anxiety-provoking social situation, sufferers may deliberately review what could go wrong and how to deal with each unexpected case. After the event, they may have the perception that they performed unsatisfactorily. Consequently, they will perceive anything that may have possibly been abnormal as embarrassing. These thoughts may extend for weeks or longer. Cognitive distortions are a hallmark, and are learned about in CBT (cognitive-behavioral therapy). Thoughts are often self-defeating and inaccurate. Those with social phobia tend to interpret neutral or ambiguous conversations with a negative outlook, and many studies suggest that socially anxious individuals remember more negative memories than those less distressed. An example of an instance may be that of an employee presenting to their co-workers. During the presentation, the person may stutter a word, upon which he or she may worry that other people significantly noticed and think that their perceptions of him or her as a presenter have been tarnished. This cognitive thought propels further anxiety which compounds with further stuttering, sweating, and, potentially, a panic attack.", "Social anxiety disorder is a persistent fear of one or more situations in which the person is exposed to possible scrutiny by others and fears that he or she may do something or act in a way that will be humiliating or embarrassing. It exceeds normal \"shyness\" as it leads to excessive social avoidance and substantial social or occupational impairment. Feared activities may include almost any type of social interaction, especially small groups, dating, parties, talking to strangers, restaurants, interviews, etc. Those who suffer from social anxiety disorder fear being judged by others in society. In particular, individuals with social anxiety are nervous in the presence of people with authority and feel uncomfortable during physical examinations. People who suffer from this disorder may behave a certain way or say something and then feel embarrassed or humiliated after. As a result, they often choose to isolate themselves from society to avoid such situations. They may also feel uncomfortable meeting people they do not know, and act distant when they are with large groups of people. In some cases, they may show evidence of this disorder by avoiding eye contact, or blushing when someone is talking to them. According to psychologist B. F. Skinner, phobias are controlled by escape and avoidance behaviors. For instance, a student may leave the room when talking in front of the class (escape) and refrain from doing verbal presentations because of the previously encountered anxiety attack (avoid). Major avoidance behaviors could include an almost pathological or compulsive lying behavior in order to preserve self-image and avoid judgement in front of others. Minor avoidance behaviors are exposed when a person avoids eye contact and crosses his/her arms to avoid recognizable shaking. A fight-or-flight response is then triggered in such events.", "Physiological effects, similar to those in other anxiety disorders, are present in social phobias. In adults, it may be tears as well as excessive sweating, nausea, difficulty breathing, shaking, and palpitations as a result of the fight-or-flight response. The walk disturbance (where a person is so worried about how they walk that they may lose balance) may appear, especially when passing a group of people. Blushing is commonly exhibited by individuals suffering from social phobia. These visible symptoms further reinforce the anxiety in the presence of others. A 2006 study found that the area of the brain called the amygdala, part of the limbic system, is hyperactive when patients are shown threatening faces or confronted with frightening situations. They found that patients with more severe social phobia showed a correlation with the increased response in the amygdala.", "SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD.<ref name=\"doi10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.903|noedit\"></ref><ref name=\"doi10.1001/archpsyc.58.3.251|noedit\"></ref> Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%. To try to reduce their anxiety and alleviate depression, people with social phobia may use alcohol or other drugs, which can lead to substance abuse. It is estimated that one-fifth of patients with social anxiety disorder also suffer from alcohol dependence. However, some research suggests SAD is unrelated to, or even protective against alcohol-related problems. Those who suffer from both alcoholism and social anxiety disorder are more likely to avoid group-based treatments and to relapse compared to people who do not have this combination.", "Research into the causes of social anxiety and social phobia is wide-ranging, encompassing multiple perspectives from neuroscience to sociology. Scientists have yet to pinpoint the exact causes. Studies suggest that genetics can play a part in combination with environmental factors. Social phobia is not caused by other mental disorders or by substance abuse. Generally, social anxiety begins at a specific point in an individual's life. This will develop over time as the person struggles to recover. Eventually, mild social awkwardness can develop into symptoms of social anxiety or phobia.", "It has been shown that there is a two to threefold greater risk of having social phobia if a first-degree relative also has the disorder. This could be due to genetics and/or due to children acquiring social fears and avoidance through processes of observational learning or parental psychosocial education. Studies of identical twins brought up (via adoption) in different families have indicated that, if one twin developed social anxiety disorder, then the other was between 30 percent and 50 percent more likely than average to also develop the disorder. To some extent, this \"heritability\" may not be specific – for example, studies have found that if a parent has any kind of anxiety disorder or clinical depression, then a child is somewhat more likely to develop an anxiety disorder or social phobia. Studies suggest that parents of those with social anxiety disorder tend to be more socially isolated themselves (Bruch and Heimberg, 1994; Caster et al., 1999), and shyness in adoptive parents is significantly correlated with shyness in adopted children (Daniels and Plomin, 1985). Growing up with overprotective and hypercritical parents has also been associated with social anxiety disorder. Adolescents who were rated as having an insecure (anxious-ambivalent) attachment with their mother as infants were twice as likely to develop anxiety disorders by late adolescence, including social phobia. A related line of research has investigated 'behavioural inhibition' in infants – early signs of an inhibited and introspective or fearful nature. Studies have shown that around 10–15 percent of individuals show this early temperament, which appears to be partly due to genetics. Some continue to show this trait into adolescence and adulthood, and appear to be more likely to develop social anxiety disorder.", "A previous negative social experience can be a trigger to social phobia, perhaps particularly for individuals high in \"interpersonal sensitivity\". For around half of those diagnosed with social anxiety disorder, a specific traumatic or humiliating social event appears to be associated with the onset or worsening of the disorder; this kind of event appears to be particularly related to specific social phobia, for example, regarding public speaking (Stemberg \"et al.\", 1995). As well as direct experiences, observing or hearing about the socially negative experiences of others (e.g. a faux pas committed by someone), or verbal warnings of social problems and dangers, may also make the development of a social anxiety disorder more likely. Social anxiety disorder may be caused by the longer-term effects of not fitting in, or being bullied, rejected or ignored (Beidel and Turner, 1998). Shy adolescents or avoidant adults have emphasised unpleasant experiences with peers or childhood bullying or harassment (Gilmartin, 1987). In one study, popularity was found to be negatively correlated with social anxiety, and children who were neglected by their peers reported higher social anxiety and fear of negative evaluation than other categories of children. Socially phobic children appear less likely to receive positive reactions from peers, and anxious or inhibited children may isolate themselves.", "Cultural factors that have been related to social anxiety disorder include a society's attitude towards shyness and avoidance, affecting the ability to form relationships or access employment or education, and shame. One study found that the effects of parenting are different depending on the culture: American children appear more likely to develop social anxiety disorder if their parents emphasize the importance of others' opinions and use shame as a disciplinary strategy (Leung \"et al.\", 1994), but this association was not found for Chinese/Chinese-American children. In China, research has indicated that shy-inhibited children are more accepted than their peers and more likely to be considered for leadership and considered competent, in contrast to the findings in Western countries. Purely demographic variables may also play a role. Problems in developing social skills, or'social fluency', may be a cause of some social anxiety disorder, through either inability or lack of confidence to interact socially and gain positive reactions and acceptance from others. The studies have been mixed, however, with some studies not finding significant problems in social skills while others have. What does seem clear is that the socially anxious perceive their own social skills to be low. It may be that the increasing need for sophisticated social skills in forming relationships or careers, and an emphasis on assertiveness and competitiveness, is making social anxiety problems more common, at least among the'middle classes'. An interpersonal or media emphasis on 'normal' or 'attractive' personal characteristics has also been argued to fuel perfectionism and feelings of inferiority or insecurity regarding negative evaluation from others. The need for social acceptance or social standing has been elaborated in other lines of research relating to social anxiety.", "While alcohol initially relieves social phobia, excessive alcohol misuse can worsen social phobia symptoms and cause panic disorder to develop or worsen during alcohol intoxication and especially during alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines which are sometimes prescribed as tranquillisers. Benzodiazepines possess anti-anxiety properties and can be useful for the short-term treatment of severe anxiety. Like the anticonvulsants, they tend to be mild and well tolerated, although there is a risk of habit-forming. Benzodiazepines are usually administered orally for the treatment of anxiety; however, occasionally lorazepam or diazepam may be given intravenously for the treatment of panic attacks. The World Council of Anxiety does not recommend benzodiazepines for the long-term treatment of anxiety due to a range of problems associated with long-term use including tolerance, psychomotor impairment, cognitive and memory impairments, physical dependence and a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome upon discontinuation of benzodiazepines. Despite increasing focus on the use of antidepressants and other agents for the treatment of anxiety, benzodiazepines have remained a mainstay of anxiolytic pharmacotherapy due to their robust efficacy, rapid onset of therapeutic effect, and generally favorable side effect profile. Treatment patterns for psychotropic drugs appear to have remained stable over the past decade, with benzodiazepines being the most commonly used medication for panic disorder. Many people who are addicted to alcohol or prescribed benzodiazepines when it is explained to them they have a choice between ongoing ill mental health or quitting and recovering from their symptoms decide on quitting alcohol or their benzodiazepines. Symptoms may temporarily worsen however, during alcohol withdrawal or benzodiazepine withdrawal.", "Research has indicated the role of 'core' or 'unconditional' negative beliefs (e.g. \"I am inept\") and 'conditional' beliefs nearer to the surface (e.g. \"If I show myself, I will be rejected\"). They are thought to develop based on personality and adverse experiences and to be activated when the person feels under threat. A secondary factor is self-concealment which involves concealing the expression of one's anxiety or its underlying beliefs. One line of work has focused more specifically on the key role of self-presentational concerns. The resulting anxiety states are seen as interfering with social performance and the ability to concentrate on interaction, which in turn creates more social problems, which strengthens the negative schema. Also highlighted has been a high focus on and worry about anxiety symptoms themselves and how they might appear to others. A similar model emphasizes the development of a distorted mental representation of the self and overestimates of the likelihood and consequences of negative evaluation, and of the performance standards that others have. Such cognitive-behavioral models consider the role of negatively biased memories of the past and the processes of rumination after an event, and fearful anticipation before it. Studies have also highlighted the role of subtle avoidance and defensive factors, and shown how attempts to avoid feared negative evaluations or use of'safety behaviors' (Clark & Wells, 1995) can make social interaction more difficult and the anxiety worse in the long run. This work has been influential in the development of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for social anxiety disorder, which has been shown to have efficacy.", "There are many studies investigating neural bases of social anxiety disorder. Although the exact neural mechanisms have not been found yet, there is evidence relating social anxiety disorder to imbalance in some neurochemicals and hyperactivity in some brain areas.", "Sociability is closely tied to dopaminergic neurotransmission. In a 2011 study, a direct relation between social status of volunteers and binding affinity of dopamine D2/3 receptors in the striatum was found. Other research shows that the binding affinity of dopamine D2 receptors in the striatum of social anxiety sufferers is lower than in controls. Some other research shows an abnormality in dopamine transporter density in the striatum of social anxiety sufferers. However, some researchers have been unable to replicate previous findings of evidence of dopamine abnormality in social anxiety disorder. Studies have shown high prevalence of social anxiety in Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. In a recent study, social phobia was diagnosed in 50% of Parkinson's disease patients. Other researchers have found social phobia symptoms in patients treated with dopamine antagonists like haloperidol, emphasizing the role of dopamine neurotransmission in social anxiety disorder. Some evidence points to the possibility that social anxiety disorder involves reduced serotonin receptor binding. A recent study reports increased serotonin transporter binding in psychotropic medication-naive patients with generalized social anxiety disorder. Although there is little evidence of abnormality in serotonin neurotransmission, the limited efficacy of medications which affect serotonin levels may indicate the role of this pathway. Paroxetine, sertraline and fluvoxamine are three SSRIs that have been approved by the FDA to treat social anxiety disorder. Some researchers believe that SSRIs decrease the activity of the amygdala. There is also increasing focus on other candidate transmitters, e.g. norepinephrine and glutamate, which may be over-active in social anxiety disorder, and the inhibitory transmitter GABA, which may be under-active in the thalamus.", "The amygdala is part of the limbic system which is related to fear cognition and emotional learning. Individuals with social anxiety disorder have been found to have a hypersensitive amygdala; for example in relation to social threat cues (e.g. perceived negative evaluation by another person), angry or hostile faces, and while waiting to give a speech. Recent research has also indicated that another area of the brain, the anterior cingulate cortex, which was already known to be involved in the experience of physical pain, also appears to be involved in the experience of'social pain', for example perceiving group exclusion. A 2007 meta-analysis also found that individuals with social anxiety had hyperactiviation in the amygdala and insula areas which are frequently associated with fear and negative emotional processing.", "ICD-10 defines social phobia as a fear of scrutiny by other people leading to avoidance of social situations. The anxiety symptoms may present as a complaint of blushing, hand tremor, nausea or urgency of micturition. Symptoms may progress to panic attacks. Standardized rating scales such as the Social Phobia Inventory, the SPAI-B, Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, and the Social Interaction Anxiety Scale can be used to screen for social anxiety disorder and measure the severity of anxiety.", "The DSM-IV criteria stated that an individual cannot receive a diagnosis of social anxiety disorder if their symptoms are better accounted for by one of the autism spectrum disorders such as autism and Asperger syndrome. Because of its close relationship and overlapping symptoms, treating people with social phobia may help understand the underlying connections to other mental disorders. Social anxiety disorder is often linked to bipolar disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and some believe that they share an underlying cyclothymic-anxious-sensitive disposition. The co-occurrence of ADHD and social phobia is very high, especially when SCT symptoms are present.<ref name=\"DOI10.1177/1087054706286698\"></ref>", "Prevention of anxiety disorders is one focus of research. Use of CBT and related techniques may decrease the number of children with social anxiety disorder following completion of prevention programs.", "", "The first line treatment for social anxiety disorder is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) with medications such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) used only in those who are not interested in therapy. Self-help based on principles of CBT is a second-line treatment. There is some emerging evidence for the use of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) in the treatment of social anxiety disorder. ACT is considered an offshoot of traditional CBT and emphasizes accepting unpleasant symptoms rather than fighting against them, as well as psychological flexibility – the ability to adapt to changing situational demands, to shift one's perspective, and to balance competing desires.<ref name=\"doi10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001\"></ref> ACT may be useful as a second line treatment for this disorder in situations where CBT is ineffective or refused. Some studies have suggested social skills training (SST) can help with social anxiety. Examples of social skills focused on during SST for social anxiety disorder include: initiating conversations, establishing friendships, interacting with members of the preferred sex, constructing a speech and assertiveness skills. However, it is not clear whether specific social skills techniques and training are required, rather than just support with general social functioning and exposure to social situations. Given the evidence that social anxiety disorder may predict subsequent development of other psychiatric disorders such as depression, early diagnosis and treatment is important. Social anxiety disorder remains under-recognized in primary care practice, with patients often presenting for treatment only after the onset of complications such as clinical depression or substance abuse disorders.", "", "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a class of antidepressants, are the first choice of medication for generalized social phobia but a second line treatment. Compared to older forms of medication, there is less risk of tolerability and drug dependency associated with SSRIs. Paroxetine and paroxetine CR, Sertraline, Escitalopram, Venlafaxine XR and Fluvoxamine CR (luvox CR) are all approved for SAD and are all effective for it especially paroxetine. All SSRIs are somewhat effective for social anxiety except fluoxetine which was equivalent to placebo in all clinical trials except one. Paroxetine was able to change personality and significantly increase extraversion. In a 1995 double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, the SSRI paroxetine was shown to result in clinically meaningful improvement in 55% of patients with generalized social anxiety disorder, compared with 23.9% of those taking placebo. An October 2004 study yielded similar results. Patients were treated with either fluoxetine, psychotherapy, or a placebo. The first four sets saw improvement in 50.8 to 54.2 percent of the patients. Of those assigned to receive only a placebo, 31.7% achieved a rating of 1 or 2 on the Clinical Global Impression-Improvement scale. Those who sought both therapy and medication did not see a boost in improvement. In double-blind, placebo-controlled trials other SSRIs like fluvoxamine, escitalopram and sertraline showed reduction of social anxiety symptoms, including anxiety, sensitivity to rejection and hostility. Citalopram appears to be also effective. General side-effects are common during the first weeks while the body adjusts to the drug. Symptoms may include headaches, nausea, insomnia and changes in sexual behavior. Treatment safety during pregnancy has not been established. In late 2004 much media attention was given to a proposed link between SSRI use and suicidality [a term that encompasses suicidal ideation and attempts at suicide as well as suicide]. For this reason, [although evidential causality between SSRI use and actual suicide has not been demonstrated] the use of SSRIs in pediatric cases of depression is now recognized by the Food and Drug Administration as warranting a cautionary statement to the parents of children who may be prescribed SSRIs by a family doctor. Recent studies have shown no increase in rates of suicide. These tests, however, represent those diagnosed with depression, not necessarily with social anxiety disorder. In addition, studies show that more socially phobic patients treated with anti-depressant medication develop hypomania than non-phobic controls. The hypomania can be seen as the medication creating a new problem.", "Other prescription drugs are also used, if other methods are not effective. Before the introduction of SSRIs, monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) such as phenelzine were frequently used in the treatment of social anxiety. Evidence continues to indicate that MAOIs are effective in the treatment and management of social anxiety disorder and they are still used, but generally only as a last resort medication, owing to concerns about dietary restrictions, possible adverse drug interactions and a recommendation of multiple doses per day. A newer type of this medication, Reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase subtype A (RIMAs) such as the drug moclobemide, bind reversibly to the MAO-A enzyme, greatly reducing the risk of hypertensive crisis with dietary tyramine intake. Benzodiazepines are an alternative to SSRIs. These drugs recommended usage is for short-term relief, meaning a limited time frame of over a year, of severe, disabling anxiety. Although benzodiazepines are still sometimes prescribed for long-term everyday use in some countries, there is concern over the development of drug tolerance, dependency and misuse. It has been recommended that benzodiazepines be considered only for individuals who fail to respond to other medications. Benzodiazepines augment the action of GABA, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; effects usually begin to appear within minutes or hours. In most patients, tolerance rapidly develops to the sedative effects of benzodiazepines, but not to the anxiolytic effects. Long-term use of benzodiazepine may result in physical dependence, and abrupt discontinuation of the drug should be avoided due to high potential for withdrawal symptoms (including tremor, insomnia, and in rare cases, seizures). A gradual tapering of the dose of clonazepam (a decrease of 0.25 mg every 2 weeks), however, has been shown to be well tolerated by patients with social anxiety disorder. Benzodiazepines are not recommended as monotherapy for patients who have major depression in addition to social anxiety disorder and should be avoided in patients with a history of substance abuse. Certain anticonvulsant drugs such as gabapentin are effective in social anxiety disorder and may be a possible treatment alternative to benzodiazepines. Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) such as venlafaxine have shown similar effectiveness to the SSRIs. In Japan, Milnacipran is used in the treatment of Taijin kyofusho, a Japanese variant of social anxiety disorder. The atypical antidepressants mirtazapine and bupropion have been studied for the treatment of social anxiety disorder, and rendered mixed results. Some people with a form of social phobia called performance phobia have been helped by beta-blockers, which are more commonly used to control high blood pressure. Taken in low doses, they control the physical manifestation of anxiety and can be taken before a public performance. A novel treatment approach has recently been developed as a result of translational research. It has been shown that a combination of acute dosing of d-cycloserine (DCS) with exposure therapy facilitates the effects of exposure therapy of social phobia. DCS is an old antibiotic medication used for treating tuberculosis and does not have any anxiolytic properties per se. However, it acts as an agonist at the glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor site, which is important for learning and memory. Kava-kava has also attracted attention as a possible treatment, although safety concerns exist.", "Social anxiety disorder is known to appear at an early age in most cases. Fifty percent of those who develop this disorder have developed it by the age of 11, and 80% have developed it by age 20. This early age of onset may lead to people with social anxiety disorder being particularly vulnerable to depressive illnesses, drug abuse and other psychological conflicts. When prevalence estimates were based on the examination of psychiatric clinic samples, social anxiety disorder was thought to be a relatively rare disorder. The opposite was found to be true; social anxiety was common, but many were afraid to seek psychiatric help, leading to an underrecognition of the problem. The National Comorbidity Survey of over 8,000 American correspondents in 1994 revealed 12-month and lifetime prevalence rates of 7.9 percent and 13.3 percent, respectively; this makes it the third most prevalent psychiatric disorder after depression and alcohol dependence, and the most common of the anxiety disorders. According to US epidemiological data from the National Institute of Mental Health, social phobia affects 15 million adult Americans in any given year. Estimates vary within 2 percent and 7 percent of the U.S. adult population. The mean onset of social phobia is 10 to 13 years. Onset after age 25 is rare and is typically preceded by panic disorder or major depression. Social anxiety disorder occurs more often in females than males. The prevalence of social phobia appears to be increasing among white, married, and well-educated individuals. As a group, those with generalized social phobia are less likely to graduate from high school and are more likely to rely on government financial assistance or have poverty-level salaries. Surveys carried out in 2002 show the youth of England, Scotland, and Wales have a prevalence rate of 0.4 percent, 1.8 percent, and 0.6 percent, respectively. In Canada, the prevalence of self-reported social anxiety for Nova Scotians older than 14 years was 4.2 percent in June 2004 with women (4.6 percent) reporting more than men (3.8 percent). In Australia, social phobia is the 8th and 5th leading disease or illness for males and females between 15–24 years of age as of 2003. Because of the difficulty in separating social phobia from poor social skills or shyness, some studies have a large range of prevalence. The table also shows higher prevalence in Sweden.", "Literary descriptions of shyness can be traced back to the days of Hippocrates around 400 B.C. Hippocrates described someone who \"through bashfulness, suspicion, and timorousness, will not be seen abroad; loves darkness as life and cannot endure the light or to sit in lightsome places; his hat still in his eyes, he will neither see, nor be seen by his good will. He dare not come in company for fear he should be misused, disgraced, overshoot himself in gesture or speeches, or be sick; he thinks every man observes him.\" The first mention of the psychiatric term \"social phobia\" (\"phobie des situations sociales\") was made in the early 1900s. Psychologists used the term \"social neurosis\" to describe extremely shy patients in the 1930s. After extensive work by Joseph Wolpe on systematic desensitization, research on phobias and their treatment grew. The idea that social phobia was a separate entity from other phobias came from the British psychiatrist Isaac Marks in the 1960s. This was accepted by the American Psychiatric Association and was first officially included in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. The definition of the phobia was revised in 1989 to allow comorbidity with avoidant personality disorder and introduced generalized social phobia. Social phobia had been largely ignored prior to 1985. After a call to action by psychiatrist Michael Liebowitz and clinical psychologist Richard Heimberg, there was an increase in attention to and research on the disorder. The DSM-IV gave social phobia the alternative name \"social anxiety disorder\". Research on the psychology and sociology of everyday social anxiety continued. Cognitive Behavioural models and therapies were developed for social anxiety disorder. In the 1990s, paroxetine became the first prescription drug in the U.S. approved to treat social anxiety disorder, with others following.", "It has also been referred to as anthropophobia and anthrophobia, meaning \"fear of humans\", from, \"ánthropos\", \"human\" and, \"phóbos\", \"fear\". Other names have included interpersonal relation phobia. A specific Japanese cultural form is known as taijin kyofusho." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.", "Life with Louis.", "Ottoman invasion.", "Regency in Hungary.", "Governor of the Netherlands.", "Guardianship over nieces.", "Relationship with Charles.", "Riots.", "Seeking peace.", "Resignation.", "Life in Castile.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Brussels on 15 September 1505, between ten and eleven in the morning, Archduchess Mary of Austria was the fifth child of King Philip I and Queen Joanna of Castile. Her birth was very difficult; the Queen's life was in danger and it took her a month to recover. On 20 September, she was baptized by Nicolas Le Ruistre, Bishop of Arras, and named after her paternal grandmother, Mary of Burgundy, who had died in 1482. Her godfather was her paternal grandfather, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I. On 17 March 1506, Emperor Maximilian promised to marry her to the first son born to King Vladislaus II of Hungary. At the same time, the two monarchs decided that a brother of Mary would marry Vladislaus' daughter Anne. Three months later, Vladislaus' wife, Anne of Foix-Candale, gave birth to a son, Louis Jagiellon. Queen Anne died in childbirth and the royal physicians made great efforts to keep the sickly Louis alive. After the death of Mary's father in September 1506, her mother's mental health began to deteriorate. Mary, along with her brother, Archduke Charles, and her sisters, Archduchesses Eleanor and Isabella, was put into the care of her paternal aunt, Archduchess Margaret, while two other siblings, Archduke Ferdinand and posthumously-born Archduchess Catherine, remained in Castile. Mary, Isabella, and Eleanor were educated together at their aunt's court in Mechelen. Their music teacher was Henry Bredemers.", "Mary was summoned to the court of her grandfather Maximilian in 1514. On 22 July 1515, Mary and Louis were married in St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna. At the same time, Louis' sister Anne was betrothed to an as yet unspecified brother of Mary, with Emperor Maximilian acting as proxy. Due to their age, it was decided that the newly married couple would not live together for a few more years. Anne eventually married Mary's brother Ferdinand and came to Vienna, where the double sisters-in-law were educated together until 1516. That year, Mary's father-in-law died, making Louis and Mary king and queen of Hungary and Bohemia. Mary moved to Innsbruck, where she was educated until 1521. Maximilian encouraged her interest in hunting, while childhood lessons prompted an interest in music. This passion would later be demonstrated during her tenure as governor of the Netherlands.", "Mary travelled to Hungary in June 1521, two and a half years after Emperor Maximilian's death. She was anointed and crowned queen of Hungary by Simon Erdődy, Bishop of Zagreb, in Székesfehérvár on 11 December 1521. The queen's coronation was followed by brilliant festivities. The royal marriage was blessed on 13 January 1522 in Buda. Mary's anointment and coronation as queen of Bohemia took place on 1 June 1522. Mary and Louis fell in love when they were reunited in Buda. At first, Queen Mary had no influence over politics of Hungary and Bohemia because of her youth. Her court was replete with Germans and Dutch, who formed a base for the interests of the House of Habsburg. By 1524 Mary negotiated significant authority and influence for herself. In 1525, she took control over one powerful political faction and neutralised another. Austria's ambassador, Andrea de Borgo, was appointed by the Queen herself. During her tenure as queen of Hungary, Mary attracted the interest of Martin Luther, who dedicated four psalms to her in 1526. Despite her brother Ferdinand's strong disapproval, Luther's teachings held great appeal for Mary during her marriage and even more for her sister Isabella and her brother-in-law King Christian II of Denmark. Mary turned away from his teachings mostly because of pressure from Ferdinand. Her trusted court preacher, Johann Henckel, is also considered responsible for Mary's return to orthodox Catholicism. The return was lukewarm, but historian Helmut Georg Koenigsberger considers Mary's reputation for sympathy with Lutheranism \"much-exaggerated\". Louis and Mary spent their free time riding and hunting in the open country near the palace. They tried unsuccessfully to mobilize the Hungarian nobility against an imminent Ottoman invasion. Louis had inherited the crown of a country whose noblemen were fighting among themselves and against the peasantry. Hungary was deeply divided when, by the end of 1525, it became clear that the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I was planning to invade.", "On 29 August 1526, Suleiman and his army broke through Hungary's southern defences. Louis and his entire government marched out with a small army of 20,000 men. The Battle of Mohács was over in less than two hours, with the entire Hungarian army virtually annihilated. Louis tried to flee the site of the battle but slipped from his frightened horse and drowned. Mary would mourn him for the rest of her life. Hungary was divided into three parts: Ottoman Hungary - a part of the Ottoman Empire, Royal Hungary - ruled by Mary's brother Ferdinand, and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom - ruled by John Zápolya. Ferdinand was elected King of Bohemia. Mary took a vow to never remarry and always wore the heart-shaped medallion worn by her husband in the fatal Battle of Mohács.", "The day after her husband's death, Mary notified Ferdinand of the defeat and asked him to come to Hungary. She requested troops to support her until his arrival. Ferdinand, busy in Bohemia where he had already been elected king, instead named Mary his regent in Hungary. Mary spent the following year working to secure the election of Ferdinand as King of Hungary. On 14 February 1527, she asked for his permission to resign as regent. Permission was denied, and Mary had to remain in the post until the summer of 1527, when he finally came to Hungary and assumed the crown, to Mary's relief. Mary soon experienced financial troubles, illnesses, and loneliness. In 1528, her aunt Margaret suggested that she should marry King James V of Scotland. Mary rejected the idea because she had loved her husband and did not wish another marriage. In 1530 Charles again suggested that she should remarry; he proposed to arrange a marriage to Frederick of Bavaria, who had unsuccessfully courted Mary's sister Eleanor sixteen years before. Mary rejected him as well. Ferdinand offered Mary the post of regent again in 1528, but she declined, saying that \"such affairs need a person wiser and older\". Ferdinand persisted in drawing Mary into his affairs throughout 1529. Archduchess Margaret died on 1 December the next year, leaving the position of Governor of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands vacant. Ferdinand informed her about their aunt's death, saying that her affairs might now \"take a different course\".", "On 3 January 1531, Mary's older brother, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, requested that she assume the regency of the Netherlands. Charles was ruling a vast empire and was constantly in need of reliable family members who could govern his remote territories in his name. Mary reluctantly accepted on Charles' insistence. On 6 October 1537, in Monzón, the Emperor wrote to her: Mary served as regent of the Netherlands so well that Charles forced her to retain the post and granted her more powers than their aunt had enjoyed. Unlike her aunt, Mary was deeply unhappy during her tenure as governor and never enjoyed her role. In May 1531, having governed for only four months, Mary told her brother Ferdinand the experience was like having a rope around her neck. While Margaret had been considered truly feminine, flexible, adaptable, humorous and charming, Mary was unyielding and authoritarian. Margaret accomplished her goals using a smile, a joke, or a word of praise, but Mary used cynical and biting comments. Unlike her aunt, Mary was unable to forgive or forget. She recognized this lack of \"power as a woman\" as her main problem.", "Assuming the regency in the Netherlands meant assuming the guardianship of her nieces, Dorothea and Christina of Denmark, the daughters of her older sister, Queen Isabella of Denmark, who had died in 1526. Upon Isabella's death, the princesses had been cared for by Archduchess Margaret. Charles now relied upon Mary to arrange marriages for them, especially for Dorothea, whom he wanted to place on the Danish throne. In 1532, Francesco II Sforza, Duke of Milan, proposed a marriage with Christina, who was then 11 years old. Charles agreed to the marriage and allowed its immediate consummation. Mary determinedly opposed this decision, explaining to Charles that Christina was too young for consummation of the marriage. Charles ignored her, but she nevertheless managed to delay the marriage. She first told the Milanese envoy that her niece was ill and then took her to another part of the Netherlands for \"serious affairs\". Christina was finally married on 28 September 1532, but Mary managed to postpone her departure until 11 March 1533. Immediately after Christina's departure, Mary fell ill and requested that she be allowed to resign as governor, but Charles did not allow it. A year later, Dorothea too was married. A few months after Dorothea's departure, the now widowed Christina returned to her aunt's court. King Henry VIII of England immediately proposed marriage to Christina, and Charles urged Mary to negotiate the marriage. She was not in favour of the union, and delayed. Henry was excommunicated in 1539, at which point Charles had to end the negotiations.", "The Emperor assured Mary that he had no doubts about her loyalty to the Catholic Church. He had learned that the Queen could not easily be bullied, especially not in matters which affected her personally. Yet, upon leaving the States General in October 1531, Charles gave her a warning, saying that if his parent, wife, child or sibling became a follower of Luther, he would consider them his greatest enemy. Mary was thus forced to suppress Protestantism in the Netherlands, regardless of her own religious tolerance. However, she always strived to enforce her brother's laws on religion as little as possible. She was accused of protecting Protestants on several occasions. Her determination sometimes caused clashes of wills with Charles. In most matters of patronage, Mary had to defer to Charles, which is why his relations in this area were not much better with Mary than with their aunt Margaret. He often criticized her decisions, which negatively affected their otherwise affectionate relationship.", "Mary became worried about losing authority and was having trouble with the finances in February 1534. She complained that the budget could not be balanced even during the times of peace. Charles assured her that she was doing her best. The Queen complained to Charles in August 1537 that the Low Countries were no longer governable and said he should come himself. In fact, Mary handled the crisis quite well and kept a cool head in public. In October, she travelled to the north of France to meet her brother-in-law, King Francis I of France, the second husband of her sister Eleanor. On October 23, they signed a treaty. Francis thereby promised Mary that he would not help those who rebelled against her, while the Queen promised to compensate certain French noblemen who lost their land in the Low Countries during the Italian Wars.", "In 1534, Mary prepared a proposal for a defensive union of all the provinces in her councils. She made the proposal at the States General in Mechelen in July, citing her brother, who had requested the provinces assist each other. The plan had to be given up and, after Mary and Eleanor's failure to negotiate peace between the Empire and France, Mary's letters to Charles began to resemble the theatrical outbursts of their aunt Margaret. Mary strived for peace in the Netherlands. Charles paid no attention to the problems she was facing as governor and often ignored her warnings. One such incident led to Charles's loss of the city of Metz to France. Mary was forced to wage war against France in 1537 and to deal with the Revolt of Ghent between 1538 and 1540. Mary's appointment as Governor of the Netherlands was renewed on 14 October 1540, after the revolt in Ghent had been subdued.", "The Queen had to mediate between her brothers in 1555, when Charles decided to abdicate as emperor and leave the government of the Netherlands to his son Philip, despite Ferdinand's objections. When Mary learned of Charles's decision, she informed him that she too would resign. Both Charles and Philip urged her to remain in the post, but she refused. She chronicled the difficulties she had faced due to her gender, the fact that she could not act as she thought she should have because of disagreements with Charles, and her age. Furthermore, she did not wish to accommodate to the ways of her nephew after years of getting used to Charles's demands. The actual reason for Mary's resignation was her numerous disagreements with her nephew. She asked for Charles's permission to leave the Netherlands upon her resignation, fearing that she would be drawn into politics again if she remained. Charles finally allowed his sister to resign. She formally announced her decision on 24 September 1555 and dismissed her household on 1 October. On 25 October, her authority was transferred to Philip, who, despite his personal dislike of his aunt, tried to convince her to resume the post. After another quarrel with Philip, Mary retired to Turnhout. She remained in the Netherlands one more year.", "Mary wished to retire to Castile and live with her recently widowed sister Eleanor, near Charles, who had retired. She was afraid of moving to Castile because, although her mentally unstable mother Joanna (who died aged 75 in April 1555) had been sovereign there, Mary had never lived in Castile. She was afraid that Eleanor's death would leave her alone in a country whose customs she did not know. In the end, she decided to move to Castile, while retaining the possibility of moving back to the Netherlands in case she could not adjust to the Castilian customs. Charles, Eleanor, and Mary sailed from Ghent on 15 September 1556. Although she repeatedly assured her brother that she had no intention of occupying herself with the affairs of state, Mary offered to become adviser to her niece Joan, who was serving as regent for Philip. Joan did not wish to share power and declined her aunt's offer. Mary did not enjoy her retirement for long; Eleanor died in her arms in February 1558. The grief-stricken queen travelled to Charles to ask him for advice about her future. Charles told her that he wanted her to resume regency in the Netherlands, and promised a home and a large income, but Mary declined the offer. Her nephew Philip then urged her advisor to convince her to return. When Charles became ill in August, Mary accepted the offer and decided that she would become governor once again. In September, Mary was fully prepared to depart for the Netherlands and resume her post when she was informed of Charles's death. Distressed by the death of another sibling, the Queen, who had suffered from a heart disease most of her life, had two heart attacks in October. Both were so severe that her doctors thought that she had died. When Joan visited her, Mary was still determined to fulfill the promise she had given to Charles and assume the regency in the Netherlands, but she was weak and feverish. She died only few weeks later, in Cigales on 18 October 1558. In her last will, Mary left all her possessions to Charles. Since Charles had died, Philip inherited his aunt's property. Shortly before her death, she decided that Philip and Joan should execute her will. She requested that her heart-shaped gold medallion, once worn by her husband, be melted down and the gold distributed to the poor. Queen Mary was first buried in the Monastery of Saint Benedict in Valladolid. Fifteen years after her death, Philip ordered that the remains be transferred to El Escorial.", "Mary was a keen art collector, and owned several important masterpieces of Early Netherlandish painting as well as more contemporary works. These included the \"Deposition of Christ\" by Rogier van der Weyden, now in the Museo de Prado, and the \"Arnolfini Portrait\" by Jan van Eyck, now in the National Gallery, London. Most of the collection passed to the Spanish Royal Collection after her death. Queen Mary of Hungary was a great patron of music. She supported both sacred and secular music at her court in the Netherlands, where her \"maître de chapelle\" was Benedictus Appenzeller. Several elaborate music manuscripts that she commissioned during her governance are preserved in Spain in the monastery of Montserrat." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Trivia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Červenková started gymnastics at the age of four. Since her earliest years she has made a great impression on the Czech rhythmic gymnastics, which had failed to qualify at least one other athlete for the 2000 Olympics. Under the guidance of coach Ivana Pokorná, she joined the senior national team in 2003. She finished second all-around in the national championships to Kateřina Kopáčová and won her first senior title with ball. She however beat the Czech number one in the Budapest World Championships that served as the qualification event for the 2004 Olympics. Červenková finished 18th in the qualification round and slipped down to 25th in the final all-around, but it was enough to secure the Czech Republic one Olympic spot. In 2004 Červenková won her first all-around national title and confirmed herself as the third gymnast to represent the Czech Republic (first one since Lenka Oulehlová and Andrea Šebestová finished 22nd and 28th respectively in the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta). Being only 16 years old, Červenková was the youngest member of the Czech Olympic team for Athens, as well as the tiniest one (only 1.60m tall). Struggling with her last hoop routine she finished 20th in the all-around qualification, but was warmly applauded by the audience. In Baku, Červenková competed again in the world championships in 2005, 16th all-around final. She also took participation in the 2005 World Games in Duisburg, the individual apparatus substitute event to the Olympic Games recording the best result of ninth place with ribbon, only 0.05 pts out of final. In 2006, Červenková had planned to take full advantage of her past results, particularly in the European Championships, though due to injury, had to withdraw from a large part of the season in favour of intensive rehabilitation. She thus missed the major part of the season, including the Europeans. In January 2007 the Czech Rhythmic Gymnastics Union board decided to discard Červenková from the national team following advice from the sport-medicine consultants. Červenková is known for her tender and dynamic routines, nice body lines and appropriate flexibility balance, but she lacks the courage to risk and sometimes makes major mistakes. Fans love her for her charming and friendly character and smile. Right now she still competing, but only in national competitions.", "Anna Bessonova of Ukraine is her favorite gymnast while javelin thrower and three-time Olympic champion Jan Železný is her favorite non-gymnastics athlete." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Significance.", "Goddess.", "Science." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The deities of the Greek pantheon swore all their oaths upon the river Styx because, according to classical mythology, during the Titan war, Styx, the goddess of the river, sided with Zeus. After the war, Zeus declared that every oath must be sworn upon her. Zeus swore to give Semele whatever she wanted and was then obliged to follow through when he realized to his horror that her request would lead to her death. Helios similarly promised his son Phaëton whatever he desired, also resulting in the boy's death. Myths related to such early deities did not survive long enough to be included in historic records, but tantalizing references exist among those that have been discovered. According to some versions, Styx had miraculous powers and could make someone invulnerable. According to one tradition, Achilles was dipped in the waters of the river by his mother during his childhood, acquiring invulnerability, with exception of his heel, by which his mother held him. The only spot where Achilles was vulnerable was therefore that heel, where he was struck and killed by Paris's arrow during the Trojan War. This is the source of the expression \"Achilles' heel\", a metaphor for a vulnerable spot. Styx was primarily a feature in the afterworld of classical Greek mythology, similar to the Christian area of Hell in texts such as \"The Divine Comedy\" and \"Paradise Lost\". The ferryman Charon often is described as having transported the souls of the newly dead across this river into the underworld. Dante put Phlegyas as ferryman over the Styx and made it the fifth circle of Hell, where the wrathful and sullen are punished by being drowned in the muddy waters for eternity, with the wrathful fighting each other. In ancient times some believed that a coin (Charon's obol) placed in the mouth of a dead person would pay the toll for the ferry across the river to the entrance of the underworld. It was said that if someone could not pay the fee, they would never be able to cross the river. The ritual was performed by the relatives of the dead. The variant spelling Stix was sometimes used in translations of Classical Greek before the 20th century. By metonymy, the adjective \"stygian\" () came to refer to anything dark, dismal, and murky.", "Styx was the name of an Oceanid nymph, one of the three thousand daughters of Tethys and Oceanus, the goddess of the River Styx. In classical myths, her husband was Pallas and she gave birth to Zelus, Nike, Kratos, and Bia (and sometimes Eos). In these myths, Styx supported Zeus in the Titanomachy, where she was said to be the first to rush to his aid. For this reason, her name was given the honor of being a binding oath for the deities. Knowledge of whether this was the original reason for the tradition did not survive into historical records following the religious transition that led to the pantheon of the classical era.", "As of 2 July 2013, \"Styx\" officially became the name of one of Pluto's moons. The other moons of Pluto (Charon, Nix, Hydra, and Kerberos) also have names from Greco-Roman mythology related to the underworld." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Site.", "Design and construction.", "Features.", "Rooms and suites.", "Services.", "Restaurants.", "Rating.", "Reception.", "Reviews by architecture critics.", "Notable events.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The beachfront area where Burj Al Arab and Jumeirah Beach Hotel are located was previously called Miami Beach. The hotel is located on an island of reclaimed land 280 meters offshore of the beach of the former \"Chicago Beach Hotel\". The locale's name had its origins in the Chicago Bridge & Iron Company which at one time welded giant floating oil storage tanks, known locally as \"Kazzans\" on the site.", "The Burj Al Arab was designed by multidisciplinary consultancy Atkins led by architect Tom Wright, the conceptual design of the building was originally from Uruguayan architect Carlos Ott. It is very similar to the Vasco da Gama Tower located in Lisbon, Portugal. The design and construction were managed by Canadian engineer Rick Gregory also of WS Atkins. Construction of the island began in 1994 and involved up to 2,000 construction workers during peak construction. It was built to resemble the billowing spinnaker sail of a J-class yacht. Two \"wings\" spread in a V to form a vast \"mast\", while the space between them is enclosed in a massive atrium. The hotel was built by South African construction contractor Murray & Roberts / now renamed Concor and Al Habtoor Engineering and the interior works were delivered by UAE based Depa. The building opened in December 1999. The hotel's helipad was designed by Irish architect Rebecca Gernon.", "Several features of the hotel required complex engineering feats to achieve. The hotel rests on an artificial island constructed offshore. To secure a foundation, the builders drove 230 forty-meter-long (130 ft) concrete piles into the sand. Engineers created a ground/surface layer of large rocks, which is circled with a concrete honeycomb pattern, which serves to protect the foundation from erosion. It took three years to reclaim the land from the sea, while it took fewer than three years to construct the building itself. The building contains over of concrete and 9,000 tons of steel. Inside the building, the atrium is tall. The 18 storied atrium is enclosed by 12 individually tensioned two-layer membrane panels form the north facing façade. Given the height of the building, the Burj Al Arab is the world's fifth tallest hotel after Gevora Hotel, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai, Four Seasons Place Kuala Lumpur and Rose and Rayhaan by Rotana. But where buildings with mixed use were stripped off the list, the Burj Al Arab would be the world's third tallest hotel. The structure of the Rose Rayhaan, also in Dubai, is 12 m (40 ft) taller than the Burj Al Arab.", "The hotel is managed by the Jumeirah Group. Despite its size, the Burj Al Arab holds only 28 double-story floors which accommodate 202 bedroom suites. The smallest suite occupies an area of, the largest covers. Suites feature design details that juxtapose east and west. White columns show great influence. Bathrooms are accented by mosaic tile patterns. The Royal Suite, billed at per night, is listed at number 12 on \"World's 15 most expensive hotel suites\" compiled by CNN Go in 2012. The Burj Al Arab is very popular with the Chinese market, which made up 25 percent of all bookings at the hotel in 2011 and 2012.", "The hotel has a shuttle service with Rolls-Royces and a helicopter, and a private beach.", "There are six restaurants in the hotel, including: \"Al Muntaha\" (\"The Ultimate\"), is located above the Persian Gulf, offering a view of Dubai. It is supported by a full cantilever that extends from either side of the mast, and is accessed by a panoramic elevator. \"Al Mahara\" (\"Oyster\"), which is accessed via a simulated submarine voyage, features a large seawater aquarium, holding roughly of water. The wall of the tank, made of acrylic glass in order to withstand the water pressure, is about thick.", "The Burj Al Arab is a seven-star hotel, the highest unofficial official ranking - The term \"seven-star\" appeared due to a British journalist who had visited the hotel on a tour before the hotel was officially opened. The journalist described Burj al Arab in her article as \"a great hotel and more than anything she has ever seen and called it a seven star hotel.\" While the hotel is sometimes erroneously described as \"only a five-star hotel\", the hotel management claims never to have done that themselves. In the words of a Jumeirah Group spokesperson: \"There's not a lot we can do to stop it. We're not encouraging the use of the term. We've never used it in our advertising.\"", "", "Burj Al Arab has attracted criticism as well \"a contradiction of sorts, considering how well-designed and impressive the construction ultimately proves to be.\" The contradiction here seems to be related to the hotel's decor. \"This extraordinary investment in state-of-the-art construction technology stretches the limits of the ambitious urban imagination in an exercise that is largely due to the power of excessive wealth.\" Another critic includes negative critiques for the city of Dubai as well: \"both the hotel and the city, after all, are monuments to the triumph of money over practicality. Both elevate style over substance.\" Yet another: \"Emulating the quality of palatial interiors, in an expression of wealth for the mainstream, a theater of opulence is created in Burj Al Arab... The result is a baroque effect\".", "Several events have taken place on the helipad 210 m (689 ft) above ground to attract media attention. These include:", "The last chapter of the espionage novel \"Performance Anomalies\" takes place at the top of the Burj Al Arab, where the spy protagonist Cono 7Q discovers that through deadly betrayal his spy nemesis Katerina has maneuvered herself into the top echelon of the government of Kazakhstan. The Hotel can also be seen in \"Syriana\", \"\" and also some Bollywood movies. Richard Hammond included the building in his television series, \"Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections\". The Burj Al Arab serves as the cover image for the 2009 album \"Ocean Eyes\" by Owl City. The Burj Al Arab was the site of the last task of the fifth episode of the first season of the Chinese edition of \"The Amazing Race\", where teams had to clean up a room to the hotel's standards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early development.", "Genesis.", "Design concepts.", "Variants.", "Fw 190 A.", "High-altitude developments.", "Combat history.", "Production.", "Surviving aircraft and modern replicas." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Between 1934 and 1935 the German Ministry of Aviation (RLM) ran a contest to produce a modern fighter for the rearming Luftwaffe. Kurt Tank entered the parasol-winged Fw 159 into the contest, against the Arado Ar 80, Heinkel He 112 and Messerschmitt Bf 109. The Fw 159 was hopelessly outclassed, and was soon eliminated from the competition along with the Ar 80. The He 112 and Bf 109 were generally similar in design but the 109's lightweight construction gave it a performance edge the 112 was never able to match. On 12 March 1936 the 109 was declared the winner. Even before the 109 had entered squadron service, in autumn 1937 the RLM sent out a new tender asking various designers for a new fighter to fight alongside the Bf 109, as Walter Günther had done with his firm's follow-on to the unsuccessful He 100 and He 112. Although the Bf 109 was an extremely competitive fighter, the Ministry was worried that future foreign designs might outclass it, and wanted to have new aircraft under development to meet these possible challenges. Kurt Tank responded with a number of designs, most based around a liquid-cooled inline engine. However, it was not until a design was presented using the air-cooled, 14-cylinder BMW 139 radial engine that the Ministry of Aviation's interest was aroused. As this design used a radial engine, it would not compete with the inline-powered Bf 109 for engines, when there were already too few Daimler-Benz DB 601s to go around. This was not the case for competing designs like the Heinkel He 100 or twin-engined Focke-Wulf Fw 187, where production would compete with the 109 and Messerschmitt Bf 110 for engine supplies. After the war, Tank denied a rumour that he had to \"fight a battle\" with the Ministry to convince them of the radial engine's merits.", "At the time, the use of radial engines in land-based fighters was relatively rare in Europe, as it was believed that their large frontal area would cause too much drag on something as small as a fighter. Tank was not convinced of this, having witnessed the successful use of radial engines by the U.S. Navy, and felt a properly streamlined installation would eliminate this problem. The hottest points on any air-cooled engine are the cylinder heads, located around the circumference of a radial engine. In order to provide sufficient air to cool the engine, airflow had to be maximized at this outer edge. This was normally accomplished by leaving the majority of the front face of the engine open to the air, causing considerable drag. During the late 1920s, NACA led development of a dramatic improvement by placing an airfoil-shaped ring around the outside of the cylinder heads (the NACA cowling). The shaping accelerated the air as it entered the front of the cowl, increasing the total airflow, and allowing the opening in front of the engine to be made smaller. Tank introduced a further refinement to this basic concept. He suggested placing most of the airflow components on the propeller, in the form of an oversized propeller spinner whose outside diameter was the same as the engine. The cowl around the engine proper was greatly simplified, essentially a basic cylinder. Air entered through a small hole at the centre of the spinner, and was directed through ductwork in the spinner so it was blowing rearward along the cylinder heads. To provide enough airflow, an internal cone was placed in the centre of the hole, over the propeller hub, which was intended to compress the airflow and allow a smaller opening to be used. In theory, the tight-fitting cowling also provided some thrust due to the compression and heating of air as it flowed through the cowling. As to the rest of the design philosophy, Tank wanted something more than an aircraft built only for speed. Tank outlined the reasoning: In contrast to the complex, failure-prone fuselage-mounted main gear legs of the earlier Fw 159, one of the main features of the Fw 190 was its wide-tracked, inwards-retracting landing gear. They were designed to withstand a sink rate of 4.5 metres per second (15 feet per second, 900 feet per minute), double the strength factor usually required. Hydraulic wheel brakes were used. The wide-track undercarriage produced better ground handling characteristics, and the Fw 190 suffered fewer ground accidents than the Bf 109. (The Bf 109's narrow-track, outwards-retracting landing gear hinged on its wing root structure to help lower weight, but this led to inherent weakness and many failures and ground loops.) The Fw 190's retractable tail gear used a cable, anchored to the \"elbow\" at the midpoint of the starboard maingear's transverse retraction arms, which ran aftwards within the fuselage to the vertical fin to operate the tailwheel retraction function. The tailwheel's retraction mechanical design possessed a set of pulleys to guide the aforementioned cable to the top of the tailwheel's oleo strut, pulling it upwards along a diagonal track within the fin, into the lower fuselage — this mechanism was accessible through a prominently visible triangular-shaped hinged panel, on the left side in the fin's side sheetmetal covering. On some versions of the Fw 190 an extended tailwheel oleo strut could be fitted for larger-sized loads (such as bombs or even a torpedo) beneath the fuselage. Most aircraft of the era used cables and pulleys to operate their controls. The cables tended to stretch, resulting in the sensations of \"give\" and \"play\" that made the controls less crisp and responsive, and required constant maintenance to correct. For the new design, the team replaced the cables with rigid pushrods and bearings to eliminate this problem. Another innovation was making the controls as light as possible. The maximum resistance of the ailerons was limited to, as the average man's wrist could not exert a greater force. The empennage (tail assembly) featured relatively small and well-balanced horizontal and vertical surfaces. The design team also attempted to minimize changes in the aircraft's trim at varying speeds, thus reducing the pilot's workload. They were so successful in this regard that they found in-flight-adjustable aileron and rudder trim tabs were not necessary. Small, fixed tabs were fitted to control surfaces and adjusted for proper balance during initial test flights. Only the elevator trim needed to be adjusted in flight (a feature common to all aircraft). This was accomplished by tilting the entire horizontal tailplane with an electric motor, with an angle of incidence ranging from −3° to +5°. Another aspect of the new design was the extensive use of electrically powered equipment instead of the hydraulic systems used by most aircraft manufacturers of the time. On the first two prototypes, the main landing gear was hydraulic. Starting with the third prototype, the undercarriage was operated by push buttons controlling electric motors in the wings, and was kept in position by electric up and down-locks. The armament was also loaded and fired electrically. Tank believed that service use would prove that electrically powered systems were more reliable and more rugged than hydraulics, electric lines being much less prone to damage from enemy fire. Like the Bf 109, the Fw 190 featured a fairly small wing planform with relatively high wing loading. This presents a trade-off in performance. An aircraft with a smaller wing suffers less drag under most flight conditions and therefore flies faster and may have better range. However, it also means the aircraft has a higher stalling speed making it less maneuverable, and also reduces performance in the thinner air at higher altitudes. The wings spanned 9.5 m (31 ft 2 in) and had an area of 15 m (161 ft). The wing was designed using the NACA 23015.3 airfoil at the root and the NACA 23009 airfoil at the tip. Earlier aircraft designs generally featured canopies consisting of small plates of perspex (called Plexiglas in the United States) in a metal \"greenhouse\" framework, with the top of the canopy even with the rear fuselage - this was true of the IJNAS Mitsubishi A6M Zero, whose otherwise \"all-around view\" canopy was still heavily framed. This design considerably limited visibility, especially to the rear. The introduction of vacuum forming led to the creation of the \"bubble canopy\" which was largely self-supporting, and could be mounted over the cockpit, offering greatly improved all-round visibility. Tank's design for the Fw 190 used a canopy with a frame that ran around the perimeter, with only a short, centerline seam along the top, running rearward from the radio antenna fitting where the three-panel windscreen and forward edge of the canopy met, just in front of the pilot. The eventual choice of the BMW 801 14-cylinder radial over the more troublesome BMW 139 also brought with it a BMW-designed cowling \"system\" which integrated the radiator used to cool the motor oil. An annular, ring-shaped oil cooler core was built into the BMW-provided forward cowl, just behind the fan. The outer portion of the oil cooler's core was in contact with the main cowling's sheet metal. Comprising the BMW-designed forward cowl, in front of the oil cooler was a ring of metal with a C-shaped cross-section, with the outer lip lying just outside the rim of the cowl, and the inner side on the inside of the oil cooler core. Together, the metal ring and cowling formed an S-shaped duct with the oil cooler's core contained between them. Airflow past the gap between the cowl and outer lip of the metal ring produced a vacuum effect that pulled air from the front of the engine forward across the oil cooler core to provide cooling for the 801's motor oil. The rate of cooling airflow over the core could be controlled by moving the metal ring in order to open or close the gap. The reasons for this complex system were threefold. One was to reduce any extra aerodynamic drag of the oil radiator, in this case largely eliminating it by placing it within the same cowling as the engine. The second was to warm the air before it flowed to the radiator to aid warming the oil during starting. Finally, by placing the radiator behind the fan, cooling was provided even while the aircraft was parked. The disadvantage to this design was that the radiator was in an extremely vulnerable location, and the metal ring was increasingly armoured as the war progressed.", "", "A total of 13,291 Fw 190 A-model aircraft were produced.", "Tank started looking at ways to address the altitude performance problem early in the program. In 1941, he proposed a number of versions featuring new powerplants, and he suggested using turbochargers in place of superchargers. Three such installations were outlined", "The Fw 190 participated on every major combat front where the Luftwaffe operated after 1941, and did so with success in a variety of roles.", "A 0.40 km (100 acre) Focke-Wulf plant east of Marienburg was bombed by the Eighth Air Force on 9 October 1944. In addition, one of the most important sub-contractors for the radial-engined Fw 190s was AGO Flugzeugwerke, which from 1941 through to the end of the war produced enough Fw 190s to earn it major attention from the USAAF, with the AGO plant in Oschersleben being attacked at least five times during the war from 1943 onwards.", "Some 28 original Fw 190s are in museums or in the hands of private collectors around the world. In 1997 a German company, Flug Werk GmbH, began manufacturing new Fw 190 models as reproductions. By 2012 almost 20 had been produced, most flyable, a few as static display models, with airworthy examples usually powered by Chinese-manufactured Shvetsov ASh-82 twin-row, 14-cylinder radial powerplants, which have a displacement of 41.2 litres, close to the BMW 801's 41.8 litres, with the same engine cylinder arrangement and number of cylinders. The nearly intact wreck of an Fw 190 A-5/U3 (\"Werknummer\" 151 227) that had crashed in a marsh in a forest near Leningrad, Soviet Union, 1943 was located in 1989. After restoration in the US, the Fw 190 flew again (with the original BMW 801 powerplant) on 1 December 2010. Following the successful test flight, the aircraft was then trucked up to the Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum, where it was reassembled in April 2011 and returned to airworthy condition. At least five surviving Fw 190A radial-engined aircraft are known to have been assigned to the Luftwaffe's JG 5 wing in Herdla, Norway. More German fighter aircraft on display in museums in the 21st century have originated from this unit than from any other Axis Powers' military aviation unit of World War II. The Turkish Air Force retired all of its Fw 190A-3 fleet at the end of 1947 mostly because of lack of spare parts. It is rumored that American-Turkish bilateral agreements required retiring and scrapping of all German origin aircraft, although this requirement did not exist for any other country. According to Hürriyet Daily News, all of the retired Fw 190s were saved from scrapping by wrapping them with protective cloths and burying them in the soil near the Aviation Supply and Maintenance Center at Kayseri. Attempts to recover the aircraft have all been unsuccessful, which suggests the story is probably a hoax or myth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties of semicubical parabolas.", "Similarity.", "Tangents.", "Arclength.", "Polar coordinates.", "Relation between a semicubical parabola and a cubic function.", "Isochrone curve.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "\"Proof:\" The similarity formula_10 (uniform scaling) maps the semicubical parabola formula_8 onto the curve formula_12 with formula_13. The \"proof\" follows from the tangent vector formula_17. Only for formula_18 this vector has zero length.", "Differentiating the \"semicubical unit parabola\" formula_19 one gets at point formula_20 of the \"upper\" branch the equation of the tangent: This tangent intersects the \"lower\" branch at exactly one further point with coordinates (Proving this statement one should use the fact, that the tangent meets the curve at formula_23 twice.)", "Determining the arclength of a curve formula_24 one has to solve the integral formula_25. For the semicubical parabola formula_26 one gets \"Example:\" For formula_29 (semicubical unit parabola) and formula_30, which means the length of the arc between the origin and point formula_31, one gets the arc length formula_32", "In order to get the representation of the semicubical parabola formula_8 in polar coordinates, one determines the intersection point of the line formula_36 with the curve. For formula_37 there is one point different from the origin: formula_38. This point has distance formula_39 from the origin. With formula_40 and formula_41 ( see List of identities) one gets", "Mapping the semicubical parabola formula_43 by the projective map formula_44 (involutoric perspectivity with axis formula_45 and center formula_46 ) yields formula_47, hence the \"cubic function\" formula_48. The cusp (origin) of the semicubical parabola is exchanged with the point at infinity of the y-axis. This property can be derived, too, if one represents the semicubical parabola by \"homogeneous coordinates\": In equation (A) the replacement formula_49 (the line at infinity has equation formula_50.) and the multiplication by formula_51 is performed. One gets the equation of the curve Choosing line formula_53 as line at infinity and introducing formula_54 yields the (affine) curve formula_55", "An additional defining property of the semicubical parabola is that it is an isochrone curve, meaning that a particle following its path while being pulled down by gravity travels equal vertical intervals in equal time periods. In this way it is related to the tautochrone curve, for which particles at different starting points always take equal time to reach the bottom, and the brachistochrone curve, the curve that minimizes the time it takes for a falling particle to travel from its start to its end.", "The semicubical parabola was discovered in 1657 by William Neile who computed its arc length. Although the lengths of some other non-algebraic curves including the logarithmic spiral and cycloid had already been computed (that is, those curves had been \"rectified\"), the semicubical parabola was the first algebraic curve (excluding the line and circle) to be rectified." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Isocrates, in his witty declamation \"Busiris\" recounts \"the false tale of Heracles and Busiris\" (11.30–11.40), which was a comic subject represented almost entirely in the repertory of early 5th century BC Athenian vase-painters: the theme has a narrow narrative range, according to Niall Livingstone: Heracles being led to sacrifice; his escape; the killing of Busiris; the rout of his entourage. In Isocrates' rhetorical use of a theme that he considers unworthy of serious treatment, the villainous king of Egypt named Busiris, a son of Poseidon and Libya or Lysianassa, was the ancient founder of Egyptian civilization, with an imagined \"model constitution\" that Isocrates sets up as a parodic contrast to the \"Republic\" by Plato. Plutarch says that his mother is Anippe, daughter of the river-god Nilus. The monstrous Busiris sacrificed all visitors to his gods. Heracles defied him, broke his shackles at the last minute and killed Busiris. In Diodorus Siculus, Busiris appears as the founder of the line of kings at Thebes, which historically would have been the 11th Dynasty. According to Hyginus, Busiris was the father of Melite who became the mother of Metus by her grandfather Poseidon. This part of the mythology concerning Herakles appears to have origins in a corruption of an Egyptian myth concerning Osiris' sacrifice by Set, and subsequent resurrection (see Legend of Osiris and Isis).", "The fictional king Busiris also appears, as the leader of a revolt, in \"True History\" (2.23) by Lucian, written in the 2nd century CE. In \"Paradise Lost\", John Milton uses \"Busiris\" as the name of the Pharaoh of the Exodus, which suggests a comparison between Heracles' escape and the Israelites' escape from slavery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Causes.", "Genetics.", "Environmental factors.", "Mechanism.", "Diagnosis.", "Types.", "Degree.", "Age at onset.", "Prevention.", "Glasses and contacts.", "Medication.", "Other methods.", "Treatment.", "Glasses and contacts.", "Surgery.", "Photorefractive keratectomy.", "LASIK.", "Phakic intra-ocular lens.", "Orthokeratology.", "Intrastromal corneal ring segment.", "Alternative medicine.", "Epidemiology.", "Asia.", "North America.", "Australia.", "South America.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Correlations.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A myopic individual can see clearly out to a certain distance (called far point), but everything further becomes blurry. If the extent of the myopia is great enough, even standard reading distances can be affected. Upon routine examination of the eyes, the vast majority of myopic eyes appear structurally identical to nonmyopic eyes. Onset is often in school children, with worsening between the ages of 8 and 15.", "The underlying cause is believed to be a combination of genetic and environmental factors. Risk factors include doing work that involves focusing on close objects, greater time spent indoors, and a family history of the condition. It is also associated with a high socioeconomic class. A 2012 review could not find strong evidence for any single cause, although many theories have been discredited. Identical twins are more likely to be affected than non identical twins which indicates at least some genetic factors are involved. Myopia has been increasing rapidly throughout the developed world, suggesting environmental factors are involved.", "A risk for myopia may be inherited from one's parents. Genetic linkage studies have identified 18 possible loci on 15 different chromosomes that are associated with myopia, but none of these loci is part of the candidate genes that cause myopia. Instead of a simple one-gene locus controlling the onset of myopia, a complex interaction of many mutated proteins acting in concert may be the cause. Instead of myopia being caused by a defect in a structural protein, defects in the control of these structural proteins might be the actual cause of myopia. A collaboration of all myopia studies worldwide identified 16 new loci for refractive error in individuals of European ancestry, of which 8 were shared with Asians. The new loci include candidate genes with functions in neurotransmission, ion transport, retinoic acid metabolism, extracellular matrix remodeling and eye development. The carriers of the high-risk genes have a tenfold increased risk of myopia. Human population studies suggest that contribution of genetic factors accounts for 60–90% of variance in refraction. However, the currently identified variants account for only a small fraction of myopia cases, suggesting the existence of a large number of yet unidentified low-frequency or small-effect variants, which underlie the majority of myopia cases.", "Environmental factors which increase the risk of nearsightedness include insufficient light exposure, low physical activity, near work, and increased year of education. One hypothesis is that a lack of normal visual stimuli causes improper development of the eyeball. Under this hypothesis, \"normal\" refers to the environmental stimuli that the eyeball evolved to. Modern humans who spend most of their time indoors, in dimly or fluorescently lit buildings which may contribute to the development of myopia. People, and children especially, who spend more time doing physical exercise and outdoor play have lower rates of myopia, suggesting the increased magnitude and complexity of the visual stimuli encountered during these types of activities decrease myopic progression. There is preliminary evidence that the protective effect of outdoor activities on the development of myopia is due, at least in part, to the effect of long hours of exposure to daylight on the production and the release of retinal dopamine. The near work hypothesis, also referred to as the \"use-abuse theory\" states that spending time involved in near work strains the intraocular and extraocular muscles. Some studies support the hypothesis, while other studies do not. While an association is present, it is not clearly causal. Nearsightedness is also more common in children with diabetes, Childhood arthritis, uveitis, and systemic lupus erythematosus.", "Because myopia is a refractive error, the physical cause of myopia is comparable to any optical system that is out of focus. Borish and Duke-Elder classified myopia by these physical causes: As with any optical system experiencing a defocus aberration, the effect can be exaggerated or masked by changing the aperture size. In the case of the eye, a large pupil emphasizes refractive error and a small pupil masks it. This phenomenon can cause a condition in which an individual has a greater difficulty seeing in low-illumination areas, even though there are no symptoms in bright light, such as daylight. Under rare conditions, edema of the ciliary body can cause an anterior displacement of the lens, inducing a myopia shift in refractive error.", "A diagnosis of myopia is typically made by an eye care professional, usually an optometrist or ophthalmologist. During a refraction, an autorefractor or retinoscope is used to give an initial objective assessment of the refractive status of each eye, then a phoropter is used to subjectively refine the patient's eyeglass prescription. Other types of refractive error are hyperopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia.", "Various forms of myopia have been described by their clinical appearance:", "The degree of myopia is described in terms of the power of the ideal correction, which is measured in diopters:", "Myopia is sometimes classified by the age at onset:", "Some suggest that more time spent outdoors during childhood is effective for prevention. Various methods have been employed in an attempt to decrease the progression of myopia, although studies show mixed results. Many myopia treatment studies have a number of design drawbacks: small numbers, lack of adequate control group, and failure to mask examiners from knowledge of treatments used. Among myopia specialists, mydriatic eyedrops are the most favored approach, applied by almost 75% in North America and more than 80% in Australia. Behavioral intervention (counseling to spend more time outdoors and less time with near-work) is favored by 25% of specialists, usually in addition to the medications.", "The use of reading glasses when doing close work may improve vision by reducing or eliminating the need to accommodate. Altering the use of eyeglasses between full-time, part-time, and not at all does not appear to alter myopia progression. The American Optometric Association's Clinical Practice Guidelines found evidence of effectiveness of bifocal lenses and recommends it as the method for \"myopia control\". In some studies, bifocal and progressive lenses have not shown differences in altering the progression of myopia. In 2019 contact lenses to prevent the worsening of nearsightedness in children were approved for use in the United States.", "Anti-muscarinic topical medications in children under 18 years of age may slow the worsening of myopia. These treatments include pirenzepine gel, cyclopentolate eye drops, and atropine eye drops. While these treatments were shown to be effective in slowing the progression of myopia, side effects included light sensitivity and near blur.", "Scleral reinforcement surgery is aimed to cover the thinning posterior pole with a supportive material to withstand intraocular pressure and prevent further progression of the posterior staphyloma. The strain is reduced, although damage from the pathological process cannot be reversed. By stopping the progression of the disease, vision may be maintained or improved.", "The National Institutes of Health says there is no known way of preventing myopia, and the use of glasses or contact lenses does not affect its progression. There is no universally accepted method of preventing myopia and proposed methods need additional study to determine their effectiveness. Optical correction using glasses or contact lenses is the most common treatment; other approaches include orthokeratology, and refractive surgery. Medications (mostly atropine) and vision therapy can be effective in addressing the various forms of pseudomyopia.", "Corrective lenses bend the light entering the eye in a way that places a focused image accurately onto the retina. The power of any lens system can be expressed in diopters, the reciprocal of its focal length in meters. Corrective lenses for myopia have negative powers because a divergent lens is required to move the far point of focus out to the distance. More severe myopia needs lens powers further from zero (more negative). However, strong eyeglass prescriptions create distortions such as prismatic movement and chromatic aberration. Strongly near-sighted wearers of contact lenses do not experience these distortions because the lens moves with the cornea, keeping the optic axis in line with the visual axis and because the vertex distance has been reduced to zero.", "Refractive surgery includes procedures which alter the corneal curvature of some structure of the eye or which add additional refractive means inside the eye.", "Photorefractive keratectomy (PRK) involves ablation of corneal tissue from the corneal surface using an excimer laser. The amount of tissue ablation corresponds to the amount of myopia. While PRK is a relatively safe procedure for up to 6 dioptres of myopia, the recovery phase post-surgery is usually painful.", "In a LASIK pre-procedure, a corneal flap is cut into the cornea and lifted to allow the excimer laser beam access to the exposed corneal tissue. After that, the excimer laser ablates the tissue according to the required correction. When the flap again covers the cornea, the change in curvature generated by the laser ablation proceeds to the corneal surface. Though LASIK is usually painless and involves a short rehabilitation period post-surgery, it can potentially result in flap complications and loss of corneal stability (post-LASIK keratectasia).", "Instead of modifying the corneal surface, as in laser vision correction (LVC), this procedure involves implanting an additional lens inside the eye (i.e., in addition to the already existing natural lens). While it usually results in good control of the refractive change, it can induce potential serious long-term complications such as glaucoma, cataract and endothelial decompensation.", "Orthokeratology or simply Ortho-K is a temporary corneal reshaping process using rigid gas permeable (RGP) contact lenses. Overnight wearing of specially designed contact lenses will temporarily reshape cornea, so patients may see clearly without any lenses in daytime. Orthokeratology can correct myopia upto -6D. several studies shown that Ortho-K can reduce myopia progression also. Risk factors of using Ortho-K lenses include microbial keratitis, corneal edema, etc. Other contact lens related complications like corneal aberration, photophobia, pain, irritation, redness etc. are usually temporary conditions,which may be eliminated by proper usage of lenses.", "The Intrastromal corneal ring segment (ICRS), commonly used in keratoconus treatment now, was originally designed to correct mild to moderate myopia. The thickness is directly related to flattening and the diameter of the ring is proportionally inverse to the flattening of cornea. So, if diameter is smaller or thickness is greater, resulting myopia correction will be greater.", "A number of alternative therapies have been claimed to improve myopia, including vision therapy, \"behavioural optometry\", various eye exercises and relaxation techniques, and the Bates method. Scientific reviews have concluded that there was \"no clear scientific evidence\" that eye exercises are effective in treating near-sightedness and as such they \"cannot be advocated\".", "Global refractive errors have been estimated to affect 800 million to 2.3 billion. The incidence of myopia within sampled population often varies with age, country, sex, race, ethnicity, occupation, environment, and other factors. Variability in testing and data collection methods makes comparisons of prevalence and progression difficult. The prevalence of myopia has been reported as high as 70–90% in some Asian countries, 30–40% in Europe and the United States, and 10–20% in Africa. Myopia is about twice as common in Jewish people than in people of non-Jewish ethnicity. Myopia is less common in African people and associated diaspora. In Americans between the ages of 12 and 54, myopia has been found to affect African Americans less than Caucasians.", "In some parts of Asia, myopia is very common.", "Myopia is common in the United States, with research suggesting this condition has increased dramatically in recent decades. In 1971–1972, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey provided the earliest nationally representative estimates for myopia prevalence in the U.S., and found the prevalence in persons aged 12–54 was 25%. Using the same method, in 1999–2004, myopia prevalence was estimated to have climbed to 42%. A study of 2,523 children in grades 1 to 8 (age, 5–17 years) found nearly one in 10 (9%) have at least −0.75 diopters of myopia. In this study, 13% had at least +1.25 D hyperopia (farsightedness), and 28% had at least 1.00-D difference between the two principal meridians (cycloplegic autorefraction) of astigmatism. For myopia, Asians had the highest prevalence (19%), followed by Hispanics (13%). Caucasian children had the lowest prevalence of myopia (4%), which was not significantly different from African Americans (7%). A recent review found 25% of Americans aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 5% have at least −5.00 diopters.", "In Australia, the overall prevalence of myopia (worse than −0.50 diopters) has been estimated to be 17%. In one recent study, less than one in 10 (8%) Australian children between the ages of four and 12 were found to have myopia greater than −0.50 diopters. A recent review found 16% of Australians aged 40 or over have at least −1.00 diopters of myopia and 3% have at least −5.00 diopters.", "In Brazil, a 2005 study estimated 6% of Brazilians between the ages of 12 and 59 had −1.00 diopter of myopia or more, compared with 3% of the indigenous people in northwestern Brazil. Another found nearly 1 in 8 (13%) of the students in the city of Natal were myopic.", "The difference between the near-sighted and far-sighted people was noted already by Aristotle. Graeco-Roman physician Galen first used the term \"myopia\" for near-sightedness. First spectacles for correcting myopia was invented by a German cardinal in the year 1451. Johannes Kepler in his \"Clarification of Ophthalmic Dioptrics\" (1604) first demonstrated that near-sightedness was due to the incident light focusing in front of the retina. Kepler also showed that near-sightedness could be corrected by concave lenses. In 1632, Vopiscus Fortunatus Plempius examined a myopic eye and confirmed that myopia was due to a lengthening of its axial diameter.", "The terms \"myopia\" and \"myopic\" (or the common terms \"short-sightedness\" or \"short-sighted\", respectively) have been used metaphorically to refer to cognitive thinking and decision making that is narrow in scope or lacking in foresight or in concern for wider interests or for longer-term consequences. It is often used to describe a decision that may be beneficial in the present, but detrimental in the future, or a viewpoint that fails to consider anything outside a very narrow and limited range. Hyperopia, the biological opposite of myopia, may also be used metaphorically for a value system or motivation that exhibits \"farsighted\" or possibly visionary thinking and behavior; that is, emphasizing long-term interests at the apparent expense of near-term benefit.", "Numerous studies have found correlations between myopia, on the one hand, and intelligence and academic achievement, on the other; it is not clear whether there is a causal relationship. Myopia is also correlated with increased microsaccade amplitude, suggesting that blurred vision from myopia might cause instability in fixational eye movements.", "The term \"myopia\" is of Koine Greek origin: \"myōpia\" (or \"myōpiasis\") \"short-sight(-ness)\", from Ancient Greek \"myōps\" \"short-sighted (man), (man) with eyes getting shut\", from \"myein\" \"to shut the eyes\" and \"ōps\" \"eye, look, sight\" ( \"ōpos\"). The opposite of \"myopia\" in English is \"hyperopia\" (long-sightedness)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "History: versions and translations.", "Possible Indian influence.", "Persian prototype: \"Hezār Afsān\".", "Evolving Arabic versions.", "Printed Arabic editions.", "Modern translations.", "Timeline.", "Literary themes and techniques.", "Frame story.", "Embedded narrative.", "Dramatic visualization.", "Fate and destiny.", "Foreshadowing.", "Repetition.", "Sexual humour.", "Unreliable narrator.", "Crime fiction elements.", "Horror fiction elements.", "Fantasy and science fiction elements.", "Poetry.", "In world culture.", "In Arab culture.", "Possible early influence on European literature.", "Western literature from the 18th century onwards.", "Cinema and television.", "Music.", "Games.", "Illustrators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The main frame story concerns Shahryār (, from Middle Persian \"šahr-dār\", lit. \"holder of realm\"), whom the narrator calls a \"Sasanian king\" ruling in \"India and China\". Shahryār is shocked to learn that his brother's wife is unfaithful; discovering that his own wife's infidelity has been even more flagrant, he has her killed. In his bitterness and grief, he decides that all women are the same. Shahryār begins to marry a succession of virgins only to execute each one the next morning, before she has a chance to dishonor him. Eventually the vizier, whose duty it is to provide them, cannot find any more virgins. Scheherazade (Persian: شهْرزاد \"Shahrazād\", from Middle Persian \"čehr\" شهر, \"lineage\" + \"āzād\" ازاد, \"noble\"), the vizier's daughter, offers herself as the next bride and her father reluctantly agrees. On the night of their marriage, Scheherazade begins to tell the king a tale, but does not end it. The king, curious about how the story ends, is thus forced to postpone her execution in order to hear the conclusion. The next night, as soon as she finishes the tale, she begins another one, and the king, eager to hear the conclusion of that tale as well, postpones", "The history of the \"Nights\" is extremely complex and modern scholars have made many attempts to untangle the story of how the collection as it currently exists came about. Robert Irwin summarises their findings:", "Devices found in Sanskrit literature such as frame stories and animal fables are seen by some scholars as lying at the root of the conception of the \"Nights\". The motif of the wise young woman who delays and finally removes an impending danger by telling stories has been traced back to Indian sources. Indian folklore is represented in the \"Nights\" by certain animal stories, which reflect influence from ancient Sanskrit fables. The influence of the \"Panchatantra\" and \"Baital Pachisi\" is particularly notable. \"The Jataka Tales\" are a collection of 547 Buddhist stories, which are for the most part moral stories with an ethical purpose. \"The", "The earliest mentions of the \"Nights\" refer to it as an Arabic translation from a Persian book, \"Hezār Afsān\" (or \"Afsaneh\" or \"Afsana\"), meaning \"The Thousand Stories\". In the 10th century Ibn al-Nadim compiled a catalogue of books (the \"Fihrist\") in Baghdad. He noted that the Sassanid kings of Iran enjoyed \"evening tales and fables\". Al-Nadim then writes about the Persian \"Hezār Afsān\", explaining the frame story it employs: a bloodthirsty king kills off a succession of wives after their wedding night; eventually one has the intelligence to save herself by telling him a story every evening, leaving each tale unfinished until the next night so that the king will delay her execution. However, according to al-Nadim, the book contains only 200 stories. He also writes", "In the mid-20th century, the scholar Nabia Abbott found a document with a few lines of an Arabic work with the title \"The Book of the Tale of a Thousand Nights\", dating from the 9th century. This is the earliest known surviving fragment of the \"Nights\". The first reference to the Arabic version under its full title \"The One Thousand and One Nights\" appears in Cairo in the 12th century. Professor Dwight Reynolds describes the subsequent transformations of the Arabic version: Two main Arabic manuscript traditions of the Nights are known: the Syrian and the Egyptian. The Syrian tradition is primarily represented by the earliest extensive manuscript of the \"Nights\", a fourteenth- or fifteenth-century Syrian manuscript now known as the Galland Manuscript. It and surviving copies of it are much shorter and include fewer tales than the Egyptian tradition. It is represented in", "The first printed Arabic-language edition of the \"One Thousand and One Nights\" was published in 1775. It contained an Egyptian version of \"The Nights\" known as \"ZER\" (Zotenberg's Egyptian Recension) and 200 tales. No copy of this edition survives, but it was the basis for an 1835 edition by Bulaq, published by the Egyptian government. The \"Nights\" were next printed in Arabic in two volumes in Calcutta by the British East India Company in 1814–18. Each volume contained one hundred tales. Soon after, the Prussian scholar Christian Maximilian Habicht collaborated with the Tunisian Mordecai ibn al-Najjar to create an edition containing 1001 nights both in the original Arabic and in German translation, initially in a series of eight volumes published in Breslau in 1825–1838. A further four volumes followed in 1842–1843. In addition to the Galland manuscript, Habicht and", "The first European version (1704–1717) was translated into French by Antoine Galland from an Arabic text of the Syrian recension and other sources. This 12-volume work, \"Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français\" (\"The Thousand and one nights, Arab stories translated into French\"), included stories that were not in the original Arabic manuscript. \"Aladdin's Lamp\", and \"Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves\" (as well as several other lesser-known tales) appeared first in Galland's translation and cannot be found in any of the original manuscripts. He wrote that he heard them from the Christian Maronite storyteller Hanna Diab during Diab's visit to Paris. Galland's version of the \"Nights\" was immensely", "Scholars have assembled a timeline", "The \"One Thousand and One Nights\" and various tales within it make use of many innovative literary techniques, which the storytellers of the tales rely on for increased drama, suspense, or other emotions. Some of these date back to earlier Persian, Indian and Arabic literature, while others were original to the \"One Thousand and One Nights\".", "The \"One Thousand and One Nights\" employs an early example of the frame story, or framing device: the character Scheherazade narrates a set of tales (most often fairy", "Another technique featured in the \"One Thousand and One Nights\" is an early example of the \"story within a story\", or \"embedded narrative\" technique: this can be traced back to earlier Persian and Indian storytelling traditions, most notably the \"Panchatantra\" of ancient Sanskrit literature. The \"Nights\", however, improved on the \"Panchatantra\" in several ways, particularly in the way a story is introduced. In the \"Panchatantra\", stories are introduced as didactic analogies, with the frame story referring to these stories with variants of the phrase \"If you're not careful, that which happened to the louse and the flea will happen to you.\" In the \"Nights\", this didactic framework is the least", "Dramatic visualization is \"the representing of an object or character with an abundance of descriptive detail, or the mimetic rendering of gestures and dialogue in such a way", "A common theme in many \"Arabian Nights\" tales is fate and destiny. The Italian filmmaker Pier Paolo Pasolini observed: Though invisible,", "Early examples of the foreshadowing technique of repetitive designation, now known as \"Chekhov's gun\", occur in the \"One Thousand and One Nights\", which contains \"repeated references to some character or object which appears insignificant when first mentioned but which reappears later to intrude suddenly in the narrative\". A notable example is in the tale of \"The Three Apples\" (see Crime fiction elements below). Another early foreshadowing technique is \"formal patterning\", \"the organization of the events, actions and gestures which constitute a narrative and give shape to a story; when done well, formal patterning allows the audience the", "\"Leitwortstil\" is 'the purposeful repetition of words' in a given literary piece that \"usually expresses a motif or theme important to the given story\". This device occurs in the \"One Thousand and One Nights\", which binds several tales in a story cycle. The storytellers of the tales relied on this technique \"to shape the constituent members of their story cycles into a coherent whole.\" Thematic patterning is \"the distribution of recurrent thematic concepts and moralistic motifs among the various incidents and frames of a story. In a skillfully crafted tale, thematic patterning may", "The \"Nights\" contain many examples of sexual humour. Some of this borders on", "The literary device of the unreliable narrator was used in several fictional medieval Arabic tales of the \"One Thousand and One Nights\". In one tale, \"The Seven Viziers\" (also known as \"Craft and Malice of Women or The Tale of the King, His Son, His Concubine and the Seven Wazirs\"), a courtesan accuses", "An example of the murder mystery and suspense thriller genres in the collection, with multiple plot twists and detective fiction elements was \"The Three Apples\", also known as \"Hikayat al-sabiyya 'l-maqtula\" (\"The Tale of the Murdered Young Woman\"). In this tale, Harun al-Rashid comes to possess a chest, which, when opened, contains the body of a young woman. Harun gives his vizier, Ja'far, three days to find the culprit or be executed. At the end of three days, when Ja'far is about to be executed for his failure, two men come forward, both claiming to be the murderer. As they tell their story it transpires that, although the younger of them, the woman's husband, was responsible for her death, some of the blame attaches to a slave, who had taken one of the apples mentioned in the title and caused the woman's murder. Harun then gives Ja'far three more days to find the guilty slave. When he yet", "Haunting is used as a plot device in gothic fiction and horror fiction, as well as modern paranormal fiction. Legends about haunted houses have long appeared in literature. In particular, the \"Arabian Nights\" tale of \"Ali the Cairene and the Haunted House in Baghdad\" revolves around a house haunted by jinns. The \"Nights\" is almost certainly the earliest surviving literature that mentions ghouls, and many of the stories in that collection involve or reference ghouls. A prime example is the story \"The History of Gherib", "Several stories within the \"One Thousand and One Nights\" feature early science fiction elements. One example is \"The Adventures of Bulukiya\", where the protagonist Bulukiya's quest for the herb of immortality leads him to explore the seas, journey to Paradise and to Hell, and travel across the cosmos to different worlds much larger than his own world, anticipating elements of galactic science fiction; along the way, he encounters societies of djinn, mermaids, talking serpents, talking trees, and other forms of life. In \"Abu al-Husn and His Slave-Girl Tawaddud\", the heroine Tawaddud gives an impromptu lecture on the mansions of the Moon, and the benevolent and sinister aspects of the planets. In another \"1001 Nights\"", "There is an abundance of Arabic poetry in \"One Thousand and One Nights\". It is often deployed by stories' narrators to provide detailed descriptions, usually of the beauty of characters. Characters also occasionally quote or speak in verse in certain settings. The uses include but are not limited to:", "The influence of the versions of \"The Nights\" on world literature is immense. Writers as diverse as Henry Fielding to Naguib Mahfouz have alluded to the collection by name in their own works. Other writers who have been influenced by the \"Nights\" include John Barth, Jorge Luis Borges, Salman Rushdie, Orhan Pamuk, Goethe, Walter Scott, Thackeray, Wilkie Collins, Elizabeth Gaskell, Nodier, Flaubert, Marcel Schwob, Stendhal, Dumas, Gérard de Nerval, Gobineau, Pushkin, Tolstoy, Hofmannsthal, Conan Doyle, W. B. Yeats, H. G. Wells, Cavafy, Calvino, Georges Perec, H. P. Lovecraft, Marcel Proust, A. S. Byatt and Angela Carter. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba. Part of its popularity may have sprung from improved standards of historical and geographical knowledge. The marvelous beings and events typical of fairy tales seem less incredible if they are set further \"long ago\" or farther \"far away\"; this process culminates in the fantasy world having little connection, if any, to actual times and places. Several elements from Arabian mythology are now common in modern fantasy, such as genies, bahamuts, magic carpets, magic lamps, etc. When L. Frank Baum proposed writing a modern fairy tale that banished stereotypical elements, he included the genie as well as the dwarf and the fairy as stereotypes to go. In 1982, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) began naming features on Saturn's moon Enceladus after characters and places in Burton's translation because \"its surface is so strange and mysterious that it was given the \"Arabian Nights\" as a name bank, linking fantasy landscape with a literary fantasy\".", "There is little evidence that the \"Nights\" was particularly treasured in the Arab world. It is rarely mentioned in lists of popular literature and few pre-18th-century manuscripts of the collection exist. Fiction had a low cultural status among Medieval Arabs compared with poetry, and the tales were dismissed as \"khurafa\" (improbable fantasies fit only for entertaining women and children). According to Robert Irwin, \"Even today, with the exception of certain writers and academics, the \"Nights\" is regarded with disdain in the Arabic world. Its stories", "Although the first known translation into a European language only appeared in 1704, it is possible that the \"Nights\" began exerting its influence on Western culture much earlier. Christian writers in Medieval Spain translated many works from Arabic, mainly philosophy and mathematics, but also Arab fiction, as is evidenced by Juan Manuel's story collection \"El Conde Lucanor\" and Ramón Llull's \"The Book of Beasts\".", "The modern fame of the \"Nights\" derives from the first known European translation by Antoine Galland, which appeared in 1704. According to Robert Irwin, Galland \"played so large a part in discovering the tales, in popularizing them in Europe and in shaping what would come to be regarded as the canonical collection that, at some risk of hyperbole and paradox, he has been called the real author of the \"Nights\".\" The immediate success of Galland's version with the French public may have been because it coincided with the vogue for \"contes de fées\" (\"fairy stories\"). This fashion began with the publication of Madame d'Aulnoy's \"Histoire d'Hypolite\" in 1690. D'Aulnoy's book has a remarkably similar structure to the \"Nights\", with the tales told by a female narrator. The success of the \"Nights\" spread across Europe and by the end of the century there were translations of Galland into English, German, Italian, Dutch, Danish, Russian, Flemish and Yiddish. Galland's version provoked a spate of pseudo-Oriental imitations. At the same time, some French writers began to parody the style and concoct far-fetched stories in superficially Oriental settings. These tongue-in-cheek pastiches include Anthony Hamilton's \"Les quatre Facardins\" (1730), Crébillon's \"\" (1742) and Diderot's \"Les bijoux indiscrets\" (1748). They often contained veiled allusions to contemporary French society. The most famous example is Voltaire's \"Zadig\" (1748), an attack on religious bigotry set against a vague pre-Islamic Middle Eastern background. The English versions of the \"Oriental Tale\" generally contained a heavy moralising element, with the notable exception of William Beckford's fantasy \"Vathek\" (1786), which had a decisive influence on the development of the Gothic novel. The Polish nobleman Jan Potocki's novel \"Saragossa Manuscript\" (begun 1797) owes a deep debt to the \"Nights\" with its Oriental flavour and labyrinthine series of embedded tales. The work was included on a price-list of books on theology, history, and cartography,", "Stories from the \"One Thousand and One Nights\" have been popular subjects for films, beginning with Georges Méliès' \"Le Palais des Mille et une nuits\" (1905). The critic Robert Irwin singles out the two versions of \"The Thief of Baghdad\" (1924 version directed by Raoul Walsh; 1940 version produced by Alexander Korda) and Pier Paolo Pasolini's \"Il fiore delle Mille e una notte\" (1974) as ranking \"high among the masterpieces of world cinema.\" Michael James Lundell calls \"Il fiore\" \"the most faithful adaptation, in its emphasis on sexuality, of \"The 1001 Nights\" in its oldest form.\" UPA, an American animation studio, produced an animated feature version of \"1001 Arabian Nights\" (1959), featuring the cartoon character Mr. Magoo. The 1949 animated film \"The Singing Princess\", another movie", "The \"Nights\" has inspired", "Popular modern games with an \"Arabian Nights\" theme include the \"Prince of Persia\"", "Many artists have illustrated the \"Arabian nights\", including: Pierre-Clément Marillier for \"Le Cabinet des Fées\" (1785–1789), Gustave Doré, Léon Carré (Granville, 1878 – Alger, 1942), Roger Blachon, Françoise Boudignon, André Dahan, Amato Soro, Albert Robida, Alcide Théophile Robaudi and Marcelino Truong; Vittorio Zecchin (Murano, 1878 – Murano, 1947) and Emanuele Luzzati; The German Morgan; Mohammed Racim (Algiers, 1896 – Algiers 1975), Sani ol-Molk (1849–1856), Anton Pieck and Emre Orhun." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Color.", "History.", "Foundation horses.", "Spanish Riding School.", "Wartime preservation.", "Modern breed.", "Training and uses.", "\"Airs above the ground\".", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most Lipizzans measure between. However, horses bred to be closer to the original carriage-horse type are taller, approaching. Lipizzans have a long head, with a straight or slightly convex profile. The jaw is deep, the ears small, the eyes large and expressive, and the nostrils flared. They have a neck that is sturdy, yet arched and withers that are low, muscular, and broad. They are a Baroque horse, with a wide, deep chest, broad croup, and muscular shoulder. The tail is carried high and well set. The legs are well-muscled and strong, with broad joints and well-defined tendons. The feet tend to be small, but are tough. Lipizzan horses tend to mature slowly. However, they live and are active longer than many other breeds, with horses performing the difficult exercises of the Spanish Riding School well into their 20s and living into their 30s.", "Aside from the rare solid-colored horse (usually bay or black), most Lipizzans are gray. Like all gray horses, they have black skin, dark eyes, and as adult horses, a white hair coat. Gray horses, including Lipizzans, are born with a pigmented coat—in Lipizzans, foals are usually bay or black—and become lighter each year as the graying process takes place, with the process being complete between 6 and 10 years of age. Lipizzans are not actually true white horses, but this is a common misconception. A white horse is born white and has unpigmented skin. Until the 18th century, Lipizzans had other coat colors, including dun, bay, chestnut, black, piebald, and skewbald. However, gray is a dominant gene. Gray was the color preferred by the royal family, so the color was emphasized in breeding practices. Thus, in a small breed population when the color was deliberately selected as a desirable feature, it came to be the color of the overwhelming majority of Lipizzan horses. However, it is a long-standing tradition for the Spanish Riding School to have at least one bay Lipizzan stallion in residence, and this tradition is continued through the present day.", "The ancestors of the Lipizzan can be traced to around 800 AD. The earliest predecessors of the Lipizzan originated in the seventh century when Barb horses were brought into Spain by the Moors and crossed on native Spanish stock. The result was the Andalusian horse and other Iberian horse breeds. By the 16th century, when the Habsburgs ruled both Spain and Austria, a powerful but agile horse was desired both for military uses and for use in the fashionable and rapidly growing riding schools for the nobility of central Europe. Therefore, in 1562, the Habsburg Emperor Maximillian II brought the Spanish Andalusian horse to Austria and founded the court stud at Kladrub. In 1580, his brother, Archduke Charles II, ruler of Inner Austria, established a similar stud at Lipizza (now Lipica), located in modern-day Slovenia, from which the breed obtained its name. When the stud farm was established, Lipizza was located within the municipal limits of Trieste, an autonomous city under Habsburg sovereignty. The name of the village itself derives from the Slovene word \"lipa\", meaning \"linden tree.\" Spanish, Barb, and Arabian stock were crossed at Lipizza, and succeeding generations were crossed with the now-extinct Neapolitan breed from Italy and other Baroque horses of Spanish descent obtained from Germany and Denmark. While breeding stock was exchanged between the two studs, Kladrub specialized in producing heavy carriage horses, while riding and light carriage horses came from the Lipizza stud. Beginning in 1920, the Piber Federal Stud, near Graz, Austria, became the main stud for the horses used in Vienna. Breeding became very selective, only allowing stallions that had proved themselves at the Riding School to stand at stud, and only breeding mares that had passed rigorous performance testing.", "Today, eight foundation lines for Lipizzans are recognized by various registries, which refer to them as \"dynasties\". They are divided into two groups. Six trace to classical foundation stallions used in the 18th and 19th centuries by the Lipizza stud, and two additional lines were not used at Lipizza, but were used by other studs within the historic boundaries of the Habsburg Empire. The six \"classical dynasties\" are: Two additional stallion lines are found in Croatia, Hungary, and other eastern European countries, as well as in North America. They are accepted as equal to the six classical lines by the Lipizzan International Federation. These are: Several other stallion lines have died out over the years, but were used in the early breeding of the horses. In addition to the foundation stallion lines, there were 20 \"classic\" mare lines, 14 of which exist today. However, up to 35 mare lines are recognized by various Lipizzan organizations. Traditional naming patterns are used for both stallions and mares, required by Lipizzan breed registries. Stallions traditionally are given two names, with the first being the line of the sire and the second being the name of the dam. For example, \"Maestoso Austria\" is a horse sired by Maestoso Trompeta out of a mare named Austria. The horse's sire line traces to the foundation sire Maestoso. The names of mares are chosen to be \"complementary to the traditional Lipizzan line names\" and are required to end in the letter \"a\".", "The world-famous Spanish Riding School uses highly trained Lipizzan stallions in public performances that demonstrate classical dressage movements and training. In 1572, the first Spanish riding hall was built, during the Austrian Empire, and is the oldest of its kind in the world. The Spanish Riding School, though located in Vienna, Austria, takes its name from the original Spanish heritage of its horses. In 1729, Charles VI commissioned the building of the Winter Riding School in Vienna and in 1735, the building was completed that remains the home of the Spanish Riding School today.", "The Lipizzans endured several wartime relocations throughout their history, each of which saved the breed from extinction. The first was in March 1797 during the War of the First Coalition, when the horses were evacuated from Lipica. During the journey, 16 mares gave birth to foals. In November 1797, the horses returned to Lipica, but the stables were in ruins. They were rebuilt, but in 1805, the horses were evacuated again when Napoleon invaded Austria. They remained away from the stud for two years, returning April 1, 1807, but then, following the Treaty of Schönbrunn in 1809, the horses were evacuated three more times during the unsettled period that followed, resulting in the loss of many horses and the destruction of the written studbooks that documented bloodlines of horses prior to 1700. The horses finally returned to Lipica for good in 1815, where they remained for the rest of the 19th century. The first evacuation of the 20th century occurred in 1915 when the horses were evacuated from Lipica due to World War I and placed at Laxenburg and Kladrub. Following the war, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up, with Lipica becoming part of Italy. Thus, the animals were divided between several different studs in the new postwar nations of Austria, Italy, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia. The nation of Austria kept the stallions of the Spanish Riding School and some breeding stock. By 1920, the Austrian breeding stock was consolidated at Piber. During World War II, the high command of Nazi Germany transferred most of Europe's Lipizzan breeding stock to Hostau, Czechoslovakia. The breeding stock was taken from Piber in 1942, and additional mares and foals from other European nations arrived in 1943. The stallions of the Spanish Riding School were evacuated to St. Martins, Austria, from Vienna in January 1945, when bombing raids neared the city and the head of the Spanish Riding School, Colonel Alois Podhajsky, feared the horses were in danger. By spring of 1945, the horses at Hostau were threatened by the advancing Soviet army, which might have slaughtered the animals for horse meat had it captured the facility. The rescue of the Lipizzans by the United States Army, made famous by the Disney movie \"Miracle of the White Stallions\", occurred in two parts: The Third United States Army, under the command of General George S. Patton, was near St. Martins in the spring of 1945 and learned that the Lipizzan stallions were in the area. Patton himself was a horseman, and like Podhajsky, had competed in the Olympic Games. On May 7, 1945, Podhajsky put on an exhibition of the Spanish Riding School stallions for Patton and Undersecretary of War Robert P. Patterson, and at its conclusion requested that Patton take the horses under his protection. Meanwhile, the Third Army's United States Second Cavalry, a tank unit under the command of Colonel Charles Reed, had discovered the horses at Hostau, where 400 Allied prisoners of war were also being kept, and had occupied it on April 28, 1945. \"Operation Cowboy\", as the rescue was known, resulted in the recovery of 1,200 horses, including 375 Lipizzans. Patton learned of the raid, and arranged for Podhajsky to fly to Hostau. On May 12, American soldiers began riding, trucking, and herding the horses 35 miles across the border into Kotztinz, Germany. The Lipizzans were eventually settled in temporary quarters in Wimsbach, until the breeding stock returned to Piber in 1952, and the stallions returned to the Spanish Riding School in 1955. In 2005, the Spanish Riding School celebrated the 60th anniversary of Patton's rescue by touring the United States. During the Croatian War of Independence, from 1991 to 1995, the horses at the Lipik stable in Croatia were taken by the Serbs to Novi Sad, Serbia. The horses remained there until 2007, when calls began to be made for them to be returned to their country of origin. In October 2007, 60 horses were returned to Croatia.", "The Lipizzan breed suffered a setback to its population when a viral epidemic hit the Piber Stud in 1983. Forty horses and 8% of the expected foal crop were lost. Since then, the population at the stud increased. By 1994, 100 mares were at the stud with and a foal crop of 56 was born in 1993. In 1994, the rate of successful pregnancy and birth of foals increased from 27 to 82% as the result of a new veterinary center. In 1996, a study funded by the European Union Indo-Copernicus Project assessed 586 Lipizzan horses from eight stud farms in Europe, with the goal of developing a \"scientifically based description of the Lipizzan horse\". A study of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was performed on 212 of the animals, and those studied were found to contain 37 of the 39 known mtDNA haplotypes known in modern horses, meaning that they show a high degree of genetic diversity. This had been expected, as it was known that the mare families of the Lipizzan included a large number of different breeds, including Arabians, Thoroughbreds, and other European breeds. The Lipizzan International Federation (LIF) is the international governing organization for the breed, composed of many national and private organizations representing the Lipizzan. The organizations work together under the banner of the LIF to promote the breed and maintain standards. As of 2012, almost 11,000 Lipizzans were registered with the LIF residing with private breeders in 19 countries and at 9 state studs in Europe. The largest number are in Europe, with almost 9,000 registered horses, followed by the Americas, with just over 1,700, then Africa and Australia with around 100 horses each. The 9 state studs that are part of the LIF represent almost one-quarter of the horses in Europe. Sâmbăta de Jos, in Romania, has the greatest number of horses, with 400, followed by Piber in Austria (360), Lipica in Slovenia (358), Szilvásvárad in Hungary (262), Monterotondo in Italy (230), Đakovo-Lipik in Croatia (220), and Topoľčianky in Slovakia (200). The other two studs are smaller, with Vučijak in Bosnia having 130 horses and Karađorđevo in Serbia having just 30. Educational programs have been developed to promote the breed and foster adherence to traditional breeding objectives. Because of the status of Lipizzans as the only breed of horse developed in Slovenia, via the Lipica stud that is now located within its borders, Lipizzans are recognized in Slovenia as a national animal. For example, a pair of Lipizzans is featured on the 20-cent Slovenian euro coins. Mounted regiments of Carabinieri police in Italy also employ the Lipizzan as one of their mounts. In October 2008, during a visit to Slovenia, a Lipizzan at Lipica, named 085 Favory Canissa XXII, was given to Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. She decided to leave the animal in the care of the stud farm.", "The traditional horse training methods for Lipizzans were developed at the Spanish Riding School and are based on the principles of classical dressage, which in turn traces to the Ancient Greek writer Xenophon, whose works were rediscovered in the 16th century. His thoughts on development of horses' mental attitude and psyche are still considered applicable today. Other writers who strongly influenced the training methods of the Spanish Riding School include Federico Grisone, the founder of the first riding academy in Naples, who lived during the 16th century, and Antoine de Pluvinel and François Robichon de la Guérinière, two Frenchmen from the 17th and 18th centuries. The methods for training the Lipizzan stallions at the Spanish Riding School were passed down via an oral tradition until Field Marshal Franz Holbein and Johann Meixner, Senior Rider at the School, published the initial guidelines for the training of horse and rider at the school in 1898. In the mid-20th century, Alois Podhajsky wrote a number of works that serve as textbooks for many dressage riders today. The principles taught at the Spanish Riding School are based on practices taught to cavalry riders to prepare their horses for warfare. Young stallions come to the Spanish Riding School for training when they are four years old. Full training takes an average of six years for each horse, and schooling is considered complete when they have mastered the skills required to perform the \"School Quadrille\". There are three progressively more difficult skill sets taught to the stallions, which are: Although the Piber Stud trains mares for driving and under saddle, the Spanish Riding School exclusively uses stallions in its performances. Worldwide, the Lipizzan today competes in dressage and driving, as well as retaining their classic position at the Spanish Riding School.", "The \"airs above the ground\" are the difficult \"high school\" dressage movements made famous by the Lipizzans. The finished movements include: Other movements include:", "Lipizzans have starred or played supporting roles in many movies, TV shows, books, and other media. The 1940 film \"Florian\" stars two Lipizzan stallions. It was based on a 1934 novel written by Felix Salten. The wife of the film's producer owned the only Lipizzans in the US at the time the movie was made. The rescue during World War II of the Lipizzan stallions is depicted in the 1963 Walt Disney movie \"Miracle of the White Stallions\". The movie was the only live-action, relatively realistic film set against a World War II backdrop that Disney has ever produced. In the feature film \"Crimson Tide\", a discussion between the two main characters over whether Lipizzans came from Spain or Portugal, and whether they are born white or black, is used to represent the film's suppressed racial conflict and the dividing of the world between two main powers during the Cold War. Television programs featuring the Lipizzans include \"The White Horses\", a 1965 children's television series co-produced by RTV Ljubljana (now RTV Slovenija) of Yugoslavia and BR-TV of Germany, rebroadcast in the United Kingdom. It followed the adventures of a teenaged girl who visits a farm where Lipizzan horses are raised. Many books and poems mention or star Lipizzans. In 2011, the Dutch writer Frank Westerman published a book on the history of the 20th century through the perspective of the Lipizzan horses, \"Brother Mendel's Perfect Horse\". In the 2004 novel \"The Star of Kazan\" by Eva Ibbotson, Lipizzan horses and the Spanish Riding School are key elements of both the plot and the setting. Lipizzans and the Spanish Riding School also play a crucial role in Mary Stewart's 1965 novel \"Airs Above the Ground\" and Marguerite Henry's 1964 children's novel \"White Stallion of Lipizza\". In the 1960s, the Slovene poet Edvard Kocbek wrote a poem dedicated to the Lipizzan horses. On June 21, 2011 Annie Wedekind released \"Mercury's Flight: The Story of a Lipizzaner Stallion\" through Breyer Horses as part of The Breyer Horse Collection book series. In a first-season episode of\" The Angry Beavers\", \"Fancy Prance\" Norbert confesses to Daggett that his lifelong dream is to become a Lipizzaner stallion. Former concert promoter Gary Lashinsky owned the World-famous Lipizzaner Stallions until they filed for chapter 7 bankruptcy and permanently closed. A new movie based on the World War II evacuation of Lipizzaners from a Nazi breeding farm was expected to hit theaters in December 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Museum of Transport (1987 - 2010).", "Road vehicles.", "Ship models.", "Railway and municipal transport exhibits.", "New Museum of Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Museum of Transport was opened on 14 April 1964 by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. Created in the wake of the closure of Glasgow's tramway system in 1962, it was initially located at the former Coplawhill tram depot on Albert Drive in Pollokshields, before moving to the Kelvin Hall. The old building was subsequently converted into the Tramway arts centre. The museum was then situated inside the Kelvin Hall opposite the Kelvingrove Art Gallery & Museum in the west end of Glasgow. The Kelvin Hall was built in 1927, originally as an exhibition centre, but was converted in 1987 to house the Museum of Transport and the Kelvin Hall International Sports Arena. The Kelvin Hall site itself closed in April 2010, with the Museum moving to its third home at the new Riverside Museum in 2011.", "The Museum of Transport in the Kelvin Hall was one of the most popular museums of transport in the United Kingdom, attracting half a million visitors a year, and housed many exhibits of national and international importance.", "The museum housed the oldest surviving pedal cycle and the world's leading collection of Scottish-built cars and trucks, including pioneering examples from Scottish manufacturers Argyll, Arrol-Johnston and Albion. More modern Scottish-built cars, namely the Rootes Group's Hillman Imp, Chrysler Avenger and Chrysler Sunbeam were represented too along with many other motorcars in a large showroom-type display sponsored by Arnold Clark. All forms of transport were featured, from horse-drawn vehicles to fire engines, from motorcycles to caravans, even toy cars and prams.", "In the Clyde Room was a display of some 250 ship models, representing the contribution of the River Clyde and its shipbuilders and engineers to maritime trade and the Royal Navy, including the \"Comet\" of 1812, the \"Hood\", the \"Howe\", the \"Queen Mary\", and the \"Queen Elizabeth\" and the \"QE2\".", "Locomotive manufacture was also an important Glasgow industry and the museum celebrated the city's railway heritage, including locomotives such as: Other main exhibits displayed the evolution of Glasgow's public transport system and included seven Glasgow Corporation Tramways tramcars from different eras, Glasgow Corporation trolleybuses, and the reconstruction of \"Kelvin Street\", which aimed to recapture the atmosphere of 1930s Glasgow, including full-scale replicas of a pre-1977 Glasgow Subway station and the Regal Cinema, which played Scottish transport documentaries such as \"Seawards the Great Ships\".", "The museum at Kelvin Hall closed on 18 April 2010, with most of its collections moved to the new purpose-built Riverside Museum in Glasgow Harbour on the Clyde, designed by Zaha Hadid Architects and engineers Buro Happold. The new museum opened on Tuesday 21 June 2011." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Africa.", "Zimbabwe.", "Asia.", "Hong Kong.", "India.", "Kerala houseboats.", "Kashmir houseboats.", "Laos.", "Europe.", "Germany.", "Netherlands.", "Poland.", "Serbia.", "United Kingdom.", "North America.", "Canada.", "United States of America.", "For recreation.", "Houseboating lakes.", "Shanty boats.", "Oceania.", "Australia.", "New Zealand.", "South America.", "Venezuela.", "Carbon monoxide from gasoline-powered generators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "4", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In Zimbabwe, specifically on Lake Kariba, houseboats have been in use since the creation of the lake in the late 1950s/early 1960s. A houseboat makes it easy to experience the Zambezi basin and all the associated wildlife, as a lot of game come down to the water for drinking and to cool down.", "", "There is a houseboat and fishing community on the southern side of Hong Kong Island known as Aberdeen floating village. There was also one such community in the Yau Ma Tei Typhoon Shelter.", "In India, houseboats as accommodation for tourists are common on the backwaters of Kerala, see below, and on the Dal Lake near Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir.", "Houseboats in Kerala, south India, are huge, slow-moving barges used for leisure trips. They are a reworked model of Kettuvallams (in the Malayalam language, \"Kettu\" means \"tied with ropes\", and \"vallam\" means \"boat\"), which, in earlier times, were used to carry rice and spices from Kuttanad to the Kochi port. Kerala houseboats were considered a convenient means of transportation. The popularity of Kettuvallams has returned in the function as major tourist attractions. Such a houseboat is about long and about wide at the middle. The hull is made of wooden planks that are held together by ropes of coconut fiber; the usual wood is 'Aanjili'. The roof is made of bamboo poles and palm leaves. The exterior of the boat is painted with protective coats of cashew nut oil.", "Unlike their counterparts in Kerala, the houseboats in Srinagar, Jammu & Kashmir are usually stationary. They are usually moored at the edges of the Dal Lake and Nageen lakes. Some of the houseboats there were built in the early 1900s, and are still being rented out to tourists. These houseboats are made of wood and usually have intricately carved wood paneling. The houseboats are of different sizes, some having up to three bedrooms apart from a living room and kitchen. Many tourists are attracted to Srinagar by the charm of staying on a houseboat, which provides the unique experience of living on the water in a cedar-paneled elegant bedroom, with all the conveniences of a luxury hotel. Srinagar's thousand or so houseboats are moored along sections of the Dal and Nagin Lakes and the Jhelum River, each decorated fancifully and named romantically and even whimsically. Like hotels, houseboats vary in degree of luxury and have been accordingly graded by the Department of Tourism. A luxury houseboat, like a luxury hotel, has fine furniture, good carpets and modern bathroom fittings, while the 'D category' (the lowest category) of houseboats, like low-budget hotels, is spartanly furnished. Like hotels too, houseboats vary widely in their locations. Some overlook the main road, others look out onto lotus gardens and others face tiny local markets and villages, which are also floating on the lake. All houseboats, regardless of category, have highly personalized service. Not only is there always a \"houseboy\" for every boat, but the owner and his family are often close by. The cost per day of hiring a houseboat includes all meals and free rides from the houseboat to the nearest jetty and back, as no houseboat on the lakes is directly accessible from the banks. Every standard houseboat provides a balcony in the front, a lounge, dining room, pantry and three or more bedrooms with attached bathrooms. All houseboats not moored to the bank of the river or lakes provide a shikara as a free service from the houseboat to the nearest Ghat (jetty). Virtually every houseboat in Srinagar has been provided with a municipal water connection.", "In Laos, houseboats are used to accommodate tourists on the Mekong river. The houseboats are usually referred to as'slow boats' and exist in wooden or steel variants.", "", "The Port of Hamburg has a sizable water borne community that includes a \"Flussschifferkirche\" or Boatman's Church. Berlin also has some houseboat neighborhoods, notably on the Landwehrkanal in Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg.", "In Europe, some of the finest and costliest examples of houseboats can be seen along the canals of Amsterdam, which even has houseboat hotels. Houseboats are very expensive in Amsterdam because of the limited number of moorings; this expense has reduced the likelihood that the approximately 2,400 families that live on the inner waters of Amsterdam will find themselves confronted by new neighbor boats. The Bloemenmarkt is a houseboat borne flower market along the Singel in Amsterdam. The town of Maasbommel is pioneering floating houses, with flexible connections for fluids and electricity; these are not primarily intended for travel, but rather to be safe against flooding.", "Poland is the second largest producer of motor yachts up to 9 meters in length in the world, after the United States. The main clients of Polish boats and yachts are Norway, France, Germany and the USA. This is also confirmed by the fact that shipyards from Western Europe, Scandinavia and the United States are ordering the increasing production of their brands to shipyards in Poland. Many of them moved branches of their companies to Poland. Poland has extensive experience in the production of modern and stylish houseboat yachts and floating houses. Words of recognition are due to Polish companies presenting their very interesting constructions: La Mare, Nomadream, Northman, Cobra Yachts, Balt-Yacht, Delphia Yachts, Stillo Yachts. The most popular region to spend free time on the water in Poland is Masuria District: houndreds of lakes which most of them are connected by canals and rivers. Houseboats recreation is also practicisng on Vistula and on lakes close to Baltic seaside.", "Houseboats are popular for recreation, dining and clubbing in Serbia. They can be seen in large numbers in Belgrade on the banks of the Danube and Sava rivers, and on river islands.", "In the United Kingdom, canal narrowboats are used as homes and also as mobile, rented, holiday accommodation. Narrowboats were originally used for bulk transport of raw materials and fuel on canals constructed at the start of the Industrial revolution. Nowadays, the canal network is mainly used for recreation and is different from typical holiday locations, which are usually based in coastal or rural areas, because canals are inland and often pass through many former historical, industrial, urban areas. Over 15,000 people live afloat in Great Britain. Liveaboards are attracted to their lifestyle for many reasons, including: Research has shown that liveaboards are not a subculture; actually, they are a very diverse group. Often, they have a strong sense of their local community and its environment. There are a number of residential houseboats/moorings in the London Port Health Authority (LPHA) District. Although a significant number of houseboats are permanent floating residences, many are occupied only at weekends and seldom move whilst others may periodically leave the moorings for short cruises. The various moorings stretch from Broadness Creek and Benfleet Creek in the lower part of the London Port Health Authority District up to Twickenham in the upper part. Many of these are Port of London Authority (PLA) licensed moorings which also have Riparian Local Authority planning approval for their existence, whilst others have neither.", "", "In Canada, houseboats are gaining popularity in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec as there is an abundance of well-suited rivers and lakes for houseboaters to enjoy. Houseboats in Canada are generally motorised and used recreationally, rather than as a permanent dwelling; this is mainly due to cold winter temperatures and accompanying frozen waterways. The Rideau Canal system is a historic waterway known for its picturesque setting and quaint villages. The town of Sicamous, on Shuswap Lake, British Columbia, is said to be the \"Houseboat Capital of the World\". Float houses are relatively common along the Pacific coast. A \"float\" is a raft, raft-like construction or flat bottom boat. Toronto's Bluffer's Park is home to a small float home community with 24 properties within the park's marina. The homes in Toronto are built on concrete barges chained to the lake bottom and docked at the marina to allow residence year round. These homes have no motor and thus are not vessels. Yellowknife NWT has a small community of houseboats anchored in Yellowknife bay. They are known for their wide variety of colors and architecture, and for being a green community.", "Seattle is home to a relatively large collection of houseboats (capable of moving under their own power) or \"floating homes\" (houses built on floats) in several neighborhoods, particularly in Lake Union and Portage Bay. These began to appear soon after the time of first European settlement. At their peak in the first half of the 20th century, there were over 2,500 such homes in the city, not even counting seaworthy live-aboard boats. From the first, they included floating slums of shabby shacks, but gentrified houseboats go back at least to 1888 when the Yesler Way cable car reached Leschi on Lake Washington and a string of luxury summer getaways (none of them surviving today) lined the shore from there north to Madison Park., there were about 480 floating homes on Lake Union and a lesser number elsewhere in the city. Most houseboats are designed and built for inland lakes and waterways only. Portland, Oregon also has many houseboats along both the Willamette River and the Columbia River, with the neighborhood of Hayden Island as a prominent example. Float houses are mostly used on the Pacific coast. Renting houseboats has also become popular. In addition, houseboats have been used for commerce; on the Northern Neck of Virginia, Chesapeake National Bank had a floating bank branch called the Boat 'n Bank that provided bank services to watermen. Halibut Cove, Alaska has one of the only floating post offices in the US. Mystic Island, New Jersey had a 'botel' (hotel for boaters with water access) when it started in the 1960s but the building has since changed ownership and no longer operates as such. Sausalito, California, also has one of the most noted collections of float homes that were owned at various times by the likes of famous musicians, film stars, authors, and other notables, from the hippie era until even today. Nearby Belvedere's houseboats date to the late 1800s, and houseboats in the area were homes to railway men shipping logs to San Francisco via the ferry at Sausalito. Like many areas where float homes have taken hold, battles have brewed between float home owners, local and state government, and the local establishment (which includes land-based home owners). Float home owners had fought established land-based tax schemes whereby float home owners sought relief from real estate taxes. The state won the battle with the shadow tax allowing the state to make the case that property beneath the float home was improved by the shadow the float home cast upon the bottom.", "Houseboating is a very popular recreational activity for groups of people of all ages, aboard houseboats of all varieties, ranging from more modest 30–40 foot boats to -plus luxury houseboat models. Houseboating is appealing due to the ability to more completely explore the local scenery, remain in close proximity to other outdoor activities (hiking, boating, beaches, etc.), and finally, retain the potential to move the living quarters for a change of view or neighbors, on a whim. Recreational houseboating in the United States started in the late 1940s when people were looking to stay on the water for longer periods of time. Lake Cumberland in Kentucky is considered the birthplace of houseboating in the USA. 80% of America's manufactured houseboats are in the counties surrounding Lake Cumberland. Kentucky has more lake-style houseboats than any other place in the world. Monticello, Kentucky is known as the \"Houseboat Capital of the World.\" Today one can find motorized houseboats with over of living space.", "Houseboating on Lake Powell is a popular vacation option since the Glen Canyon Dam impounds water from the Colorado River to form almost of shoreline. Lake Mead, the largest man-made lake in North America, about 30 minutes from Las Vegas, New Bullards Bar Reservoir in the Sierra Nevada foothills about 45 minutes from Nevada City, California, and Lake Shasta in the mountains just outside Redding, California, are also popular spots for houseboats. Four rivers or \"arms\" merge to create this: the Sacramento, McCloud, Squaw Creek, and Pit. Shasta Dam, the highest center spillway dam in the world, can be found at the southwest corner of the lake. Lake Shasta Caverns, can only be reached from the lake. Houseboating is also common on Lake Cumberland - often referred to as the Houseboat Manufacturing Capital of the World (as the majority of American-built houseboats are manufactured in the counties surrounding Lake Cumberland). Lake Cumberland and other lakes in the Southeast US such as Norris Lake (TN), Dale Hollow Lake (KY/TN), Center Hill Lake (TN), Lake Lanier (GA) and more offer very favorable houseboating conditions as the geography provides a vast number of coves and fingers that allow houseboats to tie up or anchor away from the main channel and provides the user a peaceful, secluded atmosphere. Due to the large number of houseboat manufacturers located in the Southeast US, the new and used houseboat marketplace in the Southeast is one of the most competitive and affordable areas for houseboats to be purchased in the nation. Houseboat transporters can also deliver a houseboat to any body of water in the US. Houseboating is also popular on Lake Amistad, Trinity Lake, Lake Mohave and Lake Mead National Recreation Area. In New York, houseboats have also become a major part of the great South Bay on Long Island. Houseboats are also available for rental at Lake Billy Chinook in Central Oregon where waterskiing is popular. Lake Billy Chinook has many little coves to anchor the houseboat.", "Roughly built float houses are sometimes called shanty boats but may be built on a raft or hull. In historic logging operations workmen sometimes used an ark as mobile dwellings.", "", "In Australia, especially on the Murray River and the sunny coastline of Queensland there are many motorized, pontoon-based houseboats with two or more bedrooms; some of these houseboats have more than one level or multiple stories (floors). Some are privately owned as either a primary residence or a holiday shack. Many are also available for hire (rent) as self-driven holiday destinations with accommodation for four to perhaps a dozen persons. Coomera River, the Great Sandy Straits (near the world's largest sand island - Fraser Island) and, in recent times, the Tweed River (near Barri Island during the popular Tournament Crabbing competitions) are especially popular with Queenslanders and interstate tourists. Lake Eildon in Victoria, and the Hawkesbury River near Sydney in New South Wales are popular houseboating areas.", "In New Zealand houseboating is developing as a holiday activity. Whangaroa Harbour on Northland's east coast is a land locked harbour that provides houseboating.", "", "In Maracaibo, Venezuela, there is a big house called La Casa Barco, which was built by a former captain of the Venezuelan Navy in the 20th century. The building resembles a real ship with its anchors, lifeboats, and radars, floating on water. It is located in the neighbourhood La Estrella. Nowadays La Casa Barco has become a city icon for tourists.", "Many houseboats use gasoline-powered generators. The carbon monoxide (CO) exhaust from these generators has caused problems for some houseboat inhabitants. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, in tandem with the US National Park Service and the U.S. Coast Guard, performed a number of evaluations on air quality, particularly carbon monoxide levels, on houseboats beginning in August 2000. Since that initial investigation, over 600 boating-related poisonings in the United States have been identified with over 100 of these poisonings resulting in death. Over 250 of the poisonings occurred on houseboats, with more than 200 of these poisonings attributed to generator exhaust alone. Some houseboat and generator manufacturers have begun working with these agencies to evaluate engineering controls to reduce CO concentrations in occupied areas on houseboats." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Biodiversity.", "Classification.", "History of classification.", "Modern classification.", "Evolution.", "Ancestry.", "Devonian fossils.", "Palaeozoic.", "Devonian stem-tetrapods.", "Carboniferous.", "Permian.", "Mesozoic.", "Cenozoic.", "Cladistics.", "Stem group.", "Crown group.", "Temnospondyl hypothesis (TH).", "Lepospondyl hypothesis (LH).", "Polyphyly hypothesis (PH).", "Anatomy and physiology.", "Skull.", "Neck.", "Dentition.", "Axial skeleton.", "Girdles.", "Limbs.", "Locomotion.", "Feeding.", "Respiration.", "Gills.", "Lungs.", "Recoil aspiration.", "Cutaneous respiration.", "Carbon dioxide metabolism.", "Circulation.", "Senses.", "Olfaction.", "Lateral line system.", "Vision.", "Balance.", "Hearing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Tetrapods can be defined in cladistics as the nearest common ancestor of all living amphibians (the lissamphibians) and all living amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals), along with all of the descendants of that ancestor. This is a node-based definition (the node being the nearest common ancestor). The group so defined is the crown group, or crown tetrapods. The term tetrapodomorph is used for the stem-based definition: any animal that is more closely related to living amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals than to", "Tetrapoda includes four living classes: amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. Overall, the biodiversity of lissamphibians, as well as of tetrapods generally, has grown exponentially over time; the more than 30,000 species living today are descended from a single amphibian group in the Early to Middle Devonian. However, that diversification process was interrupted at least a few times by major biological crises, such as the Permian–Triassic extinction event, which at least affected amniotes. The overall composition of", "The classification of tetrapods has a long history. Traditionally, tetrapods are divided into four classes based on gross anatomical and physiological traits. Snakes and other legless reptiles are considered tetrapods because they are sufficiently like other reptiles that have a full complement of limbs. Similar considerations apply to caecilians and aquatic mammals. Newer taxonomy is frequently based on cladistics instead, giving a variable number of major \"branches\" (clades) of the tetrapod family tree. As is the case throughout evolutionary biology today, there is debate over how to properly classify the groups within Tetrapoda. Traditional biological classification sometimes fails to recognize evolutionary transitions between older groups and descendant groups with markedly different characteristics. For example, the birds, which evolved from the dinosaurs, are defined as a separate group from them, because they represent a distinct new type of physical form and functionality. In phylogenetic nomenclature, in contrast, the newer group is always included in the old. For this school of taxonomy, dinosaurs and birds are not groups in contrast to each other, but rather birds are a sub-type \"of\" dinosaurs.", "The tetrapods, including all large- and medium-sized land animals, have been among the best understood animals since earliest times. By Aristotle's time, the basic division between mammals, birds and egg-laying tetrapods (the \"herptiles\") was well known, and the inclusion of the legless snakes into this group was likewise recognized. With", "With the basic classification of tetrapods settled, a half a century followed where the classification of living and fossil groups was predominately done by experts working within classes. In the early 1930s, American vertebrate palaeontologist Alfred Romer (1894–1973) produced an overview, drawing together taxonomic work from the various subfields to create an orderly taxonomy in his \"Vertebrate Paleontology\". This classical scheme with minor variations is still used in works where systematic overview is essential, e.g. Benton (1998) and Knobill and Neill (2006). While mostly seen in general works, it is also still used in some specialist works like Fortuny & al.", "", "Tetrapods evolved from early bony fishes (Osteichthyes), specifically from the tetrapodomorph branch of lobe-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii), living in the early to middle Devonian period. The first tetrapods probably evolved in the Emsian stage of the Early Devonian from Tetrapodomorph fish living in shallow water environments. The very earliest tetrapods would have been animals similar to \"Acanthostega\", with legs and lungs as well as gills, but still primarily aquatic and unsuited to life on land. The earliest tetrapods inhabited saltwater, brackish-water, and freshwater environments, as well as environments of highly variable salinity. These traits were shared with many early lobed-finned fishes. As early tetrapods are found on two Devonian continents, Laurussia (Euramerica) and Gondwana, as well as the island of North China, it is widely supposed that early tetrapods were capable of swimming across the shallow (and relatively narrow) continental-shelf seas that separated these landmasses. Since the early 20th century, several families of tetrapodomorph fishes have been proposed as the nearest relatives of tetrapods, among them the rhizodonts (notably \"Sauripterus\"), the osteolepidids, the tristichopterids (notably \"Eusthenopteron\"), and more recently the elpistostegalians (also known as", "The oldest evidence for the existence of tetrapods comes from trace fossils, tracks (footprints) and trackways found in Zachełmie, Poland, dated to the Eifelian stage of the Middle Devonian,, although these traces have also been interpreted as the ichnogenus \"Piscichnus\" (fish nests/feeding traces). The adult tetrapods had an estimated length of 2.5 m (8 feet), and lived in a lagoon with an average depth of 1–2 m, although it is not known at what depth the underwater tracks were made. The lagoon was inhabited by a variety of marine organisms and was apparently salt water. The average water temperature was 30 degrees C (86 F). The second oldest evidence for tetrapods, also tracks and trackways, date from ca. 385 Mya (Valentia Island, Ireland). The oldest partial fossils of tetrapods date from the Frasnian beginning ≈380 mya. These include \"Elginerpeton\" and \"Obruchevichthys\". Some paleontologists dispute their status as true (digit-bearing) tetrapods. All known forms of Frasnian tetrapods became extinct in the Late Devonian extinction, also known as the end-Frasnian extinction. This marked the beginning of a gap in the tetrapod fossil record known as the Famennian gap, occupying roughly the first half of the Famennian stage. The oldest near-complete tetrapod fossils, \"Acanthostega\" and \"Ichthyostega\", date from the second half of the Fammennian. Although both were essentially four-footed fish, \"Ichthyostega\" is the earliest known tetrapod that may have had the ability to pull itself onto land and drag itself forward with its forelimbs. There is no evidence that it did so, only that it may have been anatomically capable of doing so.. The publication in 2018 of \"Tutusius umlambo\" and \"Umzantsia amazana\" from high latitude Gondwana setting indicate that the tetrapods enjoyed a global distrubution by the end of the Devonian and even extend into the high latitudes. The end-Fammenian marked another extinction, known as the end-Fammenian extinction or the Hangenberg event, which is followed by another gap in the tetrapod fossil record, Romer's gap, also known as the Tournaisian gap. This gap, which was initially 30 million years, but has been gradually reduced over time, currently occupies much of the 13.9-million year Tournaisian, the first stage of the Carboniferous period.", "", "Tetrapod-like vertebrates first appeared in the early Devonian period. These early \"stem-tetrapods\" would have been animals similar to \"Ichthyostega\", with legs and lungs as well as gills, but still primarily aquatic and unsuited to life on land. The Devonian stem-tetrapods went through two major", "During the early Carboniferous, the number of digits on hands and feet of stem-tetropods became standardized at no more than five, as lineages with more digits died out. By mid-Carboniferous times, the stem-tetrapods had radiated into two branches of true (\"crown group\") tetrapods. Modern amphibians are derived from either the temnospondyls or the lepospondyls (or possibly both), whereas the anthracosaurs were the relatives and ancestors of the amniotes (reptiles, mammals, and kin). The first amniotes are known from", "In the Permian period, in addition to temnospondyl and anthracosaur clades, there were two important clades of amniote tetrapods, the sauropsids and the synapsids. The latter were the most important and successful Permian animals. The end of the Permian saw a major turnover in fauna during the Permian–Triassic extinction event. There was a protracted loss of species, due to multiple extinction pulses. Many of the once large and diverse groups died out or were greatly reduced.", "The diapsids (a subgroup of the sauropsids) began to diversify during the Triassic, giving rise to the turtles, crocodiles, and dinosaurs. In the Jurassic, lizards developed from other diapsids. In the Cretaceous, snakes developed from lizards and modern birds branched from a group of theropod dinosaurs. By the", "Following the great faunal turnover at the end of the Mesozoic, representatives of seven major groups", "", "Stem tetrapods are all animals more closely related to tetrapods than to", "Crown tetrapods are defined as the nearest common ancestor of all living tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals) along with all of the descendants of that ancestor. The inclusion of certain extinct groups in the crown Tetrapoda depends on the relationships of modern amphibians, or lissamphibians. There", "This hypothesis comes in a number of variants, most of which have lissamphibians coming out of the dissorophoid temnospondyls, usually with the focus on amphibamids and branchiosaurids.", "Cladogram modified after Laurin,", "This hypothesis has batrachians (frogs and salamander) coming out of dissorophoid temnospondyls, with caecilians out", "The tetrapod's ancestral fish, tetrapodomorph, possessed similar traits to those inherited by the early tetrapods, including internal nostrils and a large fleshy fin built on bones that could give rise to the tetrapod limb. To propagate in the terrestrial environment, animals had to overcome certain challenges. Their bodies needed additional support, because buoyancy was no longer a factor. Water retention was now important, since it was no longer the living matrix, and could be lost easily to the environment. Finally, animals needed new sensory input systems to have any ability to function reasonably on land.", "Their palatal and jaw structures of tetramorphs were similar to those of early tetrapods, and their dentition was similar too, with labyrinthine teeth fitting in a pit-and-tooth arrangement on the palate. A major difference between early tetrapodomorph fishes and early tetrapods was in the relative development of the front and back skull portions;", "In tetrapodomorph fishes such as \"Eusthenopteron\", the part of the body that would later become the neck was covered by a number of gill-covering bones known as the opercular series. These bones functioned as part of pump mechanism for forcing water through the mouth and past the gills. When the mouth opened to take in water, the gill flaps closed (including the gill-covering bones), thus ensuring that water entered only through the mouth. When the mouth closed, the gill flaps opened and water was forced through the gills. In \"Acanthostega\", a basal tetrapod, the gill-covering bones have disappeared, although the underlying gill arches are still present. Besides the opercular series, \"Acanthostega\" also lost the throat-covering bones (gular series). The opercular", "Tetrapods had a tooth structure known as \"plicidentine\" characterized by infolding of the enamel as seen in cross-section. The more extreme version found in early tetrapods is known as \"labyrinthodont\" or \"labyrinthodont plicidentine\". This type of tooth structure has evolved independently in several types of bony", "With the move from water to land, the spine had to resist the bending caused by body weight and had to provide mobility where", "The shoulder girdle was disconnected from the skull, resulting in improved terrestrial locomotion. The early sarcopterygians' cleithrum was retained as the clavicle, and the interclavicle was well-developed, lying on the underside of the chest. In primitive forms, the two clavicles and the interclavical could have grown ventrally in such a way as to form a broad chest plate. The upper portion of the girdle had a flat, scapular blade (shoulder bone), with the glenoid cavity situated below performing as the articulation", "Fleshy lobe-fins supported on bones seem to have been an ancestral trait of all bony fishes (Osteichthyes). The ancestors of the ray-finned fishes (Actinopterygii) evolved their fins in a different direction. The Tetrapodomorph ancestors of the Tetrapods further developed their lobe fins. The paired fins had bones distinctly homologous to the humerus, ulna, and radius", "In typical early tetrapod posture, the upper arm and upper leg extended nearly straight horizontal from its body, and the forearm and the lower leg extended downward from the upper segment at a near right angle. The body weight was not centered over", "Early tetrapods had a wide gaping jaw with weak muscles to open and close it. In the jaw were moderate-sized palatal and vomerine (upper) and coronoid (lower) fangs, as well rows of smaller teeth. This was in contrast to the larger fangs and small marginal teeth of earlier tetrapodomorph fishes such as \"Eusthenopteron\". Although this indicates a change in feeding habits, the exact nature of the change in unknown. Some scholars have suggested a change to bottom-feeding or feeding in shallower waters (Ahlberg and Milner 1994). Others have suggesting a mode of feeding comparable to that of the Japanese giant salamander, which uses both suction feeding and direct biting to eat small crustaceans and fish. A study of these jaws shows that they were used for feeding underwater, not on land.", "The evolution of early tetrapod respiration was influenced by an event known as the \"charcoal gap\", a period of more than 20 million years, in the middle and late Devonian, when atmospheric oxygen levels were too low to sustain wildfires. During this time, fish inhabiting anoxic waters (very low in oxygen) would have been under evolutionary pressure to develop their air-breathing ability. Early tetrapods probably relied on four methods of respiration: with lungs, with gills, cutaneous respiration (skin breathing), and breathing through the lining of the digestive tract, especially the mouth.", "The early tetrapod \"Acanthostega\" had at least three and probably four pairs of gill bars, each containing deep grooves in the place where one would", "Lungs originated as an extra pair of pouches in the throat, behind the gill pouches. They were probably present in the last common ancestor of bony fishes. In some fishes they evolved into swim bladders for maintaining buoyancy. Lungs and swim bladders are homologous (descended from a common ancestral form) as is the case for the pulmonary", "Although tetrapods are widely thought to have inhaled through buccal pumping (mouth pumping), according to an alternative hypothesis, aspiration (inhalation) occurred through passive recoil of the exoskeleton in a manner similar to the contemporary primitive ray-finned fish polypterus. This fish inhales", "Skin breathing, known as cutaneous respiration, is common in fish and amphibians, and occur both in and out of water. In some animals waterproof barriers impede the exchange of gases through the skin.", "Although air-breathing fish can absorb oxygen through their lungs, the lungs tend to be ineffective for discharging carbon dioxide. In tetrapods, the ability of lungs to discharge CO came about gradually, and was not fully attained until the evolution of amniotes. The same limitation applies to gut air breathing (GUT), i.e., breathing with the lining of the digestive tract. Tetrapod skin would have been effective for both absorbing oxygen and discharging CO, but only up to a point. For this reason, early tetrapods may have experienced chronic hypercapnia (high levels of blood CO). This is not uncommon in fish that inhabit waters high in CO. According to one hypothesis, the \"sculpted\" or \"ornamented\" dermal skull roof bones found in early tetrapods may have been related to a mechanism for relieving respiratory acidosis (acidic blood caused by excess CO) through compensatory metabolic alkalosis.", "Early tetrapods probably had a three-chambered heart, as do modern amphibians and reptiles, in which oxygenated blood from the lungs and de-oxygenated blood from the respiring tissues enters by separate atria, and is directed", "", "The difference in density between air and water causes smells (certain chemical compounds detectable by chemoreceptors) to behave", "Fish have a lateral line system that detects pressure fluctuations in the water. Such pressure is non-detectable in air, but grooves for the lateral", "Changes in the eye came about because the behavior of light at the surface of the eye differs between an air and water environment due to the difference in refractive index, so the focal length of the lens altered to function in air. The eye was now exposed to a", "Tetrapods retained the balancing function", "Air vibrations could not set up pulsations through the skull as in a proper auditory organ. The spiracle was retained as the otic notch, eventually closed in by the tympanum, a thin, tight membrane. The hyomandibula of fish migrated upwards from its jaw supporting position, and was reduced in size to form the stapes. Situated between the tympanum and braincase in an air-filled cavity, the stapes was now capable of transmitting vibrations from the exterior of the head to the interior. Thus the stapes became an important element in an impedance matching system, coupling airborne sound" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy and etymology.", "Description.", "Tusk.", "Vestigial teeth.", "Distribution.", "Behaviour.", "Social.", "Migration.", "Diet.", "Diving.", "Communication.", "Breeding and early life.", "Life span and mortality.", "Predation and hunting.", "Conservation issues.", "Cultural depictions.", "In legend.", "In literature and art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The narwhal was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his \"Systema Naturae\". Its name is derived from the Old Norse word \"nár\", meaning \"corpse\", in reference to the animal's greyish, mottled pigmentation, like that of a drowned sailor and its summer-time habit of lying still at or near the surface of the sea (called \"logging\"). The scientific name, \"Monodon monoceros\", is derived from the Greek: \"one-tooth one-horn\". The narwhal is most closely related to the beluga whale. Together, these two species comprise the only extant members of the family Monodontidae, sometimes referred to as the \"white whales\". The Monodontidae are distinguished by their medium size (at around in length), pronounced melons (round sensory organs), short snouts, and the absence of a true dorsal fin. Although the narwhal and the beluga are classified as separate genera, with one species each, there is some evidence that they may, very rarely, interbreed. The complete skull of an anomalous whale was discovered in West Greenland circa 1990. It was described by marine zoologists as unlike any known species, but with features midway between a narwhal and a beluga, consistent with the hypothesis that the anomalous whale was a narwhal-beluga hybrid; in 2019, this was confirmed by DNA and isotopic analysis. The white whales, dolphins (Delphinidae) and porpoises (Phocoenidae) together comprise the superfamily Delphinoidea, which are of likely monophyletic origin. Genetic evidence suggests the porpoises are more closely related to the white whales, and that these two families constitute a separate clade which diverged from the rest of Delphinoidea within the past 11 million years. Fossil evidence shows that ancient white whales lived in tropical waters. They may have migrated to Arctic and sub-Arctic waters in response to changes in the marine food chain during the Pliocene.", "Narwhals are medium-sized whales, and are around the same size as beluga whales. Total length in both sexes, excluding the tusk of the male, can range from. Males, at an average length of, are slightly larger than females, with an average length of. Typical adult body weight ranges from. Male narwhals attain sexual maturity at 11 to 13 years of age, when they are about long. Females become sexually mature at a younger age, between 5 and 8 years old, when they are around long. The pigmentation of narwhals is a mottled pattern, with blackish-brown markings over a white background. They are darkest when born and become whiter with age; white patches develop on the navel and genital slit at sexual maturity. Old males may be almost pure white. Narwhals do not have a dorsal fin, possibly an evolutionary adaptation to swimming easily under ice, to facilitate rolling, or to reduce surface area and heat loss. Instead narwhals possess a shallower dorsal ridge. Their neck vertebrae are jointed, like those of land mammals, instead of being fused together as in most whales, allowing a great range of neck flexibility. Both these characteristics are shared by the beluga whale. The tail flukes of female narwhals have front edges that are swept back, and those of males have front edges that are more concave and lack a sweep-back. This is thought to be an adaptation for reducing drag caused by the tusk.", "The most conspicuous characteristic of the male narwhal is a single long tusk, which is in fact a canine tooth that projects from the left side of the upper jaw, through the lip, and forms a left-handed helix spiral. The tusk grows throughout life, reaching a length of about. It is hollow and weighs around. About one in 500 males has two tusks, occurring when the right canine also grows out through the lip. Only about 15 percent of females grow a tusk which typically is smaller than a male tusk, with a less noticeable spiral. Collected in 1684, there is only one known case of a female growing a second tusk (image). Scientists have long speculated on the biological function of the tusk. Proposed functions include use of the tusk as a weapon, for opening breathing holes in sea ice, in feeding, as an acoustic organ, and as a secondary sex character. The leading theory has long been that the narwhal tusk serves as a secondary sex character of males, for nonviolent assessment of hierarchical status on the basis of relative tusk size. However, detailed analysis reveals that the tusk is a highly innervated sensory organ with millions of nerve endings connecting seawater stimuli in the external ocean environment with the brain. The rubbing of tusks together by male narwhals is thought to be a method of communicating information about characteristics of the water each has traveled through, rather than the previously assumed posturing display of aggressive male-to-male rivalry. In August 2016, drone videos of narwhals surface-feeding in Tremblay Sound, Nunavut showed that the tusk was used to tap and stun small Arctic cod, making them easier to catch for feeding. It's important to note, however, that the tusk can not serve a critical function for narwhals’ survival because females, who generally do not have tusks, still manage to live longer than males and occur in the same areas. Therefore, the general scientific consensus is that the narwhal tusk is a sexual trait, much like the antlers of a stag, the mane of a lion, or the feathers of a peacock.", "The tusks are surrounded posteriorly, ventrally, and laterally by several small vestigial teeth which vary in morphology and histology. These teeth can sometimes be extruded from the bone, but mainly reside inside open tooth sockets in the narwhal's snout alongside the tusks. The varied morphology and anatomy of small teeth indicate a path of evolutionary obsolescence, leaving the narwhal's mouth toothless.", "The narwhal is found predominantly in the Atlantic and Russian areas of the Arctic Ocean. Individuals are commonly recorded in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, such as in the northern part of Hudson Bay, Hudson Strait, Baffin Bay; off the east coast of Greenland; and in a strip running east from the northern end of Greenland round to eastern Russia (170° East). Land in this strip includes Svalbard, Franz Joseph Land, and Severnaya Zemlya. The northernmost sightings of narwhal have occurred north of Franz Joseph Land, at about 85° North latitude. Most of the world's narwhals are concentrated in the fjords and inlets of Northern Canada and western Greenland.", "", "Narwhals normally congregate in groups of about five to ten, and sometimes up to 20 individuals outside the summer. Groups may be \"nurseries\" with only females and young, or can contain only post-dispersal juveniles or adult males (\"bulls\"), but mixed groups can occur at any time of year. In the summer, several groups come together, forming larger aggregations which can contain from 500 to over 1000 individuals. At times, a bull narwhal may rub its tusk with another bull, a display known as \"tusking\" and thought to maintain social dominance hierarchies. However, this behaviour may exhibit tusk use as a sensory and communication organ for sharing information about water chemistry sensed in tusk microchannels.", "Narwhals exhibit seasonal migrations, with a high fidelity of return to preferred, ice-free summering grounds, usually in shallow waters. In summer months, they move closer to coasts, often in pods of 10–100. In the winter, they move to offshore, deeper waters under thick pack ice, surfacing in narrow fissures in the sea ice, or leads. As spring comes, these leads open up into channels and the narwhals return to the coastal bays. Narwhals from Canada and West Greenland winter regularly in the pack ice of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay along the continental slope with less than 5% open water and high densities of Greenland halibut. Feeding in the winter accounts for a much larger portion of narwhal energy intake than in the summer.", "Narwhals have a relatively restricted and specialized diet. Their prey is predominantly composed of Greenland halibut, polar and Arctic cod, cuttlefish, shrimp and armhook squid. Additional items found in stomachs have included wolffish, capelin, skate eggs and sometimes rocks, accidentally ingested when whales feed near the bottom. Due to the lack of well-developed dentition in the mouth, narwhals are believed to feed by swimming towards prey until it is within close range and then sucking it with considerable force into the mouth. It is thought that the beaked whales, which have similarly reduced dentition, also suck up their prey. The distinctive tusk is used to tap and stun small prey, facilitating a catch. Narwhals have a very intense summer feeding society. One study published in the Canadian Journal of Zoology tested 73 narwhals of different age and gender to see what they ate. The individuals were from the Pond Inlet and had their stomach contents tested from June 1978 until September 1979. The study found in 1978 that the Arctic cod (\"Boreogadus saida\") made up about 51% of the diet of the narwhals, with the next most common animal being the Greenland halibut (\"Reinhardtius hippoglossoides\"), consisting of 37% of the weight of their diet. A year later, the percentages of both animals in the diet of narwhals had changed. Arctic cod represented 57%, and Greenland halibut 29% in 1979. The deep-water fish – halibut, redfish (\"Sebastes marinus\"), and polar cod (\"Arctogadus glacialis\") – are found in the diet of the males, which means that the narwhals can dive deeper than below sea level. The study found that the dietary needs of the narwhal did not differ among genders or ages.", "When in their wintering waters, narwhals make some of the deepest dives recorded for a marine mammal, diving to at least over 15 times per day, with many dives reaching. Dives to these depths last around 25 minutes, including the time spent at the bottom and the transit down and back from the surface. Dive times can also vary in time and depth, based on local variation between environments, as well as seasonality. For example, in the Baffin Bay wintering grounds, narwhals farther south appear to be spending most of their time diving to deeper depths along the steep slopes of Baffin Bay, suggesting differences in habitat structure, prey availability, or innate adaptations between sub-populations. Curiously, whales in the deeper northern wintering ground have access to deeper depths, yet make shallower dives. Because vertical distribution of narwhal prey in the water column influences feeding behavior and dive tactics, regional differences in the spatial and temporal patterns of prey density, as well as differences in prey assemblage, may be shaping winter foraging behavior of narwhals.", "As most toothed whales, narwhals use sound to navigate and hunt for food. Narwhals primarily vocalize through \"clicks\", \"whistles\" and \"knocks\", created by air movement between chambers near the blow-hole. These sounds are reflected off the sloping front of the skull and focused by the animal's melon, which can be controlled by musculature. Echolocation clicks are primarily produced for prey detection, and for locating obstacles at short distances. It is possible that individual \"bangs\" are capable of disorienting or incapacitating prey, making them easier to hunt, but this has not been verified. They also emit tonal signals, such as whistles and pulsed calls, that are believed to have a communication function. The calls recorded from the same herd are more similar than calls from different herds, suggesting the possibility of group or individual-specific calls in narwhals. Narwhals may also adjust the duration and the pitch of their pulsed calls to maximize sound propagation in varying acoustic environments Other sounds produced by narwhals include trumpeting and squeaking door sounds. The narwhal vocal repertoire is similar to that of the closely related beluga, with comparable whistle frequency ranges, whistle duration, and repetition rates of pulse calls, however beluga whistles may have a higher frequency range and more diversified whistle contours.", "Females start bearing calves when six to eight years old. Adult narwhals mate in April or May when they are in the offshore pack ice. Gestation lasts for 14 months and calves are born between June and August the following year. As with most marine mammals, only a single young is born, averaging in length and white or light grey in colour. During summer population counts along different coastal inlets of Baffin Island, calf numbers varied from 0.05% to 5% of the total numbering from 10,000 to 35,000 narwhals, indicating that higher calf counts may reflect calving and nursery habitats in favorable inlets. Hybrids have been documented between the narwhal and beluga (specifically a beluga male and a narwhal female), as one, perhaps even as many as three, were killed and harvested during a sustenance hunt. Whether or not these hybrids could breed remains unknown. The unusual dentition seen in the single remaining skull indicates the hybrid hunted on the seabed, much as walruses do, indicating feeding habits different from those of either parent species. Newborn calves begin their lives with a thin layer of blubber which thickens as they nurse their mother's milk which is rich in fat. Calves are dependent on milk for around 20 months. This long lactation period gives calves time to learn skills needed for survival during maturation when they stay within two body lengths of the mother.", "Narwhals can live an average of 50 years, however research using aspartic acid racemization from the lens of the eyes suggests that narwhals can live to be as old as 115 ± 10 years and 84 ± 9 years for females and males, respectively Mortality often occurs when the narwhals suffocate after they fail to leave before the surface of the Arctic waters freeze over in the late autumn. As narwhals need to breathe, they drown if open water is no longer accessible and the ice is too thick for them to break through. Maximum aerobic swimming distance between breathing holes in ice is less than which limits the use of foraging grounds, and these holes must be at least wide to allow an adult whale to breathe. The last major entrapment events occurred when there was little to no wind. Entrapment can affect as many as 600 individuals, most occurring in narwhal wintering areas such as Disko Bay. In the largest entrapment in 1915 in West Greenland, over 1,000 narwhals were trapped under the ice. Despite the decreases in sea ice cover, there were several large cases of sea ice entrapment in 2008–2010 in the winter close to known summering grounds, two of which were locations where there had been no previous cases documented. This suggests later departure dates from summering grounds. Sites surrounding Greenland experience advection (moving) of sea ice from surrounding regions by wind and currents, increasing the variability of sea ice concentration. Due to strong site fidelity, changes in weather and ice conditions are not always associated with narwhal movement toward open water. More information is needed to determine the vulnerability of narwhals to sea ice changes. Narwhals can also die of starvation.", "Major predators are polar bears, which attack at breathing holes mainly for young narwhals, Greenland sharks, and walruses. Killer whales (orcas) group together to overwhelm narwhal pods in the shallow water of enclosed bays, in one case killing dozens of narwhals in a single attack. To escape predators such as orcas, narwhals may use prolonged submergence to hide under ice floes rather than relying on speed. Humans hunt narwhals, often selling commercially the skin, carved veterbrae, teeth and tusk, while eating the meat, or feeding it to dogs. About 1,000 narwhals per year are killed, 600 in Canada and 400 in Greenland. Canadian harvests were steady at this level in the 1970s, dropped to 300–400 per year in the late 1980s and 1990s, and rose again since 1999. Greenland harvested more, 700–900 per year, in the 1980s and 1990s. Tusks are sold with or without carving in Canada and Greenland. An average of one or two vertebrae and one or two teeth per narwhal are carved and sold. In Greenland the skin (Muktuk) is sold commercially to fish factories, and in Canada to other communities. One estimate of the annual gross value received from Narwhal hunts in Hudson Bay in 2013 was for 81 narwhals, or per narwhal. However the net income, after subtracting costs in time and equipment, was a loss of per person. Hunts receive subsidies, but they continue as a tradition, rather than for the money, and the economic analysis noted that whale watching may be an alternate revenue source. Of the gross income, was for skin and meat, to replace beef, pork and chickens which would otherwise be bought, was received for tusks, and carved vertebrae and teeth of males, and was received for carved vertebrae and teeth of females.", "Narwhals are one of many mammals that are being threatened by human actions. Estimates of the world population of narwhals range from around 50,000 (from 1996) to around 170,000 (compilation of various sub-population estimates from the years 2000–2017). They are considered to be near threatened and several sub-populations have evidence of decline. In an effort to support conservation, the European Union established an import ban on tusks in 2004 and lifted it in 2010. The United States has forbidden imports since 1972 under the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Narwhals are difficult to keep in captivity. Inuit people hunt this whale species legally, as discussed above in Predation and hunting. Narwhals have been extensively hunted the same way as other sea mammals, such as seals and whales, for their large quantities of fat. Almost all parts of the narwhal, meat, skin, blubber, and organs are consumed. \"Muktuk\", the name for raw skin and blubber, is considered a delicacy. One or two vertebrae per animal are used for tools and art. The skin is an important source of vitamin C which is otherwise difficult to obtain. In some places in Greenland, such as Qaanaaq, traditional hunting methods are used, and whales are harpooned from handmade kayaks. In other parts of Greenland and Northern Canada, high-speed boats and hunting rifles are used. During growth, the narwhal accumulates metals in its internal organs. One study found that many metals are low in concentration in the blubber of narwhals, and high in the liver and the kidney. Zinc and cadmium are found in higher densities in the kidney than the liver, and lead, copper, and mercury were found to be the opposite. Certain metals were correlated with size and sex. During growth, it was found that mercury accumulated in the liver, kidney, muscle, and blubber, and that cadmium settled in the blubber. Narwhals are one of the most vulnerable Arctic marine mammals to climate change due to altering sea ice coverage in their environment, especially in their northern wintering grounds such as the Baffin Bay and Davis Strait regions. Satellite data collected from these areas shows the amount of sea ice has been markedly reduced. Narwhals' ranges for foraging are believed to be patterns developed early in their life which increase their ability to gain necessary food resources during winter. This strategy focuses on strong site fidelity rather than individual level responses to local prey distribution and this results in focal foraging areas during the winter. As such, despite changing conditions, narwhals will continue returning to the same areas during migration. Despite its vulnerability to sea ice change, the narwhal has some flexibility when it comes to sea ice and habitat selection. It evolved in the late Pliocene, and so is moderately accustomed to periods of glaciation and environmental variability. An indirect danger for narwhals associated with changes in sea ice is the increased exposure in open water. In 2002 there was an increase in narwhal catches by hunters in Siorapaluk that did not appear to be associated with increased effort, implying that climate change may be making the narwhal more vulnerable to harvesting. Scientists urge assessment of population numbers with the assignment of sustainable quotas for stocks and the collaboration of management agreements to ensure local acceptance. Seismic surveys associated with oil exploration have also disrupted normal migration patterns which may also be associated with increased sea ice entrapment.", "", "In Inuit legend, the narwhal's tusk was created when a woman with a harpoon rope tied around her waist was dragged into the ocean after the harpoon had struck a large narwhal. She was transformed into a narwhal, and her hair, which she was wearing in a twisted knot, became the characteristic spiral narwhal tusk. Some medieval Europeans believed narwhal tusks to be the horns from the legendary unicorn. As these horns were considered to have magic powers, such as neutralising poison and curing melancholia, Vikings and other northern traders were able to sell them for many times their weight in gold. The tusks were used to make cups that were thought to negate any poison that may have been slipped into the drink. A narwhal tusk exhibited at Warwick Castle is according to legend the rib of the mythical Dun Cow. In 1555, Olaus Magnus published a drawing of a fish-like creature with a horn on its forehead, correctly identifying it as a \"Narwal\". During the 16th century, Queen Elizabeth I received a carved and bejewelled narwhal tusk worth 10,000 pounds sterling—the 16th-century equivalent cost of a castle (approximately £1.5–2.5 million in 2007, using the retail price index)–from Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who proposed the tusk was from a \"sea-unicorne\". The tusks were staples of the cabinet of curiosities. European knowledge of the tusk's origin developed gradually during the Age of Exploration, as explorers and naturalists began to visit Arctic regions themselves.", "The narwhal was one of two possible explanations of the giant sea phenomenon written by Jules Verne in his 1870 novel \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\". Verne thought that it would be unlikely that there was such a gigantic narwhal in existence. The size of the narwhal, or \"unicorn of the sea\", as found by Verne, would have been. For the narwhal to have caused the phenomenon, Verne stated that its size and strength would have to increase by five or ten times. Herman Melville wrote a section on the narwhal (written as \"narwhale\") in his 1851 novel \"Moby-Dick\", in which he claims a narwhal tusk hung for \"a long period\" in Windsor Castle after Sir Martin Frobisher had given it to Queen Elizabeth. Another claim he made was that the Danish kings made their thrones from narwhal tusks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Music.", "Film and television.", "Art.", "Video games.", "Other ventures.", "Vocal style.", "Name.", "Lawsuits.", "Charitable causes.", "Personal life.", "Relationships.", "Beliefs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Brian Hugh Warner was born in Canton, Ohio, on January 5, 1969, the only son of Barbara Warner Wyer (died May 13, 2014) and Hugh Angus Warner (died July 7, 2017). He is of English, German, and Irish descent. He has also claimed that his mother, whose family hailed from the Appalachian Mountains in West Virginia, had Sioux heritage. As a child, Warner attended his mother's Episcopal church, though his father was a Roman Catholic. He attended Heritage Christian School from first to 10th grade. In that school, his instructors tried to show children what music they were not supposed to listen to; Warner then fell in love with what he \"wasn't supposed to do\". Warner later transferred to GlenOak High School and graduated from there in 1987. After relocating with his parents, he became a student at Broward Community College in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1990. He was working towards a degree in journalism, gaining experience in the field by writing articles for the music magazine \"25th Parallel\". He also interviewed musicians and soon met several of the musicians to whom his own work was later compared, including Groovie Mann from My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult and Trent Reznor of Nine Inch Nails, with the latter later becoming his mentor and producing his debut album.", "", "Warner and guitarist Scott \"Daisy Berkowitz\" Putesky formed Marilyn Manson & the Spooky Kids following conversations at the Reunion Room in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, in 1989. The name was later shortened to Marilyn Manson. While with The Spooky Kids, Manson teamed with Jeordie White (also known as Twiggy Ramirez) and Stephen Gregory Bier Jr. (also known as Madonna Wayne Gacy) in two side-projects: Satan on Fire, a faux-Christian metal ensemble where he played bass guitar, and drums in Mrs. Scabtree, a collaborative band formed with White and then girlfriend Jessicka (vocalist with the band Jack Off Jill) as a way to combat contractual agreements that prohibited Marilyn Manson from playing in certain clubs. In 1993, the band drew the attention of Trent Reznor, who produced their 1994 debut album \"Portrait of an American Family\" and released it on his Nothing Records label. The band began to develop a cult following, which grew larger on the Downward Spiral Tour that featured Nine Inch Nails and Jim Rose Circus along with the release of \"Smells Like Children\" in 1995. That EP yielded the band's first big MTV hit with \"Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This)\", a cover of the 1983 Eurythmics hit. \"Antichrist Superstar\" (co-produced by Trent Reznor) was an even greater success. In the U.S. alone, three of the band's albums have been awarded two platinum and three more went gold, and the band has had seven releases debut in the top ten, including two number-one albums. Manson first worked as a producer with the band Jack Off Jill. He helped name the band and produced most of the band's early recordings, and also played guitar on the song \"My Cat\" and had the band open most of his South Florida shows. Manson later wrote the liner notes to the band's album \"Humid Teenage Mediocrity 1992–1996\", a collection of early Jack Off Jill recordings. Commentators have referred to the band's lead singer as being one of the most iconic and controversial figures in heavy metal music, with some going so far as to call him a \"pop culture icon\". \"Paste\" magazine said there were \"few artists in the 90s as shocking as Marilyn Manson, the most famous of the shock-rockers\". Manson has appeared as a guest performer on DMX's album \"Flesh of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood\" and on Godhead's \"2000 Years of Human Error\" album – the only album released on his vanity label Posthuman. In 2011 it was revealed that Manson was to appear on the singer Skylar Grey's album \"Invinsible\" on the track entitled \"Can't Haunt Me\". Manson released his eighth studio album, \"Born Villain\", in May 2012. On November 10, 2014, Manson posted via his official Facebook page that his ninth studio album, \"The Pale Emperor\", would be released on January 20, 2015. On August 15, 2015, Manson had New Orleans brass ensemble the Soul Rebels perform \"Beautiful People\" with him live in Japan at the Summer Sonic Music Festival. Shooter Jennings' album \"Countach (For Giorgio)\" (a tribute to Giorgio Moroder) features Manson performing guest vocals on a cover of David Bowie's \"Cat People (Putting Out Fire)\". The album was released on February 26, 2016. On September 30, 2017, Manson was injured by two large falling stage props while he performed on stage at the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York, breaking his fibula in two places, requiring a plate and ten screws to be inserted in the bone, as well as another screw in his ankle, which he had sprained during a show in Pittsburgh.", "Manson made his film debut in 1997, as an actor in David Lynch's \"Lost Highway\". Since then he has appeared in a variety of minor roles and cameos, including \"Party Monster\"; then-girlfriend Rose McGowan's 1999 film \"Jawbreaker\"; Asia Argento's 2004 film \"The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things\"; \"\"; \"The Hire: Beat The Devil\", the sixth installment in the BMW films series; and Showtime's comedy-drama TV series \"Californication\" in 2013, in which Manson portrayed himself. He also appeared on HBO's \"Eastbound & Down\", of which Manson is reportedly a longtime fan, and had lobbied to appear on for years; and ABC's \"Once Upon a Time\", for which he provided the voice of the character \"Shadow\". He was interviewed in Michael Moore's political documentary \"Bowling for Columbine\" discussing possible motivations for the Columbine massacre and allegations that his music was somehow a factor. He has appeared in animated form in \"Clone High\" and participated in several episodes of the MTV series \"Celebrity Deathmatch\", becoming the show's unofficial champion and mascot; he often performed the voice for his claymated puppet, and contributed the song \"Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes\" to the soundtrack album. In July 2005, Manson told \"Rolling Stone\" that he was shifting his focus from music to filmmaking – \"I just don't think the world is worth putting music into right now. I no longer want to make art that other people – particularly record companies – are turning into a product. I just want to make art.\" Johnny Depp reportedly used Manson as his inspiration for his performance as Willy Wonka in the film \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\". Manson himself expressed interest in playing the role of Willy Wonka in the film. He had been working on his directorial debut, \"Phantasmagoria: The Visions of Lewis Carroll\", a project that has been in development hell since 2004, with Manson also set to portray the role of Lewis Carroll, author of \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\". Initially announced as a web-only release, it was later decided to give the estimated $4.2 million budget film a conventional cinema release, with a slated release date of mid-2007. The film was to have an original music soundtrack with previously unreleased songs. Production of the film had been postponed indefinitely until after the \"Eat Me, Drink Me\" tour. In 2010, studio bosses shut down production on the project, reportedly due to viewers' responses to the violent content of clips released on the internet. The film was later officially put on \"indefinite production hold\". However, according to a 2010 interview with co-writer Anthony Silva about the hold, the film was still on and the talk of it being shut down was just a myth. In a June 2013 interview, Manson stated that he had \"resurrected\" the project, and that Roger Avary would direct it. In a separate interview during the previous year, he said a small crew similar to what he used for his Slo-Mo-Tion\" music video would be used, and would rather film the movie on an iPhone than not film it at all. In a Reddit AMA with Billy Corgan on April 4, 2015, Manson commented that he had withdrawn from the project because the writing process for the film was \"so... damaging to my psyche, I've decided I don't want to have anything to do with it.\" and further commented that the only footage that had been created thus far had been content created for the trailer, which was made in order to promote the film. Manson appeared in the final season of the TV series \"Sons of Anarchy\", portraying white supremacist Ron Tully. In January 2016, it was announced that Manson would be joining the cast for season 3 of WGN's \"Salem\". He played Thomas Dinley, a barber and surgeon described as \"the go-to man in Salem, from a shave and a haircut to being leeched, bled, sliced open or sewn up\". In 2020, Manson was a guest star on the HBO television series \"The New Pope\", in which he has a personal audience with the series' Pope and recommends that he visit the prior Pope that lies unconscious in a coma.", "Manson stated in a 2004 interview with \"i-D magazine\" to have begun his career as a watercolor painter in 1999 when he made five-minute concept pieces and sold them to drug dealers. On September 13–14, 2002, his first show, The Golden Age of Grotesque, was held at the Los Angeles Contemporary Exhibitions Centre. \"Art in America\"s Max Henry likened them to the works of a \"psychiatric patient given materials to use as therapy\" and said his work would never be taken seriously in a fine art context, writing that the value was \"in their celebrity, not the work\". On September 14–15, 2004, Manson held a second exhibition on the first night in Paris and the second in Berlin. The show was named 'Trismegistus' which was also the title of the center piece of the exhibit – a large, three-headed Christ painted onto an antique wood panel from a portable embalmers table. Manson named his self-proclaimed art movement Celebritarian Corporation. He has coined a slogan for the movement: \"We will sell our shadow to those who stand within it.\" In 2005 he said that the Celebritarian Corporation has been \"incubating for seven years\" which if correct would indicate that Celebritarian Corporation, in some form, started in 1998. Celebritarian Corporation is also the namesake of an art gallery owned by Manson, called the \"Celebritarian Corporation Gallery of Fine Art\" in Los Angeles for which his third exhibition was the inaugural show. From April 2–17, 2007, his works were on show at the Space 39 Modern & Contemporary art gallery in Fort Myers, Florida. Forty pieces from this show traveled to Germany's Gallery Brigitte Schenk in Cologne to be publicly exhibited from June 28 – July 28, 2007. Manson revealed a series of 20 paintings in 2010 entitled \"Genealogies of Pain\", an exhibition showcased at Vienna's Kunsthalle gallery which the artist collaborated on with David Lynch.", "Manson has made an appearance in the video game \"Area 51\" as Edgar, a grey alien. His song \"Cruci-Fiction in Space\" is featured in a commercial for the video game, \"The Darkness\". His likeness is also featured on the \"Celebrity Deathmatch\" video game for which he recorded a song for the soundtrack (2003). The song \"Use Your Fist and Not Your Mouth\" was the credits score of the game \"Cold Fear\" as well as \"\". The song \"Four Rusted Horses\" had an alternate version used in trailers for the video game \"Fear 3\". A remix of the song \"Tainted Love\" appears in the debut trailer for the 2010 video game, \"\" and in the launch trailer of the 2012 video game \"Twisted Metal\". Manson's song \"The Beautiful People\" was featured in \"WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth\", \"KickBeat\" and \"Brütal Legend\". The song \"Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon\" is also featured in \"\". His music video to the song \"Personal Jesus\" was used in some parts of the \"Buzz!\" game series.", "Manson launched \"Mansinthe\", his own brand of Swiss-made absinthe, which has received mixed reviews; some critics described the taste as being \"just plain\", but it came second to Versinthe in an Absinthe top five and won a gold medal at the 2008 San Francisco World Spirits Competition. Other reviewers, such as critics at The Wormwood Society, have given the absinthe moderately high praise. In 2015, Manson stated he was no longer drinking absinthe.", "Manson predominantly delivers lyrics in a melodic fashion, although he invariably enhances his vocal register by utilizing several extended vocal techniques, such as vocal fry, screaming, growling and crooning. His voice has five different tones, which mixing engineer Robert Carranza discovered can form a pentagram when imported into a phrasal analyzer. He possesses a baritone vocal type, and has a vocal range which can span more than four octaves. His lowest bass note of A1 can be heard in \"Arma-goddamn-motherfuckin-geddon\", while his highest note, an E6 – the first note of the whistle register – can be heard on the \"Born Villain\" song \"Hey, Cruel World...\".", "The name Marilyn Manson is formed by a juxtaposition of two opposing American pop cultural icons: Marilyn Monroe and Charles Manson. Monroe, an actress, was one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s and continues to be a major icon over 50 years after, while Manson, a cult leader, was responsible for the murder of actress Sharon Tate, as well as several others; and served a life sentence on murder and conspiracy charges until his death in 2017. Manson has mentioned on at least two occasions that he trademarked the name Marilyn Manson. In an interview at the 2015 Cannes Lions Festival, he said: \"I trademarked the name 'Marilyn Manson' the same way as Walt Disney and Mickey Mouse. It's not a stage name. It's not my legal name.... Marilyn Manson is owned by Brian Warner, my real name.\" He also mentioned this in a 2013 interview with Larry King. The records of the United States Patent and Trademark Office show that he registered four trademarks of the name between 1994 and 1999, protecting entertainment services, merchandising and branding. Manson says he used those trademark registrations to issue cease and desist orders to media outlets who wrongly blamed him for the Columbine High School massacre. One journalist had erroneously reported the shooters were \"wearing Marilyn Manson makeup and t-shirts,\" although the reports were soon proved incorrect. However, Manson said, \"Once the wheels started spinning, Fox News started going.\" As a result of these accusations, Manson's career was seriously harmed: He was shunned by many venue owners and received numerous death threats. Manson generally uses the name in lieu of his birth name. Though his mother referred to him by his birth name of Brian, his father has opted to refer to his son as simply \"Manson\" since at least 1993, saying, \"It's called respect of the artist.\"", "In September 1996, former bassist Gidget Gein negotiated a settlement with Manson where he would receive and 20 percent of any royalties paid for recordings and for any songs he had a hand in writing and his share of any other royalties or fees the group earned while he was a member and he could market himself as a former member of Marilyn Manson. This settlement was not honored, however. Former guitarist and founding member Scott Putesky (a.k.a. Daisy Berkowitz) filed a $15 million lawsuit in a Fort Lauderdale court against the singer, the band and the band's attorney (David Codikow) in January 1998 after his departure from the group in the spring of 1996. Berkowitz claimed \"thousands of dollars in royalties, publishing rights, and performance fees\" and filed an attorney malpractice suit against Codikow, alleging that \"Codikow represented Warner's interests more than the band's and... gave Warner disproportionate control..\" By October of that year, the suit had been settled out of court for an undisclosed amount. On November 30, 1998, a few days after the band accumulated \"[a] total [of] more than $25,000\" in backstage and hotel room damages during the Poughkeepsie, New York, stop of their Mechanical Animals Tour, \"SPIN\" editor Craig Marks filed a $24-million lawsuit against Manson and his bodyguards. On February 19, 1999, Manson counter-sued Marks for libel, slander and defamation, seeking in reparation. Marks later dropped the lawsuit. Manson apologized for the Poughkeepsie incident and offered to make financial restitution. In a civil battery suit, David Diaz, a security officer from a concert in Minneapolis, Minnesota, on October 27, 2000, sued for in a Minneapolis federal court. The federal court jury found in Manson's favor. In a civil suit presented by Oakland County, Michigan, Manson was charged with sexual misconduct against another security officer, Joshua Keasler, during a concert in Clarkston, Michigan, on July 30, 2001. Oakland County originally filed assault and battery and criminal sexual misconduct charges, but the judge reduced the latter charge to misdemeanor disorderly conduct. Manson pleaded no contest to the reduced charges, paid a fine, and later settled the lawsuit under undisclosed terms. On April 3, 2002, Maria St. John filed a lawsuit in Los Angeles Superior Court accusing Manson of providing her adult daughter, Jennifer Syme, with cocaine and instructing her to drive while under the influence. After attending a party at Manson's house, Syme was given a lift home; Manson claims she was taken home by a designated driver. After she got home, she got behind the wheel of her own vehicle and was killed when she crashed it into three parked cars. Manson is reported to have said there were no alcohol or other drugs at the party; St. John's lawyer disputed this claim. On August 2, 2007, former band member Stephen Bier filed a lawsuit against Manson for unpaid \"partnership proceeds\", seeking $20 million in back pay. Several details from the lawsuit leaked to the press. In December 2007, Manson countersued, claiming that Bier failed to fulfill his duties as a bandmember to play for recordings and to promote the band. On December 28, 2009, the suit was settled with an agreement which saw Bier's attorneys being paid a total of $380,000.", "Manson has supported various charitable causes throughout his career. In 2002, he worked with the Make-A-Wish Foundation to collaborate with a fan who had been diagnosed with a life-threatening illness. 16-year-old Andrew Baines from Tennessee was invited into the band's recording studio to record backing vocals for their then-upcoming album, \"The Golden Age of Grotesque\". Manson said on his website, \"Yesterday, I spent the afternoon with Andrew, who reminded me the things I create are only made complete by those who enjoy them. I just want to simply say, thank you to Andrew for sharing such an important wish with me.\" He contributed to Oxfam's 2013 \"Rumble in the Jumble\" event, which raised money to aid victims of domestic and sexual abuse in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. He has supported various organizations – such as Music for Life and Little Kids Rock – which enable access to musical instruments and education to children of low-income families. He has also worked with Project Nightlight, a group that encourages children and teenagers to speak out against physical and sexual abuse. In 2019, he performed alongside Cyndi Lauper at her annual 'Home for the Holidays' benefit concert, with all proceeds donated to Lauper's True Colors United, which \"works to develop solutions to youth homelessness that focus on the unique experiences of LGBTQ young people.\"", "", "Manson was engaged to actress Rose McGowan from February 1999 to January 2001. McGowan later ended their engagement, citing \"lifestyle differences\". Manson and burlesque dancer, model, and costume designer Dita Von Teese became a couple in 2001. Manson proposed on March 22, 2004, and they were married in a private, non-denominational ceremony officiated by Chilean film director Alejandro Jodorowsky. On December 30, 2006, Von Teese filed for divorce due to \"irreconcilable differences\". Von Teese also stated she did not agree with his \"partying or his relationship with another girl\". Manson's \"heavy boozing\" and distant behavior were also cited as cause for the split. A judgment of divorce was entered in Los Angeles Superior Court on December 27, 2007. Manson's relationship with actress, model, and musician Evan Rachel Wood was made public in 2007. They reportedly maintained an on-again, off-again relationship for several years. Manson proposed to Wood during a Paris stage performance in January 2010, but the couple broke off the engagement later that year. In the March 2012 issue of \"Revolver\" magazine, American photographer Lindsay Usich was referred to as Manson's girlfriend. The article referenced a new painting by Manson featuring Usich. She is credited as the photo source for the cover art of Manson's 2012 album, \"Born Villain\". It was later confirmed that the two were romantically involved. In February 2015, Manson told \"Beat\" magazine that he is \"newly single\". Manson is the godfather of Lily-Rose Depp.", "Manson was a friend of Anton LaVey, who even inducted him as a minister in the Church of Satan, although Manson downplayed this. When questioned whether he was a minister in the Church of Satan by Bill O'Reilly, Manson responded with \"No, not necessarily. That was something earlier. It was a friend of mine who's now dead, who was a philosopher that I thought I learned a lot from. And that was a title I was given, so a lot of people made a lot out of it. But it's not a real job, I didn't get paid for it.\" As a result, he has been described as \"the highest profile Satanist ever\" with strong anti-Christian views and social Darwinist leanings. However, Manson himself denies this, and stated the following: Manson is also familiar with the writings of Aleister Crowley and Friedrich Nietzsche. He quotes Crowley throughout his autobiography, including Thelema's principal dictum, \"Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law.\" Crowley's esoteric subject matter forms an important leitmotif in much of Manson's early work." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early growth.", "License-built Pipers.", "Acquisition of Aerotec.", "Privatization.", "Initial public offerings.", "Product line expansion: military, regional and executive.", "Executive jets.", "Military transport.", "Government subsidy controversy.", "Boeing-Embraer joint venture.", "Production bases and facilities.", "Aircraft models.", "Commercial.", "Commercial aircraft deliveries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Seeking to develop a domestic aircraft industry, the Brazilian government under Getúlio Vargas' Estado Novo made several investments in the aerospace industry during the 1940s and 1950s. However, it was not until 1969, following the rise to power of a military junta in the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état, that Empresa Brasileira de Aeronáutica (Embraer) was created as a government-owned corporation. Its first president, Ozires Silva, was a government appointee, and the company initially only produced a turboprop passenger aircraft, the Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante.", "The Brazilian government contributed to Embraer's early growth by providing production contracts. The company sold solely to the domestic market until 1975. While military aircraft made up the majority of Embraer's products during the 1970s and early 1980s, including the Embraer AT-26 Xavante and the Embraer EMB 312 Tucano, it debuted a regional airliner, the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia, in 1985. Aimed at the export market, this plane was the first in a series of highly successful small and regional airliners.", "In 1974, the company started to produce Piper light airplanes under license. Piper first put together knock-down kits in their US factory for Embraer to assemble and market in Brazil and Latin America. By 1978, most of the parts and components were being sourced locally. Between 1974 and 2000, nearly 2,500 license-built Pipers were produced by Embraer.", "Aerotec was a design and manufacturing company founded in São José dos Campos in 1962 under the auspices of the Brazilian General Command for Aerospace Technology. Beginning in the late 1960s, the firm manufactured a two-seat trainer for the Brazilian Air Force, the Aerotec Uirapuru. A small number were also built for the civilian market, and others were exported to other Latin American countries. By 1980, Aerotec's main business was producing components for Embraer. However, around this time, the Brazilian Air Force became interested in an upgraded version of the Uirapuru. A prototype, designated Uirapuru II, was built; but, by the time it flew, the Air Force no longer required it. A small number were built for export. In 1987, the firm was sold to Embraer.", "Born from a Brazilian government plan, and having been state-run from the beginning, Embraer eventually started a privatisation process in 1992 alongside other state-run companies, such as Telebras and Vale. Privatisation was a key policy of the economically liberal PRN government of Itamar Franco, elected in the 1989 presidential election. Embraer was sold to private investors on December 7, 1994, which helped it avoid a looming bankruptcy. The Brazilian government retained interest through possession of golden shares, which allow it veto power. Embraer continued to win government contracts throughout the 2000s and 2010s.", "In 2000, Embraer made simultaneous initial public offerings on the NYSE and BM&F Bovespa stock exchanges. As of 2008 its NYSE-traded shares were American depositary receipts representing 4 BM&F Bovespa shares and it was partially owned by the Bozano Group (11.10%), Previ (16.40%), Sistel (7.40%), Dassault Aviation (2.1%), EADS (2.1%), Thales (2.1%), Safran (1.1%), and the government of Brazil (0.3% and golden share), the remainder being publicly traded. As of December 31, 2014 the shareholders with more than 5% of the company's capital were:", "In the mid-1990s, the company pursued a product line more focused on small commercial airplanes over the military aircraft that had previously made up the majority of its manufacturing. It soon expanded to the production of larger regional airliners in 70–110 seat range, and smaller business jets. By May 2019, Embraer was considering developing a new family turboprop regional airliners in the 50-70 seat range, complementing the aging E-Jet E2, so as to free engineering resources.", "At the 2000 Farnborough Airshow, Embraer launched the Legacy 600, a business jet variant of the Embraer Regional Jet. In 2002, a dedicated subsidiary, \"Embraer Executive Jets\", was created, as the Legacy was introduced into service. In 2005, the Phenom 100 was first envisioned as an air taxi similar to the Eclipse 500, competing with Cessna and Hawker Beechcraft. It was introduced in 2008 and is the basis of the larger Phenom 300. The midsize Legacy 450 and Legacy 500 were jointly developed as clean sheet designs, while the Lineage 1000 is a VIP version of the E190. In 2016, Embraer delivered its 1,000th executive jet and had a market share of 17% by volume, though it lacked an ultra-long-range large cabin jet. In October 2018 Embraer announced two new business jets—the Praetor 500 in the midsize cabin category—and the Praetor 600 in the super midsize category.", "On April 19, 2007, Embraer announced it was considering the production of a twin-jet military transport. Work began in May 2009 with funding from the Brazilian Air Force. Correios, the Brazilian postal service, has shown interest in buying this aircraft. Using much of the technology developed for the Embraer 190, the C-390 would carry up to 23 tons of cargo and aims to replace Cold War-era cargo aircraft. While firm orders for the yet-to-be-produced KC-390 transport had not yet been made in the fall of 2010, Argentina asked for six examples and several other South American nations also expressed interest.", "Brazil and Canada engaged in an international, adjudicated trade dispute over government subsidies to domestic plane-makers in the late 1990s and early 2000s. The World Trade Organization determined that both countries had provided illegal subsidies to what were supposed to be privately owned industries. Brazil ran an illegal subsidy program, Proex, benefiting its national aviation industry from at least 1999–2000, and Canada illegally subsidized its indigenous regional airliner industry, comprising Bombardier Aerospace.", "On July 5, 2018, a joint venture with Boeing was announced that would see Boeing owning 80% of Embraer's commercial aviation division. This was seen as a reaction to Airbus' acquisition of a majority in the competing Bombardier CSeries on October 16, 2017. Under the 2018 plan, Embraer would retain its executive business jet and its defence business. On May 23, 2019, Boeing announced that the resulting division would be known as Boeing BrasilCommercial, dropping the Embraer name, but had not yet decided whether the aircraft will be rebranded as Boeing models. On November 18, 2019, Boeing (49%) and Embraer (51%) announced a joint venture to promote and develop new markets for the C-390 Millennium tactical transport aircraft, named Boeing Embraer – Defense, to operate after the regulatory approvals and closing conditions. In April 2020, Boeing canceled its acquisition of Embraer's commercial operations after being heavily affected financially by the air crisis initiated by the COVID-19 pandemic and by the 737 MAX groundings.", "The company's headquarters and main production base are in São José dos Campos, São Paulo, Brazil. It also has production bases in the State of São Paulo at Botucatu, Eugênio de Melo (a district of São José dos Campos) and Gavião Peixoto. The company has offices in Beijing, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Amsterdam, Singapore, and Washington, D.C..", "", "By December 2018, Embraer claimed to lead the sub 150 seat jetliner market with 100 operators of the ERJ and E-Jet families.", "The numbers include military versions of commercial aircraft. Total delivered-backlog-options as of June 30, 2007: 862-53-131 145 Family, 256-399-719 170/190 Family" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Purpose.", "The modern fleet." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Fleets are usually, but not necessarily, permanent formations and are generally assigned to a particular ocean or sea. Most fleets are named after that ocean or sea, but the convention in the United States Navy is to use numbers. A fleet is normally commanded by an admiral, who is often also a commander in chief, but many fleets have been or are commanded by vice admirals or even rear admirals. Most fleets are divided into several squadrons, each under a subordinate admiral. Those squadrons in turn are often divided into divisions. In the age of sail, fleets were divided into van, centre and rear squadrons, named after each squadron’s place in the line of battle. In more modern times, the squadrons are typically composed of homogeneous groups of the same class of warship, such as battleships or cruisers. Since many smaller navies contain a single fleet, the term \"the fleet\" is often synonymous with \"the navy\". Multinational fleets are not uncommon in naval history. For example, several nations made up the Holy League fleet at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. In modern times, NATO has formed standing combined fleets and operations from several national navies such as Operation Active Endeavour.", "Modern fleets combine surface warships, submarines, support ships and ship-based aircraft to conduct naval operations at sea. Generally understood to be the blue water, or oceanic, green water or littoral versus the brown water or coastal/riverine forces. The fleets of larger navies are usually divided into smaller numbered or named fleets based on geographic operating areas or on administrative groupings of same type ships. Modern fleets are usually administrative units. Typically, individual task forces are formed to conduct specific operations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Act I – A Performance at the Hôtel Burgundy.", "Act II – The Poets' Cookshop.", "Act III – Roxane's Kiss.", "Act IV – The Gascon Cadets.", "Act V – Cyrano's Gazette.", "Stage history.", "Adaptations.", "Films.", "Radio.", "Opera.", "Scientific studies: \"Cyranoids\".", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hercule Savinien Cyrano de Bergerac, a cadet (nobleman serving as a soldier) in the French Army, is a brash, strong-willed man of many talents. In addition to being a remarkable duelist, he is a gifted, joyful poet and is also a musical artist. However, he has an obnoxiously large nose, which causes him to doubt himself. This doubt prevents him from expressing his love for his distant cousin, the beautiful and intellectual Roxane, as he believes that his ugliness would prevent him the \"dream of being loved by even an ugly woman.\"", "The play opens in Paris, 1640, in the theatre of the Hôtel Burgundy. Members of the audience slowly arrive, representing a cross-section of Parisian society from pickpockets to nobility. Christian de Neuvillette, a handsome new cadet, arrives with Lignière, a drunkard whom he hopes will identify the young woman with whom he has fallen in love. Lignière recognizes her as Roxane, and tells Christian about her and the Count de Guiche's scheme to marry her off to the compliant Viscount Valvert. Meanwhile, Ragueneau and Le Bret are expecting Cyrano de Bergerac, who has banished the actor Montfleury from the stage for a month. After Lignière leaves, Christian intercepts a pickpocket and, in return for his freedom, the pickpocket tells Christian of a plot against Lignière. Christian departs to try to warn him. The play \"Clorise\" begins with Montfleury's entrance. Cyrano disrupts the play, forces Montfleury off stage, and compensates the manager for the loss of admission fees. The crowd is going to disperse when Cyrano lashes out at a pesky busybody, then is confronted by Valvert and duels with him while composing a ballade, wounding (and possibly killing) him as he ends the refrain (as promised, he ends each refrain with \"Qu'à la fin de l'envoi, je touche!\": \"Then, as I end the refrain, thrust home!\") When the crowd has cleared the theater, Cyrano and Le Bret remain behind, and Cyrano confesses his love for Roxane. Roxane's duenna then arrives, and asks where Roxane may meet Cyrano privately. Lignière is then brought to Cyrano, having learned that one hundred hired thugs are waiting to ambush him on his way home. Cyrano, now emboldened, vows to take on the entire mob single-handed, and he leads a procession of officers, actors and musicians to the Porte de Nesle.", "The next morning, at Ragueneau's bake shop, Ragueneau supervises various apprentice cooks in their preparations. Cyrano arrives, anxious about his meeting with Roxane. He is followed by a musketeer, a paramour of Ragueneau's domineering wife Lise, then the regular gathering of impoverished poets who take advantage of Ragueneau's hospitality. Cyrano composes a letter to Roxane expressing his deep and unconditional love for her, warns Lise about her indiscretion with the musketeer, and when Roxane arrives he signals Ragueneau to leave them alone. Roxane and Cyrano talk privately as she bandages his hand (injured from the fracas at the Port de Nesle); she thanks him for defeating Valvert at the theater, and talks about a man with whom she has fallen in love. Cyrano thinks that she is talking about him at first, and is ecstatic, but Roxane describes her beloved as \"handsome,\" and tells him that she is in love with Christian de Neuvillette. Roxane fears for Christian's safety in the predominantly Gascon company of Cadets, so she asks Cyrano to befriend and protect him. This he agrees to do. After she leaves, Cyrano's captain arrives with the cadets to congratulate him on his victory from the night before. They are followed by a huge crowd, including de Guiche and his entourage, but Cyrano soon drives them away. Le Bret takes him aside and chastises him for his behavior, but Cyrano responds haughtily. The Cadets press him to tell the story of the fight, teasing the newcomer Christian de Neuvillette. When Cyrano recounts the tale, Christian displays his own form of courage by interjecting several times with references to Cyrano's nose. Cyrano is angry, but remembering his promise to Roxane, he holds in his temper. Eventually Cyrano explodes, the shop is evacuated, and Cyrano reveals his identity as Roxane's cousin. Christian confesses his love for Roxane but his inability to woo because of his lack of intellect and wit. When Cyrano tells Christian that Roxane expects a letter from him, Christian is despondent, having no eloquence in such matters. Cyrano then offers his services, including his own unsigned letter to Roxane. The Cadets and others return to find the two men embracing, and are flabbergasted. The musketeer from before, thinking it was safe to do so, teases Cyrano about his huge nose and receives a slap in the face, and there was much rejoicing.", "Outside Roxane's house Ragueneau is conversing with Roxane's duenna. When Cyrano arrives, Roxane comes down and they talk about Christian: Roxane says that Christian's letters have been breathtaking—he is more intellectual than even Cyrano, she declares. She also says that she loves Christian. When de Guiche arrives, Cyrano hides inside Roxane's house. De Guiche tells Roxane that he has come to say farewell. He has been made a colonel of an army regiment that is leaving that night to fight in the war with Spain. He mentions that the regiment includes Cyrano's guards, and he grimly predicts that he and Cyrano will have a reckoning. Afraid for Christian's safety if he should go to the front, Roxane quickly suggests that the best way for de Guiche to seek revenge on Cyrano would be for him to leave Cyrano and his cadets behind while the rest of the regiment goes on to military glory. After much flirtation from Roxane, de Guiche believes he should stay close by, concealed in a local monastery. When Roxane implies that she would feel more for de Guiche if he went to war, he agrees to march on steadfastly, leaving Cyrano and his cadets behind. He leaves, and Roxane makes the duenna promise she will not tell Cyrano that Roxane has robbed him of a chance to go to war. Roxane expects Christian to come visit her, and she tells the duenna to make him wait if he does. Cyrano presses Roxane to disclose that instead of questioning Christian on any particular subject, she plans to make Christian improvise about love. Although he tells Christian the details of her plot, when Roxane and her duenna leave, he calls for Christian who has been waiting nearby. Cyrano tries to prepare Christian for his meeting with Roxane, urging him to remember lines Cyrano has written. Christian however refuses saying he wants to speak to Roxane in his own words. Cyrano bows to this saying, \"Speak for yourself, sir.\" During their meeting Christian makes a fool of himself trying to speak seductively to Roxane. Roxane storms into her house, confused and angry. Thinking quickly, Cyrano makes Christian stand in front of Roxane's balcony and speak to her while Cyrano stands under the balcony whispering to Christian what to say. Eventually, Cyrano shoves Christian aside and, under cover of darkness, pretends to be Christian, wooing Roxane himself. In the process, he wins a kiss for Christian. Roxane and Christian are secretly married by a Capuchin. Outside, Cyrano meets deGuiche. Cyrano, his face concealed, impersonates a madman, with a tale of a trip to the Moon. De Guice is fascinated, and delays his journey to hear more. When Cyrano finally reveals his face, de Guiche suggests Cyrano should write a book. The newly wed couple's happiness is short-lived: de Guiche, angry to have lost Roxane, declares that he is sending the Cadets of Gascony to the front lines of the war with Spain. De Guiche triumphantly tells Cyrano that the wedding night will have to wait. Under his breath, Cyrano remarks that the news fails to upset him. Roxane, afraid for Christian, urges Cyrano to promise to keep him safe, to keep him out of dangerous situations, to keep him dry and warm, and to keep him faithful. Cyrano says that he will do what he can but that he cannot promise anything. Roxane begs Cyrano to promise to make Christian write to her every day. Brightening, Cyrano announces confidently that he can promise that.", "The Siege of Arras. The Gascon Cadets are among many French forces now cut off by the Spanish, and they are starving. Cyrano, meanwhile, has been writing in Christian's name twice a day, smuggling letters across enemy lines. De Guiche, whom the Cadets despise, arrives and chastises them; Cyrano responds with his usual bravura, and de Guiche then signals a spy to tell the Spanish to attack the Cadets, informing them that they must hold the line until relief arrives. Then a coach arrives, and Roxane emerges from it. She tells how she was able to flirt her way through the Spanish lines. Cyrano tells Christian about the letters, and provides him a farewell letter to give to Roxane if he dies. After de Guiche departs, Roxane provides plenty of food and drink with the assistance of the coach's driver, Ragueneau. De Guiche attempts to convince Roxane to leave the battlefield for a second time. When she refuses, de Guiche says he will not leave a lady behind. This impresses the cadets who offer him their leftovers, which de Guiche declines but ends up catching the cadets' accent which makes him even more popular with the cadets. Roxane also tells Christian that, because of the letters, she has grown to love him for his soul alone, and would still love him even if he were ugly. Christian tells this to Cyrano, and then persuades Cyrano to tell Roxane the truth about the letters, saying he has to be loved for \"the fool that he is\" to be truly loved at all. Cyrano disbelieves what Christian claims Roxane has said, until she tells him so as well. But, before Cyrano can tell her the truth, Christian is brought back to the camp, having been fatally shot. Cyrano realizes that, in order to preserve Roxane's image of an eloquent Christian, he cannot tell her the truth. The battle ensues, a distraught Roxane collapses and is carried off by de Guiche and Ragueneau, and Cyrano rallies the Cadets to hold back the Spanish until relief arrives.", "Fifteen years later, at a convent outside Paris. Roxane now resides here, eternally mourning her beloved Christian. She is visited by de Guiche, who is now a good friend and now sees Cyrano as an equal (and has been promoted to duke), Le Bret, and Ragueneau (who has lost his wife and bakery, and is now a candlelighter for Molière), and she expects Cyrano to come by as he always has with news of the outside world. On this day, however, he has been mortally wounded by someone who dropped a huge log on his head from a tall building. Upon arriving to deliver his \"gazette\" to Roxane, knowing it will be his last, he asks Roxane if he can read \"Christian's\" farewell letter. She gives it to him, and he reads it aloud as it grows dark. Listening to his voice, she realizes that it is Cyrano who was the author of all the letters, but Cyrano denies this to his death. Ragueneau and Le Bret return, telling Roxane of Cyrano's injury. While Cyrano grows delirious, his friends weep and Roxane tells him that she loves him. He combats various foes, half imaginary and half symbolic, conceding that he has lost all but one important thing – his \"panache\" – as he dies in Le Bret and Ragueneau's arms.", "On 27 December 1897, the curtain rose at the Théâtre de la Porte Saint-Martin, and the audience was pleasantly surprised. A full hour after the curtain fell, the audience was still applauding. The original Cyrano was Constant Coquelin, who played it over 410 times at said theatre and later toured North America in the role. The original production had sets designed by Marcel Jambon and his associates Brard and Alexandre Bailly (Acts I, III and V), Eugène Carpezat (Act II), and Alfred Lemeunier (Act IV). The earliest touring production of \"Cyrano\" was set up by Charles Moncharmont and Maurice Luguet. It was premiered in Monte Carlo on 29 March 1898, and subsequently presented in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Egypt, Greece, Italy, Algeria, Tunisia and Spain. Special, transportable sets emulating the Parisian production were created for this tour by Albert Dubosq:\"La troupe qui interprétera\" Cyrano de Bergerac \"se composera de quarante personnes. Les costumes et les décors seront identiques à ceux de la Porte Saint-Martin ; les costumes, au nombre de deux cent cinquante, faits sur mesure, les armes, cartonnages, tout le matériel seront exécutés par les fournisseurs de ce théâtre ; les décors seront brossés par Dubosq qui est allé, ces jours derniers, s’entendre à Paris avec les entrepreneurs de la tournée.... la troupe voyage avec tout un matériel de décors à appliques, charnières, pièces démontables qui, pouvant se planter sur n’importe quelle scène et se divisant en tous petits fragments, s’installe aisément dans des caisses, sans peser relativement trop lourd et dépasser les dimensions admises par les chemins de fer.\"Richard Mansfield was the first actor to play Cyrano in the United States in an English translation. The longest-running Broadway production ran 232 performances in 1923 and starred Walter Hampden, who returned to the role on the Great White Way in 1926, 1928, 1932, and 1936. Hampden used the 1923 Brian Hooker translation prepared especially for him, which became such a classic in itself that it was used by virtually every English-speaking Cyrano until the mid-1980s. In 1946 Hampden passed the torch to José Ferrer, who won a Tony Award for playing Cyrano in a much-praised Broadway staging, the highlight of which was a special benefit performance in which Ferrer played the title role for the first four acts and Hampden (then in his mid-sixties) assumed it for the fifth. Ferrer reprised the role on live television in 1949 and 1955, and in a 1950 film version for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor. It became Ferrer's most famous role. Other notable English-speaking Cyranos were Ralph Richardson, DeVeren Bookwalter, Derek Jacobi, Michael Kanarek, Richard Chamberlain, and Christopher Plummer, who played the part in Rostand's original play and won a Tony Award for the 1973 musical adaptation. Kevin Kline played the role in a Broadway production in 2007, with Jennifer Garner playing Roxane and Daniel Sunjata as Christian. A taped version of the production was broadcast on PBS's \"Great Performances\" in 2009. In 2018, David Serero is the first French actor to play Cyrano in America in the English language.", "", "See List of film adaptations of \"Cyrano de Bergerac\"", "Kenneth Branagh starred as Cyrano, Jodhi May as Roxanne, and Tom Hiddleston as Christian, in a 2008 BBC Radio 3 production using the Anthony Burgess translation and directed by David Timson. This production first aired on BBC Radio 3 on 23 March 2008 and was re-broadcast on 4 April 2010. Len Cariou and Roberta Maxwell starred in a 1980 CBC Television version directed by Peabody-winner Yuri Rasovsky. Tom Burke and Emily Pithon starred in a 2015 BBC Radio 4 version for \"15 Minute Drama\", spanning five 15-minute episodes. It was adapted by Glyn Maxwell, and directed by Susan Roberts.", "An opera in French, \"Cyrano de Bergerac\", whose libretto by Henri Cain is based on Rostand's words, was composed by the Italian Franco Alfano and was first presented in an Italian translation in 1936. In recent years, the original French version has been revived in productions including the Opéra national de Montpellier with Roberto Alagna in 2003, and a 2005 Metropolitan Opera production with Plácido Domingo in the title role; both are available in DVD recordings. Victor Herbert's unsuccessful 1899 operetta \"Cyrano de Bergerac\", with a libretto by Harry B. Smith based on the play, was one of Herbert's few failures. Walter Damrosch's \"Cyrano\", another operatic adaptation of \"Cyrano de Bergerac\", premiered in 1913 at the Metropolitan Opera. Eino Tamberg composed another opera titled \"Cyrano de Bergerac\" in 1974, to a libretto in Estonian by Jaan Kross, based on Rostand's play. The opera \"Cyrano\" by David DiChiera to a libretto by Bernard Uzan premiered at the Michigan Opera Theatre on 13 October 2007.", "Inspired by the balcony scene in which Cyrano provides Christian with words to speak to Roxane, Stanley Milgram developed an experimental technique that used covert speech shadowing to construct hybrid personae in social psychological experiments, wherein subjects would interact with a \"Cyranoid\" whose words emanated from a remote, unseen \"source\".", ", translated by Gladys Thomas and Mary F. Guillemard." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Scalar to superscalar.", "Limitations.", "Alternatives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Seymour Cray's CDC 6600 from 1966 is often mentioned as the first superscalar design. The 1967 IBM System/360 Model 91 was another superscalar mainframe. The Motorola MC88100 (1988), the Intel i960CA (1989) and the AMD 29000-series 29050 (1990) microprocessors were the first commercial single-chip superscalar microprocessors. RISC microprocessors like these were the first to have superscalar execution, because RISC architectures free transistors and die area which can be used to include multiple execution units (this was why RISC designs were faster than CISC designs through the 1980s and into the 1990s). Except for CPUs used in low-power applications, embedded systems, and battery-powered devices, essentially all general-purpose CPUs developed since about 1998 are superscalar. The P5 Pentium was the first superscalar x86 processor; the Nx586, P6 Pentium Pro and AMD K5 were among the first designs which decode x86-instructions asynchronously into dynamic microcode-like \"micro-op\" sequences prior to actual execution on a superscalar microarchitecture; this opened up for dynamic scheduling of buffered \"partial\" instructions and enabled more parallelism to be extracted compared to the more rigid methods used in the simpler P5 Pentium; it also simplified speculative execution and allowed higher clock frequencies compared to designs such as the advanced Cyrix 6x86.", "The simplest processors are scalar processors. Each instruction executed by a scalar processor typically manipulates one or two data items at a time. By contrast, each instruction executed by a vector processor operates simultaneously on many data items. An analogy is the difference between scalar and vector arithmetic. A superscalar processor is a mixture of the two. Each instruction processes one data item, but there are multiple execution units within each CPU thus multiple instructions can be processing separate data items concurrently. Superscalar CPU design emphasizes improving the instruction dispatcher accuracy, and allowing it to keep the multiple execution units in use at all times. This has become increasingly important as the number of units has increased. While early superscalar CPUs would have two ALUs and a single FPU, a later design such as the PowerPC 970 includes four ALUs, two FPUs, and two SIMD units. If the dispatcher is ineffective at keeping all of these units fed with instructions, the performance of the system will be no better than that of a simpler, cheaper design. A superscalar processor usually sustains an execution rate in excess of one instruction per machine cycle. But merely processing multiple instructions concurrently does not make an architecture superscalar, since pipelined, multiprocessor or multi-core architectures also achieve that, but with different methods. In a superscalar CPU the dispatcher reads instructions from memory and decides which ones can be run in parallel, dispatching each to one of the several execution units contained inside a single CPU. Therefore, a superscalar processor can be envisioned having multiple parallel pipelines, each of which is processing instructions simultaneously from a single instruction thread.", "Available performance improvement from superscalar techniques is limited by three key areas: Existing binary executable programs have varying degrees of intrinsic parallelism. In some cases instructions are not dependent on each other and can be executed simultaneously. In other cases they are inter-dependent: one instruction impacts either resources or results of the other. The instructions codice_1 can be run in parallel because none of the results depend on other calculations. However, the instructions codice_2 might not be runnable in parallel, depending on the order in which the instructions complete while they move through the units. When the number of simultaneously issued instructions increases, the cost of dependency checking increases extremely rapidly. This is exacerbated by the need to check dependencies at run time and at the CPU's clock rate. This cost includes additional logic gates required to implement the checks, and time delays through those gates. Research shows the gate cost in some cases may be formula_1 gates, and the delay cost formula_2, where formula_3 is the number of instructions in the processor's instruction set, and formula_4 is the number of simultaneously dispatched instructions. Even though the instruction stream may contain no inter-instruction dependencies, a superscalar CPU must nonetheless check for that possibility, since there is no assurance otherwise and failure to detect a dependency would produce incorrect results. No matter how advanced the semiconductor process or how fast the switching speed, this places a practical limit on how many instructions can be simultaneously dispatched. While process advances will allow ever greater numbers of execution units (e.g., ALUs), the burden of checking instruction dependencies grows rapidly, as does the complexity of register renaming circuitry to mitigate some dependencies. Collectively the power consumption, complexity and gate delay costs limit the achievable superscalar speedup to roughly eight simultaneously dispatched instructions. However even given infinitely fast dependency checking logic on an otherwise conventional superscalar CPU, if the instruction stream itself has many dependencies, this would also limit the possible speedup. Thus the degree of intrinsic parallelism in the code stream forms a second limitation.", "Collectively, these limits drive investigation into alternative architectural changes such as very long instruction word (VLIW), explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC), simultaneous multithreading (SMT), and multi-core computing. With VLIW, the burdensome task of dependency checking by hardware logic at run time is removed and delegated to the compiler. Explicitly parallel instruction computing (EPIC) is like VLIW with extra cache prefetching instructions. Simultaneous multithreading (SMT) is a technique for improving the overall efficiency of superscalar processors. SMT permits multiple independent threads of execution to better utilize the resources provided by modern processor architectures. Superscalar processors differ from multi-core processors in that the several execution units are not entire processors. A single processor is composed of finer-grained execution units such as the ALU, integer multiplier, integer shifter, FPU, etc. There may be multiple versions of each execution unit to enable execution of many instructions in parallel. This differs from a multi-core processor that concurrently processes instructions from \"multiple\" threads, one thread per processing unit (called \"core\"). It also differs from a pipelined processor, where the multiple instructions can concurrently be in various stages of execution, assembly-line fashion. The various alternative techniques are not mutually exclusive—they can be (and frequently are) combined in a single processor. Thus a multicore CPU is possible where each core is an independent processor containing multiple parallel pipelines, each pipeline being superscalar. Some processors also include vector capability." ] }

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{ "title": [ "US Coast Guard.", "Russian Navy.", "Non-military usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, a Flotilla is the basic organizational unit and consists of members at a local level where the majority of the work of the Auxiliary is done. A Flotilla is led by an elected Flotilla Commander assisted by an elected Vice Flotilla Commander, who is in turn assisted by appointed Flotilla Staff Officers. A Coast Guard Auxiliary Division consists of multiple Flotillas and a District consists of multiple Divisions. Auxiliary Districts are organized along Coast Guard District lines and are administered by a Coast Guard officer (usually a Commander or Captain) who is called the Director of the Auxiliary.", "In the Russian Navy, the word \"flotilla\" has tended to be used for \"brown-water\" naval units – those operating not on the oceans and real seas, but on inland seas or rivers. Among the former are the present-day Caspian Flotilla, the early 20th century Satakundskaya Flotilla, or the Aral Flotilla of the 1850s; among the latter, the Don Military Flotilla (which was created several times over more than 200 years), the Dnieper Flotilla (also extant in the 18th and 20th centuries), the Red Volga Flotilla, which participated in the Kazan Operation during the Russian Civil War, and the Danube Flotilla. In the 18th century, the term also applied to the comparatively small fleets operating on those seas where Russia did not have much naval presence yet, e.g. the Okhotsk Flotilla.", "The word flotilla has also been used at times to refer to a small fleet of vessels, commercial or otherwise. There is also such thing as a flotilla holiday, in which is a group of chartered yachts that set sail together on the same route." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Rise to power.", "Economic reform.", "Economic theory.", "Promoter of culture.", "Death.", "Religion.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Colbert's father and grandfather were merchants in his birthplace of Reims, France. He claimed to have Scottish ancestry. A general (but unconfirmed) belief exists that he spent his early youth at a Jesuit college, working for a Parisian banker; as well as working for the father of Jean Chapelain. Before the age of 20, Colbert had a post in the war office, a position generally attributed to the marriage of an uncle to the sister of Secretary of War Michel le Tellier. Colbert spent some time as an inspector of troops, eventually becoming the personal secretary of Le Tellier. In 1647, through unknown means, Colbert acquired the confiscated goods of an uncle, Pussort. In 1648, he and his wife Marie Charron, received 40,000 crowns from an unknown source; and in 1649 Colbert became the councillor of state, i.e. a political minister. In 1657, he purchased the Barony of Seignelay.", "Colbert was recommended to King Louis XIV by Mazarin. While Cardinal Mazarin was in exile, Louis' trust in Colbert grew. In 1652 Colbert was asked to manage the affairs of the Cardinal while he was away. This new responsibility would detach Colbert from his other responsibility as \"commissaire des guerres\". Although Colbert was not a supporter of Mazarin in principle, he would defend the cardinal's interests with unflagging devotion. Colbert's earliest recorded attempt at tax reform came in the form of a \"mémoire\" to Mazarin, showing that of the taxes paid by the people, not one-half reached the King. The paper also contained an attack upon the Superintendent Fouquet. The postmaster of Paris, a spy of Fouquet's, read the letter, leading to a dispute which Mazarin attempted to suppress. In 1661, Mazarin died and Colbert \"made sure of the King's favour\" by revealing the location of some of Mazarin's hidden wealth. In January 1664 Colbert became the Superintendent of buildings; in 1665 he became Controller-General of Finances; in 1669, he became Secretary of State of the Navy; he also gained appointments as minister of commerce, of the colonies and of the palace. In short, Colbert acquired power in every department except that of war. A great financial and fiscal reform at once claimed all his energies. Not only the nobility, but many others who had no legal claim to exemption, paid no taxes; the bulk of the burden fell on the wretched country-folk. Supported by the young king Louis XIV, Colbert aimed the first blow at the man accused of being the greatest of the royal embezzlers, the superintendent Nicolas Fouquet. Fouquet's fall simultaneously secured Colbert's own advancement.", "With the abolition of the office of superintendent and of many other offices dependent upon it, the supreme control of the finances became vested in a royal council. The sovereign functioned as its president; but Colbert, though for four years he possessed the title only of \"intendant\", operated as its ruling spirit, having had great personal authority conferred upon him by the king. His ruthlessness in this case, dangerous precedent though it gave, seemed perhaps necessary; the council could not respect individual interests. When he had severely punished guilty officials, he turned his attention to the fraudulent creditors of the government. Colbert had a simple method of operation. He repudiated some of the public loans and cut off from others a percentage, which varied, at first according to his own decision, and afterwards according to that of the council that he established to examine all claims against the state. Much more serious difficulties met his attempts to introduce equality in the pressure of the taxes on the various classes. To diminish the number of the privileged proved impossible, but Colbert firmly resisted false claims for exemption, and lightened the unjust direct taxation by increasing the indirect taxes, from which the privileged could not escape. At the same time he immensely improved the mode of collection on his own. His relentless hard work and thrift made him an esteemed minister. He achieved a reputation for his work of improving the state of French manufacturing and bringing the economy back from the brink of bankruptcy. Historians note that, despite Colbert's efforts, France actually became increasingly impoverished because of the King's excessive spending on wars.", "Having thus introduced a measure of order and economy into the workings of the government, Colbert now called for the enrichment of the country by commerce. The state, through Colbert's \"dirigiste\" policies, fostered manufacturing enterprises in a wide variety of fields. The authorities established new industries, protected inventors, invited in workmen from foreign countries, and prohibited French workmen from emigrating. To maintain the character of French goods in foreign markets, as well as to afford a guarantee to the home consumer, Colbert had the quality and measure of each article fixed by law, punishing breaches of the regulations by public exposure of the delinquent and by destruction of the goods concerned, and, on the third offense, by the pillory. Colbert prohibited the production of qualities which would have suited many purposes of consumption, and the odious supervision which became necessary involved great waste of time and a stereotyped regularity which resisted all improvements. Other parts of Colbert's schemes have met with less equivocal condemnation. By his firm maintenance of the corporation system, each industry remained in the hands of certain privileged \"bourgeois\"; while the lower classes found opportunities of advancement closed. He did, however, wisely consult the interests of internal commerce. Unable to abolish the duties on the passage of goods from province to province, he did what he could to induce the provinces to equalise them. Currency exchange rates still remained between these provinces despite a policy focusing on the unification of French trade. His régime improved roads and canals. Pierre Paul Riquet (1604–1680) planned and constructed the Canal du Midi under Colbert's patronage. To encourage overseas trade with the Levant, Senegal, Guinea and other places, Colbert granted privileges to companies, but, like the noted French East India Company, all proved unsuccessful.", "Colbert took much interest in art and literature. He possessed a remarkably fine private library, which he delighted to fill with valuable manuscripts from every part of Europe and the Near East where France had placed a consul. He employed Pierre de Carcavi and Étienne Baluze as librarians. Colbert's grandson sold the manuscript collection in 1732 to the Bibliothèque Royale. Colbert founded a number of institutions: He reorganised the Academy of Painting and Sculpture which Mazarin had established. Wishing to increase the prestige of the image of France and the French royal family, Colbert played an active role in bringing the great Italian architect-sculptor, Gian Lorenzo Bernini, to Paris (June–October 1665), in order to design the new East Facade of the Louvre. This was a striking coup and caused a sensation because Bernini, the most famous artist in all of Europe, had never before (or after) consented to travel any significant distance to meet a patron, however highly ranked, but had to agree in this case for reasons of diplomacy between France and the Holy See. While in France, Bernini also sculpted a marble portrait bust of Louis XIV (Versailles palace). However the relations between the two strong-willed men, Colbert and Bernini, proved melodramatically stormy. Bernini's Louvre design was ultimately rejected. Colbert himself became a member of the Académie française; and proposed one very characteristic rule with the intention of expediting the great \"Dictionary\", in which he had a great interest: no one could count as present at any meeting unless he arrived before the hour of commencement and remained till the hour for leaving. In 1673 Colbert presided over the first exhibition of the works of living painters; and he enriched the Louvre with hundreds of pictures and statues. He gave many pensions to men of letters, among whom we find Molière, Corneille, Racine, Boileau, P D Huet (1630–1721) and Antoine Varillas (1626–1696); and even foreigners, as Huygens, Carlo Roberto Dati the Dellacruscan. Evidence exists to show that by this munificence he hoped to draw out praises of his sovereign and himself; but this motive certainly does not account for all the splendid, if in some cases specious, services that he rendered to literature, science and art.", "Colbert worked incessantly hard until his final hours. Work was his religion; he once pondered whether it was better to rise early and work or retire very late and work. He concluded that rising early and retiring late would be the ideal combination. Towards the end of his life he suffered from stomach aches, which caused him much distress. He was reduced to eating moist bread dipped in chicken broth for his meals. By 64 he was bedridden and died shortly after his birthday. The surgeons who examined him found that he had been suffering from kidney stones. A huge stone was found in his urinary tract, which would explain his pain.", "Colbert played a subordinate role in the struggle between the king and the papacy as to the royal rights over vacant bishoprics, and he seems to have sympathised with the proposal that suggested seizing part of the wealth of the clergy. In his hatred of idleness he ventured to suppress no less than seventeen \"fêtes\", and he had a project for reducing the number of persons devoted to clerical and monastic life, by increasing the age for taking the vows. He showed himself at first unwilling to interfere with heresy, for he realised the commercial value of the Huguenots (French Protestants), who were well represented among the merchant classes; but when the king resolved to make all France Roman Catholic, he followed him and urged his subordinates to do all that they could to promote conversions.", "Of his children, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Marquis de Seignelay, followed his father as Secretary of State of the Navy while Jacques-Nicolas Colbert was Archbishop of Rouen. His policies inspired those of Alexander Hamilton, the first treasury secretary of the United States. Six ships of the French Navy bore his name: In literature, the power struggle between Colbert and Fouquet is one of the main plotlines of Alexandre Dumas, père's novel \"\", the second sequel to \"The Three Musketeers\". Dumas paints Colbert as an uncouth and ruthless schemer who stops at little, in contrast to the more refined Fouquet, counselled by Aramis, but also as a visionary patriot." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Symbols.", "Emblem.", "Flag." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "First buildings were established in the valley of the Porubka river, a left tributary of the Odra River. Settlement continued to expand in all directions with the years and also solitudes were established, one of them lies right next to Odra River. First mention appeared in written document by bishop of Olomouc, Bruno von Schauenburg, in 1265, described as monastery village of the Cistercian monastery in Velehrad. In 1936, Svinov was promoted to a town, and since 1957 is one of administrative districts of the city of Ostrava. Mostly German Svinov was connected to Nazi Third Reich in 1938 as part of the Sudetenland. Svinov was liberated by the Red Army during the World War II on 30 April 1945. In 1847 a railway station was built, and Svinov became an important railway junction on the Austrian Northern Railway. Quick industrialization followed and several transport companies were established. Since then Svinov railway station has been connected to several other railway lines and today it is the most important railway station in the city of Ostrava. According to the Austrian census of 1910 the village had 3,274 inhabitants, 3,144 of whom had permanent residence there. Census asked people for their native language; 706 (22.5%) were German-speaking, 2,264 (72%) were Czech-speaking, and 174 (5.5%) were Polish-speaking. Jews were not allowed to declare Yiddish, most of them thus declared the German language as their native. The most populous religious groups were Roman Catholics with 3,075 (93.9%), followed by the Jews with 124 (3.8%).", "The emblem of Svinov and the flag were given by Resolution of the City Council of Ostrava no.3581/90 of 4 October 1994.", "Green-gold askew-divided shield, gold grain sheaf with a golden flail at the top, a black winged railway wheel at the bottom.", "Obverse is same as the emblem, reverse consists of three horizontal stripes - yellow, red and green." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Tennis career.", "1989 French Open match vs Ivan Lendl.", "Business ventures.", "Equipment and endorsements.", "Public image.", "Charity work.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michael Chang was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, in 1972 to Joe Chang (張洪笙) and Betty (董良因, née Tung). Betty and Joe moved from Taiwan to the US in 1959 and 1966 respectively, and met after being introduced by a mutual friend. Betty was born in Delhi, India, the daughter of Hakka ancestry, Michael Tung (董宗山), then serving as diplomat of The Republic of China to India, who then served in the Legislative Yuan and was an ambassador to Cambodia, Dominican Republic and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, among other diplomatic posts in 1960s to 1980s. Joe was born in Chaozhou, China, and moved to Taiwan at age seven. Michael's Chinese name () was chosen by Joe, and his English name by Betty (who named him after her father). After moving from Hoboken, New Jersey, to St. Paul, Minnesota, where Michael learned tennis, the Changs moved first to Placentia, California, and then Encinitas, California, to increase the tennis opportunities for Michael and his older brother, Carl. Betty quit her job as a chemist to travel with Chang on the tour. After rising to #163 in the world as a 15-year-old amateur, Chang dropped out of tenth grade at San Dieguito High School in Encinitas after passing his GED in February 1988 in order to pursue a professional tennis career. Chang also attended the master's in ministry program at Biola University in La Mirada, California, for a year and a half. He serves on Biola's Board of Trustees.", "Chang first came to the tennis world's attention as an outstanding junior player who set numerous \"youngest-ever\" records. He won his first national title, the USTA Junior Hard Court singles, at the age of 12. Aged 13, he won the Fiesta Bowl 16s. Two years later, aged 15, Chang won the USTA Boys 18s Hardcourts and the Boys 18s Nationals, and became the youngest player to win a main draw match at the US Open when he defeated Paul McNamee in four sets in the first round. A month later he reached the semifinals at Scottsdale, Arizona to become the youngest player to reach the semifinal stage of a top-level professional tournament. He won his first top-level singles title in 1988 at San Francisco, aged 16 years and 7 months. Chang's most significant youngest-ever record came in 1989 when he won the French Open at the age of, to become the youngest male player ever to win a Grand Slam title. He defeated Stefan Edberg in a five-set final, 6–1, 3–6, 4–6, 6–4, 6–2. His victory is equally remembered for an epic five-set encounter with Ivan Lendl in the fourth round (see below). Chang became the first American man to win the French Open since 1955, and the first American man to win a Grand Slam since 1984. And in August 1989, Chang became the youngest player to be ranked in the world's top 5. Chang met Edberg in the semifinals of the US Open in 1992, this time Edberg winning in a five-set encounter, 6–7, 7–5, 7–6, 5–7, 6–4. The 5-hour, 26-minute match is the longest in US Open history. Chang reached three further Grand Slam finals after his 1989 French Open triumph, losing the 1995 French Open final to Thomas Muster, the 1996 Australian Open final to Boris Becker, and the 1996 US Open final to Pete Sampras. In the 1995 French Open, he defeated Michael Stich and then two-time defending champion Sergi Bruguera in the semifinals in straight sets, eventually losing to Muster. In both the 1996 Australian and U.S. Opens, he defeated Andre Agassi in the semifinals in straight sets; a win over Sampras at the U.S. Open would have made Chang the no. 1 player in the world. In the 1997 U.S. Open, he was the odds-on favorite to win after Sampras was upset by Petr Korda; however, Chang lost to eventual champion Patrick Rafter in the semifinals in straight sets. Chang was a key member of the US team which won the Davis Cup in 1990. In the semifinals at Austria, his dramatic comeback from two-sets down against Horst Skoff, 3–6, 6–7, 6–4, 6–4, 6–3, led the US into its first Davis Cup final since 1984. Chang went on to defeat Darren Cahill in straight sets, as the US defeated Australia in the final. He was also on the US team which won the World Team Cup in 1993. His best performance in the year-end singles championship came in 1995, when he defeated Muster, Jim Courier, and then dominated Pete Sampras in the semifinals, before losing in the final to Boris Becker. Chang represented the US in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona, reaching the second round before being eliminated by Jaime Oncins. He chose to skip the 1996 Summer Olympics despite the fact that the event was held in Atlanta and that he would have been the tournament's number-one seed (the singles' gold medal was won by Andre Agassi). Chang participated in the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney, where he was eliminated in the first round by Sébastien Lareau. Chang was introduced to tennis by his father Joe, who was his first coach. During his rise in 1989 (including his French Open title), he was coached by José Higueras. For much of his professional career, he was coached by his older brother Carl Chang, who also played in several doubles tournaments with him in the early-1990s. He was the first player to be beaten by Roger Federer in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament, at the 2000 Australian Open. He was also the second player to be beaten by Andy Roddick in the main draw of a Grand Slam tournament, in the second round of the French Open in 2001. Chang retired from the professional tour in 2003. During his career, he won a total of 34 top-level professional singles titles. His final top-level title was won in 2000 at Los Angeles. His total career prize-money earnings was US$19,145,632. His career-high singles ranking was world no. 2 in 1996, following his US Open finals performance. He was a year-end top-ten player for six consecutive years in the 1990s (1992–1997), a feat matched in the decade only by Pete Sampras. He is one of a few players to win ATP titles in three different decades. His three Indian Wells Masters titles was an ATP record which stood for 15 years, before being eclipsed by Roger Federer in 2012. Since retiring from the top-level game, Chang has joined Jim Courier's senior tour, which began on March 10, 2006, in Naples, Florida. Chang became Kei Nishikori's coach in 2014.", "Chang's most famous match took place at the 1989 French Open, on the way to winning his only Grand Slam singles title. Chang defeated Eduardo Masso, Pete Sampras and Francisco Roig, dropping only one set, in reaching the fourth round. There, Chang faced World No. 1, reigning Australian Open champion, and three-time former French Open champion Ivan Lendl. In 1988, Chang had been easily beaten by Lendl in an exhibition match held in Des Moines, Iowa. After the match, Lendl advised Chang, \"First off, you’ve got no serve. And you’ve certainly got no second serve. You can’t hurt me. You can run but you better develop a weapon to survive out here\", all weaknesses that Chang worked to improve on. Lendl appeared to be on the way to victory after taking the first two sets 6–4, 6–4, and then breaking Chang's serve in his opening service game of the third set. However, Chang broke back immediately and went on to claim the third set, 6–3. During the fourth set, Chang experienced a severe attack of leg cramps, and though he won the set to level the match, he considered retiring from the match while up 2–1 in the fifth set. He later said that he felt \"an unbelievable conviction in my heart\" not to give up, and decided to finish the match. Chang paced the sidelines during changeovers as he risked not being able to get up if he sat down, and ate bananas and drank water at every opportunity. He also adopted some unusual tactics in an attempt to overcome his cramps such as hitting the ball high into the air on many points to slow the game down (known as \"moon balls\"), and began to go for more winners in order to shorten the points. The success of these tactics caused Lendl, known to be one of the least easily fazed players, to lose his rhythm and also prompted him to swear at the umpire and the crowd, especially after losing a key point in the fifth set when Chang shocked him by delivering an under-arm serve. Chang continued to suffer from cramps, but managed to take a 5–3 lead in the fifth set with two match points on Lendl's serve. Aiming to break Lendl's concentration one more time, Chang stood just behind the service line while waiting to receive Lendl's serve. The crowd started laughing at the bizarre situation and Lendl seemed to think everyone was mocking him. The tactic worked, as Lendl produced a double-fault to give Chang the victory, 4–6, 4–6, 6–3, 6–3, 6–3, in 4 hours and 37 minutes. Chang sank to his knees and broke down in tears at the conclusion of the match. Lendl afterwards remarked on his loss to Chang, \"Lots of times a lesser player could beat me and not back it up. You’d have to say he was a lesser player then, but Michael backed it up.\" Seven days later, after beating Stefan Edberg in five sets, Chang went on to lift the \"Coupe des Mousquetaires\", becoming the youngest men's champion in Grand Slam history. The match was played on June 5, 1989 just one day after the height of the Tiananmen Square Massacre. Chang has frequently noted the impact of the massacre when recalling his French Open victory: \"A lot of people forget that Tiananmen Square was going on. The crackdown that happened was on the middle Sunday at the French Open, so if I was not practicing or playing a match, I was glued to the television, watching the events unfold...I often tell people I think it was God's purpose for me to be able to win the French Open the way it was won because I was able to put a smile on Chinese people's faces around the world at a time when there wasn't much to smile about.\" Chang would defeat Lendl again in near-duplicate fashion, 2–6, 4–6, 6–4, 7–6 (7-5), 9–7 in a 4-hour, 42-minute semifinal at the Grand Slam Cup 21⁄2 years later on December 14, 1991.", "Chang and his family established CMCB Enterprises, which has real estate holdings including shopping malls, in California, Texas, Arizona and Colorado. In 2003, they bought Dunton Realty Co., a retail brokerage and property management company, and changed its name to Dunton Commercial Real Estate Co. In 2004, they bought SullivanHayes Cos., a retail real estate company in Denver. It was chosen by Denver International Airport to develop a new 17-acre retail project along Peña Boulevard, the airport's main artery.", "Chang signed a multimillion-dollar endorsement deal with Reebok in 1988; he wore Reebok apparel and Reebok Court Victory Pumps shoes during his tennis career and used Prince rackets on court. He started using the Prince \"Precision Michael Chang Graphite\" 28-inch signature racket in 1994, which was an inch longer than the standard model. Chang signed endorsement deals with Nissin Foods noodles in 1989, Panasonic and Longines in the 1990s, Cathay Pacific Airlines in 1990, Bristol-Myers Squibb promoting Nuprin in 1991, Stelux watches in 1993, Discover Card in 1996, Tiger Balm, Procter & Gamble (endorsing P&G's Rejoice Shampoo), Eveready Battery Company (endorsing Eveready Alkaline batteries), and Yale locks. In 1997, he signed a multi-year contract to endorse Watch Reebok, a collection of sports watches. A limited edition Michael Chang signature watch was released at Christmas.", "Chang's success marked the start of an era in which a new generation of American players—which also included Pete Sampras, Jim Courier, and Andre Agassi—would come to dominate the game.", "Chang served as Chairman of ATP Tour Charities in 1994. He has supported grassroots tennis development in Asia through his Stars of the Future program in Hong Kong and the Reebok Challenge across Asia. He was one of five athletes named in the second annual \"Most Caring Athlete\" list by \"USA Today\" Weekend in 1995. In 1997, he was given one of seven Asian-American leadership awards by \"A Magazine\" for his status as a role model for Asian-American youth. He has also served as a national spokesman for the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation in the US. In 2001, Chang served as a goodwill ambassador for the 2008 Beijing Olympic bid committee. In 2002, he published a book about his career, \"Holding Serve: Persevering On and Off the Court\".", "On October 18, 2008, Chang married Amber Liu, also a professional tennis player. They have two daughters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Soundtrack.", "Release and reception.", "Promotion.", "Critical response.", "Popular reaction.", "The introduction of James Bond.", "Comic book adaptation.", "Legacy.", "Global James Bond Day." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "John Strangways, an MI6 Station Chief based in Jamaica, is murdered by a trio of assassins, along with his secretary, before his home is ransacked. When news reaches M, the head of MI6, that Strangways has vanished, he assigns agent James Bond to investigate the matter and determine if it is related to Strangways' decision to co-operate on a CIA case involving the disruption of rocket launches from Cape Canaveral by radio jamming. When Bond arrives in Jamaica, he is immediately accosted by a man claiming to be a chaffeur sent to collect him, but who is really an enemy agent sent to kill him. Before Bond can interrogate him, following a struggle, the agent kills himself with a cyanide capsule. After visiting Strangways' house, Bond confronts a boatman that Strangways was acquainted with. The boatman, named Quarrel, reveals that he is aiding the CIA and introduces Bond to CIA agent Felix Leiter, who is also investigating Strangways' disappearance. Bond inquires about the CIA case and learns from Felix that the CIA traced the radio jamming signal to Jamaica, and that Strangways was helping to pinpoint its exact origins. Quarrel reveals that before Strangways disappeared, the pair collected mineral samples from an island called Crab Key. Upon finding a receipt from a local geologist, Professor R.J. Dent, Bond makes inquires with him about the samples and Crab key, but is suspicious of his answers when he claims the samples checked out as normal. Following the meeting, Dent travels to Crab Key to meets its reclusive owner, whom he works for, to inform him of Bond's visit. Under strict instructions, Dent attempts to have Bond killed with a tarantula. However, Bond kills the spider, and then sets a trap for Dent. When the geologist arrives, Bond holds him at gunpoint, revealing that he believed Dent was asked to check Strangways' samples to see if they were", "When Harry Saltzman gained the rights for the novel, he initially did not go through with the project. Instead, Albert R. \"Cubby\" Broccoli wanted the rights to the novels and attempted to buy them from Saltzman. Saltzman did not want to sell the rights to Broccoli and instead, they formed a partnership to make the films. A number of Hollywood film studios did not want to fund the films, finding them \"too British\" or \"too blatantly sexual\". Eventually the two received authorisation from United Artists to produce \"Dr. No\", to be released in 1962. Saltzman and Broccoli created two companies: Danjaq, which was to hold the rights to the films, and Eon Productions, which was to produce them. The partnership between Broccoli and Saltzman lasted until 1975 when tensions during the filming of \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" led to an acrimonious split and Saltzman sold his shares of Danjaq to United Artists. Initially Broccoli and Saltzman had wanted to produce the eighth Bond novel, 1961's \"Thunderball\", as the first film, but there was an ongoing legal dispute between the screenplay's co-author, Kevin McClory and Ian Fleming. As a result, Broccoli and Saltzman chose \"Dr. No\": the timing was apposite, with claims that American rocket testing at Cape Canaveral had problems with rockets going astray. The producers offered \"Dr. No\" to Guy Green, Guy Hamilton, Val Guest and Ken Hughes to direct, but all of them turned it down. They finally signed Terence Young who had a long background with Broccoli's Warwick Films as the director. Broccoli and Saltzman felt that Young would be able to make a real impression of James Bond and transfer the essence of the character from book to film. Young imposed many stylistic choices for the character which continued throughout the film series. Young also decided to inject much humour, as he considered that \"a lot of things in this film, the sex, and violence, and so on if played straight, a) would be objectionable, and b) we're never gonna go past the censors; but the moment you take the mickey out, put the tongue out in the cheek, it seems to disarm.\" The producers asked United Artists for financing, but the studio would only put up $1 million. Later, the UK arm of United Artists provided an extra $100,000 to create the climax where Dr. No's base explodes. As a result of the low budget, only one sound editor was hired (normally there are two, for sound effects and dialogue), and many pieces of scenery were made in cheaper ways, with M's office featuring cardboard paintings and a door covered in a leather-like plastic, the room where Dent meets Dr. No costing only £745 to build, and the aquarium in Dr. No's base being magnified stock footage of goldfish. Furthermore, when art director Syd Cain found out his name was not in the credits, Broccoli gave him a golden pen to compensate, saying that he did not want to spend money making the credits again. Production designer Ken Adam later told UK daily newspaper \"The Guardian\" in 2005: The budget for \"Dr No\" was under $1m for the whole picture. My budget was £14,500. I filled three stages at Pinewood full of sets while they were filming in Jamaica. It wasn't a real aquarium in Dr. No's apartment. It was a disaster to tell you the truth because we had so little money. We decided to use a rear-projection screen and get some stock footage of fish. What we didn't realise was because we didn't have much money the only stock footage they could buy was of goldfish-sized fish, so we had to blow up the size and put a line in the dialogue with Bond talking about the magnification. I didn't see any reason why Dr. No shouldn't have good taste so we mixed contemporary furniture and antiques. We thought it would be fun for him to have some stolen art so we used Goya's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington, which was still missing at the time. I got hold of a slide from the National Gallery - this was on the Friday, shooting began on the Monday - and I painted a Goya over the weekend. It was pretty good so they used it for publicity purposes but, just like the real one, it got stolen while it was on display.", "Monty Norman was invited to write the soundtrack because Broccoli liked his work on the 1961 theatre production \"Belle\", a musical about murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen. Norman was busy with musicals, and only agreed to do the music for \"Dr. No\" after Saltzman allowed him to travel along with the crew to Jamaica. The most famous composition in the soundtrack is the \"James Bond Theme\", which is heard in the gun barrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits, and was written by Norman based on a previous composition of his. John Barry, who would later go on to compose the music for eleven Bond films, arranged the Bond theme but was uncredited—except for the credit of his orchestra playing the final piece. It has occasionally been suggested that Barry, not Norman, composed the \"James Bond Theme\". This argument has been the subject of two court cases, the most recent in 2001, which found in favour of Norman. The theme, as written by Norman and arranged by Barry, was described by another Bond film composer, David Arnold, as \"bebop-swing", "", "As soon as late 1961, United Artists started a marketing campaign to make James Bond a well-known name in North America. Newspapers received a box set of Bond's books, as well as a booklet detailing the Bond character and a picture of Ursula Andress. Eon and United Artists made licensing deals revolving around the character's tastes, having merchandising tie-ins with drink, tobacco, men's clothing and car companies. The campaign also focused on Ian Fleming's name due to the minor success of the books. After \"Dr. No\" had a successful run in Europe, Sean Connery and Terence Young did a cross-country tour of the US in March 1963, which", "Upon release, \"Dr. No\" received a mixed critical reception. \"Time\" called Bond a \"blithering bounder\" and \"a great big hairy marshmallow\" who \"almost always manages to seem slightly silly\". Stanley Kauffmann in \"The New Republic\" said that he felt the film \"never decides whether it is suspense or suspense-spoof.\" He also did not like Connery, or the Fleming novels. The Vatican condemned \"Dr. No\" describing it as \"a dangerous mixture of violence, vulgarity, sadism and sex\", whilst the Kremlin said that Bond was the personification of capitalist evil – both controversies helped increase public awareness of the film and greater cinema attendance. However Leonard Mosely in \"The Daily Express\" said that \"\"Dr No\" is fun all the way, and even the sex is harmless\", whilst Penelope Gilliatt in", "In the United Kingdom, playing in 168 cinemas, \"Dr. No\" grossed $840,000 in just two weeks and wound up being the fifth most popular movie of the year there. The box office results in mainland Europe were also positive. The film ended up grossing $6 million, making it a financial success compared to its $1 million budget. The original North American gross rental was $2 million, increasing to $6 million after its first reissue in 1965, as a double feature with \"From Russia with Love\". The following reissue was in 1966 paired with \"Goldfinger\", to compensate", "The character James Bond was introduced towards, but not at, the beginning of the film in a \"now-famous nightclub sequence featuring Sylvia Trench\", to whom he makes his \"immortal introduction\". The introduction to the character in \"Le Cercle at Les Ambassadeurs\", an upmarket gambling club, is derived from Bond's introduction in the first novel, \"Casino Royale\", which Fleming had used because \"skill at gambling and knowledge of how to behave in a casino were seen... as attributes of a gentleman\". After losing a hand of Chemin de Fer to Bond, Trench asks his name. There is the \"most important gesture [in]... the way he lights his cigarette before giving her the satisfaction of an answer. 'Bond,", "Around the time of \"Dr. No\"s release in October 1962, a comic book adaptation of the screenplay, written by Norman J. Nodel, was published in the United Kingdom as part of the \"Classics Illustrated\" anthology series. It was later reprinted in the United States by DC", "\"Dr. No\" was the first of 25 \"James Bond\" films produced by Eon, which have grossed just over $5 billion in box office returns alone, making the series one of the highest-grossing ever. It is estimated that since \"Dr. No\", a quarter of the world's population have seen at least one \"Bond\" film. \"Dr. No\" also launched a successful genre of \"secret agent\" films that flourished in the 1960s. The UK Film Distributors' Association have stated that the importance of \"Dr. No\" to the British film industry cannot be overstated, as it, and the subsequent \"Bond\" series of films, \"form the backbone of the industry\". \"Dr. No\" – and the \"Bond\" films in general – also inspired television output, with the NBC series \"The Man from U.N.C.L.E.\", which was described as the \"first network television imitation\" of Bond. The style of the Bond films, largely derived from production designer Ken Adam, is one of the hallmarks of the Bond film series, and the effect of his work on Dr. No's lair can be seen in another film he worked on, \"Dr. Strangelove\". As the first film in the series, a number of the elements of \"Dr. No\" were contributors to subsequent films, including Monty Norman's \"James Bond Theme\" and Maurice Binder's gun barrel sequence, variants of which all appeared in subsequent films. These conventions were also lampooned in spoof films, such as the \"Austin Powers\" series. The first spoof films happened relatively soon after \"Dr. No\", with the 1964 film \"Carry On Spying\" showing the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included Charlie Bind (Charles Hawtrey) and Daphne Honeybutt (Barbara Windsor). Sales of Fleming's novels rose sharply after the release of \"Dr. No\" and the subsequent films. In the seven months after \"Dr. No\" was released, 1.5 million copies of the novel were sold. Worldwide sales of all the \"Bond\" books rose throughout the 1960s as \"Dr. No\" and the subsequent films – \"From Russia with Love\" and \"Goldfinger\" – were released: in 1961 500,000 books had been sold, which rose to six million in 1964 and seven million in 1965. Between the years 1962 to 1967, a total of nearly 22.8 million Bond novels were sold. The film influenced ladies' fashion, with the bikini worn by Ursula Andress proving to be a huge hit: \"not only sent sales of two-piece swimwear skyrocketing, it also made Andress an international celebrity\". Andress herself acknowledged that the \"bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in \"Dr. No\" as the first Bond girl I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent\". It has been claimed that the use of the swimwear in \"Dr. No\" led to \"the biggest impact on the history of the bikini\".", "On 5 October 2012, fifty years after the release of the film, Eon Productions celebrated \"Global James Bond Day\", a series of events around the world. Events included a film festival of showings of the \"James Bond\" films, a documentary of the series," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Early years.", "Junior career.", "1994.", "1995: Breakthrough.", "1996: Top 10 debut.", "1997: Impending dominance.", "1998: World No. 1 in singles, first Grand Slam final.", "1999: Continued success and beginning of injuries.", "2000: Persistent injuries.", "2001–2002: Decline.", "2003: Long absence from tour and out of top 100.", "2004: Retirement from main tour.", "2018: Desire for a comeback.", "ATP Champions Tour.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "Personal life.", "Controversies.", "Singles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ríos turned professional in 1994, finishing 1997, 1998, and 1999 as a top-ten player. Ríos won a total of 18 top-level singles titles and one top-level doubles title during his career.", "Ríos began playing tennis at the age of 11 at the \"Sport Francés\" golf club in Vitacura (Greater Santiago), adjacent to his house.", "As a junior, Ríos reached as high as No. 1 in singles and No. 141 in doubles. Ríos reached the semifinals of the junior French Open in 1993 without dropping a set, where he was defeated by Roberto Carretero-Diaz in straight sets, and won the junior US Open in 1993 while only dropping one set during the entire tournament. He also won his first Satellite tournament in Chile.", "This was Ríos' first year being a professional player and he quickly began to acquire international fame after his participation at Roland Garros, where in the second round, at just 18 years of age, he faced Pete Sampras, fighting a hard battle eventually to lose 6–7, 6–7, 4–6. His left-handed ability, plus his novel long hair and backwards visor, drew the attention of the media. The same year he won his first Challenger in Dresden, Germany.", "In May 1995, aged 19, Ríos won his first tournament title in Bologna defeating Marcelo Filippini of Uruguay 6–2, 6–4, and breaking into the world's top 50 for the first time. Then in June, he won at Amsterdam in both singles (against Jan Siemerink, 6–4, 7–5, 6–4) and doubles (with Sjeng Schalken) and won the tournament in Kuala Lumpur against Mark Philippoussis 7–6, 6–2. He also reached the final of his home country's ATP tournament in Santiago. Ríos ended the year ranked No. 25 in the world.", "His achievements this year included excellent performances in the Masters Series (then called Super 9) tournaments. He reached the quarterfinals in Masters Series of Stuttgart and Rome, and the semifinals in Indian Wells, Monte Carlo, and Canada. In Sankt Pölten, Austria, he won his fourth career title by defeating the Spaniard Félix Mantilla 6–1, 6–4. Ríos again reached the final in Santiago, and also reached the finals in Barcelona and Scottsdale. For much of the year Ríos would be ranked in the top 10, becoming the first Chilean in history to do so. He finished the year ranked number 11.", "In 1997 for the first time in Ríos' career he reached the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam tournament at the Australian Open and again at the US Open. He also won his first Masters title at Monte Carlo; after a first round bye, he beat Andrea Gaudenzi, Albert Costa, Carlos Moyá, Magnus Larsson, and, in the final, Àlex Corretja, 6–4, 6–3, 6–3. Two weeks later, he lost in the final of the Rome Masters against the same Spaniard. Other successes for the year included the quarterfinals (again) in the Stuttgart Masters and the finals in Marseille, Boston, and (for the third time) in Santiago. Ríos had a very consistent 1997 season, being the only player to reach the fourth round or better on all Grand Slams. Ríos went as high as No. 6 during the year, and ended the year in the top ten for the first time, being No. 10.", "The year 1998 brought the peak of his career, when he reached the No. 1 spot in the world. He won the tournament (the first of the year) in Auckland, New Zealand, against Richard Fromberg, then reached the final of the Australian Open, beating Grant Stafford, Thomas Enqvist, Andrew Ilie, Lionel Roux, Alberto Berasategui and Nicolas Escudé before losing to Petr Korda in a lopsided 2–6, 2–6, 2–6 that lasted 1 hour and 25 minutes. The following months brought successes such as the title of the Super 9 (the current Masters Series) at Indian Wells, where he defeated British Greg Rusedski in the final. The consummation came in the final at Key Biscayne, Florida, under the guidance of his coach Larry Stefanki. After victories over Hendrik Dreekmann, Tommy Haas, and Goran Ivanišević, Ríos beat Thomas Enqvist in the quarterfinals and Tim Henman in the semifinals. In the final on March 29, Ríos defeated Andre Agassi 7–5, 6–3, 6–4. In Chile, thousands of people took to the streets to celebrate the triumph of the first Chilean, Latin and indeed Spanish speaking player to reach the sport's No. 1 ranking, grabbing the position from Pete Sampras (who had maintained 102 consecutive weeks at No. 1, and five years ending the season as the leader). In the days ahead, there was a crowded reception leading Ríos to then president Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle on La Moneda Palace, with around 10,000 people cheering at the palace's surroundings. Ríos' No. 1 ranking lasted four weeks; he lost it after being unable to defend the title at Monte Carlo because of an injury suffered in the Davis Cup while defeating Hernán Gumy in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In May, he reached the quarterfinals of the French Open losing to eventual champion Carlos Moyá. In June, at Wimbledon, Ríos was upset at first round by Francisco Clavet. On August 10, however, Ríos recovered the No. 1 spot for another two weeks. In September, he lost at third round of the US Open to Magnus Larsson. During this season, Marcelo also won the Rome Masters against Albert Costa by walkover in the final, Sankt Pölten beating Vincent Spadea, the Grand Slam Cup against Andre Agassi, and Singapore against Mark Woodforde. Furthermore, he reached the quarterfinals of the Stuttgart Masters and Paris Masters. Ríos in 1998 won seven titles, including three Masters Series titles, and reached the final of the Australian Open. On July 27 of that year, he reached the maximum number of points achieved throughout his career: 3719 (by the scoring system used prior to the year 2000). He ended the year ranked No. 2 behind Pete Sampras, who topped the world rankings for a sixth consecutive year.", "Ríos maintained a high level throughout 1999, although his game was interrupted by repeated injuries and surgeries. This prevented him from defending the points achieved by reaching the final of the Australian Open the previous year, so he fell several places in the rankings. He reached the final of the Monte Carlo Masters, but after trailing 4–6, 1–2, he had to retire due to a new injury, handing the tournament to Gustavo Kuerten. Ríos subsequently won the Hamburg Masters in a match that lasted more than four hours against Mariano Zabaleta; two weeks later he became champion in Sankt Pölten for the second consecutive time against the same Argentine, who, this time, had to retire during the first set at 4–4. In October, he won at Singapore and reached the final in Beijing, losing to Magnus Norman. He also reached the quarterfinals at Roland Garros and the Stuttgart Masters. Despite many injuries he suffered and surgeries he underwent, Ríos would complete his third consecutive year as a top-ten player, at world No. 9.", "Since 2000 until the end of Ríos' career on the main tour, he was not able to keep up his level of play to the standards he set in the 1990s, as it was marked by repeated and disabling injuries. He still won the tournament of Umag, Croatia beating the Argentine Mariano Puerta in the final. He also reached the semifinals at the Hamburg Masters losing to Marat Safin. Ríos finished the year No. 37 in the world.", "In 2001, Ríos won the first tournament of the year in Doha. However, his performance in the following tournaments was weaker, weakened by an ankle operation, which resulted him to drop out of the top 50 in the world for the first time since he was a teenager. In September Ríos won another title, this time in Hong Kong, defeating Rainer Schüttler in the final. Ríos decided to return in October to play a Challenger event in Santiago and defeated Edgardo Massa in the final, in an effort to end his curse of not winning an ATP tournament at his home country. He also reached a doubles final in Scottsdale. Ríos ended the year as No. 39 in the world. In early 2002, Ríos had some good results, but a back injury prevented him from continuing the season successfully. It was the same injury that he had had two operations with already, and finally prevented him from returning to a competitive level. His best results were the quarterfinals at the Australian Open, the semifinals at the Miami Masters, and the final in the Stockholm tournament playing the Paradorn Srichaphan. Ríos would finish top 25 in the world for the first time since 1999 at No. 24, but without managing to recover from injuries that beset him since late 1999.", "In Viña del Mar tournament (formerly Santiago tournament) Ríos reached the final, losing to Spaniard David Sánchez. This was the fourth of the four finals he participated and lost in his home country. However, representing Chile together with Fernando González and Nicolás Massú, he won the World Team Cup in Düsseldorf. The same year he also won silver medals in singles and doubles with Adrián García in the 2003 Pan American Games. In May, Ríos played his last ATP-level match, losing in the first round at Roland Garros to Mario Ančić, retiring at 1–6, 0–1. In 2003, Ríos played very few tournaments, in most of which he had to withdraw. This resulted him ending the year as No. 105 in the world, his worst year-end ranking on the main tour yet.", "In 2004, six years after claiming the world No. 1 ranking, and after a long absence from the tour, Ríos returned to competition with a victory at a Challenger Series tournament in Ecuador. He played his last competitive match in early April 2004 at a Challenger in San Luis Potosí, Mexico, where he retired in the round of 16. Finally, on July 16, 2004, after years of constant injuries—and at just 28 years old—Ríos announced his retirement from tennis during a press conference in Santiago. He organized a farewell tour across his home country, travelling through several cities, meeting with fans, offering tennis clinics, and playing friendly matches with international and local tennis players such as Petr Korda and Goran Ivanišević. The tour ended on December 22, 2004, at a soccer stadium in Santiago, where he played his final tennis match of his career on the main tour against Guillermo Coria.", "Following successful elbow surgery in November 2018, Ríos announced a comeback as part of his desire to become the oldest ever winner of a Challenger tournament. On December 21, 2018, Ríos defeated Nicolás Lapentti 6–4, 5–7, 11–9 in an exhibition in Chile.", "", "On March 29, 2006, Ríos, aged 30, debuted on the ATP Champions Tour, a tour for former tour players, having met the requirement of at least two years after retirement. At his first tournament on the tour in Doha, Qatar, he defeated Thomas Muster, Henri Leconte, Pat Cash, and Cédric Pioline to claim the title. The following week he repeated, this time winning the crown in Hong Kong, where he won the final against Muster. Ríos won six tournaments in a row, adding Algarve, Graz, Paris and Eindhoven to the above. His inclusion on the senior circuit caused mild controversy, as he was significantly younger than many of his fellow competitors. He ended the year as No. 1, winning a total of six tournaments and holding a winning streak of 25 matches, achieving the record of being the only player in history to be No. 1 in the world as a junior, professional and veteran.", "Ríos did not take part at the Champions Tour in 2007. He actually intended to return to the ATP Tour in February at the Viña del Mar tournament (Movistar Open), but he defaulted because of the same back injury that made him retire from the tour. On March 30, 2007, Ríos played an exhibition match in the Movistar Arena against Andre Agassi, both as a way to commemorate the match where Ríos rose to world No. 1 and as a way of having the American play in Chile.", "In 2008, Ríos came back to veteran's tour where he won the tournaments in Barcelona and Algarve. On June 22, 2008, he was defeated by Pete Sampras in the final of a seniors tournament in São Paulo, Brazil. Ríos ended the year as No. 3 in the veteran's world rankings. On June 24, 2008, Ríos defeated Sampras in an exhibition match that commemorated the 10-year anniversary of having reached the No. 1 ranking in the world.", "Ríos was born in Santiago, Chile to Jorge Ríos Jarvis, an engineer and businessman, and Alicia Mayorga, a teacher. He has an older sister, Paula. Ríos met Costa Rican Giuliana Sotela in September 1998 while he was training at the Nick Bollettieri Tennis Academy in Florida. Ríos and Sotela got married in December 2000 in Santiago. They have a daughter, Constanza, who was born in June 2001. In March 2004, the marriage ended in divorce, which legally took place in Costa Rica, as Chile did not allow married couples the right of divorce until November 2004. During 2004, Ríos worked as a sports commentator for a radio station in Chile. In April 2005, Ríos married model María Eugenia \"Kenita\" Larraín, a former fiancée of football player Iván Zamorano. The couple subsequently experienced a very public break-up in September of the same year after an incident in Costa Rica in which Larraín was injured when Ríos allegedly threw her out of his car while he was driving to visit his daughter. Ríos claimed that marrying Larraín was \"the biggest mistake of my life.\" In May 2008, Ríos married Paula Pavic. They have five children together, daughter Isidora (born December 2008), daughter Colomba (born June 2010), and also triplets, which are a son named Marcelo jr. and two daughters named Antonella and Agustina (all born December 2011). In March 2008, on the tenth anniversary of Ríos reaching the No. 1 ranking, journalist Nelson Flores published a book in Spanish titled \"El extraño del pelo largo (The strange man with long hair)\", recounting his experiences following the player from his junior days up to his ascent to the top of the ATP singles ranking. In November 2011, an English-language book was published by Mark 'Scoop' Malinowski about Rios, \"Marcelo Rios: The Man We Barely Knew\". In May 2014, Ríos said in an interview to \"El Mercurio\" that he could have Asperger syndrome. On November 17, 2016, he confirmed in an interview to Chilevisión that he was diagnosed with Asperger twice in his life, as a child and during a Davis Cup tie, but he did not care that much until the 2014 interview.", "Ríos' career was marked by a number of controversies.", "\"Davis Cup matches are included in the statistics. Walkovers are neither official wins nor official losses.\" \"At the 1998 ATP Tour World Championships (Tennis Masters Cup), Ríos withdrew at round robin stage after playing the first match. He was replaced by then world No. 11 Greg Rusedski.\" \"At the 1998 Eurocard Open (Stuttgart Masters), Ríos withdrew prior to quarterfinals.\" \"At the 2001 Monte Carlo Masters, Ríos withdrew prior to second round.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Contemporary reviews.", "Later reviews.", "Video game adaptation.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Seeking revenge against MI6 agent, James Bond, for the death of their agent Dr. No in Jamaica, international criminal organisation SPECTRE begins training agents to kill him, before assigning the task to Irish assassin Donald \"Red\" Grant. To lure Bond into a trap, SPECTRE's chief planner, Czechoslovak chess grandmaster Kronsteen, devises a plan to have him attempt to procure a Lektor cryptography device from the Soviets from their consulate in Istanbul. SPECTRE operative Rosa Klebb, a former SMERSH (Soviet counter-intelligence) colonel, is assigned to oversee the mission and to ensure Grant can carry out Bond's assassination at the right moment. To set the trap, Klebb recruits a cipher clerk at the consulate, Tatiana Romanova, to unwittingly assist in the plan, tricking her into believing she is still working for SMERSH. In London, Bond is called to a meeting with M and informed that Romanova has requested his help to defect to the West, in exchange for providing British intelligence a Lektor. M reveals he intends to honor her request, and assigns Bond to secure it, despite his reservations on Romanova's request. Before departing, Bond is given a special attaché case by Q, containing several defensive gadgets, and an ArmaLite AR-7 sniper rifle, to help on his assignment. Upon arriving in Istanbul, Bond works alongside the head of MI6's branch in the city, Ali Kerim Bey, while he awaits word from Romanova. During this time, Kerim is attacked by Soviet agent Krilencu, who causes problems for the men, unaware that Grant is shadowing Bond to protect him until he steals the Lektor. After an attack on the men while they hide out at a gypsy settlement, Kerim asks Bond for his help in killing Krilencu, before he can flee the city. Eventually, Romanova contacts Bond to meet him at a hotel suite, where she reveals she will provide plans to the consulate for him to help him steal the Lektor. Before they part ways, the pair spend the night together, unaware SPECTRE is filming them as part of Kronsteen's plan. Upon receiving the consulate's floor plans from Romanova, Bond and Kerim make a plan to steal the Lektor, before all three make haste to escape the city aboard the \"Orient Express\". Once aboard, Kerim discovers a Soviet security officer tailed them, forcing Bond to help him subdue them. While Kerim remains with him to prevent him escaping, Bond returns to Romanova to wait for their rendezvous with one of Kerim's men. However, Grant kills Kerim and the officer, forcing Bond to remain on the train and question Romanova's motive. When the train arrives in Belgrade, Bond passes on news of Kerim's death to one of his sons waiting for them, and receives instructions to travel to Zagreb and receive help from a British agent named Nash. Grant intercepts Nash when they arrive and kills him off camera, before posing as Nash to them. After drugging Romanova at dinner, Grant overpowers Bond. He quickly reveals that Romanova was a pawn in SPECTRE's plan, and that he intends to kill both and stage it as a murder-suicide, leaving behind fake blackmail evidence that will scandalise the British intelligence community. However, Bond gets the upper hand by tricking Grant into setting off a booby trap in his attaché case before killing him. Escaping from the train with the Lektor, the fake evidence, and Romanova, Bond uses Grant's escape plan to flee, evading an attack by agents of SPECTRE. Learning of Grant's death and Bond's survival, SPECTRE's enigmatic chairman (Number 1) has Kronsteen executed for his plan's disastrous failure. As the organisation promised to sell back the Lektor to the Russians, Klebb is ordered to recover it and kill Bond. Klebb reaches the pair, while they are resting in a hotel in Venice, and sneaks into their room disguised as a maid. However, Romanova recognises Klebb and kills her when she tries to poison Bond. With their mission accomplished, Bond and Romanova spend some time on a romantic boat ride, during which time Grant's blackmail evidence is disposed of into the canal.", "Cast notes:", "Following the financial success of \"Dr. No\", United Artists greenlit a second James Bond film. The studio doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions with $2 million, and also approved a bonus for Sean Connery, who would receive $100,000 along with his $54,000 salary. As President John F. Kennedy had named Fleming's novel \"From Russia with Love\" among his ten favourite books of all time in \"Life\" magazine, producers Broccoli and Saltzman chose this as the follow-up to Bond's cinematic debut in \"Dr. No\". \"From Russia with Love\" was the last film President Kennedy saw at the White House on 20 November 1963 before going to Dallas. Most of the crew from the first film returned, with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam, who went to work on \"Dr. Strangelove\" and was replaced by \"Dr. No\"s art director Syd Cain; title designer Maurice Binder was replaced by Robert Brownjohn, and stunt coordinator Bob Simmons was unavailable and was replaced by Peter Perkins though Simmons performed stunts in the film. John Barry replaced Monty Norman as composer of the soundtrack. The film introduced several conventions which would become essential elements of the series: a pre-title sequence, the Blofeld character (referred to in the film only as \"Number 1\") (though Blofeld is mentioned in the end credits, with the actor referred to only as \"?\"), a secret-weapon gadget for Bond, a helicopter sequence (repeated in every subsequent Bond film except \"The Man with the Golden Gun\"), a postscript action scene after the main climax, a theme song with lyrics, and the line \"James Bond will return/be back\" in the credits.", "Ian Fleming's novel was a Cold War thriller but the producers replaced the Soviet undercover agency SMERSH with the crime syndicate SPECTRE so as to avoid controversial political overtones. The SPECTRE training grounds were inspired by the film \"Spartacus\". The original screenwriter was Len Deighton, who accompanied Harry Saltzman, Syd Cain, and Terence Young to Istanbul but he was replaced because of a lack of progress. Thus, two of \"Dr. No\"s writers, Johanna Harwood and Richard Maibaum, returned for the second film in the series. Some sources state Harwood was credited for the \"adaptation\" mostly for her suggestions which were carried over into Maibaum's script. Harwood stated in an interview for \"Cinema Retro\" that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman's projects, and her screenplay for \"From Russia with Love\" had followed Fleming's novel closely, but she left the series due to what she called Terence Young's constant rewriting of her screenplay with ideas that were not in the original Fleming work. Maibaum kept on making rewrites as filming progressed. Red Grant was added to the Istanbul scenes just prior to the film crew's trip to Turkey; this brought more focus to the SPECTRE plot, as Grant started saving Bond's life there (a late change during shooting involved Grant killing the bespectacled spy at Hagia Sophia instead of Bond, who ends up just finding the man dead). For the last quarter of the movie, Maibaum added two chase scenes, with a helicopter and speedboats, and changed the location of Bond and Klebb's battle from Paris to Venice. Uncredited rewrites were contributed by Berkely Mather.", "Although uncredited, the actor who played Number 1 was Anthony Dawson, who had played Professor Dent in the previous Bond film, \"Dr. No\", and appeared in several of Terence Young's films. In the end credits, Blofeld is credited with a question mark. Blofeld's lines were redubbed by Viennese actor Eric Pohlmann in the final cut. Peter Burton was unavailable to return as Major Boothroyd, so Desmond Llewelyn, a Welsh actor who was a fan of the Bond comic strip published in the \"Daily Express\", accepted the part. However, screen credit for Llewelyn was omitted at the opening of the film and is reserved for the exit credits, where he is credited simply as \"Boothroyd\". Llewelyn's character is not referred to by this name in dialogue, but M does introduce him as being from Q Branch. Llewelyn remained as the character, better known as Q, in all but one of the series' films until his death in 1999. Several actresses were considered for the role of Tatiana, including Italians Sylva Koscina and Virna Lisi, Danish actress Annette Vadim, and English-born Tania Mallet. 1960 Miss Universe runner-up Daniela Bianchi was ultimately cast, supposedly Sean Connery's choice. Bianchi started taking English classes for the role, but the producers ultimately chose to have her lines redubbed by British stage actress Barbara Jefford in the final cut. The scene in which Bond finds Tatiana in his hotel bed was used for Bianchi's screen test, with Dawson standing in, this time, as Bond. The scene later became the traditional screen test scene for prospective James Bond actors and Bond Girls. In her initial scene with Klebb, Tatiana refers to training for the ballet, referencing the actress's real life background. Greek actress Katina Paxinou was originally considered for the role of Rosa Klebb, but was unavailable. Terence Young cast Austrian singer Lotte Lenya after hearing one of her musical recordings. Young wanted Kronsteen's portrayer to be \"an actor with a remarkable face\", so the minor character would be well remembered by audiences. This led to the casting of Vladek Sheybal, whom Young also considered convincing as an intellectual. Several women were tested for the roles of Vida and Zora, the two fighting Gypsy girls, and after Aliza Gur and Martine Beswick were cast, they spent six weeks practising their fight choreography with stunt work arranger Peter Perkins. Beswick was mis-credited as 'Martin Beswick' in the film's opening titles, but this error was fixed for the 2001 DVD release. Mexican actor Pedro Armendáriz was recommended to Young by director John Ford to play Kerim Bey. After experiencing increasing discomfort on location in Istanbul, Armendáriz was diagnosed with inoperable cancer. Filming in Istanbul was terminated, the production moved to Britain, and Armendáriz's scenes were brought forward so that he could complete his scenes without delay. Though visibly in pain, he continued working as long as possible. When he could no longer work, he returned home and took his own life. Remaining shots after Armendáriz left London had a stunt double and Terence Young himself as stand-ins. Englishman Joe Robinson was a strong contender for the role of Red Grant but it was given to Robert Shaw.", "Most of the film was set in Istanbul, Turkey. Locations included the Basilica Cistern, Hagia Sophia and the Sirkeci railway station, which also was used for the Belgrade and Zagreb railway stations. The MI6 office in London, SPECTRE Island, the Venice hotel and the interior scenes of the Orient Express were filmed at Pinewood Studios with some footage of the train. In the film, the train journey was set in Eastern Europe. The journey and the truck ride were shot in Argyll, Scotland and Switzerland. The end scenes for the film were shot in Venice. However, to qualify for the British film funding of the time, at least 70 percent of the film had to have been filmed in Great Britain or the Commonwealth. The Gypsy camp was also to be filmed in an actual camp in Topkapi, but was actually shot in a replica of it in Pinewood. The scene with rats (after the theft of the Lektor) was shot in Spain, as Britain did not allow filming with wild rats, and an attempt to film white rats painted in cocoa in Turkey did not work. Principal photography began on 1 April 1963, and wrapped on 23 August. Ian Fleming spent a week in the Istanbul shoot, supervising production and touring the city with the producers. Director Terence Young's eye for realism was evident throughout production. For the opening chess match, Kronsteen wins the game with a reenactment of Boris Spassky's victory over David Bronstein in 1960. Production Designer Syd Cain built up the \"chess pawn\" motif in his $150,000 set for the brief sequence. Cain also later added a promotion to another movie Eon was producing, making Krilencu's death happen inside a billboard for \"Call Me Bwana\". A noteworthy gadget featured was the attaché case (briefcase) issued by Q Branch. It had a tear gas bomb that detonated if the case was improperly opened, a folding AR-7 sniper rifle with twenty rounds of ammunition, a throwing knife, and 50 gold sovereigns. A boxer at Cambridge, Young choreographed the fight between Grant and Bond along with stunt coordinator Peter Perkins. The scene took three weeks to film and was violent enough to worry some on the production. Robert Shaw and Connery did most of the stunts themselves. After the unexpected loss of Armendáriz, production proceeded, experiencing complications from uncredited rewrites by Berkely Mather during filming. Editor Peter Hunt set about editing the film while key elements were still to be filmed, helping to restructure the opening scenes. Hunt and Young came up with the idea of moving the Red Grant training sequence to the beginning of the film (prior to the main title), a signature feature that has been an enduring hallmark of every Bond film since. The briefing with Blofeld was rewritten, and back projection was used to refilm Lotte Lenya's lines. Behind schedule and over-budget, the production crew struggled to complete production in time for the already-announced premiere date that October. On 6 July 1963, while scouting locations in Argyll, Scotland, for that day's filming of the climactic boat chase, Terence Young's helicopter crashed into the water with art director Michael White and a cameraman aboard. The craft sank into 40–50 feet (12–15 m) of water, but all escaped with minor injuries. Despite the calamity, Young was behind the camera for the full day's work. A few days later, Bianchi's driver fell asleep during the commute to a 6 am shoot and crashed the car. The actress's face was bruised and Bianchi's scenes had to be delayed for two weeks while the facial contusions healed. The helicopter and boat chase scenes were not in the original novel but were added to create an action climax. The former was inspired by the crop-dusting scene in Alfred Hitchcock's \"North by Northwest\" and the latter by a previous Young/Broccoli/Maibaum collaboration, \"The Red Beret\". These two scenes would initially be shot in Istanbul but were moved to Scotland. The speedboats could not go fast enough due to the many waves in the sea, and a rented boat filled with cameras ended up sinking in the Bosphorus. A helicopter was also hard to obtain, and the special effects crew were nearly arrested trying to get one at a local airbase. The helicopter chase was filmed with a radio controlled miniature helicopter. The sounds of the boat chase were replaced in post-production since the boats were not loud enough, and the explosion, shot in Pinewood, got out of control, burning Walter Gotell's eyelids and seriously injuring three stuntmen. Photographer David Hurn was commissioned by the producers of the James Bond films to shoot a series of stills with Sean Connery and the actresses of the film. When the theatrical property Walther PPK pistol did not arrive, Hurn volunteered the use of his own Walther LP-53 air pistol. Though the photographs of the \"James Bond is Back\" posters of the US release airbrushed out the long barrel of the pistol, film poster artist Renato Fratini used the long-barrelled pistol for his drawings of Connery on the British posters. For the opening credits, Maurice Binder had disagreements with the producers and did not want to return. Designer Robert Brownjohn stepped into his place, and projected the credits on female dancers, inspired by constructivist artist László Moholy-Nagy projecting light onto clouds in the 1920s. Brownjohn's work started the tradition of scantily clad women in the Bond films' title sequences.", "\"From Russia with Love\" is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer. The theme song was composed by Lionel Bart of \"Oliver!\" fame and sung by Matt Monro, although the title credit music is a lively instrumental version of the tune beginning with Barry's brief \"James Bond Is Back\" then segueing into Monty Norman's \"James Bond Theme\". Monro's vocal version is later played during the film (as source music on a radio) and properly over the film's end titles. Barry travelled with the crew to Turkey to try getting influences of the local music, but ended up using almost nothing, just local instruments such as finger cymbals to give an exotic feeling, since he thought the Turkish music had a comedic tone that did not fit in the \"dramatic feeling\" of the James Bond movies. Recalling his visit to Istanbul, John Barry said, \"It was like no place I'd ever been in my life. [The Trip] was supposedly to seep up the music, so Noel Rogers and I used to go 'round to these nightclubs and listen to all this stuff. We had the strangest week, and really came away with nothing, except a lot of ridiculous stories. We went back, talked to Lionel, and then he wrote 'From Russia with Love.<nowiki></nowiki> In this film, Barry introduced the percussive theme \"007\"—action music that came to be considered the \"secondary James Bond theme\". He composed it to have a lighter, enthusiastic and more adventurous theme to relax the audience. The arrangement appears twice on the soundtrack album; the second version, entitled \"007 Takes the Lektor\", is the one used during the gunfight at the Gypsy camp and also during Bond's theft of the Lektor decoding machine. The completed film features a holdover from the Monty Norman-supervised \"Dr. No\" music; the post-rocket-launch music from \"Dr. No\" is played in \"From Russia with Love\" during the helicopter and speedboat attacks.", "\"From Russia with Love\" premiered on 10 October 1963 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London. Ian Fleming, Sean Connery and Walter Gotell attended the premiere. The following year, it was released in 16 countries worldwide, with the United States premiere on 8 April 1964, at New York's Astor Theatre. Upon its first release, \"From Russia with Love\" doubled \"Dr. No\"s gross by earning $12.5 million ($ million in dollars) at the worldwide box office. After reissue it grossed $78 million, of which $24 million was from North America. It was the most popular movie at the British box office in 1963. The film's cinematographer Ted Moore won the BAFTA award and the British Society of Cinematographers award for Best Cinematography. At the 1965 Laurel Awards, Lotte Lenya stood third for Best Female Supporting Performance, and the film secured second place in the Action-Drama category. The film was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song for \"From Russia with Love\".", "In comparing the film to its predecessor, \"Dr. No\", Richard Roud, writing in \"The Guardian\", said that \"From Russia with Love\" \"didn't seem quite so lively, quite so fresh, or quite so rhythmically fast-moving.\" He went on to say that \"... the film is highly immoral in every imaginable way; it is neither uplifting, instructive nor life-enhancing. Neither is it great film-making. But it sure is fun.\" Writing in \"The Observer\", Penelope Gilliatt noted that \"The way the credits are done has the same self-mocking flamboyance as everything else in the picture.\" Gilliatt went on to say that the film manages \"to keep up its own cracking pace, nearly all the way. The set-pieces are a stunning box of tricks\". The critic for \"The Times\" wrote of Bond that he is \"the secret ideal of the congenital square, conventional in every particular... except in morality, where he has the courage—and the physical equipment—to do without thinking what most of us feel we might be doing...\" The critic thought that overall, \"the nonsense is all very amiable and tongue-in-cheek and will no doubt make a fortune for its devisers\". Bosley Crowther of \"The New York Times\" said: \"Don't miss it! This is to say, don't miss it if you can still get the least bit of fun out of lurid adventure fiction and pseudo-realistic fantasy. For this mad melodramatization of a desperate adventure of Bond with sinister characters in Istanbul and on the Orient Express is fictional exaggeration on a grand scale and in a dashing style, thoroughly illogical and improbable, but with tongue blithely wedged in cheek.\" \"Time\" magazine called the film \"fast, smart, shrewdly directed and capably performed\" and commented extensively on the film's humour, saying \"Director Young is a master of the form he ridicules, and in almost every episode he hands the audience shocks as well as yocks. But the yocks are more memorable. They result from slight but sly infractions of the thriller formula. A Russian agent, for instance, does not simply escape through a window; no, he escapes through a window in a brick wall painted with a colossal poster portrait of Anita Ekberg, and as he crawls out of the window, he seems to be crawling out of Anita's mouth. Or again, Bond does not simply train a telescope on the Russian consulate and hope he can read somebody's lips; no, he makes his way laboriously into a gallery beneath the joint, runs a submarine periscope up through the walls, and there, at close range, inspects two important Soviet secrets: the heroine's legs.\"", "\"From Russia with Love\" received generally positive reviews from critics; Rotten Tomatoes sampled 57 reviewers and judged 95% of the reviews to be positive with a rating of 8/10. Its summary states: \"The second James Bond film, \"From Russia with Love\", is a razor-sharp, briskly-paced Cold War thriller that features several electrifying action scenes.\" Many online sites also commonly cite \"From Russia with Love\" as the best Bond film of all time. In his 1986 book, Danny Peary described \"From Russia with Love\" as \"an excellent, surprisingly tough and gritty James Bond film\" which is \"refreshingly free of the gimmickry that would characterise the later Bond films, and Connery and Bianchi play \"real\" people. We worry about them and hope their relationship will work out... Shaw and Lotte Lenya are splendid villains. Both have exciting, well-choreographed fights with Connery. Actors play it straight, with excellent results.\" Film critic James Berardinelli cited this as his favourite Bond film, writing \"Only \"From Russia with Love\" avoids slipping into the comic book realm of \"Goldfinger\" and its successors while giving us a sampling of the familiar Bond formula (action, gadgets, women, cars, etc.). \"From Russia with Love\" is effectively paced and plotted, features a gallery of detestable rogues (including the ultimate Bond villain, Blofeld), and offers countless thrills\". In June 2001 Neil Smith of \"BBC Films\" called it \"a film that only gets better with age\". In 2004, \"Total Film\" magazine named it the ninth-greatest British film of all time, making it the only James Bond film to appear on the list. In 2006, Jay Antani of Filmcritic praised the film's \"impressive staging of action scenes\", while IGN listed it as second-best Bond film ever, behind only \"Goldfinger\". That same year, \"Entertainment Weekly\" put the film at ninth among Bond films, criticising the slow pace. When the \"James Bond Ultimate Collector's Set\" was released in November 2007 by MGM, Norman Wilner of MSN chose \"From Russia with Love\" as the best Bond film. Conversely, in his book about the Bond phenomenon, \"The Man With the Golden Touch,\" British author Sinclair McKay states \"I know it is heresy to say so, and that some enthusiasts regard \"From Russia With Love\" as the Holy Grail of Bond, but let's be searingly honest – some of it is crashingly dull.\" In 2014 \"Time Out\" polled several film critics, directors, actors and stunt actors to list their top action films; \"From Russia With Love\" was listed at 69. The British Film Institute's screenonline guide called the film \"one of the series' high points\" and said it \"had advantages not enjoyed by many later Bond films, notably an intelligent script that retained the substance of Ian Fleming's novel while toning down the overt Cold War politics (the Cuban Missile Crisis had only occurred the previous year).\" In 2008, Michael G. Wilson, the current co-producer of the series, stated \"We always start out trying to make another \"From Russia with Love\" and end up with another \"Thunderball\".\" Sean Connery, Michael G. Wilson, Barbara Broccoli, Timothy Dalton and Daniel Craig also consider this their favourite Bond film. Albert Broccoli listed it with \"Goldfinger\" and \"The Spy Who Loved Me\" as one of his top three favourites, explaining that he felt \"it was with this film that the Bond style and formula were perfected\".", "In 2005, the \"From Russia with Love\" video game was developed by Electronic Arts and released on 1 November 2005 in North America. It follows the storyline of the book and film, albeit adding in new scenes, making it more action-oriented. One of the most significant changes to the story is the replacement of the organisation SPECTRE to OCTOPUS because the name SPECTRE constituted a long-running legal dispute over the film rights to \"Thunderball\" between United Artists/MGM and writer Kevin McClory. Most of the cast from the film returned in likeness. Connery not only allowed his 1960s likeness as Bond to be used, but the actor, in his 70s, also recorded the character's dialogue, marking a return to the role 22 years after he last played Bond in \"Never Say Never Again\". Featuring a third-person multiplayer deathmatch mode, the game depicts several elements of later Bond films, such as the Aston Martin DB5 from \"Goldfinger\" (1964) and the rocket belt from \"Thunderball\" (1965). The game was penned by Bruce Feirstein, who had previously worked on the film scripts for \"GoldenEye\", \"Tomorrow Never Dies\", \"The World Is Not Enough\", and the 2004 video game, \"\". Its soundtrack was composed by Christopher Lennertz and Vic Flick.", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Tennis shoes.", "Career finals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Smith grew up in Pasadena, California and was coached mainly by Pancho Segura. He played collegiate tennis at the University of Southern California (USC), under Coach George Toley, where he was a three-time All-American and won the 1968 NCAA Singles Championship as well as the 1967 and 1968 doubles titles. At USC, Smith was a member of Beta Theta Pi fraternity's Gamma Tau chapter. As a kid, he went to get a job as a ball boy for the Davis Cup, but was turned down because the organizers thought he was too clumsy. In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, ranked Smith as one of the 21 best players of all time. In 2005, \"TENNIS\" magazine ranked Smith as 35th in its \"40 Greatest Players of the \"TENNIS\" Era\". Smith was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987. Following his playing career, Smith became active as a coach for the United States Tennis Association. He now has his own Tennis Academy with Billy Stearns called Smith Stearns Tennis Academy, which is on Hilton Head Island, South Carolina. In 1974, Smith married Princeton University tennis player Marjory Gengler. They later mentored South African tennis player Mark Mathabane, helping increase pressure on the South African government to end Apartheid. Today, Smith lives in Hilton Head with his wife and four children, all of whom competed in collegiate tennis. In Hilton Head he also is a co-owner of the tennis academy Smith Stearns. He is currently the President of the International Tennis Hall of Fame.", "To non-tennis players, Stan Smith is probably best known for his line of Adidas tennis shoes. Although the Adidas Stan Smith shoe is not recommended for modern tennis playing, it continues to be a widely available iconic fashion brand.", "Note: Smith won 10 titles before the Open Era" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Filming.", "Effects.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Promotion.", "Critical response.", "Box office.", "Awards and nominations.", "Home media.", "Impact and legacy.", "Accolades." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "After destroying a drug laboratory in Latin America, MI6 agent James Bond travels to Miami Beach for a vacation. He receives instructions from his superior, M, via CIA agent Felix Leiter to observe bullion dealer Auric Goldfinger at the hotel there. Bond discovers Goldfinger is cheating at gin rummy with the help of his employee, Jill Masterson, and Bond stops him by distracting Jill and blackmails Goldfinger into losing. After Bond and Jill consummate their new relationship, Bond is knocked out by Goldfinger's Korean manservant Oddjob. When Bond awakens, he finds Jill dead, covered in gold paint, having died from \"skin suffocation\". In London, the governor of the Bank of England and M explain to Bond that gold prices vary across the world, allowing one to profit by selling bullion internationally, and his objective is determining how Goldfinger smuggles the gold across borders. To help in his mission, Q gives Bond a modified Aston Martin DB5 and two tracking devices. Bond arranges to meet Goldfinger socially at his country club in Kent, and wins a golf game against him with a recovered Nazi gold bar (lent to him by Mi6 for the mission) at stake. Aware of Bond's ulterior motives, Goldfinger, before leaving, warns Bond not to interfere in his affairs, reinforcing the threat by having Oddjob demonstrate his steel-rimmed derby as a deadly weapon. Bond follows Goldfinger to Switzerland, where Tilly, Jill's sister, attempts to avenge her sister by assassinating Goldfinger with a rifle, but fails. Bond sneaks into Goldfinger's plant, where he finds out how Goldfinger smuggles gold: he observes Goldfinger showing and explaining to Chinese nuclear physicist Mr. Ling that he does it through his Rolls-Royce Phantom III that he takes with him whenever he travels, hiding some of the gold in secret compartments, and melting the rest down to incorporate it into the car's bodywork. Bond also overhears Goldfinger talking to Mr. Ling about something of importance called \"Operation Grand Slam\". Leaving, Bond encounters Tilly as she tries to kill Goldfinger again, but trips an alarm in the process. Bond tries to protect Tilly but Oddjob kills her with his hat, and Bond is captured and tied to a solid gold table underneath an industrial laser, which begins slicing through the table toward him. He then lies to Goldfinger that MI6 knows about Operation Grand Slam, causing Goldfinger to spare Bond's life", "With the court case between Kevin McClory and Fleming surrounding \"Thunderball\" still in the High Court, producers Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman turned to \"Goldfinger\" as the third Bond film. \"Goldfinger\" had what was then considered a large budget of $3 million (US$ million in dollars), the equivalent of the budgets of \"Dr. No\" and \"From Russia with Love\" combined, and was the first Bond film classified as a box-office blockbuster. \"Goldfinger\" was chosen with the American cinema market in mind, as the previous films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe. Terence Young, who directed the previous two films, chose to film \"The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders\" instead, after a pay dispute that saw him denied a percentage of the film's profits. Broccoli and Saltzman turned instead to Guy Hamilton to direct. Hamilton, who had turned down directing \"Dr. No\", felt that he needed to make Bond less of a \"superman\" by making the villains seem more powerful. Hamilton knew Fleming, as both were involved during intelligence matters in the Royal Navy during World War II. \"Goldfinger\" saw the return of two crew members who were not involved with \"From Russia with Love\": stunt coordinator Bob Simmons and production designer Ken Adam. Both played crucial roles in the development of \"Goldfinger\", with Simmons choreographing the fight sequence between Bond and Oddjob in the vault of Fort Knox, which was not just seen as one of the best Bond fights, but also \"must stand as one of the great cinematic combats\" whilst Adam's efforts on \"Goldfinger\" were \"luxuriantly baroque\" and have resulted in the film being called \"one of his finest pieces of work\".", "Richard Maibaum, who co-wrote the previous films, returned to adapt the seventh James Bond novel. Maibaum fixed the novel's heavily criticised plot hole, where Goldfinger actually attempts to empty Fort Knox. In the film, Bond notes it would take twelve days for Goldfinger to steal the gold, before the villain reveals he actually intends to irradiate it with the then topical concept of a Red Chinese atomic bomb. However, Harry Saltzman disliked the first draft, and brought in", "Principal photography on \"Goldfinger\" commenced on 20 January 1964 in Miami, Florida, at the Fontainebleau Hotel; the crew was small, consisting only of Hamilton, Broccoli, Adam, and cinematographer Ted Moore. Sean Connery never travelled to Florida to film \"Goldfinger\" because he was filming \"Marnie\" elsewhere in the United States. On the DVD audio commentary, director Guy Hamilton states that other than Cec Linder, who played Felix Leiter, none of the main actors in the Miami sequence were actually there. Connery, Gert Fröbe, Shirley Eaton, Margaret Nolan, who played Dink, and Austin Willis, who played Goldfinger's card victim, all filmed their parts on a soundstage at Pinewood Studios when filming moved there. Miami also served as location to the scenes involving Leiter's pursuit of Oddjob. After five days in the US, production moved to England. The primary location was", "Hamilton remarked, \"Before [\"Goldfinger\"], gadgets were not really a part of Bond's world.\" Production designer Ken Adam chose the DB5 because it was the latest version of the Aston Martin (in the novel Bond drove a DB Mark III, which he considered England's most sophisticated car). The company was initially reluctant, but was finally convinced to make a product placement deal. In the script, the car was armed only with a smoke screen, but every crew member began suggesting gadgets to install in it: Hamilton conceived the revolving licence plate because he had been getting many parking tickets, while his stepson suggested the ejector seat (which he saw on television). A gadget near the lights that would drop sharp nails was replaced with an oil dispenser", "Since the release date for the film had been pre-determined and filming had finished close to that date, John Barry received some edits directly from the cutting room floor, rather than as a finished edit, and scored some sequences from the rough initial prints. Barry described his work in \"Goldfinger\" as a favourite of his, saying it was \"the first time I had complete control, writing the score and the song\". The musical tracks, in keeping with the film's theme of gold and metal, make heavy use of brass, and also metallic chimes. The film's score is described as \"brassy and raunchy\" with \"a sassy sexiness to it\". \"Goldfinger\" began the tradition of Bond theme songs introduced over the opening title sequence, the style of the song from the pop genre and using popular artists. (Although the title song, sung by Matt Monro, in \"From Russia with Love\" was introduced in a few phrases", "\"Goldfinger\" premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on 17 September 1964, with general release in the United Kingdom the following day. Leicester Square was packed with sightseers and fans and police were unable to control the crowd. A set of glass doors to the cinema was accidentally broken and the premiere was shown ten minutes late because of the confusion. The United States premiere occurred on 21 December 1964, at the DeMille Theatre in New York. The film opened in 64 cinemas across 41 cities and eventually peaked at 485 screens. \"Goldfinger\" was temporarily banned in Israel because of Gert Fröbe's connections with the Nazi Party. The ban, however, was lifted many years later when a Jewish family publicly thanked Fröbe for protecting them from persecution during World War II.", "The film's marketing campaign began as soon as filming started in Florida, with Eon allowing photographers to enter the set to take pictures of Shirley Eaton painted in gold. Robert Brownjohn, who designed the opening credits, was responsible for the posters for the advertising campaign, which also used actress Margaret Nolan. To promote the film,", "\"Goldfinger\" was generally a critical success. Derek Prouse of \"The Sunday Times\" said of \"Goldfinger\" that it was \"superbly engineered. It is fast, it is most entertainingly preposterous and it is exciting.\" The reviewer from \"The Times\" said \"All the devices are infinitely sophisticated, and so is the film: the tradition of self-mockery continues, though at times it over-reaches itself\", also saying that \"It is the mixture as before, only more so: it is superb hokum.\" Connery's acting efforts were overlooked by this reviewer, who did say: \"There", "\"Goldfinger\"s $3 million budget was recouped in two weeks, and it broke box office records in multiple countries around the world. The \"Guinness Book of World Records\" went on to list \"Goldfinger\" as the fastest grossing film of all time. Demand for the film was so high that the DeMille cinema in New York City had to stay open twenty-four", "At the 1965 Academy Awards, Norman Wanstall won the Academy Award for Best Sound Effects Editing for his work, making \"Goldfinger\" the first Bond film to receive an Academy Award. John Barry was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Score for a Motion Picture, and Ken Adam was nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) for Best British Art Direction (Colour), where he also won the award for Best British Art Direction (Black and White) for \"Dr. Strangelove\". The", "The film was released in 1994 in the", "\"Goldfinger\"'s script became a template for subsequent Bond films. It was the first of the series showing Bond relying heavily on technology, as well as the first to show a pre-credits sequence with only a tangential link to the main story—in this case allowing Bond to get to Miami after a mission. Also introduced for the first of many appearances is the briefing in Q-branch, allowing the viewer to see the gadgets in development. The subsequent films in the Bond series follow most of \"Goldfinger\"s basic structure, featuring a henchman with a particular characteristic, a Bond girl who is killed by the villain, big emphasis on the gadgets and a more tongue-in-cheek approach, though trying to balance action and comedy. \"Goldfinger\" has been described as perhaps \"the most highly and consistently praised Bond picture of them all\" and after \"Goldfinger\", Bond \"became a true phenomenon.\" The success of the film led to the emergence of many other works in the espionage genre and parodies of James Bond, such as The Beatles film \"Help!\" in 1965 and a spoof of Ian Fleming's first Bond novel, \"Casino Royale\", in 1967. Indeed, it has been said that \"Goldfinger\" was the cause of the boom in espionage films in the 1960s, so much so that in \"1966, moviegoers were offered no less than 22 examples of secret agent entertainment, including several blatant attempts to begin competing series, with James Coburn starring as Derek Flint in the film \"Our Man Flint\" and Dean Martin as \"Matt Helm\"\". Even within the Bond canon, \"Goldfinger\" is acknowledged; the 22nd Bond film, \"Quantum of Solace\", includes an homage to the gold body paint death scene by having a female character dead on a bed nude, covered in crude oil. Outside the Bond films, elements of \"Goldfinger\", such as Oddjob and his use of his hat as a weapon, Bond removing his drysuit to reveal a tuxedo underneath, and the laser scene have been homaged or spoofed in works such as \"True Lies\", \"The Simpsons\", and the \"Austin Powers\" series. The US television programme \"MythBusters\" explored many scenarios seen in the film, such as the explosive depressurisation in a plane at high altitudes, the death by full body painting, an ejector seat in a car and using a tuxedo under a drysuit. The success of the film led to Ian Fleming's Bond novels receiving an increase of popularity and nearly 6 million books were sold in the United Kingdom in 1964, including 964,000 copies of \"Goldfinger\" alone. Between the years 1962 to 1967 a total of 22,792,000 Bond novels were sold. The 2012 video game \"007 Legends\" features a level based on Goldfinger.", "American" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early origins.", "Divinatory basis.", "Planets and gods.", "System of interpretation.", "Astral medicine.", "Astrology and the calendar.", "Limits of early knowledge.", "General nature.", "Astronomical expertise.", "Constellations.", "Ashurbanipal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There is speculation that astrology of some form appeared in the Sumerian period in the 3rd millennium BC, but the isolated references to ancient celestial omens dated to this period are not considered sufficient evidence to demonstrate an integrated theory of astrology. The history of scholarly celestial divination is therefore generally reported to begin with late Old Babylonian texts ( 1800 BC), continuing through the Middle Babylonian and Middle Assyrian periods ( 1200 BC). By the 16th century BC, the extensive employment of omen-based astrology can be evidenced in the compilation of a comprehensive reference work known as \"Enuma Anu Enlil\". Its contents consisted of 70 cuneiform tablets comprising 7,000 celestial omens. Texts from this time also refer to an oral tradition – the origin and content of which can only be speculated upon. At this time Babylonian astrology was solely mundane, and prior to the 7th century BC the practitioners' understanding of astronomy was fairly rudimentary. Because of their inability to accurately predict future celestial phenomena and planetary movement very far in advance, interpretations were done as the phenomena occurred or slightly before. By the 4th century, however, their mathematical methods had progressed enough to calculate future planetary positions with reasonable accuracy, at which point extensive ephemerides began to appear.", "The history of Babylonian astrology shows the development of astronomical knowledge within the context of divination. A collection of 32 tablets with inscribed liver models, dating from about 1875 BC, are the oldest known detailed texts of Babylonian divination, and these demonstrate the same interpretational format as that employed in celestial omen analysis. Blemishes and marks found on the liver of the sacrificial animal were interpreted as symbolic signs which presented messages from the gods to the king. The gods were also believed to present themselves in the celestial images of the planets or stars with whom they were associated. Evil celestial omens attached to any particular planet were therefore seen as indications of dissatisfaction or disturbance of the god that planet represented. Such indications were met with attempts to appease the god and find manageable ways by which the god's expression could be realised without significant harm to the king and his nation. An astronomical report to the king Esarhaddon concerning the lunar eclipse of 18 January 672 BC shows how the ritualistic use of substitute kings, or substitute events, combined an unquestioning belief in magic and omens with a purely mechanical view that the astrological event must have some kind of correlate within the natural world: Ulla Koch-Westenholz, in her 1995 book \"Mesopotamian Astrology\", argues that this ambivalence between a theistic and mechanic worldview defines the Babylonian concept of celestial divination as one which, despite its heavy reliance on magic, remains free of implications of targeted punishment with the purpose of revenge, and so “shares some of the defining traits of modern science: it is objective and value-free, it operates according to known rules, and its data are considered universally valid and can be looked up in written tabulations\". Koch-Westenholz also establishes the most important distinction between ancient Babylonian astrology and other divinatory disciplines as being that the former was originally exclusively mundane, being geographically oriented and specifically applied to countries cities and nations, and almost wholly concerned with the welfare of the state and the king as the governing head of the nation.", "The Patron God of Babylon was Marduk, and this god was recognized in Babylonian astrology as the planet Jupiter. Marduk was recognized as the most powerful god, but not the one and only god. The Babylonians were polytheistic, believing in many gods with different purposes, and they associated certain gods to certain planets. The Babylonians used horoscopic astrology. By observing the seasonal movement of the sun, moon, and planets, the Babylonians connected their beliefs of divine intervention in their everyday life to space and time. They would forecast their future circumstances by observing space through time and relating ominous events, such as a lunar eclipses, to social, political, and environmental problems in aspects of their everyday lives, such as giving birth to deformed children. The Babylonians believed their gods' activities influenced their own lives. These celestial events were viewed by the Babylonians as divine intervention in their lives using the influence the sun, moon, and planets, and to communicate when bad or good events were going to occur. Horoscopic astrology is significant to Babylonian beliefs, because associating the sun, moon, and planets with their gods shaped the way the Babylonians lived their lives and viewed the world around them. The parallels between horoscopes and nativity omens from a Seleucid Tablet shows the benefic and malefic natures of the planets in Babylonian astrology. The Babylonians associated and created their beliefs around planets based on the nature of the god associated with it. The Babylonians divided the fixed stars into three groups: the stars of Anu, Enlil and Ea. To which group they belonged depended, for most of them, on where they rose on the Eastern horizon. The horizon was divided into the Paths of Anu, Enlil and Ea. This gives reference to which gods the Babylonian astrologers associated to regions of the sky or space, and is an example of how the gods were associated with the stars and planets. Of the planets five were recognized—Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mercury and Mars—to name them in the order in which they appear in the older cuneiform literature; in later texts Mercury and Saturn change places. These five planets were identified with the gods of the Babylonian pantheon as follows: The movements of the Sun, Moon and five planets were regarded as representing the activity of the five gods in question, together with the moon-god Sin and the Sun-god Shamash, in preparing the occurrences on earth. If, therefore, one could correctly read and interpret the activity of these powers, one knew what the gods were aiming to bring about.", "The Babylonian priests accordingly applied themselves to the task of perfecting a system of interpretation of the phenomena to be observed in the heavens, and it was natural that the system was extended from the moon, sun and five planets to the more prominent and recognizable fixed stars. The interpretations themselves were based (as in the case of divination through the liver) chiefly on two factors: Thus, if on a certain occasion, the rise of the new moon in a cloudy sky was followed by victory over an enemy or by abundant rain, the sign in question was thus proved to be a favourable one and its recurrence would thenceforth be regarded as a good omen, though the prognostication would not necessarily be limited to the one or the other of those occurrences, but might be extended to apply to other circumstances. On the other hand, the appearance of the new moon earlier than was expected was regarded as unfavourable – prognosticating in one case defeat, in another death among cattle, in a third bad crops – not necessarily because these events actually took place after such a phenomenon, but by an application of the general principle resting upon association of ideas whereby anything premature would suggest an unfavourable occurrence. In this way a mass of traditional interpretation of all kinds of observed phenomena was gathered, and once gathered became a guide to the priests for all times. However, not all of these ideas are still used in astrology as it is usually practiced today.", "Astrology was also incredibly important in a practice known as astral medicine. According to a \"kalendartext\" discovered, belonging to a \"mašmaššu\" priest in the late Babylonian period of Uruk named Iqīšâ, different remedies are created for patients for different days, depending on the date. Steele acknowledges that it is entirely possible that the practice of astral medicine is nothing more than a theoretical practice, devised by scholars of the time. Since several of the parts would have been expensive or otherwise impossible for the average Babylonian to obtain, this raises two possible situations. It is very possible that the whole concept of astral medicine in terms of the \"kalendartexte\" and other such sources were, as previously stated, simply theory and never intended for real use. However, Babylonian medicine contains a tradition known as \"Dreckapotheke\", wherein the names of common ingredients are given names of often unpleasant sounding ones. It is also within the realm of possibility that the ingredients listed in the \"kalendartexte\" are following this tradition.", "The calendar and astrology were very interconnected. When creating the calendar for the next month or year, it was important to keep in mind where important festivals and other religious activities would fall. It seems that four nearby, surrounding countries contributed to each twelve-month calendar year: Elam, Amurru, Subartu, and Akkad. The months were divided intro groups of three, alternating by four, evenly split among the four lands. The first, fifth, and ninth months belonged to Akkad, the second, sixth, and tenth belonged to Elam, the third, seventh, and eleventh belonged to Amurru, and the fourth, eighth, and twelfth belonged to Subartu. Days of each month follows the same pattern, beginning with one for Akkad, two for Elam, three for Amurru, four for Subartu, five for Akkad, and so on. As calendars were often created by priests, months that would come with rather unfavorable events were limited, especially prioritizing against eclipses and new moons; this practice also carried over into scheduling the days of each month. The moon was rather important to Mesopotamian peoples, and often it was what they based their calendar on. Lunar omens were among the most commonplace and, most often, they were based on eclipses rather than simple visibility. Deities of Mesopotamia were associated with certain times, days, and months. In more mythological belief, at the end of each day, the sun god, Shamash, retired to \"the lap of heaven\" to rest.", "Astrology in its earliest stage was marked by three characteristic limitations:", "The first limitation was that the movements and position of the heavenly bodies point to such occurrences as are of public import and affect the general welfare. The individual's interests are not in any way involved, and we must descend many centuries and pass beyond the confines of Babylonia and Assyria before we reach that phase which in medieval and modern astrology is almost exclusively dwelt upon—the individual horoscope. In Babylonia and Assyria the cult centred largely and indeed almost exclusively in the public welfare and the person of the king, because upon his well-being and favour with the gods the fortunes of the country were dependent, in accordance with the ancient conception of kingship.", "The second limitation was that the astronomical knowledge presupposed and accompanying early Babylonian astrology was, though essentially of an empirical character, limited and flawed. The theory of the ecliptic as representing the course of the Sun through the year, divided among twelve constellations with a measurement of 30° to each division, is of Babylonian origin, as has now been definitely proved; but it does not appear to have been perfected until after the fall of the Babylonian empire in 539 BC. Similarly, the other accomplishments of Babylonian astronomers, such as their system or rather systems of moon calculations and the drawing up of planetary tablets, belong to this late period, so that the golden age of Babylonian astronomy belongs not to the remote past, as was until recently supposed, but to the Seleucid period; i.e. after the advent of the Greeks in the Euphrates Valley. From certain expressions used in astrological texts that are earlier than the 7th century BC it would appear, indeed, that the beginnings at least of the calculation of sun and moon eclipses belong to the earlier period, but here, too, the chief work accomplished was after 400 BC, and the defectiveness of early Babylonian astronomy may be gathered from the fact that as late as the 6th century BC an error of almost an entire month was made by the Babylonian astronomers in the attempt to determine through calculation the beginning of a certain year. In a general way, the reign of law and order in the movements of the heavenly bodies was recognized, and indeed must have exercised an influence at an early period in leading to the rise of a methodical divination that was certainly of a much higher order than the examination of an animal's liver. However, the importance that was laid upon the endless variations in the form of the phenomena and the equally numerous apparent deviations from what were regarded as normal conditions, prevented for a long time the rise of any serious study of astronomy beyond what was needed for the purely practical purposes that the priests as \"inspectors\" of the heavens (as they were also the \"inspectors\" of the sacrificial livers) had in mind.", "The third limitation was that there is little evidence that the signs of the zodiac that we now recognise, were used in Babylonian astronomy prior to 700 BC. However, probably from as early as the days of Hammurabi c. 2000 BC, Babylonian astrologers did develop the idea of constellations by depicting prominent groups of stars with outlines of images derived from their mythology and religion.", "Ashurbanipal was a king of Assyria who ruled in the seventh century BC from 668 to 625 BC. He was famous for assembling a great library of cuneiform tablets in Nineveh on the subjects of astrology, history, mythology, and science. Some of Assurbanipal's astrologers, such as Rammanu-sumausar and Nabu-musisi, became so adept at deducing omens from daily movements of the planets that a system of making periodical reports to the king came into being. Thus, Assurbanipal received swift messengers detailing \"all occurrences in heaven and earth\" throughout his kingdom and the results of his astrologer's examinations of them. He then used this information as a political weapon, and for the practical day-to-day running of his kingdom. After his death Nineveh fell to the Medes and the Chaldean Babylonians, and Assurbanipal's library was destroyed or dispersed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin of the term.", "Text cursor.", "Bi-directional text.", "Mouse cursor.", "I-beam pointer.", "3D cursor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Cursor is Latin for 'runner.' A cursor is the name given to the transparent slide engraved with a hairline that is used for marking a point on a slide rule. The term was then transferred to computers through analogy.", "In most command-line interfaces or text editors, the text cursor, also known as a caret, is an underscore, a solid rectangle, or a vertical line, which may be flashing or steady, indicating where text will be placed when entered (the insertion point). In text mode displays, it was not possible to show a vertical bar between characters to show where the new text would be inserted, so an underscore or block cursor was used instead. In situations where a block was used, the block was usually created by inverting the pixels of the character using the boolean math exclusive or function. On text editors and word processors of modern design on bitmapped displays, the vertical bar is typically used instead. In a typical text editing application, the cursor can be moved by pressing various keys. These include the four arrow keys, the Page Up and Page Down keys, the Home key, the End key, and various key combinations involving a modifier key such as the Control key. The position of the cursor also may be changed by moving the mouse pointer to a different location in the document and clicking. The blinking of the text cursor is usually temporarily suspended when it is being moved; otherwise, the cursor may change position when it is not visible, making its location difficult to follow. Some interfaces use an underscore or thin vertical bar to indicate that the user is in insert mode, a mode where text will be inserted in the middle of the existing text, and a larger block to indicate that the user is in overtype mode, where inserted text will overwrite existing text. In this way, a block cursor may be seen as a piece of selected text one character wide, since typing will replace the text \"in\" the cursor with the new text.", "A vertical line text cursor with a small left-pointing or right-pointing appendage are for indicating the direction of text flow on systems that support bi-directional text, and is thus usually known among programmers as a 'bidi cursor'. In some cases, the cursor may split into two parts, each indicating where left-to-right and right-to-left text would be inserted.", "The pointer or mouse cursor echoes movements of the pointing device, commonly a mouse, touchpad or trackball. This kind of cursor is used to manipulate elements of graphical user interfaces such as menus, buttons, scrollbars or any other widget. It may be called a \"mouse pointer,\" because the mouse is the dominant type of pointing device used with desktop computers.", "The I-beam pointer (also called the I-cursor) is a cursor shaped like a serifed capital letter \"I\". The purpose of this cursor is to indicate that the text beneath the cursor can be highlighted, and sometimes inserted or changed.", "The idea of a cursor being used as a marker or insertion point for new data or transformations, such as rotation, can be extended to a 3D modeling environment. Blender, for instance, uses a 3D cursor to determine where future operations are to take place." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Prelude.", "Action on 29 January.", "Action on 30 January.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S.) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign. The last major attempt by the Japanese to drive Allied forces from Guadalcanal and Tulagi was defeated during the decisive Naval Battle of Guadalcanal in early November 1942. Thereafter, the Japanese Navy was able to deliver only subsistence supplies and a few replacement troops to Japanese Army forces on Guadalcanal. Because of the threat from Allied aircraft based at Henderson Field on Guadalcanal, plus nearby U.S. aircraft carriers, the Japanese delivered these supplies at night, usually by destroyer or submarine, in operations the Allies called the \"Tokyo Express.\" However, these supplies and replacements were not enough to sustain Japanese troops on the island, who by 7 December 1942, were losing about 50 men each day from malnutrition, disease, and Allied ground or air attacks. On 12 December 1942, the Japanese Navy proposed that Guadalcanal be abandoned. Despite initial opposition from Army leaders, who still hoped that Guadalcanal could eventually be retaken from the Allies, on 31 December 1942 the Imperial General Headquarters, with approval from the Emperor, agreed to evacuate all Japanese forces from the island and establish a new line of defense for the Solomons on New Georgia. The evacuation was code-named \"Operation Ke\" (ケ号作戦), and was scheduled to begin on 14 January 1943. An important element in the plan was an air superiority campaign starting 28 January 1943, to inhibit Allied aircraft or warships from disrupting the final stage of the \"Ke\" operation, which was the actual evacuation of all Japanese troops from Guadalcanal. Allied forces misinterpreted the \"Ke\" preparations as the beginning of another Japanese offensive to try to retake Guadalcanal. At the same time, Admiral William Halsey Jr., the Allied theatre commander, was under pressure from his superiors to complete the replacement of the 2nd Marine Regiment, which had been in combat on Guadalcanal since August, with fresh Army troops. Halsey hoped to take advantage of what he believed was an impending Japanese offensive to draw Japanese naval forces into a battle, while at the same time delivering the replacement Army troops to Guadalcanal. On 29 January 1943, Halsey sent five task forces toward the southern Solomons area to cover the relief convoy and to engage any Japanese naval forces that came into range. These five task forces included two fleet carriers, two escort carriers, three battleships, 12 cruisers, and 25 destroyers. In front of this array of task forces was Task Group 62.8, the troop convoy of four transports and four destroyers. Ahead of the troop convoy, between Rennell Island and Guadalcanal, was Task Force 18 (TF 18) Rear Admiral Robert C. Giffen, a close support group of heavy cruisers,, and, light cruisers,, and ; escort carriers and ; and eight destroyers. Admiral Giffen commanded TF 18 from \"Wichita\". A fleet carrier task force—centered on the carrier —steamed about behind TG 62.8 and TF 18. The other fleet carrier and battleship task forces were about farther back. Admiral Giffen, with \"Wichita\" and the two escort carriers, had just arrived in the Pacific after participating in Operation Torch in the North African Campaign. Also, \"Chicago\" had just arrived back in the South Pacific, after completing repairs from damage suffered during the Battle of Savo Island almost six months before.", "", "In addition to protecting the troop convoy, TF 18 was charged with rendezvousing with a force of four U.S. destroyers, stationed at Tulagi, at 21:00 on 29 January in order to conduct a sweep up \"The Slot\" north of Guadalcanal the next day to screen the unloading of the troop transports at Guadalcanal. However, the escort carriers, under Commodore Ben Wyatt, were too slow () to allow Giffen's force to make the scheduled rendezvous, so Giffen left the carriers behind with two destroyers at 14:00 and pushed on ahead at. Wary of the threat from Japanese submarines, which Allied intelligence indicated were likely in the area, Giffen arranged his cruisers and destroyers for anti-submarine defense, not expecting an air attack. The cruisers were aligned in two columns, spaced apart. \"Wichita\", \"Chicago\", and \"Louisville\", in that order, were to starboard, and \"Montpelier\", \"Cleveland\", and \"Columbia\" were to port. The six destroyers were in a semicircle ahead of the cruiser columns. Giffen's force was tracked by Japanese submarines, who reported its location and movement. Around mid-afternoon, based on the submarine reports, 16 Mitsubishi G4M Type 1 bombers from the 705 Air Group (705AG) and 16 Mitsubishi G3M Type 96 bombers from the 701 Air Group (701AG) took off from Rabaul carrying torpedoes to attack Giffen's force. One Type 96 turned back with engine trouble, leaving 31 bombers in the attack force. The leader of the 705AG aircraft was Lieutenant Tomō Nakamura and Lieutenant Commander Joji Hagai commanded the 701AG planes.", "At sunset, as TF 18 headed northwest north of Rennell Island and south of Guadalcanal, several of Giffen's ships detected unidentified aircraft on radar west of their formation. Having previously insisted on absolute radio silence, Giffen gave no orders about what to do about the unidentified contacts, or any orders at all, for that matter. With the setting of the sun, TF 18's combat air patrol (CAP) from the two escort carriers returned to their ships for the night, leaving Giffen's ships without air cover. The radar contacts were, in fact, the approaching 31 Japanese torpedo bombers, who circled around to the south of TF 18 so that they could attack from the east, with the black backdrop of the eastern sky behind them. From this direction, the Japanese bombers were hidden by the night sky, but Giffen's ships were silhouetted against the twilight of the western horizon. The 705AG aircraft attacked first, beginning at 19:19. Nakamura's aircraft missed with all of their torpedoes and one was shot down by anti-aircraft fire from Giffen's ships. Believing the attack was over, Giffen ordered his ships to cease zigzagging and continue towards Guadalcanal on the same course and at the same speed. Meanwhile, a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft began dropping flares and floatlights to mark the course and speed of TF 18 for the impending attack by Hagai's bombers. At 19:38, 701AG attacked, planting two torpedoes in \"Chicago\", causing heavy damage and bringing the cruiser to a dead stop. Another torpedo hit \"Wichita\" but did not explode. Two bombers were shot down by anti-aircraft fire, including Hagai's; he was killed. At 20:08, Giffen ordered his ships to reverse direction, to slow to, and to cease firing their anti-aircraft guns. The absence of muzzle flashes concealed the ships from the Japanese aircraft, who all departed the area by 23:35. In pitch darkness, \"Louisville\" managed to take the crippled \"Chicago\" under tow and slowly headed south, away from the battle area, escorted by the rest of TF 18.", "Halsey immediately took steps to try to protect \"Chicago\", notifying the escort carriers to make sure they had a CAP in place at first light, ordering the \"Enterprise\" task force to approach and augment the escort carrier CAP, and sending the fleet tug to take over the tow from \"Louisville\", which was accomplished at 08:00. Between daybreak and 14:00, numerous Japanese scout aircraft approached TF 18. Although they were all chased away by the CAP, they observed and reported the position of \"Chicago\". At 12:15, a force of 11 Type 1 torpedo bombers from the 751 Air Group (751AG), based at Kavieng and staging through Buka, launched to attack the damaged U.S. cruiser. An Australian coastwatcher in the Solomon Islands warned the U.S. forces of the bombers, and estimated their arrival time as 16:00. However, Halsey ordered the other cruisers to leave \"Chicago\" behind and head for Efate in the New Hebrides. They departed at 15:00, leaving behind six destroyers to protect \"Chicago\" and \"Navajo\". At 15:40, \"Enterprise\" was away from \"Chicago\", with ten of her fighters forming a CAP over the damaged cruiser. At this time, four of the CAP fighters chased and shot down a scout Type 1 bomber. At 15:54, \"Enterprise\"s radar detected the incoming bomber flight, and launched 10 more fighters. The escort carriers, however, had difficulties in getting their aircraft launched, and their aircraft did not attack the bombers until the engagement was over. At first, the Japanese bombers appeared to be trying to approach and attack \"Enterprise\" but turned toward \"Chicago\" after six \"Enterprise\" CAP fighters began to engage them. Four other CAP fighters chased the 751AG aircraft as they entered the anti-aircraft fire from \"Chicago\"s escorting destroyers. Two of the bombers were shot down before they could release their ordnance. Six more were shot down moments later, but not before they dropped their torpedoes. One torpedo hit the destroyer in her forward engine room, killing 22 of her crew and causing heavy damage. \"Chicago\" was hit by four torpedoes, one forward of the bridge and three others in her engineering spaces. Captain Ralph O. Davis of \"Chicago\" ordered the ship to be abandoned, and she sank, stern first, 20 minutes later. \"Navajo\" and the escorting destroyers rescued 1,049 survivors from \"Chicago\", but 62 of her crew died. A final attack force of Japanese torpedo bombers failed to find the remaining U.S. ships. \"Navajo\" took \"La Vallette\" under tow, and all of the remaining ships of TF 18 made port at Espiritu Santo without further incident.", "The Japanese widely publicized the results of the engagement, claiming to have sunk a battleship and three cruisers. The U.S. on the other hand, tried to conceal the loss of \"Chicago\" from the public for some time, with Admiral Chester Nimitz threatening to \"shoot\" any of his staff who leaked the loss of \"Chicago\" to the press. Halsey and Nimitz blamed Giffen for the defeat and so stated in Giffen's official performance report for the period. The defeat and resulting recriminations did not affect Giffen's career; he continued to lead Allied battleship and cruiser task forces in the Pacific until 1944 and was later promoted to Vice Admiral. With Japanese aircraft engaged with TF 18, the Allied transports completed their mission of replacing the remaining Marines on Guadalcanal over the last two days in January 1943. During this time, the other Allied task forces, including the two fleet carrier task forces, took station in the Coral Sea, in anticipation of an expected Japanese offensive in the southern Solomons. With TF 18 forced to retreat, very few Allied naval forces were left in the immediate Guadalcanal area, allowing the Japanese to retrieve most of their remaining ground forces from Guadalcanal (Operation Ke) over three nights between 2 and 7 February 1943. The Allies were not aware of the Japanese withdrawal until it was over, but the evacuation of 11,000 starving troops and the loss of one cruiser became a footnote to the securing of Henderson Field and Guadalcanal, which provided the air support springboard to successfully complete the Solomon Islands campaign, a major turning point in the Pacific War." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Career.", "Performance timelines.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Richard Krajicek is the son of Czech immigrants. In 1999, Krajicek married model, writer and hostess of Holland's Next Top Model and Benelux' Next Top Model, Daphne Deckers. Nicknamed \"de Kraai\" (Dutch for \"the crow\") in his home country, Krajicek has, among his siblings, half-sister Michaëlla Krajicek who also is a professional tennis player. His distant cousin is Austin Krajicek. He is a member of the People's Party for Freedom and Democracy (VVD).", "Richard Krajicek began playing tennis at the age of four. As a youngster he won both the Dutch under-12 and the under-14 National Championships twice. His biggest achievement as a youngster was winning the Wiltshire Open in the UK after beating Steven White in straight sets in the final. He turned professional in 1989, and in 1991 won his first top-level singles title in Hong Kong and his first tour doubles title in Hilversum. In 1992, the 1.95 m (6' 5\") Dutchman reached his first Grand Slam semifinals at the Australian Open. He had to withdraw from this semifinal match due to a shoulder injury. The following year, he reached the semifinals at the French Open, where he lost in four sets to the defending champion Jim Courier. Also in 1992, Krajicek made a controversial comment regarding equal pay for women in Grand Slam events, saying, \"Eighty percent of the top 100 women are fat pigs who don't deserve equal pay.\" Later, he jokingly clarified his comments, remarking, \"What I meant to say was that only 75 percent are fat pigs.\" At the 1996 Italian Open, Krajicek reached the final, before losing in four sets to the reigning champion, Thomas Muster. At the 1996 French Open, Krajicek was the only player to take a set off the eventual champion, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, during their quarterfinal match. Coming into 1996 Wimbledon, Krajicek had never previously progressed beyond the fourth round at the tournament and had lost in the first round in the two previous years. He was seen as a player with potential, having one of the fastest serves at the time, but was not considered to be a strong contender for the title. The clear favourite was Pete Sampras, who had won the title for the past three consecutive years. Despite being ranked within the world's top 16, Krajicek just missed out on the seedings for the tournament, but when seventh seed (and world number 2) Thomas Muster pulled out shortly before the tournament due to an injury, Krajicek was declared the 17th seed and moved to Muster's place in the draw. Opinions differ, therefore, on whether or not he won the tournament as an unseeded player. He beat former champion Michael Stich in the fourth round and met Sampras in the quarterfinals. By that time, he had managed to turn his notably weak slice backhand into an aggressive top-spin shot. Krajicek shocked the tennis world by defeating Sampras in straight sets, becoming the only player to beat Sampras in a Wimbledon singles match in the eight-year period from 1993 until Sampras' fourth-round loss to Roger Federer in the 2001 tournament. Next, he beat Australia's Jason Stoltenberg in the semifinals, and went on to face American MaliVai Washington in the final. He won the final in straight sets to become the first Dutchman to win Wimbledon. In 1997, Krajicek's defence of his Wimbledon title ended in the fourth round, when Tim Henman defeated him in four sets. In 1998, Krajicek was in the Wimbledon semifinals again, where he lost to Goran Ivanišević in a marathon match, 13–15 in the fifth set, with both players serving a combined 38 aces. His final attempt at winning a second Wimbledon title was in 2002, when he lost in the quarterfinals to Xavier Malisse. At the 1999 U.S. Open, Krajicek lost a quarterfinal matchup to Yevgeny Kafelnikov. Despite the loss, Krajicek set several most aces records that day. In the 2000 U.S. Open, Krajicek met Sampras in the quarterfinals, winning the first set and being up 6–2 during the second-set tiebreaker, but then losing six straight points to lose the match. In 2000, Krajicek was awarded the ATP Arthur Ashe Humanitarian award for his efforts to help youth in his home country. He was named ATP Comeback Player of the Year in 2002. Krajicek retired from the professional tour in 2003. During his career, he won 17 singles titles and 3 doubles titles. His career-high singles ranking was world no. 4 in 1999. Krajicek's Wimbledon victory over Sampras proved to be no fluke, since he ended his career with a 6–4 record against the American player. Since retiring from the ATP circuit, Krajicek runs The Richard Krajicek Foundation, which builds sports facilities for children in inner-city areas in the Netherlands. In 2004, Krajicek became the tournament director of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam. In 2005, he published a book on tennis called \"Fast Balls\" (Dutch: 'Harde Ballen').", "Singles", "List of books written by Richard Krajicek:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Difference between factory outlet and outlet store." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Outlets first appeared in the eastern United States in the 1930s. Factory stores started to offer damaged or excess goods to employees at a low price. After some time, the audience expanded to include non-employees. In 1936, Anderson-Little (a men's clothing brand) opened an outlet store independent of its existing factories. Until the 1970s, the primary purpose of outlet stores was to dispose of excess or damaged goods. In 1974, Vanity Fair opened up the first multi-store outlet center in Reading, Pennsylvania. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, outlet malls grew rapidly in the United States. A typical outlet mall in the U.S. is opened with between 100,000 to 200,000 square feet (about 1 to 2 hectares) of retail space. This can gradually increase to 500,000 to 600,000 feet (around 5 hectares). The average outlet mall has an area of 216,000 square feet. In 2003, outlet malls in the U.S. generated $15 billion in revenue from 260 stores. The number of U.S. malls increased from 113 in 1988 to 276 in 1991 and to 325 in 1997 and 472 in 2013. Outlet malls are not an exclusively American phenomenon. In Canada, the Dixie Outlet Mall dates from the late 1980s, and was followed by Vaughan Mills in 1999, and Toronto Premium Outlets in 2013. In Europe, retailer BAA McArthurGlen has opened 13 malls with over 1,200 stores and 3 million square feet (about 30 hectares) of retail space; describing itself as an \"outlet village\", Bicester Village, on the edge of the town of Bicester in Oxfordshire in England, is a regular stop for bus-tours of foreign tourists, especially from China. Stores have also been emerging in Japan since the mid to late 1990s.", "At factory outlets, the products sold are from one brand only. Manufacturers who sell only their own products at a reduced price run factory outlets. On the other hand, retailers run outlet stores, and various brands are sold there. Factory outlets have been around longer than outlet stores and were typically built next to the factories where the products were manufactured." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Football.", "Playing style.", "Head-to-head record vs. Top 10 ranked players.", "Post-playing.", "Senior tennis tour and other engagements.", "Investments.", "Sports administration.", "Coaching." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Goran is the son of Srđan and Gorana (née Škaričić). He turned professional in 1988 and, later that year, with Rüdiger Haas, won his first career doubles title in Frankfurt. Although he focused mostly on his singles career, he also had some success in doubles, winning nine titles and reaching a career-high ranking of 20. In 1989, as a qualifier he made the quarterfinals of the Australian Open. Ivanišević made his first significant impact on the tour in 1990, knocking Boris Becker out of the first round of the French Open men's singles; he went on to reach the quarterfinals. He was also, with Petr Korda, the runner-up in the French Open men's doubles. At that year's Wimbledon, Ivanišević reached the semifinals, where he lost to Becker in four sets. Ivanišević also won his first tour singles title in 1990 at Stuttgart and helped Yugoslavia win the World Team Cup. He played in eight ties for Yugoslavia in the Davis Cup before quitting the team after the Croatian declaration of independence in 1991. Yugoslavia lost its subsequent tie against France 5–0. Ivanišević quickly became known on the tour for his strong, attacking style of play and for an extremely powerful serve. For several years, he had more aces than anyone else on the tour. He was also known for occasional on-court temper tantrums—usually directed towards himself—and the volatility of the standard of his play. Ivanišević received death threats at the 1992 Australian Men's Hardcourt Championships. He went on to win the tournament. In 1992, Ivanišević surged his way into his first Wimbledon singles final, having defeated Ivan Lendl, Stefan Edberg, and Pete Sampras in succession. Ivanišević's 6–7, 7–6, 6–4, 6–2 semifinal victory over Sampras was particularly impressive, with Ivanišević serving 36 aces and not even facing a break point in the entire match. In the final, Ivanišević faced Andre Agassi and was heavily favored to win; with both players attempting to win their first Grand Slam title. Agassi eventually won 6–7, 6–4, 6–4, 1–6, 6–4. In the fifth set, Ivanišević had a break point on Agassi's serve at 3–3, but failed to convert it. In the final game of the match, Ivanišević served 2 double faults to start the game, even though he had only served 5 double faults in the entire match before that. Ivanišević's ace count for the tournament (206) was the highest in Wimbledon history at the time, until Ivanišević beat his own record in 2001 with 213 aces. Ivanišević served 37 aces in the 1992 Wimbledon final against Agassi, while Agassi had 37 aces in the entire tournament. It was a tough loss, but as Ivanišević was only 20 years old, a bright future was predicted. Later that summer at the Olympic Games in Barcelona, Ivanišević won bronze medals in both singles and doubles representing Croatia, a state that had only recently declared independence; he also served as flagbearer for the Croatian team at the opening ceremony. In order to earn his single bronze medal, he won 4 consecutive 5-sets matches, a unique feat in the open era. He also won four singles titles that year. Ivanišević reached the Wimbledon final for the second time in 1994, where he was defeated by defending-champion Pete Sampras 7–6, 7–6, 6–0. Ivanišević reached his career-high singles ranking of world No. 2 in July that year. In 1995, Ivanišević won the Grand Slam Cup, beating Todd Martin in the final 7–6, 6–3, 6–4. At Wimbledon, Ivanišević lost in the semifinals to Sampras 6–7, 6–4, 3–6, 6–4, 3–6. In 1996, Ivanišević won a career-best five singles titles in a calendar year. He reached the Grand Slam Cup final again, but this time lost to Becker in straight sets. Ivanišević also teamed with Iva Majoli to win the 1996 Hopman Cup for Croatia. That year Ivanišević also defeated Stefan Edberg to reach the semifinals of the U.S. Open, his first Grand Slam semifinal away from Wimbledon; the match was the last Grand Slam match of Edberg's career. In the semifinals, Ivanišević fell again to Sampras, in four sets; Sampras would go on to defeat Michael Chang to win his fourth U.S. Open championship. In April 1997, Ivanišević became the only player to defeat the \"king of clay\", Thomas Muster, in a Davis Cup singles match on clay. Ivanišević defeated Muster, 6–7, 7–5, 6–7, 6–2, 7–5, despite Muster having won 112 of his previous 117 matches on clay going into the match. During 1997, Ivanišević also got back up to his career high ranking of world No. 2, although his ranking fell down to No. 15 by the end of the year. In 1998, Ivanišević reached his third Wimbledon final, facing Sampras once again. Ivanišević started the match well, but failed to take set points which would have given him a 2 set lead, and Ivanišević eventually lost to Sampras in five sets, 7–6, 6–7, 4–6, 6–3, 2–6. Ivanišević finished runner-up in the French Open men's doubles in 1999 (with Jeff Tarango). However, for much of 1999, 2000, and 2001, he struggled with a shoulder injury and his performance and world ranking began to slide steadily. By the summer of 2001, Ivanišević was ranked the world No. 125. This was not sufficient to earn him an automatic place in the main draw at Wimbledon but, given his past record as a three-time runner-up, he was awarded a wildcard for entry into the singles draw. He defeated former and future world No. 1 players Carlos Moyá, Andy Roddick and Marat Safin as well as Fredrik Jonsson and Greg Rusedski to reach the semifinal, beating home favourite Tim Henman in a five set, rain-affected semifinal, setting up a match with the previous year's runner-up and former US Open champion Patrick Rafter. It was Ivanišević's first singles final since 1998. In a match lasting just over three hours, Ivanišević defeated Rafter 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 2–6, 9–7. Two months shy of his 30th birthday, Ivanišević became the lowest-ranked player and the first wildcard entry to win Wimbledon. To date, he is the only male entrant to have won a Grand Slam singles title as a wildcard. His Wimbledon success was rated sixteenth at the list of 100 Greatest Sporting Moments by a British television programme. On 10 July 2001, Ivanišević received a hero's welcome in his home city of Split where a crowd of over 150,000 led by local and state dignitaries greeted him at the central harbor, with a parade of boats and fireworks, topped off by Ivanišević himself taking off his clothes and jumping into the sea. Later that year he received the BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality Award. The 2001 Wimbledon title was the last of Ivanišević's career. He temporarily retired in 2002 due to shoulder surgery. He returned to tennis sparingly in the following years but, in 2004, retired after a third-round loss to Lleyton Hewitt at Wimbledon, held on the Centre Court, the scene of his greatest triumph.", "Ivanišević played football for the Croatian team Hajduk Split in 2001. Goran supports English team West Bromwich Albion. He became a fan after the Midland club's escape from Premiership relegation in 2005. He wore an Albion shirt whilst warming up prior to the 2006 BlackRock Masters final and finally watched his first match in December 2011, as West Bromwich Albion played Queens Park Rangers at Loftus Road. Ivanišević also participated in an exhibition match of the Croatian national team of 1998 versus the International football stars on 7 October 2002 in Zagreb. It was the last career match of Croatian midfielder and team captain Zvonimir Boban. Ivanišević scored the goal for 1–1 (the game ended 2–1 for the International stars).", "Ivanisevic was a serve and volleyer and played a fast, aggressive game suited to grass courts. He was known for his powerful and accurate left-handed serve, particularly his first serve that was clutch. He would often use his first serve twice instead of using his second serve. Coupled with his deft and forceful volleys, he put his opponents under pressure. Like many serve-and-volleyers, Ivanisevic's return game and defence was weaker due to his powerful but inconsistent groundstrokes. On the backhand side, he would often use the slice instead of hitting with top-spin and use the chip-and-charge tactic to come to the net.", "Ivanišević's record against players who held a top 10 ranking, with those who reached No. 1 in bold", "", "Right after retiring from the ATP Tour in 2004, Ivanišević started playing on the ATP Champions Tour (seniors' circuit). In 2005, he was a member of the Croatian team for the Davis Cup final against Slovakia in Bratislava, although he did not play. Croatia won the final 3–2. Ivanišević received a winner's medal and his name was engraved on the trophy along with Mario Ančić, Ivo Karlović, Ivan Ljubičić and team captain Nikola Pilić. In June 2006, he performed in the Calderstones Park tournament in Liverpool. In November of the same year, Ivanišević won the Merrill Lynch Tour of Champions tournament in Frankfurt, defeating John McEnroe 7–6, 7–6. In 2007, Roger Federer, seeking his 5th consecutive Wimbledon title against Rafael Nadal in the final, practiced with Ivanišević. Federer said the practice session helped him against Nadal. As of 2019, Ivanišević still takes part in tournaments on the seniors' circuit, and he is currently coaching Milos Raonic. On 17th of July, Ivanišević faced Rafter once again in an exhibition match on 2019 Croatia Open Umag. The match was held to celebrate 18th \"birthday\" of the famous 2001 Wimbledon final in which Ivanišević won. Ivanišević won once again 6–4", "Retiring in 2004 also allowed thirty-three-year-old Ivanišević to devote more attention to investing in the real estate and construction industries, which he had already been involved with since 1998, conducting his business through the Croatia-registered limited liability company called Sport Line (based out of his hometown Split). Since Ivanišević was still an active tennis player when the venture got established, most of the company's initial day-to-day business was handled by his father Srdjan. Their main activity was an ambitious undertaking — construction of \"Lazarica 2\", a 65-unit luxury apartment building in the Split neighbourhood of Firule, which was supposed to start in November 1998 and finish by late 2000. After many delays, the project finally completed in 2003, but dragged the company into debt due to many unsold units. News of Ivanišević's financial problems first appeared in the summer of 2005 after he talked about it in an interview with \"Globus\" newsmagazine, admitting Lazarica 2 was a \"failed project\", as well as later that year when he talked to the \"Daily Telegraph\" about losing substantial amount of money in some of his investments. After much speculation throughout spring 2006, Ivanišević joined with AC Milan footballer Dario Šimić, former basketball player Ivica Žurić as well as businessmen Marijan Šarić, Mate Šarić, and Batheja Pramod in September 2006 to jointly invest HRK93 million (~€12.5 million) for the purposes of added market capitalization of Karlovačka banka. Ivanišević, Šimić, and Žurić each invested HRK19 million (~€2.5 million), thus each obtaining 9% ownership stake in the bank. Ivanišević's finances became the subject of news reports again in August 2010 when it was reported that his Sunseeker Predator 72 motor yacht got repossessed by Hypo Leasing Kroatien, a subsidiary of Hypo Alpe Adria Bank after reportedly a full year of Ivanišević failing to meet his monthly lease payments of €12,000. Ivanišević would deny this, saying that the yacht was returned due to mechanical defect. On 31 January 2013, Ivanišević's company Sport Line filed papers for bankruptcy settlement proceedings before the Croatian Trade Court after accumulating debts of HRK5.7 million. Among the list of entities the company reportedly owed money to is the Croatian government in the amount of HRK1.1 million.", "In August 2005 Ivanišević got voted to be one of four vice-presidents of the Croatian Olympic Committee (HOO) working under president Zlatko Mateša.", "In 2013 Ivanišević began coaching compatriot Marin Čilić who won the 2014 US Open under his guidance. He split with Čilić after 2016 Wimbledon. On 8 August 2016, Tomáš Berdych announced via social media that Ivanišević will begin coaching him, starting at 2016 Western & Southern Open. As of 2019, he was coaching Milos Raonic until just before the Indian Wells Masters, when Raonic announced that he would be getting a new coach Fabrice Santoro. On 30 June 2019, Novak Djokovic confirmed that he added Ivanišević to his coaching team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Retirement.", "Personal life.", "Health issues.", "Death.", "Grand Slam singles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Arthur Ashe was born in Richmond, Virginia, to Arthur Ashe Sr. (d. 1989) and Mattie Cordell Cunningham Ashe on July 10, 1943. He had a brother, Johnnie, who was five years younger than he. Both brothers were born into a family that claimed direct descent from Amar, a West African woman that was enslaved and brought to America in 1735 aboard a ship called \"The Doddington\". In March 1950, Ashe's mother Mattie died from complications related to a toxemic pregnancy (now known as pre-eclampsia) at the age of 27. Ashe and his brother were raised by their father who worked as a handyman and salaried caretaker/Special Policeman for Richmond's recreation department. Ashe Sr. was a caring father and strict disciplinarian who encouraged Arthur to excel both in school and in sports, but forbade him to play American football, a popular game for many black children, due to his son's slight build, something that meant Arthur's childhood nicknames were \"Skinny\" and \"Bones\". The Ashes lived in the caretaker's cottage in the grounds of 18-acre Brookfield park, Richmond's largest blacks-only public playground, which had basketball courts, four tennis courts, a pool and three baseball diamonds. Ashe started playing tennis at 7 years of age and began practicing on the courts where his natural talent was spotted by Virginia Union University student and part-time Brookfield tennis instructor, Ron Charity, who as the best black tennis player in Richmond at the time, began to teach Ashe the basic strokes and encouraged him to enter local tournaments. Ashe attended Maggie L. Walker High School where he continued to practice tennis. Ron Charity brought him to the attention of Robert Walter Johnson, a physician, and the coach of Althea Gibson, who founded and funded the Junior Development Program of the American Tennis Association (ATA). Ashe was coached and mentored by Johnson at his tennis summer camp home in Lynchburg, Virginia from 1953 when Ashe was age 10, until 1960. Johnson helped fine-tune Ashe's game and taught him the importance of racial socialization through sportsmanship, etiquette and the composure that would later become an Ashe hallmark. He was told to return every ball that landed within two inches of a line and never to argue with an umpire's decision. In 1958, Ashe became the first African-American to play in the Maryland boys' championships. It was also his first integrated tennis competition. In 1960, Ashe was precluded from competing against Caucasian youths in segregated Richmond during the school year and unable to use the city's indoor courts that were closed to black players. He accepted an offer from Richard Hudlin, a 62-year-old St. Louis teacher, tennis coach and friend of Dr. Johnson, to move to St. Louis and spend his senior year attending Sumner High School, where he could compete more freely. Ashe lived with Hudlin and his family for the year, during which time Hudlin coached and encouraged him to develop the serve-and-volley game that Ashe's now stronger physique allowed. Ashe was able to practice at the National Guard Armory indoor courts and in 1961, after lobbying by Dr. Johnson, was granted permission to compete in the previously segregated U.S. Interscholastic tournament and won it for the school. In December 1960 and again in 1963, Ashe was featured in \"Sports Illustrated\", appearing in their Faces in the Crowd segment. He became the first African-American to win the National Junior Indoor tennis title and was awarded a tennis scholarship to the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) in 1963. During his time at UCLA, he was coached by J.D. Morgan and practiced regularly with his sporting idol, Pancho Gonzales, who lived nearby and helped hone his game. Ashe was also a member of the ROTC, which required him to enter active military service after graduation in exchange for money for tuition. He was active in other things, joining the Upsilon chapter of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity on campus. After graduating with a Bachelor's Degree in Business Administration, Ashe joined the United States Army on August 4, 1966. Ashe completed his basic training in Washington and was later commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Adjutant General Corps. He was assigned to the United States Military Academy at West Point where he worked as a data processor. During his time at West Point, Ashe headed the academy's tennis program. He was promoted to 1st lieutenant on February 23, 1968, and was discharged from the Army in 1969.", "In 1963, Ashe became the first black player ever selected for the United States Davis Cup team. In 1965, ranked the number 3 player in the United States, Ashe won both the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) singles title and the doubles title (with Ian Crookenden of New Zealand), helping UCLA win the team NCAA tennis championship. In 1966 and 1967, Ashe reached the final of the Australian Championship but lost on both occasions to Roy Emerson. In 1968 Ashe won the United States Amateur Championships against Davis Cup Teammate Bob Lutz, and the first US Open of the open era, becoming the first black male to capture the title and the only player to have won both the amateur and open national championships in the same year. In order to maintain Davis Cup eligibility and have time away from army duty for important tournaments, Ashe was required to maintain his amateur status. Because of this, he could not accept the $14,000 first-prize money, which was instead given to runner-up Tom Okker, while Ashe received just $20 daily expenses for his historic triumph. His ability to compete in the championship (and avoid the Vietnam war) arose from his brother Johnnie's decision to serve an additional tour in Vietnam in Arthur's place. In December 1968, Ashe helped the U.S. team become Davis Cup champions after victory in the final in Adelaide against defending champions, Australia. His only loss in the 12 Davis Cup tournament singles matches he played that year, was in the last dead rubber game after the U.S team had already clinched victory. The season closed with Ashe the winner of 10 of 22 tournaments with a 72–10 win-loss match record. In September 1969, the U.S. Davis Cup team retained the cup, beating Romania in the final challenge round, with Ashe winning both his singles matches. The same year, Ashe applied for a visa to play in the South African Open but was denied the visa by the South African government who enforced a strict apartheid policy of racial segregation. He continued to apply for visas in the following years and the country continued to deny him one. In protest, he used this example of discrimination to campaign for U.S. sanctions against South Africa and the expulsion of the nation from the International Lawn Tennis Federation (ILTF) but, in defense of the individual South African players, refused the call from activists to forfeit matches against them. In January 1970, Ashe won his second Grand Slam singles title at the Australian Open. With the competition somewhat depleted by the absence of some world-class National Tennis League (NTL) professional players barred by their league from entering because the financial guarantees were deemed too low, Ashe defeated Dick Crealy in straight sets in the final to become the first non-Australian to win the title since 1959. In March 1970, triggered by South Africa's refusal to grant Ashe a visa to play there, the country was expelled from the Davis Cup competition for its racial policy. In September 1970, shortly after helping the U.S Davis cup team defeat West Germany in the challenge round to win their third consecutive Davis Cup, Ashe signed a five-year contract with Lamar Hunt's World Championship Tennis. In March 1971, Ashe reached the final of the Australian Open again but lost in straight sets to Ken Rosewall. In June that year, Ashe won the French Open men's doubles with partner Marty Riessen. In 1972, due to a dispute between the ILTF and the WCT, Ashe, as one of the 32 contracted WCT players, was barred from taking part in any ILTF Grand Prix tennis circuit tournaments from January to July. This ban meant Ashe was unable to play at the French Open and Wimbledon Grand Slam tournaments. In September, Ashe reached the final of the US Open for the second time. After leading his opponent, Ilie Năstase by 2 sets to 1 and with a break point to take a 4–1 lead in the fourth set, he eventually lost in five sets. The loss from such a winning position was the biggest disappointment of Ashe's professional tennis career. At the post-match award ceremony, irritated by some of Năstase's on-court antics during the game, Ashe praised Năstase as a tough opponent and 'colourful' player, then suggested, \"... and when he brushes up on some of his court manners, he is going to be even better\". At this tournament, concerned that men's tennis professionals were not receiving winnings commensurate with the sport's growing popularity and to protect players from promoters and associations, Ashe supported the founding of the Association of Tennis Professionals. He went on to become its elected president in 1974. In June 1973, as a result of an ATP boycott, Ashe was one of 13 seeded players and 81 players in total who withdrew from the Wimbledon tournament to much public criticism. The catalyst for the boycott was that Yugoslavian ATP member Niki Pilić had been suspended for nine months by his tennis federation after allegedly refusing to represent them in a Davis Cup tie against New Zealand in May, something Pilić denied. The ban was upheld by the ILTF though they reduced it to just one month. The ATP contested the ban but lost a lawsuit to force Pilić's participation at Wimbledon during the ban period. As a member of the ATP board, Ashe voted to boycott the tournament, a vote that was only narrowly passed when ATP chairman, Cliff Drysdale abstained. Commentators considered that the boycott demonstrated the power of the fledgling ATP, and showed the tennis associations that professional players could no longer be dictated to. In November 1973, with the South African government seeking to end their Olympic ban and re-join the Olympic movement, Ashe was finally granted a visa to enter the country for the first time to play in the South African Open. He lost in the final to Jimmy Connors, but won the doubles with partner Tom Okker. Despite boycotts against South African sport, Ashe believed that his presence could help break down stereotypes and that by competing and winning the tournament, it would stand as an example of the result of integration, and help bring about change in apartheid South Africa. He reached the singles final again in 1974, losing in straight sets to Connors for the second consecutive year. Later, in 1977, Ashe addressed a small crowd of boycott supporters at the U.S Open and admitted that he had been wrong to participate in South Africa and once again supported the boycott of South African players after he had tried to purchase tickets for some young Africans for a tennis match in South Africa, and was told to use an \"Africans only\" counter. In the media, Ashe called for South Africa to be expelled from the professional tennis circuit and Davis Cup competition. In May 1975, Ashe beat Björn Borg to win the season-ending championship WCT Finals in Dallas, Texas. On July 5, 1975, in the first all-American Wimbledon final since 1947, Ashe, seeded sixth and just a few days short of his 32nd birthday, won Wimbledon at his ninth attempt, defeating the overwhelming favourite and defending champion, Jimmy Connors. Ashe had never beaten Connors in any of their previous encounters and Connors had not dropped a set in any of the six earlier rounds, but Ashe played an almost perfect game of tactical tennis to win in four sets. In the lead-up to the final, the two players' relationship was already strained. Connors was suing the ATP, with Ashe as its president, for $10 million for alleged restraint of trade after opposition from the ATP and French officials meant he was refused entry to the 1974 French Open as a contracted member of World Team Tennis (WTT). Just two days before the start of the Wimbledon tournament, it had been announced that Connors was now suing Ashe for $5 million for comments in a letter Ashe had written to ATP members in his role as president, criticizing Connors' insistence that Davis Cup captain Dennis Ralston should be fired and Connors' \"unpatriotic\" boycott of the competition which had started after Ralston left him out of the team against the West Indies in Jamaica in March 1972. On final day, Ashe pointedly and symbolically wore red, white and blue wristbands throughout the match and wore his U.S.A. emblazoned Davis Cup warm-up jacket when walking out onto Centre Court and during the award ceremony while receiving the trophy and winner's cheque for GBP £10,000 (1975 equivalent US$23,000). Soon after the final, Connors dropped the libel suit. Ashe played for a few more years and won the Australian Open doubles with Tony Roche in January 1977, but a left foot heel injury requiring surgery a month later and subsequent long-term rehabilitation saw his world ranking drop to a lowly 257th before a remarkable comeback saw him rise back to 13th in the world again the following year at the age of 35. However, after undergoing heart surgery in December 1979, Ashe officially retired in April 1980, at age 36. His career record was 818 wins, 260 losses and 51 titles. Ashe remains the only black man to win the singles title at Wimbledon, the US Open, or Australian Open. He is one of only two men of black African ancestry to win any Grand Slam singles title, the other being France's Yannick Noah, who won the French Open in 1983. He also led the United States to victory for three consecutive years (1968–70) in the Davis Cup. In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and a world no. 1 player himself in the 1940s, ranked Ashe as one of the 21 best players of all time.", "After his retirement, Ashe took on many roles, including writing for \"Time\" magazine and The Washington Post, commentating for ABC Sports, founding the National Junior Tennis League, and serving as captain of the U.S. Davis Cup team from 1981 to 1985. He was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1988, Ashe published a three-volume book titled \"A Hard Road to Glory: A History of the African-American Athlete\", after working with a team of researchers for nearly six years. Ashe stated that the book was more important than any tennis titles. Ashe appeared in Ken Burns's 1994 documentary \"Baseball\" discussing Jackie Robinson's impact on the game. Ashe was also an active civil rights supporter. He was a member of a delegation of 31 prominent African-Americans who visited South Africa to observe political change in the country as it approached racial integration. He was arrested on January 11, 1985, for protesting outside the Embassy of South Africa, Washington, D.C. during an anti-apartheid rally. He was arrested again on September 9, 1992, outside the White House for protesting on the recent crackdown on Haitian refugees.", "On February 20, 1977, Ashe married Jeanne Moutoussamy, a photographer and graphic artist of mixed Indo-Guadeloupean and African-American heritage, and the daughter of architect John Moutoussamy. They met in October 1976 at a United Negro College Fund benefit. Andrew Young, the United States Ambassador to the United Nations, performed the wedding ceremony in the United Nations chapel, New York City. During the ceremony Ashe wore a cast on his left foot having had an operation on an injured heel ten days earlier. In December 1986, Ashe and his wife Jeanne adopted a daughter, and she was named Camera after her mother's profession.", "In July 1979, at the age of 36, Ashe suffered a heart attack while holding a tennis clinic in New York. In view of his high level of fitness as an athlete, his condition drew attention to the hereditary aspect of heart disease; Ashe's mother already had cardiovascular disease at the time of her death, aged 27, and his father had suffered a first heart attack, aged 55, and a second, aged 59, just a week before Ashe's own attack. Cardiac catheterization revealed one of Ashe's arteries was completely closed, another was 95 percent closed, and a third was closed 50 percent in two places. Ashe underwent a quadruple bypass operation, performed by John Hutchinson on December 13, 1979. A few months after the operation, Ashe was on the verge of making his return to professional tennis. However, during a family trip in Cairo, Egypt, he developed chest pains while running. Ashe stopped running and returned to see a physician accompanied by his close friend Douglas Stein. Stein urged Ashe to return to New York City so he could be close to his cardiologist, his surgeon and top-class medical facilities. In 1983, Ashe underwent a second round of heart surgery to correct the previous bypass surgery. After the surgery, Ashe became national campaign chairman for the American Heart Association. In September 1988, Ashe was hospitalized after experiencing paralysis in his right arm. After undergoing exploratory brain surgery and a number of tests, doctors discovered that Ashe had toxoplasmosis, a parasitic disease that is commonly found in people infected with HIV. A subsequent test later revealed that Ashe was HIV positive. Ashe and his doctors believed he contracted the virus from blood transfusions he received during his second heart surgery. He and his wife decided to keep his illness private for the sake of their daughter, who was then two years old. In 1992, a friend of Ashe who worked for \"USA Today\" heard that he was ill and called Ashe to confirm the story. Ashe decided to preempt \"USA Today\"'s plans to publish the story about his illness and, on April 8, 1992, publicly announced he had contracted HIV. Ashe blamed \"USA Today\" for forcing him to go public with the news but also stated that he was relieved that he no longer had to lie about his illness. After the announcement, hundreds of readers called or wrote letters to \"USA Today\" criticizing their choice to run the story about Ashe's illness which subsequently forced Ashe to publicize his illness. After Ashe went public with his illness, he founded the Arthur Ashe Foundation for the Defeat of AIDS, working to raise awareness about the virus and advocated teaching sex education and safe sex. He also fielded questions about his own diagnosis and attempted to clear up the misconception that only homosexuals or IV drug users were at risk for contracting AIDS. In September 1992, Ashe suffered a mild heart attack. In a speech to the United Nations General Assembly on World AIDS Day, December 1, 1992, he addressed the growing need for AIDS awareness and increased research funding saying \"We want to be able to look back and say to all concerned that we did what we had to do, when we had to do it, and with all the resources required.\" Two months before his death, he founded the Arthur Ashe Institute for Urban Health to help address issues of inadequate health care delivery and was named \"Sports Illustrated\" magazine's Sportsman of the Year. He also spent much of the last years of his life writing his memoir \"Days of Grace\", finishing the manuscript less than a week before his death.", "On February 6, 1993, Ashe died from AIDS-related pneumonia at New York Hospital at age 49. His funeral was held at the Arthur Ashe Athletic Center in Richmond, Virginia, on February 10. Then-governor Douglas Wilder, who was a friend of Ashe, allowed his body to lie in state at the Governor's Mansion in Richmond. More than 5,000 people lined up to walk past the casket. Andrew Young, who had performed the service for Ashe's wedding in 1977, officiated at his funeral. Over 6,000 mourners attended. Ashe requested that he be buried alongside his mother, Mattie, who died in 1950, in Woodland Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. On February 12, 1993, a memorial service for Ashe was held at the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in Manhattan. In Richmond, Virginia, where his statue by sculptor Paul DiPasquale is on Monument Avenue, his legacy lives on.", "The Australian Open was held twice in 1977, in January and December. A = did not participate in the tournament SR = the ratio of the number of Grand Slam singles tournaments won to the number of those tournaments played" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and tennis.", "Tennis career.", "Amateur career: 1950 through 1956.", "Professional career: 1957 through March 1968.", "1957.", "1958.", "1959.", "1960.", "1961.", "1962.", "1963.", "1964.", "1965.", "1966.", "1967.", "Open-closed career: April 1968 through July 1972.", "1968.", "1969.", "1970.", "1971.", "1972.", "Open career: August 1972 through 1980 (and 1982).", "1972.", "1973.", "1974.", "1975–1982.", "Rivalries.", "Playing style and assessment.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam tournament finals.", "Performance timeline.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rosewall was born on 2 November 1934 in Hurstville, Sydney. His father, Robert Rosewall, was a grocer at Penshurst, New South Wales and when Ken was one year old they moved to the Rockdale where his father bought three clay tennis courts. Ken started playing tennis at age three with a shortened racket and using both hands for forehand and backhand shots. They practiced early in the morning, focusing on playing one type of shot for a period of weeks. He was a natural left-hander but was taught to play right-handed by his father. He played his first tournament when he was nine and lost to the eventual winner. At age eleven Rosewall won the Metropolitan Hardcourt Championships for under fourteen. In 1949 at age 14 he became the junior champion at the Australian Hardcourt Championships in Sydney, the youngest player to win an Australian title. In September 1950 at the age of 15 and still a junior player, Rosewall reached the final of the 1950 New South Wales Metropolitan hard court championships, where he lost to Jim Gilchrist.. In October, Rosewall reached the semifinals of the 1950 New South Wales Metropolitan grass court Championships (not to be confused with the New South Wales Championships), where he was defeated by the world-class adult player Ken McGregor. Rosewall won his first men's tournament in Manly in January against Gilchrist and was \"the youngest player ever to capture the seaside title. It was also Rosewall's first important win in a tennis tournament. Rosewall played almost flawless ground shots. When he did come into the net he made no mistake about volleying his winners. Rosewall's only weakness was his smash. He seemed to hurry this shot and in the second set he missed eight consecutive smashes.\" Rosewall beat Adrian Quist in the semi final of the Brisbane exhibition tournament in August, but he lost the final to Lew Hoad. Ken lost in the final of Metropolitan Hardcourt championships at Naremburn to George Worthington in September. In the New South Wales championships in November, Rosewall pushed reigning Australian and Wimbledon champion Dick Savitt to four close sets. In 1952, still only 17, Rosewall reached the quarterfinals of the U.S. Championships, upsetting the top-seeded Vic Seixas in the fourth", "", "During his amateur career, Rosewall helped Australia win three Davis Cup Challenge Rounds (1953, 1955", "Promoter and former tennis great Jack Kramer tried unsuccessfully to sign the \"Whiz Kids\" (Lew Hoad and Rosewall) to professional contracts in late 1955. But one year later, Rosewall accepted Kramer's offer on 30 December 1956. Rosewall, during the Challenge Round of the Davis Cup, tried to convince his partner Hoad to do the same, but he rejected the proposition.", "Rosewall played his first professional match on 14 January 1957, at Kooyong Stadium in Melbourne against the reigning king of professional tennis, Pancho Gonzales who won after a close five-set match. The following day Rosewall defeated Gonzales in straight sets. Rosewall explained later that there was a huge gap between the amateur level and the professional level. In their series of head-to-head matches in Australia and the U.S. (until May), Gonzales won 50 matches to Rosewall's 26. During this period, Rosewall also entered two tournaments, the Ampol White City Tournament of Champions at Sydney", "At the Kooyong Tournament of Champions at Kooyong in January, the richest tournament of the era, Rosewall finished in fourth place, beating Trabert and Segura, but losing to Sedgman, Hoad, and Gonzales. Rosewall was the runner-up at the Forest Hills Tournament of Champions in June. Both he and Gonzales won five round robin matches and lost one but Gonzales claimed the title as he won their head-to-head encounter. Rosewall tied for second (with Pancho Gonzales and Sedgman) behind an undefeated Segura in", "In the Ampol Open Trophy points standings for February, part of a fifteen tournament world series, Rosewall was second with 12 points behind Hoad with 13. For the first time since he turned professional, Rosewall had a favourable 6–4 win-loss record against Pancho Gonzales for the year. Rosewall won both editions of the Queensland Pro Championships in Brisbane, both included in the Ampol Open Trophy series, defeating Tony Trabert in the January final in five sets and Gonzales in the December final in four sets. At the Forest Hills Tournament of Champions, Rosewall lost a close semi-final to Hoad in four sets, and beat Trabert to win third", "The following year Rosewall was incorporated in a new World Pro tour, from January to May, featuring Gonzales, Segura and new recruit Alex Olmedo. This tour was perhaps the peak of Gonzales's entire career. The finals standings were: 1) Gonzales 49 matches won – 8 lost, 2) Rosewall 32–25, 3) Segura 22–28, 4) Olmedo 11–44. Rosewall was therefore far behind Gonzales on this tour, the American having won almost all their direct confrontations (20 wins for Gonzales to 5 wins for Rosewall). Rosewall began the tour slowly, dropping briefly in early February to fourth place in the overall standings behind Segura and Olmedo, and rising to second place in early March. Halfway through the North American part of the tour the standings were Gonzales 23–1", "After ten years of World touring, Rosewall decided to take several long breaks in order to spend time with his family and entered no competitions in the first half of 1961, withdrawing from Kramer's World Series tour. He trained his long-time friend Hoad when the pros toured in Australia where Gonzales, back to the courts after a -month retirement, won another World tour featuring Hoad (withdrew with injury), Olmedo (replacing Rosewall), Gimeno and the two new recruits MacKay and Buchholz (Segura, Trabert, Cooper and Sedgman sometimes replaced the injured players). In the summer Rosewall returned to the circuit and won the two biggest tournaments (all the best players participating): the French Pro (clay) and Wembley Pro (wood). At the French he captured the title by beating Gonzales in the final in four sets, and at Wembley he defeated", "In 1962 Rosewall was the leading pro, winning most pro tournaments of all the players during the year. He retained his Wembley Pro and French Pro crowns and also won tournaments at Adelaide, Melbourne, Christchurch, Auckland,", "In an Australasian tour (Australia and New Zealand) played on grass for the Australian portion, Rosewall defeated Laver 11 matches to 2. A US tour followed with Rosewall defending his world pro title against Laver, Gimeno, Ayala and two Americans: Butch Buchholz and Barry MacKay (Hoad was recovering from a shoulder injury). Rosewall entered as defending world pro titlist. In the first phase of this tour, lasting two and a half months, each player faced each other about eight times. Rosewall ended first (31 matches won – 10 lost in front of Laver (26–16), Buchholz (23–18), Gimeno (21–20), MacKay (12–29) and Ayala (11–30)). In this round-robin phase Rosewall beat Laver in the first 5 meetings, ensuring thus a 13-match winning streak (in counting the last 8 matches in Australasia) and Laver won the last 3. Then a second and final phase", "In early 1964, Rosewall finished third behind Hoad and Laver in a 4-man 24-match tour of New Zealand. In 1964 Rosewall won one major pro tournament: the French Pro over Laver on an indoor wood surface (at Coubertin). At the end of the South African tour, Rosewall also beat Laver in three straight sets in a Challenge Match considered by some as a World Championship match, on cement, held in Ellis Park, Johannesburg. In the official pro points rankings (7 points for the winner, 4 points for the finalist, 3 points for third, 2 for fourth place and 1 point to each quarterfinalist), Rosewall ended No. 1 in 1964 ahead of No. 2 Laver and No. 3 Gonzales. The majority of tennis observers (Joe McCauley, Robert Geist, Michel Sutter) and the players", "Next year until mid-September Rosewall and Laver were quite equal, the latter winning more tournaments including the US Pro Indoors at New York City and the Masters Pro at Los Angeles but", "Laver and Rosewall shared all the titles and the finals of the five greatest tournaments. Rosewall won the Madison Square", "The 20 main tournaments of the year were shared by a) Laver, ten titles including the five biggest ones, all played on fast courts (U.S. Pro, French Pro, Wembley Pro, Wimbledon Pro, Madison Square Garden, World Pro in Oklahoma, Boston Pro (not to be confused with the U.S. Pro), Newport R.R., Johannesburg Ellis Park, Coubertin Pro in April (not to be confused with the French Pro at Coubertin in October), b) Rosewall, six titles (Los Angeles, Berkeley, U.S. Pro Hardcourt in St Louis, Newport Beach, Durban and Cape Town), c) Gimeno, three titles (Cincinnati, East London, Port Elizabeth) and d) Stolle,", "", "During the 1968 season several categories of players coexisted: In 1968 there were a) an amateur circuit including the Davis Cup (closed to any \"contract\" professional until 1973) and the Australian Championships, b) two pro circuits: WCT and NTL, which met at four tournaments, and c) an open circuit (with a little more than 10 tournaments). At the beginning of the open era WCT founder Dave Dixon did not allow his players to enter tournaments where NTL players were present: there were no WCT players at the first two open tournaments, the British Hard Court Championships and French Open, while all the NTL players were present. The first tournament where NTL and WCT players competed against each other, was the U.S. Pro, held at Longwood in June. Several events were still reserved to the amateur players between 1968 and 1972. Two tournaments were at the top in 1968: Wimbledon (a 128-man field), and the US Open (a 96-man field), both played on grass, where all the best players competed. Other notable tournaments that year were the Queen's Club", "Rosewall was no longer the best claycourt player as Laver had taken his crown in the final of the French Open at Roland Garros. At Wimbledon, Rosewall lost in the third round to Bob", "Being an NTL player at the beginning of 1970 he didn't play the Australian Open held at the White City Stadium in Sydney in January because NTL boss, George McCall, and his players thought that the prize money was too low for a Grand Slam tournament. In March, a tournament, sponsored by Dunlop, was organised at the same site, with a higher quality field because of better prize-money and a better date. Some of the same players as in the Australian Open were present and in addition not only the NTL pros participated but also some independent pros, such as Ilie Năstase, who usually did not make the trip to Australia. Laver won the tournament after defeating Rosewall in a five-set final watched by a crowd of 8,000. As both the NTL and the WCT boycotted the Roland Garros tournament because it refused to pay guarantees Rosewall also missed the second Grand Slam tournament of the year. All the best players met again at Wimbledon. This time a rested Rosewall reached the final and took Newcombe, his junior by -years, to five sets but ultimately succumbed. In July Rosewall became a WCT", "After his runner-up finishes at Sydney and Wimbledon and his victory at the US Open in 1970, Rosewall continued his good performances in 1971 in the great grass court tournaments. One year after the first Dunlop Open was held in Sydney, Rosewall was back in Sydney in March, this time for the Australian open held on the White City Courts. Because it was sponsored by Dunlop in 1971, all the World Championship Tennis (WCT) players (including the National Tennis League players since spring 1970) entered (John Newcombe, Rosewall, Rod Laver, Tony Roche, Tom Okker,", "1972 saw a return to separate circuits because all traditional ILTF events held from January to July were forbidden to the WCT players. This included the Davis Cup but also Roland Garros and Wimbledon. The 1972 Australian Open organisers used a trick to avoid the ban of the WCT players. They held the tournament from 27 December 1971, four days before the ban could be applied, to 3 January 1972. Thus all contract as well as independent pros could enter but few were interested because it was held during Christmas and New Year's Day period. The draw included only eight non-Australian players. Rosewall reached the final in which he defeated Mal Anderson to win his fourth Australian title and the eighth, and last, Grand Slam title of his career and became the oldest Grand Slam male singles champion (37 years and 2 months old) in the open era.. A fragile agreement in the spring of 1972 let the WCT players come back to the traditional circuit in August (in Merion,", "", "From August 1972 players could enter almost all the tournaments they wanted. The Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) was created during the US Open. Rosewall won seven tournaments in 1972, including the depleted Australian Open. Rosewall was ranked 2 in 1972 by Bud", "At the 1973 Australian Open (again with a weak field because as in 1972 among the Top 20 only Rosewall and Newcombe participated), top seeded Rosewall was defeated by \"virtual unknown\" German Karl Meiler in his first match (second round) in straight sets in a big upset. \"It just wasn't the vintage Rosewall stuff we have come to expect from the Little Master. He seldom middled the ball, and was generally out-manoeuvred by the West German. Rosewall would not have said that he had been taking antibiotics for a throat infection unless he had been asked. Nor would he have admitted to feeling poorly when he played unless he had been", "1974 was the first year since 1952 that Rosewall did not win a single tournament. However, he entered nine tournaments (the one at Hong Kong not finished because of rain) and reached three finals including Wimbledon and US Open. At Wimbledon, Rosewall beat Newcombe in the quarter finals in four sets. In the semi finals against Stan Smith, Rosewall was 2 sets to 0 and 5-3 down. Rosewall was match point down at", "Rosewall still stayed in the Top 10 (number 6 according to ATP, 10 according to Collins and 8 according to Tommasi) in 1975 winning 5 tournaments (Jackson, Houston-River Oaks, Louisville, Gstaad, Tokyo Gunze Open) and his two singles in Davis Cup against New Zealand (this event has been finally open to contract pros in 1973 : that year Rosewall was selected by Neale Fraser for the semifinals doubles). Rosewall made his last attempt at Wimbledon, at over 40, and as in his first Wimbledon Open (in 1968) he lost in the same round (4th) and against the same player (Tony Roche). In 1976 Rosewall dropped out of the Top 10 in the ATP rankings but stayed in the Top 20, as he won three tournaments: Brisbane, Jackson WCT and Hong Kong (over Năstase then the 3rd player in the world). 1977 was Rosewall's last year in", "Gonzales and Laver are the two players that Rosewall most often met. His meetings with Laver are better documented and detailed than those with Gonzales. Except the first year (1963) and the last year they played (1976), the statistics of their meetings show a domination by Laver; but they are biased", "In his 1979 autobiography, Kramer wrote that \"Rosewall was a backcourt player when he came into the pros, but he learned very quickly how to play the net. Eventually, for that matter, he became a master of it, as much out of physical preservation as for any other reason. I guarantee you that Kenny wouldn't have lasted into his forties as a world-class player if he hadn't learned to serve and volley.\" His sliced backhand was his strongest shot, and, along with the very different backhand of former player Don Budge, has generally been considered one of the best, if not the best, backhands yet seen. His one-handed backhand which he usually played with backspin was rated as one of the best backhand shots in the history of the game. He is considered to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time. Kramer included the Australian in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time, albeit", "", "Singles: 16", "Ken Rosewall joined professional tennis in 1957 and was unable to compete in 45 Grand Slam tournaments until the open era arrived in 1968. Summarizing Grand Slam and Pro Slam tournaments, Rosewall won 23 titles, he", "Ken Rosewall married Wilma McIver at St. John's Cathedral, Brisbane, Queensland on 6 October 1956. It was described in press reports as Brisbane's society wedding of the year with over 2000 people in attendance outside the", "In the Queen's Birthday Honours of 1971, he was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). In the Australia Day Honours of 1979, he was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia (AM). Rosewall was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1980. In 1985 he was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame. He is an Australian Living Treasure. The Sydney Olympic Park Tennis Centre's central court is the Ken Rosewall Arena, a covered arena." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Contained information.", "Organ numbers and fusion.", "Ovary position.", "Symmetry.", "Sexuality.", "Examples.", "Using boxes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Floral formulae were developed at the beginning of the 19th century. The first authors using them were Cassel (1820) and Martius (1828). Grisebach (1854) used them in his textbook to describe characteristics of floral families, stating numbers of different organs separated by commas and highlighting fusion. Sachs (1873) used them together with floral diagrams, he noted their advantage of being composed of \"ordinary typeface\". Although Eichler widely used floral diagrams in his \"Blüthendiagramme\", he used floral formulae sparingly, mainly for families with simple flowers. Sattler's \"Organogenesis of Flowers\" (1973) takes advantage of floral formulae and diagrams to describe the ontogeny of 50 plant species. Newer books containing formulae include \"Plant Systematics\" by Judd \"et al.\" (2002) and Simpson (2010). Prenner \"et al.\" devised an extension of the existing model to broaden the descriptive capability of the formula and argued that formulae should be included in formal taxonomic descriptions. Ronse De Craene (2010) partially utilized their way of writing the formulae in his book \"Floral Diagrams\".", "", "The formula expresses counts of different floral organs, these are usually preceded by letters or abbreviations according to the organ type. They are ordered corresponding to the arrangement of the parts of the flower from the outside to the inside: The labels with darker backgrounds are less common. \"V\" used by Prenner \"et al.\" for the number of ovules per gynoecium is followed by lowercase letter describing the type of placentation. For epicalyx/calyculus, the letter \"k\" is used. The numbers are inserted after the labels, they may be formatted as sub- or superscript. If an organ is absent, its number is written as \"0\" or it is omitted, if there are \"many\" (usually more than 10–12) instances, it can be written as \"∞\". Whorls of the same organ are separated by \"+\". Organ counts within a whorl can be separated by \":\", for example when part of the whorl is morphologically different. A range can be given if the number is variable, e.g. when the formula summarizes a taxon. Groups of organs can be described by writing the number of instances in the group as superscript. The formula can also express organ fusion. Fusion of one organ type can be shown by enclosing the number in a circle, fusion of different organs can be represented by ties, as e.g. in Judd \"et al.\" Prenner \"et al.\" state that this method is difficult to achieve via standard typesetting. Joining of organs can be more readily written using parentheses \"(...)\" if instances of the same organ are fused. Fusion between different organs can be achieved by square \"[...]\", eventually curly brackets \"{...}\". Prenner \"et al.\" propose superscript zero for a lost organ, and superscript \"r\" for a reduced one. Ronse De Craene uses a degree symbol to mark a staminode (infertile stamen) or pistillode (infertile carpel).", "Ovary position is shown by alternating the \"G\" label. Simpson circumvents the intricate formatting by expressing the ovary position by words.", "Symmetry or arrangement may be described for the whole flower, in such case the corresponding symbol is usually placed at the beginning of the formula. It may be also outlined separately for different organs, placing it after their labels or numbers, or it may not be included in the formula at all. It is described by following symbols:", "Sexuality of the flower can be highlighted by ☿ or for hermaphrodite (bisexual), ♂ for male (staminate) and ♀ for female (pistillate) flower. The symbols are usually placed at the beginning of the formula, after or before the symmetry symbol. Prenner \"et al.\" recommend to use the corresponding symbols (♀ and ♂) only for flowers of separate sexuality. Ronse De Craene utilizes the words \"pistillate\" or \"staminate\" instead of the symbols. Floral formula can also incorporate the fruit type, Judd \"et al.\" place it at the very end.", "↯ K3 [C3 A1°–3°+1⁄2:2°] Ğ(3) – the formula of \"Canna indica\"; asymmetric flower; calyx of three free sepals; corolla of three free petals joined with androecium; androecium in two whorls, the outer whorl contains 1–3 staminodes, the inner contains 1⁄2 of a stamen and 2 staminodes; gynoecium fused of 3 carpels, inferior ovary B Bt K3:(2)↓ C3:2↓ A(3):2↓+4:1 1↓ Vm8–10 – the formula of \"Tamarindus indica\"; bract and petaloid bracteoles; monosymmetric calyx of three and two petaloid sepals; monosymmetric corolla of three and two reduced petals; two whorls of stamens, the outer monosymmetric from three fused and two reduced stamens, the inner of 4 reduced and 1 lost stamen; monosymmetric gynoecium of 1 carpel with superior ovary; marginal placentation with 8–10 ovules per gynoecium.", "3-4 free sepals, 3-4 free petals (or absent), 2-8 stamens, inferior ovary with 2-4 fused carpels}}" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Etymology.", "Concepts in Western astrology.", "Angles.", "The Zodiac.", "Construction of a horoscope in Western astrology.", "Houses.", "Placements of the planets.", "Aspects.", "Ascendant.", "Chinese horoscopes.", "Criticism.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The horoscope serves as a stylized map of the heavens over a specific location at a particular moment in time. In most applications the perspective is geocentric (heliocentric astrology being one exception). The positions of the actual planets (including Sun and Moon) are placed in the chart, along with those of purely calculated factors such as the lunar nodes, the house cusps including the midheaven and the ascendant, zodiac signs, fixed stars and the lots. Angular relationships between the planets themselves and other points, called aspects, are typically determined. The emphasis and interpretation of these factors varies with tradition. This means however the stars were placed at the time of birth for a person shows their characteristics and personality, including weakness. It is very similar to the Chinese Zodiac.", "The Latin word \"horoscopus\", ultimately from Greek \"nativity, horoscope\", \"observer of the hour [of birth]\", from \"time, hour\" and \"observer, watcher\". In Middle English texts from the 11th century, the word appears in the Latin form and is anglicized to horoscope in Early Modern English. The noun horoscopy for \"casting of horoscopes\" has been in use since the 17th century (OED). In Greek, in the sense of \"ascendant\" and \"observation of the ascendant\" is in use since Ptolemy (\"Tetrabiblos\" 33, 75).", "", "There are [[Angle (astrology)|four primary angles]] in the horoscope. These are, in order of power: The [[ascendant]] is the easternmost or sunrise point where the ecliptic and horizon intersect; the ascendant and the [[midheaven]] are considered the most important angles in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. In most systems of house division, the ascendant is the cusp of the 1st house and the midheaven is the cusp of the 10th house. The placement of the planetary ruler of the ascendant, called the [[Chart Ruler]] is also considered to be significant. The point in the west diametrically opposing the ascendant is called the [[Descendant (astrology)|descendant]], normally the cusp of the 7th house; and the point opposing the M.C. is the cusp of the 4th house, the northernmost point of the chart, called the [[Imum Coeli]] or I.C. In creating a horoscope the ascendant is traditionally placed at the \"nine o'clock\" position on the left-hand side of the chart wheel (though traditional rectangular chart formats need not follow this convention). During the course of a day, because of the Earth's rotation, the entire circle of the ecliptic will pass through the ascendant and will be advanced by about 1°. This movement provides us with the term rising sign, which is the sign of the zodiac rising over the eastern horizon at the moment of birth. The point on the ecliptic that is furthest above the plane of the horizon at the time is called the Midheaven, or medium coeli (M.C.), placed at the \"twelve o'clock position\" effectively where the Sun would be if the birth time was midday.", "[[Image:Astro signs.svg|thumb|right|The [[astrological symbols]]/[[glyphs]] used in Western astrology to represent the [[astrological signs]] ([[Zodiac]])]] The tropical zodiac defines the vernal point (the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere) as the first degree of Aries, but the sidereal zodiac allows it to precess. Many people are confused regarding the difference between the sidereal zodiac and the tropical zodiac signs. Because of a \"wobble\" in the Earth's axis of rotation over a period of about 26,000 years (often called a \"[[great year]]\"), the rate at which the vernal equinox precesses in the heavens is approximately 0 deg, 0 min, 50.23 seconds a year, drifting by one degree every 72 years. [[Precession of the equinoxes]] thus occurs at a rate of roughly 5 arc minutes of a degree every 6 years. The tropical signs relate to the seasons and not the stars. Here is an example: a person born on, say August 28, 2002 would come to understand that their Sun sign was in Virgo according to [[Western astrology]] (conventional Sun sign dates August 23, to September 22, of every year), but Sun on that same calendar date of the year 2002 was in the [[Leo (constellation)|constellation Leo]] (where it had been since August 10, 2002 and would remain until September 15, when it would then finally cross into Virgo). It is worth pointing out that the sidereal signs and the tropical signs are both geometrical conventions of 30° each, whereas the zodiacal constellations are pictorial representations of mythological figures projected onto the celestial sphere based on patterns of visible star groupings, none of which occupy precisely 30° of the ecliptic. So constellations and signs are not the same, although for historical reasons they might have the same names. It is also worth noting that some astrologers do not use the signs of the zodiac at all, focusing more instead on the [[astrological aspects]] and other features of the horoscope.", "To create a horoscope, an astrologer first has to ascertain the exact time and place of the subject's birth, or the initiation of an event. The local [[standard time]] (adjusting for any [[daylight saving time]] or [[History of time in the United States#War Time 1918 and 1942|war time]]) is then converted into [[Greenwich Mean Time]] or [[Universal Time]] at that same instant. The astrologer then has to convert this into the local [[sidereal time]] at birth in order to be able to calculate the [[ascendant]] and [[midheaven]]. The astrologer will next consult a set of tables called an ephemeris, which lists the location of the Sun, Moon and [[Planets in astrology|planets]] for a particular year, date and sidereal time, with respect to the [[March equinox|northern hemisphere vernal equinox]] or the [[fixed star]]s (depending on which astrological system is being used). The astrologer then adds or subtracts the difference between the longitude of Greenwich and the longitude of the place in question to determine the true local mean time (LMT) at the place of birth to show where planets would be visible above the horizon at the precise time and place in question. Planets hidden from view beneath the earth are also shown in the horoscope. The horoscope features 12 sectors around the circle of the [[ecliptic]], starting from the eastern horizon with the [[ascendant]] or rising sign. These 12 sectors are called the [[House (astrology)|houses]] and numerous systems for calculating these divisions exist. Tables of houses have been published since the 19th Century to make this otherwise demanding task easier.", "[[Image:AstrologicalGlyphs-AsteroidsChaldean.jpg|thumb|right|The [[astrological symbols]]/[[glyphs]] used in Western astrology to represent the [[planets in astrology]]]] The chart thus begins with a framework of 12 houses. Upon this the signs of the zodiac are superimposed. In the equal house system the cusp between any two houses will fall at the same degree for each of the at 12° of Leo, the second house will begin at 12° of Virgo, the third at 12° Libra, and so on. In house systems that take into consideration the effects of the angle of intersection between the planes of the horizon and the ecliptic, the calculations are more complicated. For these calculations it is essential to know the latitude of the event. Tables are available for these calculations, but they are now commonly calculated by computer. Most astrology computer programs allow the user to choose from a variety of house systems.", "Having established the relative positions of the signs in the houses, the astrologer positions the sun, moon, and planets at their proper celestial longitudes. Some astrologers also take note of minor planetary bodies, fixed stars, [[asteroid]]s (for example, [[2060 Chiron|Chiron]]) and other mathematically calculated points and angles such as the [[vertex (geometry)|vertex]], equatorial ascendant, etc. Many astrologers also use what are commonly referred to as [[Arabic parts]] (or [[Greece|Greek]] Lots), the most common of which is the [[Part of Fortune]] (Pars Fortunae).", "To complete the horoscope the astrologer will consider the aspects or relative angles between pairs of planets. More exact aspects are considered more important. The difference between the exact aspect and the actual aspect is called the [[Orb (astrology)|orb]]. Those generally recognized by the astrological community are [[Astrological aspect#Conjunction|Conjunction]] (0°), [[Astrological aspect#Opposition|Opposition]] (180°), [[Astrological aspect#Square|Square]] (90°), [[Astrological aspect#Trine|Trine]] (120°), [[Astrological aspect#Sextile.E2.80.94 intermediate major.2Fminor aspect|Sextile]] (60°), [[Astrological aspect#Semi-square|Semi-Square]] (45°), [[Astrological aspect#Sesquiquadrate|Sesquisquare]] (135°), and [[Astrological aspect#Quincunx.E2.80.94 intermediate major.2Fminor aspect|Quincunx]] (150°). Understandably these aspects are more significant when they are exact, but they are considered to function within an orb of influence, the size of which varies according to the importance of each aspect. Thus conjunctions are believed to operate with a larger orb than sextiles. Most modern astrologers use an orb of 8° or less for aspects involving the Sun, Moon, and Jupiter and smaller orbs for the other points. Some astrologers, such as practitioners of [[Cosmobiology]], and Uranian astrology, use minor aspects (15°, 22.5°, 67.5°, 72°, 75°, 105°, 112.5°, 157.5°, 165°) with much narrower orbs. The major astrological system regarded universally is Vedic Hindu Astrology. As per this, all planets see just opposite i.e. 180 degree aspect. But Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn have special aspects. Mars sees the houses 4th and 8 too from its place in the horoscope, Saturn sees the houses 3 and 10 too from its place, and Jupiter sees 5 and 9 from its place in the horoscope i.e. the house in which they are posited in the lagna chart.", "The ascendant (ASC) is a point on the ecliptic that rises on the eastern horizon at sunrise and changes as the earth rotates on its axis. The ascendant is very important in astrological chart interpretation. It exerts more power than the sun, moon and planets because it infiltrates everything in the natal chart. The ascendant is the first point of energy in the natal chart and it represents the way we view life. The sign on the ascendant characterises our expression of \"who we are\" when dealing with others, and our initial action when dealing with day-to-day concerns. [[Longitude]] is necessary in order to determine the position of the [[Ascendant]] because horoscopes use local time. Having constructed the horoscope, the astrologer can begin the task of interpreting the chart. This interpretation depends upon which branch of horoscopic astrology is being used.", "In [[Chinese astrology]], horoscopes are based on the symbolism of the [[Chinese zodiac]], a system of [[Chinese astrology#Wu Xing|elements]] and [[Chinese calendar#12 animals|animals]] associated with each year according to a [[Sexagenary cycle]]. Chinese horoscopes often appear in [[Sun sign astrology|horoscope sections]] in newspapers and magazine alongside Western horoscopes.", "Interest in horoscopes and the zodiac sign have been very popular throughout history and today. There are many faithful followers, from celebrities to the general public. With so many believers, and perhaps a personal connection to the horoscope or the zodiac, it can be difficult to accept that astrology is not grounded in scientific evidence and is a pseudoscience. Natal birth charts, or zodiac signs, are often used to predict a person’s personality traits. However, the use of natal birth charts to predict personality is not valid or reliable. In a double-blind study that tested the zodiac’s reliability to predict personality, an astrologer had to match a person’s zodiac sign to their CPI (California Personality Inventory) result. The CPI is a reliable method to determine an individual’s personality. It was found that the astrologers were not able to correctly match the zodiac sign to the CPI result beyond random assignment. This means that astrology is no more than a test of chance and it is not a reliable way to predict personality. Similarly, the zodiac sign can be used to create horoscopes that predict the events that will happen in an individual’s life. However, like using the zodiac sign for personality traits, using it for horoscopes is also unreliable. One astrologer’s prediction for a horoscope is typically completely unrelated to the prediction of another astrologer. However, many people still believe their horoscope perfectly aligns with the events in their lives. There are some possible explanations for this. Horoscopes have vague wording and are based on typical everyday activities. Due to this, it is easier for people to relate to these claims and increase their belief that it is a real science. Also, a person’s expectations typically lead them to bias the way they perceive information, so their expectations are confirmed. In a study, participant’s horoscopes were paired with the events of their previous day. When the horoscopes were presented with the participant’s zodiac sign, other participants were more likely to report that that the horoscope matched the previous day’s events compared to when their zodiac sign was not present. This shows how individuals will bias their perceptions based on the expectations. This makes horoscopes seem reliable, when they are not valid. Stars are luminous balls of hydrogen and helium gas within clouds of dust which are held together by their own gravity. They are formed through the accumulation of gas and dust which collapses as a result of gravity. Astrology attempts to study how the position, movements and properties of celestial bodies affect people and events on earth. Although it has its proponents, astrology has been rejected by the scientific community. Some horoscopes base their predictions on the “movement” of stars. However, this is inaccurate as stars actually do not move but appear to because the earth rotates on its axis and orbits around the sun. Furthermore, none of the answers given by astrology are actually based on science. According to American astronomer, the reason why people rely on horoscopes is explained by a psychological phenomenon known as “self-selection bias” which is the tendency of humans to look for interpretations or confirmations for what they already hope to be true. Hence, the reason why astrology may seem like it works is because our brains are wired to look for patterns, even when none exists. Many practitioners of astrology claim that astrology is indeed a science however, despite many trial and experiments, the effectiveness and scientific evidence of astrology is still yet to be demonstrated. In conclusion, astrology has no verifiable mechanism behind it and astrologers follow no sort of scientific method in their process hence it cannot be classified as science.", "[[Category:Horoscopic astrology]] [[Category:Technical factors of astrology]] [[Category:Astrology]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Core principles.", "The zodiac.", "The twelve signs.", "Sun-sign astrology.", "The planets.", "Classical planets.", "The moon's nodes.", "Essential dignity.", "The horoscope.", "Interpretation.", "The primary angles.", "The houses.", "Aspects.", "Modern modifications to the Ptolemaic system.", "Modern planets.", "Sidereal and tropical astrology.", "Astrology and science." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A central principle of astrology is integration within the cosmos. The individual, Earth, and its environment are viewed as a single organism, all parts of which are correlated with each other. Cycles of change that are observed in the heavens are therefore reflective (not causative) of similar cycles of change observed on earth and within the individual. This relationship is expressed in the Hermetic maxim \"as above, so below; as below, so above\", which postulates symmetry between the individual as a microcosm and the celestial environment as a macrocosm. At the heart of astrology is the metaphysical principle that mathematical relationships express qualities or 'tones' of energy which manifest in numbers, visual angles, shapes and sounds – all connected within a pattern of proportion. Pythagoras first identified that the pitch of a musical note is in proportion to the length of the string that produces it, and that intervals between harmonious sound frequencies form simple numerical ratios. In a theory known as the Harmony of the Spheres, Pythagoras proposed that the Sun, Moon and planets all emit their own unique hum based on their orbital revolution, and that the quality of life on Earth reflects the tenor of celestial sounds which are physically imperceptible to the human ear. Subsequently, Plato described astronomy and music as \"twinned\" studies of sensual recognition: astronomy for the eyes, music for the ears, and both requiring knowledge of numerical proportions. Later philosophers retained the close association between astronomy, optics, music and astrology, including Ptolemy, who wrote influential texts on all these topics. Al-Kindi, in the 9th century, developed Ptolemy's ideas in \"De Aspectibus\" which explores many points of relevance to astrology and the use of planetary aspects.", "The zodiac is the belt or band of constellations through which the Sun, Moon, and planets move on their journey across the sky. Astrologers noted these constellations and so attached a particular significance to them. Over time they developed the system of twelve signs of the zodiac, based on twelve of the constellations through which the sun passes throughout the year, those constellations that are \"Enlightened by the mind\". Most western astrologers use the tropical zodiac beginning with the sign of Aries at the Northern hemisphere Vernal equinox always on or around March 21 of each year. The Western Zodiac is drawn based on the Earth's relationship to fixed, designated positions in the sky, and the Earth's seasons. The Sidereal Zodiac is drawn based on the Earth's position in relation to the constellations, and follows their movements in the sky. Due to a phenomenon called precession of the equinoxes (where the Earth's axis slowly rotates like a spinning top in a 25,700-year cycle), there is a slow shift in the correspondence between Earth's seasons (and calendar) and the constellations of the zodiac. Thus, the tropical zodiac corresponds with the position of the earth in relation to fixed positions in the sky (Western Astrology), while the sidereal zodiac is drawn based on the position in relation to the constellations (sidereal zodiac).", "In modern Western astrology the signs of the zodiac are believed to represent twelve basic personality types or characteristic modes of expression. The twelve signs are divided into four elements fire, earth, air and water. Fire and air signs are considered masculine, while water and earth signs are considered feminine. The twelve signs are also divided into three qualities, Cardinal, fixed and mutable. Zodiac sign for an individual depends on the placement of planets and the ascendant in that sign. If a person has nothing placed in a particular sign, that sign will play no active role in their personality. On the other hand, a person with, for example, both the sun and moon in Cancer, will strongly display the characteristics of that sign in their make up.", "Newspapers often print astrology columns which purport to provide guidance on what might occur in a day in relation to the sign of the zodiac that included the sun when the person was born. Astrologers refer to this as the \"sun sign\", but it is often commonly called the \"star sign\". These predictions are vague or general; so much so that even practising astrologers consider them of little to no value. Experiments have shown that when people are shown a newspaper horoscope for their own sign along with a newspaper horoscope for a different sign, they judge them to be equally accurate on the average. Other tests have been performed on complete, personalized horoscopes cast by professional astrologers, and have shown similarly disappointing results, contrary to the claims of professional astrologers.", "In modern Western astrology the planets represent basic drives or impulses in the human psyche. These planets differ from the definition of a planet in astronomy in that the sun, moon, and recently, Pluto and Ceres (considered as dwarf planets in astronomy), are all considered to be planets for the purposes of astrology. Each planet is also said to be the ruler of one or two zodiac signs. The three modern planets have each been assigned rulership of a zodiac sign by astrologers and Ceres has been suggested as the ruler of Taurus or Virgo. Traditionally rulership of the signs was, according to Ptolemy, based on seasonal derivations and astronomical measurement, whereby the luminaries being the brightest planets were given rulership of the brightest months of the year and Saturn the coldest furthest classical planet was given to the coldest months of the year, with the other planets ruling the remaining signs as per astronomical measurement. It is noteworthy that the modern rulerships do not follow the same logic.", "The astrological 'planets' are the seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients. The sun and moon, also known as 'the lights', are included as they were thought to act like the astronomical planets. Astrologers call Mercury, Venus and Mars the 'personal planets', as they represent the most immediate drives. The 'lights' symbolise respectively the existential and sensitive fundamentals of the individuality. The following table summarizes the rulership by the seven classically known planets of each of the twelve astrological signs, together with their effects on world events, people and the earth itself as understood in the Middle Ages.", "Also important in astrology are the moon's nodes. The nodes are where the moon's path crosses the ecliptic. The North, or Ascending Node marks the place where the moon crosses from South to North (or ascends), while the South, or Descending Node marks where the moon crosses from North to South (or descends). While Lunar nodes are not considered by Western astrologers to be as important a factor as each of the planets, they are thought to mark sensitive areas that are worth taking into account.", "In astrology, \"essential dignity\" is the strength of a planet or point's zodiac position, judged only by its position by sign and degree, what the pre-eminent 17th-century astrologer William Lilly called \"the strength, fortitude or debility of the Planets [or] significators.\" In other words, essential dignity seeks to view the strengths of a planet or point as though it were isolated from other factors in the sky of the natal chart. Traditionally, there are five dignities: domicile and detriment, exaltation and fall, triplicity, terms, and face. However, the later two have diminished in usage. A planet's domicile is the zodiac sign over which it has rulership.", "Western astrology is based mainly upon the construction of a horoscope, which is a map or \"chart\" of the heavens at a particular moment. The moment chosen is the beginning of the existence of the subject of the horoscope, as it is believed that the subject will carry with it the pattern of the heavens from that moment throughout its life. The most common form of horoscope is the natal chart based on the moment of a person's birth; though in theory a horoscope can be drawn up for the beginning of anything, from a business enterprise to the foundation of a nation state.", "In Western horoscopic astrology the interpretation of a horoscope is governed by: Some astrologers also use the position of various mathematical points such as the Arabic parts.", "There are four primary angles in the horoscope (though the cusps of the houses are often included as important angles by some astrologers). The ascendant is generally considered the most important and personalized angle in the horoscope by the vast majority of astrologers. It signifies a person's awakening consciousness, in the same way that the Sun's appearance on the eastern horizon signifies the dawn of a new day. Due to the fact that the ascendant is specific to a particular time and place, it signifies the individual environment and conditioning that a person receives during their upbringing, and also the circumstances of their childhood. For this reason, the ascendant is also concerned with how a person has learned to present him or herself to the world, especially in public and in impersonal situations. The opposite point to the ascendant in the west is the descendant, which denotes how a person reacts in their relationships with others. It also show the kind of person we are likely to be attracted to, and our ability to form romantic attachments. In most house systems the descendant lies on the cusp of the 7th house of the horoscope. The opposite point to the midheaven is known as the imum coeli. For astrologers the nadir or IC traditionally indicates the circumstances at the beginning and end of a person's life, their parents and the parental home, and their own domestic life. In \"quadrant house\" systems it lies on the cusp of the 4th house of the horoscope.", "The horoscope is divided by astrologers into 12 portions called the houses. The houses of the horoscope are interpreted as being 12 different spheres of life or activity. There are various ways of calculating the houses in the horoscope or birth chart. However, there is no dispute about their meanings, and the 12 houses Many modern astrologers assume that the houses relate to their corresponding signs, i.e. that the first house has a natural affinity with the first sign, Aries, and so on.", "The aspects are the angles the planets make to each other in the horoscope, and also to the ascendant, midheaven, descendant and nadir. The aspects are measured by the angular distance along the ecliptic in degrees and minutes of celestial longitude between two points, as viewed from the earth. They indicate focal points in the horoscope where the energies involved are given extra emphasis. The more exact the angle, the more powerful the aspect, although an allowance of a few degrees each side of the aspect called an \"orb\" is allowed for interpretation. The following are the aspects in order of importance", "", "These are the planets discovered in modern times, which have since been assigned meanings by Western astrologers.", "There are two camps of thought among western astrologers about the \"starting point\", 0 degrees Aries, in the zodiac. Sidereal astrology uses a fixed starting point in the background of stars, while tropical astrology, used by the majority of Western astrologers, chooses as a starting point the position of the Sun against the background of stars at the Northern hemisphere vernal equinox (i.e. when the Sun position against the heavens crosses over from the southern hemisphere to the northern hemisphere) each year. As the Earth spins on its axis, it \"wobbles\" like a top, causing the vernal equinox to move gradually backwards against the star background, (a phenomenon known as the Precession of the equinoxes) at a rate of about 30 degrees (one Zodiacal sign length) every 2,160 years. Thus the two zodiacs would be aligned only once every 26,000 years. They were aligned about 2,000 years ago when the zodiac was originally established. This phenomenon gives us the conceptual basis for the Age of Aquarius, whose \"dawning\" coincides with the movement of the vernal equinox across the cusp from Pisces to Aquarius in the star background.", "The majority of professional astrologers rely on performing astrology-based personality tests and making relevant predictions about the remunerator's future. Those who continue to have faith in astrology have been characterised as doing so \"in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary\". Astrology has not demonstrated its effectiveness in controlled studies and has no scientific validity, and as such, is regarded as pseudoscience. There is no proposed mechanism of action by which the positions and motions of stars and planets could affect people and events on Earth that does not contradict well understood, basic aspects of biology and physics. Where astrology has made falsifiable predictions, it has been falsified. The most famous test was headed by Shawn Carlson and included a committee of scientists and a committee of astrologers. It led to the conclusion that natal astrology performed no better than chance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Record against No. 1 players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stich was raised in Elmshorn, Schleswig-Holstein. He turned professional in 1988 and won his first top-level singles title in 1990 at Memphis, Tennessee. Stich won Wimbledon in 1991. He defeated the defending champion and world No. 1 Stefan Edberg in the semifinals, 4–6, 7–6, 7–6, 7–6, without breaking his service once. Then in the final, he beat his compatriot and three-time Wimbledon champion Boris Becker in straight sets. In 1992, Stich teamed with John McEnroe to win the men's doubles title at Wimbledon in a five-set and five-hour final that stretched into Monday (the day after the tournament normally ends) and ended with a 19–17 final set. Then at the Summer Olympic Games in Barcelona, Stich teamed with Becker to win the men's doubles gold medal. Stich also won the 1992 Grand Slam Cup, defeating Michael Chang in the final. A major highlight of 1993 for Stich came at the end-of-year ATP World Championships, where he was the only player in the 1990s history of the Championship tournament to claim the title undefeated, overcoming Pete Sampras in the final. Playing for Germany, Stich also won both the Davis Cup and the Hopman Cup in 1993. He reached his second Grand Slam singles final at the 1994 US Open, where he lost in straight sets to Andre Agassi. Stich also helped Germany win the World Team Cup in 1994. He upset defending champion Thomas Muster in four sets in the fourth round of the 1996 French Open en route to appearing in his third and final Grand Slam singles final, where he was defeated by Yevgeny Kafelnikov in straight sets. He also won his final career singles title that year at Antwerp. His last doubles title came in 1997 at Halle. Stich's all-round ability, both from the baseline and at the net, allowed him to become one of the few players to win both singles and doubles tournaments on all surfaces. He is one of only five players of his generation to have a positive career head-to-head record against Sampras. Stich announced his retirement from the professional tour in 1997, following Wimbledon. His last run at Wimbledon started with a win over US top-ten player Jim Courier and ended with a five-set loss to Cédric Pioline in the semifinals. Since his retirement, he has devoted most of his time to his own AIDS foundation. He also works as a tennis commentator for the BBC. In 2018, he became an International Tennis Hall of Fame inductee. Stich was married to the German actress Jessica Stockmann from 1992 to 2003. In 2005, he married Alexandra Rikowski. They live in Hamburg.", "Stich's match record against players who have been ranked world No. 1." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Juniors.", "Professional career.", "Suspension and retirement.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "He first came to the tennis world's attention as a promising junior player. In 1985, he partnered with fellow Czech Cyril Suk to win the boys' doubles title at the French Open. Korda and Suk ranked the joint-World No. 1 junior doubles players that year. Junior Slam results:", "Korda turned professional in 1987. He won his first career doubles title in 1988, and his first top-level singles title in 1991. Korda was involved in four Grand Slam finals during his career – two in singles and two in doubles. Korda also was known for the \"Scissors Kick\" which he would do at midcourt after winning matches. In 1990, Korda and Goran Ivanišević finished runners-up in the men's doubles at the French Open, and as a result, Korda reached his career-high doubles ranking of world No. 10. In 1992, he rose to the men's singles final at the French Open beating Christian Bergström, Shuzo Matsuoka, Michiel Schapers, Jaime Oncins, Andrei Cherkasov and Henri Leconte, before he was defeated in straight sets by defending champion Jim Courier 7–5, 6–2, 6–1. A highlight of Korda's career include winning the Grand Slam Cup in 1993, with five-set wins in the semifinal and final over Pete Sampras and Michael Stich, the number 1 and 2 tennis players in the world at that time. Korda also was a part of the Czech Republic's team which won the Hopman Cup in 1994. In 1996 he teamed-up with Stefan Edberg to win the men's doubles title at the Australian Open. He also upset the defending champion, Pete Sampras, in five sets in the fourth round of the 1997 US Open. The crowning moment of Korda's career came in 1998, when he defeated Albert Portas, Scott Draper, Vincent Spadea, Cédric Pioline, Jonas Björkman and Karol Kučera to face Marcelo Ríos in the men's singles final at the Australian Open. Korda dominated the match from start to finish by winning in straight sets 6–2, 6–2, 6–2 and claimed his first Grand Slam singles title in just 1 hour and 25 minutes. The win propelled him to his career-high singles ranking of World No. 2. At four tournaments in 1998, Korda had the world No. 1 ranking in his sights, but he lost to Karol Kučera in Antwerp, Marcelo Ríos at Indian Wells, Tim Henman in Miami and Richard Krajicek in Monte Carlo.", "Following his quarterfinal match against Tim Henman at the 1998 Wimbledon Championships, Korda tested positive for the banned steroid nandrolone. This was publicly revealed in December 1998. At the time, Korda was stripped of the ranking points and prize money that he had won at 1998 Wimbledon, but was not banned from the sport. The ITF soon announced that it felt that it had made a mistake in not banning Korda, and would be seeking to appeal against its own decision not to ban Korda from tennis competition. London's High Court ruled in late January 1999 that the ITF could not appeal against its own initial decision, but Korda was later banned from tennis for 12 months from September 1999 and stripped of the prize money and ranking points that he had won since July 1998 (although the suspension meant little as Korda had retired after failing to qualify for 1999 Wimbledon, losing to Danny Sapsford in a qualifying match). He did, however, compete in the Prague Challenger in December 2000 and the Prostějov Challenger in both 2001 and 2005 (the former in singles and doubles, the latter two only in doubles).", "Korda married Regina Rajchrtová, a former professional tennis player from Czechoslovakia. They have three children, the oldest of whom, Jessica, was born on 27 February 1993; she is a professional golfer, and finished 19th in the 2008 U.S. Women's Open as a 15-year-old, with Korda as her caddy. At the 2013 U.S. Women's Open, he caddied for another of their daughters, Nelly, who was 14 years old at the time and the youngest player in the tournament. His 19 year old son, Sebastian, is also a tennis player and is the top-ranked junior in the world while representing the United States. Sebastian won the junior boys’ Australian Open title in 2018." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins and first functional prototypes.", "Corneal and rigid lenses (1949–1960s).", "Gas permeable and soft lenses (1959-current).", "Types.", "Functions.", "Correction of refractive error.", "Correction of presbyopia.", "Other types of vision correction.", "Cosmetic contact lenses.", "Therapeutic scleral lenses.", "Therapeutic soft lenses.", "Materials.", "Rigid lenses.", "Soft lenses.", "Hybrid.", "Wear schedule.", "Replacement schedule.", "Manufacturing.", "Prescriptions.", "United States.", "Complications.", "Usage.", "Insertion.", "Removal.", "Care.", "Current research.", "In popular culture.", "Films." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Leonardo da Vinci is frequently credited with introducing the idea of contact lenses in his 1508 \"Codex of the eye, Manual D\", wherein he described a method of directly altering corneal power by either submerging the head in a bowl of water or wearing a water-filled glass hemisphere over the eye. Neither idea was practically implementable in da Vinci's time. He did not suggest his idea be used for correcting vision; he was more interested in exploring mechanisms of accommodation. Descartes proposed a device for correcting vision consisting of a liquid-filled glass tube capped with a lens. However, the idea was impracticable, since the device was to be placed in direct contact with the cornea and thus would have made blinking impossible. In 1801, Thomas Young fashioned a pair of basic contact lenses based on Descartes' model. He used wax to affix water-filled lenses to his eyes, neutralizing their refractive power, which he corrected with another pair of lenses. However his device was not intended to correct refraction errors. Sir John Herschel, in a footnote to the 1845 edition of the \"Encyclopedia Metropolitana\", posed", "In 1949, the first \"corneal\" lenses were developed. These were much smaller than the original scleral lenses, as they sat only on the cornea rather than across all of the visible ocular surface, and could be worn up to 16 hours a day. PMMA corneal lenses became the first contact lenses to have mass appeal through the 1960s, as lens designs became more sophisticated with improving manufacturing technology.", "One major disadvantage of PMMA lenses is that they allow no oxygen to get through to the conjunctiva and cornea, causing a number of adverse and potentially serious clinical effects. By the end of the 1970s and through the 1980s and 1990s, a range of oxygen-permeable but rigid materials were developed to overcome this problem. Chemist Norman Gaylord played a prominent role in the development of these new oxygen-permeable contact lenses. Collectively, these polymers are referred to as \"rigid gas permeable\" or RGP materials or lenses. Though all", "Contact lenses are classified in many different ways: by their primary function, material, wear schedule (how long a lens can be worn), and replacement schedule (how long before a lens needs to be discarded).", "", "Corrective contact lenses are designed to improve vision, most commonly by correcting refractive error. This is done by directly focusing light so it enters the eye with the proper power for clear vision. A spherical contact lens bends light evenly in every direction (horizontally, vertically, etc.). They are typically used to correct myopia and hypermetropia. A toric contact lens has a different focusing power horizontally than vertically, and", "Correction of presbyopia (a need for a reading prescription different from the prescription needed for distance) presents an additional challenge in the fitting of contact lenses. Two main strategies exist: multifocal lenses and monovision. Multifocal contact lenses (e.g. bifocals or progressives) are comparable to spectacles with bifocals or progressive lenses because they have multiple focal points. Multifocal contact lenses are typically designed for constant viewing through the center of the lens, but some designs do incorporate a shift in lens position to view through the reading", "For those with certain color deficiencies, a red-tinted \"X-Chrom\" contact lens may be used. Although such a lens does not restore normal color vision, it allows some color-blind people to distinguish colors better. Red-filtering contact lenses can also be an option for extreme light sensitivity in some visual deficiencies such as achromatopsia. ChromaGen contact lenses have been used and shown to have some limitations", "A cosmetic contact lens is designed to change the appearance of the eye. These lenses may also correct refractive error. Although many brands of contact lenses are lightly tinted to make them easier to handle, cosmetic lenses worn to change eye color are far less common, accounting for only 3% of contact lens fits in 2004. In the United States, the FDA labels non-corrective cosmetic contact lenses as \"decorative contact lenses\". Like any contact lens, cosmetic lenses carry risks of mild to serious complications, including ocular redness, irritation and infection. Due to their medical nature, colored contact lenses, similar to regular ones, are illegal to purchase in the United States without a valid prescription. Those with perfect vision can buy color contacts for cosmetic reasons, but they still need their eyes to be measured for a \"plano\" prescription, meaning", "A scleral lens is a large, firm, transparent, oxygen-permeable contact lens that rests on the sclera and creates a tear-filled vault over the cornea. The cause of this unique positioning is usually relevant to a specific patient whose cornea is too sensitive to support the lens directly. Scleral lenses may be used", "Soft lenses are often used in the treatment and management of non-refractive disorders of the eye. A bandage contact lens allows the patient to see while protecting an injured or diseased cornea from the constant rubbing of blinking eyelids, thereby allowing it to heal. They are used in the treatment of conditions including bullous keratopathy, dry eyes, corneal abrasions and erosion, keratitis, corneal edema, descemetocele, corneal ectasia, Mooren's ulcer, anterior corneal dystrophy, and neurotrophic keratoconjunctivitis. Contact lenses that deliver drugs to the eye have also been developed.", "", "Glass lenses were never comfortable enough to gain widespread popularity. The first lenses to do so were those made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA or Perspex/Plexiglas), now commonly referred to as \"hard\" lenses. Their main disadvantage is they do not allow oxygen to pass through to the cornea, which can cause a number of adverse, and often serious, clinical events. Starting in the late 1970s, improved rigid materials which were oxygen-permeable were developed.", "Soft lenses are more flexible than rigid lenses, and can be gently rolled or folded without damaging the lens. While rigid lenses require a period of adaptation before comfort is achieved, new soft lens wearers typically report lens awareness rather than pain or discomfort. Hydrogel lenses rely on their water content to transmit oxygen through the lens to the cornea. As a result, higher water content lenses allowed more oxygen to the cornea. In 1998, silicone hydrogel, or Si-hy lenses became available. These materials have both the extremely high oxygen permeability of silicone and the comfort and clinical performance of the conventional hydrogels. Because silicone allows more oxygen permeability than water, oxygen permeability of", "A small number of hybrid lenses exist. Typically these contact lenses consist of a rigid center and a soft \"skirt\". A similar technique is the \"piggybacking\" of a smaller, rigid lens on the surface of a larger, soft lens. These techniques are often chosen to give the vision correction benefits of a rigid lens and the comfort of a soft lens.", "A \"daily wear\" (DW) contact lens is designed to be worn for one day and removed before sleeping. An \"extended wear\" (EW) contact lens is designed for continuous overnight wear, typically for up to 6 consecutive nights. Newer materials, such as silicone hydrogels, allow for even longer wear periods of up to 30 consecutive nights; these longer-wear lenses are often referred to as \"continuous wear\" (CW). EW and CW contact lenses can be worn overnight because of their high oxygen permeability. While awake, the eyes are mostly open, allowing oxygen from the air to dissolve", "Contact lenses are often categorized by their replacement schedule. Single use lenses (called 1-day or daily disposables) are discarded after one use. Because they do not have to stand up to the wear and tear of repeated uses, these lenses can be made thinner and lighter, greatly improving their comfort. Lenses replaced frequently gather fewer deposits of allergens and germs, making these lenses preferable for patients with ocular allergies or for those who are prone to infection. Single-use lenses are also useful for people who wear contact lenses infrequently, or when losing a lens is likely or not", "Typically, soft contact lenses are mass-produced, while rigids are custom-made to exact specifications", "The parameters specified in a contact lens prescription may include: Prescriptions for contact lenses and glasses may be similar, but are not interchangeable. Prescribing of contact lenses is usually restricted to various combinations of ophthalmologists, optometrists and opticians. An eye examination is needed to determine an individual's suitability for contact lens wear. This typically includes a refraction to determine the proper power of the lens and an assessment of the health of the eye's anterior segment. Many eye diseases prohibits contact lens wear, such as active infections, allergies, and dry eye. Keratometry is especially important in the fitting of rigid lenses.", "Contact lenses are prescribed by ophthalmologists, optometrists, or specially licensed opticians under the supervision of an eye doctor. Contact lenses can typically be ordered at the", "Contact lenses are generally safe as long as they are used correctly. Complications from contact lens wear affect roughly 5% of wearers yearly. Factors leading to eye damage varies, and improper use of a contact lens may affect the eyelid, the conjunctiva, and, most of all, the whole structure of the cornea. Poor lens care can lead to infections by various microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, and \"Acanthamoeba\" (\"Acanthamoeba\" keratitis). Many complications arise when contact lenses are worn not as prescribed (improper wear schedule or lens replacement). Sleeping in lenses not designed or approved for extended wear is a common cause of complications. Many people go too long before replacing their contacts, wearing lenses designed for 1, 14, or 30 days of wear for multiple months or years. While this does save on the cost of lenses, it risks permanent damage to the eye and even loss of sight. One of the major factors that causes complications is that the contact lens is an oxygen barrier. The cornea needs a constant supply of oxygen to", "Before touching the contact lens or the eye, it is important to wash hands thoroughly with soap and rinse well. Soaps containing moisturizers or allergens should be avoided as these can cause eye irritation. Drying of hands using towels or tissues before handling contact lenses can transfer lint (fluff) to the hands and, subsequently, to the lenses, causing irritation upon insertion. Towels, unless freshly laundered on high temperature wash, are frequently contaminated with large quantities of bacteria and, as such, should be avoided when handling lenses. Dust, lint and other debris may collect on the outside of contact lenses. Again, hand contact with this material, before handling contact lenses, may transfer it to the lenses themselves. Rinsing the case under a source of clean running water, before opening it, can help alleviate this problem. Next the lens should be removed from its case and inspected for defects (e.g. splits, folds, lint). A 'gritty' or rough appearance to the lens surface may indicate that a considerable quantity of proteins, lipids and debris has built up on it and that additional cleaning is required; this is often accompanied and felt by unusually high irritation upon insertion. Care should be taken to ensure the soft lens is not inserted inside-out. The edge of a lens turned inside out has a different appearance, especially when the lens is slightly folded. Insertion of an inside-out lens for a brief time (less than one minute) should not cause any damage to the eye. Some brands of lenses have markings on the rim that make it easier to tell the front of the lens apart from the back.", "Contact lenses are typically inserted into the eye by placing them on the pad of the index or middle finger with the concave side upward and then using that finger to place the lens on the eye. Rigid lenses should be placed directly on the cornea. Soft lenses may be placed on the sclera (white of the eye) and then slid into place. Another finger of the same hand, or a finger of the other hand, is used to keep the eye wide open. Alternatively, the user may close their eyes and then look towards their nose, sliding the lens into place over the cornea. Problems may arise if the lens folds, turns inside-out,", "Removing contact lenses incorrectly can result in damage to the lens and injury to the eye, so certain precautions must be taken. Rigid contact lenses can best be removed by pulling the eyelid tight and then blinking, whereupon the lens drops out. With one finger on the outer corner of the eyelids, or lateral canthus, the person stretches the eyelids towards the ear; the increased tension of the eyelid margins against the edge of lens allows the blink to break the capillary action that adheres the lens to the eye. The other hand is typically cupped underneath the eye to catch the lens as it drops out.", "Lens care varies depending on material and wear schedule. Daily disposables are discarded after a single use and thus require no cleaning. Other lenses need regular cleaning and disinfecting to prevent surface coating and infections. There are many ways to clean and care for contact lenses, typically called care systems or lens solutions: Aside from cleaning the contact lenses, it is highly advised to also clean the cases to avoid any possible infection. Replacing the case monthly, and storing it in a clean and safe environment is also recommended. Contact lenses can be mechanically cleaned of more substantial protein, lipid and debris", "Contact lens sensors to monitor the ocular temperature were recently demonstrated. A large segment of current contact lens research is directed towards the treatment and prevention of conditions resulting from contact lens contamination and colonization by foreign organisms. Clinicians tend to agree that the most significant complication of contact lens wear is microbial keratitis and that the most predominant microbial pathogen is \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\". Other organisms are also major causative factors in bacterial keratitis associated with contact lens wear, although their prevalence varies across different locations. These include both the \"Staphylococcus\" species (\"aureus\" and \"epidermidis\") and the \"Streptococcus\" species, among others. Microbial keratitis is a serious focal point of current research due to its potentially devastating effect on the eye, including severe vision loss. One specific research topic of interest is how microbes such as \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" invade the eye and cause infection. Although the pathogenesis of microbial keratitis is not well understood, many different factors have been investigated. One group of researchers showed that corneal hypoxia exacerbated \"Pseudomonas\" binding to the corneal epithelium, internalization of the microbes, and induction of the inflammatory response. One way to alleviate hypoxia is to increase the amount of oxygen transmitted to the cornea. Although silicone-hydrogel lenses almost eliminate hypoxia in patients due to their very high levels of oxygen transmissibility, they also seem to provide a more efficient platform for bacterial contamination and corneal infiltration than other conventional hydrogel soft contact lenses. A recent study showed that \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" and \"Staphylococcus epidermis\" adhere much more strongly to unworn silicone hydrogel contact lenses than conventional hydrogel lenses and that adhesion of \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\" was 20 times stronger than that of \"Staphylococcus epidermidis\". This might partly explain why \"Pseudomonas\" infections are the most predominant. However, another study conducted with worn and unworn silicone and conventional hydrogel contact lenses showed that worn silicone contact", "", "One of the earliest known motion pictures to introduce the use of contact lenses as a make-up artist's device for enhancing the eyes was by the innovative actor Lon Chaney in the 1926 film \"The Road to Mandalay\" to create the effect of a character who had a blind eye. Dr. Rueben Greenspoon applied them to Orson Welles for the film \"Citizen Kane\" in 1940." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Etymology.", "Epithets.", "Description.", "Family.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name \"Dagda\" is believed to come from, \"the good god\" or \"the great god\" but may ultimately be derived from the Proto-Indo-European \"*Dhagho-deiwos\" \"shining divinity\", the first element being cognate with the English word \"day\", and possibly a byword for a deification of a notion such as \"splendour\". This etymology would tie in well with Dagda's mythic association with the sun and the earth, with kingship and excellence in general. \"*Dhago-deiwos\" would have been inherited into Proto-Celtic as \"*Dago-deiwos\", thereby punning with the Proto-Celtic word \"*dago-s\" \"good\".", "The Dagda has several other names or epithets which reflect aspects of his character. The name Eochu is a diminutive form of Eochaid, which also has spelling variants of Eochaidh and Echuid. The death and ancestral god Donn may originally have been a form of the Dagda, who is sometimes called Dagda Donn.", "Tales depict the Dagda as a figure of immense power. He is said to own a magic staff, club or mace which could kill nine men with one blow; but with the handle he could return the slain to life. It was called the \"lorg mór\" (\"the great staff/club/mace\") or the \"lorg anfaid\" (\"the staff/club/mace of wrath\"). His magic cauldron was known as the \"coire ansic\" (\"the un-dry cauldron\") and was said to be bottomless, from which no man left unsatisfied. It was said to have a ladle so big that two people could fit in it. Uaithne, also known as \"the Four Angled Music\", was a richly ornamented magic harp made of oak which, when the Dagda played it, put the seasons in their correct order; other accounts tell of it being used to command the order of battle. He possessed two pigs, one of which was always growing whilst the other was always roasting, and ever-laden fruit trees. The Dagda was one of the kings of the Tuatha De Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann are the race of supernatural beings who conquered the Fomorians, who inhabited Ireland previously, prior to the coming of the Milesians. The Mórrígan is often described as his wife, his daughter was Brígh, and his lover was Boann, after whom the River Boyne is named, though she was married to Elcmar. Prior to the battle with the Fomorians, he coupled with the goddess of war, the Mórrígan, on Samhain in exchange for a plan of battle. Despite his great power and prestige, the Dagda is sometimes depicted as oafish and crude, even comical, wearing a short, rough tunic that barely covers his rump, dragging his great penis on the ground. Such features are thought to be the additions of Christian redactors for comedic purposes. The Middle Irish language \"Coir Anmann\" (The Fitness of Names) paints a less clownish picture: \"He was a beautiful god of the heathens, for the Tuatha Dé Danann worshipped him: for he was an earth-god to them because of the greatness of his (magical) power.\" The Dagda has similarities with the later harvest figure Crom Dubh.", "The Dagda is said to be husband of the Morrígan, who is called his \"envious wife\". His children include Aengus, Cermait, and Aed (often called the three sons of the Dagda), Brigit and Bodb Derg. He is said to have two brothers, Nuada and Ogma, but this may be an instance of the tendency to triplicate deities. Elsewhere the Dagda is linked exclusively with Ogma, and the two are called \"the two brothers.\" In the Dindsenchas, the Dagda is given a daughter named Ainge, for whom he makes a twig basket or tub that always leaks when the tide is in and never leaks when it is going out. The Dagda's father is named Elatha son of Delbeath. Englec, the daughter of Elcmar, is named as a consort of the Dagda and the mother of his \"swift son\". Echtgi the loathesome is another daughter of the Dagda's named in the Banshenchas.", "Before the Second Battle of Maig Tuired the Dagda built a fortress for Bres called Dún Brese and was also forced by the Fomorian kings Elatha, Indech, and Tethra to build raths. In the lead up to the Second Battle of Maig Tuired, when Lugh asks Dagda what power he will wield over the Fomorian host, he responds that he \"[..] will take the side of the men of Erin both in mutual smiting and destruction and wizardry. Their bones under my club will be as many as hailstones under feet of herds of horses.\" The Dagda had an affair with Bóand, wife of Elcmar. In order to hide their affair, Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months; therefore their son, Aengus, was conceived, gestated and born in one day. He, along with Bóand, helped Aengus search for his love. Whilst Aengus was away the Dagda shared out his land among his children, but Aengus returned to discover that nothing had been saved for him. Aengus later tricked his father out of his home at the Brú na Bóinne (Newgrange). Aengus asked his father if he could live in the Brú for \"láa ogus oidhche\" \"(a) day and (a) night\", which in Irish is ambiguous, and could refer to either \"a day and a night\", or \"day and night\", which means for all time, and so Aengus took possession of the Brú permanently. In \"The Wooing of Étaín\", on the other hand, Aengus uses the same ploy to trick \"Elcmar\" out of Brú na Bóinne, with the Dagda's connivance. The Dagda was also the father of Bodb Dearg, Cermait, Midir, Áine, and Brigit. He was the brother of Oghma, who is probably related to the Gaulish god Ogmios; Ogmios, depicted as an old man with a club, is one of the closest Gaulish parallels to the Dagda. Another Gaulish god who may be related to the Dagda is Sucellus, the striker, depicted with a hammer and cup. He is credited with a seventy- or eighty-year reign (depending on source) over the Tuatha Dé Danann, before dying at the Brú na Bóinne, finally succumbing to a wound inflicted by Cethlenn during the second battle of Magh Tuiredh. In a poem about Mag Muirthemne, the Dagda banishes an octopus with his \"mace of wrath\" using the following words: \"Turn thy hollow head! Turn thy ravening body! Turn thy resorbent forehead! Avaunt! Begone!\", the sea receded with the creature and the plain of Mag Muirthemne was left behind. In the \"Dindsenchas\" the Dagda is described as swift with a poison draught and a just dealing lord. He is also called a King of Erin with hosts of hostages, a noble, slender prince, and the father of Cermait, Aengus, and Aed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood (1373 or 1374–82).", "Accession negotiations (1382–84).", "Reign.", "Coronation (1384).", "Refusal of William (1385).", "Marriage to Jogaila (1385–92).", "Strife with Sigismund (1392–95).", "Conflict with the Teutonic Knights (1395–99).", "Pregnancy and death (1399).", "Family.", "Legacy.", "Achievements.", "Holiness.", "Popular culture.", "Film.", "Computer games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Jadwiga was born in Buda, the capital of the Kingdom of Hungary. She was the third and youngest daughter of Louis I, King of Hungary and Poland, and his second wife, Elizabeth of Bosnia. Both her grandmothers were Polish princesses, connecting her to the native Piast dynasty of Poland. Historian Oscar Halecki concluded that Jadwiga's \"genealogical tree clearly shows that [she] had more Polish blood than any other\". She was probably born between 3 October 1373 and 18 February 1374. She was named after her distant ancestor, Saint Hedwig of Silesia, who was especially venerated in the Hungarian royal court at the time of her birth. King Louis, who had not fathered any sons, wanted to ensure his daughters' right to inherit his realms. Therefore, European royals regarded his three daughters as especially attractive brides. Leopold III, Duke of Austria, proposed his eldest son, William, to Jadwiga already on 18 August 1374. The envoys of the Polish nobles acknowledged that one of Louis's daughters would succeed him in Poland after he confirmed and extended their liberties in the Privilege of Koszyce on 17 September 1374. They took an oath of loyalty to Catherine on Louis's demand. Louis agreed to give Jadwiga in marriage to William of Austria on 4 March 1375. The children's \"sponsalia de futuro\", or \"provisional marriage\", was celebrated at Hainburg on 15 June 1378. The ceremony established the legal framework for the consummation of the marriage without any further ecclesiastical act as soon as they both reached the age of maturity. Duke Leopold agreed that Jadwiga would only receive Treviso, a town which was to be conquered from the Republic of Venice, as dowry from her father. After the ceremony, Jadwiga stayed in Austria for almost two years; she mainly lived in Vienna. Catherine died in late 1378. Louis persuaded the most influential Polish lords to swear an oath of loyalty to her younger sister, Mary, in September 1379. She was betrothed to Sigismund of Luxemburg, a great-grandson of Casimir the Great, who had been Louis's predecessor on the Polish throne. The \"promised marriage\" of Jadwiga and William was confirmed at their fathers' meeting in Zólyom (now Zvolen in Slovakia) on 12 February 1380. Hungarian lords also approved the document, implying that Jadwiga and William were regarded as her father's successors in Hungary. A delegation of the Polish lords and clergy paid formal homage to Sigismund of Luxemburg as their future king on 25 July 1382. The Poles believed that Louis planned also to persuade the Hungarian lords and prelates to accept Jadwiga and William of Austria as his heirs in Hungary. However, he died on 11 September 1382. Jadwiga was present at her father's death bed.", "Jadwiga's sister, Mary, was crowned \"king\" of Hungary five days after their father's death. With the ceremony, their ambitious mother secured the right to govern Hungary on her twelve-year-old daughter's behalf instead of Mary's fiancé, Sigismund. Sigismund could not be present at Mary's coronation, because Louis had sent him to Poland to crush a rebellion. After he learnt of Louis's death, he adopted the title \"Lord of the Kingdom of Poland\", demanding oaths of loyalty from the towns in Lesser Poland. On 25 November, the nobles of Greater Poland assembled at Radomsko and decided to obey nobody but the daughter of the late king as she would settle in Poland. On their initiative, the noblemen of Lesser Poland passed a similar agreement in Wiślica on 12 December. Queen Elizabeth sent her envoys to the assembled lords and forbade them to swear an oath of loyalty to anyone other than one of her daughters, thus invalidating the oath of loyalty that the Polish noblemen had sworn to Sigismund on the late King Louis's demand. Both Elizabeth's daughters had been engaged to foreign princes (Sigismund and William, respectively) unpopular in Poland. Polish lords who were opposed to a foreign monarch regarded the members of the Piast dynasty as possible candidates to the Polish throne. Queen Elizabeth's uncle Władysław the White had already attempted to seize Poland during Louis's reign. However, he had taken monastic vows and settled in a Benedictine abbey in Dijon in Burgundy. Antipope Clement VII, whom King Louis had refused to recognize against Pope Urban VI, released Władysław from his vows, but he did not leave his monastery. Meanwhile, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia, appeared as a more ambitious candidate. He was especially popular among the nobility and townspeople of Greater Poland. Queen Elizabeth's representatives released the Poles from their oath of fidelity that their representatives had sworn to Mary at an assembly in Sieradz in February 1383. The envoys also announced that she was willing to send Jadwiga to be crowned instead, on condition that she return to Buda after her coronation to live there until her twelfth birthday. The Polish lords accepted the proposal, but they soon realized that thereby the interregnum would be extended by a further three years. At a new meeting in Sieradz, most noblemen were ready to elect Siemowit of Masovia king on 28 March. They proposed that Siemowit should marry Jadwiga. A member of the influential Tęczyński family, Jan, convinced them to postpone Siemowit's election. The noblemen agreed to wait for Jadwiga until 10 May, stipulating that she was to live in Poland after her coronation. They also demanded that Dobrzyń and Gniewków (two fiefdoms which her father had granted to Vladislaus II of Opole), and \"Ruthenia\" (that had passed to Hungary in accordance with a previous treaty) be restored to the Polish Crown. Meanwhile, Jan Tęczyński and his allies, including, seem to have started negotiations with Jogaila, Grand Duke of Lithuania. Siemowit's supporters however, tried to enter Kraków in the retinue of Bodzanta, Archbishop of Gniezno, in May, but the townspeople closed the gates of the city before their arrival. Jadwiga had not arrived in Poland by the stipulated date (10 May). Her mother's envoys stated that the spring floods had hindered Jadwiga's progress over the Carpathian Mountains. Siemowit of Mazovia took up arms and advanced as far as Kalisz. His supporters assembled in Sieradz in August in order to elect him king, but Archbishop Bodzanta refused to perform his coronation. In a meeting in Kassa, Queen Elizabeth promised the delegates of the Polish provinces to send Jadwiga to Poland before November. The queen mother and the Poles also agreed that if either Jadwiga or Mary died childless, her kingdom would pass to her surviving sister. Siemowit having laid siege to Kalisz, Queen Elizabeth sent Sigismund of Luxemburg at the head of an \"improvised army\" to Lesser Poland. Siemowit failed to take Kalisz, but news about the appalling behaviour of Sigismund's soldiers increased Sigismund's unpopularity in Poland. Sędziwój Pałuka, who was the castellan of Kalisz and \"starosta\" of Kraków, led a delegation to Zadar in Dalmatia to negotiate with Queen Elizabeth, but she had him imprisoned instead. She sent Hungarian soldiers to Poland to garrison them in Wawel Castle in Kraków, but Pałuka escaped and successfully obstructed her soldiers entering the castle. At a general assembly in Radomsko in early March, the delegates of all the Polish provinces and towns decided to elect Siemowit king, if Jadwiga did not come to Poland within two months. They set up a provisional government, stipulating that only the \"community of lords and citizens\" had the authority to administer Poland during the interregnum. Queen Elizabeth, who was only informed of the decision by an informal message, realized that she could not any longer postpone Jadwiga's coronation and so sent her to Poland. The exact date of Jadwiga's arrival is unknown, because the main source for the history of Poland during this periodJan of Czarnków's chronicle ended prior to this event.", "", "The interregnum that followed Louis's death and caused such internal strife came to an end with Jadwiga's arrival in Poland. A large crowd of clerics, noblemen and burghers gathered at Kraków \"to greet her with a display of affection\", according to the 15th-century Polish historian, Jan Długosz. Nobody protested when Archbishop Bodzanta crowned her on 16 October 1384. According to traditional scholary consensus, Jadwiga was crowned \"king\". Thereby, as Robert W. Knoll proposes, the Polish lords prevented her eventual spouse from adopting the same title without their consent. Stephen C. Rowell, who says that sources that contradict the traditional view outnumber those verifying it, suggests that sporadic contemporaneous references to Jadwiga as \"king\" only reflect that she was not a queen consort, but a queen regnant. Bodzanta, Archbishop of Gniezno,, Bishop of Kraków, Dobrogost of Nowy Dwór, Bishop of Poznań, and Duke Vladislaus II of Opole were Jadwiga's most trusted advisers during the first years of her reign. According to a widely accepted scholarly theory, Jadwiga, who was still a minor, was \"a mere tool\" to her advisers. However, Halecki refutes this view, contending that Jadwiga matured quickly and her personality, especially her charm and kindness, only served to strengthen her position. Already in late 1384 she intervened on Duke Vladislaus's behalf to reconcile him with her mother's favourite, Nicholas I Garai.", "The Polish lords did not want to accept Jadwiga's fourteen-year-old fiancé, William of Habsburg, as their sovereign. They thought that the inexperienced William and his Austrian kinsmen could not safeguard Poland's interests against its powerful neighbours, especially the Luxemburgs which controlled Bohemia and Brandenburg, and had a strong claim on Hungary. According to Halecki, the lords of Lesser Poland were the first to suggest that Jadwiga should marry the pagan duke Jogaila of Lithuania. Jogaila sent his envoysincluding his brother, Skirgaila, and a German burgher from Riga, Hanul to Kraków to request Jadwiga's hand in January 1385. Jadwiga refused to answer, stating only that her mother would decide. Jogaila's two envoys left for Hungary and met Queen Elizabeth. She informed them that \"she would allow whatever was advantageous to Poland and insisted that her daughter and the prelates and nobles of the Kingdom had to do what they considered would benefit Christianity and their kingdom\", according to Jan Długosz's chronicle. The nobles from Kraków, Sandomierz and Greater Poland assembled in Kraków in June or July and the \"majority of the more sensible\" voted for the acceptance of Jogaila's marriage proposal. In the meantime, William's father, Leopold III hurried to Buda in late July 1385, demanding the consummation of the marriage between William and Jadwiga before 16 August. Queen Elizabeth confirmed the previous agreements about the marriage, ordering Vladislaus II of Opole to make preparations for the ceremony. According to canon law, Jadwiga's marriage sacrament could only be completed before her twelfth birthday if the competent prelate testified her precocious maturity. Demetrius, Archbishop of Esztergom, issued the necessary document. William went to Kraków in the first half of August, but his entry to Wawel Castle was barred. Długosz states that Jadwiga and William would only be able to meet in the nearby Franciscan convent. Contemporary or nearly contemporaneous records of the completion of the marriage between William and Jadwiga are contradictory and unclear. The official accounts of the municipal authorities of Kraków record that on 23 August 1385 an amnesty was granted to the prisoners in the city jail on the occasion of the celebration of the Queen's marriage. On the other hand, a contemporary Austrian chronicle, the \"Continuatio Claustroneubuzgis\" states that the Poles had tried to murder William before he consummated the marriage. In the next century, Długosz states that William was \"removed in a shameful and offensive manner and driven from the castle\" after he entered \"the Queen's bedchamber\"; but the same chronicler also mentions that Jadwiga was well aware that \"many people knew she had for a fortnight shared her bed with Duke William and that there had been physical consummation\". On the night when William entered the queen's bedchamber, a group of Polish noblemen broke into the castle, forcing William to flee, according to Długosz. After this humiliation, Długosz continues, Jadwiga decided to leave Wawel and join William, but the gate of the castle was locked. She called for \"an axe and [tried] to break it open\", but Dymitr of Goraj convinced her to return to the castle. Oscar Halecki says that Długosz's narrative \"cannot be dismissed as a romantic legend\"; Robert I. Frost writes that it is a \"tale, almost certainly apocryphal\". There is no doubt, however, that William of Austria was forced to leave Poland.", "Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo in August 1385, promising Queen Elizabeth's representatives and the Polish lords' envoys that he would convert to Catholicism, together with his pagan kinsmen and subjects, if Jadwiga married him. He also pledged to pay 200,000 florins to William of Habsburg in compensation. William never accepted it. Two days after the Union of Krewo, the Teutonic Knights invaded Lithuania. The \"Aeltere Hochmeisterchronik\" and other chronicles written in the Knights' territory accused the Polish prelates and lords of forcing Jadwiga to accept Jogaila's offer. According to a Polish legend, Jadwiga agreed to marry Jogaila due to divine inspiration during her long prayers before a crucifix in Wawel Cathedral. Siemowit IV of Mazovia resigned his claim to Poland in December. The Polish lords' envoys informed Jogaila that they would obey him if he married Jadwiga on 11 January 1386. Jogaila went to Lublin where a general assembly unanimously declared him \"king and lord of Poland\" in early February. Jogaila went on to Kraków where he was baptized, receiving the Christian name, Władysław, in Wawel Cathedral on 15 February. Three days later, 35-year-old Władysław-Jogaila married 12-year-old Jadwiga. Władysław-Jogaila styled himself as \"dominus et tutor regni Poloniae\" (\"lord and guardian of the Kingdom of Poland\") in his first charter issued after the marriage. Archbishop Bodzanta crowned Władysław-Jogaila king on 4 March 1386. Poland was transformed into a diarchya kingdom ruled over by two sovereigns. Jadwiga and her husband did not speak a common language, but they cooperated closely in their marriage. She accompanied him to Greater Poland to appease the local lords who were still hostile to him. The royal visit caused damage to the peasants who lived in the local prelates' domains, but Jadwiga persuaded her husband to compensate them, saying: \"We have, indeed, returned the peasants' cattle, but who can repair their tears?\", according to Długosz's chronicle. A court record of her order to the judges in favour of a peasant also shows that she protected the poor. Pope Urban VI sent his legate, Maffiolus de Lampugnano, to Kraków to enquire about the marriage of the royal couple. Lampugnano did not voice any objections, but the Teutonic Knights started a propaganda campaign in favour of William of Habsburg. Queen Elizabeth pledged to assist Władysław-Jogaila against his enemies on 9 June 1386, but Hungary had sunken into anarchy. A group of Slavonian lords captured and imprisoned Jadwiga's mother and sister on 25 July. The rebels murdered Queen Elizabeth in January 1387. A month later, Jadwiga marched at the head of Polish troops to Ruthenia where all but one of the governors submitted to her without opposition. Duke Vladislaus of Opole also had a claim on Ruthenia but could not convince King Wenceslaus of Germany to intervene on his behalf. Jadwiga confirmed the privileges of the local inhabitants and promised that Ruthenia would never again be separated from the Polish Crown. After the reinforcements that Władysław-Jogaila sent from Lithuania arrived in August, Halych, the only fortress to resist, also surrendered. Władysław-Jogaila also came to Ruthenia in September. Voivode Petru II of Moldavia visited the royal couple and paid homage to them in Lviv on 26 September. Władysław-Jogaila confirmed the privileges that Jadwiga had granted the Ruthenians in October. She also instructed her subjects to show the same respect for her husband as for herself: in a letter addressed to the burghers of Kraków in late 1387, she stated that her husband was their \"natural lord\". On William's demand, Pope Urban VI initiated a new investigation about the marriage of Jadwiga and Władysław-Jogaila. They sent Bishop Dobrogost of Poznań to Rome to inform the pope of the Christianization of Lithuania. In his letter to Bishop Dobrogost, Pope Urban jointly mentioned the royal couple in March 1388, which implied that he had already acknowledged the legality of their marriage. However, Gniewosz of Dalewice, who had been William of Habsburg's supporter, spread rumours about secret meetings between William and Jadwiga in the royal castle. Jadwiga took a solemn oath before Jan Tęczyński, stating that she had only had marital relations with Władysław-Jogaila. After all witnesses confirmed her oath, Gniewosz of Dalewice confessed that he had lied. She did not take vengeance on him.", "Jadwiga's brother-in-law, Sigismund, who had been crowned King of Hungary, started negotiations with the Teutonic Knights about partitioning Poland in early 1392. Jadwiga met Mary in Stará Ľubovňa in May and returned to Kraków only in early July. She most probably accompanied her husband to Lithuania, according to Oscar Halecki, because she was far from Kraków till the end of August. On 4 August, Władysław-Jogaila's cousin, Vytautas, who had earlier fled from Lithuania to the Teutonic Knights, paid homage to Władysław-Jogaila near Lida in Lithuania on 4 August. Negotiations between Sigismund and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Konrad von Wallenrode, continued with the mediation of Vladislaus of Opole. However, Hungary's southern border was exposed to Ottoman incursions, preventing Sigismund from taking military measures against Poland. Wallenrode died on 25 July 1393. His successor, Konrad von Jungingen, opened negotiations with the Poles. During the discussions, Pope Boniface IX's legate, John of Messina, supported the Poles. Jadwiga was a skilful mediator, famed for her impartiality and intelligence. She went to Lithuania to reconcile her brother-in-law, Skirgaila, with Vytautas in October 1393. Relations between Poland and Hungary remained tense. Sigismund invaded Moldavia, forcing Stephen I of Moldavia to accept his suzerainty in 1394. Soon after the Hungarian troops left Moldavia, Stephen sent his envoys to Jadwiga and Jogaila, promising to assist Poland against Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and the Teutonic Knights. On 17 May 1395, Mary died after a riding accident. According to the 1383 agreement between their mother and the Polish lords, Jadwiga was her childless sister's heir in Hungary. Vlad I of Wallachia, a Hungarian vassal, issued an act of submission on 28 May, acknowledging Jadwiga and her husband as Mary's legitimate successors. The widowed king's close supporter, Stibor of Stiboricz, expelled Vlad from Wallachia. Władysław-Jogaila gathered his troops on the Polish-Hungarian border, but, Palatine of Hungary, and, Archbishop of Esztergom, stopped his invasion of Hungary. In September, Konrad von Jungingen told the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire that the union of Poland, Lithuania and Hungary under Władysław-Jogaila's rule would endanger Christendom. However, most of Sigismund's opponents, who were especially numerous in Croatia, supported the claim of Ladislaus of Naples, the last male member of the Capetian House of Anjou. On 8 September, the most influential Hungarian lords declared that they would not support any change in government while Sigismund was far from Hungary fighting against the Ottoman Turks. Before the end of the year, peace negotiations between the representatives of Hungary and Poland ended with an agreement. Jadwiga adopted the title \"heir to Hungary\", but she and her husband took no further action against Sigismund.", "The relationship between Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights remained tense. Jadwiga and her Polish advisers invited the Grand Master, Konrad von Jungingen, to Poland to open new negotiations in June 1396. Conflicts with Vladislaus of Opole and Siemowit of Masovia, who had not given up their claims to parts of Ruthenia and Cuyavia, also intensified. To demonstrate that the territories were under Jadwiga's direct control, Władysław-Jogaila granted the Duchy of Belz (in Ruthenia) and Cuyavia to her in early 1397. However, Jadwiga and her Polish advisers wanted to avoid a war with the Teutonic Order. In response, Władysław-Jogaila replaced most Polish \"starostas\" (aldermen) in Ruthenia with local Orthodox noblemen. According to German sources, Władysław-Jogaila and Vytautas jointly asked Pope Boniface IX to sanction Vytautas' coronation as king of Lithuania and Ruthenia. Jadwiga and Jungingen met in Włocławek in the middle of June, but they did not reach a compromise. The Teutonic Order entrusted Vladislaus of Opole with the task of representing their claims to Dobrzyń against Jadwiga. Jadwiga and her husband met Sigismund of Hungary, who had returned there after his catastrophic defeat in the Battle of Nicopolis, on 14 July. They seem to have reached a compromise, because Sigismund offered to mediate between Poland, Lithuania and the Teutonic Knights. On Jadwiga's request, Wenceslaus of Bohemia granted permission for the establishment of a college for Lithuanian students in Prague on 20 July 1397. Jadwiga, who had spent \"many sleepless nights\" thinking of this project, according to herself, issued a charter of establishment for the college on 10 November. She opened new negotiations with the Teutonic Knights, but Konrad von Jungingen dispatched a simple knight to meet her in May 1398. Władysław-Jogaila's cousin Vytautas also entered into negotiations with the Teutonic Knights because he wanted to unite Lithuania and Ruthenia under his rule and to receive a royal crown from the Holy See. According to the chronicle of John of Posilge, who was an official of the Teutonic Order, Jadwiga sent a letter to Vytautas, reminding him to pay the annual tribute that Władysław-Jogaila had granted her as dower. Offended by Jadwiga's demand, Vytautas sought the opinion of the Lithuanian and Ruthenian lords who refused Jadwiga's claim to a tribute. On 12 October 1398, he signed a peace treaty with the Teutonic Knights, without referring to Władysław-Jogaila's right to confirm it. Oscar Halecki says that Posilge's \"sensational story\" is either an invention based on gossip or a guess by the chronicler.", "Jadwiga was childless for over a decade, which, according to chronicles written in the Teutonic lands, caused conflicts between her and her husband. She became pregnant in late 1398 or early 1399. Sigismund, King of Hungary, came to Kraków in early March to negotiate for a campaign to defend Wallachia against the Ottoman Turks. Vytautas, in order to bolster his authority over the Rus' principalities, decided to launch an expedition against Timur, who had subdued the Golden Horde. According to Jan Długosz's chronicle, Jadwiga warned the Polish noblemen not to join Vytautas' campaign because it would end in failure. Halecki says that the great number of Polish knights who joined Vytautas's expedition proves that Długosz's report is not reliable. On the occasion of the expected birth to the royal couple, Jogaila's cousin Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania, sent expensive gifts, including a silver cradle, to the royal court on behalf of himself and his wife, Anna. The first horoscopes written for Jadwiga's and Jogaila's child predicted a son in mid-September 1398. However, a girl was delivered on 22 June 1399 at Wawel Castle. Reports of the time stated that the child was born prematurely. According to the horoscope, she was actually born slightly late. However, a due date of 18 June would rule out the suspicion of pregnancy as early as mid-September. The newborn princess was named Elizabeth Bonifacia (, ), after Jadwiga's mother and Pope Boniface IX who, in a letter of 5 May 1399, had agreed to be godfather under the condition that the infant be called Boniface or Bonifacia. She was baptised by Piotr Wysz Radoliński, Bishop of Kraków. However, the infant died after only three weeks, on 13 July 1399. Jadwiga, too, was on her deathbed. Stanisław of Skarbimierz expressed hope that she would survive, describing her as the spiritual mother of the poor, weak, and ill of Poland. She advised her husband to marry Anna of Cilli, Casimir the Great's granddaughter, and died on 17 July 1399, four days after her newborn daughter. Jadwiga and her daughter were buried together in Wawel Cathedral, on 24 August 1399, as stipulated in the Queen's last will. On 12 July 1949, 550 years later, their tomb was opened; nothing remained of the child's soft cartilage.", "The following family tree illustrates Jadwiga's connection to her notable relatives. Kings of Poland are colored blue.", "", "Two leading historians, Oscar Halecki and S. Harrison Thomson, agree that Jadwiga was one of the greatest rulers of Poland, comparable to Bolesław the Brave and Casimir the Great. Her marriage to Władysław-Jogaila enabled the union of Poland and Lithuania, establishing a large state in East Central Europe. Jadwiga's decision to marry the 'elderly' Władysław-Jogaila instead of her beloved fiancé, William of Habsburg, has often been described as a sacrifice for her country in Polish historiography. Her biographers emphasize Jadwiga's efforts to preserve the peace with the Teutonic Order, which enabled Poland to make preparations for a decisive war against the Knights. Jadwiga's childless death weakened Władysław-Jogaila's position, because his claim to Poland was based on their marriage. Six days after her funeral, Władysław-Jogaila left Poland for Ruthenia, stating that he was to return to Lithuania after his wife's death. The Polish lords sent their envoys to Lviv to open negotiations with him. The delegates took new oaths of loyalty to him, confirming his position as king. On the lords' demand, he agreed to marry Anna of Cilli. Their wedding was celebrated on 29 January 1402. Jadwiga's cultural and charitable activities were of exceptional value. She established new hospitals, schools and churches, and restored older ones. Jadwiga promoted the use of vernacular in church services, especially the singing of hymns in Polish. The Scriptures were translated into Polish on her order. Casimir the Great had already in 1364 established the University of Kraków, but it did not survive his death. Władysław-Jogaila and Jadwiga jointly asked Pope Boniface IX to sanction the establishment of a faculty of theology in Kraków. The pope granted their request on 11 January 1397. Jadwiga bought houses along a central street of Kraków for the university. However, the faculty was only set up a year after Jadwiga's death: Władysław-Jogaila issued the charter for the reestablished university on 26 July 1400. In accordance with Jadwiga's last will, the restoration of the university was partially financed through the sale of her jewellery.", "Oscar Halecki writes that Jadwiga transmitted to the nations of East Central Europe the \"universal heritage of the \"respublica Christiana\", which in the West was then waning, but in East Central Europe started flourishing and blending with the pre-Renaissance world\". She was closely related to the saintly 13th-century princesses, venerated in Hungary and Poland, including Elizabeth of Hungary and her nieces, Kinga and Yolanda, and Salomea of Poland. She was born to a family famed for its religious zeal. She attended Mass every day. In accordance with her family's tradition, Jadwiga was especially devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary. An inscription engraved on her request on a precious chalice, which was placed in the Wawel Cathedral, asked Our Lady to place Poland under her protection. Jadwiga was venerated in Poland soon after her death. Stanisław of Skarbimierz states that she had been \"the most Christian queen\" in his sermon composed for her funeral. Paul of Zator referred to the wax figures placed by her grave. Sermons written in the early 15th century emphasized that Jadwiga had been a representative of the traditional virtues of holy women, such as mercy and benevolence. Jadwiga's contribution to the restoration of the University of Kraków was also mentioned by early 15th-century scholars. Numerous legends about miracles were recounted to justify her sainthood. The two best-known are those of \"Jadwiga's cross\" and \"Jadwiga's foot\": Jadwiga often prayed before a large black crucifix hanging in the north aisle of Wawel Cathedral. During one of these prayers, the Christ on the cross is said to have spoken to her. The crucifix, \"Saint Jadwiga's cross\", is still there, with her relics beneath it. Because of this event, she is considered a medieval mystic. According to another legend, Jadwiga took a piece of jewellery from her foot and gave it to a poor stonemason who had begged for her help. When the king left, he noticed her footprint in the plaster floor of his workplace, even though the plaster had already hardened before her visit. The supposed footprint, known as \"Jadwiga's foot\", can still be seen in one of Kraków's churches. In yet another legend, Jadwiga was taking part in a Corpus Christi Day procession when a coppersmith's son drowned by falling into a river. Jadwiga threw her mantle over the boy's body, and he regained life. On 8 June 1979 Pope John Paul II prayed at her sarcophagus; and the Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments officially affirmed her beatification on 8 August 1986. The Pope went on to canonize Jadwiga in Kraków on 8 June 1997.", "", "Queen Jadwiga is the main character of the third season of Polish historical TV series Korona królów (The Crown of the Kings). She is played by Dagmara Bryzek. Child Jadwiga is played by Natalia Wolska and Amelia Zawadzka.", "Jadwiga appears as the leader of the Polish civilization in the turn-based strategy game Civilization VI, specialising in religion and territorial expansion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Presidency.", "Economy.", "Oil and gas.", "Agriculture.", "Culture.", "Internal affairs.", "Presidential pardons.", "Foreign policy.", "Opposition.", "Death.", "Funeral and burial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Niyazov was born on 19 February 1940 in Gypjak (or Kipchak), just outside Ashgabat in the Turkmen SSR. He was a member of the influential Tekke tribe. According to the official version of his biography, his father Atamyrat Niyazov died in World War II fighting against Nazi Germany, while other sources contend that he dodged fighting and was therefore sentenced by a military court. The other members of his family were killed in the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake that caused extreme damage and a high number of casualties in the city. His mother Gurbansoltan Eje was part of the cult of personality later. He grew up in a Soviet orphanage before the state put him in the custody of a distant relative. After finishing school in 1959, he worked as an instructor in the Turkmen trade-union exploratory committee. He then studied at the Leningrad Polytechnic Institute, where in 1967 he received a diploma as an electrical engineer. After graduating, he went to study in Russia, but was expelled a few years later for academic failure. In 1962 Niyazov started his political career, becoming a member of the Communist Party. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming First Secretary of the Ashgabat City Committee, and First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Turkmen SSR in 1985. He gained this post after Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev had removed his predecessor, Muhammetnazar Gapurov, following a cotton-related scandal. Under Niyazov, the Turkmen Communist Party had a reputation as one of the most hardline and unreformed party organizations in the Soviet Union. On 13 January 1990, Niyazov became Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the Turkmen SSR, the supreme legislative body in the republic. The post was equivalent to that of president. Niyazov supported the Soviet coup attempt of 1991. However, after the coup collapsed, he set about separating Turkmenistan from the dying Soviet Union. The Turkmen Supreme Soviet declared Turkmenistan independent and appointed Niyazov as the country's first president on 27 October 1991. On 21 June 1992 the Turkmenistani presidential election of 1992 featured Niyazov as the sole candidate, and chosen as the country's first popularly elected president. A year later he declared himself \"Türkmenbaşy\": \"Leader of all Turkmen\". In 1994 a plebiscite extended Niyazov's term to 2002 so he could oversee a 10-year development plan. The official results showed that 99.9% of voters approved this proposal. On 28 December 1999, Parliament declared Niyazov President for Life; parliamentary elections had been held a few weeks earlier for which the president had hand-picked all candidates. Niyazov and his Russian-Jewish wife, Muza, had a son (Murat) and a daughter (Irina).", "Niyazov became president at the transition of Turkmenistan from a Soviet republic to an independent state. His presidency was characterised by an initial crumbling of the centralised Soviet model that in many respects was unsuited to function as a separate entity; also, there were large amounts of foreign income from gas and petroleum reserves (approximately $2–4 billion as of 2005). There was outside concern about press freedom and to a lesser extent religious rights of minority religious groups. Niyazov made a personal attempt to create a cultural background for the new state of Turkmenistan by writing and promoting the Ruhnama, an autobiography meant to guide the people of Turkmenistan with his ideas and promote native culture (and by extension prohibiting foreign culture). He also took part in creating new holidays with a specific Turkmen nature and introduced a new Latin-based Turkmen alphabet to replace Russian Cyrillic. The Latin Turkmen alphabet consists of: Aa, Bb, Çç, Dd, Ee, Ää, Ff, Gg, Hh, Ii, Jj, Žž, Kk, Ll, Mm, Nn, Ňň, Oo, Öö, Pp, Rr, Ss, Şş, Tt, Uu, Üü, Ww, Yy, Ýý, Zz. Niyazov became a substitute for the vacuum left by the downfall of the communist system, with his image replacing those of Marx and Lenin. He renamed the town of Krasnovodsk \"Turkmenbashi\" after himself, and renamed schools, airports and even a meteorite after himself and members of his family. His many, sometimes erratic decrees, and the doting actions of the official Turkmen media gave rise to the clear appearance of a cult of personality. In Ashgabat, he erected a rotating, $12 million, golden statue of himself that always faces the sun. The eccentric nature of some of his decrees, and the vast number of images of the president led to the perception, especially in western countries, of a despotic leader, rich on oil wealth glorifying himself whilst the population gained no benefit. Despite emphasizing a need to move from central planning to a market economy and to a full democracy during his reign, neither plan progressed. Yearly plans set forth by the government and a centralised economy gave little indication of moving away from state-dominated economics, and the dictatorial nature of many of his decrees and his declaring himself \"President for Life\" gave little hope as to much progress in these two areas.", "", "Turkmenistan has the second-largest oil reserves in the former Soviet Union, generating high revenue for the state. The government has used central planning, such as state control of production and procurement, direct bank credits with low interest rates, exchange rate restrictions, and price controls, since it existed as a Republic within the U.S.S.R. In the years following independence, Turkmenistan invested heavily in plants and machinery in an attempt to convert it from being primarily a supplier of petroleum to a more advanced economy; such investments included oil refineries and a polyethylene plant. In an interview with \"Rossiyskaya Gazeta\" newspaper, Niyazov claimed that Turkmenistan was able to process 85% of its domestic output. Additionally, numerous petroleum transportation projects were completed such as a pipeline from the Korpedje field to Kort-Koi in Iran. In 1991 and 2001, Niyazov issued decrees making water, gas, electricity, and refined salt free to use for ten year periods. In 2005, Niyazov appointed Gurbanmyrat Ataýew as Minister of Oil and Gas, succeeding Atamurad Berdyev.", "Turkmenistan's other primary resources are cotton and grain. Niyazov continued the old practice of demanding yearly quotas in agricultural output, and then blaming and/or sacking deputy ministers when quotas were not met. Nevertheless, Turkmenistan had an emergent period during which there was heavy investment in plant and machinery so the country could change from a producer of raw cotton to a cotton processor. During Niyazov's presidency, a textile industry was founded in Turkmenistan. Niyazov introduced the practice of \"Melon Day,\" a harvest festival celebrated on the 2nd Sunday of August; unlike some of his other creations, the celebration of \"Melon Day\" has continued after his death.", "Niyazov put the revival of Turkmen culture as one of the top priorities in Turkmenistan's development. He introduced a new Turkmen alphabet based on the Latin alphabet to replace Cyrillic. The \"National Revival Movement\", an organisation to promote Turkmen culture (Turkmen: \"Galkynish\"), was also founded. In many respects, Niyazov's cultural ideas and changes were most visible to external viewers. His renaming of months, as well as days of the week, to Turkmen heroes, poets, historical events, family members and himself raised many eyebrows all over the world. For example, September was renamed \"Ruhnama\" in honour of the book written by Niyazov (which he finished writing on 19 September 2001). Not all the changes promoted Niyazov; October was renamed \"Garaşsyzlyk\" (Independence) to mark the state's founding on 27 October 1991, and November \"Sanjar\" in honour of Sultan Sanjar who led the Seljuqs to their last full flowering. The new names came into effect with the introduction of a new labour law which stated that \"the dates of professional holidays are specified by decrees of the President of Turkmenistan\". These names were later abolished by his successor Berdymukhamedov in April 2008.", "One of the earliest acts of the president was to abolish the death penalty. He also granted official human rights to the people, though they were not respected in practice with his government being criticised as one of the worst human rights violators in the world. Press freedom under Niyazov's leadership was much criticised as it was with other former Soviet central Asian states. Turkmenistan's media constantly doted on the president and helped build his cult of personality. In May 2000, the government revoked all Internet licenses except for the state-owned Turkmen Telecom and in June 2001 shut down all Internet cafés. By 2005, there were 36,000 Internet users in Turkmenistan, representing 0.7% of the population. In March 2004, 15,000 public health workers were dismissed including nurses, midwives, school health visitors and orderlies. In February 2005 all hospitals outside Aşgabat were ordered closed, with the reasoning that the sick should come to the capital for treatment. According to the paper \"Neitralniy Turkmenistan\" physicians were ordered to swear an oath to the President, replacing the Hippocratic Oath. All libraries outside of the capital were also closed, as Niyazov believed that the only books that most Turkmen needed to read were the Qur'an and his Ruhnama. In January 2006, one-third of the country's elderly had their pensions discontinued, while another 200,000 had theirs reduced. Pensions received during the prior two years were ordered paid back to the state. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Turkmenistan strongly denied allegations that the cut in pensions resulted in the deaths of many elderly Turkmens, accusing foreign media outlets of spreading \"deliberately perverted\" information on the issue. On 19 March 2007 Turkmenistan's new president Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow reversed Niyazov's decision by restoring pensions to more than 100,000 elderly citizens. In December 2008, the new president also made changes to the national anthem, the chorus of which referenced Niyazov.", "In keeping with the predominantly Islamic nature of Turkmen society, President Niyazov granted pardons each year on the \"Laylat al-Qadr\" (\"Night of Destiny\") in the month of Ramadan. For example, in 2005, 8,145 convicts were pardoned including 229 foreign nationals. In 2006 Turkmenistan set free 10,056 prisoners, including 253 foreign nationals from 11 countries. Niyazov said:\"Let this humane act on the part of the state serve strengthening truly moral values of the Turkmen society. Let the entire world know that there has never been a place for evil and violence on the blessed Turkmen soil.\"", "Niyazov promoted a policy of strict neutrality in foreign affairs, refraining from seeking membership in NATO or GUAM and almost ignoring the CSTO. Turkmenistan has not participated in any United Nations peacekeeping missions. It has however become a member of Interpol. The full independence of Turkmenistan was recognised by a UN General Assembly resolution \"The permanent neutrality of Turkmenistan\" of 12 December 1995. As a result, in 2005 Turkmenistan would downgrade its links with the Commonwealth of Independent States becoming only an associate member under article 8 of the CIS charter, as such it would not participate in any of the military structures of the CIS. In 2006 the European Commission and the international trade committee of the European Parliament voted to grant Turkmenistan \"most favoured nation\" trading status with the European Union, widely seen as motivated by interest in natural gas, after Niyazov announced he would enter a \"human rights dialogue\" with the EU. In January 1996, Niyazov met with Sayid Abdulloh Nuri in Tehran to inform him that the attendees of a CIS summit in Moscow had agreed to renew the mandate of CIS peacekeepers in Tajikistan, which was going through a civil war at the time.", "On 25 November 2002, Niyazov's motorcade was fired upon at about 7 a.m. in downtown Ashgabat as he was traveling to his office from his official residence in Arshabil. Niyazov claimed that it was an attempt at a coup, and as a result, the Turkmen government arrested thousands of suspected conspirators and members of their families. Critics claim the government staged the attempt in order to crack down on mounting domestic and foreign political opposition. Ethnic Russians in Turkmenistan were disproportionately targeted in the aftermath. The summer of 2004 saw a leaflet campaign in the capital, Aşgabat, calling for the overthrow and trial of Niyazov. The authorities were unable to stop the campaign and the President responded by firing his Interior Minister and director of the police academy on national television. He accused the minister of incompetence and declared: \"I cannot say that you had any great merits or did much to combat crime.\" Niyazov later announced that surveillance cameras were to be placed at all major streets and sites in Turkmenistan, an apparent precaution against future attempts.", "On the afternoon of 21 December 2006, Turkmen state television announced that President Saparmurat Niyazov had died of a sudden heart attack in the early morning hours at around 01:10 at his residence at age 66. One month prior to his death, Niyazov had publicly announced that he was taking heart medication for the past few years for an unidentified cardiac condition. The Turkmen Embassy in Moscow later confirmed this report. Because Niyazov named no successor prior to his death, according to the law of the Constitution of Turkmenistan, Öwezgeldi Ataýew, the Chairman of the Assembly, would assume the presidency. Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow was named as head of the commission organizing the state funeral. However, Ataýew was arrested on 21 December 2006 and Berdimuhamedow was subsequently named acting president. Berdimuhamedow and the Halk Maslahaty announced on 26 December 2006 that the next presidential elections would be held on 11 February 2007 to elect Niyazov's successor. The circumstances of Niyazov's death have been surrounded by some media speculation. Some Turkmen opposition sources also claim that Niyazov died several days before the officially announced date of 21 December. Foreign news reports also claimed that Niyazov also suffered from ischemic heart disease and kidney failure due to being overweight and overindulgence of alcohol.", "Niyazov was buried in his ready prepared tomb in Kipchak Mosque on 24 December at his home village of Gypjak, approximately 7 kilometres west of Ashgabat. Prior to being moved to the village, Niyazov's body lay in state in an open coffin in the presidential palace from 9:00 am to 12:00 pm. Many mourners, including foreign delegations, passed by the coffin in a three-hour period. Many of the ordinary citizens wept dramatically as they walked, some even clinging to the coffin and fainting. A prayer took place before the burial." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Works.", "Kőnig and set theory.", "About Kőnig." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gyula Kőnig was active literarily and mathematically. He studied medicine in Vienna and, from 1868 on, in Heidelberg. After having worked, instructed by Hermann von Helmholtz, on electrical stimulation of nerves, he switched to mathematics. He obtained his doctorate under the supervision of the mathematician Leo Königsberger. His thesis \"Zur Theorie der Modulargleichungen der elliptischen Functionen\" covers 24 pages. As a post-doc he completed his mathematical studies in Berlin attending lessons by Leopold Kronecker and Karl Weierstraß. He then returned to Budapest where he was appointed as a \"dozent\" at the University in 1871. He became a professor at the Teacher's College in Budapest in 1873 and, in the following year, was appointed professor at the Technical University of Budapest. He remained with the university for the rest of his life. He was on three occasions Dean of the Engineering Faculty and also on three occasions was Rector of the University. In 1889 he was elected a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Although of Jewish descent, Kőnig converted to Christianity soon after his election. In 1905 he retired but continued to give lessons on topics of his interest. His son Dénes also became a distinguished mathematician.", "Kőnig worked in many mathematical fields. His work on polynomial ideals, discriminants and elimination theory can be considered as a link between Leopold Kronecker and David Hilbert as well as Emmy Noether. Later on his ideas were simplified considerably, to the extent that today they are only of historical interest. Kőnig already considered material influences on scientific thinking and the mechanisms which stand behind thinking. But mainly he is remembered for his contributions to and his opposition against set theory.", "One of the greatest achievements of Georg Cantor was the construction of a one-to-one correspondence between the points of a square and the points of one of its edges by means of continued fractions. Kőnig found a simple method involving decimal numbers which had escaped Cantor. In 1904, at the third International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg, Kőnig gave a talk to disprove Cantor's continuum hypothesis. The announcement was a sensation and was widely reported by the press. All section meetings were cancelled so that everyone could hear his contribution. Kőnig applied a theorem proved in the thesis of Hilbert's student Felix Bernstein; this theorem, however, was not as generally valid as Bernstein had claimed. Ernst Zermelo, the later editor of Cantor's collected works, found the error already the next day. In 1905 there appeared short notes by Bernstein, correcting his theorem, and Kőnig, withdrawing his claim. Nevertheless, Kőnig continued his efforts to disprove parts of set theory. In 1905 he published a paper that claimed to prove that not all sets could be well-ordered. This statement was doubted by Cantor in a letter to Hilbert in 1906: Cantor was wrong. Today Kőnig's assumption is generally accepted. Contrary to Cantor, presently the majority of mathematicians considers undefinable numbers not as absurdities. This assumption leads, according to Kőnig, Kőnig's conclusion is not stringent. His argument does not rule out the possibility that the continuum can be well-ordered; rather, it rules out the conjunction of \"the continuum can be well-ordered by a definition in language L\" and \"the property of being definable in language L is itself definable in language L\". The latter is no longer generally held to be true. For an explanation compare Richard's paradox. The last part of his life Kőnig spent working on his own approach to set theory, logic and arithmetic, which was published in 1914, one year after his death. When he died he had been working on the final chapter of the book.", "At first Georg Cantor highly esteemed Kőnig. In a letter to Philip Jourdain in 1905 he wrote: Later on Cantor changed his attitude:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Gameplay mechanics.", "Distribution.", "History.", "Early history (Pre-1990s).", "\"Magic: The Gathering\" and CCG craze (1990–1995).", "Wizards of the Coast domination (1996-1999).", "Stabilization and consolidation (1996–1997).", "Wizards of the Coast dominates, Hasbro steps in (1998–1999).", "Franchising (2000- 2002).", "Transitions and refining of the market (2000).", "Franchise trends continue (2001–2002).", "A second wave of new CCGs (2003–2005).", "The CCG renaissance continues (2006–present).", "Reception.", "Patent for \"Trading Card Game Method of Play\".", "Claims of the invention." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "A collectible card game (CCG) is generally defined as a game where players acquire cards into a personal collection from which they create customized decks of cards and challenge other players in matches. Players usually start by purchasing a starter deck that is ready to play, but additional cards are obtained from randomized booster packs or by trading with other players. The goal of most CCGs is to beat one's opponent by crafting customized decks that play to synergies of card combinations. Refined decks will try to account for randomness created by the initial shuffling of the deck, as well as opponent's actions, by using complementary and preferably efficient cards. The exact definition of what makes a CCG is varied, as many games are marketed under the \"collectible card game\" moniker. The basic definition requires the game to resemble trading cards in shape and function, be mass-produced for trading and/or collectibility, and have rules for strategic gameplay. The definition of CCGs is further refined as being a card game in which the player uses his own deck with cards primarily sold in random assortments. If every card in the game can be obtained by making a small number of purchases, or if the manufacturer does not market it as a CCG, then it is not a CCG. CCGs can further be designated as \"living\" or \"dead\" games. Dead games are those CCGs which are no longer supported by their manufacturers and have ceased releasing expansions. Living games are those CCGs which continue to be published by their manufacturers. Usually this means that new expansions are being created for the game and official game tournaments are occurring in some fashion. Customized Card games that should not be mistaken for CCGs: Many CCGs have also been remade into digital collectible card games (DCCGs), taking advantage of the wide availability of the Internet for online play as well as for the potential of computerized opponents. DCCGs can exist as online counterparts of existing CCGs, such as \"\" for \"Magic: the Gathering\", as wholly original card games that take advantage of the digital space, such as \"Hearthstone\", or in many other forms.", "Each CCG system has a fundamental set of rules that describes the players' objectives, the categories of cards used in the game, and the basic rules by which the cards interact. Each card will have additional text explaining that specific card's effect on the game. Many games utilize a set of keywords to simplify the card text, with keywords referring to common gameplay rules. For example, \"Magic: The Gathering\" has such as \"flying\", meaning the creature can only be blocked by other creatures with flying. Each card also generally represent some specific element derived from the game's genre, setting, or source material. The cards are illustrated and named for these source elements, and the card's game function may relate to the subject. For example,", "Specific game cards are most often produced in various degrees of scarcity, generally denoted as \"fixed\" (F), \"common\" (C), \"uncommon\" (U), and \"rare\" (R). Some games use alternate or additional designations for the relative rarity levels, such as \"super-\", \"ultra-\", \"mythic-\" or \"exclusive rares\". Special cards may also only be available through promotions, events, purchase of related material, or redemption programs. The idea of rarity borrows somewhat from other types of collectible cards, such as baseball cards, but in CCGs, the level of rarity also denotes the significance of a card's effect in the game, i.e., the more powerful a card", "", "Regular card games have been around since at least the 1300s. \"The Base Ball Card Game\", a prototype from 1904, is a notable precursor to CCGs because it had a few similar qualities but it never saw production to qualify it as a \"collectible\" card game. It is not known if the game was intended to be a standalone product or something altogether different like Top Trumps. The game consisted of a limited 112 cards and never saw manufacture past the marketing stage. In 1951, Topps released the \"\" that resembled CCGs because the game cards were sold in random packs and were", "Prior to the advent of the CCG, the market for alternative games was dominated by role-playing games (RPG), in particular Dungeons & Dragons by TSR. Wizards of the Coast (Wizards), a new company formed in Peter Adkison's basement in 1990, was looking to enter the RPG market with its series called The Primal Order which converted characters to other RPG series. After a lawsuit from Palladium Books which could have financially ruined the company, Wizards acquired another RPG called Talislanta. This was after Lisa Stevens joined the company in 1991 as vice president after having left White Wolf. Through their mutual friend Mike Davis, Adkison met Richard Garfield who at the time was a doctoral student. Garfield and Davis had an idea for a game called RoboRally and pitched the idea to Wizards of the Coast in 1991, but Wizards did not have the resources to manufacture it and instead challenged Garfield to make a game that would pay for the creation of RoboRally. This game would require minimal resources to make and only about 15–20 minutes to play. In December 1991, Garfield had a prototype for a game called \"Mana Clash\", and by", "", "In early 1996, the CCG market was still reeling from its recent failures and glut of product, including the release of Wizards' expansion \"\" which was rated as the worst \"Magic\" expansion to date. The next two years would mark a \"cool off\" period for the over-saturated CCG market. Additionally, manufacturers slowly came to understand that having a CCG was not enough to keep it alive. They also had to support organized players through tournaments. Combined with a new dichotomy between collectors and players especially among \"Magic\" players, more emphasis was placed on the game rather than the collectibility of the cards. Plenty more CCGs were introduced in 1996, chief among them were \"BattleTech\", \"The X-Files\", \"Mythos\", and Wizard's very own \"Netrunner\". Many established CCGs were in full swing releasing expansions every few months, but even by this time, many CCGs from only two years ago had already died. TSR had ceased production of \"Spellfire\" and attempted another collectible game called \"Dragon Dice\" which failed shortly after being released. On June 3 of 1997, Wizards of the Coast announced that it had acquired TSR and its \"Dungeons & Dragons\" property which also gave", "By February 1998, one out of every two CCGs sold was \"Magic: the Gathering\". Only 7 new CCGs were introduced that year, all but two being Wizards of the Coast product. \"C-23\", \"Doomtown\", \"\", \"Legend of the Burning Sands\" and \"\" were those five, and only \"Doomtown\" met with better than average reviews before its run was terminated and the rights returned to Alderac. \"C-23\", \"Hercules\", and \"Xena\" were all a part of a new simplified CCG system Wizards had created for beginners. Called the ARC System, it had four distinct types of cards: Resource, Character, Combat, and Action. The system also utilized the popular \"tapping\" mechanic of \"Magic: The Gathering\". This system was abandoned shortly afterwards. Despite limited success or no success at all in the rest of the CCG market, \"Magic\" had recovered and Wizards learned", "", "By 2000, the ups and downs of the CCG market were familiar to its retailers. They foresaw \"Pokémon's\" inevitable fall from grace as the fad reached its peak in April of that year. The panic associated with the overflooding of the CCGs from 1995 and 1996 was absent and the retailers withstood the crash of \"Pokémon\". Yet CCGs benefited from the popularity of \"Pokémon\" and they saw an uptick in the number of CCGs released and an overall increased interest in the genre. \"Pokémon\"'s mainstream success in the CCG world also highlighted an increasing trend of CCGs being marketed with existing intellectual properties, especially those with an existing television show, such as a cartoon. New CCGs introduced in 2000 included notable entries in \"Sailor Moon\", \"The Terminator\", \"Digi-Battle\", \"Dragon Ball Z\" Collectible Card Game, \"Magi-Nation\" and \"X-Men\". \"Vampires: The Eternal Struggle\" resumed production in 2000 after", "As seen in 2000, the years 2001 and 2002 continued on with the CCG market being less likely to take chances on new and original intellectual properties, but instead it would invest in CCGs that were based off existing franchises. Cartoons, movies, television, and books influenced the creation of such CCGs as \"Harry Potter\", \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"A Game of Thrones\", \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\", \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\" and two \"Star Wars\" CCGs: \"Jedi Knights\" and a rebooted \"Star Wars\" TCG, by Decipher and Wizards of the Coast. They followed the demise of the original \"Star Wars\" CCG by Decipher in December of 2001, but they would see very little interest and eventually the two games were cancelled. Other niche CCGs were also made, including \"Warlord\" and \"Warhammer 40,000\". Upper Deck had its first hit with \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\" The game was known to be popular in Japan but until 2002 had not been released in the United States. The game was mostly", "The next few years saw a large increase in the number of companies willing to start a new CCG. No small thanks to the previous successes of \"Pokémon\" and \"Yu-Gi-Oh!\", many new CCGs entered the market, many of which tried to continue the trend of franchise tie-ins. Notable entries include \"The Simpsons\", \"SpongeBob SquarePants\", \"Neopets\", \"G.I. Joe\", \"Hecatomb\", \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles\" and many others. \"Duel Masters\" was introduced to the United States after strong popularity in Japan the previous two years. Wizards of the Coast published it for a couple years before it was cancelled in the U.S. due to weak sales. Two \"Warhammer\" CCGs were released with \"Horus Heresy\" and \"WarCry\". \"Horus Heresy\" lasted two years and was succeeded by \"Dark Millennium\" in 2005. Also, two entries from Decipher were released, one that passed the torch from their \"Star Wars\" CCG to \"WARS\". \"WARS\" kept most of the game play mechanics from their \"Star Wars\" game, but transferred them to a new and original setting. The game did", "The previous years influx of new CCGs continued into 2006. Riding on the success of the popular PC Game \"World of Warcraft\", Blizzard Entertainment licensed Upper Deck to publish a TCG based on the game. The \"World of Warcraft\" TCG was born and was carried by major retailers but saw limited success until it was discontinued in 2013 prior to the release of Blizzard's digital card game \"Hearthstone\". Following previous trends, Japanese-influenced CCGs continued to enter the market. These games were either based on cartoons or manga and included: \"Naruto\", \"\", \"Bleach\", \"Rangers Strike\" and the classic series \"Robotech\". \"Dragon Ball GT\" was", "In 1996 Luke Peterschmidt, designer of Guardians, remarked that unlike board game and RPG players, CCG players seem to assume they can", "A patent ( US patent number 5,662,332 (A)) originally granted in 1997 to Richard Garfield was for \"a novel method of game play and game components that in one embodiment are in the form of trading cards\" that includes claims covering games whose rules include many of \"Magic\"'s elements in combination, including concepts such as changing orientation of a game component to indicate use (referred to in the \"Magic\" and rules as \"tapping\") and constructing a deck by selecting cards from a larger pool. Garfield transferred the patent to Wizards of the Coast. The patent has aroused criticism from some observers, who believe some of its claims to be invalid. Peter Adkison, CEO of Wizards at the time, remarked that his company was interested in striking a balance between the \"free flow of ideas and the continued growth of the game business\" with \"the ability to be compensated by others who incorporate our patented method of play into their games\". Adkison continued to say they \"had no intention of stifling\" the industry that originated from the \"success of Magic.\" In 2003, the patent was an element of a larger legal dispute between Wizards of the Coast and Nintendo, regarding trade secrets related to Nintendo's Pokémon Trading Card Game. The legal action was settled out of court, and its terms were not disclosed.", "Details of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before Goodison Park.", "Genesis of Goodison Park.", "Structural developments.", "Post-Taylor Report.", "Current structure.", "Goodison Road Stand.", "Bullens Road.", "Howard Kendall Gwladys Street End.", "Sir Philip Carter Park Stand.", "St Luke's Church.", "The future.", "Transport.", "Records.", "Attendances.", "Other uses.", "Goodison Park as host stadium for football.", "1966 FIFA World Cup.", "FA Cup Final.", "British Home championships.", "Non-football usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Everton originally played on an open pitch in the south-east corner of the newly laid out Stanley Park (on a site where Liverpool F.C. considered building a stadium over a century later). The first official match after being renamed Everton from St.Domingo's, was at Stanley Park being staged on 20 December 1879 with St.Peter's being the opposition, with admission free. In 1882, a Mr J. Cruit donated land at Priory Road with the necessary facilities required for professional clubs. Cruit asked the club to leave his land after two years because the crowds became far too large and noisy. Everton moved to nearby Anfield Road, a site", "On 15 September 1891, a general meeting took place at Royal Street Hall, near Everton Valley. Everton's chairman John Houlding proposed that a limited company be formed with the new company purchasing his land and local brewer Joseph Orrell's adjacent land for a combined £9,237. A club run as a limited company was unusual for the time as football clubs were usually run as “sports clubs” with members paying an annual fee. The proposal was supported by William Barclay, the club secretary and a close friend of Houlding. Liberal Party politician and Everton board member George Mahon fought the proposal putting forward his own amendment which was carried by the Everton board. At the time Everton's board contained both Conservative and Liberal Party councillors. Houlding and Mahon had previously clashed during local elections. Both men agreed that Everton should operate as a limited company; however, they had different ideas about share ownership. Houlding suggested that 12,000", "The Goodison Park structure was built in stages. In the summer of 1895 a new Bullens Road stand was built and a roof placed on the original Goodison Road stand but only after five directors, including Chairman, George Mahon had resigned over what was described in the club minutes as 'acute administrative difficulties'. In 1906, the double-decker Goodison Avenue Stand was built behind the goal at the south end of the ground. The stand was designed by Liverpool architect Henry Hartley who went on to chair the Liverpool Architectural Society a year later. The club minutes from the time show that Hartley was unhappy with certain aspects of the stand and the poor sightlines meant that the goal line had to be moved seven metres north, towards Gwladys Street. In January 1908, he complained that his fees had not been paid and the bill for the stand was near £13,000. There were 2,657 seats on its upper tier with a terrace below. Archibald Leitch designed the Goodison Road Stand with construction in 1909. In September that year Ernest Edwards, the \"Liverpool Echo\" journalist who christened the terrace at Anfield the \"Spion Kop\", wrote of the newly built stand, \"The building as one looks at it, suggests the side of Mauretania at once.\" The stand was occasionally referred to as the \"Mauretania Stand\", in reference to the", "Following the publication of the 1990 Taylor Report, in the wake of the Hillsborough disaster, top-flight English football grounds had to become all-seated. At the time three of the four sides of the ground had standing areas. The Enclosure, fronting the main stand, had already been made all-seated in time for the 1987–88 season and was given the new name of Family Enclosure. The Paddock, the Park End terrace and the Gwladys Street terrace, known as 'the Ground',", "Goodison Park has a total capacity of 40,157 all-seated and comprises four separate stands: the Goodison Road Stand, Gwladys Street Stand, Bullens Road Stand, and the Park End Stand.", "Built in sections from 1969 to 1971, replacing the large double-decker 1909 Archibald Leitch designed stand. The Goodison Road Stand is a double-decker stand with the lower deck being two-tier. Each level is given a separate name. The middle-deck level is known as the Main Stand and is fronted by another seated section known as the Family", "On the east side of the ground, the Bullens Road stand is divided into the Upper Bullens, Lower Bullens and The Paddock. The rear of the south end of the", "Behind the goal at the north end of Goodison Park, the Gwladys Street Stand is divided into Upper Gwladys and Lower Gwladys. This stand is the \"Popular End\", holding the most boisterous and vociferous home supporters. It is known colloquially as", "At the south end of the ground, behind one goal, the Park End Stand backs onto Walton Lane which borders Stanley Park. The name of the stand was originally the \"Stanley Park End\" but it's commonly referred to as the \"Park End\". The single tiered stand broke from the multi-tiered tradition of Goodison Park. The Park End has the smallest capacity at Goodison Park. The current layout of the stand was opened on 17 September 1994 with a capacity of 5,750. It was opened by David Hunt, a Member of Parliament. During the structure's development, fans were able to watch matches by climbing trees in neighbouring Stanley Park. In the late 1970s and 1980s the stand accommodated the away fans. Previously it was open to home supporters. The lower tier of the old stand was terracing and this was closed off by the turn of the", "Goodison Park is unique in the sense that a church, St Luke's, protrudes into the site between the Goodison Road Stand and the Gwladys Street Stand only yards from the corner flag. Everton do not play early kick-offs on Sundays in order to permit Sunday services at the church. The church is synonymous with the football club and a wooden church structure was in place when Goodison Park was originally built. Former Everton players such as Brian Harris have had their funeral service held there. The church can be seen from the Park End and Bullens Road and has featured prominently over the years as a backdrop during", "Following the conversion of Goodison Park into an all-seater stadium in 1994, plans for relocation to a new site have been afoot since 1996, when then chairman Peter Johnson announced his intention to build a new 60,000-seat stadium for the club. At the time, no English league club had a stadium with such a high capacity. In January 2001, plans were drawn up to move to a 55,000-seat purpose-built arena on the site of the King's Dock in Liverpool. The proposed stadium would have had a retractable roof enabling it to be used for concerts and chairman Bill Kenwright had hoped to have it ready for the 2005–06 season. However, the plans were abandoned in April 2003 due to the club not being able to raise adequate funds. Following this, plans were made to move to Kirkby, just outside the city, in a joint venture with the supermarket chain Tesco. The scheme was greatly divisive amongst supporters and local authorities, but was rejected in late November 2009 following a decision by Secretary of State for Communities and Local Government. The site of Goodison Park was earmarked in 1997 and 2003 for a food store by Tesco who offered £12 million which was valued at £4 million for the site but Liverpool City Council's advisor's advised against allowing planning permission. The club were advised that the planning permission required would not necessarily be granted, and chose not to take the scheme further. Supporters' groups have fought against the club moving to a new stadium twice. In 2007 a group was established called \"Keep Everton in Our City\" (KEIOC) whose aim is to keep Everton FC inside the city of Liverpool. The KEIOC attempted to prevent the club moving to a new stadium in Kirkby, just outside the city limits. The supporters' groups have argued that it is possible to expand Goodison Park, despite the odd shaped landlocked site being surrounded by housing, local authority buildings, and have produced image renders, architectural drawings and costings for a redeveloped Goodison Park. The then Liverpool City Council leader Warren Bradley stated in November 2009 that a redevelopment of Goodison Park was his favoured option, and that relocation of the homes, infrastructure and businesses in streets adjoining the ground is \"not a major hurdle\". Council leader Joe Anderson stated, \"the setback for Everton was an opportunity for both clubs to go back to the drawing board\". Everton were considering all options, including relocation, redevelopment of the current ground, or a groundshare with Liverpool F.C., in a new, purpose-built stadium in Stanley Park, stressing that finance is the main factor affecting decision-making. In 2010, Everton supporters approached University of Liverpool and Liverpool City Council to initiate a dedicated 'Football Quarter'/'Sports City' zone around Goodison Park, Stanley Park and Anfield. The University and City Council met with the North West Development Agency, Everton and Liverpool F.C. representatives but no further action was taken.Plans for relocation of Liverpool to a new stadium have since been abandoned in favour of expanding Anfield. On 10 February 2011, Liverpool City Council Regeneration and Transport Select Committee proposed to open the eastern section of the Liverpool Outer Loop line using \"Liverpool Football Club and Everton Football Club as priorities, as economic enablers of the project\". This proposal would place both football clubs on a rapid-transit Merseyrail line circling the city giving high throughput, fast transport access. In 2016, following his investment in the club by major shareholder Farhad Moshiri, the prospect of a new stadium was once again addressed, with a pair of options mentioned. The preferred option was to resurrect the idea of a riverside stadium, this time in partnership with the Peel Group using the Clarence Dock. However, the other option was a site located at Stonebridge Cross in Gillmoss, which is seen as more easily deliverable in some areas. The dockside site option was later confirmed as Bramley-Moore Dock.", "Goodison Park is located two miles (3 km) north of Liverpool City Centre. Liverpool Lime Street railway station is the nearest mainline station. The nearest station to the stadium is Kirkdale railway station on the Merseyrail Northern Line which is located just over half a mile (800 m) away. On match days there is also a frequent shuttle bus service from Sandhills railway station known as \"SoccerBus\". In 2007 Sandhills underwent a £6million renovation", "Everton has staged more top-flight football games than any other club in England, eight more seasons than second placed Aston Villa. Everton have played at Goodison Park for all but 4 of their 106 league seasons, giving Goodison Park the distinction of hosting more top-flight games than any other ground in England. Goodison is the only English club ground to have hosted a FIFA World Cup semi final. Until the expansion of Old Trafford in 1996 Goodison Park held the record Sunday attendance on a Football League ground (53,509 v West Bromwich Albion, FA Cup,", "Whilst at Goodison Park the club has had one of the highest average attendances in the country. The stadium has only had six seasons where Everton FC has not been amongst the top ten highest attendances in", "Despite being purposefully built for Everton F.C. to play football, Goodison Park has hosted many other types of events.", "Goodison Park became the first Football League ground to hold an FA Cup Final, in 1894. Notts County beat Bolton Wanderers, watched by crowd of 37,000. An FA Cup final replay was staged in 1910 with Newcastle United beating Barnsley 2–0. On 26 December 1920, Goodison Park hosted a match between; Dick, Kerr's Ladies & St Helens Ladies. An estimated 53,000 attended the match, at a time when the average gate at Goodison Park in 1919–20 was near 29,000. Dick, Kerr's Ladies won 4–0. More than £3,000 was raised for charity. Shortly after, the Football Association banned women's football. The reasons given by the FA were not substantial and it is perceived by some that the women's teams were a threat to the men's game. The ban was lifted in 1970. During the Second World War, Goodison Park was chosen as a host venue for the \"Football League – Northern Section\". In 1949, Goodison Park became the site of England's first ever defeat on English soil by a non-Home Nations country, namely the Republic of Ireland. The ground hosted five matches including a semi-final for the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In April 1895 Goodison Park hosted England versus Scotland and so Everton became the first club to host England internationals on two grounds (the other being Anfield in 1889 when England won 6–2 versus Ireland). The city of Liverpool also became the first English city to stage England games at three different venues, the other being Aigburth Cricket Club. In 1973 Goodison hosted Northern Ireland's home games against Wales and England.", "Goodison Park hosted five games during the 1966 FIFA World Cup. The original schedule of the 1966 World Cup meant that if England won their group and then reached the Semi final, the match would be held at Goodison Park. However, the organising committee were allowed to swap the venues, with England playing Portugal at Wembley Stadium.", "Two years after construction, Goodison Park was chosen", "", "On 11 July 1913 Goodison Park became the first English football ground to be visited by a reigning monarch when King George V and Queen Mary attended. The attending royals had opened Gladstone Dock on the same day. A tablet was unveiled in the Main Stand to mark the occasion. During the First World War Goodison frequently hosted Territorial Army training drill sessions. On 19 May 1938 George VI and Queen Elizabeth attended Goodison Park to present new colours to the 5th Battalion the King's Regiment (Liverpool) and the Liverpool Scottish (Queens Own Cameron Highlanders) in front of 80,000 spectators. In 1921, Goodison Park played host to Lancashire's rugby team when they took on Australia national rugby union team and lost 29–6. Goodison Park was chosen as one of two English venues for the Sox-Giants 1924 World Tour. On 23 October 1924, 2,000 spectators witnessed US baseball teams Chicago White Sox and New York Giants participate in an exhibition match. One player managed to hit a ball clear over the large Goodison Road Stand. The other English venue selected was Stamford Bridge. In September 1939, Goodison Park was commandeered by military, the club's minutes read: \"The Chairman reported that our ground has been commandeered as an anti-aircraft (Balloon Barrage section), post.\" During World War Two, an American forces baseball league was based at Goodison Park. In addition, a baseball game between two Army Air Force nines watched by over 8,000 spectators raised over $3,000 for British Red Cross and St. John's Ambulance fund. The Liverpool Trojans and Formby Cardinals were the last two teams to play baseball at Goodison Park. This was in the Lancashire Cup Final in 1948. Goodison Park is used as a venue for weddings. More than 800 fans' ashes have been buried at Goodison Park and since 2004 the club have had to reject further requests because there is no room for any more. Tommy Lawton wanted his ashes to be scattered at Goodison but his son chose to donate them to the national football museum because of Goodison's uncertain future. Goodison Park was also the venue for the boxing match between \"Pretty\" Ricky Conlan (played by native Evertonian and Everton fan Tony Bellew) and Adonis Creed (Michael B. Jordan) in the 2015 movie \"Creed\". The stadium hosted the first outdoor boxing event in Liverpool since 1949 when Bellew defeated Ilunga Makabu on 29 May 2016 to claim the vacant WBC Cruiserweight title." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Earlier proposals.", "Design.", "Dimensions.", "Engineering principles.", "Materials.", "Approaches.", "Construction.", "Preparations.", "Movement of materials.", "Circular piers.", "Inchgarvie.", "North Queensferry.", "South Queensferry.", "Approach viaducts.", "Building the cantilevers.", "Opening.", "Accidents and deaths.", "Later history.", "Race to the North.", "World wars.", "Ownership.", "Operation.", "Traffic.", "Maintenance.", "Restoration.", "In culture.", "In the media.", "In general culture.", "As heritage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Before the construction of the bridge, ferries were used to cross the Firth. In 1806, a pair of tunnels, one for each direction, was proposed, and in 1818 James Anderson produced a design for a three-span suspension bridge close to the site of the present one. Calling for approximately of iron, Wilhelm Westhofen said of it \"and this quantity [of iron] distributed over the length would have given it a very light and slender appearance, so light indeed that on a dull day it would hardly have been visible, and after a heavy gale probably no longer to be seen on a clear day either\". For the railway age, Thomas Bouch designed for the Edinburgh", "", "The bridge spans the Forth between the villages of South Queensferry and North Queensferry and has a total length of with the double track elevated above the water level at high tide. It consists of two main spans of, two side spans of, and 15 approach spans of. Each main span consists of two cantilever arms supporting a central span", "The bridge is built on the principle of the cantilever bridge, where a cantilever beam supports a light central girder, a principle that has been used for thousands of years in the construction of bridges. In order to", "The bridge was the first major structure in Britain to be constructed of steel; its French contemporary, the Eiffel Tower, was built of wrought iron. Large amounts of steel became available after the invention of the Bessemer process, patented in 1856. In 1859, the Board of Trade imposed a limit of for the maximum design stress in railway bridges; this was revised as technology progressed. The original", "After Dalmeny railway station, the track curves very slightly to the east before coming to the southern approach viaduct. After the railway crosses the bridge, it passes through North Queensferry railway station, before curving to the west, and then back to the east over the Jamestown Viaduct. The approaches were built under separate contract and were", "The Bill for the construction of the bridge was passed on 19 May 1882 after an eight-day enquiry, the only objections being from rival railway companies. On 21 December, the contract was let to Sir Thomas Tancred, Mr. T. H. Falkiner and Mr. Joseph Philips, civil engineers and contractor, and Sir William Arrol & Co.. Arrol was a self-made man, who had been apprenticed to a blacksmith at the age of thirteen before going on to have a highly successful business. Tancred was a professional engineer who had worked with Arrol before, but he would leave the partnership during the course of construction. The steel was produced by Frederick and William Siemens (England) and Pierre and Emile Martin (France). Following advances in furnace design by the Siemens brothers and improvements by the Martin brothers, the process of manufacture enabled high quality steel to be produced very quickly.", "The new works took possession of offices and stores erected by Arrol in connection with Bouch's bridge; these were expanded considerably over time. Reginald Middleton took an accurate survey to establish the exact position of the bridge and allow the permanent construction work to commence. The old coastguard station at the Fife end had to be removed to make way for the north-east pier. The rocky shore was levelled to a height of above high water to make way for plant and materials, and huts and other facilities for workmen were set up further inland. The preparations at South Queensferry were much more substantial, and required the steep hillside to be terraced. Wooden huts and shops for the workmen were put up, as well as more substantial brick houses for the foremen and tenements for leading hands and gangers. Drill roads and workshops were built, as well as", "The bridge uses of steel and of masonry. Many materials, including granite from Aberdeen, Arbroath rubble, sand, timber, and sometimes coke and coal, could be taken straight to the centre where they were required. Steel was delivered by train and prepared at the yard at South Queensferry, painted with boiled linseed oil, and was then taken to where it was needed by barge. The", "The three towers of the cantilever are each seated on four circular piers. Since the foundations were required to be constructed at or below sea level, they were excavated with the assistance of caissons and cofferdams. Caissons were used at locations that were either always under water, even at low tide, or where the foundations were to be built on mud and clay. Cofferdams were used where rock was nearer to the surface, and it was possible to work in low tide. Six caissons were excavated by the pneumatic process, by the French contractor L. Coisea. This process used a positive air pressure", "The rock on which the two northern piers at Inchgarvie are located is submerged at high water, and of the other two piers, the site of eastern one is about half submerged and the western one three-quarters submerged. This meant work initially had to", "Once the positions of the piers had been established, the first task at the Fife end was to level the site of the northernmost piers, a bedrock of whinstone rising", "The four South Queensferry caissons were all sunk by the pneumatic method, and are identical in design except for differences in height. A T shaped jetty was built at the site of the South Queensferry piers, to allow one caisson to be attached to each corner, and when launched the caissons were attached to the jetty and permitted to rise and fall with the tide. Excavation beneath the caissons was generally only carried out at high tide when the caisson was supported by buoyancy, and then when the tide fell the air pressure was reduced in order to allow the caisson to sink down, and digging would begin anew.", "The approach viaducts to the north and south had to be carried at above the level of high water, and it was decided to build them at a lower level and then raise them in tandem with the construction of the masonry piers. The two viaducts have fifteen spans", "The tubular members were constructed in the No. 2 workshop further up the hill at South Queensferry. To bend plates into the required shape, they were first heated in a gas furnace, and then pressed", "The bridge was completed in December 1889, and load testing of the completed bridge was carried out on 21 January 1890. Two trains, each consisting of three heavy locomotives and 50 wagons loaded with coal, totalling 1,880 tons in weight, were driven slowly from South Queensferry to the middle of the north cantilever, stopping frequently to measure the deflection of the bridge. This represented more than twice the design load of the bridge: the deflection under load was as expected. A few days previously there had been a violent storm, producing the highest wind pressure recorded to date at Inchgarvie, and the deflection of the cantilevers had been less than 25 mm (1 in). The first complete crossing took place on 24", "At its peak, approximately 4,600 workers were employed in the bridge's construction. Wilhelm Westhofen recorded in 1890 that 57 lives were lost. In 2005 the Forth Bridge Memorial Committee was set up to erect a monument to those lost, and a team of local historians set out to name all those who died. As of 2009, 73 deaths have been connected with the construction of the bridge and its immediate aftermath. It is thought that the figure of 57 deaths excluded those who died working on the approaches to the bridge, as those parts were", "", "Before the opening of the Forth Bridge, the railway journey from London to Aberdeen had taken about 13 hours running from and using the London and North Western Railway and Caledonian Railway on a west coast route. With competition opened up along the east", "In the First World War British sailors would time their departures or returns to the base at Rosyth by asking when they would pass under the bridge. The first German air attack on Britain in the Second World War took place over the Forth Bridge, six weeks into the war, on 16 October 1939. Although known as the \"Forth Bridge Raid\", the bridge was not the target and not damaged. In all, 12 German Junkers Ju 88 bombers led by two reconnaissance Heinkel He 111s from Westerland on the island of Sylt, away, reached the Scottish coast in four waves of three. The target of the attack was shipping from the Rosyth naval base in the Forth, close to the bridge. The Germans were hoping to find, the largest capital ship in the Royal Navy. \"Luftwaffe\" rules of engagement restricted action to targets on water and not in the dockyard. Although was in Rosyth, the attack was", "Before the opening of the bridge, the North British Railway (NBR) had lines on both sides of the Firth of Forth between which trains could not pass except by running at least as far west as and using the lines of a rival company. The only alternative route between Edinburgh and Fife involved the ferry at Queensferry, which was purchased by the NBR in 1867. Accordingly, the NBR sponsored the Forth Bridge project which would give them a direct link independent of the Caledonian Railway. A conference at York in 1881 set up the Forth Bridge Railway Committee, to which the NBR contributed 35% of the cost. The remaining money came from three English railways, which ran trains from London over NBR tracks. The Midland Railway, which connected to the NBR", "", "The bridge has a speed limit of for high-speed trains and diesel multiple units, for ordinary passenger trains and for freight trains.", "\"Painting the Forth Bridge\" is a colloquial expression for a never-ending task, coined on the erroneous belief that at one time in the history of the bridge repainting was required and commenced immediately upon completion of the previous repaint.", "Floodlighting was installed in 1991, and the track was renewed between 1992 and 1995. The bridge was costing British Rail £1 million a year to maintain, and they announced that the schedule of painting would be interrupted to save money, and the following year, upon privatisation, Railtrack took over. A £40 million package of works commenced in 1998, and in 2002 the responsibility of the bridge was passed to Network Rail. Work started in 2002 to repaint the bridge fully for the first time in its history, in a £130 million contract awarded to Balfour Beatty. Up to of scaffolding was on the bridge at any time, and computer modelling was used to analyse the", "", "The Forth Bridge has been featured in television programmes and films, including \"Carry On Regardless\", Alfred Hitchcock's 1935 film \"The 39 Steps\", and its 1959 remake. A.G. Barr used the bridge in posters advertising its soft drink Irn-Bru, with the slogan: \"Made in Scotland,", "The location of the Forth Bridge has seen it featured in other cultural forms. In the build up to the Millennium celebrations a countdown clock sponsored by the Royal Bank of Scotland was attached to the top of the Bridge in 1998. Iain Banks wrote the novel \"The Bridge\", which is mainly set on a fictionalised version of the bridge, which links \"The City\" (Edinburgh) and \"The Kingdom\" (Fife). In Alan Turing's most famous paper about artificial intelligence, one of the", "Network Rail plans to add a visitor centre to the bridge, which would include a viewing platform on top of the North Queensferry side, or a bridge climbing experience to the South Queensferry side. In December 2014 it was announced Arup had been awarded the design contract for the project. UNESCO inscribed the bridge as a World Heritage Site on 5 July 2015, recognising it as \"an extraordinary and impressive milestone in bridge design and construction during the period when railways came to dominate long-distance land travel\". It is the sixth World Heritage Site to be inscribed in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Junior years.", "Professional years.", "Post-retirement.", "Personal life.", "Performance timelines.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Cash is the son of Pat Cash Sr., who played for the Hawthorn Football Club in the 1950s.", "", "Cash came to the tennis world's attention as a prominent and promising junior player in the early 1980s. He was awarded a scholarship at the Australian Institute of Sport. He was ranked the No. 1 junior player in the world in 1981. In June 1982, Cash won the junior doubles title at the French Open partnering John Frawley. In July he won the junior singles title at Wimbledon, and while partnering Frawley, he also won the junior doubles title at the same tournament. In September, he won the junior singles title at the US Open, and while partnering Frawley, he was also the runner-up of the junior doubles at the same tournament.", "Cash turned professional in late 1982 and won his first top-level singles title that year in Melbourne. In 1983, Cash became the youngest player to play in a Davis Cup final. He won the decisive singles rubber against Joakim Nyström as Australia defeated Sweden 3–2 to claim the cup. In 1984, Cash reached the men's singles semifinals at both Wimbledon and the US Open. He lost in three sets in the Wimbledon semifinals to John McEnroe and was defeated in the semifinals at the US Open by Ivan Lendl, who won their match in a fifth-set tiebreaker. This day is regarded as one of the greatest days in US Open history because it featured the three set thriller women's final Chris Evert vs Martina Navratilova and a John McEnroe vs Jimmy Connors five set marathon semifinal – creating the day now known as 'Super Saturday'. Cash finished the year in top 10 for the first time. Cash was the runner-up in the men's doubles competition at Wimbledon in both 1984 with McNamee and 1985 with Fitzgerald. In 1986, he helped Australia regain the Davis Cup with a 3–2 victory over Sweden. Cash again won the decisive singles rubber, recovering from two sets down against Mikael Pernfors. Just prior to Wimbledon in 1986, Cash had an emergency appendix operation. He reached the quarterfinals of the competition, and during the championship he started the now common tradition of throwing wristbands and headbands into the crowd. 1987 was a particularly strong year for Cash. He reached five singles finals, of which two were Grand Slam finals. Cash reached his first Grand Slam singles final at the Australian Open, where he lost in five sets to Stefan Edberg. This was the last Australian Open played at Kooyong on a grass court. The crowning moment of Cash's career came in 1987 at Wimbledon. Having already beaten Marcel Freeman, Paul McNamee, Michiel Schapers, Guy Forget, Mats Wilander in the quarterfinals and Jimmy Connors in the semifinals, Cash defeated the world No. 1, Ivan Lendl, in the final in straight sets. Cash sealed the victory by climbing into the stands and up to the player's box at Centre Court, where he celebrated with his family, girlfriend, and coach, Ian Barclay. He thus started a Wimbledon tradition that has been followed by many other champions at Wimbledon and other Grand Slam tournaments since. He only dropped one set during the entire tournament. He finished the year ranked at No. 7. In 1988, Cash reached the Australian Open final for the second consecutive year and faced another Swede, Mats Wilander. It was the first men's singles final played at the new Melbourne Park venue on hard court, and Wilander won in a four-and-a-half-hour encounter, taking the fifth set 8–6. It was the first Grand Slam final in history to be played indoors after rain delays forced the closing of the roof midway through the match. Cash also reached his career-high ranking of world No. 4 in May. Coming in as the defending champion in 1988 at Wimbledon, Cash was seeded fourth and only dropped two sets (both during the second round) en route to quarterfinal, but his run came to an end when he lost to sixth seed and eventual runner-up Boris Becker. It was the last time he reached the quarterfinals at a Grand Slam tournament in singles. 1988 was the last time Cash ended the year in the top 20, finishing the year ranked 20th, after having been ranked inside the top 10 from the start of the year until 21 November. In April 1989, Cash ruptured his Achilles tendon at the Japan Open and was out of action until early 1990. Cash played in his third Davis Cup final in 1990. This time, Australia lost 2–3 to the United States. Cash continued to play on the circuit on-and-off through the mid-1990s. A series of back to back injuries to his Achilles tendon, knees, and back prevented him from recapturing his best form after winning Wimbledon in 1987. He won his last top-level singles title in 1990 in Hong Kong. His last doubles title came in 1996 at Pinehurst with Rafter. Cash established a reputation on the tour as a hard-fighting serve-and-volleyer and for wearing his trademark black-and-white checked headband and his cross earring. For most of his career, Cash was coached by Melbourne born tennis coach, Ian Barclay.", "Since his retirement from the tour in 1997, Cash has resided mainly in London. He is the host of CNN's tennis-focused magazine show \"Open Court\", and has also worked as a TV color commentator, primarily for the BBC. Cash continues to be a draw card on both the ATP and Champions Cup legends tours. He won the Hall of Fame event in Newport Rhode Island in 2008 and 2009. He has coached top players including Greg Rusedski and Mark Philippoussis. Cash opened a tennis academy on the Gold Coast of Australia and is also opening academies in Ko Sumui, Thailand and in the Caribbean St Vincent, St Lucia and Dominican Republic. Cash was inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame in 2005. Cash won the over-45's Wimbledon doubles title with fellow Australian Mark Woodforde in 2010, 2011, 2012 and 2013. In November 2014, he played in the inaugural Champions Tennis League in India.", "In his early twenties, Cash had two children with his then-girlfriend, Norwegian model Anne-Britt Kristiansen. They have a son, Daniel Kristiansen Cash (born 27 May 1986) and a daughter Mia Kristiansen Cash (born 1988). From 1990 through 2002 Cash was married to Brazilian Emily Bendit. Their twin boys, Shannon Cash and Jett Cash, were born in 1994. As of 2011, Jett aspired for a professional tennis player. In 2010, Cash became a grandfather at age 44 when his daughter Mia gave birth to a daughter.", "", "\"Walkovers are neither official wins nor official losses.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Specification.", "Modules.", "Chip characteristics.", "Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM specification.", "Organization.", "High-density RAM.", "Generations.", "Mobile DDR." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Samsung demonstrated the first DDR memory prototype in 1997, and released the first commercial DDR SDRAM chip (64Mb) in June 1998, followed soon after by Hyundai Electronics (now SK Hynix) the same year. The development of DDR began in 1996, before its specification was finalized by JEDEC in June 2000 (JESD79). JEDEC has set standards for data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts. The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules. The first retail PC motherboard using DDR SDRAM was released in August 2000.", "", "To increase memory capacity and bandwidth, chips are combined on a module. For instance, the 64-bit data bus for DIMM requires eight 8-bit chips, addressed in parallel. Multiple chips with the common address lines are called a memory rank. The term was introduced to avoid confusion with chip internal rows and banks. A memory module may bear more than one rank. The term sides would also be confusing because it incorrectly suggests the physical placement of chips on the module. All ranks are connected to the same memory bus (address + data). The chip select signal is used to issue commands to specific rank. Adding modules to the single memory bus creates additional electrical load on its drivers. To mitigate the resulting bus signaling rate drop and overcome the memory bottleneck, new chipsets employ the multi-channel architecture. Note: All above listed are specified by JEDEC as JESD79F. All RAM data rates in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC — often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using tighter-tolerance or overvolted chips. The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardized by JEDEC. There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM modules. Modules are instead designed to run at different clock frequencies: for example, a PC-1600 module is designed to run at, and a PC-2100 is designed to run at. A module's clock speed designates the data rate at which it is guaranteed to perform, hence it is guaranteed to run at lower (\"underclocking\") and can possibly run at higher (\"overclocking\") clock rates than those for which it was made. DDR SDRAM modules for desktop computers, dual in-line memory modules (DIMMs), have 184 pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or 240 pins on DDR2 SDRAM), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR SDRAM for notebook computers, SO-DIMMs, have 200 pins, which is the same number of pins as DDR2 SO-DIMMs. These two specifications are notched very similarly and care must be taken during insertion if unsure of a correct match. Most DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, compared to 3.3 V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power consumption. Chips and modules with DDR-400/PC-3200 standard have a nominal voltage of 2.6 V. JEDEC Standard No. 21–C defines three possible operating voltages for 184 pin DDR, as identified by the key notch position relative to its centreline. Page 4.5.10-7 defines 2.5V (left), 1.8V (centre), TBD (right), while page 4.20.5–40 nominates 3.3V for the right notch position. The orientation of the module for determining the key notch position is with 52 contact positions to the left and 40 contact positions to the right. Increasing operating voltage slightly can increase maximum speed, at the cost of higher power dissipation and heating, and at the risk of malfunctioning or damage. Module and chip characteristics are inherently linked. Total module capacity is a product of one chip's capacity and the number of chips. ECC modules multiply it by 8/9 because they use 1 bit per byte (8 bits) for error correction. A module of any particular size can therefore be assembled either from 32 small chips (36 for ECC memory), or 16(18) or 8(9) bigger ones. DDR memory bus width per channel is 64 bits (72 for ECC memory). Total module bit width is a product of bits per chip and number of chips. It also equals number of ranks (rows) multiplied by DDR memory bus width. Consequently, a module with a greater number of chips or using ×8 chips instead of ×4 will have more ranks. This example compares different real-world server memory modules with a common size of 1 GB. One should definitely be careful buying 1 GB memory modules, because all these variations can be sold under one price position without stating whether they are ×4 or ×8, single- or dual-ranked. There is a common belief that number of module ranks equals number of sides. As above data shows, this is not true. One can also find 2-side/1-rank modules. One can even think of a 1-side/2-rank memory module having 16(18) chips on single side ×8 each, but it's unlikely such a module was ever produced.", "", "From Ballot JCB-99-70, and modified by numerous other Board Ballots, formulated under the cognizance of Committee JC-42.3 on DRAM Parametrics. Standard No. 79 Revision Log: \"This comprehensive standard defines all required aspects of 64Mb through 1Gb DDR SDRAMs with X4/X8/X16 data interfaces, including features, functionality, ac and dc parametrics, packages and pin assignments. This scope will subsequently be expanded to formally apply to x32 devices, and higher density devices as well.\"", "PC3200 is DDR SDRAM designed to operate at 200 MHz using DDR-400 chips with a bandwidth of 3,200 MB/s. Because PC3200 memory transfers data on both the rising and falling clock edges, its effective clock rate is 400 MHz. 1 GB PC3200 non-ECC modules are usually made with 16 512 Mbit chips, 8 on each side (512 Mbits × 16 chips) / (8 bits (per byte)) = 1,024 MB. The individual chips making up a 1 GB memory module are usually organized as 2 8-bit words, commonly expressed as 64M×8. Memory manufactured in this way is low-density RAM and is usually compatible with any motherboard specifying PC3200 DDR-400 memory.", "In the context of the 1 GB non-ECC PC3200 SDRAM module, there is very little visually to differentiate low-density from high-density RAM. High-density DDR RAM modules will, like their low-density counterparts, usually be double-sided with eight 512 Mbit chips per side. The difference is that each chip, instead of being organized as 64M×8, is organized as 2 4-bit words, or 128M×4. High-density memory modules are assembled using chips from multiple manufacturers. These chips come in both the familiar 22 × 10 mm (approx.) TSOP2 and smaller squarer 12 × 9 mm (approx.) FBGA package sizes. High-density chips can be identified by the numbers on each chip. High-density RAM devices were designed to be used in registered memory modules for servers. JEDEC standards do not apply to high-density DDR RAM in desktop implementations. JEDEC's technical documentation, however, supports 128M×4 semiconductors. As such, \"high density\" is a relative term, which can be used to describe memory that is not supported by a particular motherboard's memory controller.", "DDR (DDR1) was superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, which had modifications for higher clock frequency and again doubled throughput, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR2 was Rambus XDR DRAM. DDR2 dominated due to cost and support factors. DDR2 was in turn superseded by DDR3 SDRAM, which offered higher performance for increased bus speeds and new features. DDR3 has been superseded by DDR4 SDRAM, which was first produced in 2011 and whose standards were still in flux (2012) with significant architectural changes. DDR's prefetch buffer depth is 2 (bits), while DDR2 uses 4. Although the effective clock rates of DDR2 are higher than DDR, the overall performance was not greater in the early implementations, primarily due to the high latencies of the first DDR2 modules. DDR2 started to be effective by the end of 2004, as modules with lower latencies became available. Memory manufacturers stated that it was impractical to mass-produce DDR1 memory with effective transfer rates in excess of 400 MHz (i.e. 400 MT/s and 200 MHz external clock) due to internal speed limitations. DDR2 picks up where DDR1 leaves off, utilizing internal clock rates similar to DDR1, but is available at effective transfer rates of 400 MHz and higher. DDR3 advances extended the ability to preserve internal clock rates while providing higher effective transfer rates by again doubling the prefetch depth. The DDR4 SDRAM is a high-speed dynamic random-access memory internally configured as 16 banks, 4 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for x4/x8 and 8 banks, 2 bank groups with 4 banks for each bank group for x16 DRAM. The DDR4 SDRAM uses an 8\"n\" prefetch architecture to achieve high-speed operation. The 8\"n\" prefetch architecture is combined with an interface designed to transfer two data words per clock cycle at the I/O pins. A single read or write operation for the DDR4 SDRAM consists of a single 8\"n\"-bit-wide 4-clock data transfer at the internal DRAM core and 8 corresponding \"n\"-bit-wide half-clock-cycle data transfers at the I/O pins. RDRAM was a particularly expensive alternative to DDR SDRAM, and most manufacturers dropped its support from their chipsets. DDR1 memory's prices substantially increased since Q2 2008, while DDR2 prices declined. In January 2009, 1 GB DDR1 was 2–3 times more expensive than 1 GB DDR2. High-density DDR RAM suits about 10% of PC motherboards on the market, while low-density DDR RAM suits almost all motherboards on the desktop PC market.", "MDDR is an acronym that some enterprises use for Mobile DDR SDRAM, a type of memory used in some portable electronic devices, like mobile phones, handhelds, and digital audio players. Through techniques including reduced voltage supply and advanced refresh options, Mobile DDR can achieve greater power efficiency." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood.", "Tennis career.", "Davis Cup/Fed Cup captain success.", "Music career.", "Charity.", "Personal life.", "Discography.", "Albums." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Sedan, in the north of France in 1960, Yannick Noah is the son of a Cameroonian footballer, Zacharie Noah, and his French wife Marie-Claire. After a sports injury in 1963, Noah's father returned to Africa with his family. He was living in Cameroon when he made his debut in tennis and was discovered at age 11 by Arthur Ashe and Charlie Pasarell. He soon showed an amazing talent that eventually brought him to the French Tennis Federation's training center in Nice in 1971.", "Noah turned professional in 1977 and won his first top-level singles title in 1978 in Manila. Noah became France's most prominent tennis hero in 1983, becoming the first Frenchman in 37 years to win the French Open, one of the four Grand Slam singles events. He dropped only one set during the two-week-long tournament, and defeated the defending champion, Sweden's Mats Wilander in straight sets in the final, 6–2, 7–5, 7–6. He remains the last and most recent Frenchman to have won the French Open men's singles title. Noah won the French Open men's doubles title in 1984 (with compatriot and best friend Henri Leconte). He was also the men's doubles runner-up at the 1985 U.S. Open (with Leconte), and the 1987 French Open (with compatriot Guy Forget). In August 1986, Noah attained the world no. 1 doubles ranking, which he would hold for a total of 19 weeks. At the end of 1986, Noah received the ATP Sportsmanship Award, as voted for by other ATP players. Yannick reached the quarter-final stage or better on 10 occasions at Grand Slam level. He notably admitted using marijuana prior to matches in 1981, saying that amphetamines were the real problem in tennis as they were performance-enhancing drugs. In 1992, Noah received the Legion of Honour medal. Noah was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2005. He remains France's highest ranked player since the introduction of rankings in 1973. Noah played on France's Davis Cup team for eleven years, with an overall win–loss record of 39–22 (26–15 in singles, and in 13–7 doubles). In 1982, he was part of the French team which reached the Davis Cup final, where they were defeated 4–1 by the United States.", "In 1991, Noah captained the French team to its first Davis Cup victory in 59 years, defeating a heavily favoured US team 3–1 in the final. This feat was repeated in 1996, when Noah coached the French team to defeat Sweden 3–2 in the final held in Malmö. In 2017, Noah added a third Davis Cup win for France under his guidance as Captain, defeating Belgium in the final in Lille. In 1997, he also captained France's Fed Cup team to its first ever win of that competition when they defeated the Dutch in the final.", "Since retiring from playing tennis, Noah developed a career as a popular singer, performing throughout Europe. He began his music career in 1991 with the album \"Black or What\", featuring the popular track \"Saga Africa\", which he made the stadium sing with his players after the famous Davis Cup final win. In 1993, he released the album \"Urban Tribu\" with the single \"Get on Back\", followed by the album \"Zam Zam\" in 1998. With the encouragement of his manager Jean-Pierre Weiller, his musical career got a great boost in 2000 with his self-titled 4th album \"Yannick Noah\", written by Erick Benzi and Robert Goldman. The single \"Simon Papa Tara\" was written by Robert Goldman. The album also contained songs by Bob Marley and the group Téléphone. In 2005, Noah performed at Bob Geldof's Live 8 concert, a fundraiser aimed at alleviating poverty in Africa. On 21 July 2009, Noah made his U.S. live debut, headlining a concert in front of a packed house at the popular free outdoor performing arts festival in New York City, Central Park SummerStage. The performance was part of France's global music celebration Fête de la Musique. In 2010, Yannick made a comeback with the release of \"Frontières\", his eighth album, containing the single \"Angela\", a tribute to Angela Davis. It also contained a duet with Aṣa in \"Hello\". On 25 September 2010, he filled the Stade de France for an exceptional concert that was attended by close to 80,000 spectators.", "Noah is active in charity work. He supports Enfants de la Terre, a charity created and run by his mother, Marie-Claire, in 1988. Noah also founded Fête le Mur in 1996, a tennis charity and adaptation for underprivileged children, specially in the poor areas and the banlieues. It is presided by Noah himself. He is also a spokesman for Appel des Enfants pour l'Environnement that was started by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). He took part in singing with Les Enfoirés to help Les Restos du Cœur. He also took part in telethons and sponsored the Téléthon 2005. He also sponsors the Association Terre-des-Hommes in Massongex (Suisse) and donated proceeds of his 2008 concert of Grands Gamins, to Sol En Si, an AIDS charity. Partly because of his involvement in a number of charities, Noah topped the list of the most favourite French personalities according to a joint survey of \"Ifop\" and \"Le Journal du Dimanche\" in 2007.", "Noah Yannick did attend school first in Yaounde (Cameroon), where his parents had settled after meeting and marrying in France. He then left Cameroon to attend a sports-and-study program in France under the sponsorship of the French Tennis Federation. He dropped out of the program at age 17 to move to full time tennis schedule. Noah's father, Zacharie Noah, was a former professional Cameroonian football star who won the French Cup with Sedan in 1961. His mother, Marie-Claire, is a former captain of France's basketball team and teacher. Noah has five children, of whom two were from his first marriage to Cécilia Rodhe (Miss Sweden 1978 and now a sculptor): Joakim (born in 1985) and Yelena (born in 1986). Joakim plays basketball for the NBA Los Angeles Clippers and for the French team. Yelena is a model, mildly famous in the world of fashion. They do not live in France but in the U.S. With his second wife, the British model Heather Stewart-Whyte, Noah has two daughters: Elijah (1996) and Jénayé (1997). Now he is married to French TV producer Isabelle Camus, with whom he has a son named Joalukas (born in 2004). Noah is also the owner of a restaurant in Saint Barthélemy in the French West Indies called \"Do Brazil\". On 15 July 1996, the French fiscal authorities demanded payment of 6,807,701 francs in back taxes for 1993–1994. The Paris administrative tribunal court confirmed the decision alleging that Noah kept three non-declared bank accounts in Switzerland, the Netherlands and the United States. Noah disputed the court decision as unconstitutional.", "", "Re-releases" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Panatta was born in Rome. His father was the caretaker of the \"Tennis Club Parioli\", and as a youngster he learned to play the game on the club's clay courts. He became a successful European junior player before turning professional. In his early career, Panatta won top-level professional titles at Bournemouth in 1973, Florence in 1974, and at Kitzbühel and Stockholm in 1975. The pinnacle of his career arrived in 1976, when he won the French Open defeating Harold Solomon in the final 6–1, 6–4, 4–6, 7–6. In the first round he had saved a match point against Czechoslovakian player Pavel Hutka. In the same year he also won the Italian Open, having saved 11 match points in his first round match against the Australian Kim Warwick, and beating Guillermo Vilas in the final (2–6, 7–6, 6–2, 7–6). He finished off 1976 by helping Italy capture its first-ever Davis Cup title, winning two singles and a doubles rubber in the final against Chile. He reached his career-high singles ranking of world No. 4 that year. Panatta is the only player to have defeated Björn Borg at the French Open. He achieved this feat twice – in the fourth round in 1973 (7–6, 2–6, 7–5, 7–6), and in the quarterfinals in 1976 (6–3, 6–3, 2–6, 7–6). He also faced Borg at the semifinal stage of the 1975 tournament; Borg won on this occasion in four sets. In 1977, Panatta won the World Championship Tennis in Houston, where he defeated Jimmy Connors and Vitas Gerulaitis. He followed this up with another title in Tokyo in 1978. Panatta was less successful on fast surfaces. On grass courts, he reached the quarterfinals at Wimbledon in 1979. He was beaten at that stage by Pat Du Pré in five sets (3–6, 6–4, 6–7, 6–4, 6–3). After the 1976 Davis Cup triumph, Panatta helped Italy reach the Davis Cup final on three further occasions – in 1977, 1979 and 1980. The team lost to Australia in 1977, the United States in 1979, and to Czechoslovakia in 1980. Overall, Panatta compiled a 64–36 Davis Cup record (55–17 on clay). His final career singles title came in 1980 at Florence. He retired from the professional tour in 1983. Since retiring as a player, Panatta has served as captain of Italy's Davis Cup team, and as tournament director of the Rome Masters. He is also a professional powerboat racer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Costa began playing tennis at the age of five. He first came to the tennis world's attention as an outstanding junior player. In 1993, he reached the French Open junior final and won the Orange Bowl. He turned professional later that year and quickly established a reputation as a strong clay court player. Spanish former player and commentator for Spanish television Andrés Gimeno used to call him \"the man with two forehands\", because he could hit with the same accuracy and strength both forehand and backhand. In 1994, he won two challenger series events and was named the ATP's Newcomer of the Year. Costa won his first top-level singles title in 1995 at Kitzbühel, beating the \"King of Clay\", Thomas Muster, in a five set final, and it was Muster's first of his only 2 losses on clay in 1995. Costa ended Muster's streak of 40 consecutive clay match wins and his 11 consecutive final wins. Costa won three further titles in 1996. In 1997, he won another two singles titles and was part of the Spanish team that won the World Team Cup. He won another two singles titles in 1998, including the Tennis Masters Series event in Hamburg and played at magnificent level at the French Open, only a brilliant Marcelo Rios could stop him at fourth round, but he established the bases for his future winning in 2002. Three further titles followed in 1999. In 2000, Costa helped Spain win its first Davis Cup. Despite being knocked out in the first round in men's singles, he also captured a bronze medal in the men's doubles at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, partnering Álex Corretja. Going into the French Open in 2002, Costa had not won a tour title of any kind since 1999 and was not considered to be among the favorites. Seeding 20th, he defeated Richard Gasquet, Nikolay Davydenko and Andrea Gaudenzi to reach the fourth round, where he defeated two time defending-champion and former world No. 1 Gustavo Kuerten in straight sets. He followed up with a five-set victory over Argentina's Guillermo Cañas in a quarterfinal. He then defeated fellow-Spaniard, former world No. 2 and long-time friend Àlex Corretja in a four-set semifinal. In the final, Costa came up against another Spaniard, future world No. 1, Juan Carlos Ferrero. Ferrero had been in fine form in the run-up to the event and most observers considered him to be the heavy favourite going into the final. But Costa won in four sets, 6–1, 6–0, 4–6, 6–3, to claim his first Grand Slam title. Costa destroyed Ferrero, who could only win nine points during Costa's service games in the first 2 sets. The win propelled him to his career-high singles ranking of World No. 6 in July 2002. Coming into the French Open as defending-champion in 2003, Costa spent a total of 21 hours and 15 minutes on court, winning four five-setters before eventually being knocked-out in a semifinal by Ferrero (who went on to win the title). During his career, Costa won 12 top-level singles titles. In 2005, he captured his first tour doubles title (in Doha, partnering Rafael Nadal). Citing recurring injuries and lack of desire, he officially announced his retirement from competitive professional tennis on 21 April 2006, at the completion of the Open Seat 2006 in his hometown in Barcelona. In his last tournament, Costa defeated American Vincent Spadea and Slovakian Dominik Hrbatý before losing 6–1, 5–7, 7–5 to Ferrero in the third round. In December 2008, Costa was named Spain's Davis Cup captain, replacing Emilio Sánchez Vicario. Costa became the most successful Spanish Davis Cup captain to date as he led Spain to two Davis Cup titles in 2009 and 2011, before handing the captaincy over to Àlex Corretja. Costa was coaching ATP pro Feliciano López.", "He grew up with John McEnroe as his idol. Besides tennis, he enjoys playing cards, table tennis, golf, and soccer. He is also a fan of Barcelona and his hometown team UE Lleida. He also admires Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods, and Ronaldo. Less than a week after his triumph at the 2002 French Open, Costa married his long-time girlfriend Cristina Ventura. Àlex Corretja was the best man at the wedding. The couple have twin daughters, Claudia and Alma, who were born on 21 April 2001." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Juniors.", "Professional career.", "Personal life.", "Equipment.", "Performance timelines.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Johansson began to play tennis at age five with his father, Krister. In 1989, became European 14s singles champion and won doubles title (with Magnus Norman). Even when he injured his right elbow while playing the Orange Bowl tennis championships 16s in 1991, he still reached the final, losing to Spain's Gonzalo Corrales. He finished No. 10 in the 1993 world junior rankings.", "That same year he joined the pro tour for the first time, and turned pro the following year. He has managed to win 9 top-level singles titles and 1 doubles title, including the 1999 Canada Masters, defeating world No. 4 Yevgeny Kafelnikov from a set down, and the 2002 Australian Open, which he unexpectedly won (while having never progressed beyond the quarterfinals of any of his 24 previous Grand Slams) after defeating Jacobo Díaz, Markus Hipfl, Younes El Aynaoui, Adrian Voinea, Jonas Björkman and Jiří Novák before defeating his heavily favored opponent in the final, Marat Safin, in four sets, again from a set down. Johansson became the first Swedish player to win a Slam since Stefan Edberg won the 1992 US Open title, and the first Swede to claim the Australian Open since his idol Mats Wilander in 1988. A knee injury robbed Johansson of the latter half of the 2002 season and all of 2003, and Johansson was therefore unable to compete until the start of 2004. Many people weren't sure if Johansson will be able to compete again because of the seriousness of the injury. In 2005, he made a comeback to become the first Swedish player to reach the semifinals at Wimbledon since Edberg in 1993, and only dropped a set en route, losing to 2nd seed Andy Roddick in a tightly contested four set match that lasted a minute under 3 hours, 7–6, 2–6, 6–7, 6–7. Near the end of the season, Johansson won his 9th and last ATP tour title in St. Petersburg, defeating Nicolas Kiefer in straight sets. In 2006, the Swede struggled through the season after suffering an eye injury early in the season. The highlights of the season were a 4th round at the Australian Open (where he lost to Ivan Ljubičić), his first doubles title in Båstad, Sweden with countryman Jonas Björkman, and a final in St. Petersburg (lost to Mario Ančić), where he was the defending champion. At the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics he reached the doubles final with Simon Aspelin, where he lost against the Swiss team of Roger Federer and Stanislas Wawrinka in 4 sets. As of 6 March 2009, he has an 18–15 career Davis Cup record (17–12 in singles) in 17 ties, having played for Sweden every year other than 2003 (when he was out of action for the entire season) since 1998, and a 356–292 career overall. He announced his retirement in June 2009 after a 15-year career.", "His idol while growing up was Mats Wilander, who was the captain of Swedish Davis Cup team. He is also a keen player of golf and floorball, and a fan of ice hockey. He scored two goals and assisted on another in 6–5 win by ATP Stars over National Hockey League Players in an annual street hockey challenge in Montreal in 2001. He married Gisella Kaltencher on 3 December 2005.", "He is sponsored by Dunlop Sport for racquets and apparel, and adidas for shoes. He uses a heavily modified Dunlop Pro Revelation racquet 'paintjobbed' to look like the current Dunlop 4D Aerogel 500 racquet.", "", "\"Davis Cup matches are included in the statistics.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography and studies.", "Doctoral thesis.", "Academic career until World War II.", "During and after the war.", "Legacy.", "Kazimierz Kuratowski Prize.", "Research.", "Publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kazimierz Kuratowski was born in Warsaw, Vistula Land (the part of the former Kingdom of Poland controlled by the Russian Empire), on 2 February 1896, into an assimilated Jewish family. He was a son of Marek Kuratow, a barrister, and Róża Karzewska. He completed a Warsaw secondary school, which was named after general Paweł Chrzanowski. In 1913, he enrolled in an engineering course at the University of Glasgow in Scotland, in part because he did not wish to study in Russian; instruction in Polish was prohibited. He completed only one year of study when the outbreak of World War I precluded any further enrollment. In 1915, Russian forces withdrew from Warsaw and Warsaw University was reopened with Polish as the language of instruction. Kuratowski restarted his university education there the same year, this time in mathematics. He obtained his Ph.D. in 1921, in newly independent Poland.", "In autumn 1921 Kuratowski was awarded the Ph.D. degree for his groundbreaking work. His thesis statement consisted of two parts. One was devoted to an axiomatic construction of topology via the closure axioms. This first part (republished in a slightly modified form in 1922) has been cited in hundreds of scientific articles. The second part of Kuratowski's thesis was devoted to continua irreducible between two points. This was the subject of a French doctoral thesis written by Zygmunt Janiszewski. Since Janiszewski was deceased, Kuratowski's supervisor was Stefan Mazurkiewicz. Kuratowski's thesis solved certain problems in set theory raised by a Belgian mathematician, Charles-Jean Étienne Gustave Nicolas, Baron de la Vallée Poussin.", "Two years later, in 1923, Kuratowski was appointed deputy professor of mathematics at Warsaw University. He was then appointed a full professor of mathematics at Lwów Polytechnic in Lwów, in 1927. He was the head of the Mathematics department there until 1933. Kuratowski was also dean of the department twice. In 1929, Kuratowski became a member of the Warsaw Scientific Society While Kuratowski associated with many of the scholars of the Lwów School of Mathematics, such as Stefan Banach and Stanislaw Ulam, and the circle of mathematicians based around the Scottish Café he kept close connections with Warsaw. Kuratowski left Lwów for Warsaw in 1934, before the famous Scottish Book was begun (in 1935), hence did not contribute any problems to it. He did however, collaborate closely with Banach in solving important problems in measure theory. In 1934 he was appointed the professor at Warsaw University. A year later Kuratowski was nominated as the head of Mathematics Department there. From 1936 to 1939 he was secretary of the Mathematics Committee in The Council of Science and Applied Sciences.", "During World War II, he gave lectures at the underground university in Warsaw, since higher education for Poles was forbidden under German occupation. In February 1945, Kuratowski started to lecture at the reopened Warsaw University. In 1945, he became a member of the Polish Academy of Learning, in 1946 he was appointed vice-president of the Mathematics department at Warsaw University, and from 1949 he was chosen to be the vice-president of Warsaw Scientific Society. In 1952 he became a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences, of which he was the vice-president from 1957 to 1968. After World War II, Kuratowski was actively involved in the rebuilding of scientific life in Poland. He helped to establish the State Mathematical Institute, which was incorporated into the Polish Academy of Sciences in 1952. From 1948 until 1967 Kuratowski was director of the Institute of Mathematics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, and was also a long-time chairman of the Polish and International Mathematics Societies. He served as vice-president of the International Mathematics Union (1963–1966) as well as president of the Scientific Council of the State Institute of Mathematics (1968–1980). From 1948 to 1980 he was the head of the topology section. One of his students was Andrzej Mostowski.", "Kazimierz Kuratowski was one of a celebrated group of Polish mathematicians who would meet at Lwów's Scottish Café. He was a president of the Polish Mathematical Society (PTM) and a member of the Warsaw Scientific Society (TNW). What is more, he was chief editor in \"Fundamenta Mathematicae\", a series of publications in \"Polish Mathematical Society Annals\". Furthermore, Kuratowski worked as an editor in the Polish Academy of Sciences Bulletin. He was also one of the writers of the Mathematical monographs, which were created in cooperation with the Institute of Mathematics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IMPAN). High quality research monographs of the representatives of Warsaw's and Lwów’s School of Mathematics, which concerned all areas of pure and applied mathematics, were published in these volumes. Kazimierz Kuratowski was an active member of many scientific societies and foreign scientific academies, including the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).", "In 1981, IMPAN, the Polish Mathematical Society, and Kuratowski's daughter Zofia Kuratowska established a prize in his name for achievements in mathematics to people under the age of 30 years. The prize is considered the most prestigious of awards for young Polish mathematicians; past recipients have included Józef H. Przytycki, Mariusz Lemańczyk, Tomasz Łuczak, Mikołaj Bojańczyk, and Wojciech Samotij.", "Kuratowski’s research mainly focused on abstract topological and metric structures. He implemented the closure axioms (known in mathematical circles as the Kuratowski closure axioms). This was fundamental for the development of topological space theory and irreducible continuum theory between two points. The most valuable results, which were obtained by Kazimierz Kuratowski after the war are those that concern the relationship between topology and analytic functions (theory), and also research in the field of cutting Euclidean spaces. Together with Ulam, who was Kuratowski’s most talented student during the Lwów Period, he introduced the concept of so-called quasi homeomorphism that opened up a new field in topological studies. Kuratowski’s research in the field of measure theory, including research with Banach, Tarski, was continued by many students. Moreover, with Alfred Tarski and Wacław Sierpiński he provided most of the theory concerning Polish spaces (that are indeed named after these mathematicians and their legacy). Knaster and Kuratowski brought a comprehensive and precise study to connected components theory. It was applied to issues such as cutting-plane, with the paradoxical examples of connected components. Kuratowski proved the Kuratowski-Zorn lemma (often called just Zorn's lemma) in 1922. This result has important connections to many basic theorems. Zorn gave its application in 1935. Kuratowski implemented many concepts in set theory and topology. In many cases, Kuratowski established new terminology and symbolism. His contributions to mathematics include: Kuratowski’s post-war works were mainly focused on three strands:", "Among over 170 published works are valuable monographs and books including Topologie (Vol. I, 1933, translated into English and Russian, and Vol. II, 1950) and Introduction to Set Theory and Topology (Vol. I, 1952, translated into English, French, Spanish, and Bulgarian). He authored \"A Half Century of Polish Mathematics 1920-1970: Remembrances and Reflections\" (1973) and \"Notes to his autobiography\" (1981). The latter was published posthumously thanks to Kuratowski's daughter Zofia Kuratowska, who prepared his notes for printing. Kazimierz Kuratowski represented Polish mathematics in the International Mathematics Union where he was vice president from 1963 to 1966. What is more, he participated in numerous international congresses and lectured at dozens of universities around the world. He was an honorary causa doctor at the Universities in Glasgow, Prague, Wroclaw, and Paris. He received the highest national awards, as well as a gold medal of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, and the Polish Academy of Science. Kuratowski died on 18 June 1980 in Warsaw." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Czechoslovak Legion.", "First Republic.", "Postwar (Third Republic and Socialist Republic).", "In literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Czechoslovak Legion in the Russian Far East possessed in 1918 a maritime section of two steamers and an icebreaker, based at Vladivostok, which were used for transport. Later that same year the Legion seized two steamers on Lake Baikal, which were armed with howitzers. Engaging with the Red Army based on the port of Mysovaya, Legion naval forces sank the icebreaker \"Baikal\". By 1920, though, the Legion was finished as a military force in Russia.", "At first, the First Czechoslovak Republic operated river craft inherited from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. From 1919 until 1921 the Czechoslovakian naval forces consisted of an Elbe Section (based at Litoměřice) and a Danube Section (based at Bratislava). These sections were separated, the Elbe and Danube not being connected. The larger ships were deployed on the Danube, the Elbe section being more suited to transport, reconnaissance, and engineering support roles rather than combat. In 1921 these sections were consolidated by eliminating the Elbe section. The remaining (Danube) section was placed under the 4th Engineer Regiment. This Danube flotilla consisted of a headquarters section, bridging engineer section, transport section, mine warfare section, replacement section, and arsenal. The old Austrian craft being considered obsolescent by the late 1920s, plans were made to build two new large river monitors. One of these, \"President Masaryk\", was built, being commissioned in 1932. With four guns, \"President Masaryk\" was the flagship and most powerful ship of the Danube flotilla. \"President Masaryk\" was the only Czechoslovakian ship able, to some degree, to match the best ships of the more powerful fleets of the other Danubian powers (Yugoslavia, Romania, and Hungary) in the 1930s. The flotilla also included various other craft. The gunboats \"MD-1\" and \"MD-2\", originally ordered for Austria-Hungary as torpedo retrievers, were equipped with 2 single mount Škoda cannon, two machine guns, and mines. The \"OMH\" class launches were also ordered by Austria but not completed until 1924; their only armament was two machine guns. Two small minelayers were the last warships to be commissioned by the flotilla, the first entering service in 1938. The flotilla expired along with the Republic in 1939, and \"President Masaryk\" was pressed into service by the Germans in World War II.", "In 1946, the 14th Naval Engineer Battalion was created at Bratislava, with some minelayers and other vessels in its equipment. The largest boat in the naval forces was the former \"Sicherungsboot 43\" (), inherited from the Germans. This vessel was armed with a gun in a Panzer IV medium tank turret, and four 20mm anti-aircraft guns. In 1950 the 52nd Maritime Regiment was formed at Bratislava, and the 14th Naval Engineer Battalion was subsumed into this unit. Further reorganization occurred in 1957. By this time it was clear that the main issue facing naval forces on the Czechoslovakian Danube was not defense against external aggression, but preventing citizens from fleeing to Austria. Also by the late 1950s it was becoming evident that riverine forces, while suited to patrol duties on large backcountry rivers (such as in Africa or South America), would probably fare poorly in the crucible of a full-scale mechanized war, being particularly vulnerable to air forces. Accordingly, in 1958 the members of the Warsaw Pact signed a resolution whereby defense of the Danube was given over to the Soviet Navy's Danube Flotilla. In 1959 the Czechoslovakian naval forces were disbanded, and the inland waters security forces were transferred to the Ministry of the Interior, forming a naval contingent of the Border Guard Service.", "Ottokar Prohaska, fictional protagonist of John Biggins's Ottokar Prohaska novels, was for a time Commander in Chief of the Czechoslovak Danube Flotilla." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Service in Czechoslovakia.", "Career in German service.", "Final years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 1920s, the Czechoslovakian naval forces operated river craft inherited from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. These being obsolescent, in the late 1920s plans were made to build two new large river patrol craft. Only one of these, \"President Masaryk\", was built. The design of \"President Masaryk\" was based on the Austrian monitor \"Catfish\" (). It was designed at the Škoda Works and built at the Škoda shipyard in Komárno. The flat-bottomed hull was divided into 15 watertight compartments. Various Czechoslovakian (and other) companies contributed components to the vessel: Poldi Kladno supplied steel plates, the Škoda works at Plzeň the engines, and the Hamburg company Zeis the marine propellers. Yarrow boilers were installed on the vessel. The ship was laid down in August 1929 and launched in 1930 or 1931. Trials showed that the ship did not perform to specifications, so it was returned to the shipyard for major modifications. Among other changes, the single stack was replaced with dual stacks, one for each engine. These modifications being completed, and the ship's speed increased from to, \"President Masaryk\" was commissioned in 1932. After this it patrolled the Danube River from its base in Bratislava for the rest of the First Czechoslovak Republic's existence. \"President Masaryk\" was the only Czechoslovakian ship able to match the best ships of the other Danubian powers (Yugoslavia, Romania, and Hungary) in the 1930s.", "After the German invasion of 1939, the ship was used by the Germans. Until 1941 it was based in Linz and continued to patrol the Danube. In 1941 it was transferred downriver to the area of Yugoslavia (which had been overrun by the Germans). In 1943 the vessel was returned to Linz and underwent extensive modernization. The hull was lengthened by, the shape of the stern was changed, and new machinery was installed, with the boilers and engines replaced with two MAN submarine diesel engines with an output of each. The stacks were removed and replaced with exhaust pipes on the sides of the vessel. The single rudder was replaced with two. Using space freed up by the changes in propulsion machinery, a quadruple mount with four 20 mm flak guns was installed. A separate 20 mm cannon on the stern was replaced with a 37 mm flak gun, and the machine gun turret at the front was removed. In 1944 \"Bechelaren\" was returned to duty on the lower Danube. On the night of April 5–6, 1944, while escorting a convoy, the vessel was damaged by planes of the Red Air Force. After repairs, it was returned to service at Visegrád, Hungary. Later it returned to Linz, where (since 66 mm ammunition was no longer being manufactured) its four guns were replaced with two naval guns with light shields. \"Bechelaren\" then participated in combat operations in Yugoslavia and Hungary. In 1944 it supported the German counterattack toward Budapest and at Melk in Austria it fought Soviet gunboats. This was \"Bechelaren\"s last combat mission.", "On May 11, 1945, \"Bechelaren\"s crew surrendered the ship to the United States Army in Linz. In 1947 the ship was returned (without weapons) to Czechoslovakia and taken to Bratislava, where in 1951 it was restored to working condition, but was never re-armed. The Czechoslovakian Army having no further use for the vessel, it was sold to the civilian sector in 1955. The hull then served as a hulk for storage and workshops at the Komárno Shipyard. In 1978 \"President Masaryk\" was scrapped." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Archbishop and Cardinal.", "Cardinal Secretary of State.", "Controversies.", "\"The Da Vinci Code\".", "Church and sports.", "Defense of Pius XII.", "Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy.", "Comments by Patriarch Alexius II.", "Media.", "Proposed excommunication of drug dealers.", "Support for universal and free access to anti-HIV drugs.", "Our Lady of Fatima.", "Homosexuality to blame for child abuse by priests.", "Holocaust-denying bishop.", "Vatileaks.", "Financial irregularities.", "Apartment renovation.", "Vatican response to lavish lifestyle.", "McCarrick sex abuse.", "Retirement.", "Distinctions.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bertone was born in Romano Canavese, Piedmont, the fifth of eight children. Bertone has stated that his mother was a determined anti-fascist militant of the Italian People's Party, and later a Christian Democrat. He professed his vows as a member of the Salesians on 3 December 1950 and was ordained a priest by Archbishop Albino Mensa on 1 July 1960. He holds a doctorate in canon law. His dissertation was entitled \"The Governance of the Church in the Thought of Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758)\". He served as Professor of Special Moral Theology at the Pontifical Salesian University from 1967 until his appointment as Professor of Canon Law in 1976, a post he held until 1991. He was a visiting professor of Public Ecclesiastical Law at the Institute Utriusque Iuris of the Pontifical Lateran University in 1978. He was commissioned by Pope John Paul II to assist Emmanuel Milingo, Archbishop Emeritus of Lusaka, Zambia, in returning to the Catholic Church in 2001. Milingo had left the Church to marry Maria Sung of Sun Myung Moon's Unification Church.", "On 4 July 1991, Bertone was appointed Archbishop of Vercelli by Pope John Paul II. He was consecrated bishop one month later by Archbishop Mensa, who had also ordained him priest. He held this post until his resignation in 1995 upon being named Secretary of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith under Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger, who later became Pope Benedict XVI. Appointed Archbishop of Genoa on 10 December 2002 and installed on 2 February 2003, Bertone was elevated to the College of Cardinals in the consistory of 21 October 2003, as Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria Ausiliatrice in Via Tuscolana. According to Bertone's secretary, \"Bertone once decided to take a public bus to the Apostolic Palace. As the Cardinal in his long black cassock and red fascia strode on to the bus, the people, especially a group of young people, stared in silence. Bertone immediately broke the ice with his 'characteristic' smile. By the time he reached his destination the prelate had engaged the youth in a deep conversation on love, sex, virginity, and chastity\". He later specialized in the relationship between social morality, faith and politics. He also assisted with the revision of the 1983 Code of Canon Law and undertook pastoral work in parishes. In the Jubilee Year 2000, Bertone was entrusted by John Paul II with the publication of the third secret of Fatima. Bertone was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2005 papal conclave that elected Pope Benedict XVI. He also participated as a cardinal elector in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis.", "On 22 June 2006, Benedict XVI appointed Cardinal Bertone to replace Angelo Sodano as the Cardinal Secretary of State. He assumed the office on 15 September. On 26 June 2006 Bertone was awarded the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic. Complaints about Bertone's performance as secretary of state began early in his tenure. He had no prior experience in the Vatican's diplomatic corps. Two weeks before entering office, asked about reforms of the Roman Curia, Bertone remarked, \"After almost two decades, an evaluation of how the dicasteries are organised is more than comprehensible, in order to reflect on how to make the existing structures more efficient for the mission of the Church and eventually to consider whether all of them should be maintained\". On 4 April 2007, Benedict XVI appointed Bertone as Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church (or Chamberlain). The duties of the Camerlengo are largely confined to administration during the vacancy of the Holy See. On 10 May 2008 he was promoted to the rank of Cardinal-Bishop of Frascati. After he was named Archbishop of Vercelli he \"locked himself in his room all night and studied the life of Saint Eusebius, who was bishop of the city back in 345 AD\". When Pope Benedict XVI resigned on 28 February 2013, Bertone as Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church was the acting sovereign for Vatican City State and administrator for the Holy See until the election of a new pope. On 13 February 2013, at the last public Mass of Pope Benedict XVI before his resignation took effect on 28 February, Bertone praised Pope Benedict, \"We would not be honest, Your Holiness, if we said that this evening there is not a hint of sadness in our hearts. In recent years, your teaching has been a window open onto the Church and the world, which let in the rays of truth and love of God, to enlighten and warm our journey, even and especially at times when clouds gathered in the sky\". Bertone continued: \"All of us have realized that it is precisely the deep love that Your Holiness has for God and the Church that prompted you to make this act, revealing that purity of mind, that strong and demanding faith, that strength of humility and meekness, along with great courage, that have marked every step of your life and your ministry\". He was the second most senior cardinal-elector in order of precedence among the cardinal-electors who participated in the 2013 conclave that elected Pope Francis, after the presiding cardinal Giovanni Battista Re. Bertone himself was seen as a contender to succeed to the papacy, although his chances as a \"papabile\" were thought diminished by the perception that he was a \"potential scandal in the making\". At Pope Francis' inauguration, Bertone was one of the six cardinals who made the public act of obedience on behalf of the College of Cardinals. He was a member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Congregation for the Clergy, Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, Congregation for the Oriental Churches, Congregation for Bishops and Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples until his 80th birthday on 2 December 2014.", "", "On 15 March 2005, Bertone was in the news for \"breaking the Church's silence\" and criticizing Dan Brown's 2003 novel \"The Da Vinci Code\", saying the book was \"shameful and full of unfounded lies\", and that believers should boycott the book. Both Bertone and official Vatican spokespeople insisted that Bertone was not speaking as an official representative of the Church, but it was also noted that Bertone's high placement within the Church hierarchy and the fact that he was often named as a potential candidate for the papacy gave his words considerable weight, such that his comments were often reported by various media as an official statement from the Vatican. In 2006, the NBC news program \"Dateline\" described his statement as \"a high-ranking Vatican Cardinal called for a boycott of the film.\"", "Bertone suggested in December 2006 that the Holy See \"could, in future, field a team that plays at the top level, with Roma, Internazionale, Genoa and Sampdoria.\" He continued: \"If we just take the Brazilian students from our Pontifical universities we could have a magnificent squad\". Hours later he said \"I've got much more to do than cultivating a football squad for the Vatican\" and explained that his earlier remark was not intended to be taken seriously.", "On 5 June 2007, at a conference announcing the release of a new biography of Pope Pius XII, Bertone defended Pius against claims of indifference toward the Jews during the Holocaust. The cardinal condemned this accusation as a \"black legend\" and \"an attack on good sense and on rationality\", which has \"become so firmly established that even to scratch it is an arduous task\". Although he admitted that Pius XII had been \"cautious\" in condemning Nazi Germany, Bertone stated that Nazi forces would have intensified its program of genocide had the Pope been more outspoken.", "On 16 September 2006, Bertone, after one day as Cardinal Secretary of State, released a declaration explaining that the \"position of the Pope concerning Islam is unequivocally that expressed by the conciliar document \"Nostra aetate\"\" and that \"the Pope's option in favour of inter-religious and inter-cultural dialogue is equally unequivocal.\" He said:", "On 5 December 2006, Patriarch Alexius II accused the Holy See of an \"extremely unfriendly policy\" when he said that the Catholic Church was poaching converts in Orthodox lands in Russia and other ex-Soviet republics. Bertone said in response: \"We do not want to engage in proselytism in Russia\".", "In 2007, Bertone \"blasted the media for highlighting the Vatican's views on sex while maintaining a 'deafening silence' about charity work done by thousands of Catholic organisations around the world.\" He continued: \"I see a fixation by some journalists on moral topics, such as abortion and homosexual unions, which are certainly important issues but absolutely do not constitute the thinking and work of the Church.\"", "On 14 January 2009, Bertone suggested that the Church would consider taking much stronger action against drug dealers. This action might possibly include excommunication. He made a statement about the Church's alarm at the \"disaster\" of drug-fuelled violence on the eve of a trip to Mexico.", "On 22 June 2012, in an online news story article by Cindy Wooden of Catholic News Service (CNS), it was reported that, in a conference in Rome on the prevention of the transmission of HIV (the virus that causes AIDS) from mothers to children sponsored by the lay Community of Sant'Egidio (which runs the DREAM project, a free HIV prevention/treatment program in 10 African countries), the Cardinal Secretary of State urged that full and easy access to antiretroviral drugs be made free worldwide (these are drugs, such as AZT, that can treat, and in some cases, can prevent people from getting, HIV; they do not presently cure HIV once it has infected someone). Bertone acknowledged that the only way this would be remotely feasible, especially in Africa – where the efforts would be most needed and focused – would be through a collaborative effort involving aid groups, governments, donors, medical groups, pharmaceutical companies, and churches.", "Bertone came under fire by Antonio Socci, Christopher Ferrara, and others for allegedly manipulating the \"third secret\" of Our Lady of Fatima. In a 2007 address on the release of his book (\"The Last Secret of Fatima\"), he emphasized the more private nature of apparitions, urged caution in accepting them, and said \"the fullness of [Fatima's] message...touches the hearts of human beings, inviting them to conversion and to co-responsibility for the world's salvation\".", "On a visit to Chile in April 2010, Bertone commented on the psychology of child abusers, suggesting a predisposition between those that are homosexual to engage in child abuse: Gay rights groups condemned his remarks. The head of one gay rights organization said that for someone of Bertone's stature \"to dump the blame on homosexuals... says a lot about the current state of desperation in the Vatican\".", "In 1988 Bertone was appointed to a group of experts that assisted Joseph Ratzinger in negotiations with the excommunicated Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre. In January 2009, Pope Benedict lifted the excommunication pronounced on four bishops created by Lefebvre as a gesture towards reconciliation. The same day, an interview on Swedish television was broadcast in which one of the bishops, Richard Williamson, supported ideas denying the Holocaust. An ensuing media uproar questioned why the Pope would welcome a Holocaust denier who had previously been accused of antisemitism. Both Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re, prefect of the congregation for bishops, who signed the decree and Cardinal Darío Castrillón Hoyos, president of the pontifical commission \"Ecclesia Dei,\" which dealt with the followers of Lefebvre said that they were taken by surprise, and were never aware that Williamson was a Holocaust denier. As the Secretary of State has direct access to the pope, and oversees the implementation and coordination of his decisions, many in the media questioned why Bertone didn't insure that an adequate background review was conducted, particularly as it would only have required an internet search. This gave the appearance of a disorganized curia.", "Bertone figured prominently in documents leaked to the media in which Bertone appears to have reproved the general secretary of the Vatican governorate, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, for reporting detailed evidence of nepotism, cronyism, and general mismanagement. Viganò was subsequently transferred from the Vatican to Washington D.C. as Apostolic Nuncio. Bertone blamed the scandal over leaked Vatican documents on unethical journalists and a spirit of hostility toward the Catholic Church. \"Many journalists play at imitating Dan Brown\", said Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone, in an interview with the Italian magazine Famiglia Cristiana. \"They continue to invent fables or repeat legends.\" Bertone made his remarks as Vatican judges were investigating leaks to Italian journalists of dozens of documents, including letters to the pope and encrypted cables from Vatican embassies around the world, several of which hint at power struggles among officials of the Holy See. \"The truth is that there is a malicious will to produce division\" among the collaborators of Pope Benedict XVI, he said. During and after the Vatican leaks scandal, Bertone was widely blamed for cronyism, failing to address corruption, and failing to prevent many financial and ethical scandals under Benedict XVI.<ref name=\"Reuters1/10/2013\">Vatican official blamed for spate of scandals leaves office</ref>", "During an inflight news conference on his return to Rome from the Holy Land in May 2014, Pope Francis confirmed reports the Vatican is investigating charges against its former secretary of state misappropriated $20 million from the Vatican bank. The pope also was asked about reports that Bertone mishandled 15 million euro (about $20.5 million) in funds held by the Institute for the Works of Religion, commonly known as the Vatican bank. \"It's something being studied, it's not clear,\" the pope said. \"Maybe it's the truth, but at this moment it's not definitive.\" This money was transferred from to a private company, Lux Vide when Bertone was in charge under Benedict XVI.", "Between November 2013 and May 2014, Bertone combined and renovated two apartments in the San Carlo Palace in Vatican City to create a single residence for himself, a secretary, and three nuns, reportedly a total of and a roof terrace. Bertone said he was renovating the apartment at his own expense, that it is half the size reported, and that Pope Francis telephoned him to express support when he was attacked in the press for expenditure. Bertone responded to reports that monies belong to Bambino Gesù Hospital had been used for the construction work, he donated 150,000 euros to the hospital. On 13 July 2017, the Tribunal of the Vatican City State charged Giuseppe Profiti, former president of the hospital, and Massimo Spina, its former treasurer, with illicitly using 422,000 euros belonging to the hospital's foundation to renovate the apartment. Profiti said the monies were an investment that would enable the foundation to hold fundraising events at the property. No charges have been filed against either Bertone, the Castelli Re construction company or its owner, Gianantonio Bandera, a longtime Bertone associate who pocketed nearly a quarter-million euros for the whole project. After the trial's first hearing on 18 July, it was announced that the trial was adjourned until 7 September and that court officials were open to the possibility that Bertone could be summoned as a witness when the trial resumes. On 7 September, the trial began and went into recess after one day when it was announced that new evidence emerged and the defense and the prosecution requested more time to study a memorandum from Bambino Gesu Hospital's current head given to the tribunal a day earlier emerged. Dates were set for the court to be in session again on 19, 20, 21 and 22 September, first to hear from the defendants themselves, and then from roughly 7 projected witnesses, four called by prosecutors and three by the two defense teams between 21 and 22 September. No details have emerged on whether or not Bertone will testify. On 19 September, Profiti testified that hospital funds were used for the renovation with the idea that Cardinal Bertone could host intimate dinners for eight to ten wealthy potential donors at a time at least six times a year, though no meetings were ever reported to have been held in Bertone's apartment. On 22 September, an official of the Government of the Vatican City State testified that the remodeling project for Bertone's apartment bypassed the normal competitive bidding process and was \"singular \" and \"anomalous.\" The same day, Spina testified that his immediate superior “told me there were no problems because Cardinal Bertone had clarified the situation with the Holy Father in person.” On 3 October 2017, Gianantonio Bandera, an Italian businessman whose now-bankrupt contracting firm renovated the apartment, said that Bertone personally oversaw the renovation and contacted him directly without taking bids, as would ordinarily be required. The three-judge tribunal overseeing the trial later acquitted Spina and convicted Profiti of a lesser offense of abuse of office after the defense argued that the money was intended as an investment to benefit the hospital rather than Bertone's apartment.", "On 15 February 2018, Pope Francis ordered Vatican officials and bishops to lead simple lives and renounce any desire for power after they retired from senior positions. A number of Vatican officials and bishops, including Bertone, had come under fire in recent years for holding on to luxuries, such as large apartments and in some cases even police escorts, after they left office. Aside from the controversy surrounding his apartment, Bertone was also seen using escorts of Vatican and Italian police to move around Rome even after he retired.", "Restrictions Bertone and other Vatican officials placed on former Cardinal Theodore McCarrick after the allegations of sex abuse surfaced also went unenforced. On May 28, 2019, a letter from September 2008 was published which revealed that former Cardinal Theodore McCarrick told Bertone that he had slept with adult seminarians, while denying sexual relations.", "Bertone's retirement as Secretary of State was announced on 31 August 2013 and became effective on 15 October. Pope Francis designated Pietro Parolin as his successor. A few weeks after Bertone turned 80, Pope Francis named Cardinal Jean-Louis Tauran to replace him as Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church on 20 December 2014. In an interview in 2015 Bertone said that he was not surprised by the resignation of Pope Benedict: \"I had guessed it, but put it out my thoughts. I knew long in advance, at least seven months before. And I had many doubts. We debated the topic at length after it seemed already decided. I told him: Holy Father, you must bestow upon us the third volume on Jesus of Nazareth and the encyclopedia of faith, before you sign things over to Pope Francis\".", "In February 2010, President Lech Kaczyński of Poland conferred on the cardinal the country's highest decoration for foreign nationals, the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Poland, \"for the lofty merits acquired in the development of the collaboration between the Republic of Poland and the Holy See and for the work carried out in favor of the Church in Poland.\" Bertone also received the Gaudium et Spes Award at the Knights of Columbus Supreme Convention in 2007.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "US survey acres.", "Spanish acre.", "Use.", "South Asia.", "United Kingdom.", "Equivalence to other units of area.", "Historical origin." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "One acre equals (0.0015625) square mile, 4,840 square yards, 43,560 square feet, or about (see below). While all modern variants of the acre contain 4,840 square yards, there are alternative definitions of a yard, so the exact size of an acre depends upon the particular yard on which it is based. Originally, an acre was understood as a selion of land sized at forty perches (660 ft, or 1 furlong) long and four perches (66 ft) wide; this may have also been understood as an approximation of the amount of land a yoke of oxen could plough in one day (a furlong being 'a furrow long'). A square enclosing one acre is approximately 69.57 yards, or 208 feet 9 inches () on a side. As a unit of measure, an acre has no prescribed shape; any area of 43,560 square feet is an acre.", "In the international yard and pound agreement of 1959, the United States and five countries of the Commonwealth of Nations defined the international yard to be exactly 0.9144 metre. The US authorities decided that, while the refined definition would apply nationally in all other respects, the US survey foot (and thus the survey acre) would continue 'until such a time as it becomes desirable and expedient to readjust [it]'. By inference, an \"international acre\" may be calculated as exactly square metres but it does not have a basis in any international agreement. Both the international acre and the US survey acre contain of a square mile or 4,840 square yards, but alternative definitions of a yard are used (see survey foot and survey yard), so the exact size of an acre depends upon which yard it is based. The US survey acre is about 4,046.872 square metres; its exact value ( m) is based on an inch defined by 1 metre = 39.37 inches exactly, as established by the Mendenhall Order of 1922. Surveyors in the United States use both international and survey feet, and consequently, both varieties of acre. Since the difference between the US survey acre and international acre (0.016 square metres, 160 square centimetres or 24.8 square inches), is only about a quarter of the size of an A4 sheet or US letter, it is usually not important which one is being discussed. Areas are seldom measured with sufficient accuracy for the different definitions to be detectable. In October 2019, U.S. National Geodetic Survey and National Institute of Standards and Technology announced their joint intent to end the 'temporary' continuance of the US survey foot, mile and acre units (as permitted by their 1959 decision, above), with effect from the end of 2022.", "The Puerto Rican \"cuerda\" () is sometimes called the \"Spanish acre\" in the continental United States.", "The acre is commonly used in a number of current and former Commonwealth countries by custom, and in a few it continues as a statute measure. These include Antigua and Barbuda, American Samoa, The Bahamas, Belize, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Canada, Dominica, the Falkland Islands, Grenada, Ghana, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Jamaica, Montserrat, Samoa, Saint Lucia, St. Helena, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Turks and Caicos, the United Kingdom, the United States and the US Virgin Islands.", "In India, residential plots are measured in square feet while agricultural land is measured in acres. In Sri Lanka, the division of an acre into 160 perches or 4 roods is common. In Sindh (Pakistan), residential plots as well as open/agriculture land measurement is in Acres, Jareb, Wiswa and Gunta.", "Its use as a primary unit for trade in the United Kingdom ceased to be permitted from 1 October 1995, due to the 1994 amendment of the Weights and Measures Act, where it was replaced by the hectare though its use as a supplementary unit continues to be permitted indefinitely. This was with exemption of Land registration, which records the sale and possession of land, in 2010 HM Land Registry ended its exemption. The measure is still used to communicate with the public, and informally (non-contract) by the farming and property industries.", "1 international acre is equal to the following metric units: 1 United States survey acre is equal to: 1 acre (both variants) is equal to the following customary units: Perhaps the easiest way for US residents to envision an acre is as a rectangle measuring 88 yards by 55 yards ( of 880 yards by of 880 yards), about the size of a standard American football field. To be more exact, one acre is 90.75% of a 100-yd-long by 53.33-yd-wide American football field (without the end zone). The full field, including the end zones, covers about. For residents of other countries, the acre might be envisioned as rather more than half of a football pitch. It may also be remembered as 1% short of 44,000 square feet.", "The word \"acre\" is derived from Old English originally meaning \"open field\", cognate with west coast Norwegian, Icelandic, Swedish, German, Dutch, Latin, Sanskrit, and Greek (). In English, it was historically spelled \"aker\". According to the Act on the Composition of Yards and Perches, dating from around 1300, an acre is \"40 perches <nowiki>[</nowiki>rods] in length and four in breadth\", meaning 220 yards by 22 yards. As detailed in the box on the right, an acre was roughly the amount of land tillable by a yoke of oxen in one day. Before the enactment of the metric system, many countries in Europe used their own official acres. In France, the acre (spelled exactly the same as in English) was used only in Normandy, but its value varied greatly across Normandy, ranging from 3,632 to 9,725 square metres, with 8,172 square metres being the most frequent value. The Normandy \"acre\" was usually divided in 4 \"vergées\" (roods) and 160 square \"perches\", like the English acre. The Normandy \"acre\" was equal to 1.6 \"arpents\", the unit of area more commonly used in Northern France outside of Normandy. In Canada, the Paris \"arpent\" used in Quebec before the metric system was adopted is sometimes called \"French acre\" in English, even though the Paris \"arpent\" and the Normandy \"acre\" were two very different units of area in ancient France (the Paris \"arpent\" became the unit of area of French Canada, whereas the Normandy \"acre\" was never used in French Canada). In Germany there were many variants of the \"Acker\", differing between the German states: Statutory values for the acre were enacted in England, and subsequently the United Kingdom, by acts of: Historically, the size of farms and landed estates in the United Kingdom was usually expressed in acres (or acres, roods, and perches), even if the number of acres was so large that it might conveniently have been expressed in square miles. For example, a certain landowner might have been said to own 32,000 acres of land, not 50 square miles of land. The acre is related to the square mile, with 640 acres making up one square mile. One mile is 5280 feet (1760 yards). In western Canada and the western United States, divisions of land area were typically based on the square mile, and fractions thereof. If the square mile is divided into quarters, each quarter has a side length of mile (880 yards) and is square mile in area, or 160 acres. These subunits would typically then again be divided into quarters, with each side being mile long, and being of a square mile in area, or 40 acres. In the United States, farmland was typically divided as such, and the phrase \"the back 40\" would refer to the 40-acre parcel to the back of the farm. Most of the Canadian Prairie Provinces and the US Midwest are on square-mile grids for surveying purposes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and amateur career.", "Professional career.", "1992–1996: The early years.", "1997: Move to Mercatone Uno.", "1998: Giro and Tour wins.", "1999: Expelled at Madonna di Campiglio.", "2000–2003: The late years.", "Doping.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Career achievements.", "Major results.", "Grand Tour general classification results timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Pantani was born on 13 January 1970 in Cesena, Romagna, the son of Ferdinando (referred to as Paolo) and Tonina. He joined the Fausto Coppi cycling club of Cesenatico at the age of eleven. As an amateur, he won the 1992 Girobio, the amateur version of the Giro d'Italia, after finishing third in 1990 and second in 1991.", "", "His success at the Girobio led to his turning professional for the remainder of the 1992 season with Davide Boifava's. While signing the contract, barely above the minimum established, he asked Boifava what would happen if he were to win the Giro d'Italia or the Tour de France, requesting a change in the contract. He finished 12th in his first professional race, the Gran Premio Città di Camaiore. In 1993, his first full season as a professional, he finished fifth at the mountainous course of Giro del Trentino and debuted at the Giro d'Italia in order to help his team leader, Claudio Chiappucci. He was forced to abandon the race in the 18th stage due to tendinitis. In 1994, he finished fourth at the Giro del Trentino and the Giro di Toscana before his second participation at the Giro d'Italia, where he was supposed to help Chiappucci. He won two consecutive mountain stages, earning his first victory as a professional in the fourteenth stage to Merano. In the following stage to Aprica, which featured the renowned Stelvio Pass and the Mortirolo Pass, Pantani attacked at the base of Mortirolo and broke free at the Valico di Santa Cristina to win the stage at Aprica and place second in the overall classification. He ultimately finished the race behind Eugeni Berzin but ahead of Miguel Indurain, who had won the two previous Giros. That same year Pantani made his Tour de France debut, coming in third and winning the young rider classification along the way. In 1995, he was hit by a car while training, preventing him from riding the Giro, but rode the Tour and won stages at Alpe d'Huez and Guzet-Neige. He also finished thirteenth and claimed his second successive best young rider prize. He also won a stage at the Tour de Suisse and finished third in the 1995 World Championships road race in Duitama, Colombia, behind Spaniards Abraham Olano and Miguel Indurain. Shortly after returning to Italy, he collided head-on with a car during the Italian Milano–Torino race, sustaining multiple fractures to the left tibia and fibula, injuries that threatened his career and forced him to miss most of the 1996 season.", "When Carrera Jeans manufacturers stopped sponsoring the renowned Italian cycling team at the end of 1996, a new team based in Italy was formed with Marco Pantani as the team leader. Luciano Pezzi founded, taking with him as directeur sportifs Giuseppe Martinelli, Davide Cassani and Alessandro Giannelli and ten of the riders from Carrera. Pantani returned to the Giro in 1997, but he was injured when a black cat caused an accident in front of him during one of the first stages. Even though he completed the stage, he was treated at a hospital for a muscle injury in the same leg he had hurt in 1995. He returned to action at the 1997 Tour de France and won two stages in the Alps, establishing a record time for the climb of Alpe d'Huez and winning two days later at Morzine. Jan Ullrich won, with Pantani third behind Richard Virenque. Note: In 1997 Pantani rode the final 14.5 km to L`Alpe d`Huez in 37'35\" minutes, which is the record to this day based on 14.5 km. Since the actual climb is just 13.8 km long Pantani's time in 1997 was 36'53\" minutes based on 13.8 km. His personal record for 13.8 km was in 1995 when he rode the climb in 36'40\" minutes, which remains the fastest ascent time to this day. He also holds the second and third fastest time at 36'53\" in 1997 and 37'15\" in 1994, followed by Lance Armstrong at 37'36\" in 2004 and Jan Ullrich at 37'40\" in 1997.", "In 1998, Pantani was considered a favorite to win the Giro d'Italia. Other contenders included Alex Zülle, 1996 winner Pavel Tonkov and 1997 winner Ivan Gotti. Zülle won the initial prologue in Nice and also won the sixth stage to Lago Laceno, but Pantani recovered some time in the mountain stage to Piancavallo. Pantani lost further time to his main rivals during the fifteenth stage, an individual time trial in Trieste. By that point, Pantani faced a disadvantage of almost four minutes to Zülle before the Dolomites mountain stages and an individual time trial on the penultimate stage, a discipline that favored Zülle and Tonkov. In the seventeenth stage to Selva di Val Gardena, Pantani took the maglia rosa, the leader's jersey, for the first time in his career after attacking Zülle on the Marmolada climb. Although Pantani crossed the finish line behind Giuseppe Guerini, he finished over four minutes ahead of Zülle, maintaining an advantage of thirty seconds on the general classification over Tonkov, thirty-one seconds on Guerini and over a minute on Zülle. In the following stage to Alpe di Pampeago, he finished second behind Tonkov but maintained the general classification lead over him and gained further time on Zülle and Guerini. In the eighteenth stage to Plan di Montecampione, he repeatedly attacked Tonkov, dropping him in the last three kilometers and winning the stage to face the individual time trial on the penultimate stage with a lead of almost a minute and a half. Zülle lost contact with the favorites in the first climb and ended up losing over thirty minutes. Having won over two minutes on Pantani in the previous time trial, Tonkov was considered superior to Pantani on the time trial discipline, but the Italian finished third in the penultimate stage, gaining an additional five seconds on Tonkov. Pantani was thus able to maintain his lead to win the Giro d'Italia with a minute and a half over Tonkov and more than six minutes over Guerini. He also won the Mountains classification and finished second in the Points classification. In the Tour de France, Pantani started the race by finishing 181st of 189 riders in the opening prologue, and losing over four minutes in the first individual time trial to 1997 Tour de France winner Jan Ullrich. Pantani pulled back these early time losses to Ullrich, first in the Pyrenees by taking 23 seconds off Ullrich in the stage to Luchon and winning the stage to Plateau de Beille, where he took an additional minute and forty seconds from Ullrich. Although he was still three minutes behind Ullrich after the Pyrenees, he defeated him by almost nine minutes in the first mountain stage in the Alps, from Grenoble to Les Deux Alpes, via the Col de la Croix de Fer and Col du Galibier. Pantani launched an attack on the ascent of Galibier, forty-eight kilometers from the finish. He stopped to put on a rain jacket at the summit to win on the final ascent to Deux Alpes. Pantani turned his three-minute deficit on Ullrich into a six-minute advantage that he maintained in the following stages to win the Tour de France ahead of Jan Ullrich and Bobby Julich. Pantani became the first Italian since Felice Gimondi in 1965 to win the Tour and the seventh rider in history to achieve the Giro-Tour double, a feat which no one had achieved since Miguel Indurain succeeded in 1993. As of 2019, he is the last rider to win the Giro and the Tour in the same year. Following his success in the Tour, he stated that he may have won the cleanest Tour because of the fear of police following the Festina affair. Although he had just ended what would be his most successful season and he had always dreamed about winning the yellow jersey, he later stated that he felt more alone than ever. French cycling magazine\" Vélo Magazine \"awarded him the Velo d'Or as the best rider of 1998.", "In 1999, Pantani started the season by winning a stage and the overall classification of Vuelta a Murcia as well as a stage at the Setmana Catalana de Ciclisme. Pantani was leading the Giro d'Italia, with only one mountain stage left, when a blood test at Madonna di Campiglio showed that he had a 52-percent hematocrit reading, above the 50-percent upper limit set by UCI. He was expelled from the race and forced to take a two-week break from racing, with no further action taken. Although the hematocrit test is officially branded as a \"health check,\" a high reading suggests that a rider may have been blood doping with EPO. At the time of his disqualification, Pantani had won four stages and held a comfortable lead of five minutes and thirty-eight seconds over Paolo Savoldelli and also led in the points and mountains classifications. As a result, the entire team withdrew from the race. Pantani stayed away from the rest of the year's races. Years later news emerged that said drug test may have been rigged by Italian organised crime running illegal bets and interested in having Pantani not winning the Giro. The technique used was deplasmation, the removal of plasma that increases hematocrit but decreased the platelets to a number out of the normal possible range for Pantani.", "In 2000, he was back in the Giro after deciding to ride only the day before the race started. He lost time and could not attack until the last mountain stage to Briançon, in which he helped his teammate Stefano Garzelli to win. Pantani rode the 2000 Tour de France. He was off the pace in the Pyrenees, but matched Lance Armstrong on Mont Ventoux, leaving the field behind. Armstrong eased and appeared to allow Pantani the stage victory. Pantani said that he felt insulted by the gesture, causing bad feelings between the two which were exacerbated when Armstrong referred to him as \"Elefantino\" (Italian for 'little elephant'), a reference to his prominent ears. In that same Tour, he won another stage, to Courchevel, that turned out to be his last victory as a professional. At that point, he was sixth in the overall classification, facing a disadvantage of nine minutes to Armstrong. On the next stage, which featured the hors categorie Col de Joux-Plane to Morzine, Pantani broke away with 120 km to go, trying to crush Armstrong, but he suffered stomach problems and withdrew the next day. He never raced the Tour again. Later in the year he represented Italy in the Sydney Olympics Road Race, finishing 69th. After that, he raced sporadically in 2001 and 2002, although he was demoralised from doping suspicions and had poor results. During the 2001 Giro d'Italia, Italian police raided the rooms of riders from all 20 teams and a syringe containing traces of insulin was found in Pantani's room. He was banned for eight months by the Italian Cycling Federation, but later won an appeal due to an absence of proof. In 2003, Pantani made another comeback in the Giro d'Italia, finishing 14th overall. His best stage result was a fifth position after launching an unsuccessful attack on the slopes of Monte Zoncolan, while he launched his last attacks on the nineteenth stage to Cascata del Toce. It was the last time he rode a professional cycling race. After his team was not invited to the 2003 Tour de France, it was speculated that he would join Bianchi in order to ride the Tour, but in late June he made a plea for privacy following his admission to a psychiatric clinic which specialised in nervous disorders, drug addiction and alcoholism. After being released from the clinic, he was acquitted of a pending court case for sporting fraud regarding his blood values in 1999 Giro d'Italia because doping was not considered a crime in 1999. Pantani told an Italian newspaper that cycling fans had to forget about Pantani as an athlete while stating that cycling was the last thing on his mind and that he had gained weight.", "After being disqualified at the 1999 Giro d'Italia for an hematocrit reading of 52 percent, above the 50-percent upper limit set by UCI, Pantani faced persistent allegations of doping throughout the rest of his career. The trial for the 1999 Giro d'Italia irregular blood values began in April 2003 and Pantani was eventually acquitted because doping was not considered a crime by the law at that time. In early June 1999, a few days after Pantani was expelled from the 1999 Giro d'Italia, a court condemned the city of Turin to compensate him for an accident in the 1995 edition of the Milano–Torino, which forced Pantani to undergo several surgeries and a long recovery to get back on his bike. A few days later, Italian prosecutor Raffaele Guariniello accused Pantani of a \"sporting offence\" after he discovered, by looking through trial and medical records, that Pantani's hematocrit after the accident was over 60 percent. Although the results didn't surface until 1999, in early 1997 UCI had decided to implement blood testing, imposing a 50-percent upper limit for hematocrit. A rider with a value above 50 percent was given a compulsory two-week suspension. The test was designated as a \"health test\" although it was administered on suspicion that the athlete was using the banned blood-boosting drug, EPO. During the proceeding, investigators tried to find a reason for Pantani's high hematocrit values, including an hematocrit value of 57.6% recorded on 1 May 1995, at a hospital after he had an accident while training, an investigation in which the doctor pointed out the presence of abnormal hematological values. Upon Guariniello's request to see Pantani's medical record after his accident at the 1997 Giro d'Italia, it was revealed that the blood test results had disappeared from the folder at the hospital and the police did not rule out \"intentional removal\". Pantani was eventually indicted on a so-called \"fraud in sport\", but his lawyers argued that Pantani's hematocrit may have been elevated by a combination of training at high altitude in September, suffering from dehydration during the race, trauma of his accident and a margin of error for the sampling method. The original case started in Turin, but was moved to Forlì upon Pantani's lawyers' requests. Although he initially received a three-month suspended sentence, Pantani's lawyers appealed and the case was dismissed in late 2001 because the law itself had been passed only in 1999. In 1999, the Italian newspaper \"la Repubblica \"published information that linked Marco Pantani to an investigation on the use of performance-enhancing substances in Italian sports. According to the information released by the newspaper, Francesco Conconi administered EPO to Italian athletes from 1993 to 1998, including Pantani and other cyclists of. It was revealed that Pantani's name appeared on a file marked \"Dblab\", seized from Conconi's Biomedical Research Institute at Ferrara, which detailed athlete's hematocrit levels between 1993 and 1995. In 1994, his haematocrit values fluctuated from 40.7% on 16 March, early in the season, to 54.55% on 23 May, during the first stages of the Giro d'Italia. His values reached 58% on 8 June, after winning two stages of the race, and were 57.4% on 27 July, after the Tour de France. In March 1995, his hematocrit values had dropped to 45%, but they reached 56% in July during the Tour de France, where he won two stages; and over 60% in October, after the accident in the Milano–Torino. In 2004, Conconi and his two assistants were acquitted by judge Franca Oliva because the crimes were not deemed illegal at the time although they were deemed \"morally guilty\" of promoting doping. During the 2001 Giro d'Italia, a syringe containing traces of insulin was found in Pantani's room. Pantani claimed that the insulin had been planted and that he did not stay in the room that night. In 2002, he was banned for eight months by the Italian Cycling Federation, but he later won an appeal due to an absence of proof. In 2006, two years after his death, Pantani was linked to the Operación Puerto doping case. According to documentation released by Spanish radio network Cadena SER, Pantani was allegedly given the code name \"PTNI\" by Eufemiano Fuentes, with a detailed program in 2003, his last season, including EPO, growth hormone, Insulin, Levothroid and IGF-1. Italian newspaper \"Corriere della Sera \"indicated that he was administered over 40,000 units of EPO, seven doses of growth hormone, thirty doses of anabolic steroids and four doses of hormones used to treat menopause. In 2006 Jesús Manzano, a Spanish professional road racing cyclist whose statements led the Guardia Civil to conduct the Operación Puerto investigation, disclosed in an interview with French television channel France 3 that Pantani was a client of Eufemiano Fuentes. On the penultimate stage of 1998 Giro d'Italia, Pantani's teammate Riccardo Forconi was expelled from the race for an haematocrit value above 50 percent. Ivano Fanini, the manager of, suggested during the early stages of 1999 Giro d'Italia that Pantani and Forconi had exchanged their blood samples in order to avoid Pantani's disqualification. According to Fanini, Forconi's haematocrit value the previous day was only 47 percent. In 2008 Fanini further claimed that Forconi had received a house for the exchange but Forconi refuted these claims. Matt Rendell's biography of Pantani suggests Pantani used recombinant erythropoietin (rEPO) throughout his professional career. It alleges that seasonal hematocrit levels from several sources showed variations which exceeded those possible naturally, and that Pantani's main victories were probably won also thanks to blood hematocrit levels which could have been up to 60%. A French senate report into doping released in July 2013 confirmed that Pantani had tested positive for EPO during retroactive testing of samples from the 1998 Tour de France conducted in 2004.", "In the early evening of 14 February 2004, Pantani was found dead at a hotel in Rimini, Italy. An autopsy revealed he had a cerebral edema and heart failure, and a coroner's inquest revealed acute cocaine poisoning. Pantani spent the last days of his life isolated from his friends and family and barricaded himself inside his hotel room. Pantani's ex-girlfriend Christina Jonsson, in an April 2004 interview to Swiss news magazine \"L'Hebdo\", indicated that following his expulsion from the 1999 Giro d'Italia, Pantani had confessed to her he had started using cocaine. In 2008, Fabio Carlino was convicted of supplying Pantani with a dose of ultra-pure cocaine that caused his death. The conviction was overturned in 2011 by the Court of Cassation after the acting Prosecutor expressed doubts regarding the verdict, while stating that he \"had the impression that the exaggerated media publicity surrounding Mr. Pantani's death led the judges to an excessive attribution of responsibility\". Pantani was buried in his hometown, Cesenatico. Twenty thousand mourners were at his funeral, which was attended by Franco Ballerini, Alberto Tomba, Azeglio Vicini, Mario Cipollini and Diego Maradona among others. During the funeral, his manager Manuela Ronchi read notes that Pantani had written in his passport during a trip to Cuba: Miguel Indurain, five-times Tour de France winner, praised Pantani by saying: \"He got people hooked on the sport. There may be riders who have achieved more than him, but they never succeeded in drawing in the fans like he did.\"", "In the years following his death, Pantani was the subject of several articles, books, songs and a film. Biographies and accounts on the life of Pantani have been written by, among others, sports journalists John Wilcockson and Matt Rendell. Manuela Ronchi, Pantani's manager for five years, published an account on the last few years of Pantani's life titled \"Man on the Run\". Tonina Pantani, his mother, also published a book in 2008 titled \"Era mio figlio\" (English: \"He was my son\"). A graphic novel titled \"Gli ultimi giorni di Marco Pantani\" (English: \"The Last Days of Marco Pantani\") was released in 2011, chronicling the events that led up to Pantani's death. It was based on a book published by French journalist Philippe Brunel, a friend of Pantani, suggesting that Pantani may have been murdered. Italian television RAI aired a television film in 2007 titled \"\", a biographical film which starred Rolando Ravello as Marco Pantani. A documentary on Pantani's life titled \"\" was released in May 2014 in cinemas. The Memorial Marco Pantani has been organised annually since 2004 in his memory. The race starts in Cesenatico, Pantani's hometown, and follows a route towards his birthplace, Cesena. Giro d'Italia's organisers decided to dedicate a mountain pass to Pantani's memory every year. In the 2004 edition, the first \"Cima Pantani\" was Mortirolo Pass, a mountain that played a key role in Pantani's history. When Mortirolo was included in the Giro for the third time in 1994, Pantani attacked and left everyone behind to earn a win at Aprica. The 16th stage of 2004 Tour de France was dedicated to Pantani's memory. This stage was an individual time trial up to Alpe d'Huez, where Marco Pantani won in 1995 and 1997. A number of monuments and memorials have been erected in his honor at, among other places, Mortirolo Pass, Colle Fauniera, Col du Galibier and his hometown Cesenatico. Each year a loyal group of riders in Charlottesville, Virginia attempts to pay homage to Marco Pantani by meeting on his birthday weekend and climbing the most ridiculously steep gravel climbs in the area. It is a grassroots ride/race that began in 2005 where the winner gets to keep the \"Pink Jersey\" until the next Pantani ride/race the following year.", "", "Source:", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and information.", "Facilities.", "Places of Interest.", "Settlements.", "Pláka.", "Gritsa.", "Access and transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Litochoro is located 22 km S of Katerini, 90 km SSW of Thessaloniki, 58 km N of Larissa and 420 km WNW of Athens, on the eastern slopes of Mount Olympus, of mythological fame as the home of the twelve gods of Olympus. Two important ancient sites are located in the neighbourhood of Litochoro. Dion with its large archaeological park and a museum is located about 8 km to the north. Leivithra with its acropolis and the Leivithra Park is about 9 km to the south. The municipal unit has an area of 169.632 km. Pine, cedar and fir trees of the forests of Mount Olympus lie to the southwest and northwest. Much of the land around Litochoro, in particular to the South, remains uncultivated. Farmland is predominant to the North. Litochoro has several restaurants and cafeterias.", "Litochoro has schools, banks, a post office, a harbour, a sports centre, a town hall, a hospital, a museum, a concert hall, a gym, shopping facilities and squares. There are two main churches: Agios Nikolaos in the centre and Agios Dimitrios in the North. Litochoro has one of the most traditional cemeteries of Greece, known as \"Agios Athanasios\", in the north of the town.", "Olympus National Park Information Center Important information is provided here for visitors of Mount Olympus National Park. The Information Center informs their visitors about the geology, archaeological sites, mythology, monasteries, plants, animals and other subjects affecting Mount Olympus. Alexandrion (Litochoro) Located beside the highway (GR-1/E75), the Alexandreion is an impressive monument-building devoted to Alexander the Great. Visitors will get informed about his life and his military campaign. The Nautical Museum At Agios Nikolaou 15, on the first floor, resides the Nautical Museum of Litochoro. Rather unknown, the village has a long maritime history to tell. The old Monastery Agios Dionysios At an altitude of 850 m, beside the Enipeas gorge, Saint Dionysios built a monastery. Founded 1542, its name was Agia Triada, what means Holy Trinity, later changed to the name of the Saint. Plundered and burned several times in its history, it received the final blow from German troops in April 1943. The new Monastery Agios Dionysios After the old monastery was destroyed, the monks moved to the Metochion three kilometers outside of the village and made the place their new monastery.", "", "An extended coastal area known as Pláka or Pláka Litochorou (Πλάκα Λιτοχώρου) is located east of the town of Litochoro, spreading from the foot of Olympus to the Thermaic Gulf and extending from Leptokarya in the south to Gritsa in the north. The E75 highway passes through the area of Plaka to the south of Litochoro. The coast mainly consists of sandy beaches with seaside resorts as well as hotels, campsites, restaurants, and beach bars (which mostly operate during the summer season from June to September). In the area of Plaka there are private residences, luxurious villas, and cottages.", "North-east of Litochoro (North from Pláka) the coastal area continues, known by the name Gritsa or Limenas Litochorou extending from Pláka in the south to the community of Variko in the north. Sandy beaches can be also found here but the tourist facilities are much less than Pláka's. Yet here are some cottages and a luxury hotel (Dion resort). Gritsa is also the port of Litochoro, even though its capacity is restricted.", "Since the 1960s Litochoro has been served by an interchange with GR-1/E75 to its east. In the mid-1990s, parts of the Greek national road from Athens to Thessaloniki were upgraded to motorway standard. Litochoro is on the Northern stretch of this 6 lane dual carriageway, 90 km from Thessaloniki. Its nearest beach is 5 km to the east. <br> There is a regular bus service to Katerini and a local train service (one train approximately every two hours in each direction) to Thessaloniki and Larissa, where there is an interchange with the main line to Athens. Because Litochoro railway station is about 6 km away from Litochoro and 1 km from the nearest bus stop, people wishing to take the train often take the bus to Katerini and take the train from there. Taxis are to be found in abundance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1989: \"Southside\".", "1991–92: \"Mothers Heaven\".", "1993–94: \"Ricks Road\".", "1997–98: \"White on Blonde\".", "1999–2001: \"The Hush\" and \"The Greatest Hits\".", "2003: \"Careful What You Wish For\".", "2005–06: \"Red Book\".", "2007–08 : \"The BBC Sessions\" and hiatus.", "2009–11: McErlaine's collapse and reunion.", "2013–17: \"The Conversation\" and \"Texas 25\".", "2017–present: \"Jump on Board\".", "Hiatus projects.", "Membership.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The band's debut single, \"I Don't Want a Lover\", was released in January 1989. It reached No. 8 on the UK Singles Charts and No. 77 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, as well as top-40 positions in various countries worldwide. The band released their debut album, \"Southside\", in March 1989, which charted at No. 3 on the UK Album Charts and was certified Gold by the BPI. However, three further singles from the album all failed to make the UK top 40, with \"Thrill Has Gone\" reaching No. 60, \"Everyday Now\" faring little better at No. 44 (though reaching the Top 30 in France), and \"Prayer for You\" stalling at No. 73.", "The band's second album, \"Mothers Heaven\", was released in September 1991. It was preceded by the single \"Why Believe in You\", but this failed to reach the UK top 40 stalling at No. 66 on the UK Singles Charts. This did not bode well for the album, which itself peaked at No. 32 in the UK. A second single, \"In My Heart\", fared worse and became Texas's lowest charting single in the UK, reaching No. 74, making it their fifth single in a row to failed to break the top 40. A third single from the album, \"Alone with You\", was released in January 1992 and reached No. 32, giving them their second top-40 entry. Ironically, immediately following the disappointing performance of the album and its singles, Texas released a new cover version of the Al Green classic \"Tired of Being Alone\" in April 1992. The single, which was not included on the album, was more successful and returned the band to the UK top 20, peaking at No. 19.", "Texas released their third album, \"Ricks Road\" in November 1993. It was preceded by two more top-40 singles, \"So Called Friend\" (UK #30) and \"You Owe It All to Me\" (UK #39). The album peaked at No. 18 on the UK Album Charts. The music video for \"You Owe It All to Me\" was directed by Dani Jacobs, and was filmed in Arizona and features Spiteri and McErlaine filmed in the style of a road movie with the pair encountering another version of themselves along the way. A third single from the album, \"So In Love With You\", reached No. 28 in the UK in February 1994.", "Following an endorsement by then Radio 1 presenter Chris Evans on his Channel 4 show \"TFI Friday\" in 1997, Texas came back to the music scene with the international hit \"Say What You Want\". The song was released internationally on 6 January 1997 and became the band's highest peaking single to date on the UK Singles Charts, reaching No. 3 in its second week of release. In February, Texas released their fourth album, \"White on Blonde\", which went on to become the band's most successful album to date. The album debuted at No. 1 on the UK Album Charts and returned to the top spot again six months later. It remained in the UK top 75 for 91 weeks. A total of five singles were taken from the album, all of which were top-ten hits in the UK. \"Halo\", released in April 1997, peaked at No. 10, \"Black Eyed Boy\", released in July 1997, peaked at No. 5, and \"Put Your Arms Around Me\", released in November 1997, also peaked at No. 10. In 1998, the song was featured in the film \"\", starring Drew Barrymore. The band then released a double A-sided single of \"Insane\" along with \"Say What You Want (All Day, Every Day)\" - a new version of the first hit from the album but now with additional rap vocals from the Wu-Tang Clan. The single peaked at #4 in the UK. \"White On Blonde\" became the pinnacle of the band's success, and was certified 6 x Platinum by the BPI for UK sales in excess of 1.8 million copies. It was included in Q Magazine's \"50 Best Albums of 1997\", and voted the 86th best album of all time by Q Magazine readers in 1998. It also ranked No. 34 in Q's \"Best 50 Albums of Q's Lifetime\", as well being included in Q's \"90 Best Albums of the 1990s\". Many years later in 2010, it was nominated for the BRIT Awards \"Best Album in the Past 25 Years\".", "In April 1999, Texas released the first single from their forthcoming fifth studio album. \"In Our Lifetime\" peaked at No. 4 on the UK Singles Charts and was also included on the \"Notting Hill\" film soundtrack that year. The band's fifth album, \"The Hush\", was released in May 1999 and charted at No. 1 on the UK Album Charts in its first week of release. A second single, \"Summer Son\", was released in August 1999, reaching No. 5, the band's seventh UK top-ten single at that point. A third and final single, \"When We Are Together\", was released in November 1999 and narrowly missed the UK top ten (peaking at 12). The album was certified 3 x Platinum by the BPI for UK sales in excess of 900,000 copies. In October 2000, Texas released their first compilation album, \"The Greatest Hits\". The album featured tracks spanning their career, from their 1989 debut to the current day and included three new songs. A new single, \"In Demand\" was released on 2 October 2000 and reached No. 6 in the UK, with a video that featured the actor Alan Rickman. When \"The Greatest Hits\" was released, it became the band's third consecutive album to debut at No. 1 in the UK. A second new single from the collection, \"Inner Smile\", was released at the end of 2000, also reaching No. 6 on the UK Singles Charts. The video for \"Inner Smile\" featured a homage to Elvis Presley (and specifically his '68 Comeback Special shows) with lead singer Sharleen Spiteri dressed and made up to look like Elvis in his famous black leather suit. In July 2001, a remix of \"I Don't Want A Lover\" was released which made the UK top 20. By this time, \"The Greatest Hits\" album had become a huge success and was eventually certified 6 x Platinum by the BPI for UK sales in excess of 1.8 million copies. The single \"Like Lovers (Holding On)\" was featured during the closing credits of the 2000 animated feature film Titan A.E and also appears briefly in one scene as background music. The song was included on the Titan A.E. soundtrack as well.", "In September 2002, Spiteri gave birth to her daughter, Misty Kyd, although motherhood did not prevent her from working on another album. In October 2003, Texas released the first single from their upcoming sixth album titled \"Carnival Girl\" which featured rapping vocals by Canadian artist Kardinal Offishall. The song reached No. 9 on the UK Singles Charts. Later that month, the album \"Careful What You Wish For\" was released. The album peaked at No. 5 on the UK Album Charts and was certified Gold by the BPI for sales of over 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. In December 2003, a second and final single was released from the album entitled \"I'll See It Through\", though this peaked at a lowly No. 40 on the UK Singles Charts.", "The band returned in August 2005 with a new single \"Getaway\", which peaked at No. 6, becoming the band's tenth UK top-ten single. It was followed by another new single, \"Can't Resist\", released in October 2005. The song reached No. 13 in the UK, and was followed by the band's seventh studio album, \"Red Book\", released in November 2005. The album reached No. 16 in the UK Albums Chart, ending their run of Top 10 albums though was certified Gold by the BPI for sales of over 100,000 copies in the United Kingdom. A third and final single from the album, \"Sleep\", was released in January 2006 and peaked at No. 6 on the UK Singles Charts. The song featured vocals from Paul Buchannan from the Scottish band The Blue Nile and the video featured comedian Peter Kay. On 21 February 2006, a promo only single, \"What About Us\", was released.", "On 24 September 2007, the band released \"The BBC Sessions\", which included radio sessions spanning from 1989 to 2005, with extensive liner notes and interviews with Sharleen Spiteri. Cover songs include Elmore James's \"It Hurts Me Too\", The Beatles' \"I've Got a Feeling\", and Ashford & Simpson's \"You're All I Need to Get By.\" In 2008, lead singer Sharleen Spiteri embarked on a solo career. Her debut album \"Melody\" was released in July 2008 and debuted at No. 3 in the UK. Spiteri's second solo studio album \"The Movie Songbook\" was released on 1 March 2010, and peaked at No. 13 in the UK.", "On 8 September 2009, bandmember Ally McErlaine was hospitalized after he collapsed with a massive brain aneurysm at the age of 40. By February 2010, he was recovering well as reported by bandmate Sharleen Spiteri in \"The Sunday Mail\": \"Ally is the most stubborn person I have ever come across, and I think his sheer pigheadedness is the reason he's still here! When he asked what was happening with Texas, I said it was up to him. He told me he wanted to get back into the studio.\" After McErlaine survived his collapse - which kills in 80% of cases - Texas reunited for the first time since 2005. The band embarked on a tour in 2011 and lead singer Spiteri appeared on \"Popstar to Operastar\" on 12 June 2011 singing a version of the band's hit \"Say What You Want\". Prior to this, Texas had played at the Den Fynske Landsby Festival in Denmark. At the festival, they debuted a new track \"The Conversation\" which marked the first time the track has been played outside their native Glasgow. Spiteri was also invited to make a series of cameo appearances at different events, all of which involved film scores. She sang Yvonne Elliman's \"If I Can't Have You\" for a \"Saturday Night Fever\" tribute concert and duetted with Italian singer Mauro Gioia on the \"Love Theme from The Godfather\".", "In February 2013, Music Week announced the band had signed a new record deal with PIAS Recordings and were to release their first new album since reuniting. \"The Conversation\" was released on 20 May 2013. Physical formats included a single disc and double-disc deluxe edition. The latter featured a bonus disc entitled \"Live in Scotland\". Also in 2013, a UK tour was announced and the album launched at two gigs, one at King Tut's Wah Wah Hut in Glasgow and the other at the 100 Club in London. Spiteri performed a cover of \"River Deep – Mountain High\" at these gigs as well as a selection of new tracks from \"The Conversation\". Tracks are written mainly by Sharleen Spiteri and Johnny McElhone, with Richard Hawley and Bernard Butler as collaborators. The album's lead single of the same name joined BBC Radio 2's playlist in April 2013 with two more singles, \"Detroit City\" and \"Dry Your Eyes\", following later that year. The album is certified Platinum in France and peaked at No. 4 on the UK Album Charts. In November 2014, Texas contributed to BBC Radio 2's \"Sounds of the 80s\" album with a cover of \"Don't Talk to Me About Love\" by Altered Images, a band which also included current Texas member Johnny McElhone in its lineup. To celebrate the band's 25th anniversary, it was announced that some of their biggest hits would be re-recorded for a new album entitled \"Texas 25\". The collection features eight songs from the band's back catalogue completely reworked with the help of New York production team Truth & Soul, as well as four brand new songs, and was released on 16 February 2015. Deluxe packages include a second disc of the hits in their original form. The lead single, \"Start a Family\", premiered online on 6 January 2015. A music video followed, once again starring Alan Rickman who was previously featured in the video for \"In Demand\". The band also embarked on a new UK tour throughout April and May 2015. \"An Evening with Texas\" was a more intimate arrangement than previous shows and featured stories told by Sharleen from the band's 25 years together.", "The band released their ninth studio album, \"Jump on Board\" in May 2017 to critical acclaim, with \"Let's Work it Out\" serving as the lead single from the new album. \"Jump on Board\" performed well commercially in the band's native Scotland, debuting at number one on the Scottish Album Charts. The album reached number one in France and performed well in the UK charts. In support of the album, the band embarked on the \"Jump on Board Live Tour\" world tour. On February 28, the band announced on Twitter that its next album, called \"Hi\", will be released in Autumn 2020.", "After the release of Texas's 2005 album \"Red Book\" the band members confirmed that they would enter a hiatus. Spiteri performed as guest vocalist on Rammstein's \"Rosenrot\" album. She began work on her debut solo album, working with some of her former bandmates. She wrote the vast majority of the tracks on the album. She released her debut solo album \"Melody\" on 14 July 2008 with \"All The Times I Cried\" serving as the album's lead single. The song charted at No. 26 on the UK Singles Chart. \"Melody\" was proven popular in the United Kingdom, debuting at a high No. 3 on the UK Album Charts. In other European countries where Texas were popular like in Belgium, the album charted at No. 15 on the Belgium Flanders Charts and No. 13 on the Belgium Wallonia Charts. The song \"Don't Keep Me Waiting\" was released as a single in Switzerland only, in which it charted at No. 78 on the singles charts there. A further two singles were released worldwide, \"Stop, I Don't Love You Anymore\" and \"It Was You\" which were both unpopular in the United Kingdom, missing the UK Top 100, with \"Stop, I Don't Love You Anymore\" charting at No. 107 and \"It Was You\" at No. 178. By 2009, \"Melody\" has been certified Gold by the BPI (United Kingdom) with sales of over 100,000. Spiteri released her second solo studio album \"The Movie Songbook\" which consists of movie covers chosen by Spiteri herself was released on 1 March 2010. The album's lead single \"Xanadu\" was released in February 2010, and charted at No. 71 on the UK Singles Chart in March 2010. As for the album, it charted at No. 13 on the UK Album Charts on 7 March 2010, thus becoming Spiteri's second UK top-40 album as a soloist, and her seventh UK top-40 album both as a soloist and a member of Texas. To promote the album, she performed in front of 55,000 fans supporting Paul McCartney on his Up and Coming Tour at Glasgow's Hampden Park. In 2010, Spiteri was a judge on the Sky 1 reality show \"Must Be the Music\".", "Current members Former members", "Brit Awards Ivor Novello Awards MTV Europe Music Awards Music Week Women in Music Awards NME Awards NRJ Music Awards Q Awards Smash Hits Poll Winners Party" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin of the term \"Grand Slam\".", "History.", "Non-calendar year Grand Slam.", "Controversy over terminology.", "Achievements and near misses.", "Career Grand Slam.", "Men's singles.", "Women's singles.", "Men's doubles.", "Women's doubles.", "Mixed doubles.", "Most consecutive Grand Slam tournament titles.", "Quad wheelchair singles.", "Quad wheelchair doubles.", "Most consecutive Grand Slam singles finals.", "Most Grand Slam singles titles without a loss.", "Most Grand Slam mixed doubles titles without a loss.", "Most Grand Slam titles across all disciplines in a year.", "Golden Slam.", "Non-calendar year Golden Slam.", "Career Golden Slam.", "Super Slam.", "Non-calendar year Super Slam.", "Three major tournament titles in a year.", "Four major tournament finals in a year.", "Triple Crown.", "Boxed Set.", "Career Boxed Set.", "Multiple Career Grand Slams.", "Pro Slam." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"slam\" for winning all of the tricks in the (see also whist terms) is attested from early in the 17th century. \"Grand slam\" for all of the tricks, in contrast to \"small slam\" or \"little slam\" for all but one, dates from early in the 19th century. This use was inherited by contract bridge, a modern development of whist defined in 1925 that became very popular in Britain and America by 1930. Tennis has a long history of adopting golf custom and \"Grand slam\" appears to have entered tennis not directly from card sport but via golf as it was used since 1930, when Bobby Jones won the four major championships, two British and two American tournaments. Although John F. Kieran of \"The New York Times\" is widely credited with first applying the term \"grand slam\" to tennis to describe the winning of all four major tennis tournaments in a calendar year, sports columnist Alan Gould had used the term in that connection almost two months before Kieran.", "The possibility of being the reigning champion of all the current four majors did not exist until 1924–25, when the International Lawn Tennis Federation designated the Australasian, French (before 1925 only open to members of French tennis clubs), British and American championship tournaments as the four majors. Before that time only three events: Wimbledon, the World Hard Court Championships (held in Paris & once in Brussels) and the World Covered Court Championships (held in various locations) were considered the premier international tennis events by the ILTF. Tony Wilding of New Zealand won all three of those earlier majors in one year: 1913. It has been possible to complete a Grand Slam in most years and most disciplines since 1925. It was not possible from 1940 to 1945 because of interruptions at Wimbledon, the Australian and French opens due to the Second World War, the years from 1970 to 1985 when there was no Australian tournament in mixed doubles, and 1986 when there was no Australian Open at all. Phil Dent has pointed out that skipping majors—especially the Australian Open—was not unusual then, before counting major titles became the norm. Thus, many players had never played the Austral(as)ian amateur or open championships: the Doherty brothers, William Larned, Maurice McLoughlin, Beals Wright, Bill Johnston, Bill Tilden, René Lacoste, Henri Cochet, Bobby Riggs, Jack Kramer, Ted Schroeder, Pancho Gonzales, Budge Patty, Manuel Santana, Jan Kodeš and others, while Brookes, Ellsworth Vines, Jaroslav Drobný, Manuel Orantes, Ilie Năstase (at 35 years old) and Björn Borg came just once. Beginning in 1969, when the first Australian Open was held on the Milton Courts at Brisbane, the tournament was open to all players, including professionals, who at that point were prohibited from playing the traditional circuit. Nevertheless, except for the 1969 and 1971 tournaments, many of the best players missed this championship until 1982, because of the remoteness, the inconvenient dates (around Christmas and New Year's Day) and the low prize money. In 1970, George MacCall's National Tennis League, which employed Rod Laver, Ken Rosewall, Andrés Gimeno, Pancho Gonzales, Roy Emerson and Fred Stolle, prevented its players from entering the tournament because the guarantees were insufficient. The tournament was won by Arthur Ashe. In terms of the current four majors, the first to win all four in a single year was Don Budge, who completed the feat in 1938. To date, 17 players have completed a Grand Slam, though only six in the most prestigious singles titles. Of these players, three have won multiple majors: Rod Laver accomplished the feat twice in men's singles; Margaret Court accomplished the feat three times, in two different disciplines – once in women's singles and twice in mixed doubles; and Esther Vergeer completed a grand slam twice in Women's wheelchair doubles. The four Junior disciplines, boys' and girls' singles and doubles, provide limited opportunities to achieve a Grand Slam. Players are only eligible from age 13 to 18, with 18-year-olds likely to hold a physical advantage. Only Stefan Edberg has completed the Grand Slam in a Junior discipline.", "", "In 1982, the International Tennis Federation (ITF) began offering a $1 million bonus to any singles player to win four consecutive major titles, no matter the time of completion. Although groups variously identified as the Men's International Professional Tennis Council, \"abetted primarily by some British tennis writers\", and \"European tennis journalists\" had advocated for the ITF to change the definition of \"Grand Slam\", ITF General Secretary David Gray made it clear that this was not going to happen. In a 1983 letter to tennis journalist Paul Fein, Gray clarified: The ITF's plan was to offer the cash bonus for three years, apparently to encourage players to compete in all four major tournaments as much as to reward success at them. Even before the ITF had announced their bonus, the Grand Slam controversy had taken on a life of its own. Writing in 1982, Neil Amdur claimed, \"Now the sport spins nervously under the influence of big dollars and even bigger egos, and tradition has almost gone the way of white balls and long flannels [...] If the four major tournaments want to offer a $1 million incentive for any player in the future who can sweep their titles—and such talks have been rumored—that bonus would be a welcome addition. But changing what the Grand Slam is all about is like a baseball player believing that he 'hit for the cycle' after slugging a single, double and triple in the first game of a doubleheader and a home run in his first time at bat in the second game.\" Despite seeming clarity from the ITF, some journalists suggested that the sport's organizing body had turned its back on history and changed the \"rules\" of tennis by redefining a Grand Slam. Such confusion continued for years. For instance, when Steffi Graf completed the Grand Slam in 1988, George Vecsey wrote, \"Even the International Tennis Federation, which should have more respect for history, ruled in 1982 that winning any four straight majors constituted a Grand Slam—and offered a $1 million bonus for it [...] But many tennis people, and most writers, and probably most fans, too, did not accept the new rules, and the I.T.F. has dropped the gimmick.\" Vecsey was only half right: the ITF dropped the \"gimmick\" of the cash bonus, but it had never changed any rules. However, the ambiguous way the ITF described the Grand Slam in their Constitution led to journalists continuing to make the same assumption as Vecsey over two decades later. For instance, when Rafael Nadal was on the verge of completing a non-calendar year Grand Slam at the 2011 Australian Open, one writer observed, \"Most traditionalists insist that the 'Grand Slam' should refer only to winning all four titles in a calendar year, although the constitution of the International Tennis Federation, the sports governing body, spells out that 'players who hold all four of these titles at the same time achieve the Grand Slam'.\" This was true until later in 2011, when the ITF edited the description to eliminate all confusion. As it now stands, \"The Grand Slam titles are the championships of Australia, France, the United States of America and Wimbledon. Players who hold all four of these titles in one calendar year achieve the 'Grand Slam'.\" When Martina Navratilova won the 1984 French Open and became the reigning champion of all four women's singles events, she was the first player to receive the bonus prize in recognition of her achievement. Some media outlets did, indeed, say that she had won a Grand Slam. Others simply noted the ongoing controversy: \"Whether the Slam was Grand or Bland or a commercial sham tainted with an asterisk the size of a tennis ball, Martina Navratilova finally did it.\" Although the ITF recognizes what is now unofficially known as the \"non-calendar year Grand Slam\" on its Roll of Honour, no subsequent player to win four or more majors in a row—Steffi Graf, Serena Williams, or Novak Djokovic—has received bonus prize money. Combining \"the\" Grand Slam and non-calendar year Grand Slam, the total number of times that players achieved the feat (of being the reigning champion in all four majors) expands to 18.", "Three women have won four or more consecutive major titles since 1970, with Navratilova taking six in a row in 1983–1984. On the men's side, Novak Djokovic was the first singles player since Rod Laver to hold all four major titles at once, which he accomplished between Wimbledon 2015 and the 2016 French Open. Prior to the Open Era, Don Budge received the same accolades in winning the French Championships in 1938, but then completed the more prestigious Grand Slam at the 1938 US Championships, giving him six majors in a row, the only male to ever win more than four consecutive major tournaments. The Bryan brothers (Bob and Mike) were the last to achieve a non-calendar year Grand Slam in men's doubles. Several players and teams came up one title short. Todd Woodbridge and Mark Woodforde, known collectively as The Woodies, reached the final of the 1997 French Open while holding all the other three titles, but lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Daniel Vacek. In singles, Pete Sampras lost the 1994 French Open quarterfinal to fellow countryman Jim Courier, having won the previous three majors. Roger Federer in 2006 and 2007, and Novak Djokovic in 2012 repeated this, both ultimately losing the French Open final to Rafael Nadal. In 2019 Novak Djokovic repeated this one more time, but lost in semifinal to Dominic Thiem. Nadal himself was prevented from achieving this feat by his countryman David Ferrer, who defeated him in the quarterfinal of the 2011 Australian Open, which Nadal entered holding the other three major titles. In women's singles, Monica Seles lost the 1992 Wimbledon final to Steffi Graf, having won the previous three majors. Martina Hingis had a chance to achieve the feat in the 1998, but lost to Seles in the French Open semifinal. In women's doubles, Virginia Ruano Pascual and Paola Suárez had won three majors from US Open 2003 to the 2004 French Open, lost at the semifinals to Cara Black and Rennae Stubbs in the 2004 Wimbledon, and Sania Mirza together with Hingis had won from Wimbledon 2015 to the 2016 Australian Open, but lost in the third round of the 2016 French Open to Barbora Krejčíková and Kateřina Siniaková. In 2017, Bethanie Mattek-Sands and Lucie Šafářová had the chance to win four consecutive titles at Wimbledon, but withdrew from their scheduled second round match following an acute knee injury suffered by Mattek-Sands in the second round of the Ladies' Singles competition. The following list is for those players who achieved a non-calendar Grand Slam by winning four or more consecutive titles, but who failed to win the Grand Slam during the same streak.", "The career achievement of all four major championships in one discipline is termed a \"Career Grand Slam\" in that format. Dozens of players have accomplished that (column two) and 17 have doubled it: won a second championship in each of the four majors in one format (column three). Two or more career championships in all four majors is sometimes called a \"Multiple Slam Set\". Three players have Multiple Slam Sets in two formats, one in three formats, so 22 players are counted in the table (column three). Their achievements are tabulated below. Eight men and ten women have won Career Grand Slams in singles play (rows one and two); among them two men and five women have at least two Career Grand Slams in singles (column three). Since the beginning of the open era, five men (Rod Laver, Andre Agassi, Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Novak Djokovic) and six women (Margaret Court, Chris Evert, Martina Navratilova, Steffi Graf, Serena Williams and Maria Sharapova) have achieved this. Several singles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam, grouped by the \"missing\" Grand Slam tournament: Several doubles players have won three major championships without achieving the Career Grand Slam, grouped by the \"missing\" Grand Slam tournament: Only six players have completed a Career Grand Slam in both singles and doubles: one male (Roy Emerson) and five female (Margaret Court, Doris Hart, Shirley Fry Irvin, Martina Navratilova, and Serena Williams). Court, Hart and Navratilova are the only three players to have completed a \"Career Boxed Set\", winning all four titles in singles, doubles, and mixed doubles; this has never been done by a male player. The remainder of this section is a complete list, by format, of all players who have won the Career Grand Slam. Players are ordered chronologically by their completion of the Career Grand Slam. The major tournament at which the Career Grand Slam was achieved is indicated in bold.", "Eight men have won all four major tournaments. Two among them (Rod Laver and Roy Emerson) also achieved a double career Slam. Originally, the Grand Slam tournaments were held on grass (Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open) and clay (French) and the first four players achieved their Career Grand Slams on two surfaces. The US Open changed its surface from grass to clay in 1975 and then to hard court in 1978. The Australian Open changed from grass to hard court in 1988. The last four players (Agassi, Federer, Nadal, Djokovic) achieved their career grand slam on three different surfaces: hard court, clay, and grass.", "Each woman's \"first wins\" in the four majors are listed chronologically and their ages upon completion of the Career Grand Slam are given in brackets. Five women (Court, Evert, Navratilova, Graf, Williams) achieved at least two Career Grand Slams, three women (Court, Graf, Williams) have achieved three Career Grand Slams and Steffi Graf is the only player to achieve four Career Grand Slams.", "In Men's Doubles, 24 players have won the Career Grand Slam, including sixteen who achieved the Career Grand Slam with a unique partner. Eight of the 24 men achieved at least a double Career Grand Slam at Men's Doubles, led by Roy Emerson and John Newcombe with triple Slams.", "At Women's Doubles, 21 players have won the career Slam, including ten who achieved the Career Grand Slam with a unique partner. Nine of the 21 achieved at least a double Career Grand Slam at Women's Doubles, led by Martina Navratilova with seven or more titles in each major.", "At Mixed Doubles, a total of 17 players have won the career Slam, including seven who won all four events with the same partner — an odd number because Margaret Court accomplished a career Grand Slam separately with Ken Fletcher and Marty Riessen. The two other teams which won all four events are Doris Hart with Frank Sedgman, and Martina Hingis with Leander Paes. Four of the 17 players have accomplished multiple career Grand Slams in mixed doubles, led by Margaret Court's quadruple Slam.", "", "Until 2019, there were no wheelchair quad draws on both French Open and Wimbledon.", "Until 2019, there were no wheelchair quad draws on both French Open and Wimbledon.", "", "Helen Wills Moody won all 16 of the Grand Slam singles tournaments she played beginning with the 1924 U.S. Championships and extending to the 1933 Wimbledon Championships (not counting her defaults in the 1926 French and Wimbledon Championships). During this period, she won 6 Wimbledons, 4 French Championships, and 6 U.S. Championships. She also won the 1924 Olympics during this period. Moody never entered the Australian Championships.", "Doris Hart won all 13 of the Grand Slam mixed doubles tournaments she played beginning with the 1951 French Championships and extending to the 1955 U.S. Championships. During this period, she won 5 Wimbledons, 3 French Championships, and 5 U.S. Championships.", "In 1965 Margaret Court won a record nine titles out of twelve available to a player in the same year: the singles, doubles and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam tournaments. In 1985 Martina Navratilova reached Finals in all Grand Slam events held that year, equaling the record of eleven final appearances set by Court in 1963 and repeated a year later. Only twelve unique players - nine women and three men - have won at least six major championships in one calendar year.", "Tennis was an Olympic sport from the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics to the 1924 Games, then was dropped for the next 64 years (except as a demonstration sport in 1968 and 1984) before returning in 1988. As there were only three major championships designated by the International Lawn Tennis Federation before 1925, none of the tennis players who participated in the Olympics between 1896 and 1924 had a chance to complete a Golden Grand Slam. However, there was a possibility to complete a Career Golden Grand Slam by winning the 1920 Olympics or 1924 Olympics plus each of the four grand slams, all of which were present from 1925 onwards. The term \"Golden Slam\" (initially \"Golden Grand Slam\") was coined in 1988. Only one player has completed the Golden Slam:", "Winning four consecutive Grand Slam tournaments and Olympic event in the period of twelve months, although not in the same year, is called a \"Non-calendar year Golden Slam\". Only Bob and Mike Bryan have achieved this by winning the 2012 Olympics, 2012 US Open, 2013 Australian Open, 2013 French Open and 2013 Wimbledon Championships. After they won the final at Wimbledon, this was coined the \"Golden Bryan Slam\".", "A player who wins all four Grand Slam tournaments and the Olympic gold medal (or a Paralympic gold medal) during his or her career is said to have achieved a \"Career Golden Slam\". The event at which the Career Golden Slam was achieved is indicated in bold.", "Soon after the Open Era began in 1968, the new professional tours each held a year-end championship (YEC), which are elite tournaments involving only the top performers of the given season. The subsequent return of tennis to the Olympics in 1988 gave rise to the notion of a Super Slam as a combination of Golden Slam and YEC title. Eligible YECs are currently called the ATP Finals for men, WTA Finals for women, and the Wheelchair Tennis Masters. No player has ever completed the Super Slam in a single season.", "Only one player has completed the Super Slam in a period of twelve months:", "Players who have won three of the four Grand Slam tournaments in the same year. Jack Crawford, Lew Hoad, Martina Navratilova and Serena Williams won the first three events, but lost the last grand slam tournament. Crawford, an asthmatic, won two of the first three sets of the 1933 U.S. Championships final against Fred Perry, then tired in the heat and lost the last two sets and the match. Until 2016, Wimbledon have never hosted singles tournament for wheelchairs. Notwithstanding year when the US Open did not take place due to date clashes with the Paralympics.", "Players who have played in all four Grand Slam tournament finals in the same year.", "The Triple Crown refers to winning the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles titles at one event, in the same week. This has become an increasingly rare accomplishment in the sport, partly because the final matches in all three disciplines often likely take place concurrently in the same day, and not in separate days. Doris Hart for example attained her first Triple Crown after playing three Wimbledon final matches held in one single day. Notes:", "Another Grand Slam-related accomplishment is winning a \"boxed set\" of Grand Slam titles – which is at least one of every possible type of major championship available to a player: the singles, doubles, and mixed doubles at all four Grand Slam events of the year. This has never been accomplished within a year or consecutively across two calendar years.", "The Career Boxed Set refers to winning one of every possible grand slam title (singles, doubles, mixed) over the course of an entire career. No male player has completed this, although Frank Sedgman only missed out on the French Open singles title, having reached the final in 1952. Men who participate in top/elite level singles have played comparatively few doubles, and very few mixed doubles. So far, only three women have completed the boxed set during their careers: Court is not only unique in having two boxed sets, but is also unique in the timing of her accomplishments. Her first boxed set was completed before the start of the open era, and she has a boxed set achieved solely within the open era: Martina Hingis was the most recent player to be one title away from joining this elite group. She only needed the French Open singles, having reached the final in 1997 and 1999. Prior to Hingis, it was Billie Jean King who came close at completing a career boxed set. She only needed the Australian Open women's doubles title, having reached the final in 1965 and 1969.", "Of the many players who have managed to win a full set of four majors, there is a small number who have gone on to win all four majors a second or more times. The completion of \"Multiple Career Grand Slams\" or sometimes called \"Multiple Slam Sets\" (MSS) has been achieved by only 22 unique players up to the end of the 2015 Wimbledon. MSS players can be found in each of the five tennis disciplines: men's or women's singles, men's or women's doubles, mixed doubles. It can also be found in women's wheelchair doubles. Of these, five players have completed MSS in more than one discipline: Roy Emerson, Martina Navratilova, Frank Sedgman and Serena Williams have MSS in two disciplines, Margaret Court has MSS in three disciplines. By discipline (numbers of players and table entries)", "Before the Open Era began in 1968, only amateur players were allowed to compete in the four majors. Many male top players \"went pro\" in order to win prize money legally, competing on a professional world tour comprising completely different events. From 1927 to 1967, the three oldest pro events were considered \"majors\" of the pro tour: the U.S. Pro Tennis Championships, French Pro Championship and Wembley Championships. A player who won all three in a calendar year was considered to achieve a \"Professional Grand Slam\", or \"Pro Slam\". The feat was accomplished twice: Three other players won those three major trophies during their pro careers: Ellsworth Vines, Hans Nüsslein and Don Budge. The pro slams did not have a women's draw." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1937–1948).", "Hovedserien (1948–1962).", "1. divisjon (1963–1989).", "Recent years (1990–present).", "Competition format.", "Competition.", "Eliteserien teams in international competition.", "Clubs.", "Current members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Before 1937, there was no national league competition in Norway; only regional leagues and the Norwegian Cup. Starting in 1937–38, the various regional leagues in Southern Norway were aligned into eight districts, with a championship playoff between the winners to crown a national champion. This competition was called Norgesserien (English: \"The League of Norway\"). In the early years, the top flight teams were divided into eleven groups from eight districts. The league champion was decided in either a knockout tournament or a final between the winners of these groups. Fredrikstad was the first champions of the league, winning the 1937–38 season. They won the two-legged final against Lyn 4–0 on aggregate. Fredrikstad defended their title in the 1938–39 season. From the 1937–38 season and until the beginning of World War II, the teams were divided into eight district groups. There were plans at the time to merge the district leagues into a national competition, but because of World War II, this process was delayed until after the war, although also the first post-war season in 1947–48 had eleven district-based groups.", "In 1948, Hovedserien (English: \"The Main League\") was created, consisting of the 16 top teams from the district leagues, who were placed into two groups of eight, with the group winners playing a two-legged final for the national championship at the end of the season. This format was in place from the 1948–49 season until 1960–61, when it was decided to merge the two groups into a single top division, and have the season follow the calendar year from 1963 onwards. The 1950s were dominated by Fredrikstad FK and Larvik Turn. Fredrikstad won their latest league title in 1960–61, which secured their ninth title out of sixteen possible. Larvik Turn won Hovedserien three times in four seasons from 1955–56. The 1961–62 season was played during 15 months. The teams from the two groups in the 1960–61 top division were put in one group consisting of 16 teams. The 1961–62 season became a transitional season, where the 16 top-flight teams were placed in a single group, playing a season that went on for 15 months and one half of its teams were relegated. Officially still known as Hovedserien, the 1961–62 season is often referred to as \"Maratonserien\" (\"\"The Marathon League\"\") due to its unusual length. The \"Maratonserien\" was won by Brann.", "In 1963, a single top division containing ten teams was introduced, and the league was renamed 1. divisjon (English: \"1st Division\"). The first regular one-league season was played spring-autumn and was won by title defenders Brann in 1963. The league was expanded to 12 teams in 1972. Teams from Northern Norway were not allowed to gain promotion to the top division before 1972, when Mjølner became the first team from Northern Norway to play in the top flight, and until 1979 were subject to stricter promotion rules than teams from the rest of the country. Viking won the league four consecutive seasons beginning in 1972. Lillestrøm won back-to-back titles in 1976 and 1977. In 1979 teams from Northern Norway were given the same promotion rights as the rest of the country. In the beginning of the 1980s, Vålerengen were the dominant team, with their titles from 1981, 1983 and 1984.", "In 1990, the league was renamed Tippeligaen, after Norsk Tipping which has been the main sponsor of the league since then. However, unofficially the league was still known as 1. divisjon by most people. And ahead of the 1991-season it was decided to let the second level league of Norwegian football \"inherit\" the name 1. divisjon to help Tippeligaen establish as a brand. Rosenborg of Trondheim won the first year the league bore the name Tippeligaen in 1990. Followed by a win by Viking of Stavanger in 1991. In 1992, Rosenborg started a run of 13 consecutive titles which lasted to the 2004 season. During the first years of Rosenborg's thirteen-year run, they won the league with substantial margins, only partly challenged by Bodø/Glimt, Molde, Lillestrøm and Brann. However, this was steadily narrowing down towards a dramatic finish in 2004, where the Trondheim team tied with Vålerenga of Oslo in game points and on goal difference, but finished ahead on number of goals scored. However, in 2005 the winning streak came to an end as Vålerenga clinched the title, one point ahead of Start of Kristiansand. Rosenborg was never in contention that season and would finish only 7th. In 2006, Rosenborg returned to the top of the league, coming back from 10 points behind Brann at the halfway point to clinch the title with a match to spare. Brann won the league in 2007, and Stabæk won their first-ever title in 2008. Rosenborg then returned for a two-year winning streak in 2009 and 2010. Molde's back-to-back titles in 2011 and 2012 makes it the only other club to win consecutive titles in the current format, and outside Rosenborg, the first team to do so since Vålerenga in 1983 and 1984. In 2016 it was decided to change from the sponsorship name \"Tippeligaen\" to the non-sponsorship name \"Eliteserien\", effecting from the 2017 season. Rosenborg won the league four consecutive times from 2015 to 2018, before Molde ended their streak by winning the title in the 2019 season. Lillestrøm were relegated from the 2019 Eliteserien and ended their record spell with 45 consecutive top division seasons. The league has been professional since 1992. In 1995, Tippeligaen was expanded to 14 teams, and in 2009 it was further expanded to 16 teams.", "", "As of the 2020 season there are 16 clubs in the Eliteserien, seven of which are located in Eastern Norway, six are from Western Norway, and one each are from Southern Norway, Trøndelag and north of the Arctic Circle. During the course of a season, each club plays the others twice, home and away, for a total of 30 games for each club, and a total of 240 games in a season. The season starts in March and lasts until early November. Rounds played during the weekends are usually broken up into two games on Saturdays, five games on Sundays and one game on either Fridays or Mondays. For the final two rounds, all games start simultaneously so that no club may gain an unfair advantage by knowing the results of other games in advance of kicking off their own. The 16 May round, which is played the day before Norway's Constitution Day, 17 May, is one of the most anticipated rounds of the season. It is often referred to as the \"national day of football\" and since it precedes a national holiday, games usually see higher attendance than other rounds. Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, goals scored, and then head to head records used to separate teams on equal points. At the end of each season, the club with the most points is crowned \"League Winner\". The title of \"Norwegian Champions\" is reserved for the winners of the Norwegian Football Cup. The two lowest placed teams are automatically relegated to the 1. divisjon and the top two teams from the 1. divisjon take their place. The fourteenth placed team in Eliteserien is also in danger of being relegated and must enter play-offs against one team from the 1. divisjon to stay in the top flight.", "Rosenborg (11 times) and Molde (once) are the only Norwegian clubs to participate in the UEFA Champions League group stage. Rosenborg reached the quarterfinal in the 1996–97 season. They were eliminated by runners-up Juventus with 1–3 on aggregate. In the 1968–69 season, Lyn lost the European Cup Winners' Cup quarterfinal against runners-up Barcelona with 4–5 on aggregate. Brann lost the quarterfinal against Liverpool in the 1996–97 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and Vålerenga lost the quarterfinal against Chelsea in the 1998–99 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup with 2–6 on aggregate. Rosenborg (twice), Brann and Molde have reached the round of 32 in UEFA Cup/UEFA Europa League. In addition, Tromsø (twice), Viking (once) and Sarpsborg 08 (once) have participated in the UEFA Cup/Europa League group stage.", "", "The following sixteen clubs are competing in the Eliteserien during the 2020 season.!Club!Positionin 2019!First season intop division!Seasonsintop division!First season ofcurrent spell intop division!Top divisiontitles!Last top<br >division<br >title" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Writing career.", "Literary style and importance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Eino Leino was baptized as Armas Einar Leopold Lönnbohm in Paltamo as the seventh and youngest son in a family of ten children. Leino's father had changed his surname from \"Mustonen\" to \"Lönnbohm\" to improve his chances of marrying his future upper-class wife. Eino's older brother Kasimir Leino was an important cultural figure in Finland. He was a poet, critic, and theatre director. Eino and Kasimir Leino founded a literature journal together in 1898. Leino published his first poem at the age of 12 and a collection of poems, \"Maaliskuun lauluja\", at 18. Leino's parents died while he was still in school. He started school in Kajaani and continued in Oulu and Hämeenlinna, where he boarded with relatives. After graduating from the Hämeenlinna secondary school, Leino started studying at the University of Helsinki.", "Early in his career Eino Leino was much loved and praised by the critics. He joined literary and newspaper circles and became a member of the Young Finnish circle. Among Leino's friends were the artist Pekka Halonen and Otto Manninen, who gained fame as a poet and translator. After the Finnish Civil War, Leino's idealistic faith for national unity collapsed, and his influence as a journalist and polemicist weakened. He was granted a State writer's pension in 1918 at the age of forty. Although publishing prolifically, he had financial problems and his health deteriorated. \"Life is always a struggle with eternal forces,\" Leino said in a letter in 1925 to his friend Bertel Gripenberg. Leino published over 70 books of poems and stories. The most famous of these are the two poem collections \"Helkavirsiä\" (1903 and 1916), in which he extensively uses Finnish mythology and folklore. In addition to writing poetry, Eino Leino wrote in newspapers about theatre and culture in general, and translated works of important writers such as Runeberg and Goethe. He was the first person in Finland to translate Dante's Divine Comedy into Finnish. Leino was married three times and had one daughter, Helka. He died in 1926 at the age of 47 and later he was buried at the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki. The most detailed biography of Leino was written in 1930s by his lover and colleague L. Onerva. In the dramatic story Onerva is also writing about her own life.", "Leino is held to be the first and most important shaper of national romanticism in Finnish literature. Actually, Leino coined the term \"national neoromantism\" by himself to characterize the works by talents of young Finland such as composer Jean Sibelius, painter Akseli Gallen-Kallela and architect Eliel Saarinen. Leino's style developed during his 35 years long career. In his early works, including his most famous collection Helkavirsiä (1903) influence of the national epic Kalevala is visible. In the middle of his career Leino translated classics of world literature to Finnish. At the same time he wrote his own works in several genres: poetry, plays, essays, reviews and other pieces of journalism. His work encompasses a wide emotional range, anything from profound love to misanthropy and biting criticism. In his last years, after struggles in his personal life, Leino returned to the national romantic themes of his youth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Delgado and the \"Tour de France\".", "1987 Tour de France.", "1988 Tour de France.", "1989 Tour de France." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Delgado took part in the \"Tour de France\" eleven times. During his first participation, when he was 23, he rose to second place in the overall classification after the 17th stage, before falling back later in the event. From then on, Delgado was determined to achieve victory in this competition. In 1983, the Reynolds team participated in the Tour for the first time. Delgado was a young rider, and Ángel Arroyo was the star of the team. That year the \"Tour\" had four individual time trials (ITT), plus the prologue, and six mountainous stages, so Delgado had enough opportunities to show his talent. After the 17th stage Delgado was second in the overall classification, 1 ́08\" behind Laurent Fignon, another 23-year-old rider competing in the Tour for the first time. Unfortunately, Delgado drank a spoilt milk shake that caused him a stomach cramp during the next stage, ending in Morzine. He lost 25 minutes 34 seconds that day, and his first chance of winning the \"Tour\". Delgado ended that Tour in 15th position, 25 minutes 44 seconds behind Fignon. It was not the only setback he had in this race. On the contrary, in different years he suffered the fracture of a clavicle, the death of his mother during a stage, the communication of a \"positive\" result in a dope test that finally proved false (but after it was filtered to the media), gastroenteritis, and a tremendous mistake that led him to lose seven minutes in the first two days of the tour of 1989.", "Delgado fought an epic battle with Stephen Roche during the 1987 Tour de France, that was resolved in favour of Roche only in the penultimate stage, an ITT. The final difference was 40 seconds, at the time the second smallest difference ever recorded. Delgado was the third best time-trialist that year, but Roche was clearly the best, and both knew that. Roche told a nice anecdote about it twenty years after: \"\"We were on French TV after the descent into Morzine\" [the last mountain stage, and Delgado was still leader of the overall classification]\" and, off camera, he came up to me, hugged me, and said 'Bravo, you deserve the yellow jersey'.\" The TV people couldn't believe it! He's a fabulous competitor, but he's also a great, incredibly gallant guy and I think that's another reason why that Tour was so special\".\"", "Delgado won the 1988 Tour de France by a comfortable margin. However, it was suggested that the \"Tour\" was never easy for him. The evening after the 17th stage, the television channel \"Antenne2\" spread the news that Delgado had tested positive in a doping test. His team director José Miguel Echevarri was informed hours after by the Tour organization without mention of the substance. That night, Xavier Louy, director of the race, went to the hotel where Echavarri was and suggested to him that Delgado should withdraw. This was similar to the \"Merckx affaire\" in the 1969 Giro. The following morning Echevarri received the official communication. The substance was probenecid, a medicine for the kidney and also a masking agent for anabolic steroids. In 1988, every sport had a different list of banned substances and the IOC had its own, although there was a commitment to unify the lists in 1990. Probenecid was in the IOC list, but not in the UCI list (it would be one month later) and rule number 35 of the 1988 \"Tour\" regulations stated that the doping test would be carried out in accordance with the UCI rules. The mistake of the laboratory seemed evident and the technical jury declared that Delgado had not broken any (UCI) rule. However, the Director of the Tour de France, Jean-Pierre Courcol, said \"I now know that the letter can replace the spirit of the law and that the regulations can be played with, in order to give the appearance of utter innocence. Today, I am ashamed\" and his deputy, Jean-Marie Leblanc, described it as a \"dismal verdict\". Other riders were also unhappy, with Andy Hampsten stating \"Delgado took a drug to mask steroids. It's not on the banned list but it's a masking drug and that's what the commissaries should have acknowledged. I think it's a crime to let him wear the yellow jersey, a crime against the public and against the sport.\" In 1988 the sanction for this type of doping was a penalty of 10 minutes, which was applied to Gert-Jan Theunisse during the same 1988 Tour de France; Delgado, having been cleared, received no such penalty. Delgado's final advantage over the second rider in the overall classification, Steven Rooks, was 7:13 minutes. Third, 9:58 behind, was Fabio Parra. Delgado wore the yellow jersey for eleven days, and passed doping tests every day. There was no trace of probenecid nor steroids in any other test. He thanked the public for their support and claimed he would always be grateful for the support he received during the competition. Xavier Louy was replaced as Tour director months later.", "Delgado did not win the 1989 Tour de France, but it marked, perhaps, his most spectacular performance in the race. Showing up 2m 40s late for the prologue, Delgado covered the distance only 14 seconds slower than Erik Breukink, the stage winner. He became the only defending champion to begin the race in last place, 2:54 behind Breukink. As Delgado admitted later, that night he was very nervous and did not sleep. The following day there were two stages. Due to this he was very weak and suffered hypoglycemia in the second stage, a decisive team time-trial. That day he would have been dropped by his team had they not waited, and Delgado lost more time than in the previous stage, 4:32. After that second stage, Delgado was last in the overall classification, more than seven minutes behind the best-classified of the favourites, Laurent Fignon. Delgado rode the rest of the race on the offensive. His reaction started in the 5th stage, a 73 km individual time-trial. He was second in the stage, 24 seconds behind an impressive Greg LeMond. In the first mountain stage, Delgado attacked during the last climb, gaining 29\", but in the next stage Delgado, together with Robert Millar, finished 3:26 ahead of Fignon and 3:38 ahead of Lemond. Delgado was now 4th overall, 2:53 behind the leader, Fignon. After the 17th stage, finishing in Alpe d ́Huez, final victory still seemed to be possible, Delgado was third overall, 1:55 behind Fignon and 1:29 behind Lemond. But Delgado, exhausted, was unable to make up all the time he had lost in the early stages, and the great final fight of that Tour had only two major figures: Laurent Fignon and the final winner, Greg LeMond." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Reception.", "Remastering." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On the mining vessel \"Red Dwarf\", Dave Lister (Craig Charles) and Arnold Rimmer (Chris Barrie) go about their daily routine of maintenance. Rimmer takes his maintenance duties very seriously, despite lacking respect from other crew members, while Lister is more eager to be lazy and drink with others, and hopes to return to Earth to start a farm on Fiji with the true love of his life, Kristine Kochanski (Clare Grogan). The following day, Rimmer prepares for his latest attempt at the engineering exam, hoping to get promoted, but finds that the notes and equations he wrote on his arms and legs have been blurred due to him sweating nervously, prompting him to hand in a voided examination paper to the examiner before fainting. Meanwhile, Lister is brought before Captain Hollister (Mac McDonald) and accused of smuggling aboard a non-quarantined pet – a pregnant cat that Lister named Frankenstein and hopes to include in his future plans. Learning that Frankenstein would be \"put down\" for a biopsy, Lister refuses and is sentenced to 18 months of suspended animation in a stasis cell. When he is revived by Holly (Norman Lovett) – the ship's ever increasingly senile computer – he is informed that the crew are all dead, after a faulty drive plate caused them to be subjected to a lethal dose of cadmium II radiation. Lister is horrified to learn that he could not be released until three million years later, when the radiation had dispersed. Lister soon discovers that Rimmer was resurrected by Holly as a hologram, though with the inability to touch or feel anything, and learns that he was responsible for the accident. While they explore the ship, the pair come across a graceful-looking humanoid which Holly reveals to be an evolution of cats descended from Lister's pet. Holly reveals that Frankenstein managed to get into the ship's hold during the accident and was able to be safely sealed as a result. When the pair catch up with it, they manage to convince it that they are no threat, whereupon Lister names him Cat (Danny John-Jules) and learns that his ancestors created a religion around him. When Cat explains that his kind revered Lister as \"Cloister the Stupid\", who would lead them to the promised land \"Fuchal\", Lister points out what he means and promises to do so, prompting Holly to a course for Fiji. After Rimmer remarks that humankind will have evolved to the point that Lister will be like \"the slime that first crawled out of the oceans\", Lister declares \"Look out, Earth – the slime's coming home!\"", "", "The episode was written in 1983 during a stay at a cottage in Wales belonging to Doug Naylor's father. Almost a mile up a mountain the writing duo team of Rob Grant and Doug Naylor spent day and night writing. Almost finished, the pair had a near fatal accident during nightfall when their car veered perilously near the edge of a cliff. The script was not finished as expected as they spent the next day rescuing the car. Grant and Naylor passed the completed script to their agent Paul Jackson, whom they had worked for on \"Three of a Kind\" and \"Carrot's Lib\", and John Lloyd, whom they worked with on \"Spitting Image\". They both came back saying that they loved it, with even talk of them doing a co-production for the series. However, the task of dealing with the production rested with Jackson who had trouble convincing the BBC who went on to reject the script three times. Grant and Naylor were keen to have the series done on the BBC as they felt the extra 3 minutes of non-commercial time would be invaluable. It would take another three years before the series was accepted by BBC North West.", "When casting auditions started Norman Lovett was the first member of the cast selected, but had originally auditioned for Rimmer. Grant and Naylor thought otherwise and offered him the role of Holly, who at this stage was just a voice-over part. Danny John-Jules auditioned successfully for the Cat. Craig Charles was sent the script for his opinion as there were concerns over the Cat character coming across as racist. Charles was also being considered for the role. However it was later decided that Craig would be better suited auditioning for the role of Lister, who was initially described in the script as in his early forties. Chris Barrie later auditioned for both the Lister and Rimmer roles. A previous collaborator with Grant and Naylor, Chris had worked on their radio show \"Son of Cliché\". Bigger named actors like Alan Rickman and Alfred Molina had also auditioned but were not considered as they would be unlikely to stay for a series run. Paul Jackson's initial plan was for the show to run for two series only, like \"The Young Ones\". The character of the first hologram seen on screen, George McIntyre, was intended to be Australian to fit into the idea that the ship was international, but the actor, Robert McCulley had problems with the accent and decided to make the character Welsh instead. The episode featured a host of guest stars and extras, most uncredited. As well as featuring Mac McDonald as Captain Hollister and Clare Grogan (she changed her name to C. P. Grogan because of an Equity clash with another person with the same name) as Kristine Kochanski, Robert Bathurst appeared as Todhunter, Mark Williams as Petersen, Paul Bradley as Chen, and David Gillespie as Selby.", "The episode, and the series, almost never happened due to an electricians strike at the BBC in 1987 which prevented filming and the project was shelved. Filming eventually went ahead after the industrial action was resolved. Filming a scene with the Frankenstein cat caused problems when it came to trying to get the right shot. The cat would not stay still long enough, would not look at the photo of Fiji, and kept scratching Craig Charles' leg and running away. Charles' genitals were also visible in some takes; Grant and Naylor later considered digitally editing them out, but went for an inferior take instead. The opening theme tune was written by musician Howard Goodall. With its classical music style it parodied Stanley Kubrick's \"\". Goodall also wrote the lyrics for the end credits theme tune, which was sung by Jenna Russell. The intention was to match the lyrics to Lister's desire to go to Fiji, especially regarding the \"goldfish shoals nibbling at my toes\" line. For the opening credits and exterior shots a Red Dwarf model ship had to be built from scratch. Peter Wragg was the visual effects designer of Red Dwarf; Wragg also had a large part in set building and was the chief model maker. Wragg had previously filled a similar role in British television series such as \"Thunderbirds Are GO\", \"Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons\" and \"Doctor Who\". The opening effects shot features a dissolve from Lister painting the ship to a full model shot of the city-sized vessel traveling through space. Originally it was supposed to be one long take but it proved too difficult to mesh together with a small budget and lowly special effects of the day. The model of Red Dwarf itself measured about long from scoop to engine. With a seventh episode slot left over at the end of production, Grant and Naylor decided to go back and re-shoot certain scenes and drop others that they felt did not work. Scenes removed include Lister ejecting the crew members' canisters into space and Rimmer conducting his own eulogy. One of the more drastic changes was the ship's computer, Holly. Initially shot as a voice over, Norman Lovett had convinced the creators to have a disembodied head on screen. The Holly scenes from the first three episodes were re-edited to feature the newly shot lines with the head of Holly. Altogether, approximately two-thirds of the broadcast episode was composed of reshoot footage. Set designer Paul Montague gave the ship interiors a grey submarine look. Walls, floors, bunks, cans and even cigarette packets were coloured grey. The \"Welcome Back George McIntyre\" reception featured bright red plastic chairs, which had to be covered up with jackets to avoid harsh clashes of colour.", "Originally broadcast on the British television channel BBC2 on 15 February 1988 in the 9:00 p.m. evening slot. The episode gained 5.1 million viewers from its first showing. The BBC had also received letters from viewers regarding the quality of the series as a whole. An audience Appreciation Index score of 80 out of 100 was also seen as a sign that the series had done well. Co-creators/writers Grant and Naylor were so embarrassed by the first series that they had requested that the BBC not repeat the episodes as they felt that it would harm the following series. The video release of the first series was held back, making the first release of the series — featuring \"The End\" on tape one and \"Confidence and Paranoia\" on the second tape — hotly anticipated. Series I episodes performed poorly in a \"Red Dwarf Smegazine\" poll. This was perceived to be because fans hadn't seen, or had forgotten, the episodes — Series I not being repeated until 1994. However, the episode was considered as the best from Series I.", "The remastering of Series I to III was carried out during the late 1990s. Changes included replacement of the opening credits (re-instating the original idea of the one shot pulling away from the ship), the picture has been given a colour grade and filmised, new computer generated special effects of \"Red Dwarf\" flying through space, and visual, audio and scene adjustments. Changes specific to \"The End\" include bluescreen elements added to the opening scene with skutters – small maintenance robots – placed in the foreground of Rimmer and Lister. Silhouettes of the crew's heads were added to the foreground of George McIntyre's funeral scene. Background noise was added to the soundtrack to give the impression that the ship was busy with a full crew on board. The George McIntyre funeral scene was trimmed down, with shots that did not work removed, and a new shot of the canister leaving the ship was inserted. Music and sound effects were added to Cat's entrance, with hissing noise added when he tries to frighten Lister and Rimmer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Human reflexes.", "Reflexes usually only observed in human infants.", "Other reflexes.", "Grading.", "Reflex modulation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Myotatic reflexes The myotatic reflexes (also known as \"deep tendon reflexes\"), provide information on the integrity of the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system. Generally, decreased reflexes indicate a peripheral problem, and lively or exaggerated reflexes a central one. A stretch reflex is the contraction of a muscle in response to its lengthwise stretch. While the reflexes above are stimulated mechanically, the term H-reflex refers to the analogous reflex stimulated electrically, and tonic vibration reflex for those stimulated to vibration. Tendon reflex A tendon reflex is the contraction of a muscle in response to striking its tendon. The Golgi tendon reflex is the inverse of a stretch reflex.", "Newborn babies have a number of other reflexes which are not seen in adults, referred to as primitive reflexes. These automatic reactions to stimuli enable infants to respond to the environment before any learning has taken place. They include:", "Other reflexes found in the central nervous system include: Many of these reflexes are quite complex requiring a number of synapses in a number of different nuclei in the CNS (e.g., the escape reflex). Others of these involve just a couple of synapses to function (e.g., the withdrawal reflex). Processes such as breathing, digestion, and the maintenance of the heartbeat can also be regarded as reflex actions, according to some definitions of the term.", "In medicine, reflexes are often used to assess the health of the nervous system. Doctors will typically grade the activity of a reflex on a scale from 0 to 4. While 2+ is considered normal, some healthy individuals are hypo-reflexive and register all reflexes at 1+, while others are hyper-reflexive and register all reflexes at 3+.", "Naively, we might imagine that reflexes are immutable. In reality, however, most reflexes are flexible and can be substantially modified to match the requirements of the behavior in both vertebrates and invertebrates. A good example of reflex modulation is the stretch reflex. When a muscle is stretched at rest, the stretch reflex leads to contraction of the muscle, thereby opposing stretch (resistance reflex). This helps to stabilize posture. During voluntary movements, however, the intensity (gain) of the reflex is reduced or its sign is even reversed. This prevents resistance reflexes from impeding movements. The underlying sites and mechanisms of reflex modulation are not fully understood. There is evidence that the output of sensory neurons is directly modulated during behavior—for example, through presynaptic inhibition. The effect of sensory input upon motor neurons is also influenced by interneurons in the spinal cord or ventral nerve cord and by descending signals from the brain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "History.", "Features.", "Demographics.", "Notable citizens.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name is derived from a Slavic name \"Golęta\" (initially a collective name of a youth group selected from a kin and responsible for guarding). A pre-Hungarian origin of the settlement is documented by the Proto-Slavic nasal \"ę\" conserved in the name (GalaNta; compare with Czech Holetín and Holetice).", "Galanta lies in the Danubian Lowland (\"Podunajská nížina\"), the warm southern part of Slovakia. There are many agricultural fields around Galanta, where wheat, corn, and other vegetables and fruits are grown.", "The land around Galanta has almost continuously been inhabited since the neolithic. From the second half of the 10th century until 1918, it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The first written record of Galanta was made in 1237 in a Royal Decree by Béla IV of Hungary. Through the years, the settlement was under the lordship of various noble families. Beginning in 1421, the Eszterházy family ruled the town and the surrounding area. In 1613 or 1614, Galanta was promoted to a free market town. After break-up of Austria-Hungary in 1918/1920, the town became part of newly created Czechoslovakia. As a result of the First Vienna Award, it returned to Hungary between 1938 and 1945. On 31 March 1945, Galanta was captured by troops of the Soviet 2nd Ukrainian Front and became again part of Czechoslovakia.", "Galanta is an old town where most historical buildings have unfortunately been damaged or destroyed in World War II. During the Communist era of Czechoslovakia (1948–1989) the architecture of the town has further deteriorated as historic buildings were razed and replaced by prefabricated concrete apartment complexes and buildings. There are two important historical buildings left. The first one is Esterházys' Neo-Gothic Castle and the second one is the Renaissance castle (the two are often referred to as manor houses rather than castles). The Esterházys' Neo-Gothic Castle is in a state of disrepair and has been closed to the public since the late 1980s. The Renaissance castle was renovated in the 1990s and is being used as a museum, exhibition space and cultural center.", "According to the 2001 census, the town had 16,365 inhabitants. 60.35% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 36.80% Hungarians, 1.07% Roma and 0.70% Czechs. The religious makeup was 67.05% Roman Catholics, 20.07% people with no religious affiliation and 6.34% Lutherans. In 1910, 89.6% of the population reported Hungarian as primary language, 6.2% Slovak, 3.5% German or Yiddish. The religious make-up was 65.3% Roman Catholic, 32.4% Jewish and 1.3% Lutheran.", "The Hungarian composer Zoltán Kodály spent most of his childhood in this town and composed the \"Dances of Galánta\" (1933, for orchestra) based on the folk music of this region.", "Galanta is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Early political career.", "President of Finland.", "Overview.", "First term (1956–62).", "Second term (1962–68).", "Third term (1968–78).", "Term extension (1973).", "Fourth term (1978–82).", "Later life.", "Legacy.", "Honours.", "Foreign honours.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The son of Juho Kekkonen and Emilia Pylvänäinen, Kekkonen was born in Pielavesi, in the Savo region of Finland, and spent his childhood in Kainuu. His family were farmers (though not poor tenant farmers, as some of his supporters later claimed). His father was originally a farm-hand and forestry worker who rose to become a forestry manager and stock agent at Halla Ltd. Claims made that Kekkonen's family had lived in a rudimentary farmhouse with no chimney were later proved to be false—a photograph of Kekkonen's childhood home had been retouched to remove the chimney. His school years did not go smoothly. During the Finnish Civil War, Kekkonen fought for the White Guard (Kajaani chapter), fighting in the battles of Kuopio, Varkaus, Mouhu, and Vyborg, and taking part in mop-up operations, including leading a firing squad in Hamina. He later admitted to having killed a man in battle, but wrote in his memoirs that he was randomly selected by his company commander to follow a squad escorting ten prisoners, where the squad turned out to be a firing squad, and then to give the actual order to aim and fire. In independent Finland, Kekkonen first worked as a journalist in Kajaani then moved to Helsinki in 1921 to study law. While studying he worked for the security police EK between 1921 and 1927, where he became acquainted with anti-communist policing. During this time he also met his future wife, Sylvi Salome Uino (12 March 1900 – 2 December 1974), a typist at the police station. They had two sons, Matti (1928–2013) and Taneli (1928–1985). Matti Kekkonen served as a Centre Party member of Parliament from 1958 to 1969, and Taneli Kekkonen worked as an ambassador in Belgrade, Athens, Rome, Malta, Warsaw and Tel Aviv. In 1927 Kekkonen became a lawyer and worked for the Association of Rural Municipalities until 1932. Kekkonen took a Doctor of Laws degree in 1936 at the University of Helsinki where he was active in the Pohjois-Pohjalainen Osakunta, a student nation for students from northern Ostrobothnia, and editor-in-chief of the student newspaper \"Ylioppilaslehti\" in the period 1927–1928. He was also an athlete whose greatest achievement was to become Finnish high jump champion in 1924 with a jump of. He was best at the standing jump.", "A nationalist at heart, Kekkonen's ideological roots lay in the student politics of newly independent Finland and in the radicalism of the right-wing. He joined the Academic Karelia Society (\"Akateeminen Karjala-Seura\"), an organisation favouring Finland's annexation of East Karelia, but resigned from it in 1932 along with over 100 other moderate members because of the organisation's support for the 1932 far-right Mäntsälä rebellion. According to Johannes Virolainen, a longtime Agrarian and Centrist politician, some Finnish right-wingers hated and mocked Kekkonen for the decision and cast him as a power-hungry opportunist. Kekkonen chaired Suomalaisuuden Liitto, another nationalist organisation, from 1930 to 1932. In 1933, Kekkonen joined the Agrarian League (later renamed the Centre Party) and in the same year also became a civil servant at the Ministry of Agriculture. During his time there Kekkonen made his first unsuccessful attempt at getting elected to the Finnish Parliament. Kekkonen successfully stood for parliament a second time in 1936 whereupon he became Justice Minister, serving from 1936 to 1937. During his term, he enacted the \"Tricks of Kekkonen\" (\"Kekkosen konstit\"), an attempt to ban the right-wing, radical Patriotic People's Movement (\"Isänmaallinen Kansanliike\", IKL). In the end, this effort was found illegal and halted by the Supreme Court. Kekkonen was also Minister of the Interior from 1937 to 1939. He was not a member of the cabinets during the Winter War or the Continuation War. In March 1940, in a meeting of the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the Finnish Parliament, he voted against the Moscow peace treaty. During the Continuation War, Kekkonen served as director of the Karelian Evacuees' Welfare Centre from 1940 to 1943 and as the Ministry of Finance's commissioner for coordination from 1943 to 1945, tasked with rationalising public administration. By that time, he had become one of the leading politicians within the so-called Peace opposition. In 1944, he again became Minister of Justice, serving until 1946, and had to deal with the war-responsibility trials. Kekkonen was a Deputy Speaker of the Parliament 1946–1947, and was Speaker from 1948 to 1950. In the 1950 Presidential election, Kekkonen was the candidate of the Finnish Agrarian Party. He conducted a vigorous campaign against incumbent President Juho Kusti Paasikivi to finish third in the first and only ballot, receiving 62 votes in the electoral college, while Paasikivi was reelected with 171. After the election, Paasikivi appointed Kekkonen Prime Minister where in all his five cabinets, he emphasised the need to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union. Known for his authoritarian personality, he was ousted in 1953 but returned as Prime Minister from 1954 to 1956. Kekkonen also served as Minister of Foreign Affairs for periods in 1952–1953 and 1954, concurrent with his prime ministership.", "", "During Kekkonen's term, the balance of power between the Finnish Government and the President tilted heavily towards the President. In principle and formally, parliamentarism was followed with governments nominated by a parliamentary majority. However, Kekkonen-era cabinets were often in bitter internal disagreement and alliances formed broke down easily. New cabinets often tried to reverse their predecessors' policies. Kekkonen used his power extensively to nominate ministers and railroaded new government compositions through the parliamentary process. Publicly and with impunity, he also used the old boy network to bypass the government and communicate directly with high officials. Only when Kekkonen's term ended did governments remain stable throughout the entire period between elections. Nevertheless, during Kekkonen's presidency, a few parties were represented in most governments—mainly the Centrists, Social Democrats, and Swedish People's Party—while the People's Democrats and Communists were often in government from 1966 onwards. Throughout his time as president, Kekkonen did his best to keep political adversaries in check. The Centre Party's rival National Coalition Party was kept in opposition for 20 years despite good election performances. The Rural Party (which had broken away from the Centre Party) was treated similarly. On a few occasions, parliament was dissolved if its political composition did not please Kekkonen. Despite his career in the Centre Party, his relation to the party was often difficult. There was a so-called \"K-linja\" (\"K policy\", named after Urho Kekkonen, Ahti Karjalainen and Arvo Korsimo), which promoted friendly relations and bilateral trade with the Soviet Union. Kekkonen consolidated his power within the party by placing supporters of the \"K-linja\" in leading roles. Too prominent Centre Party members often found themselves sidelined, as Kekkonen negotiated directly with the lower level. Chairman of the Centre Party, Johannes Virolainen, was threatened by Kekkonen with the dissolution of parliament when Kekkonen wanted to nominate SDP's Sorsa instead of Virolainen as Prime Minister. His so-called \"Mill Letters\" were a continuous stream of directives to high officials, politicians, and journalists. Nevertheless, Kekkonen did not use coercive measures while some prominent politicians, most notably Tuure Junnila (NCP) and Veikko Vennamo (Rural Party), \"branded\" themselves as \"anti-Kekkonen\".", "In the presidential election of 1956, Kekkonen defeated the Social Democrat Karl-August Fagerholm 151–149 in the electoral college vote. The campaign was notably vicious, with many personal attacks against several candidates, especially Kekkonen. The tabloid gossip newspaper \"Sensaatio-Uutiset\" (\"Sensational News\") accused Kekkonen of fistfighting, excessive drinking and extramarital affairs. The drinking and womanizing charges were partly true. At times, during evening parties with his friends, Kekkonen got drunk, and he had at least two longtime mistresses. As president, Kekkonen continued the neutrality policy of President Paasikivi, which came to be known as the Paasikivi-Kekkonen line. From the beginning, he ruled with the assumption that he alone was acceptable to the Soviet Union as Finnish President. Evidence from defectors like Oleg Gordievsky and files from the Soviet archives show that keeping Kekkonen in power was indeed the main objective of the Soviet Union in its relations with Finland. In August 1958, Karl-August Fagerholm's third cabinet, a coalition government led by the Social Democratic Party (SDP) and including Kekkonen's party Agrarian League, was formed. The Communist front SKDL was left out. This irritated the Soviet Union because of the inclusion of ministers from SDP's anti-Communist wing, namely Väinö Leskinen and Olavi Lindblom. They were seen by the Soviet Union as puppets of the anti-Communist SDP chair Väinö Tanner, who had been convicted in the war-responsibility trials. Kekkonen had warned against this but was ignored by SDP. The Night Frost Crisis, as coined by Nikita Khrushchev, led to Soviet pressure against Finland in economic matters. Kekkonen sided with the Soviet Union, working behind the scenes against the cabinet; Fagerholm's cabinet consequently resigned in December 1958. The Finnish Foreign Ministry ignored United States offers for help as promised by Ambassador John D. Hickerson (see Country-studies.com, U.S. Embassy in Finland website, U.S. State Department website) in November 1958. The crisis was resolved by Kekkonen in January 1959, when he privately travelled to Moscow to negotiate with Khrushchev and Andrei Gromyko. The crisis hurt the freedom of the parties to compose coalition governments, so that after the crisis, Kekkonen was seen as the only authority for deciding which parties can participate in cabinets. The second time the Soviets helped Kekkonen came in the Note Crisis in 1961. The most widely held view of the Note Crisis is that the Soviet Union acted to ensure Kekkonen's reelection. Parties competing against Kekkonen attempted to form an anti-Kekkonen alliance, \"\"Honka-liitto\"\", to promote Chancellor of Justice Olavi Honka, a non-partisan candidate, in the 1962 presidential elections. Kekkonen had planned to prevent \"Honka-liitto\" from succeeding by dissolving parliament. However, in October 1961, the Soviet Union sent a diplomatic note demanding common military exercises against the West in reference to the Finno-Soviet Treaty. As a result, Honka dropped his candidacy, leaving Kekkonen with a clear majority (199 / 300 electors) in the 1962 elections. In addition to support from his own party, Kekkonen received the backing of the Swedish People's Party and the Finnish People's Party, a small classical liberal party. Furthermore, the conservative National Coalition Party quietly supported Kekkonen, although they had no official presidential candidate after Honka's withdrawal. Following the Note Crisis, genuine opposition to Kekkonen disappeared, and he acquired an exceptionally strong—later even autocratic—status as the political leader of Finland. Kekkonen's policies, especially towards the USSR, were criticised within his own party by Veikko Vennamo, who broke off his Centre Party affiliation when Kekkonen was elected president in 1956. In 1959, Vennamo founded the Finnish Rural Party, the forerunner of the nationalist True Finns.", "In the 1960s Kekkonen was responsible for a number of foreign-policy initiatives, including the Nordic nuclear-free zone proposal, a border agreement with Norway, and a 1969 Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. The purpose of these initiatives was to avoid the enforcement of the military articles in the Finno-Soviet Treaty which called for military co-operation with the Soviet Union. Kekkonen thereby hoped to strengthen Finland's moves toward a policy of neutrality. Following the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, pressure for neutrality increased. Kekkonen informed the Soviet Union in 1970 that if it was no longer prepared to recognise Finland's neutrality, he would not continue as president, nor would the Finno-Soviet Treaty be extended.", "Kekkonen was re-elected for a third term in 1968. That year, he was supported by five political parties: the Centre Party, the Social Democrats, the Social Democratic Union of Workers and Smallholders (a short-lived SDP faction), the Finnish People's Democratic League (a communist front), and the Swedish People's Party. He received 201 votes in the electoral college, whereas the National Coalition party's candidate finished second with 66 votes. Vennamo came third with 33 votes. Although Kekkonen was re-elected with two-thirds of the vote, he was so displeased with his opponents and their behaviour that he publicly refused to stand for the presidency again. Vennamo's bold and constant criticisms of his presidency and policies especially infuriated Kekkonen, who labelled him a \"cheat\" and \"demagogue\". Initially, Kekkonen had intended to retire at the end of this term, and the Centre Party already began to prepare for his succession by Ahti Karjalainen. However, Kekkonen began to see Karjalainen as a rival instead, and eventually rejected the idea.", "On 18 January 1973, the enacting of an emergency law saw Kekkonen's presidency extended by four years. By this time, Kekkonen had secured the backing of most political parties, but the major right-wing National Coalition Party, which Kekkonen had opposed, was still skeptical, and stood in the way of the required 5/6 majority. Concurrently, Finland was negotiating a free-trade agreement with the EEC, and as the EEC agreement promoted economic integration with the West, it was supported by National Coalition Party. Kekkonen had implied that if he did not remain president, the Soviets would not accept Finland's free trade agreement with the EEC. The tactic secured National Coalition support and the subsequent passing of an emergency law. The elimination of any significant opposition and competition meant he became Finland's \"de facto\" political autocrat. His power reached its zenith in 1975 when he dissolved parliament and hosted the Conference on Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE) in Helsinki with the assistance of a caretaker government.", "After nine political parties supported Kekkonen's candidacy in the 1978 Presidential election, including the Social Democratic, Centre and National Coalition parties, no serious rivals remained. He humiliated his opponents by not appearing in televised presidential debates and went on to win 259 out of the 300 electoral college votes, with his nearest rival, Raino Westerholm of the Christian Union, receiving only 25. According to Finnish historians and political journalists, there were at least three reasons why Kekkonen clung on to the Presidency. First, he did not believe that any of his successor candidates would manage Finland's Soviet foreign policy well enough. Second, until at least the summer of 1978, he considered there was room for improvement in Finnish-Soviet relations and that his experience was vital to the process. This is exemplified by the use of his diplomatic skills to reject the Soviet Defence Minister Dmitriy Ustinov's offer to arrange a joined Soviet-Finnish military exercise. Third, he believed that by working for as long as possible he would remain healthy and live longer. Kekkonen's most severe critics, such as Veikko Vennamo, claimed that he remained President so long mainly because he and his closest associates were power-hungry. In 1980 Kekkonen was awarded the Lenin Peace Prize.", "From December 1980 onwards, Kekkonen suffered from an undisclosed disease that appeared to affect his brain functions, sometimes leading to delusional thoughts. He had begun to suffer occasional brief memory lapses as early as the autumn of 1972; they became more frequent during the late 1970s. Around the same time, Kekkonen's eyesight deteriorated so much that for his last few years in office, all of his official papers had to be typed in block letters. Kekkonen had also suffered from a failing sense of balance since the mid-1970s and from enlargement of his prostate gland since 1974. He was also subject to occasional violent headaches and suffered from diabetes from the autumn of 1979. Rumors about his declining health had begun to circulate in the mid to late 1970s, but the press attempted to silence these rumors to respect the president's privacy. According to biographer Juhani Suomi, Kekkonen gave no thought to resigning until his physical condition began to deteriorate in July 1981. The 80-year-old president then began to seriously consider resigning, most likely in early 1981. Prime Minister Mauno Koivisto finally dealt a defeat to Kekkonen in 1981. In April, Koivisto did what no one else had dared to during Kekkonen's presidency by stating that under the constitution, the prime minister and cabinet were responsible to Parliament, not to the President. Kekkonen asked Koivisto to resign, but he refused. This is generally seen as the death-knell of the Kekkonen era. Kekkonen never fully recovered from the shock caused by this event. He felt that he had lost a significant amount of his authority. Historians and journalists debate the precise meaning of this dispute. According to Seppo Zetterberg, Allan Tiitta, and Pekka Hyvärinen, Kekkonen wanted to force Koivisto to resign to decrease his chances of succeeding him as president. In contrast, Juhani Suomi believed the dispute involved scheming between Koivisto and rival prospective presidential candidates. Kekkonen at times criticised Koivisto for making political decisions too slowly and for his vacillation, especially for speaking too unclearly and philosophically. Kekkonen became ill in August during a fishing trip to Iceland. He went on medical leave on 10 September, before finally resigning due to ill health on 26 October 1981, aged 81. There is no report available about his illness, as the papers have been moved to an unknown location, but it is commonly believed that he suffered from vascular dementia, probably due to atherosclerosis. Kekkonen died at Tamminiemi in 1986, three days before his 86th birthday, and was buried with full honours. His heirs restricted access to his diaries and later an \"authorised\" biography by Juhani Suomi was commissioned, the author subsequently defending the interpretation of the history therein and denigrating most other interpretations. Critics have questioned the value of this work; the historian Hannu Rautkallio considered the biography little else than a \"commercial project\" designed for selling books rather than aiming for historical accuracy.", "Some of Kekkonen's actions remain controversial in modern Finland, and disputes continue about how to interpret many of his policies and actions. He often used what was termed the \"Moscow card\" when his authority was threatened, but he was not the only Finnish politician with close relations to Soviet representatives. Kekkonen's authoritarian behavior during his presidential term was one of the main reasons for the reforms of the Finnish Constitution in 1984–2003. Under these, the powers of Parliament and the Prime Minister were increased at the expense of Presidential power. Several of the changes were initiated by Kekkonen's successors. Although controversial, his policy of neutrality allowed trade with both the Communist and Western blocs. The bilateral trade policy with the Soviet Union was lucrative for many Finnish businesses. His term saw a period of high sustained economic growth and increasing integration with the West. He negotiated entrance into EFTA and thus was an early beginner for Finnish participation in European integration, which later culminated in full membership in the EU and the euro. He remained highly popular during his term, even though such a profile approached that of a personality cult towards the end of his term. He is still popular among many of his contemporaries, particularly in his own Centre Party.", "", "This is an incomplete list, which may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries. Former socialist states: Former (now-defunct) states:", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Microsoft's response.", "Overview of standards tested.", "Passing conditions.", "Compliant applications.", "Non-compliant applications.", "Timeline of passing applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Acid2 was first proposed by Håkon Wium Lie, chief technical officer of Opera Software and creator of the widely used Cascading Style Sheets web standard. In a 16 March 2005 article on CNET, Lie expressed dismay that Microsoft Internet Explorer did not properly support web standards and hence was not completely interoperable with other browsers. He announced that Acid2 would be a challenge to Microsoft to design Internet Explorer 7, then in development, to achieve a greater degree of standards compliance than previous versions of Internet Explorer. The original Acid1 test had forced browser makers to fix their applications or face embarrassment; Lie hoped that Acid2 would do the same. Lie and a colleague, Ian Hickson, created the first draft of the test in February 2005. Ian Hickson coded the final test in collaboration with the Web Standards Project and the larger web community. It was officially released on 13 April 2005 and at that time, every web browser failed it spectacularly. On 23 April 2005, Acid2 was updated to fix a bug that made the mouth appear too close to the nose. After several complaints, the test was again updated in January 2006 to remove a test for unpopular SGML-style comments that were never widely implemented. In browsers that do not implement SGML-style comments, the original test displayed the word \"ERROR\" on the bottom part of the face. In March 2008, Ian Hickson released Acid3 as a follow-up to Acid2. While Acid2 primarily tests CSS, Acid3 focuses more on JavaScript and other \"Web 2.0\" technologies.", "In July 2005, Chris Wilson, the Internet Explorer Platform Architect, stated that passing Acid2 was not a priority for Internet Explorer 7, describing the test as a \"wish list\" of features rather than a true test of standards compliance. In December 2007, Microsoft announced that all the changes required to pass Acid2 would be made available in Internet Explorer 8, but that the changes would not be turned on by default, meaning that IE8 would not actually pass the test. The concern was that switching to a new behavior would cause too many problems in web pages expecting Internet Explorer's old, non-compliant behavior. Then in March 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 1 and turned on the changes by default after all. James Pratt, product manager for IE8, explained that this decision was made so that \"developers can spend more time building features and cool stuff, and less time just trying to tweak their sites across different browsers.\" Another unresolved standards compliance issue caused IE8 beta 1 to fail if not all elements of the test were hosted from the same server. In August 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 2, which resolved the issue. As of that beta, however, standards mode is not turned on by default for pages loaded in the \"Intranet Zone\". This zone is active for pages loaded via UNC paths, named addresses without dots (like <nowiki>http://mysite/</nowiki>), and sites that bypass the proxy settings. As such, IE8 will not pass the Acid2 test if loaded in these cases.", "Acid2 tests a variety of web standards published by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force. With the exception of CSS 2.1, all web standards tested were codified before the year 2000. CSS 2.1 was a candidate recommendation at the time of Acid2's release, and was still a candidate recommendation as of 23 April 2009. Specifically, Acid2 tests: Because Acid2 is not a comprehensive test, it does not guarantee total conformance to any particular standard. A variant of the Acid2 test that does not test for data URI support is also available from the Web Standards Project.", "A passing score is only considered valid if the browser's default settings were used. Actions such as changing font sizes, zoom level, and applying user stylesheets can break the display of the test. This is expected and is not relevant to a browser's compliance. The following browser settings and user actions invalidate the test:", "If rendered correctly, Acid2 will appear as a smiley face below the text \"Hello World!\" in the user's browser, with the nose turning blue when the mouse cursor hovers over it. At the time of the test's release, every browser failed it, but now a number of browsers pass it. See the list below.", "Even though Opera Mini is based on the same rendering engine as Opera for personal computers, it does not pass the Acid2 test. This is because Opera Mini intentionally reformats web pages to try to make them more suitable for devices with small screens.", "The following is a list of releases noting significant releases of applications that passed the test. New applications that have passed Acid2 since their first official release are not included in the timeline." ] }