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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Apple and Motorola involvement.", "Operating systems.", "Breakup of AIM.", "Generations.", "Design features.", "Endian modes.", "Implementations.", "Operating systems.", "Licensees.", "Game consoles.", "Desktop computers.", "Embedded applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The history of RISC began with IBM's 801 research project, on which John Cocke was the lead developer, where he developed the concepts of RISC in 1975–78. 801-based microprocessors were used in a number of IBM embedded products, eventually becoming the 16-register IBM ROMP processor used in the IBM RT PC. The RT PC was a rapid design implementing the RISC architecture. Between the years of 1982 and 1984, IBM started a project to build the fastest microprocessor on the market; this new 32-bit architecture became referred to as the \"America Project\" throughout its development cycle, which lasted for approximately 5–6 years. The result is the POWER instruction set architecture, introduced with the RISC System/6000 in early 1990. The original POWER microprocessor, one of the first superscalar RISC implementations, is a high performance, multi-chip design. IBM soon realized that a single-chip microprocessor was needed in order to scale its RS/6000 line from lower-end to high-end machines. Work began on a one-chip POWER microprocessor, designated the RSC (RISC Single Chip). In early 1991, IBM realized its design could potentially become a high-volume microprocessor used across the industry.", "Apple had already realized the limitations and risks of its dependency upon a single CPU vendor at a time when Motorola was falling behind on delivering the 68040 CPU. Furthermore, Apple had conducted its own research and made an experimental quad-core CPU design called Aquarius, which convinced the company's technology leadership that the future of computing was in the RISC methodology. IBM approached Apple with the goal of collaborating on the development of a family of single-chip microprocessors based on the POWER architecture. Soon after, Apple, being one of Motorola's largest customers of desktop-class microprocessors, asked Motorola to join the discussions due to their long relationship, Motorola having had more extensive experience with manufacturing high-volume microprocessors than IBM, and to form a second source for the microprocessors. This three-way collaboration between Apple, IBM, and Motorola became known as the AIM alliance. In 1991, the PowerPC was just one facet of a larger alliance among these three companies. At the time, most of the personal computer industry was shipping systems based on the Intel 80386 and 80486 chips, which have a complex instruction set computer (CISC) architecture, and development of the Pentium processor was well underway. The PowerPC chip was one of several joint ventures involving the three alliance members, in their efforts to counter the growing Microsoft-Intel dominance of personal computing. For Motorola, POWER looked like an unbelievable deal. It allowed the company to sell a widely tested and powerful RISC CPU for little design cash on its own part. It also maintained ties with an important customer, Apple, and seemed to offer the possibility of adding IBM too, which might buy smaller versions from Motorola instead of making its own. At this point Motorola already had its own RISC design in the form of the 88000, which was doing poorly in the market. Motorola was doing well with its 68000 family and the majority of the funding was focused on this. The 88000 effort was somewhat starved for resources. The 88000 was already in production, however; Data General was shipping 88000 machines and Apple already had 88000 prototype machines running. The 88000 had also achieved a number of embedded design wins in telecom applications. If the new POWER one-chip version could be made bus-compatible at a hardware level with the 88000, that would allow both Apple and Motorola to bring machines to market far faster since they would not have to redesign their board architecture. The result of these various requirements is the PowerPC (\"performance computing\") specification. The differences between the earlier POWER instruction set and that of PowerPC is outlined in Appendix E of the manual for PowerPC ISA v.2.02.", "Since 1991, IBM had a long-standing desire for a unifying operating system that would simultaneously host all existing operating systems as personalities upon one microkernel. From 1991 to 1995, the company designed and aggressively evangelized what would become Workplace OS, primarily targeting PowerPC. When the first PowerPC products reached the market, they were met with enthusiasm. In addition to Apple, both IBM and the Motorola Computer Group offered systems built around the processors. Microsoft released Windows NT 3.51 for the architecture, which was used in Motorola's PowerPC servers, and Sun Microsystems offered a version of its Solaris OS. IBM ported its AIX Unix. Workplace OS featured a new port of OS/2 (with Intel emulation for application compatibility), pending a successful launch of the PowerPC 620. Throughout the mid-1990s, PowerPC processors achieved benchmark test scores that matched or exceeded those of the fastest x86 CPUs. Ultimately, demand for the new architecture on the desktop never truly materialized. Windows, OS/2, and Sun customers, faced with the lack of application software for the PowerPC, almost universally ignored the chip. IBM's Workplace OS platform (and thus, OS/2 for PowerPC) was summarily canceled upon its first developers' release in December 1995 due to the simultaneous buggy launch of the PowerPC 620. The PowerPC versions of Solaris and Windows were discontinued after only a brief period on the market. Only on the Macintosh, due to Apple's persistence, did the PowerPC gain traction. To Apple, the performance of the PowerPC was a bright spot in the face of increased competition from Windows 95 and Windows NT-based PCs. With the cancellation of Workplace OS, the general PowerPC platform (especially AIM's Common Hardware Reference Platform) was instead seen as a hardware-only compromise to run many operating systems one at a time upon a single unifying vendor-neutral hardware platform. In parallel with the alliance between IBM and Motorola, both companies had development efforts underway internally. The PowerQUICC line was the result of this work inside Motorola. The 4xx series of embedded processors was underway inside IBM. The IBM embedded processor business grew to nearly US$100 million in revenue and attracted hundreds of customers.", "Toward the close of the decade, manufacturing issues began plaguing the AIM alliance in much the same way they did Motorola, which consistently pushed back deployments of new processors for Apple and other vendors: first from Motorola in the 1990s with the PowerPC 7xx and 74xx processors, and IBM with the 64-bit PowerPC 970 processor in 2003. In 2004, Motorola exited the chip manufacturing business by spinning off its semiconductor business as an independent company called Freescale Semiconductor. Around the same time, IBM exited the 32-bit embedded processor market by selling its line of PowerPC products to Applied Micro Circuits Corporation (AMCC) and focusing on 64-bit chip designs, while maintaining its commitment of PowerPC CPUs toward game console makers such as Nintendo's GameCube and Wii, Sony's PlayStation 3 and Microsoft's Xbox 360, of which the latter two both use 64-bit processors. In 2005, Apple announced they would no longer use PowerPC processors in their Apple Macintosh computers, favoring Intel-produced processors instead, citing the performance limitations of the chip for future personal computer hardware specifically related to heat generation and energy usage, as well as the inability of IBM to move the 970 processor to the 3 GHz range. The IBM-Freescale alliance was replaced by an open standards body called Power.org. Power.org operates under the governance of the IEEE with IBM continuing to use and evolve the PowerPC processor on game consoles and Freescale Semiconductor focusing solely on embedded devices. IBM continues to develop PowerPC microprocessor cores for use in their application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) offerings. Many high volume applications embed PowerPC cores. The PowerPC specification is now handled by Power.org where IBM, Freescale, and AMCC are members. PowerPC, Cell and POWER processors are now jointly marketed as the Power Architecture. Power.org released a unified ISA, combining POWER and PowerPC ISAs into the new Power ISA v.2.03 specification and a new reference platform for servers called PAPR (Power Architecture Platform Reference). , IBM's POWER microprocessors, which implement the Power ISA, are used by IBM in their IBM Power Systems, running IBM i, AIX, and Linux.", "Many PowerPC designs are named and labeled by their apparent technology generation. That began with the \"G3\", which was an internal project name inside AIM for the development of what would become the PowerPC 750 family. Apple popularized the term \"G3\" when they introduced Power Mac G3 and PowerBook G3 at an event at 10 November 1997. Motorola and Apple liked the moniker and used the term \"G4\" for the 7400 family introduced in 1998 and the Power Mac G4 in 1999. At the time the G4 was launched, Motorola categorized all their PowerPC models (former, current and future) according to what generation they adhered to, even renaming the older 603e core \"G2\". Motorola had a G5 project that never came to fruition, but the name stuck and Apple reused it when the 970 family launched in 2003 even if those were designed and built by IBM.", "The PowerPC is designed along RISC principles, and allows for a superscalar implementation. Versions of the design exist in both 32-bit and 64-bit implementations. Starting with the basic POWER specification, the PowerPC added: Some instructions present in the POWER instruction set were deemed too complex and were removed in the PowerPC architecture. Some removed instructions could be emulated by the operating system if necessary. The removed instructions are:", "Most PowerPC chips switch endianness via a bit in the MSR (machine state register), with a second bit provided to allow the OS to run with a different endianness. Accesses to the \"inverted page table\" (a hash table that functions as a TLB with off-chip storage) are always done in big-endian mode. The processor starts in big-endian mode. In little-endian mode, the three lowest-order bits of the effective address are exclusive-ORed with a three bit value selected by the length of the operand. This is enough to appear fully little-endian to normal software. An operating system will see a warped view of the world when it accesses external chips such as video and network hardware. Fixing this warped view requires that the motherboard perform an unconditional 64-bit byte swap on all data entering or leaving the processor. Endianness thus becomes a property of the motherboard. An OS that operates in little-endian mode on a big-endian motherboard must both swap bytes and undo the exclusive-OR when accessing little-endian chips. AltiVec operations, despite being 128-bit, are treated as if they were 64-bit. This allows for compatibility with little-endian motherboards that were designed prior to AltiVec. An interesting side effect of this implementation is that a program can store a 64-bit value (the longest operand format) to memory while in one endian mode, switch modes, and read back the same 64-bit value without seeing a change of byte order. This will not be the case if the motherboard is switched at the same time. Mercury Systems and Matrox ran the PowerPC in little-endian mode. This was done so that PowerPC devices serving as co-processors on PCI boards could share data structures with host computers based on x86. Both PCI and x86 are little-endian. OS/2 and Windows NT for PowerPC ran the processor in little-endian mode while Solaris, AIX and Linux ran in big endian. Some of IBM's embedded PowerPC chips use a per-page endianness bit. None of the previous applies to them.", "The first implementation of the architecture was the PowerPC 601, released in 1992, based on the RSC, implementing a hybrid of the POWER1 and PowerPC instructions. This allowed the chip to be used by IBM in their existing POWER1-based platforms, although it also meant some slight pain when switching to the 2nd generation \"pure\" PowerPC designs. Apple continued work on a new line of Macintosh computers based on the chip, and eventually released them as the 601-based \"Power Macintosh\" on March 14, 1994. IBM also had a full line of PowerPC based desktops built and ready to ship; unfortunately, the operating system that IBM had intended to run on these desktops—Microsoft Windows NT—was not complete by early 1993, when the machines were ready for marketing. Accordingly, and further because IBM had developed animosity toward Microsoft, IBM decided to port OS/2 to the PowerPC in the form of Workplace OS. This new software platform spent three years (1992 to 1995) in development and was canceled with the December 1995 developer release, because of the disappointing launch of the PowerPC 620. For this reason, the IBM PowerPC desktops did not ship, although the reference design (codenamed Sandalbow) based on the PowerPC 601 CPU was released as an RS/6000 model (\"Byte\"s April 1994 issue included an extensive article about the Apple and IBM PowerPC desktops). Apple, which also lacked a PowerPC based OS, took a different route. Utilizing the portability platform yielded by the secret Star Trek project, the company ported the essential pieces of their Mac OS operating system to the PowerPC architecture, and further wrote a 68k emulator that could run 68k based applications and the parts of the OS that had not been rewritten. The second generation was \"pure\" and includes the \"low end\" PowerPC 603 and \"high end\" PowerPC 604. The 603 is notable due to its very low cost and power consumption. This was a deliberate design goal on Motorola's part, who used the 603 project to build the basic core for all future generations of PPC chips. Apple tried to use the 603 in a new laptop design but was unable due to the small 8 KiB level 1 cache. The 68000 emulator in the Mac OS could not fit in 8 KiB and thus slowed the computer drastically. The 603e solved this problem by having a 16 KiB L1 cache, which allowed the emulator to run efficiently. In 1993, developers at IBM's Essex Junction, Burlington, Vermont facility started to work on a version of the PowerPC that would support the Intel x86 instruction set directly on the CPU. While this was just one of several concurrent power architecture projects that IBM was working on, this chip began to be known inside IBM and by the media as the PowerPC 615. Profitability concerns and rumors of performance issues in the switching between the x86 and native PowerPC instruction sets resulted in the project being canceled in 1995 after only a limited number of chips were produced for in-house testing. Aside the rumors, the switching process took only 5 cycles, or the amount of time needed for the processor to empty its instruction pipeline. Microsoft also aided the processor's demise by refusing to support the PowerPC mode. The first 64-bit implementation is the PowerPC 620, but it appears to have seen little use because Apple didn't want to buy it and because, with its large die area, it was too costly for the embedded market. It was later and slower than promised, and IBM used their own POWER3 design instead, offering no 64-bit \"small\" version until the late-2002 introduction of the PowerPC 970. The 970 is a 64-bit processor derived from the POWER4 server processor. To create it, the POWER4 core was modified to be backward-compatible with 32-bit PowerPC processors, and a vector unit (similar to the AltiVec extensions in Motorola's 74xx series) was added. IBM's RS64 processors are a family of chips implementing the \"Amazon\" variant of the PowerPC architecture. These processors are used in the RS/6000 and AS/400 computer families; the Amazon architecture includes proprietary extensions used by AS/400. The POWER4 and later POWER processors implement the Amazon architecture and replaced the RS64 chips in the RS/6000 and AS/400 families. IBM developed a separate product line called the \"4xx\" line focused on the embedded market. These designs included the 401, 403, 405, 440, and 460. In 2004, IBM sold their 4xx product line to Applied Micro Circuits Corporation (AMCC). AMCC continues to develop new high performance products, partly based on IBM's technology, along with technology that was developed within AMCC. These products focus on a variety of applications including networking, wireless, storage, printing/imaging and industrial automation. Numerically, the PowerPC is mostly found in controllers in cars. For the automotive market, Freescale Semiconductor initially offered many variations called the MPC5xx family such as the MPC555, built on a variation of the 601 core called the 8xx and designed in Israel by MSIL (Motorola Silicon Israel Limited). The 601 core is single issue, meaning it can only issue one instruction in a clock cycle. To this they add various bits of custom hardware, to allow for I/O on the one chip. In 2004, the next-generation four-digit 55xx devices were launched for the automotive market. These use the newer e200 series of PowerPC cores. Networking is another area where embedded PowerPC processors are found in large numbers. MSIL took the QUICC engine from the MC68302 and made the PowerQUICC MPC860. This was a very famous processor used in many Cisco edge routers in the late 1990s. Variants of the PowerQUICC include the MPC850, and the MPC823/MPC823e. All variants include a separate RISC microengine called the CPM that offloads communications processing tasks from the central processor and has functions for DMA. The follow-on chip from this family, the MPC8260, has a 603e-based core and a different CPM. Honda also uses PowerPC processors for ASIMO. In 2003, BAE SYSTEMS Platform Solutions delivered the Vehicle-Management Computer for the F-35 fighter jet. This platform consists of dual PowerPCs made by Freescale in a triple redundant setup.", "Operating systems that work on the PowerPC architecture are generally divided into those that are oriented toward the general-purpose PowerPC systems, and those oriented toward the embedded PowerPC systems.", "Companies that have licensed the 64-bit POWER or 32-bit PowerPC from IBM include:", "PowerPC processors were used in a number of now-discontinued video game consoles:", "The Power architecture is currently used in the following desktop computers:", "The Power architecture is currently used in the following embedded applications:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Name and coat of arms.", "Governance.", "Districts.", "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Attractions.", "Aass Brewery.", "Drammen Museum.", "Drammen Spiral.", "Drammen Theater.", "Drammensbadet.", "Bragernes Torg (town square).", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Drammen is located west of the Oslofjord and is situated approximately 44 km South-west of Oslo. There are more than 68,000 inhabitants in the municipality, but the city is the regional capital of an area with more than 150,000 inhabitants. Drammen and the surrounding communities are growing more than ever before. The city makes good use of the river and inland waterway called Drammensfjord, both for recreation, activities and housing. No city in the country has received as many awards for environmental and urban development as Drammen: 6 national and 2 international prizes since 2003.", "The Old Norse form of the city's name was \"Drafn\", and this was originally the name of the inner part of Drammensfjord. The fjord is, however, probably named after the river Drammenselva (Norse \"Drǫfn\"), and this again is derived from \"drǫfn\" f 'wave'. The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 17 November 1960. The arms are blue with a gray/silver column on top of a foundation of rocks. A key and a Viking sword are crossed in the middle forming an x. It is based upon the old seal dating from 1723 for Bragernes, one of the central parts of Drammen. The motto for Bragernes (in Latin) was \"In Fide Et Justitia Fortitudo\" (), and the items in the seal are referring to this: key = faith, sword = justice, column on rocks = strength.", "The municipality of Drammen was established on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). The rural municipality of Skoger was merged with the municipality of Drammen on 1 January 1964 and was transferred from Vestfold county to Buskerud county at the same time. The city itself has 66 000 inhabitants, making it Norway's ninth largest.", "Drammen is currently divided into eight districts.", "Rock carvings at Åskollen and Austad are 6000 to 7000 years old, and are the first signs of human activity in the area. The largest rock carving at Åskollen depicts a moose. Drammen originally consisted of three small seaports: Bragernes (on the northern side of the Drammenselva river) and Strømsø and Tangen (both on the southern side of the river). For trade purposes, small seaports were placed under market towns. Despite their geographical proximity, Bragernes was placed under Christiania and Strømsø under Tønsberg. For this reason, cooperation between the adjacent seaport towns was almost impossible. In 1662, a merger was proposed to unite Strømsø and Bragernes to form a market town with the name Frederiksstrøm. The proposal was rejected by Frederick III of Denmark. Bragernes received limited market town rights in 1715, and merged with Strømsø to gain status as a single city on 19 June 1811. Its geographical location made the city favorable for seafaring, shipbuilding, log driving, timber trade. During the 19th century, paper and pulp industries were developed. Large parts of the city were ruined in the great fire of 12–13 July 1866, which led to the reconstruction of the city centre, including the characteristic town square and Bragernes church. The Drammen Line (\"Drammenbanen\" ) opened in 1872 providing rail service between Drammen and Oslo. In 1909, Drammen got the first trolleybus system in Scandinavia, the Drammen trolleybus. The lines ran until 1967. For many years the centre of Drammen suffered from heavy traffic. In 1970, Drammen Bridge with two lanes on European route E18 was built (expanded to four lanes in 2006) and in 1999 the opening of the Bragernes tunnel (\"Bragernestunnelen\") diverted additional traffic away from the centre of the city. In recent years, the city centre has seen the introduction of new housing, shopping facilities, restaurants, cafes and bars, as well as a public pathway along the Drammenselva river. In 2011, Drammen observed its 200th anniversary with many citywide jubilee celebrations. Drammen's district heating system was upgraded to use water-sourced heat pumps, drawing on local fjord water, to support population growth in the city.", "Drammen is one of the larger cities in Norway, and lies about from the capital of Norway, Oslo. The city centre lies at the end of a valley, on both sides of the Drammenselva river, and where the river meets the Drammensfjord. Drammen is also the main harbor for car and fruit import in Norway. As of 1 January 2007, the population of the urban area of Drammen is 93,006. Drammen is the sixth largest urban area of Norway and occupies territory in five municipalities: Drammen (with about 61% of the population), Nedre Eiker (23%), Øvre Eiker (8%), Lier (5%), and Røyken (3%). The \"Øvre Sund\" area, situated along Drammenselva, will be regulated by the municipality in order to restore this area's character. The buildings there are from the 18th and 19th century, and contribute, as well as the river and the brewery, to give the city a special identity. In 2008 Drammen won the prestigious prize for the best city development in Europe.", "Average at Drammen-Berskog 2010–2019", "", "Aass Brewery is the oldest surviving brewery in Norway, and has won acclaim for both its beer and its well-conserved building. Founded in 1834, the brewery's primary products are soft drinks, beer and aquavit.", "The Drammen Museum of Art and Cultural History includes Marienlyst, a manor house from ca. 1770, museum building from 1930 with the museum's administration, permanent exhibitions and collections, and Lyche pavilion from 1990 with the gallery, temporary exhibitions and museum café, Halling yard, with 5 old buildings, the oldest from 1760s. The museum also includes the two largest preserved like farms in Drammen, Gulskogen Manor and Austad farm.", "The \"Drammen Spiral\" is a road tunnel that allows access to the Skansen Ridge, above the town. It opened in 1961 on the site of a former quarry.", "Drammen Theater in Bragernes was built in 1869 and was designed by architect Emil Victor Langlet. The theater was the first modern theater in the country. It was designed in a complex Renaissance style with symmetrical facades and round arched windows. After Drammen Theater suffered total destruction by fire in December 1993, a new theater was rebuilt on the model of the original house. It was finished during February 1997.", "Drammensbadet is a public swimming and training facility located in Marienlyst, Drammen. It was one of the largest in Norway when it opened 1 September 2008. They have five indoor and four outdoor pools.", "Bragernes Torg is the largest town square in Norway and one of the largest in the Nordics", "", "The following cities are twinned with Drammen:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Operational history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In general, the Fleet Air Arm had required fighters that were capable of navigating long ranges over sea and speed differential over attackers was not critical. Defence of British naval bases was a RAF commitment but provision had not been made for this and so the Admiralty accepted that it would have to take on the duty. For this it needed an interceptor fighter and experience in the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 had also shown a high-performance, carrier-based, single-seat fighter would be an advantage. Blackburn tendered their B-37 design using the Napier Sabre 24-cylinder H-type engine, and this was accepted by June 1940 with a proposal to order \"off the drawing board\" (meaning without prototypes). Air Ministry Specification N.11/40—stating a minimum top speed of —was raised to cover this design and an order placed in January 1941 for three prototypes. The B-37, given the service name \"Firebrand\" on 11 July 1941, was a low-winged, all-metal monoplane. Aft of the cockpit the fuselage was an oval-shaped stressed-skin semi-monocoque, but forward it had a circular-section, tubular-steel frame that housed the main fuel tank and the auxiliary fuel tank behind the engine. The radiators for the neatly cowled Sabre engine were housed in wing-root extensions. The large wing consisted of a two-spar centre section with manually folded outer panels (with five degrees of dihedral) to allow more compact storage in the hangar decks of aircraft carriers. To increase lift and reduce landing speed the wing was fitted with large, hydraulically powered Fairey-Youngman flaps that extended to the edges of the Frise ailerons. The fixed armament of four Hispano autocannon was fitted in the outer wing panels with 200 rounds per gun. The fin and rudder were positioned forward of the elevator to ensure spin recovery and that the rudder would retain its effectiveness. The mainwheels of the conventional landing gear were mounted at the ends of the centre wing section and retracted inwards. The Firebrand was unusual in the fact that there was an airspeed gauge mounted outside of the cockpit so that during landing the pilot would not have to look down into the cockpit to take instrument readings, foreshadowing the modern heads-up display. The unarmed first prototype first flew on 27 February 1942 using the Sabre II, the first of two armed prototypes following on 15 July. The initial flight trials were a disappointment as the aircraft could only reach below Blackburn's estimated maximum speed. Replacement of the Sabre II with a Sabre III (an engine built specifically for the Firebrand) improved its top speed to at 17,000 ft (5,182 m). The second prototype, DD810, conducted deck-landing trials, with Commander Dennis Cambell at the controls, aboard the fleet carrier in February 1943. The Sabre engine was also used in the Hawker Typhoon, a fighter already in production and the Ministry of Air Production (MAP) decided that the Typhoon had priority for the Sabre. The Sabre was also experiencing production problems and so a new engine was needed, along with the necessary airframe adaptations. To use the time and effort invested in the design, the MAP decided to convert the Firebrand into an interim strike fighter, to meet a Fleet Air Arm requirement for a single-seat torpedo bomber capable of carrying bombs, rockets and being capable of air-to-air combat. Nine production F. Mk I aircraft were built to the original specifications and were retained for trials and development work. After it was badly damaged during an emergency landing, DD810 was converted into a prototype of the first strike variant, the Firebrand T.F. Mk II (with the company designation B-45), that flew on 31 March 1943. It was an adaptation of the Mk I with the wing centre section widened by to make room for the torpedo on the centreline between the mainwheels. Like the Mk I, the TF Mk II only saw a very limited production run of 12 aircraft and they were also allocated for development work, including those assigned to 708 Naval Air Squadron, a shore-based trials unit. Blackburn proposed several versions of the Sabre-powered aircraft including one for the RAF as the B-41, a version with a high-lift wing as the B-42, and the B-43 floatplane, none of which were accepted for further development. A new specification was issued as S.8/43 to cover the development of the Firebrand T.F. Mk III (B-45) with the Bristol Centaurus VII radial engine. Two prototypes were converted from incomplete F Mk Is and 27 additional aircraft were delivered, completing the first batch of 50 aircraft. The first prototype flew on 21 December 1943, but construction of the new aircraft was very slow with the first flight not being made until November 1944. Most changes were related to the installation of the larger-diameter Centaurus engine, including air intakes for the carburetor and oil cooler in the wing-root extensions that formerly housed the engine's radiators. Spring-loaded trim tabs were also fitted to all control surfaces. Production aircraft after the first 10 were fitted with the improved Centaurus IX engine. The Mk III was found to be unsuitable for carrier operations for a variety of reasons. The new engine produced more torque than the Sabre, and rudder control was insufficient on takeoff with the full flaps needed for carrier use. Visibility while landing was very poor, the tailhook attachment to the airframe was too weak, and the aircraft had a tendency to drop a wing at the stall while landing, so development continued to rectify these issues. The T.F. Mk IV (B-46), as the new development was designated, featured larger tail surfaces for better low-speed control. The enlarged rudder was horn balanced and the vertical stabilizer was offset three degrees to port to counteract the four-bladed Rotol propeller's torque. The wings now featured hydraulically operated dive brakes on both upper and lower surfaces. The aircraft's wings were now stressed to carry one bomb under each wing or a drop tank or eight RP-3 rockets. The frame that held the torpedo was connected to the undercarriage so that it pivoted nose-downward to increase ground clearance with the landing gear extended and pivoted upward to reduce drag while in flight. A fuel tank could be fitted on the centreline in lieu of the torpedo. The Mk IV first flew on 17 May 1945, and was the first version of the Firebrand to enter mass production, with 170 built, although 50 more aircraft were cancelled. The later Firebrand T.F. Mk 5 featured minor aerodynamic improvements and 123 were converted from Mk IVs. The final version was the Firebrand T.F. Mk 5A with hydraulically boosted ailerons to increase the aircraft's rate of roll. Two Mk 5s and five Mk IVs were converted to the Mk 5A standard.", "The Firebrand did not see action in World War II, as TF 4s were not issued to 813 Naval Air Squadron until 1 September 1945. The squadron was disbanded 30 September 1946 without deploying to sea. It was reformed with TF 5s on 1 May 1947 and flew them from the carrier, later, until it was re-equipped with turboprop Westland Wyvern attack aircraft in February 1953. 827 Naval Air Squadron received their TF 5 and 5As on 13 December 1950 and flew them primarily off the carrier until it disbanded on 19 November 1952. A variety of second-line squadrons were issued Firebrands of various marks for training or trials at one time or another. In test pilot and naval aviator Captain Eric Brown's opinion the aircraft was \"short of performance, sadly lacking in manoeuvrability, especially in rate of roll\". The position of the cockpit even with the trailing edge of the wing gave the pilot a very poor view over the nose, inhibited his ability to view his target and to land his aircraft aboard a carrier, sufficient for Brown to call it \"a disaster as a deck-landing aircraft\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "19th century.", "Late 20th century.", "21st century.", "Jump records (height, length, time).", "Speed records.", "Notable journeys.", "Bering Strait crossing.", "Transatlantic crossing.", "Environments.", "Market.", "Governance.", "Styles.", "Techniques.", "The wind.", "Wind strength and kite sizes.", "Wind direction and speed.", "Apparent wind.", "Wind power, control lines and kite paths.", "Wind window.", "Arbitrary atmosphere volume swept by the kite.", "Air temperature and humidity.", "Locations.", "Equipment.", "Power kites.", "Leading edge inflatables.", "Foil kites.", "Kite sizes.", "Physical practice.", "Safety.", "Weather.", "Aggravating factors.", "Safety equipment.", "Statistics.", "Kitesurfing safety rules.", "Market data." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the 1800s, George Pocock used kites of increased size to propel carts on land and ships on the water, using a four-line control system—the same system in common use today. Both carts and boats were able to turn and", "In the late 1970s, the development of Kevlar then Spectra flying lines and more controllable kites with improved efficiency contributed to practical kite traction. In 1978, Ian Day's \"FlexiFoil\" kite-powered Tornado catamaran exceeded 40 km/h. In October 1977 Gijsbertus Adrianus Panhuise (Netherlands) received the first patent for KiteSurfing. The patent covers, specifically, a water sport using a floating board of a surf board type where a pilot standing up on it is pulled by a wind catching device of a parachute type tied to his harness on a trapeze type belt. Although this patent did not result in any commercial interest, Gijsbertus Adrianus Panhuise could be considered", "In 2000, a new freestyle competition, sponsored by Red Bull was launched in Maui. The competition, named Red Bull King of the Air, judged riders on height, versatility, and style. The competition is still held annually in Cape Town, South Africa. From 2001 onwards, twin-tip bi-directional boards became more popular for most flat water riders, with directional boards still in use for surf conditions. In May 2012, the course racing style of kitesurfing was announced as a sport for the 2016 Rio", "Nick Jacobsen achieved the world record for the highest kite jump measured by WOO Sports on February 19, 2017 in Cape Town, South Africa, during a session with 40-knot winds. Jacobsen's jump reached 28.6 meters high, with an airtime of 8.5 seconds. The record was broken several times", "French kitesurfer became the first sailor to break the 50 knots barrier by reaching 50.26 knots on 3 October 2008 at the Lüderitz Speed Challenge in Namibia. On 4 October, (also of France) broke this record with a 50.57 knots run. Similar speeds are reached by windsurfers in the same location by Anders Bringdal and Antoine Albeau, respectively 50.46 and 50.59 knots. These speeds are verified, but are still subject to ratification by the World Sailing Speed Record Council. Earlier in the event, on 19 September, American", "Louis Tapper completed the longest recorded kite journey, completing 2000 km between Salvador and Sao Luis, Brazil. The journey was completed between July/August 2010 and took over 24 days of", "Constantin Bisanz, a 41-year-old Austrian, crossed a stretch of the Bering Strait embarking from Wales, Alaska, US on 12 August 2011 at 04:00, and arriving in eastern most Russia two hours later, after which he returned by boat to Alaska. It occurred", "A team of six kitesurfers, Filippo van Hellenberg Hubar, Eric Pequeno, Max Blom, Camilla Ringvold, Ike Frans, and Dennis Gijsbers crossed the Atlantic ocean, from the Canary islands to the", "On water, a kiteboard, similar to a wakeboard or a small surfboard, with or without footstraps or bindings, is used. Kitesurfing is a style of kiteboarding specific to wave riding, which uses", ", the number of kitesurfers was estimated by the ISAF and IKA at 1.5 million persons worldwide (pending review). The global market for kite gear sales was then worth US$250 million. The Global Kitesports Association (GKA) estimates 10% of the kitesurfers continue during winter. After substantial growth, activity was levelling by 2017 at around 85,000 kites sold yearly by GKA members, twintip boards sales decreased from", "International kiteboarding has several promoting organizations and has undergone many changes in the governance of the sport, including long lasting disputes between several of those entities, trying to negate each other the right to promote such sporting events. The significance of the associated economic activity could explain part of such turbulence, but the intense rate of innovation and of adoption made it difficult to conceive, regulate and formalize the new competitions, and offer opportunities for new players specializing in new variants of the sport. Some of those international organizations are (or where): Currently several", "Several different kitesurfing styles are evolving, some of which cross over.", "Kiteboarding can pose hazards to surfers, beachgoers, bystanders and others on the water. Many problems and dangers that may be", "", "Kitesurfers change kite size and/or line length depending on wind strength — stronger winds call for a smaller kite to prevent overpower situations. Kitesurfers will determine the wind strength using either an anemometer or, more typically, visual clues as shown in the Beaufort scale. Modern kites dedicated to kitesurfing provide", "Cross-shore and cross-onshore winds are the best for unassisted kiteboarding. Direct onshore winds carry the risk of being thrown onto land or stuck in shallows. Direct offshore winds pose the danger of being blown away from the shore in the event of equipment failure or loss of control. However offshore winds can be quite suitable in confined waters, like in a lake or estuary, or", "Even if there is no wind blowing, a kiter can act on the kite lines and force it to move, and then, like with a row, it generates some force resulting from the incidence of the air into the kite's surface. In a gentle breeze, if the user action increases the air speed around the kite 10 times, the generated force increases 100 times, since the wind force acting on a kite is proportional to the square of the wind speed acting on it. Thus the relevant notion of \"apparent\" wind, which is the actual wind acting on the moving kite, sail or wing. The apparent wind is measured taking the moving kite as the reference", "In some way all wind sports harvest the energy of the wind. The greater the volume of the atmosphere available to be harvested by the sails, the bigger the available energy to propel the users. As a taller sailing ship harvests more energy from the wind, so does a kiteboarder with longer lines. Compared to a kiteboarder, a windsurfer can extract a higher ratio of wind energy from the available atmosphere volume, but since such volume is much smaller, the resulting energy could be much less than in kiteboarding. To increase the power, the kiteboarder typically navigates the kite along an S-shape path, increasing the harvesting of energy since it is traversing most of the atmosphere volume around him. This S-shaped movement", "The \"wind window\" is the 180 degree arc of the sky downwind of the rider in which the kite can be flown - roughly one fourth of a sphere's surface, which radius is the length of the lines. It is the atmosphere volume in which the kiter can navigate the kite to harvest wind energy. If the rider is facing downwind on a surface, like the ocean, the wind window covers roughly all the area the rider can see, from the rider's peripheral vision on one side, along the horizon to the other side, and then directly overhead back to the first side. If the rider somehow puts the kite out of the window — for example, by riding downwind too quickly and sending the kite directly overhead and behind, the kite will stall and often fall out of the sky. The eventual inefficiency of the kite can obviate for it to reach the edge of the wind window. In such cases the magnitude of the wind window can be reduced to as little as a 120", "The kite is a peculiar sail because it can be swept arbitrarily through the atmosphere, usually in specific patterns, so the user can harvest a significant amount of wind energy, much larger than with an equivalent sail fixed to a mast. The kite and the lines are light, in the range between 2 and 4 kg, but the aerodynamic drag can be significant since the kite can travel much faster than a windsurf sail. Therefore, part of the energy harvested is", "Seasoned kiteboarders frequently attribute to moist and hotter air a notable reduction in kite performance. In fact the lift force of a kite is proportional to the air density. Since both the temperature and the relative humidity are important detrimental factors in", "Any location with consistent, steady side-onshore winds (10 to 35+ knots), large open bodies of water and good launch areas is suitable for kitesurfing. Most kitesurfing takes place", "With the development of Internet markets for used goods, used but reliable kiteboarding equipment has become much less expensive, significantly reducing the barrier to the adoption of the sport. Moreover, the sport is convenient regarding transportation and storage, since the kites are foldable and the boards are smaller than most surf and paddling boards. Equipment depreciation can cost between £270 per year for second hand gear, to £1360 per year for brand new, not discounted kites and accessories. In 2017, 150,000 kites were sold globally, compared to 400,000 surfboards sold each year.", "A power kite is available in two major forms: leading edge inflatables and foil kites.", "Leading edge inflatable kites, known also as inflatables, LEI kites, are typically made from ripstop polyester with an inflatable plastic bladder that spans the front edge of the kite with separate smaller bladders that are perpendicular to the main bladder to form the chord or foil of the kite. The inflated bladders give the kite its shape and also keep the kite floating once dropped in the water. LEIs are the most popular choice among kitesurfers thanks to their quicker and more", "Foil kites are also mostly fabric (ripstop nylon) with air pockets (air cells) to provide it with lift and a fixed bridle to maintain the kite's arc-shape,", "Kites come in sizes ranging from 0.7 square meters to 21 square meters, or even larger. In general, the larger the surface area, the more power the kite has. Kite power is also directly linked to speed, and smaller kites can be flown faster in stronger winds. The kite size—wind speed curve tapers off, so going to a larger kite to reach lower wind ranges becomes futile at a wind speed of around eight knots. Kites come in a variety of designs. Some kites are more rectangular in shape; others", "Kiteboarding is seen as a mid to high intensity exercise, but freeriding can be a low intensity practice like walking, and is usually done in long", "Power kites are powerful enough to pull the rider like a boat in wakeboarding and to lift their users to diving heights. An uncontrolled kite can be dangerous, especially in environments with contudent obstacles. A rider can lose control from falling or from sudden wind gusts, which can occur in the presence of strong winds from squalls or storms (\"collard\"). It is possible to be seriously injured after being lofted, dragged, carried off, blown downwind or dashed, resulting in a collision with hard objects including sand, buildings, terrain or power lines or even by hitting the water surface with sufficient speed or height (\"kitemare\", a portmanteau of kite and nightmare). Adequate quality professional kiteboarding training, careful development of experience and consistent use of good judgement and safety gear should result in fewer problems in kiteboarding.", "Weather forecasting and awareness is the principal factor to safe kiteboarding. Lack of weather awareness and understanding the figures is frequent, but avoiding weather problems is possible. Choice of inappropriate locations for kiteboarding where the wind", "Lack of a sufficient downwind buffer distance between the kiter and hard objects has contributed to accidents reducing the available distance and time for reaction. Jumping and being airborne at inappropriate places such as shallow water or near fixed or floating objects can be hazardous. Collisions with wind surfers, other kite boarders or water craft are hazards, particularly at busy locations. Solo kiteboarding", "Some kite designs from late 2005 and onwards have included immediate and almost full depower integrated with the control bar and improved quick release mechanisms, both of which are making the sport much safer. However, lack of sufficient practice of emergency depowering the kite and going out in excessively strong or unstable weather can reduce the benefit of high depower kites.Another important part of the safety equipment is the impact vest, which doubles as", "Accidents can generate serious injuries or even be deadly. 105 accidents were reported in the Kiteboarding Safety Information Database between 2000 and September 2003, with 14 fatalities. In South Africa between October 2003 and April 2004, 83% of search & rescue missions involving kitesurf were in offshore winds with the kite still attached to the harness, uncontrolled in strong winds or impossible to relaunch in weak winds. On 30 missions, there was no fatalities but five injuries :", "While some countries have specific regulations on flying kites that may also apply to kitesurfing, most don't. However a kitesurfer should comply to the sailing rules regulating water crafts in many countries, like the U.S. Coast Guard regulations. Developed from such generic rules a set of kitesurf specific rules or recommendations has been taking form since the beginning of the sport. The first such rule is the prudential rule: with so many people just discovering water sports, a kiter shouldn't assume others adequate knowledge, training or even proper attitude, and be prepared to observe self-preserving distances and always let the others perceive clearly its intentions and its intended path. Waterstarters have priority: the rider going out from the beach has always priority over the riders coming in. Kite High Rule - A kiter who is upwind (closest to the wind) must keep their kite high to avoid their lines crossing those of downwind kiters. Similarly, the downwind kiter must keep their kite low to avoid their lines crossing upwind kites. This applies regardless of whether kiters are on the same, or opposing courses. Clearance Rule - A kiter while jumping must have a clear safety", ", the number of kitesurfers was estimated by the ISAF and IKA at 1.5 million persons worldwide (pending review). The global market for kite gear sales is worth US$250 million. The markets related to kiteboarding keep developing at a very interesting pace, as seen in these statistics from 2012: Evolution of kite sales, worldwide: Keep in mind that a kiteboarding quiver for a single user could typically include 2-4 kites and 2-3 boards. With the innovation associated with foil boards and foil kites these numbers will increase. With the exception of foil kites, these equipment pieces are quite rugged and would last from 3 up to 10 years of active use, and be repaired and resold several times. This aftermarket further improves the market development, removing cost barriers for newbies which improves the popularity of the sport, and eventually could bring up new products and services based on a much larger market scale. In locations like Portugal in 2018, a newcomer to kiteboarding typically buys a proper hands-on tutorial and then buys a basic set of used equipment for an overall total below €1000. The sport is utterly convenient regarding transportation and storage, since the kites are foldable and the boards are smaller than surf and paddling boards. Compared to other sailing sports, kiteboarding is among the less expensive and more convenient. Moreover, nearby most metropolitan areas, it can be practised almost all year long, since it just requires some wind and a reasonably flat surface, like an estuary, a lake, a sandy strip, or a snow flat. Despite the image of a youth radical sport, many newcomers are middle age, older than the typical wakeboard or snowboard practitioners. Such trends are quite conspicuous, not so much in the trendy summer holiday locations, but in the low season in metropolitan areas around the globe, where kiteboarding is becoming a regular practice for people of middle income, living in apartments not so close to the waterfront, for a short evasion and substituting for the gym." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Growing up in Leicester.", "Move to London.", "Formation of Deep Purple.", "Deep Purple.", "1968–1970.", "1970–1976.", "As a composer.", "Whitesnake, 1978–1984.", "Later work, 1984–2006.", "Final work, after 2006.", "Personal life.", "Influence and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Lord was born in Leicester on 9 June 1941 to Miriam (1909–1995; née Hudson) and Reginald Lord, growing up at 120 Averil Road and retaining a strong bond with the city throughout his life. His father was an amateur saxophonist and encouraged Lord from an early age. He studied classical piano from the age of five, with a local teacher, Frederick Allt, and this focus on a classical grounding to his material was a recurring trademark in his work, both in composition, arranging and his instrumental solos on piano, organ and electronic keyboards. In particular his influences ranged from Johann Sebastian Bach (a constant reference in his music and in his keyboard improvisation) to Medieval popular music and the English tradition of Edward Elgar. He attended Wyggeston Grammar School", "Lord moved to London in 1959–60, intent on an acting career and enrolling at the Central School of Speech and Drama, in London's Swiss Cottage. Following a celebrated student rebellion he became a founder of Drama Centre London, from where he graduated in 1964. Small acting parts followed, including in the British TV series, Emergency - Ward 10 and Lord continued playing the piano and the organ in nightclubs and as a session musician to earn a living. He started his band career in London in", "In early 1967, through his roommate Chris Curtis of the Searchers, Lord met businessman Tony Edwards who was looking to invest in the music business alongside partners Ron Hire and John Coletta (HEC Enterprises). Session guitarist Ritchie Blackmore was called in and he met Lord for the first time, but Chris Curtis's erratic behaviour led the trio nowhere. Edwards was impressed enough by Jon Lord to ask him to form a band after Curtis faded out. Simper was contacted, and Blackmore was recalled", "", "It was in these three years that Lord's trademark keyboard sound emerged. Ignoring the emergence of the Moog synthesizer, as pioneered in rock by such players as Keith Emerson, Lord began experimenting with a keyboard sound produced by driving the Hammond organ through Marshall speakers in an effort to match the attack and volume of Blackmore's guitar. Lord's version was heavier than a blues sound, and it often featured distortion and a far harder, industrial type sound that became the trademark Jon Lord organ sound, admired by fans and peers alike but rarely replicated. Both Emerson and Rick Wakeman publicly expressed admiration for Lord's mould-breaking work on the organ. This", "Purple began work on \"Deep Purple in Rock,\" released by their new label Harvest in 1970 and now recognised as one of hard rock's key early works. Lord and Blackmore competed to out-dazzle each other, often in classical-style, midsection 'call and answer' improvisation (on tracks like \"Speed King\"), something they employed to great effect live. Ian Gillan said that Lord provided the idea on the main organ riff for \"Child in Time\" although the riff was also based on It's a Beautiful Day's 1969 psychedelic hit song \"Bombay Calling\". Lord's experimental solo on \"Hard Lovin' Man\" (complete with police-siren interpolation) from this album was his personal favourite among his Deep Purple studio performances. Deep Purple released another six studio albums between 1971 (\"Fireball\") and 1975 (\"Come Taste the Band\"). Gillan and Glover left in 1973 and Blackmore in 1975, and the band disintegrated in 1976. The highlights", "Lord continued to focus on his classical aspirations alongside his Deep Purple career. The BBC, buoyed by the success of the Concerto, commissioned him to write another piece and the resulting \"Gemini Suite\" was performed by Deep Purple and the Light Music Society under Malcolm Arnold at the Royal Festival Hall in September 1970, and then in Munich with the Kammerorchester conducted by Eberhard Schoener in January 1972. It then became the basis for Lord's first solo album, \"Gemini Suite\", released in November 1972, with vocals by Yvonne Elliman and Tony Ashton and with the London Symphony Orchestra backing a band that included Albert Lee on guitar. Lord's collaboration with the highly experimental and supportive Schoener resulted in a second live performance of the Suite in late 1973 and a new Lord album with Schoener, entitled \"Windows\", in 1974. It proved to be Lord's most experimental work and was released to mixed reactions. However, the dalliances with Bach on \"Windows\" and the pleasure of collaborating with Schoener resulted in perhaps Lord's most confident solo work and perhaps his strongest orchestral album, \"Sarabande\", recorded in Germany in September 1975 with the Philharmonia Hungarica conducted by Schoener. Composed of eight pieces (from the", "Lord's job in Whitesnake was largely limited to adding colour (or, in his own words, a 'halo') to round out a blues-rock sound that already accommodated two lead guitarists, Bernie Marsden and Micky Moody. He added a Yamaha CP-70 electric piano to his set-up and finally a huge bank of synthesizers onstage courtesy of Moog (Minimoog, Opus, Polymoog) so he could play the 12-bar blues the band often required and recreate string section and other effects. Such varied work is evident on tracks like \"Here I Go Again\", \"Wine, Women and Song\", \"She's a Woman\" and \"Till the Day I Die\". A number of singles entered the UK chart, taking the now 40-something Lord onto \"Top of the Pops\" with regularity between 1980 and 1983. He later expressed frustration that he was a poorly paid hired-hand, but fans saw little of this discord and Whitesnake's commercial success kept him at the forefront of readers' polls as heavy rock's foremost keyboard maestro. His dissatisfaction (and Coverdale's eagerness to revamp the band's line-up and lower the average age to help crack the US market) smoothed the way for the reformation of Deep Purple Mk II in 1984. Jon Lord's last Whitesnake concert took place in the Swedish TV programme \"Måndagsbörsen\" on 16 April 1984. During his tenure in Whitesnake, Lord had the opportunity to record two distinctly different solo albums. 1982s \"Before I Forget\" featured a largely conventional eight-song line-up, no orchestra and with the bulk of the", "Lord's re-emergence with Deep Purple in 1984 resulted in huge audiences for the reformed Mk II line-up, including 1985’s second largest grossing tour in the US and an appearance in front of 80,000 rain-soaked fans headlining Knebworth on 22 June 1985, all to support the \"Perfect Strangers\" album. Playing with a rejuvenated Mk. II Purple line-up (including spells at a health farm to get the band including Lord into shape) and being onstage and in the studio with Blackmore, gave Lord the chance to push himself once again. His 'rubato' classical opening sequence to the album's opener, \"Knocking at Your Back Door\" (complete with F-Minor to G polychordal harmony sequence), gave Lord the chance to do his most powerful work for years, including the song \"Perfect Strangers\". Further Deep Purple albums followed, often of varying quality, and by the late-1990s, Lord was clearly keen to explore new avenues for his musical career. In 1997, he created perhaps his most personal work to date, \"Pictured Within\", released in 1998 with a European tour to support it. Lord's mother Miriam had died in August 1995 and the album is inflected at all stages by Lord's sense of grief. Recorded largely in Lord's home-away-from-home,", "Two Lord compositions, \"Boom of the Tingling Strings\" and \"Disguises (Suite for String Orchestra)\", were recorded in Denmark in 2006 and released in April 2008 on EMI Classics. Both featured the Odense Symfoniorkester, conducted by Paul Mann. Additionally, a second Hoochie Coochie Men album was recorded in July 2006 in London. This album, \"Danger – White Men Dancing\", was released in October 2007. His \"Durham Concerto\", commissioned by Durham University for its 175th anniversary celebrations, received its world premiere on 20 October 2007 in Durham Cathedral by the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra, and featured soloists Lord on Hammond Organ, Kathryn Tickell on Northumbrian pipes, Matthew Barley on cello and Ruth Palmer on violin. It became a hit in Classic FM's \"Hall of Fame\", alongside his piano concerto \"Boom of the Tingling Strings\". Lord played piano on George Harrison's posthumously released \"Brainwashed\" album (2002) and became an important member of Harrison's social circle in Oxfordshire (Lord by now living at Hill House, in Fawley, Henley-On-Thames), the two having first met at Abbey Road studios in the late 1960s. He was also a close friend of Sir John Mortimer, the English barrister, dramatist, screenwriter, author and creator of British television series \"Rumpole of the Bailey\", whom he had accompanied on many occasions during Mortimer's performances of \"Mortimer Miscellany.\" In 2007, Lord joined Derek Griffiths, Colin Martin and Malcolm Pool at an Artwoods reunion at the ART Tribute night, at York House in Twickenham. Ali Mackenzie took over Art Wood's role on vocals, and Chris Hunt", "Lord's first marriage, from 1969 to 1981, was to Judith Feldman, with whom he had one daughter, Sara. Lord's second wife, Vickie Gibbs was a former girlfriend of Purple bandmate Glenn Hughes and twin sister of Ian Paice's wife, Jacky Paice (founder of the charity Sunflower Jam). The sisters' father", "Lars Ulrich, founding member and drummer in Metallica commented, \"Ever since my father took me to see them in 1973 in Copenhagen, at the impressionable age of 9, Deep Purple has been the most constant, continuous and inspiring musical presence in my life. They have meant more to me than any other band in existence, and have had an enormous part in shaping who I am. We can all be guilty of lightly throwing adjectives like 'unique,' 'one-of-a-kind' and 'pioneering' around when we want to describe our heroes and the people who've moved us, but there are no more fitting words than those right now and there simply was no musician like Jon Lord in the history of hard rock. Nobody. Period. There was nobody that played like him. There was nobody that sounded like him. There was nobody that wrote like him. There was nobody that looked like him. There was nobody more articulate, gentlemanly, warm, or fucking cooler that ever played keyboards or got anywhere near a keyboard. What he did was all his own.\" Interviewed in 2012 for Blabbermouth.net, Motörhead frontman Lemmy said: \"It's just a shame, because Jon Lord was, to a large extent, responsible for me being in rock and roll. He was in a band called the Artwoods years ago, with Ronnie Wood’s brother Arthur. They were sort of a jazz-blues band, I guess. They played at the place in Wales where I was living, this dingy little boozer, and I was talking to Jon and, like an idiot, he gave me his address in London. So, of course, I went down there and he wasn't there, but he was living at Art’s mother's house where Ronnie Wood who was in a band called The Birds was living and they let me crash on the couch... I saw him late last year in a hotel in Germany in Cologne. He was over there doing some orchestral stuff, and we talked in the bar for awhile... I'm glad I saw him, since he's since departed.\" Former keyboard player of rock band Yes, Rick Wakeman, who was a friend of Lord's, said he was \"a great fan\" and added \"We were going to write and record an album before he became ill. His contribution to music and to classic rock was immeasurable and I will miss him terribly.\" In mid-2013, Wakeman presented a BBC One East Midlands-produced TV programme about Lord and his connection to the town of his birth. Singer Anni-Frid Lyngstad (ABBA), who described Jon Lord as her \"dearest friend\", paid him tribute at the 2013 edition of Zermatt Unplugged, the annual music festival which both he and she served as patrons. \"He was graceful, intelligent, polite, with a strong integrity,\" she said. \"(He) had a strong empathy and a great deal of humour for his own and other people's weaknesses.\" Keyboardist Keith Emerson said of Lord's death, \"Jon left us now but his music and inspiration will live forever. I am deeply saddened by his departure.\" In a later interview in November 2013, he added, \"In the early years I remember being quite jealous of Jon Lord – may he rest in peace. In September 1969 I heard he was debuting his \"Concerto For Group & Orchestra\" at the Royal Albert Hall, with none other than Malcolm Arnold conducting. Wow! I had to go along and see that. Jon and I ribbed each other, we were pretty much pals, but I walked away and thought: 'Shit, in a couple of weeks' time I'm going to be recording The Nice's \"Five Bridges Suite\"... not at the Albert Hall but at the Fairfield Halls, Croydon!' A much more prosaic venue. Later, Jon wanted me to play on his solo album, \"Gemini Suite\", but that was around the time ELP were breaking big and we were touring. He was a lovely guy, a real gentleman.\" A concert tribute to Lord took place on 4 April 2014 at the Royal Albert Hall. Performers and presenters included Deep Purple, Bruce Dickinson, Alfie Boe, Jeremy Irons, Joe Brown, Glenn Hughes, Miller Anderson and Steve Balsamo. In December 2012 the Mayor of Leicester, Sir Peter Soulsby, joined the campaign to honour Lord with a blue plaque at his childhood home at 120 Averill Road, where he lived until he was twenty, saying it would be \"an important reminder of the city's contribution to the world of contemporary music.\" Lord was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Deep Purple in April 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Rise to fame.", "Height of popularity.", "Decline and Norman's departure.", "Comeback.", "1990s–present." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The band was formed as \"The Yen\" after a chance meeting between Ron Kelly and Alan Silson in Moore's Music Shop, North Parade, Bradford, in October 1963. Two days after that meeting they were joined by Chris Norman for rehearsals, but without finding a suitable bass player, just practiced together for a year. The addition of Terry Uttley on bass guitar at the beginning of 1965 completed the line-up and The Yen's first gig was at Birkenshaw School in February 1965. It was composed of Chris Norman (lead vocals/rhythm guitar), Terry Uttley (bass/vocals), Alan Silson (lead guitar/vocals), and Ron Kelly (drums). They were renamed \"The Sphynx\", and later \"Essence\". As Essence, they toured small clubs in Bradford and the surrounding communities before they split in 1966. The Black Cats were already a working band when Ron Kelly joined them at Dewsbury College in September 1966. The Black Cats at this time were Peter Eastwood on guitar/vocals and Arthur Higgins on bass. Kelly replaced the drummer they had at the time. Alan Silson and Pete Eastwood joined the band, but the latter soon left and was replaced by Chris Norman. In November 1967 the band changed their name to \"The Four Corners\". In April 1968, the group found a manager in Mark Jordan, who advised them to rename themselves \"The Elizabethans\". The group now became fully professional, and the members garnered higher salaries. In June 1968, Terry Uttley joined the group as a replacement for Arthur Higgins, who had left the band in order to carry on his education. On 9 December 1968 the group had their first TV appearance on Yorkshire Television's news and magazine show \"Calendar\". In August 1969, the four performed two songs for the BBC show \"High Jinx\". Enthused with this successful performance, Jordan had them record their first demo tape. In January 1970, RCA Records showed an interest in the band and suggested a name change to \"Kindness\". The double A-side \"Light of Love\"/\"Lindy Lou\" was released on 3 April 1970. An arrangement was made with Ronnie Storm (no connection to Rory Storm) to back him on the single release \"My Desire\", and it was released under the pseudonym \"Fuzzy and The Barnets\" due to contractual difficulties encountered by Storm. At the same time Steve Rowland, of Family Dogg, heard the band playing live on Radio One Club and offered to sign them to his production company. He arranged for Albert Hammond, who was also in Family Dogg, to write a number for the band, entitled \"It Never Rains in Southern California\". However, before it could be released, Hammond decided to record it himself, for which Kelly was recruited by Steve Rowland to play drums. Hammond wrote other songs for the band, and a single \"You Ring a Bell\"/\"Have You Met Angela\" was recorded, but due to various problems in Rowland's organisation, it was not released. In late 1971 the band's management was taken over by Dave Eager, the BBC Radio One DJ, at the same time that Norman suffered a serious infection that affected his vocal cords. After his recovery, his voice sounded much rougher, which the other group members considered an interesting addition to their sound. Eager introduced them to Decca, which resulted in recordings in February 1972, their first single being \"Oh Julie\"/\"I Love You Carolina\". Shortly thereafter, their next single was released. \"Let the Good Times Roll\" was liked by the media and was selected as the opening theme for Emperor Rosko's BBC Radio One Saturday show, but this popularity did not translate into record sales. The last Decca single was \"Make it Better\"/\"Lonely Long Lady\", which flopped, and their Decca contract was cancelled.", "During the band's Decca contract, Eager used his contacts with the Manchester-based agency Kennedy Street Enterprises, to gain the band an audition to be Peter Noone's backing band. The band were asked to become his permanent band after their audition at Noone's House in Denham, Buckinghamshire, and soon they embarked on a nationwide tour with him. Noone did not bring the boys any luck, but during the tour Bill Hurley offered to manage them. Hurley convinced Eager to release the boys from the contract with him. Ron Kelly left Kindness on 8 August 1973 and the band recruited an old school friend, Pete Spencer (drums/vocals), who had played in various groups, to drum for them. This line-up performed on a sightseeing boat in Frankfurt, Germany. Hurley introduced the band to composers Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman, who also wrote songs for glam rock contemporaries Sweet, Mud, and Suzi Quatro. At first \"Chinnichap\" turned them down, but Hurley's tenacity eventually convinced the composers/producers to give the young group a chance. Hurley and Chinnichap started working with the band, and suggested yet another name change, to \"Smokey\". An attempt to dress the band up in leather clothes (similar to Suzi Quatro) was dropped, and the four won acceptance for their jeans outfit. They purchased new instruments and in late 1974 began recording their debut album \"Pass It Around\" which was released 14 February 1975. The album spawned the title track as a single but failed to gain significant attention. In April Smokey opened for Pilot on tour.", "On 22 September 1975, Smokey released their second album, \"Changing All the Time\". The first single from the new album, \"If You Think You Know How to Love Me\", became a hit in many European countries, peaking at No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart. They followed it with \"Don't Play Your Rock 'n' Roll to Me\". Around this time, Smokey Robinson threatened to file a lawsuit, alleging that the band's name would confuse the audience. In order to avoid legal action, the group changed the spelling to \"Smokie\". They began their first tour as headline act, after the release of their second album. The third LP was partly produced in the US, where Nicky Chinn had relocated. Called \"Midnight Café\", it built on the popularity of \"Changing All the Time\". The subsequent years yielded a string of successful singles: \"Something's Been Making Me Blue\", \"Wild Wild Angels\", and \"I'll Meet You At Midnight\". Their cover of Australian band New World's single, \"Living Next Door to Alice\", released in November 1976, reached No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart, followed by another hit \"Lay Back in the Arms of Someone\". Smokie now found themselves European superstars, with sold-out tours and million-selling albums. The next two albums, 1977's \"Bright Lights & Back Alleys\" and \"The Montreux Album\" (1978), cemented their status and were both chart successes. From \"Bright Lights & Back Alleys\" came two hit singles, the reggae influenced \"It's Your Life\" and a cover of \"Needles and Pins\". At the peak of Smokie's success in 1978, Chris Norman teamed up with Suzi Quatro and released a duet single, \"Stumblin' In\" — another Chinnichap composition. Norman and Quatro were on top of the European charts for some time, and it reached the US Top 10, though only No. 41 in the UK. Smokie's subsequent 45 was \"Mexican Girl\". Composed by Norman and Spencer, the record saw the group actively distance itself from Chinnichap. Chris Norman and Pete Spencer wrote and produced the British football star Kevin Keegan's first single, \"Head Over Heels in Love\", a No. 31 UK hit. In 1979, the album \"The Other Side of the Road\" was released, entirely recorded in Australia. It spawned two more singles for the band, \"Do to Me\" and \"Babe It's Up to You\", but it became clear that their sales were declining. Smokie took a hiatus before \"Solid Ground\" was released in 1981. The advance single was a cover of Del Shannon's 1963 hit, \"Little Town Flirt\" — but it failed to reach the UK Singles Chart.", "In early 1982, the last album for EMI/BMG was released, \"Strangers in Paradise\". The departure from Chinnichap became notable, and the four members of Smokie appeared unable to recreate their success using their own material. Shortly after the release of \"Strangers In Paradise\", work began on two parallel albums, one released by Smokie as \"Midnight Delight\", and the other Chris Norman's solo debut, \"Rock Away Your Teardrops\". Neither release sold well. In 1983, band members Alan Silson, Chris Norman and Terry Uttley collaborated with Agnetha Fältskog, singing together on the track \"Once Burned Twice Shy\" from her first English language solo album entitled \"Wrap Your Arms Around Me\". The band say it was on the flight to record this song in Sweden that they decided to part ways. Chris Norman began his solo career and Terry Uttley went on to play bass for several other groups including Peter Goalby and John Coughlan (ex Status Quo drummer). The band said \"It just seemed like the right thing to do at the time.\" Though Smokie had begun work on a comeback, in 1986, Norman, by that stage enthused with the relative success of his second solo album, \"Some Hearts Are Diamonds\", announced that he was to leave the band. He was replaced by Alan Barton, formerly of Black Lace, a friend of the band's, who had a vocal style similar to Norman's. Smokie also recruited keyboard player Martin Bullard. Spencer quit and was replaced on drums by Steve Pinnell. The new line-up released \"All Fired Up\" in 1988, which brought some attention and contained a new version of \"Rock Away Your Tear Drops\", the song that had been the title track to Norman's debut album.", "Several releases followed over the next years including \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" (1989, seven weeks at No. 1 in Norway; all tracks were produced by Simon Humphrey, except \"Young Love\", which was produced by Dieter Bohlen); \"Whose Are These Boots?\" (1990, No. 1 in Norway); \"Chasing Shadows\" (1992); and \"Celebration\" (1994), which contained old hits in new arrangements accompanied by an orchestra. None had any real success in the UK. However, Smokie made a surprise return to the UK Singles Chart in 1995, with a duet with the controversial northern comedian Roy Chubby Brown. The re-worked re-release of \"Living Next Door To Alice (Who the F**k is Alice)\" reached No. 3 in the UK. The band had noticed that, whilst touring in Ireland, whenever they sang the main line \"For 24 years/I've been living next door to Alice\" the audience would shout \"Alice? Who the fuck is Alice?\" In addition, a resident DJ in a Dutch café, Gompie, organised a recording, and had a No. 17 UK hit with the title of \"Alice (Who the X is Alice) (Living Next Door to Alice)\" in the United Kingdom, and in the Netherlands where it reached No. 1. Shortly after the song was recorded Smokie's tour bus careered off of the road during a hailstorm in Germany. Barton, badly injured, died after five days in intensive care. The rest of the band and Brown agreed to donate their royalties from the song to Barton's first wife.", "The remaining members decided to continue with the band and went about finding their third lead singer. Friend of the band Mike Craft was chosen. The band released \"The World and Elsewhere\" later that year, followed by \"Light a Candle — The Christmas Album\". In 1996, Alan Silson terminated his membership, saying he intended to pursue a solo career and to work with other acts as well, joining Mickey Finn's T. Rex, and that he also no longer wanted to be on the road all the time. Mick McConnell, one of the band's road crew and their guitar technician replaced him as the group's new lead guitarist, this formation recording the next album, \"Wild Horses – The Nashville Album\" (1998), in Nashville, Tennessee. In February 2001, Smokie released two albums, \"Uncovered\" and \"Uncovered Too\", which consist entirely of cover versions, with no original songs. In 2004, Smokie recorded a studio album, \"On the Wire\", with eleven of the 14 songs written by the band themselves. In 2006, the band released the album \"From the Heart\". Although mainly a compilation, it did contain three new tracks. In 2010, Smokie gained new chart success with a CD of brand new material, \"Take a Minute\". Released in Denmark in August of that year, it peaked at number three on the Danish Albums Chart. Releases in the remainder of Scandinavia and Germany took place during October, with the single \"Sally's Song (The Legacy Goes On)\" — a continuation of the story of the other character in \"Living Next Door to Alice\" — also released." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Death.", "Films." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant farming family in Hämeenkyrö. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in Tampere. At school Sillanpää was a good student and with aid from his benefactor Henrik Liljeroos he entered the University of Helsinki in 1908 to study medicine. Here his acquaintances included the painters Eero Järnefelt and Pekka Halonen, composer Jean Sibelius and author Juhani Aho.", "Five years later, in 1913 Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing. In 1914 Sillanpää wrote articles for the newspaper \"Uusi Suometar\". In 1916 Sillanpää married Sigrid Maria Salomäki, whom he had met in 1914. By principle, Sillanpää was against all forms of violence and believed in scientific optimism. In his work he portrayed rural people as living united with the land. The novel \"Hurskas kurjuus\" (Meek Heritage) (1919) depicted the reasons for Finnish Civil War, and despite its objectivity, was controversial at the time. Sillanpää won international fame for his novel \"Nuorena nukkunut\" (translated to English as \"The Maid Silja\") in 1931. In 1939, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature \"for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature.\" A few days after he received the prize, talks between Finland and Soviet Union broke down and the Winter War began. Sillanpää donated the golden medal to be melted for funds to aid the war effort. Before the Winter War, Sillanpää wrote the lyrics for what is known as \"Sillanpään marssilaulu\" to lift his spirits when his eldest son Esko was partaking in military practices at Karelian Isthmus. In 1939 his wife Sigrid died of pneumonia leaving eight children with Sillanpää. Some time after, Sillanpää married his secretary Anna von Hertzen (1900-1983) and traveled to Stockholm to receive the Nobel prize. In 1941 Sillanpää divorced his wife Anna. His alcoholism and other ailments needed hospital treatment. In 1943 he returned to public life as a bearded old 'Grandpa Sillanpää'. His radio appearances, especially his tradition of talking on Christmas Eve from 1945 to 1963 became very popular. The asteroid 1446 Sillanpää, discovered on January 26, 1938 by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist Yrjö Väisälä, was named after him.", "Sillanpää died on 3 June 1964 in Helsinki aged 75.", "Numerous of his works have been made into films:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Personal life.", "Contributions.", "Black reaction or Golgi's staining.", "Nervous system.", "Kidney.", "Malaria.", "Cell organelle.", "Awards and legacy.", "Monuments in Pavia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Camillo Golgi was born in July 1843 in the village of Corteno, in the province of Brescia (Lombardy), Italy. The village is now named Corteno Golgi in his honour. His father Alessandro Golgi was a physician and district medical officer, originally from Pavia. In 1860, he entered the University of Pavia to study medicine, and earned his medical degree in 1865. He did an internship at the San Matteo Hospital (now IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo Foundation). During his internship he briefly worked as a civil physician in the Italian Army, and as assistant surgeon at the Novara Hospital (now Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Maggiore della Carità di Novara). At the same time he was also involved in the medical team for investigating cholera epidemic in villages around Pavia. In 1867, he resumed his academic study under the supervision of Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso was a renowned scientist in medical psychology such as genius, madness and criminality. Inspired by Lombroso, Golgi wrote a thesis on the etiology of mental disorders, from which he obtained his M.D. in 1868. He became more interested in experimental medicine, and started attending the Institute of General Pathology headed by Giulio Bizzozero. Three years his junior, Bizzozero was an eloquent teacher and experimenter, who specialised in histology of the nervous system and the properties of bone marrow. The most important research publications of Golgi were directly or indirectly influenced by Bizzozero. The two became so close that they lived in the same building; and Golgi later married Bizzozero's niece, Lina Aletti. By 1872, Golgi was an established clinician and histopathologist. He, however, had no opportunity as a tenured professor in Pavia to pursue teaching and research in neurology. Financial pressure prompted him to join the Hospital of the Chronically Ill (Pio Luogo degli Incurabili) in Abbiategrasso, near Milan, as Chief Medical Officer in 1872. To continue research, he set up a simple laboratory on his own in a refurbished hospital kitchen, and it was there that he started making his most notable discoveries. His major achievement was the development of staining technique for nerve tissue called the black reaction (later the Golgi's method). He published his major works between 1875 and 1885 in the journal \"Rivista sperimentale di Freniatria e di medicina legale\". In 1875, he joined the faculty of histology at the University of Pavia. In 1879, he was appointed Chair of Anatomy at the University of Siena. But the next year, he returned to the University of Pavia as full Professor of histology. From 1879 he also became Professor of General Pathology as well as Honorary Chief (\"Primario ad honorarem\") at the San Matteo Hospital. He served as Rector of the University of Pavia twice, first between 1893 and 1896, and second between 1901 and 1909. During the First World War (1914-1917), he directed the military hospital Collegio Borrmeo at Pavia. He retired in 1918 and continued to research in his private laboratory till 1923. He died on 21 January 1926.", "Golgi and his wife Lina Aletti had no children, and they adopted Golgi's niece Carolina. Golgi was irreligious in his later life and became an agnostic atheist. One of his former students attempted an unsuccessful deathbed conversion on him.", "", "Central nervous system was difficult to study during Golgi's time because the cells were hard to identify. The available tissue staining techniques were useless for studying nervous tissue. While working as chief medical officer at the Hospital of the Chronically Ill, he experimented with metal impregnation of nervous tissue, using mainly silver (silver staining). In early 1873, he discovered a method of staining nervous tissue that would stain a limited number of cells at random in their entirety. He first treated the tissue with potassium dichromate to harden it, and then with silver nitrate. Under the microscope, the outline of the neuron became distinct from the surrounding tissue and cells. The silver chromate precipitate, as a reaction product, selectively stains only some cellular components randomly, sparing other cell parts. The silver chromate particles create a stark black deposit on the soma (nerve cell body) as well as on the axon and all dendrites, providing an exceedingly clear and well-contrasted picture of neuron against a yellow background. This makes it easier to trace the structure of the nerve cells in the brain for the first time. Since cells are selective stained in black, he called the process \"la reazione nera\" (\"the black reaction\"), but today it is called Golgi's method or the Golgi stain. On 16 February 1873, he wrote to his friend Niccolò Manfredi: His discovery was published in the \"Gazzeta Medica Italiani\" on 2 August 1873.", "In 1871, a German anatomist Joseph von Gerlach postulated that the brain is a complex \"protoplasmic network\", in the form of a continuous network called the reticulum. Using his black reaction, Golgi could trace various regions of the cerebro-spinal axis, clearly distinguishing the different nervous projections, namely axon from the dendrites. He drew up a new classification of cells on the basis of the structure of their nervous prolongation. He described an extremely dense and intricate network, composed of a web of intertwined branches of axons coming from different cell layers (\"diffuse nervous network\"). This network structure, which emerges from the axons, is essentially different from that hypothesized by Gerlach. It was the main organ of the central nervous system according to Golgi. Thus, Golgi presented the reticular theory which states that the brain is a single network of nerve fibres, and not of discrete cells. Although Golgi's earlier works between 1873 and 1885 clearly depicted the axonal connections of cerebellar cortex and olfactory bulb as independent of one another, his later works including the Nobel Lecture showed the entire granular layer of the cerebellar cortex occupied by a network of branching and anastomosing nerve processes. This was due to his strong conviction in the reticular theory. Golgi's theory was challenged by Ramón y Cajal, who used the same technique developed by Golgi. According to Ramón y Cajal's neurone theory, the nervous system is but a collection of individual cells, the neurones, which are interconnected to form a network. In addition to this, Golgi was the first to give clear descriptions of the structure of the cerebellum, hippocampus, spinal cord, olfactory lobe, as well as striatal and cortical lesions in a case of chorea. In 1878, he also discovered a receptor organ that senses changes in muscle tension, and is now known as Golgi tendon organ or Golgi receptor; and Golgi-Mazzoni corpuscles (pressure transductors). He further developed a stain specific for myelin (a specialised portion of axon) using potassium dichromate and mercuric chloride. Using this he discovered the myelin annular apparatus, often called the horny funnel of Golgi-Rezzonico.", "Golgi studied kidney function during 1882 to 1889. In 1882, he published his observations on the mechanism of renal hypertrophy, which he understood to be due to renal cell proliferation. In 1884, he described tubular cell mitoses in the kidney of a person suffering from tubulointerstitial nephritis, and he noted that the process was an essential part of repairing the kidney tissue. He was the first to dissect out intact nephrons, and show that the distal tubulus (loop of Henle) of the nephron returns to its originating glomerulus, a finding that he published in 1889 (\"Annotazioni intorno all'Istologia dei reni dell'uomo e di altri mammifieri e sull'istogenesi dei canalicoli oriniferi\". \"Rendiconti R. Acad. Lincei\" 5: 545–557, 1889).", "A French Army physician Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran discovered that malaria was caused by microscopic parasite (now called \"Plasmodium falciparum\") in 1880. But scientists were sceptical until Golgi intervened. It was Golgi who helped him prove that malarial parasite was a microscopic protozoan. From 1885, Golgi studied the malarial parasite and its transmission. He established two types of malaria, tertian and quartan fevers caused by \"Plasmodium vivax\" and \"Plasmodium malariae\" respectively. In 1886, he discovered that malarial fever (paroxysm) was produced by the asexual stage in the human blood (called erythocytic cycle, or Golgi cycle). In 1889-1890, Golgi and Ettore Marchiafava described the differences between benign tertian malaria and malignant tertian malaria (the latter caused by \"P. falciparum\"). By 1898, along with Giovanni Battista Grassi, Amico Bignami, Giuseppe Bastianelli, Angelo Celli and Marchiafava, he confirmed that malaria was transmitted by \"Anopheline\" mosquito.", "An organelle in eukaryotice cells now known as Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex, or sometimes simply as Golgi, was discovered by Camillo Golgi. Golgi modified his black reaction using osmium dichromate solution with which he stained the nerve cells (Purkinje cells) of the cerebellum of an owl. He noticed thread-like networks inside the cells and named them \"apparato reticolare interno\" (internal reticular apparatus). Recognising them to be unique cellular components, he presented his discovery before the Medical-Surgical Society of Pavia in April 1898. After the same was confirmed by his assistant Emilio Veratti, he published it in the \"Bollettino della Società medico-chirurgica di Pavia\". However, most scientists disputed his discovery as nothing but a staining artefact. Their microscopes were not powerful enough to identify the organelles. By the 1930s, Golgi's description was largely rejected. It was only firmly established after 50 years of its discovery, when electron microscopes were developed.", "Golgi, together with Santiago Ramón y Cajal, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for his studies of the structure of the nervous system. In 1900 he was named senator by King Umberto I. In 1913 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He received honorary doctorate from the University of Cambridge, University of Geneva, Kristiania University College, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and Paris-Sorbonne University. In 1994, the European Community commemorated him with postage stamps.", "In Pavia several landmarks stand as Golgi's memory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Background.", "Design and testing.", "Production.", "Operational history.", "Survivors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Design of the new type had begun in late 1915, so that it was conceptually at least almost contemporary with the B.E.12 and the B.E.2e – like these earlier types, it was designed for inherent stability in line with the dominant pre-war belief in the necessity of stability to perform the aerial observation role. The B.E.2 had already been subject to considerable criticism and a deliberate effort was made to address each of the earlier type's failings. In particular, the more powerful motor was intended to improve the feeble speed and climb of the B.E.2 and to allow a better payload; this permitted the type to operate as a true two-seater, since the observer no longer had to be left at home when bombs or a full fuel load were carried, there was no need for his seat to be at the centre of gravity – as a result, he could now be seated behind the pilot, in the proper position to operate a defensive machine gun. Another consequence of the additional engine power was the possibility of fitting a forward-mounted gun for the pilot.", "As early as March 1916, the design appears to have mostly been settled; features included the selection of a Royal Aircraft Factory 4a air-cooled V12 engine (capable of 140 hp) to power the type along with a sizable fin and rudder. During the early design process, a smaller tail fin was substituted for the original, a step which later caused some controversy. By early April 1916 a mock-up of the R.E.8 had been completed, and construction of a pair of prototypes was underway. On 16 June 1916, the first of these prototypes was submitted for its final pre-flight inspection in advance of the type's maiden flight. On 17 June 1916, the first R.E.8 test flight was conducted by F.W. Goodden. Goodden would perform all of the early flights with the type; on 1 July 1916, Sefton Brancker was flown by Goodden in the type to Hounslow, London. On 16 July 1916, the second prototype, furnished with a different design of propeller, performed its first flight. During late July 1916, the second of two prototypes was dispatched to France for service trials, the results of which were largely successful, with aircrew being generally quite favourably impressed. During August 1916, the second prototype returned to Farnborough, Hampshire, where it underwent modification based upon its experiences in France. The R.E.8 possessed a conventional wire-braced fabric-covered wooden structure, along with an unequal-span wing arrangement. The engine installation closely resembled that of the B.E.12, complete with the same large air scoop and similar vertically mounted exhausts protruding over the upper wing to carry the fumes clear of the crew. Apart from the disposition of the cockpits, the main visually distinguishable difference was that the engine was slightly raked back, to improve take off and landing characteristics. The early production R.E.8s were more or less identical to the prototypes. The R.E.8 adopted a set of single bay, unequal span wings, identical to those of the earlier B.E.2e; although the span (and thus the wing area) had been increased slightly by the use of a wider upper centre section, and lower stub wings to match. On the B.E.2e, these wings functioned to maintain the stability of the B.E.2c while providing the aircraft with superior levels of manoeuvrability; although the long extensions on the upper wing gave rise to fears they would be prone to collapse if the aircraft was dived too sharply, which in turn did not help to build trust in the aircraft. Several other features, such as the tailplane, were also identical to those previously used upon the B.E.2e. For the purpose of making the R.E.8 less tiring to fly, the pilot's controls included a wheel to adjust the tailplane incidence in flight and a primitive form of rudder trim (applied to the rudder bar) was provided to alleviate the constant pressure necessary to counteract the torque generated by the propeller. Basic flight controls were installed in the observer's cockpit, which folded out of the way when not in use; these were connected to the elevators, rudder and throttle, but not to the ailerons, and were intended to give observers a chance to make a forced landing if the pilot was killed or incapacitated rather than to offer true dual control. Although not so underpowered as the B.E.2, the R.E.8 was still handicapped by a less than adequate powerplant, and a model re-engined with the Hispano-Suiza engine was projected as the \"R.E.8a\" from quite an early stage. The cowling designed for the liquid-cooled engine closely resembled that of the B.E.12b or the S.E.5a. Supplies of Hispano-Suiza engines, more urgently required for other types, never permitted production of the R.E.8a, although a prototype was constructed and underwent trials during December 1916. Plans to mount Rolls-Royce aero engines, such as the Eagle or Falcon were also abortive, for similar reasons. These engines were in chronically short supply and reserved for various other types in British service, including the Airco DH.4 and the Bristol Fighter.", "During August 1916, production of an initial batch of 50 aircraft was commenced by the Royal Aircraft Factory itself. On 25 August, a contract was placed with Austin Motors for the completion of 100 R.E.8s; on 30 August, Siddeley-Deasy was also contracted to produce a further 100 examples. By September 1916, full-scale production was well under way. By the end of September, a further 850 R.E.8s had been ordered from a range of manufacturers. During December 1916, the first contractor-produced R.E.8s began to appear. The Vickers-Challenger interrupter gear and the Scarff ring were still in short supply, being required for the Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter and other types; accordingly, a few early R.E.8s were built with a pillar mounting for the observer's gun as an interim measure. An alternative to the pilot's synchronised Vickers had been designed, consisting of a fixed Lewis gun with deflector plates fitted to the propeller, although this was never used, a Vickers gun for the pilot being mounted on the port side of the fuselage in a similar position to that on the B.E.12, at first synchronised by the Vickers-Challenger gear and then by the improved Constantinesco hydraulic gear. Photographs of this armament installation make it clear that the cocking handle of the Vickers gun was in easy reach of the pilot and that a normal Aldis sight was often mounted in the pilot's windscreen, giving the lie to statements that the forward firing gun could not be sighted properly due to its position, although the lack of standisation complicated maintenance in operational squadrons. In total, 4,077 R.E.8s were constructed; a further 353 aircraft that had been on order were cancelled as a consequence of the armistice. Only a handful of production aircraft were actually completed by the Royal Aircraft Factory; instead, the bulk of the work was issued out to several private companies, who were responsible for the type throughout its production life, including Austin Motors, Daimler, Standard Motors, Siddeley-Deasy and the Coventry Ordnance Works.", "The first production aircraft reached 52 Squadron Royal Flying Corps (RFC) in France in November 1916. The inexperienced pilots of 52 Squadron found their new mounts thoroughly dangerous and several were killed spinning in off a stall while attempting to land; they were grateful to return to the B.E.2e by exchanging aircraft with 34 Squadron in January 1917. Experienced pilots had fewer problems with the new type and re-equipment of B.E.2 squadrons continued. Pilot's notes for the R.E.8, prepared in the field, drew attention to the fact that it had a higher landing speed than the B.E.2e (hardly surprising, since it was heavier and had almost the same wing area) and that it gave almost no warning of a stall. This seems to have been the source of most complaints about the type's \"trickiness\". The Royal Aircraft Factory conducted spinning tests on the type, concluding that the R.E.8 was quite hard to spin and recovered easily; but the fin was redesigned with slightly increased area to improve spin recovery. The modification resulted in the production version being no less stable than the B.E.2e; and while this was an advantage for artillery observation and photography it gave the R.E.8 little chance to out-manoeuvre enemy fighters. An even larger fin was fitted to some R.E.8s used as trainers. Some pilots flew the R.E.8 with an empty reserve fuel tank (or even filled the tank with fire extinguisher fluid) to avoid a perceived tendency of R.E.8s to burn on crashing. None of these measures would have made the aircraft any \"safer\", if the problem was one of poor stalling characteristics. Several pilots who flew the type mentioned that they had no problems but were careful to keep the airspeed well above stalling point. R.E.8s began to arrive at the front in numbers just as the period of German air superiority known as \"Bloody April\" was taking a heavy toll of all types in the RFC; and early service was not auspicious. On 13 April 1917, six R.E.8s from 59 Squadron were sent on a long range photo reconnaissance mission, missed their intended escorts, and were met by the picked fighter pilots of \"Jasta 11\", who shot them all down within five minutes. The casualty rate in R.E.8 squadrons became more sustainable as new Allied fighter types regained air superiority and pilot training and tactics improved. Although never a popular aeroplane, it was reasonably satisfactory for the tasks demanded of it and was even regarded with some affection, gaining the rhyming slang nickname \"Harry Tate\" (after a popular music hall artist of the time). Some crews flew their slow, cumbersome mounts quite aggressively; the German fighter ace Eduard Ritter von Dostler was shot down by an R.E.8 of 7 Squadron, while 3 Squadron Australian Flying Corps (AFC) was credited with 50 air victories in 12 months of operations. Lts Pithey and Rhodes of 12 Squadron were the most successful R.E.8 crew in air-to-air combat, being credited with twelve victories. Although supplemented by other types, the R.E.8 remained the standard RFC artillery observation, air photography and general short range reconnaissance aircraft for the remainder of the war, equipping 18 RFC squadrons in 1917 and 19 squadrons in 1918. Belgium was the only country other than Britain and the Dominions to operate the R.E.8 during the First World War, receiving 22 in July 1917. At least some of the Belgian examples were fitted with Hispano-Suiza engines, in a SPAD type cowling, rather than the S.E.5a type cowling of the R.E.8a. It was hoped to be able to replace the R.E.8 with a version of the Bristol Fighter powered by the Sunbeam Arab engine but the combination proved unsuccessful and few \"Arab Bristols\" were ever built. A few R.E.8 squadrons were issued with one or two standard (Falcon engined) F.2bs in the last weeks of the war. By November 1918, the R.E.8 was regarded as totally obsolete and surviving examples were quickly retired after the Armistice. Nor was the type popular with the private owners who purchased surplus RAF aircraft after the war and no R.E.8s came onto the civil register.", "Only two \"original\" R.E.8s survive from World War One. The restoration of R.E.8 \"F3556\" at the Imperial War Museum Duxford was completed in 2004. This aircraft, built by Daimler, arrived in France on Armistice Day, still in its original packing case. It is currently displayed suspended from the roof of the AirSpace hangar at Duxford. The other surviving R.E.8 is a former \"Aviation Militaire Belge\" machine preserved at the Brussels Air Museum. It is fitted with the usual Hispano-Suiza engine typical of R.E.8s in Belgian service, in the usual SPAD type cowling and circular frontal radiator. The Royal Air Force Museum at Hendon has a full size replica R.E.8, which was built by The Vintage Aviator Ltd ( TVAL ) in New Zealand in 2011. It is fitted with a \"new build\" RAF 4a engine and was successfully test flown at Masterton, NZ, on 1 January 2012, with the registration ZK-TVC. Crated and shipped to England, it was reassembled at The Shuttleworth Collection at Old Warden Airfield in June 2012 and undertook a number of flights painted as 'A3930' of No. 9 Squadron Royal Flying Corps, before being sent by road to Hendon in November 2012. It is now on static display in the Grahame-White Factory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic terminology.", "Linear differential operator.", "Homogeneous equation with constant coefficients.", "Second-order case.", "Non-homogeneous equation with constant coefficients.", "First-order equation with variable coefficients.", "System of linear differential equations.", "Higher order with variable coefficients.", "Cauchy–Euler equation.", "Holonomic functions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The highest order of derivation that appears in a differentiable equation is the \"order\" of the equation. The term, which does not depend on the unknown function and its derivatives, is sometimes called the \"constant term\" of the equation (by analogy with algebraic equations), even when this term is a non-constant function. If the constant term is the zero function, then the differential equation is said to be \"homogeneous\", as it is a homogeneous polynomial in the unknown function and its derivatives. The equation obtained by replacing, in a linear differential equation, the constant term by the zero function is the \"associated homogeneous equation\". A differential equation has \"constant coefficients\" if only constant functions appear as coefficients in the associated homogeneous equation. A \"solution\" of a differential equation is a function that satisfies the equation. The solutions of a homogeneous linear differential equation form a vector space. In the ordinary case, this vector space has a finite dimension, equal to the order of the equation. All solutions of a linear differential equation are found by adding to a particular solution any solution of the associated homogeneous equation.", "A \"basic differential operator\" of order is a mapping that maps any differentiable function to its th derivative, or, in the case of several variables, to one of its partial derivatives of order. It is commonly denoted in the case of univariate functions, and in the case of functions of variables. The basic differential operators include the derivative of order 0, which is the identity mapping. A linear differential operator (abbreviated, in this article, as \"linear operator\" or, simply, \"operator\") is a linear combination of basic differential operators, with differentiable functions as coefficients. In the univariate case, a linear operator has thus the form where are differentiable functions, and the nonnegative integer is the \"order\" of the operator (if is not the zero function). Let be a linear differential operator. The application of to a function is usually denoted or, if one needs to specify the variable (this must not be confused with a multiplication). A linear differential operator is a linear operator, since it maps sums to sums and the product by a scalar to the product by the same scalar. As the sum of two linear operators is a linear operator, as well as the product (on the left) of a linear operator by a differentiable function, the linear differential operators form a vector space over the real numbers or the complex numbers (depending on the nature of the functions that are considered). They form also a free module over the ring of differentiable functions. The language of operators allows a compact writing for differentiable equations: if is a linear differential operator, then the equation may be rewritten There may be several variants to this notation; in particular the variable of differentiation may appear explicitly or not in and the right-hand and of the equation, such as or The \"kernel\" of a linear differential operator is its kernel as a linear mapping, that is the vector space of the solutions of the (homogeneous) differential equation. In the case of an ordinary differential operator of order, Carathéodory's existence theorem implies that, under very mild conditions, the kernel of is a vector space of dimension, and that the solutions of the equation have the form where are arbitrary numbers. Typically, the hypotheses of Carathéodory's theorem are satisfied in an interval, if the functions are continuous in, and there is a positive real number such that formula_9 for every in.", "A homogeneous linear differential equation has \"constant coefficients\" if it has the form where are (real or complex) numbers. In other words, it has constant coefficients if it is defined by a linear operator with constant coefficients. The study of these differential equations with constant coefficients dates back to Leonhard Euler, who introduced the exponential function, which is the unique solution of the equation such that. It follows that the th derivative of is and this allows solving homogeneous linear differential equations rather easily. Let be a homogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients (that is are real or complex numbers). Searching solutions of this equation that have the form is equivalent to searching the constants such that Factoring out (which is never zero) shows that must be a root of the characteristic polynomial of the differential equation. When these roots are all distinct, one has distinct solutions that are not necessarily real, even if the coefficients of the equation are real. These solutions can be shown to be linearly independent, by considering the Vandermonde determinant of the values of these solutions at. Together they form a basis of the vector space of solutions of the differential equation (that is, the kernel of the differential operator). In the case where the characteristic polynomial has only simple roots, the preceding provides a complete basis of the solutions vector space. In the case of multiple roots, more linearly independent solutions are needed for having a basis. These have the form where is a nonnegative integer, is a root of the characteristic polynomial of multiplicity, and. For proving that these functions are solutions, one may remark that if is a root of the characteristic polynomial of multiplicity, the characteristic polynomial may be factored as formula_15 Thus, applying the differential operator of the equation is equivalent with applying first times the operator and then the operator that has as characteristic polynomial. By the exponential shift theorem, and thus one gets zero after application of As, by the fundamental theorem of algebra, the sum of the multiplicities of the roots of a polynomial equals the degree of the polynomial, the number of above solutions equals the order of the differential equation, and these solutions form a base of the vector space of the solutions. In the common case where the coefficients of the equation are real, it is generally more convenient to have a basis of the solutions consisting of real-valued functions. Such a basis may be obtained from the preceding basis by remarking that, if is a root of the characteristic polynomial, then is also a root, of the same multiplicity. Thus a real basis is obtained by using Euler's formula, and replacing formula_17 and formula_18 by formula_19 and formula_20", "A homogeneous linear differential equation of the second order may be written and its characteristic polynomial is If and are real, there are three cases for the solutions, depending on the discriminant In all three cases, the general solution depends on two arbitrary constants and. Finding the solution formula_27 satisfying and one equates the values of the above general solution at and its derivative there to and respectively. This results in a linear system of two linear equations in the two unknowns and Solving this system gives the solution for a so called Cauchy problem, in which the values at for the solution of the DEQ and its derivative are specified.", "A non-homogeneous equation of order with constant coefficients may be written where are real or complex numbers, is a given function of, and is the unknown function (for sake of simplicity, \"\" will be omitted in the following). There are several methods for solving such an equation. The best method depends on the nature of the function that makes the equation non-homogeneous. If is a linear combination of exponential and sinusoidal functions, then the exponential response formula may be used. If, more generally, is linear combination of functions of the form,, and, where is a nonnegative integer, and a constant (which need not be the same in each term), then the method of undetermined coefficients may be used. Still more general, the annihilator method applies when satisfies a homogeneous linear differential equation, typically, a holonomic function. The most general method is the variation of constants, which is presented here. The general solution of the associated homogeneous equation is where is a basis of the vector space of the solutions and are arbitrary constants. The method of variation of constants takes its name from the following idea. Instead of considering as constants, they can considered as unknown functions that have to be determined for making a solution of the non-homogeneous equation. For this purpose, one adds the constraints which imply (by product rule and induction) for, and Replacing in the original equation and its derivatives by these expressions, and using the fact that are solutions of the original homogeneous equation, one gets This equation and the above ones with as left-hand side form a system of linear equations in whose coefficients are known functions (, the, and their derivatives). This system can be solved by any method of linear algebra. The computation of antiderivatives gives and then As antiderivatives are defined up to the addition of a constant, one finds again that the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is the sum of an arbitrary solution and the general solution of the associated homogeneous equation.", "The general form of a linear ordinary differential linear equation of order 1 is, after having divided by the coefficient of, In the case of a homogeneous equation (that is is the zero function), the equation may be rewritten as (omitting \"\" for sake of simplification) that may easily be integrated as where is an arbitrary constant of integration and is an antiderivative of. Thus, the general solution of the homogeneous equation is where is an arbitrary constant. For solving the non homogeneous equation, one may multiply it by the multiplicative inverse of a solution the homogeneous equation. This gives As the product rule allows rewriting the equation as Thus, the general solution is where is a constant of integration, and formula_41.", "A system of linear differential equations consists of several linear differential equations that involve several unknown functions. In general one restricts the study to systems such that the number of unknown functions equals the number of equations. An arbitrary linear ordinary differential equation and a system of such equations can be converted into a first order system of linear differential equations by adding variables for all but the highest order derivatives. That is, if appear in an equation, one may replace them by new unknown functions that must satisfy the equations and for. A linear system of the first order, which has unknown functions and differential equations may normally be solved for the derivatives of the unknown functions. If it is not the case this is a differential-algebraic system, and this is a different theory. Therefore, the systems that are considered here have the form where and the are functions of. In matrix notation, this system may be written (omitting \"\") The solving method is similar to that of a single first order linear differential equations, but with complications stemming from noncommutativity of matrix multiplication. Let be the homogeneous equation associated to the above matrix equation. Its solutions form a vector space of dimension, and are therefore the columns of a square matrix of functions, whose determinant is not the zero function. If, or is a matrix of constants, or, more generally, if is differentiable and commutes with its derivative, then one may choose for the exponential of an antiderivative of. In fact, in these cases, one has In the general case there is no closed-form solution for the homogeneous equation, and one has to use either a numerical method, or an approximation method such as Magnus expansion. Knowing the matrix, the general solution of the non-homogeneous equation is where the column matrix formula_52 is an arbitrary constant of integration. If initial conditions are given as the solution that satisfies these initial conditions is", "A linear ordinary equation of order one with variable coefficients may be solved by quadrature, which means that the solutions may be expressed in terms of integrals. This is not the case for order at least two. This is the main result of Picard–Vessiot theory which was initiated by Émile Picard and Ernest Vessiot, and whose recent developments are called differential Galois theory. The impossibility of solving by quadrature can be compared with the Abel–Ruffini theorem, which states that an algebraic equation of degree at least five cannot, in general, be solved by radicals. This analogy extends to the proof methods and motivates the denomination of differential Galois theory Similarly to the algebraic case, the theory allows deciding which equations may be solved by quadrature, and if possible solving them. However, for both theories, the necessary computations are extremely difficult, even with the most powerful computers. Nevertheless, the case of order two with rational coefficients has been completely solved by Kovacic's algorithm.", "Cauchy–Euler equations are examples of equations of any order, with variable coefficients, that can be solved explicitly. These are the equations of the form where are constant coefficients.", "A holonomic function, also called a \"D-finite function\", is a function that is a solution of a homogeneous linear differential equation with polynomial coefficients. Most functions that are commonly considered in mathematics are holonomic or quotients of holonomic functions. In fact, holonomic functions include polynomials, algebraic functions, logarithm, exponential function, sine, cosine, hyperbolic sine, hyperbolic cosine, inverse trigonometric and inverse hyperbolic functions, and many special functions such as Bessel functions and hypergeometric functions. Holonomic functions have several closure properties; in particular, sums, products, derivative and integrals of holonomic functions are holonomic. Moreover, these closure properties are effective, in the sense that there are algorithms for computing the differential equation of the result of any of these operations, knowing the differential equations of the input. Usefulness of the concept of holonomic functions results of Zeilberger's theorem, which follows. A \"holonomic sequence\" is a sequence of numbers that may be generated by a recurrence relation with polynomial coefficients. The coefficients of the Taylor series at a point of a holonomic function form a holonomic sequence. Conversely, if the sequence of the coefficients of a power series is holonomic, then the series defines a holonomic function (even if the radius of convergence is zero). There are efficient algorithms for both conversions, that is for computing the recurrence relation from the differential equation, and \"vice versa\". It follows that, if one represents (in a computer) holonomic functions by their defining differential equations and initial conditions, most calculus operations can be done automatically on these functions, such as derivative, indefinite and definite integral, fast computation of Taylor series (thanks of the recurrence relation on its coefficients), evaluation to a high precision with certified bound of the approximation error, limits, localization of singularities, asymptotic behavior at infinity and near singularities, proof of identities, etc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Exploration.", "Expeditions of 1607 and 1608.", "Alleged discovery of Jan Mayen.", "Expedition of 1609.", "Expedition of 1610–1611.", "Mutiny.", "Disappearance.", "Pricket's reliability.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Details of Hudson's birth and early life are mostly unknown. Some sources have identified Henry Hudson as having been born in about 1565, but others date his birth to around 1570. Other historians assert even less certainty; Peter C. Mancall, for instance, states that \"[Hudson] was probably born in the 1560s,\" while Piers Pennington gives no date at all. Hudson is thought to have spent many years at sea, beginning as a cabin boy and gradually working his way up to ship's captain.", "", "In 1607, the Muscovy Company of England hired Hudson to find a northerly route to the Pacific coast of Asia. At the time, the English were engaged in an economic battle with the Dutch for control of northwest routes. It was thought that, because the sun shone for three months in the northern latitudes in the summer, the ice would melt and a ship could make it across the \"top of the world\". On 1 May 1607, Hudson sailed with a crew of ten men and a boy on the 80-ton \"Hopewell\". They reached the east coast of Greenland on 14 June, coasting it northward until the 22 June. Here the party named a headland \"Young's Cape\", a \"very high mount, like a round castle\" near it \"Mount of God's Mercy\" and land at 73° north latitude \"Hold with Hope\". After turning east, they sighted \"Newland\"—i.e Spitsbergen—on the 27 May, near the mouth of the great bay Hudson later simply named the \"Great Indraught\" (Isfjorden). On 13 July, Hudson and his crew estimated that they had sailed as far north as 80° 23' N, but more likely only reached 79° 23' N. The following day they entered what Hudson later in the voyage named \"Whales Bay\" (Krossfjorden and Kongsfjorden), naming its northwestern point \"Collins Cape\" (Kapp Mitra) after his boatswain, William Collins. They sailed north the following two days. On the 16 July, they reached as far north as Hakluyt's Headland (which Thomas Edge claims Hudson named on this voyage) at 79° 49' N, thinking they saw the land continue to 82° N (Svalbard's northernmost point is 80° 49' N) when really it trended to the east. Encountering ice packed along the north coast, they were forced to turn back south. Hudson wanted to make his return \"by the north of Greenland to Davis his Streights (Davis Strait), and so for Kingdom of England,\" but ice conditions would have made this impossible. The expedition returned to Tilbury Hope on the River Thames on 15 September. Hudson reported large numbers of whales in Spitsbergen waters during this voyage. Many authors credit his reports as the catalyst for several nations sending whaling expeditions to the islands. This claim is contentious- others have pointed to strong evidence that it was Jonas Poole's reports in 1610, that led to the establishment of English whaling, and voyages of Nicholas Woodcock and Willem Cornelisz van Muyden in 1612, which led to the establishment of Dutch, French and Spanish whaling. The whaling industry itself was built by neither Hudson nor Poole – both were dead by 1612. In 1608, English merchants of the East India and Muscovy Companies again sent Hudson in the \"Hopewell\" to attempt to locate a passage to the Indies, this time to the east around northern Russia. Leaving London on 22 April, the ship travelled almost, making it to Novaya Zemlya well above the Arctic Circle in July, but even in the summer they found the ice impenetrable and turned back, arriving at Gravesend on 26 August.", "According to Thomas Edge, \"William Hudson\" in 1608 discovered an island he named \"Hudson's Tutches\" (Touches) at 71° N, the latitude of Jan Mayen. However, records of Hudson's voyages suggest that he could only have come across Jan Mayen in 1607 by making an illogical detour, and historians have pointed out that Hudson himself made no mention of it in his journal. There is also no cartographical proof of this supposed discovery. Jonas Poole in 1611 and Robert Fotherby in 1615 both had possession of Hudson's journal while searching for his elusive Hold-with-Hope—which is now believed to have been on the east coast of Greenland—but neither had any knowledge of any discovery of Jan Mayen, an achievement which was only later attributed to Hudson. Fotherby eventually stumbled across Jan Mayen, thinking it a new discovery and naming it \"Sir Thomas Smith's Island\", though the first verifiable records of the discovery of the island had been made a year earlier, in 1614.", "In 1609, Hudson was chosen by merchants of the Dutch East India Company in the Netherlands to find an easterly passage to Asia. While awaiting orders and supplies in Amsterdam, he heard rumours of a northwest route to the Pacific through North America. Hudson had been told to sail through the Arctic Ocean north of Russia, into the Pacific and so to the Far East. Hudson departed Amsterdam on 4 April, in command of the Dutch ship. He could not complete the specified (eastward) route because ice blocked the passage, as with all previous such voyages, and he turned the ship around in mid-May while somewhere east of Norway's North Cape. At that point, acting outside his instructions, Hudson pointed the ship west and decided to try to seek a westerly passage through North America. They reached the Grand Banks of Newfoundland on 2 July, and in mid-July made landfall near the LaHave area of Nova Scotia. Here they encountered First Nations who were accustomed to trading with the French; they were willing to trade beaver pelts, but apparently no trades occurred. The ship stayed in the area about ten days, the crew replacing a broken mast and fishing for food. On the 25 July, a dozen men from the \"Halve Maen\", using muskets and small cannon, went ashore and assaulted the village near their anchorage. They drove the people from the settlement and took their boat and other property – probably pelts and trade goods. On 4 August, the ship was at Cape Cod, from which Hudson sailed south to the entrance of the Chesapeake Bay. Rather than entering the Chesapeake he explored the coast to the north, finding Delaware Bay but continuing on north. On 3 September, he reached the estuary of the river that initially was called the \"North River\" or \"Mauritius\" and now carries his name. He was not the first European to discover the estuary, though, as it had been known since the voyage of Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524. On 6 September 1609, John Colman of his crew was killed by natives with an arrow to his neck. Hudson sailed into the Upper New York Bay on 11 September, and the following day began a journey up what is now known as the Hudson River. Over the next ten days his ship ascended the river, reaching a point about where the present-day capital of Albany is located. On 23 September, Hudson decided to return to Europe. He put in at Dartmouth, England on 7 November, and was detained by authorities who wanted access to his log. He managed to pass the log to the Dutch ambassador to England, who sent it, along with his report, to Amsterdam. While exploring the river, Hudson had traded with several native groups, mainly obtaining furs. His voyage was used to establish Dutch claims to the region and to the fur trade that prospered there when a trading post was established at Albany in 1614. New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island became the capital of New Netherland in 1625.", "In 1610, Hudson obtained backing for another voyage, this time under the English flag. The funding came from the Virginia Company and the British East India Company. At the helm of his new ship, the, he stayed to the north — some claim he deliberately stayed too far south on his Dutch-funded voyage — reached Iceland on 11 May, the south of Greenland on 4 June, and rounded the southern tip of Greenland. On 25 June, the explorers reached what is now the Hudson Strait at the northern tip of Labrador. Following the southern coast of the strait on 2 August, the ship entered Hudson Bay. Excitement was very high due to the expectation that the ship had finally found the Northwest Passage through the continent. Hudson spent the following months mapping and exploring its eastern shores, but he and his crew did not find a passage to Asia. In November, however, the ship became trapped in the ice in James Bay, and the crew moved ashore for the winter.", "When the ice cleared in the spring of 1611, Hudson planned to use his \"Discovery\" to further explore Hudson Bay with the continuing goal of discovering the Passage; however, most of the members of his crew ardently desired to return home. Matters came to a head and much of the crew mutinied in June. Descriptions of the successful mutiny are one-sided, because the only survivors who could tell their story were the mutineers and those who went along with the mutiny. In the latter class was ship's navigator, Abacuk Pricket, a survivor who kept a journal that was to become one of the sources for the narrative of the mutiny. According to Pricket, the leaders of the mutiny were Henry Greene and Robert Juet. The latter, a navigator, had accompanied Hudson on the 1609 expedition, and his account is said to be \"the best contemporary record of the voyage\". Pricket's narrative tells how the mutineers set Hudson, his teenage son John, and seven crewmen—men who were either sick and infirm or loyal to Hudson—adrift from the \"Discovery\" in a small shallop, an open boat, effectively marooning them in Hudson Bay. The Pricket journal reports that the mutineers provided the castaways with clothing, powder and shot, some pikes, an iron pot, some food, and other miscellaneous items.", "After the mutiny, Hudson's shallop broke out oars and tried to keep pace with the \"Discovery\" for some time. Pricket recalled that the mutineers finally tired of the David–Goliath pursuit and unfurled additional sails aboard the \"Discovery\", enabling the larger vessel to leave the tiny open boat behind. Hudson and the other seven aboard the shallop were never seen again. Despite subsequent searches, including those conducted by Thomas Button in 1612, and by Zachariah Gillam in 1668–1670, their fate is unknown.", "Pricket's journal and testimony have been severely criticized for bias, on two grounds. Firstly, prior to the mutiny the alleged leaders of the uprising, Greene and Juet, had been friends and loyal seamen of Hudson. Secondly, Greene and Juet did not survive the return voyage to England (Juet, who had been the navigator on the return journey, died of starvation a few days before the company reached Ireland). Pricket knew he and the other survivors of the mutiny would be tried in England for piracy, and it would have been in his interest, and the interest of the other survivors, to put together a narrative that would place the blame for the mutiny upon men who were no longer alive to defend themselves. The Pricket narrative became the controlling story of the expedition's disastrous end. Only eight of the thirteen mutinous crewmen survived the return voyage to Europe. They were arrested in England, and some were put on trial, but no punishment was imposed for the mutiny. One theory holds that the survivors were considered too valuable as sources of information to execute, as they had travelled to the New World and could describe sailing routes and conditions.", "The gulf or bay visited by Hudson is twice the size of the Baltic Sea, and its many large estuaries afford access to otherwise landlocked parts of Western Canada and the Arctic. This allowed the Hudson's Bay Company to exploit a lucrative fur trade along its shores for more than two centuries, growing powerful enough to influence the history and present international boundaries of western North America. Hudson Strait became the entrance to the Arctic for all ships engaged in the historic search for the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic side – though modern voyages take more northerly routes. Along with Hudson Bay, many other topographical features and landmarks are named for Hudson. The Hudson River in New York and New Jersey is named after him, as are Hudson County, New Jersey, the Henry Hudson Bridge, the Henry Hudson Parkway, and the town of Hudson, New York. The unbuilt Hendrik Hudson Hotel in New York was also to have been named after him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Creation at Forethought (1984–1987).", "Acquisition by Microsoft (1987–1992).", "Part of Microsoft Office (since 1993).", "Sales and market share.", "Operation.", "PowerPoint for the web.", "Cultural impact.", "Business uses.", "Uses beyond business.", "Cultural reactions.", "Use it less.", "Use it differently.", "Use it better.", "U.S. military excess.", "Artistic medium.", "PowerPoint Viewer.", "File formats.", "Binary (1987–2007).", "Office Open XML (since 2007)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "PowerPoint was created by Robert Gaskins and Dennis Austin at a software startup in Silicon Valley named Forethought, Inc. Forethought had been founded in 1983 to create an integrated environment and applications for future personal computers that would provide a graphical user interface, but it had run into difficulties requiring a \"restart\" and new plan. On July 5, 1984, Forethought hired Robert Gaskins as its vice president of product development to create a new application that would be especially suited to the new graphical personal computers, such as Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh. Gaskins produced his initial description of PowerPoint about a month later (August 14, 1984) in the form of a 2-page document titled \"Presentation Graphics for Overhead Projection.\" By October 1984 Gaskins had selected Dennis Austin to be the developer for PowerPoint. Gaskins and Austin worked together on the definition and design of the new product for nearly a year, and produced the first specification document dated August 21, 1985. This first design document showed a product as it would look in Microsoft", "By early 1987, Microsoft was starting to plan a new application to create presentations, an activity led by Jeff Raikes, who was head of marketing for the Applications Division. Microsoft assigned an internal group to write a specification and plan for a new presentation product. They contemplated an acquisition to speed up development, and in early 1987 Microsoft sent a letter of intent to acquire Dave Winer's product called MORE, an outlining program that could print its outlines as bullet charts. During this preparatory activity", "PowerPoint had been included in Microsoft Office from the beginning. PowerPoint 2.0 for Macintosh was part of the first Office bundle for Macintosh which was offered in mid-1989. When PowerPoint 2.0 for Windows appeared, a year later, it was part of a similar Office bundle for Windows, which was offered in late 1990. Both of these were bundling promotions, in which the independent applications were packaged together and offered for a lower total price. PowerPoint 3.0 (1992) was again separately specified", "PowerPoint's initial sales were about 40,000 copies sold in 1987 (nine months), about 85,000 copies in 1988, and about 100,000 copies in 1989, all for Macintosh. PowerPoint's market share in its first three years was a tiny part of the total presentation market, which was very heavily dominated by MS-DOS applications on PCs. The market leaders on MS-DOS in 1988-1989 were Harvard Graphics (introduced by Software Publishing in 1986) in first place, and Lotus Freelance Plus (also introduced in 1986) as a strong second. They were competing with more than a dozen other MS-DOS presentation products, and Microsoft did not develop a PowerPoint version for MS-DOS. After three years, PowerPoint sales were disappointing. Jeff Raikes, who had bought PowerPoint for Microsoft, later recalled: \"By 1990, it looked like it wasn't a very smart idea [for Microsoft to have acquired PowerPoint], because not very many people were using PowerPoint.\" This began to change when the first", "The earliest version of PowerPoint (1987 for Macintosh) could be used to print black and white pages to be photocopied onto sheets of transparent film for projection from overhead projectors, and to print speaker's notes and audience handouts; the next version (1988 for Macintosh, 1990 for Windows) was extended to also produce color 35mm slides by communicating a file over a modem to a Genigraphics imaging center with slides returned by overnight delivery for projection from slide projectors. PowerPoint was used for planning and preparing a presentation, but not for delivering it (apart from previewing it on a computer screen, or distributing printed paper copies). The operation of PowerPoint changed substantially in its third version (1992 for Windows and Macintosh), when PowerPoint was extended to also deliver a presentation by producing direct video output to digital projectors or large monitors. In 1992 video projection of presentations was rare and expensive, and practically unknown from a laptop computer. Robert Gaskins, one of the creators of PowerPoint, says he publicly demonstrated that use for the first time at a large Microsoft meeting held in Paris on February 25, 1992, by using an unreleased development build of PowerPoint 3.0 running on an early pre-production sample of a powerful new color laptop and feeding a professional auditorium video projector. By about 2003, ten years later, digital projection had become", "PowerPoint for the web is a free lightweight version of Microsoft PowerPoint", "PowerPoint, more than most other personal computer applications, has been experienced as a powerful force producing change throughout all of society. In 2016 an analyst summed up: \"the real mystery is... 'how come almost every organisation in the world is using PowerPoint to communicate almost everything to almost everybody?'. That's the real question. How come PowerPoint is everywhere?\"", "PowerPoint was originally targeted just for business presentations. Robert Gaskins, who was responsible for its design, has written about his intended customers: \"... I did not target other existing large groups of users of presentations, such as school teachers or military officers.... I also did not plan to target people who were not existing users of presentations... such as clergy and school children.... Our focus was purely on business users, in small and large companies, from one person to the largest multinationals.\" Business people had for a long time made presentations for sales calls and for internal company communications, and PowerPoint produced the same formats in the same style and", "At the same time that PowerPoint was becoming dominant in business settings, it was also being adopted for uses beyond business: \"Personal computing... scaled up the production of presentations.... The result has been the rise of presentation culture. In an information society, nearly everyone presents.\" In 1998, at about the same time that Gold was pronouncing PowerPoint's ubiquity in business, the influential Bell Labs engineer Robert W. Lucky could already write about broader uses: Over a decade or", "As uses broadened, cultural awareness of PowerPoint grew and commentary about it began to appear. \"With the widespread adoption of PowerPoint came complaints... often very general statements reflecting dissatisfaction with modern media and communication practices as well as the dysfunctions of organizational culture.\" Indications of this awaremess included increasing mentions of PowerPoint use in the \"Dilbert\" comic strips of Scott Adams, comic parodies of poor or inappropriate use such as the Gettysburg Address in PowerPoint or summaries of Shakespeare's \"Hamlet\" and Nabokov's", "An early reaction was that the broader use of PowerPoint was a mistake, and should be reversed. An influential example of this came from Edward Tufte, an authority on information design, who has been a professor of political science, statistics, and computer science at Princeton and Yale, but is best known for his self-published books on data visualization, which have sold nearly 2 million copies as of 2014. In 2003, he published a widely-read booklet titled \"The Cognitive Style of PowerPoint,\" revised in 2006. Tufte found a number of problems with the \"cognitive style\" of PowerPoint, many of which he attributed to the standard default style templates: Tufte particularly advised against using PowerPoint for reporting scientific analyses, using as a dramatic example some slides made during the flight of the space shuttle Columbia after it had been damaged by an accident at liftoff, slides which poorly communicated the engineers' limited understanding of what had", "A second reaction to PowerPoint use was to say that PowerPoint can be used well, but only by substantially changing its style of use. This reaction is exemplified by Richard E. Mayer, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, who has studied cognition and learning, particularly the design of educational multimedia, and who has published more than 500 publications, including over 30 books. Mayer's theme has been that \"In light of the science, it is up to us to make a fundamental shift in our thinking—we can no longer expect people to struggle to try to adapt to our PowerPoint habits. Instead, we have to change our PowerPoint habits to align with the way people learn.\" Tufte had argued his judgment that the information density of text on PowerPoint slides was too low, perhaps only 40 words on a slide, leading to over-simplified messages; Mayer responded that his empirical research showed exactly the opposite, that the amount of text on PowerPoint slides was usually too high, and that even fewer than 40", "A third reaction to PowerPoint use was to conclude that the standard style is capable of being used well, but that many small points need to be executed carefully, to avoid impeding understanding. This kind of analysis is particularly associated with Stephen Kosslyn, a cognitive neuroscientist who specializes in the psychology of learning and visual communication, and who has been head of the department of psychology at Harvard, has been Director of Stanford's Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, and has published some 300 papers and 14 books. Kosslyn presented a set of psychological principles of \"human perception, memory, and comprehension\" that \"appears to capture the major points of agreement among researchers.\" He reports that his experiments support the idea that it is not intuitive or obvious how to create effective PowerPoint presentations that conform to those agreed principles, and that even small differences that might not seem significant to a presenter can produce very different results in audiences' understanding. For this reason, Kosslyn says, users need specific education to be able to identify best ways to avoid \"flaws and failures\": The many \"flaws and failures\" identified were those \"likely to disrupt the comprehension or memory of the material.\" Among the most common examples were \"Bulleted items are not presented individually, growing the list from the top to the bottom,\" \"More than four bulleted items appear in a single list,\" \"More than two lines are used per bulleted", "Use of PowerPoint by the U.S. military services began slowly, because they were invested in mainframe computers, MS-DOS PCs, and specialized military-specification graphic output devices, all of which PowerPoint did not support. But because of the strong military tradition of presenting briefings, as soon as they acquired the computers needed to run it, PowerPoint became part of the U.S. military. By 2000, ten years after PowerPoint for Windows appeared, it was already identified as an important feature of U.S. armed forces culture, in a front-page story in the \"Wall Street Journal\": U.S. military use of PowerPoint may have influenced its use by armed forces of other countries: \"Foreign armed services also are beginning to get in on the act. 'You can't speak with the U.S. military without knowing PowerPoint,' says Margaret Hayes, an instructor at National Defense University in Washington", "Musician David Byrne has been using PowerPoint as a medium for art for years, producing a book and DVD and showing at galleries his PowerPoint-based artwork. Byrne has written: \"I have been working with PowerPoint, the ubiquitous presentation software, as an art medium for a number of years. It started off as a joke (this software is a symbol of corporate salesmanship, or lack thereof) but then the work took on a life of its own as I realized I could create pieces that were moving, despite the limitations of the'medium. In 2005 Byrne toured with a theater piece styled as a PowerPoint presentation. When he presented it in Berkeley, on March 8, 2005, the University of California news service reported: \"Byrne also defended its [PowerPoint's] appeal as more than just a business tool—as a medium for art and theater. His talk was titled", "PowerPoint Viewer is the name for a series of small free application programs to be used on computers without PowerPoint installed, to view, project, or print (but not create or edit) presentations. The first version was introduced with PowerPoint 3.0 in 1992, to enable electronic presentations to be projected using conference-room computers and to be freely distributed; on Windows, it took advantage of the new feature of embedding TrueType fonts within PowerPoint presentation files to make such distribution easier. The same kind of viewer app was shipped with PowerPoint 3.0 for Macintosh, also in 1992. Beginning with PowerPoint 2003, a feature called \"Package for CD\" automatically managed all linked video and audio files plus needed fonts when exporting a presentation to a disk or flash drive or network location, and also included a copy of a revised PowerPoint Viewer application so that the result could be", "", "Early versions of PowerPoint, from 1987 through 1995 (versions 1.0 through 7.0), evolved through a sequence of binary file formats, different in each version, as functionality was added. This set of formats were never documented, but an open-source \"libmwaw\" (used by LibreOffice) exists to read them. A stable binary format (called a.ppt file, like all earlier binary formats) that was shared as the default in PowerPoint 97 through PowerPoint 2003 for Windows, and in PowerPoint 98 through PowerPoint 2004 for Mac (that is, in", "The big change in PowerPoint 2007 and PowerPoint 2008 for Mac (PowerPoint version 12.0) was that the stable binary file format of 97–2003 was replaced as the default by a new zipped XML-based Office Open XML format (.pptx files). Microsoft's explanation of the benefits of the change included: smaller file sizes, up to 75% smaller than comparable binary documents; security, through being able to identify and exclude executable macros and personal data; less chance to be corrupted than binary formats; and easier interoperability for exchanging data among Microsoft and other business applications, all while maintaining backward compatibility. XML filename extensions XML media types The specification for the new format was published as an open standard, ECMA-376, through Ecma International Technical Committee 45 (TC45). The Ecma 376 stardard was approved in December 2006, and was submitted for standardization through ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34 WG4 in early 2007. The standardization process was contentious. It was approved as ISO/IEC 29500 in early 2008. Copies of the ISO/IEC standard specification are freely available, in two parts. These define two related standards known as \"Transitional\" and \"Strict.\" The two standards were progressively adopted by PowerPoint: PowerPoint version 12.0" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early club history.", "1876–1902: A National League.", "1902–1920: A Cubs dynasty.", "The Wrigley years (1921–1945).", "1929–1938: Every three years.", "1945/The Curse of the Billy Goat.", "1969: Fall of '69.", "1977–1979: June Swoon.", "Tribune Company years (1981–2008).", "1984: Heartbreak.", "1989: NL East division championship.", "1998: Wild card race and home run chase.", "2001: Playoff push.", "2003: Five more outs.", "2004–2006.", "2007–2008: Back to back division titles.", "The Ricketts era (2009–present).", "2010–2014: The decline and rebuild.", "2015–present: Championship run.", "Ballpark.", "Wrigley Field and Wrigleyville.", "Bleacher Bums.", "Culture.", "Cubs Win Flag.", "Mascots.", "Music.", "Popular culture.", "Tinker to Evers to Chance.", "Distinctions.", "\"Forbes\" value rankings.", "Team.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Spring training history.", "Media.", "Radio.", "Print.", "Television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "", "The Cubs began playing in 1870 as the Chicago White Stockings, joining the National League (NL) in 1876 as a charter member. Owner William Hulbert signed multiple star players, such as pitcher Albert Spalding and infielders Ross Barnes, Deacon White, and Adrian \"Cap\" Anson, to join the team prior to the N.L.'s first season. The White Stockings played their home games at West Side Grounds and quickly established themselves as one of the new league's top teams. Spalding won forty-seven games and Barnes led the league in hitting at.429 as Chicago won the first ever National League pennant, which at the time was the game's top prize. After back-to-back pennants in 1880 and 1881, Hulbert died, and Spalding, who had retired to start Spalding sporting goods, assumed ownership of the club. The White Stockings, with Anson acting as player-manager, captured their third consecutive pennant in 1882,", "In 1902, Spalding, who by this time had revamped the roster to boast what would soon be one of the best teams of the early century, sold the club to Jim Hart. The franchise was nicknamed the Cubs by the \"Chicago Daily News\" in 1902, although not officially becoming the Chicago Cubs until the 1907 season. During this period, which has become known as baseball's dead-ball era, Cub infielders Joe Tinker, Johnny Evers, and Frank Chance were made famous as a double-play combination by Franklin P. Adams' poem \"Baseball's Sad Lexicon\". The poem first appeared in the July 18, 1910 edition of the \"New York Evening Mail\". Mordecai \"Three-Finger\" Brown, Jack Taylor, Ed Reulbach, Jack Pfiester, and Orval Overall were several key pitchers for the Cubs during this time period. With Chance acting as player-manager from 1905 to 1912, the Cubs won four pennants and two World Series titles over a five-year span. Although they fell to the \"Hitless Wonders\" White Sox in the 1906 World Series, the Cubs recorded a record 116 victories and the best winning percentage (.763) in Major League history. With mostly the same roster, Chicago won back-to-back World Series championships in 1907 and 1908, becoming the first Major League club to play three times in", "", "Near the end of the first decade of the double-Bills' guidance, the Cubs won the NL Pennant in 1929 and then achieved the unusual feat of winning a pennant every three years, following up the 1929 flag with league titles in 1932, 1935, and 1938. Unfortunately, their success did not extend to the Fall Classic, as they fell to their AL rivals each time. The '32 series against the Yankees featured Babe Ruth's \"called shot\" at Wrigley Field in game three. There were some historic moments for the Cubs as well; In 1930, Hack Wilson, one of the top home run hitters in the game, had one of the most impressive seasons in MLB history,", "The Cubs enjoyed one more pennant at the close of World War II, finishing 98–56. Due to the wartime travel restrictions, the first three games of the 1945 World Series were played in Detroit, where the Cubs won two games, including a one-hitter by Claude Passeau, and the final four were played at Wrigley. The Cubs lost the series, and did not return until the 2016 World Series. After losing the 1945 World Series to the Detroit Tigers, the Cubs finished with a respectable 82–71 record in the following year, but this was only good enough for third place.", "The late-1960s brought hope of a renaissance, with third baseman Ron Santo, pitcher Ferguson Jenkins, and outfielder Billy Williams joining Banks. After losing a dismal 103 games in 1966, the Cubs brought home consecutive winning records in '67 and '68, marking the first time a Cub team had accomplished that feat in over two decades. In the Cubs, managed by Leo Durocher, built a substantial lead in the newly created National League Eastern Division by mid-August. Ken Holtzman pitched a no-hitter on August 19, and the division lead grew to 8 games over the St. Louis Cardinals and by 9 games over the New York Mets. After the game of September 2, the Cubs record was 84–52 with the Mets in second place at 77–55. But then a losing streak began just as a Mets winning streak was beginning. The Cubs lost the final game of a series at Cincinnati, then came home to play the resurgent Pittsburgh Pirates (who would finish in third place). After losing the first two games by scores of 9–2 and 13–4, the Cubs led going into the ninth inning.", "Following the 1969 season, the club posted winning records for the next few seasons, but no playoff action. After the core players of those teams started to move on, the 70s got worse for the team, and they became known as \"the Loveable Losers.\" In, the team found some life, but ultimately experienced one of its biggest collapses. The Cubs hit a high-water mark on June 28 at 47–22, boasting an game NL East lead, as they were led by Bobby Murcer (27 HR/89 RBI), and Rick Reuschel (20–10). However, the Philadelphia Phillies cut", "", "After over a dozen more subpar seasons, in 1981 the Cubs hired GM Dallas Green from Philadelphia to turn around the franchise. Green had managed the 1980 Phillies to the World Series title. One of his early GM moves brought in a young Phillies minor-league 3rd baseman named Ryne Sandberg, along with Larry Bowa for Iván DeJesús. The 1983 Cubs had finished 71–91 under Lee Elia, who was fired before the season ended by Green. Green continued the culture of change and overhauled the Cubs roster, front-office and coaching staff prior to 1984. Jim Frey was hired to manage the 1984 Cubs, with Don Zimmer coaching 3rd base and Billy Connors serving as pitching coach. Green shored up the 1984 roster with a series of transactions. In December, 1983 Scott Sanderson was acquired from Montreal in a three-team deal with San Diego for Carmelo Martínez. Pinch hitter Richie Hebner (.333 BA in 1984) was signed as a free-agent. In spring training, moves continued: LF Gary Matthews and CF Bobby Dernier came from Philadelphia on March 26, for Bill Campbell and a minor leaguer. Reliever Tim Stoddard (10–6 3.82, 7 saves) was acquired the same day for a minor leaguer; veteran pitcher Ferguson Jenkins was released. The team's commitment to contend was complete when Green made a", "In 1989, the first full season with night baseball at Wrigley Field, Don Zimmer's Cubs were led by a core group of veterans in Ryne Sandberg, Rick Sutcliffe and Andre Dawson, who were boosted by a crop of youngsters such as Mark Grace, Shawon Dunston, Greg Maddux, Rookie of the Year Jerome Walton, and Rookie of the Year Runner-Up Dwight Smith. The Cubs won the NL East once again that season winning 93 games. This time the Cubs met the San", "The 1998 season would begin on a somber note with the death of legendary broadcaster Harry Caray. After the retirement of Sandberg and the trade of Dunston, the Cubs had holes to fill, and the signing of Henry Rodríguez to bat cleanup provided protection for Sammy Sosa in the lineup, as Rodriguez slugged 31 round-trippers in his first season in Chicago. Kevin Tapani led the club with a career high 19 wins while Rod Beck anchored a strong bullpen and Mark Grace turned in one of his best seasons. The Cubs were swamped by media attention in 1998, and the team's two biggest headliners were Sosa and rookie flamethrower Kerry Wood. Wood's signature performance was one-hitting the Houston Astros, a game in which he tied the major league record of 20 strikeouts in nine innings. His torrid strikeout numbers earned Wood the nickname \"\"Kid K,\"\" and ultimately earned him the 1998 NL Rookie of the Year award. Sosa caught fire in June,", "Despite losing fan favorite Grace to free agency and the lack of production from newcomer Todd Hundley, skipper Don Baylor's Cubs put together a good season in 2001. The season started with Mack Newton being brought in to preach \"positive thinking.\" One of the biggest stories of the season transpired as the club made a midseason deal for Fred McGriff, which", "The Cubs had high expectations in 2002, but the squad played poorly. On July 5, 2002, the Cubs promoted assistant general manager and player personnel director Jim Hendry to the General Manager position. The club responded by hiring Dusty Baker and by making some major moves in 2003. Most notably, they traded with the Pittsburgh Pirates for outfielder Kenny Lofton and third baseman Aramis Ramírez, and rode dominant pitching, led by Kerry Wood and Mark Prior, as the Cubs led the division down the stretch. Chicago halted St. Louis' run to the playoffs by taking four of five games from the Cardinals at Wrigley Field in early September, after which they won their first division title in 14 years. They then went on to defeat the Atlanta Braves in a dramatic five-game Division Series, the franchise's first postseason series win since beating the Detroit Tigers in the 1908 World Series. After losing an extra-inning game in Game 1, the Cubs rallied and took a three-games-to-one lead over the Wild Card Florida Marlins in the National League Championship Series. Florida", "In 2004, the Cubs were a consensus pick by most media outlets to win the World Series. The offseason acquisition of Derek Lee (who was acquired in a trade with Florida for Hee-seop Choi) and the return of Greg Maddux only bolstered these expectations. Despite a mid-season deal for Nomar Garciaparra, misfortune struck the Cubs again. They led the Wild Card by 1.5 games over San Francisco and Houston on September 25. On that day, both teams lost, giving the Cubs a chance at increasing the lead to 2.5 games with only eight games remaining in the season, but reliever LaTroy Hawkins blew a save to the Mets, and the Cubs lost the game in extra innings. The defeat seemingly deflated the team, as they proceeded to drop six of their last eight games as the Astros won the Wild Card.", "After finishing last in the NL Central with 66 wins in 2006, the Cubs re-tooled and went from \"worst to first\" in 2007. In the offseason they signed Alfonso Soriano to a contract at eight years for $136 million, and replaced manager Dusty Baker with fiery veteran manager Lou Piniella. After a rough start, which included a brawl between Michael Barrett and Carlos Zambrano, the Cubs overcame the Milwaukee Brewers, who had led the division for most of the season. The Cubs traded Barrett to the Padres, and later acquired catcher Jason Kendall from Oakland. Kendall was highly successful with his management of the pitching rotation and helped at the plate as well. By September, Geovany Soto became the full-time starter behind the plate, replacing the veteran Kendall. Winning streaks in June and July, coupled with a pair of dramatic, late-inning wins against the Reds, led to the Cubs ultimately clinching the NL Central with a record of 85–77. They met Arizona in the NLDS, but controversy followed as Piniella, in a move that has since come under scrutiny, pulled Carlos Zambrano after the sixth inning of a pitcher's duel with D-Backs ace Brandon Webb, to \"...save Zambrano for (a", "The Ricketts family acquired a majority interest in the Cubs in 2009, ending the Tribune years. Apparently handcuffed by the Tribune's bankruptcy and the sale of the club to the Ricketts siblings, led by chairman Thomas S. Ricketts, the Cubs' quest for a NL Central three-peat started with notice that there would be less invested into contracts than in previous years. Chicago engaged St. Louis in a see-saw battle for first place into August 2009, but the Cardinals played to a torrid 20–6 pace that month, designating their rivals to battle in the Wild", "Rookie Starlin Castro debuted in early May (2010) as the starting shortstop. However, the club played poorly in the early season, finding themselves 10 games under.500 at the end of June. In addition, long-time ace Carlos Zambrano was pulled from a game against the White Sox on June 25 after a tirade and shoving match with Derrek Lee, and was suspended indefinitely by Jim Hendry, who called the conduct \"unacceptable.\" On August 22, Lou Piniella, who had already announced his retirement at the end of the season, announced that he would leave the Cubs prematurely to take care of his sick mother. Mike Quade took over as the interim manager for the final 37 games of the year. Despite being well out of playoff contention the Cubs went 24–13 under Quade, the best record", "On November 2, 2014, the Cubs announced that Joe Maddon had signed a five-year contract to be the 54th manager in team history. On December 10, 2014, Maddon announced that the team had signed free agent Jon Lester to a six-year, $155 million contract. Many other trades and acquisitions occurred during the off season. The opening day lineup for the Cubs contained five new players including center fielder Dexter Fowler. Rookies Kris Bryant and Addison Russell were in the starting lineup by mid-April, and rookie Kyle Schwarber was added in mid-June. On August 30, Jake Arrieta threw a no hitter against the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Cubs finished the 2015 season in third place in the NL Central, with a record of 97–65, the third best record in the majors and earned a wild card berth. On October 7, in the 2015 National League Wild Card Game, Arrieta pitched a complete game shutout and the Cubs defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates 4–0. The Cubs defeated the Cardinals in the NLDS three-games-to-one, qualifying for a return to the NLCS for the first time in 12 years, where they faced the New York Mets. This was the first time in franchise history that the Cubs had clinched a playoff series at Wrigley Field. However, they were swept in four games by the Mets and were unable to make it to their first World Series since 1945. Before the season, in an effort to shore up their lineup, free agents Ben Zobrist, Jason Heyward and John Lackey were signed. To make room for the Zobrist signing, Starlin Castro was traded to the Yankees for Adam Warren and Brendan Ryan, the latter of whom was released a week later. Also during the middle of the season, the Cubs traded their top prospect Gleyber Torres for Aroldis Chapman. In a season that included a no-hitter on April 21 by Jake Arrieta, the Cubs finished with the best record in Major League Baseball and won their first National League Central title since the 2008 season, winning by 17.5 games. The team also reached the 100-win mark for the first time since 1935 and won 103 total games, the most wins for the franchise since 1910. The Cubs defeated the San Francisco Giants in the National League Division Series and returned to the National League Championship Series for the second year in a row, where they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games. This was their first NLCS win since the series was created in 1969. The win earned the Cubs their first World Series appearance since 1945 and a chance for their first World Series win", "", "The Cubs have played their home games at Wrigley Field, also known as \"\"The Friendly Confines\"\" since 1916. It was built in 1914 as Weeghman Park for the Chicago Whales, a Federal League baseball team. The Cubs also shared the park with the Chicago Bears of the NFL for 50 years. The ballpark includes a manual scoreboard, ivy-covered brick walls, and relatively small dimensions. Located in Chicago's Lake View neighborhood, Wrigley Field sits on an irregular block bounded by Clark and Addison Streets and Waveland and Sheffield Avenues. The area surrounding the ballpark is typically referred to as Wrigleyville. There is a dense collection of sports bars and restaurants in the area, most with baseball inspired themes, including Sluggers, Murphy's Bleachers and The Cubby Bear. Many of the apartment buildings surrounding Wrigley Field on Waveland and Sheffield Avenues have built bleachers on their rooftops for fans to view games and other sell space for advertisement. One building on Sheffield Avenue has a sign atop its roof which says \"Eamus Catuli!\" which is Latin for \"Let's Go Cubs!\" and another chronicles the time", "The \"Bleacher Bums\" is a name given to fans, many of whom spend much of the day heckling, who sit in the bleacher section at Wrigley Field. Initially, the group was called \"bums\" because they attended most of the games, and as Wrigley did not yet have lights, these were all day games, so it was jokingly", "", "Beginning in the days of P.K. Wrigley and the 1937 bleacher/scoreboard reconstruction, and prior to modern media saturation, a flag with either a \"W\" or an \"L\" has flown from atop the scoreboard masthead, indicating the day's result(s) when baseball was played at Wrigley. In case of a split doubleheader, both the \"W\" and \"L\" flags are flown. Past Cubs media guides show that originally the flags were blue with a white \"W\" and white with a blue \"L\". In 1978, consistent with the dominant colors of the flags, blue and white lights were mounted atop the scoreboard, denoting \"win\" and \"loss\" respectively for the benefit of nighttime passers-by. The flags were replaced by 1990, the first year in which", "The official Cubs team mascot is a young bear cub, named Clark, described by the team's press release as a young and friendly Cub. Clark made his debut at Advocate Health Care on January 13, 2014, the same day as the press release announcing his installation as the club's first ever official physical mascot. The bear cub itself was used in the clubs since the early 1900s and was the inspiration of the Chicago Staleys changing their team's name to the Chicago Bears, because the Cubs allowed the bigger football players—like bears to cubs—to play at Wrigley Field in the 1930s. The Cubs had no official physical mascot prior to Clark, though a man in a 'polar bear' looking outfit, called \"The Bear-man\" (or Beeman), which was mildly popular with the fans, paraded the stands briefly in the early 1990s. There is no record of whether or not", "During the summer of 1969, a Chicago studio group produced a single record called \"Hey Hey! Holy Mackerel! (The Cubs Song)\" whose title and lyrics incorporated the catch-phrases of the respective TV and radio announcers for the Cubs, Jack Brickhouse and Vince Lloyd. Several members of the Cubs recorded an album called \"Cub Power\" which contained a cover of the song. The song received a good deal of local airplay that summer, associating it very strongly with that bittersweet season. It was played much less frequently thereafter, although it remained an unofficial Cubs theme song for some years after. For many years, Cubs radio broadcasts started with \"It's a Beautiful Day for a Ball Game\" by the Harry Simeone Chorale. In 1979, Roger Bain released a 45 rpm record of his song \"Thanks Mr. Banks\", to honor \"Mr. Cub\" Ernie Banks. The song \"Go, Cubs, Go!\" by Steve Goodman was recorded early in the 1984 season, and was heard frequently during that season. Goodman died in September of", "The 1986 film \"Ferris Bueller's Day Off\" showed a game played by the Cubs when Ferris' principal goes to a bar looking for him. The 1989 film \"Back to the Future Part II\" depicts the Chicago Cubs defeating a baseball team from Miami in the 2015 World Series, ending the longest championship drought in all four of the major North American professional sports leagues. In 2015, the Miami Marlins failed to make the playoffs but the Cubs were able to make it to the 2015 National League Wild Card round and move on to the", "\"\"Baseball's Sad Lexicon,\"\" also known as \"\"Tinker to Evers to Chance\"\" after its refrain, is a 1910 baseball poem by Franklin Pierce Adams. The poem is presented as a single, rueful stanza from the point of view of a New York Giants fan seeing the talented Chicago Cubs infield of shortstop Joe Tinker, second baseman Johnny Evers, and first baseman Frank Chance complete", "Throughout the history of the Chicago Cubs' franchise, 15 different Cubs pitchers have pitched no-hitters; however, no Cubs pitcher has thrown a perfect game.", "As of 2018, the Chicago Cubs are ranked as the 16th most valuable sports team in the", "", "The Chicago Cubs retired numbers are commemorated on pinstriped flags flying from the foul poles at Wrigley Field, with the exception of Jackie Robinson, the Brooklyn Dodgers player whose number 42 was retired for all clubs.", "The Chicago Cubs farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates. Before signing a developmental agreement with the Kane County Cougars in 2012, the Cubs had a Class A minor league affiliation on two occasions with the Peoria Chiefs (1985–1995 and 2004–2012). Ryne Sandberg managed the Chiefs from 2006 to 2010. In the period between those associations with the Chiefs, the club had affiliations with the Dayton Dragons and Lansing Lugnuts. The", "The Chicago White Stockings, (today's Chicago Cubs), began spring training in Hot Springs, Arkansas in 1886. President Albert Spalding (founder of Spalding Sporting Goods) and player/manager Cap Anson brought their players to Hot Springs and played at the Hot Springs Baseball Grounds. The concept was for the players to have training and fitness before the start of the regular season, utilizing the bath houses of Hot Springs after practices. After the White Stockings had a successful season in 1886, winning the National League Pennant, other teams began bringing their players", "", "Cubs radio rights are held by Entercom; its acquisition of the radio rights effective 2015 (under CBS Radio) ended the team's 90-year association with 720 WGN. During the first season of the contract, Cubs games aired on WBBM, taking over as flagship of the Chicago Cubs Radio Network. On November 11, 2015, CBS announced that the Cubs would move", "The club also produces its own print media; the Cubs' official magazine \"Vineline\", which has 12", "As of the 2020 season, all Cubs games not aired on broadcast television will air on Marquee Sports Network, a joint venture between the team and Sinclair Broadcast Group. The venture was officially announced in February 2019. WGN-TV had a long-term association with the team, having aired Cubs games via its WGN Sports department from its establishment in 1948, through the 2019 season. For a period, WGN's Cubs games aired nationally on WGN America (formerly Superstation WGN); however, prior to the 2015 season, the Cubs, as well as all other Chicago sports programming, was dropped from the channel as part of its re-positioning as a general entertainment cable channel. To compensate, all games carried by over-the-air channels were syndicated to a network of other television stations within the Cubs' market, which includes Illinois and parts of Indiana and Iowa. Due to limits on program pre-emptions imposed by WGN's former affiliations with The WB and its successor The CW," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "The birth of the Reds and the American Association (1881–1889).", "The National League returns to Cincinnati (1890–1911).", "Redland Field to the Great Depression (1912–1932).", "Championship baseball and revival (1933–1940).", "1941–1969.", "The Big Red Machine (1970–1976).", "The Machine dismantled (1977–1989).", "World Championship and the end of an era (1990–2002).", "Contemporary era (2003–present).", "Ballpark.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Logo.", "Uniform.", "Awards and accolades.", "Retired numbers.", "MLB All-Star Games.", "Ohio Cup.", "Media.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The origins of the modern Cincinnati Reds can be traced to the expulsion of an earlier team bearing that name. In 1876, Cincinnati became one of the charter members of the new National League, but the club ran afoul of league organizer and long-time president William Hulbert for selling beer during games and renting out their ballpark on Sundays. Both were important activities to entice the city's large German population. While Hulbert made clear his distaste for both beer and Sunday baseball at the founding", "The Cincinnati Red Stockings left the American Association on November 14, 1889 and joined the National League along with the Brooklyn Bridegrooms after a dispute with St. Louis Browns owner Chris Von Der Ahe over the selection of a new league president. The National League was happy to accept the teams in part due to the emergence of the new Player's League. This new league, an early failed attempt to break the reserve clause in baseball, threatened both existing leagues. Because the National League decided to expand while the", "In 1912, the club opened a new steel-and-concrete ballpark, Redland Field (later to be known as Crosley Field). The Reds had been playing baseball on that same site, the corner of Findlay and Western Avenues on the city's west side, for 28 years, in wooden structures that had been occasionally damaged by fires. By the late 1910s the Reds began to come out of the second division. The 1918 team finished fourth, and new manager Pat Moran led the Reds to an NL pennant in 1919,", "Powel Crosley, Jr., an electronics magnate who, with his brother Lewis M. Crosley, produced radios, refrigerators, and other household items, bought the Reds out of bankruptcy in 1933, and hired Larry MacPhail to be the General Manager. Crosley had started WLW radio, the Reds flagship radio broadcaster, and the Crosley Broadcasting Corporation in Cincinnati, where he was also a prominent civic leader. MacPhail began to develop the Reds' minor league system and expanded the Reds' fan base. The Reds, throughout the 1930s, became a team of \"firsts\". The now-renamed Crosley Field became the host of the first night game in 1935, which was also the first baseball", "World War II and age finally caught up with the Reds. Throughout the 1940s and early 1950s, Cincinnati finished mostly in the second division. In 1944, Joe Nuxhall (who was later to become part of the radio broadcasting team), at age 15, pitched for the Reds on loan from Wilson Junior High school in Hamilton, Ohio. He became the youngest player ever to appear in a major league game—a record that still stands today. Ewell \"The Whip\" Blackwell was the main pitching stalwart before arm problems cut short his career. Ted Kluszewski was the NL home run leader in 1954. The rest of the offense was a collection of over-the-hill players and not-ready-for-prime-time youngsters. In April 1953, the Reds announced a preference to be called the \"Redlegs\", saying that the name of the club had been \"Red Stockings\" and then \"Redlegs\". A newspaper speculated that it was due to the developing political connotation of the word'red' to mean Communism. From 1956", "In, little known George \"Sparky\" Anderson was hired as manager, and the Reds embarked upon a decade of excellence, with a team that came to be known as \"The Big Red Machine\". Playing at Crosley Field until June 30, 1970, when the Reds moved into brand-new Riverfront Stadium, a 52,000 seat multi-purpose venue on the shores of the Ohio River, the Reds began the 1970s with a bang by winning 70 of their first 100 games. Johnny Bench, Tony Pérez, Pete Rose, Lee May and Bobby Tolan were the early Red Machine offensive leaders; Gary Nolan, Jim Merritt, Wayne Simpson and Jim McGlothlin led a pitching staff which also contained veterans Tony Cloninger and Clay Carroll and youngsters Pedro Borbón and Don Gullett. The Reds breezed through the 1970 season, winning the NL West and captured the NL pennant by sweeping the Pittsburgh Pirates in three games. By the time the club got to the World Series, however, the Reds pitching staff had run out of gas and the veteran Baltimore Orioles, led by Hall of Fame third baseman and World Series MVP Brooks Robinson, beat the Reds in five games. After the disastrous season (the only season of the 1970s during which the Reds finished with a losing record) the Reds reloaded by trading veterans Jimmy Stewart, May, and Tommy Helms for Joe Morgan, César Gerónimo, Jack Billingham, Ed Armbrister, and Denis Menke. Meanwhile, Dave Concepción", "The later years of the 1970s brought turmoil and change. Popular Tony Pérez was sent to Montreal after the 1976 season, breaking up the Big Red Machine's starting lineup. Manager Sparky Anderson and General Manager Bob Howsam later considered this trade the biggest mistake of their careers. Starting pitcher Don Gullett left via free agency and signed with the New York Yankees. In an effort to fill that gap, a trade with the Oakland A's for starting ace Vida Blue was arranged during the 1976–77 off-season. However, Bowie Kuhn, the Commissioner of Baseball, vetoed the trade for the stated reason of maintaining competitive balance in baseball. Some have suggested that the actual reason had more to due with Kuhn's continued feud with Oakland A's owner Charlie Finley. On June 15, 1977, the Reds acquired Mets' franchise pitcher Tom Seaver for Pat Zachry, Doug Flynn, Steve Henderson, and Dan Norman. In other deals that proved to be less successful, the Reds traded Gary Nolan to the Angels for Craig Hendrickson, Rawly Eastwick to St. Louis for Doug Capilla and Mike Caldwell to Milwaukee for Rick O'Keeffe and Garry Pyka, and got Rick Auerbach from Texas. The end of the Big Red Machine era was heralded by the replacement of General Manager Bob Howsam with Dick Wagner. In Rose's last season as a", "In, General Manager Bergesch was replaced by Murray Cook, who initiated a series of deals that would finally bring the Reds back to the championship, starting with acquisitions of Danny Jackson and José Rijo. An aging Dave Parker was let go after a revival of his career in Cincinnati following the Pittsburgh drug trials. Barry Larkin emerged as the starting shortstop over Kurt Stillwell, who along with reliever Power, was traded for Jackson. In, Cook was succeeded by Bob Quinn, who put the final pieces of the championship puzzle together, with the acquisitions of Hal Morris, Billy Hatcher and Randy Myers. In, the Reds under new manager Lou Piniella", "Riverfront Stadium, by then known as Cinergy Field, was demolished in. Great American Ball Park opened in with high expectations for a team led by local favorites, including outfielder Ken Griffey, Jr., shortstop Barry Larkin, and first baseman Sean Casey. Although attendance improved considerably with the new ballpark, the team continued to lose. Schott had not invested much in the farm system since the early 1990s, leaving the team relatively thin on talent. After years of promises that the club was rebuilding toward the opening of the new ballpark, General Manager Jim Bowden and manager Bob Boone were fired on July 28. This broke up the father-son combo of manager Bob Boone and third baseman Aaron Boone, and Aaron was soon traded to the New York Yankees. Tragedy struck in November when Dernell Stenson, a promising young outfielder for the Reds, was shot and killed during a carjack. Following the season Dan O'Brien was hired as the Reds' 16th General Manager. The and seasons continued the trend of big hitting, poor pitching, and poor records. Griffey, Jr. joined the 500 home run club in 2004, but was again hampered by injuries. Adam Dunn emerged as consistent home run hitter, including a home run against", "The Cincinnati Reds play their home games at Great American Ball Park, located at 100 Joe Nuxhall Way, in downtown Cincinnati. Great American Ball Park opened in 2003 at the cost of $290 million and has a capacity of 42,271. Along with serving as the home field for the Reds, the stadium also holds the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame. The Hall of Fame was added as a part of Reds tradition allowing fans to walk through the history of the franchise as well as participating in many interactive baseball features. Great American Ball Park is the seventh home of the Cincinnati Reds, built immediately to the north of the site on which Riverfront Stadium, later named Cinergy Field, once stood. The first ballpark the Reds occupied was Bank Street Grounds from 1882 to 1883 until they moved to League Park I in 1884, where they would remain until 1893.", "", "Throughout the history of the Cincinnati Reds, many different variations of the classic wishbone \"C\" logo have been introduced. For most of the history of the Reds, especially during the early history, the Reds logo has been simply the wishbone \"C\" with the word \"REDS\" inside, the only colors used being red and white. However, during the 1950s, during the renaming and re-branding of the team as the Cincinnati Redlegs because of the connections to communism", "Along with the logo, the Reds' uniforms have been changed many different times throughout their history. Following their departure from being called the \"Redlegs\" in 1956 the Reds made a groundbreaking change to their uniforms with the use of sleeveless jerseys, seen only once before in the Major Leagues by the Chicago Cubs. At home and away, the cap was all-red with a white wishbone C insignia. The long-sleeved undershirts were red. The uniform was plain white with a red wishbone C logo on the left and the uniform number on the right. On the road the wishbone C was replaced by the mustachioed \"Mr. Red\" logo, the pillbox-hat-wearing man with a baseball for a", "", "The Cincinnati Reds have retired ten numbers in franchise history, as well as honoring Jackie Robinson, whose number is retired league-wide around Major League Baseball. All of the retired numbers are located at Great American", "The Reds have hosted the Major League Baseball All-Star Game five times: twice at Crosley Field (1938, 1953), twice at Riverfront Stadium (1970, 1988),", "The Ohio Cup was an annual pre-season baseball game, which pitted the Ohio rivals Cleveland Indians and Cincinnati Reds. In its first series it was a single-game cup, played each year at minor-league Cooper Stadium in Columbus, was staged just days before the start of each new Major League Baseball season. A total of eight Ohio Cup games were played, in 1989", "", "The Reds' flagship radio station has been WLW, 700AM since 1969. Prior to that, the Reds were heard over: WKRC, WCPO, WSAI and WCKY. WLW, a 50,000-watt station, is \"clear channel\" in more than one way, as iHeartMedia owns the \"blowtorch\" outlet which is also known as \"The Nation's Station\". Marty Brennaman has been the Reds' play-by-play voice since 1974 and has won the Ford C. Frick Award for his work, which includes his famous call of \"... and this one belongs to the Reds!\" after a win.", "Televised games are seen exclusively on Fox Sports Ohio and Fox Sports Indiana. In addition, Fox Sports South televises Fox Sports Ohio broadcasts of Reds games to Tennessee and western North Carolina. George Grande, who hosted the first \"SportsCenter\" on ESPN in 1979, was the play-by-play announcer, usually alongside Chris Welsh, from 1993 until his retirement during the final game of the 2009 season. Since 2009, Grande has worked part-time for the Reds as play-by-play announcer in September when Thom Brennaman is covering the NFL for Fox Sports. He has also made guest appearances throughout the season. Brennaman has been the head play-by-play commentator", "The Cincinnati Reds farm" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Versions.", "Server Extensions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "FrontPage was initially created by Cambridge, Massachusetts company Vermeer Technologies, Incorporated, evidence of which can be easily spotted in file names and directories prefixed _vti_ in web sites created using FrontPage. Vermeer was acquired by Microsoft in January 1996 specifically so that Microsoft could add FrontPage to its product line-up allowing them to gain an advantage in the browser wars, as FrontPage was designed to create web pages for their own browser, Internet Explorer. As a \"WYSIWYG\" (What You See Is What You Get) editor, FrontPage is designed to hide the details of pages' HTML code from the user, making it possible for novices to create web pages and web sites easily. FrontPage's initial outing under the Microsoft name came in 1996 with the release of Windows NT 4.0 Server and its constituent Web server Internet Information Services 2.0. Bundled on CD with the NT 4.0 Server release, FrontPage 1.1 would run under NT 4.0 (Server or Workstation) or Windows 95. Up to FrontPage 98, the \"FrontPage Editor\", which was used for designing pages, was a separate application from the \"FrontPage Explorer\" which was used to manage web site folders. With FrontPage 2000, both programs were merged into the \"Editor\". FrontPage used to require a set of server-side plugins originally known as IIS Extensions. The extension set was significantly enhanced for Microsoft inclusion of FrontPage into the Microsoft Office line-up with Office 97 and subsequently renamed FrontPage Server Extensions (FPSE). Both sets of extensions needed to be installed on the target web server for its content and publishing features to work. Microsoft offered both Windows and Unix-based versions of FPSE. FrontPage 2000 Server Extensions worked with earlier versions of FrontPage as well. FPSE 2002 was the last released version which also works with FrontPage 2003 and was later updated for IIS 6.0 as well. However, with FrontPage 2003, Microsoft began moving away from proprietary Server Extensions to standard protocols like FTP and WebDAV for remote web publishing and authoring. FrontPage 2003 can also be used with Windows SharePoint Services. A version for the classic Mac OS was released in 1998; however, it had fewer features than the Windows product and Microsoft has never updated it. In 2006, Microsoft announced that FrontPage would eventually be superseded by two products. Microsoft SharePoint Designer would allow business professionals to design SharePoint-based applications. Microsoft Expression Web is targeted at the web design professional for the creation of feature-rich web sites. Microsoft discontinued Microsoft FrontPage in December 2006.", "Some of the features in the last version of FrontPage include:", "\"Note\": There is no official version 5 to 9, because after FrontPage was included in some Office editions, the version numbers followed their Office version numbers. Nonetheless, version numbers may appear in the meta tags of HTML code generated by these versions of FrontPage.", "\"FrontPage Server Extensions\" are a software technology that allows FrontPage clients to communicate with web servers, and provide additional functionality intended for websites. Frequent security problems have marred the history of this Microsoft proprietary technology. It relies on HTTP protocol for communication, and CGI/POST for server-side processing. Software IDE Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0 uses this technology for file synchronization purposes, and strongly depends on this technology for file management. Most.NET Microsoft products obsoleted this in favor of WebDAV, but Visual Studio 2005 and 2008 still publishes ClickOnce applications to websites with FrontPage Server Extensions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Muon sources.", "Muon decay.", "Prohibited decays.", "Theoretical decay rate.", "Muonic atoms.", "Negative muon atoms.", "Positive muon atoms.", "Use in measurement of the proton charge radius.", "Anomalous magnetic dipole moment.", "Muon radiography and tomography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Muons were discovered by Carl D. Anderson and Seth Neddermeyer at Caltech in 1936, while studying cosmic radiation. Anderson noticed particles that curved differently from electrons and other known particles when passed through a magnetic field. They were negatively charged but curved less sharply than electrons, but more sharply than protons, for particles of the same velocity. It was assumed that the magnitude of their negative electric charge was equal to that of the electron, and so to account for the difference in curvature, it was supposed that their mass was greater than an electron but smaller than a proton. Thus Anderson initially called the new particle a \"mesotron\", adopting the prefix \"meso-\" from the Greek word for \"mid-\". The existence of the muon was confirmed in 1937 by J.C. Street and E.C. Stevenson's cloud chamber experiment. A particle with a mass in the meson range had been predicted before the discovery of any mesons, by theorist Hideki Yukawa: It seems natural to modify the theory of Heisenberg and Fermi in the following way. The transition of a heavy particle from neutron state to proton state is not always accompanied by the emission of light particles. The transition is sometimes taken up by another heavy particle. Because of its mass, the mu meson was initially thought to be Yukawa's particle, but it later proved to have the wrong properties. Yukawa's predicted particle, the pi meson, was finally identified in 1947 (again from cosmic ray interactions), and shown to differ from the earlier-discovered mu meson by having the correct properties to be a particle which mediated the nuclear force. With two particles now known with the intermediate mass, the more general term \"meson\" was adopted to refer to any such particle within the correct mass range between electrons and nucleons. Further, in order to differentiate between the two different types of mesons after the second meson was discovered, the initial mesotron particle was renamed the \"mu meson\" (the Greek letter \"μ\" [\"mu\"] corresponds to \"m\"), and the new 1947 meson (Yukawa's particle) was named the pi meson. As more types of mesons were discovered in accelerator experiments later, it was eventually found that the mu meson significantly differed not only from the pi meson (of about the same mass), but also from all other types of mesons. The difference, in part, was that mu mesons did not interact with the nuclear force, as pi mesons did (and were required to do, in Yukawa's theory). Newer mesons also showed evidence of behaving like the pi meson in nuclear interactions, but not like the mu meson. Also, the mu meson's decay products included both a neutrino and an antineutrino, rather than just one or the other, as was observed in the decay of other charged mesons. In the eventual Standard Model of particle physics codified in the 1970s, all mesons other than the mu meson were understood to be hadrons – that is, particles made of quarks – and thus subject to the nuclear force. In the quark model, a \"meson\" was no longer defined by mass (for some had been discovered that were very massive – more than nucleons), but instead were particles composed of exactly two quarks (a quark and antiquark), unlike the baryons, which are defined as particles composed of three quarks (protons and neutrons were the lightest baryons). Mu mesons, however, had shown themselves to be fundamental particles (leptons) like electrons, with no quark structure. Thus, mu “mesons” were not mesons at all, in the new sense and use of the term \"meson\" used with the quark model of particle structure. With this change in definition, the term \"mu meson\" was abandoned, and replaced whenever possible with the modern term \"muon\", making the term “mu meson” only a historical footnote. In the new quark model, other types of mesons sometimes continued to be referred to in shorter terminology (e.g., \"pion\" for pi meson), but in the case of the muon, it retained the shorter name and was never again properly referred to by older \"mu meson\" terminology. The eventual recognition of the muon as a simple \"heavy electron\", with no role at all in the nuclear interaction, seemed so incongruous and surprising at the time, that Nobel laureate I. I. Rabi famously quipped, \"Who ordered that?\" In the Rossi–Hall experiment (1941), muons were used to observe the time dilation (or, alternatively, length contraction) predicted by special relativity, for the first time.", "Muons arriving on the Earth's surface are created indirectly as decay products of collisions of cosmic rays with particles of the Earth's atmosphere. When a cosmic ray proton impacts atomic nuclei in the upper atmosphere, pions are created. These decay within a relatively short distance (meters) into muons (their preferred decay product), and muon neutrinos. The muons from these high-energy cosmic rays generally continue in about the same direction as the original proton, at a velocity near the speed of light. Although their lifetime \"without\" relativistic effects would allow a half-survival distance of only about 456 meters at most (as seen from Earth) the time dilation effect of special relativity (from the viewpoint of the Earth) allows cosmic ray secondary muons to survive the flight to the Earth's surface, since in the Earth frame the muons have a longer half-life due to their velocity. From the viewpoint (inertial frame) of the muon, on the other hand, it is the length contraction effect of special relativity which allows this penetration, since in the muon frame its lifetime is unaffected, but the length contraction causes distances through the atmosphere and Earth to be far shorter than these distances in the Earth rest-frame. Both effects are equally valid ways of explaining the fast muon's unusual survival over distances. Since muons are unusually penetrative of ordinary matter, like neutrinos, they are also detectable deep underground (700 meters at the Soudan 2 detector) and underwater, where they form a major part of the natural background ionizing radiation. Like cosmic rays, as noted, this secondary muon radiation is also directional. The same nuclear reaction described above (i.e. hadron-hadron impacts to produce pion beams, which then quickly decay to muon beams over short distances) is used by particle physicists to produce muon beams, such as the beam used for the muon \"g\"−2 experiment.", "Muons are unstable elementary particles and are heavier than electrons and neutrinos but lighter than all other matter particles. They decay via the weak interaction. Because leptonic family numbers are conserved in the absence of an extremely unlikely immediate neutrino oscillation, one of the product neutrinos of muon decay must be a muon-type neutrino and the other an electron-type antineutrino (antimuon decay produces the corresponding antiparticles, as detailed below). Because charge must be conserved, one of the products of muon decay is always an electron of the same charge as the muon (a positron if it is a positive muon). Thus all muons decay to at least an electron, and two neutrinos. Sometimes, besides these necessary products, additional other particles that have no net charge and spin of zero (e.g., a pair of photons, or an electron-positron pair), are produced. The dominant muon decay mode (sometimes called the Michel decay after Louis Michel) is the simplest possible: the muon decays to an electron, an electron antineutrino, and a muon neutrino. Antimuons, in mirror fashion, most often decay to the corresponding antiparticles: a positron, an electron neutrino, and a muon antineutrino. In formulaic terms, these two decays are: The mean lifetime, = /, of the (positive) muon is. The equality of the muon and antimuon lifetimes has been established to better than one part in 10.", "Certain neutrino-less decay modes are kinematically allowed but are, for all practical purposes, forbidden in the Standard Model, even given that neutrinos have mass and oscillate. Examples forbidden by lepton flavour conservation are: and To be precise: in the Standard Model with neutrino mass, a decay like → + is technically possible, for example by neutrino oscillation of a virtual muon neutrino into an electron neutrino, but such a decay is astronomically unlikely and therefore should be experimentally unobservable: Less than one in 10 muon decays should produce such a decay. Observation of such decay modes would constitute clear evidence for theories beyond the Standard Model. Upper limits for the branching fractions of such decay modes were measured in many experiments starting more than years ago. The current upper limit for the → + branching fraction was measured 2009–2013 in the MEG experiment and is 4.2 × 10.", "The muon decay width which follows from Fermi's golden rule has dimension of energy, and must be proportional to the square of the amplitude, and thus the square of Fermi's coupling constant (formula_3), with over-all dimension of inverse fourth power of energy. By dimensional analysis, this leads to Sargent's rule of fifth-power dependence on, where formula_5, and The decay distributions of the electron in muon decays have been parameterised using the so-called Michel parameters. The values of these four parameters are predicted unambiguously in the Standard Model of particle physics, thus muon decays represent a good test of the space-time structure of the weak interaction. No deviation from the Standard Model predictions has yet been found. For the decay of the muon, the expected decay distribution for the Standard Model values of Michel parameters is where formula_8 is the angle between the muon's polarization vector formula_9 and the decay-electron momentum vector, and formula_10 is the fraction of muons that are forward-polarized. Integrating this expression over electron energy gives the angular distribution of the daughter electrons: The electron energy distribution integrated over the polar angle (valid for formula_12) is Due to the muons decaying by the weak interaction, parity conservation is violated. Replacing the formula_14 term in the expected decay values of the Michel Parameters with a formula_15 term, where is the Larmor frequency from Larmor precession of the muon in a uniform magnetic field, given by: where is mass of the muon, is charge, is the muon g-factor and is applied field. A change in the electron distribution computed using the standard, unprecessional, Michel Parameters can be seen displaying a periodicity of radians. This can be shown to physically correspond to a phase change of, introduced in the electron distribution as the angular momentum is changed by the action of the charge conjugation operator, which is conserved by the weak interaction. The observation of parity violation in muon decay can be compared to the concept of violation of parity in weak interactions in general as an extension of the Wu experiment, as well as the change of angular momentum introduced by a phase change of π corresponding to the charge-parity operator being invariant in this interaction. This fact is true for all lepton interactions in The Standard Model.", "The muon was the first elementary particle discovered that does not appear in ordinary atoms.", "\"Negative\" muons can, however, form muonic atoms (previously called mu-mesic atoms), by replacing an electron in ordinary atoms. Muonic hydrogen atoms are much smaller than typical hydrogen atoms because the much larger mass of the muon gives it a much more localized ground-state wavefunction than is observed for the electron. In multi-electron atoms, when only one of the electrons is replaced by a muon, the size of the atom continues to be determined by the other electrons, and the atomic size is nearly unchanged. However, in such cases the orbital of the muon continues to be smaller and far closer to the nucleus than the atomic orbitals of the electrons. Muonic helium is created by substituting a muon for one of the electrons in helium-4. The muon orbits much closer to the nucleus, so muonic helium can therefore be regarded like an isotope of helium whose nucleus consists of two neutrons, two protons and a muon, with a single electron outside. Colloquially, it could be called \"helium 4.1\", since the mass of the muon is slightly greater than 0.1 amu. Chemically, muonic helium, possessing an unpaired valence electron, can bond with other atoms, and behaves more like a hydrogen atom than an inert helium atom. Muonic heavy hydrogen atoms with a negative muon may undergo nuclear fusion in the process of muon-catalyzed fusion, after the muon may leave the new atom to induce fusion in another hydrogen molecule. This process continues until the negative muon is captured by a helium nucleus, and cannot escape until it decays. Finally, a possible fate of negative muons bound to conventional atoms is that they are captured by the weak-force by protons in nuclei in a sort of electron-capture-like process. When this happens, the proton becomes a neutron and a muon neutrino is emitted.", "A \"positive\" muon, when stopped in ordinary matter, cannot be captured by a proton since the two positive charges can only repel. The positive muon is also not attracted to the nucleus of atoms. Instead, it binds a random electron and with this electron forms an exotic atom known as muonium (mu) atom. In this atom, the muon acts as the nucleus. The positive muon, in this context, can be considered a pseudo-isotope of hydrogen with one ninth of the mass of the proton. Because the reduced mass of muonium, and hence its Bohr radius, is very close to that of hydrogen, this short-lived \"atom\" (or bound muon-electron pair) behaves chemically – to a first approximation – like the isotopes of hydrogen (protium, deuterium and tritium). Both positive and negative muons can be part of a short-lived pi-mu atom consisting of a muon and an oppositely charged pion. These atoms were observed in the 1970s in experiments at Brookhaven and Fermilab.", "The experimental technique that is expected to provide the most precise determination of the root-mean-square charge radius of the proton is the measurement of the frequency of photons (precise \"color\" of light) emitted or absorbed by atomic transitions in muonic hydrogen. This form of hydrogen atom is composed of a negatively charged muon bound to a proton. The muon is particularly well suited for this purpose because its much larger mass results in a much more compact bound state and hence a larger probability for it to be found inside the proton in muonic hydrogen compared to the electron in atomic hydrogen. The Lamb shift in muonic hydrogen was measured by driving the muon from a 2s state up to an excited 2p state using a laser. The frequency of the photons required to induce two such (slightly different) transitions were reported in 2014 to be 50 and 55 THz which, according to present theories of quantum electrodynamics, yield an appropriately averaged value of for the charge radius of the proton. The internationally accepted value of the proton's charge radius is based on a suitable average of results from older measurements of effects caused by the nonzero size of the proton on scattering of electrons by nuclei and the light spectrum (photon energies) from excited atomic hydrogen. The official value updated in 2014 is (see orders of magnitude for comparison to other sizes). The expected precision of this result is inferior to that from muonic hydrogen by about a factor of fifteen, yet they disagree by about 5.6 times the nominal uncertainty in the difference (a discrepancy called 5.6 in scientific notation). A conference of the world experts on this topic led to the decision to exclude the muon result from influencing the official 2014 value, in order to avoid hiding the mysterious discrepancy. This \"proton radius puzzle\" remained unresolved as of late 2015, and has attracted much attention, in part because of the possibility that both measurements are valid, which would imply the influence of some \"new physics\".", "The anomalous magnetic dipole moment is the difference between the experimentally observed value of the magnetic dipole moment and the theoretical value predicted by the Dirac equation. The measurement and prediction of this value is very important in the precision tests of QED (quantum electrodynamics). The E821 experiment at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) studied the precession of muon and anti-muon in a constant external magnetic field as they circulated in a confining storage ring. E821 reported the following average value in 2006: where the first errors are statistical and the second systematic. The prediction for the value of the muon anomalous magnetic moment includes three parts: The difference between the \"g\"-factors of the muon and the electron is due to their difference in mass. Because of the muon's larger mass, contributions to the theoretical calculation of its anomalous magnetic dipole moment from Standard Model weak interactions and from contributions involving hadrons are important at the current level of precision, whereas these effects are not important for the electron. The muon's anomalous magnetic dipole moment is also sensitive to contributions from new physics beyond the Standard Model, such as supersymmetry. For this reason, the muon's anomalous magnetic moment is normally used as a probe for new physics beyond the Standard Model rather than as a test of QED. Muon \"g\"−2, a new experiment at Fermilab using the E821 magnet will improve the precision of this measurement.", "Since muons are much more deeply penetrating than X-rays or gamma rays, muon imaging can be used with much thicker material or, with cosmic ray sources, larger objects. One example is commercial muon tomography used to image entire cargo containers to detect shielded nuclear material, as well as explosives or other contraband. The technique of muon transmission radiography based on cosmic ray sources was first used in the 1950s to measure the depth of the overburden of a tunnel in Australia and in the 1960s to search for possible hidden chambers in the Pyramid of Chephren in Giza. In 2017, the discovery of a large void (with a length of 30 m minimum) by observation of cosmic-ray muons was reported. In 2003, the scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory developed a new imaging technique: \"muon scattering tomography\". With muon scattering tomography, both incoming and outgoing trajectories for each particle are reconstructed, such as with sealed aluminum drift tubes. Since the development of this technique, several companies have started to use it. In August 2014, Decision Sciences International Corporation announced it had been awarded a contract by Toshiba for use of its muon tracking detectors in reclaiming the Fukushima nuclear complex. The Fukushima Daiichi Tracker (FDT) was proposed to make a few months of muon measurements to show the distribution of the reactor cores. In December 2014, Tepco reported that they would be using two different muon imaging techniques at Fukushima, \"Muon scanning method\" on Unit 1 (the most badly damaged, where the fuel may have left the reactor vessel) and \"Muon scattering method\" on Unit 2. The International Research Institute for Nuclear Decommissioning IRID in Japan and the High Energy Accelerator Research Organization KEK call the method they developed for Unit 1 the muon permeation method; 1,200 optical fibers for wavelength conversion light up when muons come into contact with them. After a month of data collection, it is hoped to reveal the location and amount of fuel debris still inside the reactor. The measurements began in February 2015." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Rivalries.", "Historical.", "Philadelphia Phillies.", "Within the Central Division.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Civil rights advocacy.", "Fanbase.", "Community activities.", "Radio and television.", "Logos and uniforms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Professional baseball in the Pittsburgh area began in 1876 with the organization of the Allegheny Base Ball Club, an independent (non-league) club based in a then-separate city called Allegheny City, across the Allegheny River from Pittsburgh. The team joined the minor league International Association in 1877, only to fold the following season. On October 15, 1881, Denny McKnight held a meeting at Pittsburgh's St. Clair Hotel to organize a new Allegheny club, which began play in 1882 as a founding member of the American Association. Chartered as the Allegheny Base Ball Club of Pittsburgh, the team was listed as \"Allegheny\" in the standings, and was sometimes called the \"Alleghenys\" (rarely the \"Alleghenies\") in that era's custom of referring to a team by its pluralized city or club name. After five mediocre seasons in the A.A., Pittsburgh became the first A.A. team to switch to the older National League in 1887. At the time, William A. Nimick was club president and Horace Phillips manager. Before the 1890 season, nearly all of the Alleghenys' best players bolted to the Players' League's Pittsburgh Burghers. The Players' League collapsed after the season, and the players were allowed to go back to their old clubs. However, the Alleghenys also scooped up highly regarded second baseman Lou Bierbauer, who had previously played with the AA's Philadelphia Athletics. Although the Athletics had failed to include Bierbauer on their reserve list, they loudly protested the Alleghenys' move. In an official complaint, an AA official claimed the Alleghenys' signing of Bierbauer was \"piratical\". This incident (which is discussed at some length in \"The Beer and Whisky League\", by David Nemec, 1994) quickly accelerated into a schism between the leagues that contributed to the demise of the A.A. Although the Alleghenys were never found guilty of wrongdoing, they made sport of being denounced for being \"piratical\" by renaming themselves \"the Pirates\" for the 1891 season. The nickname was first acknowledged on the team's uniforms in 1912. The Pirates were a strong team in the early 1900s, winning National League pennants from 1901–1903 and taking their first World Series title in 1909. They again won the NL in 1925 and 1927 and the World Series in 1925. After a slow period, they returned to dominance and won the 1960 World Series, 1971 World Series and 1979 World Series. They won Eastern Division titles from 1990–1992 but did not return to the postseason again until 2013. In 2013 the Pirates became the seventh MLB team to reach 10,000 all-time wins. On Opening Day 2015 the Pirates' loss was the team's 10,000th making the Pirates the fourth MLB team to achieve this distinction, following the Philadelphia Phillies, Atlanta Braves, and Chicago Cubs. Later in 2015 they won their 10,000th game as a member of the National League. They entered the playoffs as a Wild Card team in 2013, 2014, and 2015, but lost in the NLDS once and lost the Wild Card game twice, and have not returned to the playoffs since 2015.", "", "", "The rivalry between the Philadelphia Phillies and the Pirates was considered by some to be one of the best rivalries in the National League. The rivalry started when the Pittsburgh Pirates entered the NL in 1887, four years after the Phillies. The Phillies and the Pirates had remained together after the National League split into two divisions in 1969. During the period of two-division play (1969–1993), the two National League East division rivals won the two highest numbers of division championships, reigning almost exclusively as NL East champions in the 1970s and again in the early 1990s. the Pirates nine, the Phillies six; together, the two teams' 15 championships accounted for more than half of the 25 NL East championships during that span. After the Pirates moved to the National League Central in 1994, the teams face each other only in two series each year and the rivalry has diminished. However, many fans, especially older ones, retain their dislike for the other team, with regional differences between Eastern and Western Pennsylvania still fueling the rivalry.", "The Pirates have long-standing, albeit sometimes dormant, rivalries with their fellow NL Central Division teams, including the Cincinnati Reds, St. Louis Cardinals, Milwaukee Brewers (with The Sausage incident and the 'You can steal first' game) and the Chicago Cubs (with the Homer in the Gloamin' and most recently, the 2015 NL Wild Card game). The intensity of the rivalries often depend upon the competitiveness of the teams involved during that season.", "Along with the league-wide retired number of 42, there are nine retired Pirates jersey numbers to date. As of June 12, 2019, Bill Mazeroski is the lone survivor of the Pittsburgh Pirates whose numbers are retired.", "The Pittsburgh Pirates farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates.", "Throughout the 1940s Pirates owner William Benswanger was a leading advocate of integration of the Major Leagues, once planning a tryout for African American players to sign up for the club. The Pirates organization was the first in baseball to have both an African-American coach and manager, when Gene Baker broke the color line in 1961 and 1962 respectively. On September 21, 1963 the Pirates were the first MLB team to have an African-American manager in Gene Baker, as he filled in for Danny Murtaugh. On September 1, 1971, manager Murtaugh assembled a starting lineup that was completely composed of minorities for the first time in MLB history.", "Despite having some notable fans including former part-owner Bing Crosby, Michael Keaton, and Regis Philbin, the Pirates are considered by most to be a distant third in Pittsburgh behind the Pittsburgh Steelers and Pittsburgh Penguins in popularity among Pittsburgh's three major professional sports teams. However, due to their long history in Pittsburgh dating back to the 1882 season, the team has retained a strong loyal following in the Pittsburgh region, especially among older residents. Upon the team ending their 20-season streak with a losing record in 2013, the fan support for the club has grown once again but still remaining a distant third behind the city's other 2 more relevant sports franchises. While the team's recent struggles compared to Pittsburgh's other two teams can be partly to blame (since the Pirates last World Series championship in 1979, the Steelers have won the Super Bowl 3 times (XIV, XL, and XLIII) and the Penguins the Stanley Cup five times in 1991, 1992, 2009, 2016, and 2017, including both in 2009), distractions off the field have also caused the team's popularity to slip in the city. While the team was ranked first in Pittsburgh as recent as the late 1970s, the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985 and two relocation threats since are believed to have also seen the team's popularity dipped. The team's standing among fans has, however, improved along with the team on the field and the opening of PNC Park in 2001. Following the Andrew McCutchen trade in 2018, fan relations have deteriorated despite the Pirates contending for the NL Central during 2018 due to backlash towards owner Robert Nutting, with the team ranking 27th among 30 MLB team in attendance that season. When the Penguins won the Stanley Cup in 2009 captain Sidney Crosby brought the cup to PNC Park on the Sunday following the team's victory in Detroit. When they won again in 2017 the cup was once again brought to PNC Park and the team threw out the first pitch. When the team won the cup in 1992 they held a celebration in the Pirates old home Three Rivers Stadium.", "Each year, the Pirates recognize six \"Community Champions\" during a special pregame ceremony. Piratefest is a yearly event that is held by the Pittsburgh Pirates in January. The event is, in essence, a baseball carnival for the whole family. It features autograph sessions from current and former Pirates players and coaches, live events and games, carnival booths, baseball clinics, \"Ask Pirates Management\", and appearances by the Pirate Parrot. Piratefest was once held at the David L. Lawrence Convention Center in downtown Pittsburgh, but is now held annually at the ballpark.", "In 2007, the Pirates chose to end the longest relationship between a team and a radio station in American professional sports. KDKA first broadcast the Pirates on August 5, 1921; with Westinghouse foreman Harold Arlin behind the mic. Broadcasts ended in 1924, but returned in 1936. Except for a few years on WWSW in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the Pirates were on KDKA for 61 years. KDKA's 50,000-watt clear channel enabled Pirates fans across the eastern half of North America at night to hear the games. That changed for the 2007 season, when the Pirates moved to FM talk radio station WPGB. The Pirates cited the desire to reach more people in the 25–54 age bracket coveted by advertisers. The acquisition of the rights means that Clear Channel Communications holds the rights to every major sports team in Pittsburgh. The Pirates have long had a radio network that has extended across four states. Stations for the 2007 season included Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Maryland radio broadcasters. On October 1, 2011, Clear Channel announced that they will not renew their deal with the Pirates. It was speculated that the club's radio broadcasting rights would likely be transferred back to CBS Radio via FM sports radio station KDKA-FM, which became official on October 12. On March 2, 2016 it was announced a new deal was reached for the Pirates to remain on KDKA-FM. As part of the deal, KDKA (AM) airs any games that KDKA-FM can't air due to conflicts with Pittsburgh Panthers football and men's basketball. Games are televised on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh, the Pirates' cable television outlet since 1986, when it was known as KBL. During the 2016 season, the Pirates averaged a 7.22 rating and 83,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts. Apart from any Pirates games aired nationally on Fox, there has been no over-the-air coverage of the Pirates since 2002, when some games were on WCWB. KDKA-TV aired Pirates games for 38 years (1957–1994). Games aired on WPXI (1995–1996) and on WPGH-TV and WCWB (1997–2002). Announcers Greg Brown, Bob Walk, John Wehner, and Steve Blass shuttle between the radio and TV booths. After the departure of play-by-play announcer Tim Neverett, who accepted a play-by-play radio position with the Boston Red Sox following the 2015 season, former Milwaukee Brewers announcer Joe Block began Play-by-Play Duties beginning with the 2016 season. Former Pirates closer Kent Tekulve, a member of the team's 1979 World Series Championship team, served as a post-game analyst for the team on AT&T SportsNet Pittsburgh. Tekulve announced his retirement at the end of the 2017 season; Blass retired after a final season in 2019. On October 1, 2008, longtime play-by-play announcer Lanny Frattare retired after 33 seasons, having called Pirates' games since the 1976 season. He is the longest-tenured announcer in Pirates' history, surpassing the man he replaced, the late Bob Prince (28 seasons, 1948–75).", "The Pirates have had many uniforms and logo changes over the years, with the only consistency being the \"P\" on the team's cap. It was adopted in 1948. Aside from style changes in the cap itself, the \"P\" logo has remained since. The Pirates have long been innovators in baseball uniforms. In 1948, the team broke away from the patriotic \"Red, White, & Blue\" color scheme when they adopted the current black & gold color scheme, to match that of the colors of the Flag of Pittsburgh and, to a lesser extent at the time, the colors of the then-relatively unknown Pittsburgh Steelers of the NFL. While they were not the first baseball team to do this, they were one of the first to do this permanently. Along with the San Francisco Giants, the Pirates are one of two pre-expansion National League teams that completely changed their colors, although red returned as an \"accent color\" in 1997 and remained until 2009. In the late 1950s, the team adopted sleeveless jerseys. While not an innovation by the team (that honor goes to the Cincinnati Reds), the Pirates did help to popularize the look. The team brought back the vested jerseys in 2001, a style they retained until 2009, although the away jerseys said \"Pittsburgh\" in script instead of \"Pirates.\" In 2009, they introduced a new home, away and alternate black jersey all with sleeves. However, they kept the pinstriped sleeveless vest for Sunday home games. To coincide with the move into Three Rivers Stadium in 1970, the team introduced pullover nylon/cotton jerseys and beltless pants as part of their new uniform set (later to become polyester doubleknit), becoming the first team in baseball to sport such a look. This look that would quickly be adopted by most other teams by the end of the decade, and become the prominent look of baseball during the 1970s and 1980s. The Pirates ditched the pullover style in favor of the traditional button-down style in 1991, one of the last teams to switch. The Pirates were also innovators in third jerseys. Even though it would be the Oakland A's that would beat them to having such jerseys, the Pirates by 1977 had different uniform styles that included two different caps, two different undershirts, three different jerseys and three different pairs of trousers. They would actually rotate (and sometimes mix, with painful results) these styles daily until returning to the basic white and gray uniform ensemble in 1985. In 1976, the National League celebrated its 100th anniversary. To coincide with it, certain NL teams wore old-style pillbox hats complete with horizontal pinstripes. After the season, the Pirates were the only team to adopt the hats permanently, (alternating between a black hat and a gold hat for several seasons until keeping the black hat in 1985) and kept the hat through the 1986 season, which would be Barry Bonds rookie season with the team. The hats, which recall the team's last World Series championship season (1979), remain popular items in the throwback market. The 2013 season marked the last of one of the team's former logos, introduced in 1997 just after former owner Kevin McClatchy took over the team. The Pirates chose to use the \"P\" on their caps as the primary logo; however, the former logo will continue to be used as a secondary logo. On December 13, 2014, the Pirates unveiled a new camo alternate jersey, which honors the soldiers in the Armed Forces. It was worn on every Thursday home game during the 2015 season. On February 18, 2016, the Pirates unveiled a new throwback alternate uniform in the style of the 1979 team. This uniform features yellow jerseys and old-style pillbox hats. It was worn on every Sunday home game during the 2016 season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Major League Baseball comes to Texas.", "1962–1964: The Colt.45s.", "1965–1970: The Great Indoors.", "1971–1974: The boys in orange.", "The Big Trade.", "1975–1979: Cautious corporate ownership.", "1980–1985: More rainbow, and seasons on the brink.", "1986–1990: A deep run, and building for the future.", "1991–1999: Fine tuning.", "2000–2004: New ballpark and rebranding.", "2005: First World Series played in Texas.", "2006–2009: The decline.", "2010–2014: Last years in the NL and move to the AL West.", "2015–present: First World Series title and sign stealing scandal.", "Achievements.", "Franchise record.", "Awards.", "Retired numbers.", "Hall of Fame.", "Astros Hall of Fame.", "Spring training.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "Mascots.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "From 1888 until 1961, Houston's professional baseball club was the minor league Houston Buffaloes. Although expansion from the National League eventually brought an MLB team to Texas in 1962, Houston officials had been making efforts to do so for years prior. There were four men chiefly responsible for bringing Major League Baseball to Houston: George Kirksey and Craig Cullinan, who had led a futile attempt to purchase the St. Louis Cardinals in 1952; R.E. \"Bob\" Smith, a prominent oilman and real estate magnate in Houston who was brought in for his financial resources; and Judge Roy Hofheinz, a", "The Colt.45s started their inaugural season on April 10, 1962, against the Chicago Cubs with Harry Craft as the Colt.45s' manager. Bob Aspromonte scored the first run for the Colt.45s on an Al Spangler triple in the first inning. They started the season with a three-game sweep of the Cubs but eventually finished eighth among the National League's ten teams. The team's best pitcher, Richard \"Turk\" Farrell, lost 20 games despite an ERA of 3.02. A starter for the Colt.45s, Farrell was primarily a relief pitcher prior to playing for Houston. He was selected to both All-Star Games in 1962. The 1963 season saw more young", "With Judge Roy Hofheinz now the sole owner of the franchise and the new venue complete, the renamed Astros moved into their new domed stadium, the \"Astro\"dome, in 1965. The name honored Houston's position as the center of the nation's space program; NASA's new Manned Spacecraft Center had recently opened southeast of the city. The Astrodome, coined the \"Eighth Wonder of the World\", did little to improve the home team's results on the field. While several \"indoor\" firsts were accomplished, the team still finished ninth in the standings. The attendance was high not because of the team's accomplishments, but because people came from miles around to see the Astrodome. Just as the excitement was settling down over the Astrodome, the 1966 season found something new to put the domed stadium in the spotlight once again – the field. Grass would not grow in the new park, since the roof panels had been painted", "The fashion trends of the 1970s had started taking root in baseball. Long hair and loud colors were starting to appear on team uniforms, including the Astros'. In 1971 the Astros made some changes to their uniform: they kept the same style they had in previous seasons, but inverted the colors. What was navy was now orange and what was orange was now a lighter shade of blue. The players' last names were added to the back of the jerseys. In 1972, the uniform fabric was also changed to what was at the time revolutionizing the industry – polyester. Belts were", "In November 1971 the Astros and Cincinnati Reds made one of the biggest blockbuster trades in the history of the sport, and helped create The Big Red Machine of the 1970s, with the Reds getting the better end of the deal. Houston sent second baseman Joe Morgan, infielder Denis Menke, pitcher Jack Billingham, outfielder César Gerónimo and prospect Ed Armbrister to Cincinnati for first baseman Lee May, second baseman Tommy Helms and infielder Jimmy Stewart. The trade left Astros fans and the baseball world scratching their heads as to why General Manager Spec Richardson would give up so much for so little. The Reds, on the other hand, would shore up many problems. They had an off year in 1971, but were the National League Pennant winner in 1972. The Astros'", "With the $38 million deficit of the Astrodome, control of the Astrodomain (including the Astros) was passed from Roy Hofheinz to GE Credit and Ford Motor Credit. The creditors were just interested in preserving asset value of the team, so any money spent had to be found or saved somewhere else. Tal Smith returned to the Astros from the New York Yankees to find a team that needed a lot of work and did not have a lot of money. However, there would be some bright spots that would prove to be good investments in the near future. The year started on a sad note. Pitcher Don Wilson was found dead in the passenger seat of his car on January 5, 1975; the cause of death was asphyxiation by carbon monoxide. Wilson was 29 years old. Wilson's number 40 was retired on April 13, 1975. The 1975 season saw the introduction of the Astros' new uniforms. Many teams were going away from the traditional uniform and the Astros were no exception. From", "Joe Morgan returned in 1980. The 1980 pitching staff was one of the best Houston ever had, with the fastball of Ryan, the knuckleball of Joe Niekro and the terrifying 6 ft 8 in frame of J. R. Richard. Teams felt lucky to face Ken Forsch, who was a double-digit winner in the previous two seasons. Richard became the first Astros pitcher to start an All-Star game. After a medical examination three days later, Richard was told to rest his arm and he collapsed during a July 30 workout. He had suffered a stroke after a blood clot in the arm apparently moved to his neck and cut off blood flow to the brain. Surgery was done to save his life, but the Astros had lost their ace pitcher after a 10–4 start with a stingy 1.89 ERA. Richard attempted a comeback, but would never again pitch a big league game. After the loss of Richard and some offensive struggles, the", "After finishing fourth in 1985, the Astros fired general manager Al Rosen and manager Bob Lillis. The former was supplanted by Dick Wagner, the man whose Reds defeated the Astros to win the 1979 NL West title. The latter was replaced by Hal Lanier who, like his manager mentor in St. Louis, Whitey Herzog, had a hard-nosed approach to managing and espoused a playing style that focused on pitching, defense, and speed rather than home runs to win games. This style of baseball, known as Whiteyball, took advantage of stadiums with deep fences and artificial turf, both of which were characteristics of the Astrodome. Lanier's style of baseball took Houston by storm. Before Lanier took over, fans were accustomed to Houston's occasional slow starts, but with Lanier leading the way, Houston got off to a hot", "The early 1990s were marked by the Astros' growing discontent with their home, the Astrodome. After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the NFL's Houston Oilers (who shared the Astrodome with the Astros since the 1960s), the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility. Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the off-season Astros management announced its intention to sell the team and move the franchise to the Washington, D.C. area. However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling", "The 2000 season saw a move to a new stadium. Originally to be named \"The Ballpark at Union Station\" due to being located on the site of Union Station, it was renamed \"Enron Field\" by the season opening after the naming rights were sold to energy corporation Enron. The stadium was to feature a retractable roof, a particularly useful feature with unpredictable Houston weather. The ballpark also featured more intimate surroundings than the Astrodome. In 2002, naming rights were purchased by Houston-based Minute Maid, after Enron went bankrupt. The", "In 2005, the Astros started poorly and found themselves with a 15–30 record in late May. The \"Houston Chronicle\" had written them off with a tombstone emblazoned with \"RIP 2005 Astros\". However, from that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42–17 and found themselves in the lead for an NL wild card spot. July saw the best single-month record in the club's history at 22-7. Offensive production had increased greatly after a slow start in the first two months. The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by Roy Oswalt (20–12, 2.94), Andy Pettitte (17–9, 2.39), and Roger Clemens (13–8 with", "In the 2006 offseason, the team signed Preston Wilson and moved Berkman to first base, ending the long tenure of Jeff Bagwell. The Astros renewed the contract with Clemens and traded two minor league prospects to the Tampa Bay Devil Rays for left-handed hitter Aubrey Huff. By August, Preston Wilson complained about his playing time after the return of Luke Scott from AAA Round Rock. The Astros released Wilson and he was signed by St. Louis. A dramatic season end included wins in 10 of their last 12 games, but the Astros missed a playoff appearance when they lost the final game of the season to", "The 2010 season was the first season as Astros manager for Brad Mills, who was previously the bench coach of the Boston Red Sox. The Astros struggled throughout a season that was marked by trade-deadline deals that sent longtime Astros to other teams. On July 29, the Astros' ace starting pitcher, Roy Oswalt, was dealt to the Philadelphia Phillies for J. A. Happ and two minor league players. On July 31, outfielder Lance Berkman was traded to the New York Yankees for minor leaguers Jimmy Paredes and Mark Melancon. The Astros finished with a record of 76–86. On July 30, 2011, the Astros traded OF Hunter Pence, the team's 2010 leader in home runs, to the Philadelphia Phillies. On July 31, they traded OF Michael Bourn to the Atlanta Braves. On September 17, the Astros clinched their first 100-loss season in franchise history, On September 28, the Astros ended the season with an 8–0 home loss to the St. Louis", "In 2015, Dallas Keuchel led the AL with 20 victories, going 15–0 at home, an MLB record. Key additions to the team included Scott Kazmir and SS Carlos Correa who hit 22 home runs, being called up in June 2015. 2B José Altuve picked up where he left off as the star of the Astros' offense. On July 30, the Astros picked up Mike Fiers and Carlos Gómez from the Milwaukee Brewers. Fiers threw the 11th no-hitter in Astros history on August 21 against the Los Angeles Dodgers. Houston got the final AL playoff spot and faced the Yankees in the Wild Card Game on October 6 at New York. They defeated the Yankees 3–0, but lost to the Kansas City Royals in the American League Division Series. The Astros split the first two games of the ALDS best-of-five series in Kansas City. The Astros won the first game at Minute Maid to take a 2–1 lead in the ALDS. In game 4, after 7 innings, the Astros had a 6–2 lead. In the top half of the eighth inning, which took about 45 minutes to end, the Royals had taken a 7–6 lead with a series of consecutive base hits. The Astros suffered a 9–6 loss and the ALDS was tied at 2–2. Then the series went back to Kansas City, where the Royals clinched the series in the fifth game, 7–2. The Astros entered the 2016 season as the favorites to win the AL West after a promising 2015 season. After a bad start to their season, with Houston going just 7–17 in April, the Astros bounced back and went on to have a winning record in their next four months, including an 18–8 record in June. But after going 12–15 in September, the Astros were eliminated from playoff contention. They finished in third place in the American League West Division with a final record of 84–78. The season was marked by the Astros 4–15 record against their in-state division rival (and eventual division winner) Texas Rangers. The Astros finished the 2016 season 11 games behind the Rangers. In 2014, \"Sports Illustrated\" predicted the Astros would win the 2017 World Series through their strategic rebuilding process. As of June 9, the Astros were 41–16, which gave them a 13.5-game lead over the rest of their division, and they had comfortable possession of the best record in the entire league. This was the best start in the Astros' 55-year history. As the games of June 23 concluded, the Astros had an 11.5-game lead over the rest of the division. The Astros entered the All-Star Break with an American League-best 60–29 record and a 16-game lead in the division, although the overall best record in MLB had just barely slipped to the Dodgers shortly before the All-Star Break by just one game. With Hurricane Harvey causing massive flooding throughout Houston and southeast Texas, the Astros' three-game series against the", "", "", "Two awards are presented each year, one to a Houston Astro and one to a St. Louis Cardinal, each of whom exemplifies", "Source: While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since 2002, when former Astros pitcher Darryl Kile died as an active", "", "On January 26, 2019, the team announced plans for a team Hall of Fame along with an inaugural class of inductees (including all retired numbers and members of the 2012 Walk of Fame), complete with an orange jacket and renderings for each of the inductees. The Astros Hall", "The Astros have held their spring training at FITTEAM Ballpark of the Palm Beaches in West Palm Beach,", "The Houston Astros farm", "Since 2013, the Astros' flagship radio station is KBME, Sportstalk 790 AM (a Fox Sports Radio affiliate). Previously, the team had a partnership with KTRH (740 AM) which went from 1999 to 2012 (both stations are owned by iHeartMedia). This change suddenly made it difficult for listeners outside of Houston itself to hear the Astros, as KTRH runs 50 kilowatts of power day and night, and KBME runs only five kilowatts. As a result, KTRH is audible across much of Central, East, and South Texas, whereas KBME can only be heard in Houston, especially after dark. Milo Hamilton, a veteran voice who was on the call for Hank Aaron's 715th career home run in 1974, retired at the end of the 2012 season, after broadcasting play-by-play for the Astros since 1985. Dave Raymond and Brett Dolan shared play-by play duty", "Orbit is the name given to MLB's Houston Astros mascot, a lime-green outer-space creature wearing an Astros jersey with antennae extending into baseballs. Orbit was the team's official mascot from the 1990 through the 1999 seasons, where a rabbit named Junction Jack was introduced as the team's mascot with the move from the Astrodome to then Enron Field in 2000. (Junction Jack had two \"relatives\", Junction Julie and Junction Jesse, who were not official mascots).", "General" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before the Cardinals (1875–1881).", "American Association and early National League eras (1882–1919).", "Breadon era (1920–1952).", "Gussie Busch era (1953–1989).", "Bill DeWitt era (1996–present).", "Ballpark.", "Previous ballparks.", "Spring training.", "Regular season home attendance.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Support.", "Mascots.", "Rivalries.", "Chicago Cubs.", "Kansas City Royals.", "Executives and club officials.", "Ownership and valuation.", "Recent annual financial records.", "Other interests.", "Managerial roll.", "Players.", "Hall of Famers.", "St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television coverage.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Opening Day lineups.", "Opening Day salaries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Professional baseball began in St. Louis with the inception of the Brown Stockings in the National Association (NA) in 1875. The NA folded following that season, and the next season, St. Louis joined the National League as a charter member, finishing in third place at 45–19. George Bradley hurled the first", "For the 1882 season, Chris von der Ahe purchased the team, reorganized it, and made it a founding member of the American Association (AA), a league to rival the NL. 1882 is generally considered to be the first year of existence for the franchise which would later become known as the St. Louis Cardinals. The next season, St. Louis shortened their name to the Browns. Soon thereafter they became the dominant team in the AA, as manager Charlie Comiskey guided", "St. Louis baseball commenced a renaissance: since 1926 the Cardinals have won eleven World Series and nineteen NL pennants. Breadon spurred this revival when bought out the majority stake in 1920 and appointed Rickey as business manager, who expanded scouting, player development, and pioneered the minor league farm system, filling the role of today's general manager. With Rogers Hornsby at second base, he claimed Triple Crowns in 1922 and 1925, and the Cardinals won the 1926 World Series, their first. St. Louis then won the league in 1928, 1930, and 1931 and the 1931 World Series. The Gashouse Gang edition claimed the 1934 World Series and the Cardinals amassed new thresholds of popularity far outside St. Louis via radio, which led to the coining of the term \"Cardinal Nation\". Dizzy Dean led the Gang, winning the 1934 MVP, and leading the NL multiple times in wins, strikeouts, innings, complete games", "In 1953 the Anheuser-Busch brewery bought the Cardinals and August \"Gussie\" Busch became team president, spurring the Browns' departure in 1953 to Baltimore to become the Orioles, and making the Cardinals the only major league club in town. More success followed in the 1960s, starting with what is considered one of the most lopsided trades in Major League history, as St. Louis received outfielder Lou Brock from the Cubs for pitcher Ernie Broglio. MVP third baseman Ken Boyer and pitcher Bob Gibson led the club to a World Series win the same year and Curt Flood, Bill White, Curt Simmons, and Steve Carlton also made key contributions in this decade. In 1967, new arrival Orlando Cepeda won the MVP, helping to propel St. Louis to the World Series. The Cardinals won the league the following year behind their Major League-leading 2.49 staff ERA in what was an all-round record-breaking season of pitching dominance. Posting a", "After Gussie Busch died in 1989, the brewery took control and hired Joe Torre to manage late in 1990, then sold the team to an investment group led by William DeWitt, Jr. in 1996. Tony La Russa replaced Torre in the spring of 1996. In 1998, Mark McGwire competed with the Cubs' Sammy Sosa for a barrage of home runs in their pursuit of the single-season home run record. From 2000 to 2013, the Cardinals reestablished their way to the top with ten playoff appearances, four NL pennants, two World Series titles and 1,274 regular season wins against 993 losses for a.560 winning", "The Cardinals play their home games at Busch Stadium (also referred to as \"New Busch Stadium\" or \"Busch III\") in downtown St. Louis, straddling 7th and Clark near the intersection of Interstates 64, 55, and 44. The stadium opened for the 2006 season at a cost of $411 million and holds a normal capacity of 46,861. The Cardinals finished their inaugural season in the new Busch Stadium by winning the 2006 World Series, the first team since the 1923 New York Yankees to do so. This open-air stadium emulates the HOK Sport (now Populous)-designed \"retro-style\" baseball-only parks built since the 1990s. The open panoramic perspective over the outfield wall offers a remarkable view of St. Louis' downtown skyline featuring the distinctive Gateway Arch. A replica of Eads Bridge spans the entrance to the park on the third base side, while the statue of Stan Musial arises in front of that entrance. Other statues at the corner of 8th and Clark include Hall of Famers Rogers Hornsby, Ozzie Smith, George Sisler, Cool Papa Bell, Bob Gibson, Jack Buck and others. Due to increased demand, Game 7 of the 2011 World Series accommodated a baseball record of 47,399 by increasing the number of standing room only tickets. The attendance record for any sporting event is 48,263, in a 2013 Association Football (soccer) friendly match between Chelsea F.C. and Manchester City F.C., made possible by on field seating. The largest attendance (53,000) of any event at Busch belongs to U2 during a concert from their 360° Tour in 2011. Ballpark Village, a mixed-use development located across Clark Street from Busch Stadium, is targeted to enhance the ballpark goers' experience. Phase 1 of the development, completed for the start of the 2014 season, includes entertainment venues, restaurants, and retail. Anchored by Cardinals Nation (which includes the Cardinals Hall of Fame, a two-story Cardinals-themed restaurant and rooftop seating for 300+ fans with views of the field across the street), a Budweiser Brew House, FOX Sports Midwest Live! and PBR, the $100 million phase 1 development of Ballpark Village is intended to be a gathering space throughout the year, not just during the baseball season.", "Busch Stadium is the Cardinals' fourth home ballpark and the third to bear that name. The Cardinals' original home ballpark was Sportsman's Park from 1882 to 1892 when they played in the American Association and were known as the Browns. In 1893, the Browns moved to a new ballpark five blocks northwest of Sportsman's Park which would serve as their home from 1893 to 1920. The new park was originally called New Sportsman's Park but became more commonly referred to as Robison Field. Midway through the 1920 season the Cardinals abandoned Robison Field and returned to", "The Cardinals home field in spring training is Roger Dean Stadium in Jupiter, Florida. They share the complex, which", "The Cardinals have exceeded the", "The Cardinals have had few logos throughout their history, although those logos have evolved over time. The first logo associated with the Cardinals was an interlocking \"SL\" that appeared on the team's caps and or sleeves as early as 1900. Those early uniforms usually featured the name \"St. Louis\" on white home and gray road uniforms which both had cardinal red accents. In 1920, the \"SL\" largely disappeared from the team's uniforms, and for the next 20 years the team wore caps that were white with red striping and a red bill. In 1922, the Cardinals wore uniforms for the first time that featured the two familiar cardinal birds perched on a baseball bat over the name \"Cardinals\" with the letter \"C\" of the word hooked over the bat. The concept of the birds originated after general manager Branch Rickey noticed a colorful cardboard arrangement featuring cardinal birds on a table in a Presbyterian church in Ferguson, Missouri, at which he was speaking. The arrangement's production was by a woman named Allie May Schmidt. Schmidt's father, a graphic designer, helped Ricky make the logo a familiar staple on Cardinals uniforms. Colloquially referred to as the \"birds on the bat\", it initially appeared with the birds perched on a black bat and \"Cardinals\" in printed letters. An alternate version of this logo with \"St. Louis\" replacing \"Cardinals\" appeared in 1930 and was the primary logo in 1931 and 1932 before \"Cardinals\" returned. In 1940, the now-familiar \"\" logo was introduced on the team's caps. The interlocking \"\" has undergone several slight modifications over the years but has appeared on the team's caps every year since. The first appearance of the \"STL\" in 1940 coincided with the introduction of navy blue as a uniform color. From 1940 until 1955, the team wore navy blue caps with red bills and a red interlocking \"\" while the jerseys featured both cardinal red and navy blue accents. In 1951, the \"birds on the bat\" logo was changed to feature a yellow baseball bat. In 1956, the Cardinals changed their caps to solid blue with a red \"\", removing the red bill. Also, for that season only, the Cardinals wore a script \"Cardinals\" wordmark on their uniforms excluding the \"birds on the bat.\" An updated", "", "The team mascot is an anthropomorphic cardinal wearing the team's uniform named Fredbird. He is assisted by Team Fredbird, a group of eleven women who entertain fans from the field and on top of the dugouts. While unofficial, the Rally Squirrel became an unexpected phenomenon during the 2011 postseason. Making its \"debut\" in Game 3 of the NLDS on Oct 4, a squirrel ran across home plate in the middle of a pitch from Roy Oswalt of the Phillies to the", "", "The Cardinals–Cubs rivalry refers to games between the Cardinals and the Chicago Cubs. The rivalry is also known as the Downstate Illinois rivalry or the I-55 Series (in earlier years as the Route 66 Series) as both cities are located along Interstate 55 (which itself succeeded the famous U.S. Route 66). The Cubs lead the series 1,230–1,171, through September 2018, while the Cardinals lead in National League pennants with 19 against the Cubs' 17. The Cubs have won", "The Cardinals have an interleague and intrastate rivalry with the Kansas City Royals, dubbed the \"Show-Me Series\" after the nickname of the team's home state, Missouri; or the \"I–70 Series\" after the interstate highway that connects the cities. The teams first met in the 1985 World Series, which the Royals won 4–3, and which remains their only post-season meeting. Since interleague play began in, the Cardinals and Royals have met in four to six games each season, evenly split between the two cities. As of 2019, the Cardinals lead the overall series 63–46. The rivalry heated up in 2015, when both teams held the best records in their respective leagues when they opened each of their two series. Had the Cardinals made it to the World Series, they would have faced the Royals in a rematch of 1985, who won the championship that year.", "", "An investment group led by William DeWitt, Jr. owns the St. Louis Cardinals, having bought the team from Anheuser-Busch (AB) in 1996. As with other periods of the Cardinals' transaction history, doubt loomed as to whether the purchaser would keep the team in St. Louis, due to the city's status as a \"small market\", which appears to handicap a club's competitiveness. Such was the case when Sam Breadon put the Cardinals up for sale in 1947: then-NL President Ford Frick proposed moving the Cardinals to Chicago. When AB placed the Cardinals for sale in 1995, they publicly expressed intention to find a buyer who would keep the club in St. Louis. In March 1996, AB sold the team for $147 million to a partnership headed", "As of 2018, \"Forbes\" valued the Cardinals seventh among 30 MLB franchises. Their estimated value of $1.90 billion was an increase of $100 million from the season before, when they ranked seventh. St. Louis' revenue in 2018 was $319 million, up $9 million. Their Operating income was $40.0 million. The Cardinals' deal with Fox Sports Midwest, signed in 2015, begins in 2018, and is worth $1 billion through 2032. In 2014, \"Forbes\" valued the Cardinals at $820 million and opined previously that they play \"in the best single-team baseball market in the country and are among the league's leaders in television ratings and attendance every season.\" Concurrent with the growth of Major League Baseball, the Cardinals value has increased significantly since the Baur-DeWitt purchase. In 2000, the franchise was valued at $219 million,", "Besides Ballpark Village, which has now finished its first phase, opening on March 27, and", "Field managers with one or more", "", "", "In 2014, the Cardinals announced the reopening of the franchise Hall of Fame after a 6-year hiatus. A formal selection process recognizes former players as Cardinals Hall of Famers each year. To be eligible for election, a player must have been a member of the Cardinals for at least three seasons. The team initially released the names of 22 former players and personnel included in the inaugural class of 2014. There are now 46 members of the Cardinals Hall of Fame. Positions that are listed were played the equivalent of a full season for the Cardinals.", "The Cardinals have retired 12 total jersey numbers––second in MLB only to the New York Yankees' 22––in honoring 14 total former players and club personnel on the left field wall at Busch", "The St. Louis Cardinals farm", "", "Capable of reaching 21 million listeners in nine states including Missouri, Illinois, Arkansas, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee, the Cardinals radio network is the second-largest in MLB with 117 affiliate stations. In St. Louis, CBS-owned KMOX (1120 AM) airs Cardinals games over radio and feeds the rest of the Cardinals network. Mike Shannon and John Rooney alternate as play-by-play announcers, with Chris Hrabe serving as pre-game and post-game host. KMOX's 50,000-watt clear-channel signal covers much of the continental United States at night. At one time, owing to the Cardinals' status as a \"regional\" franchise, the Cardinals radio network reached almost half", "Since 2000, Cardinals telecasts have generated the top three in ratings in MLB every season. Fox Sports Midwest airs all games in high-definition and is the team's exclusive television broadcaster, with the exception of selected Saturday afternoon games on Fox (via its St. Louis affiliate, KTVI) or \"Sunday Night Baseball\" on ESPN. Fox Sports Indiana, Fox Sports South, Fox Sports Tennessee, Fox Sports Oklahoma, Fox Sports Southwest, and SportSouth air Cardinals games for fans living within the Cardinals broadcast territory who do not receive the Fox Sports Midwest channel. During the 2016 season, the Cardinals averaged an 8.54 rating and 104,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts in St Louis. The television commentators lineup includes Dan McLaughlin, Rick Horton, and Al Hrabosky. Jimmy \"The Cat\" Hayes serves as dugout reporter during the game as well as on \"Cardinals Live\",", "", "Opening Day payrolls" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Precursors to the modern World Series (1857–1902).", "The original World Series.", "1892–1900: \"The Monopoly Years\".", "Modern World Series (1903–present).", "First attempt.", "Boycott of 1904.", "1919 Black Sox Scandal.", "New York Yankees dynasty (1920–1964).", "1947–1964: New York City teams dominate World Series play.", "The World Series in California.", "1969: League Championship Series.", "1970s.", "1971: World Series at night.", "1972–1978: Threepeat, repeats, and Fisk's home run.", "1976: The designated hitter comes to the World Series.", "1980s.", "1984: Anderson becomes first to win in both leagues.", "1985: Umpiring controversy.", "1987: Twins First World Series Champion to Win Every Home Game.", "1988: Kirk Gibson's home run.", "1989: Earthquake.", "1990s.", "1991: \"The Greatest of All Time\".", "1992–1993: The World Series enters Canada.", "1994: League Division Series.", "1994–1995 strike.", "2000s.", "All-Star Game and home-field advantage (2003–2016).", "2010s.", "Modern World Series appearances by franchise.", "World Series record by team or franchise, 1903–2019.", "Team patterns in the World Series.", "Local rivalries.", "Cross-state rivalries.", "The original sixteen teams.", "Television coverage and ratings.", "Sponsorship.", "Naming and international participation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Until the formation of the American Association in 1882 as a second major league, the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (1871–1875) and then the National League (founded 1876) represented the top level of organized baseball in the United States. All championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern World Series, with the terms arranged through negotiation of the owners of the championship teams beforehand. The number", "Following the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions. This scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the first-place club in the standings", "", "After two years of bitter competition and player raiding, the National and American Leagues made peace and, as part of the accord, several pairs of teams squared off for interleague exhibition games after the 1903 season. These series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s World's Series matches had been. One of them matched the two pennant winners, Pittsburgh Pirates of", "The 1904 Series, if it had been held, would have been between the AL's Boston Americans (Boston Red Sox) and the NL's New York Giants (now the San Francisco Giants). At that point there was no governing body for the World Series nor any requirement that a Series be played. Thus the Giants' owner John T. Brush refused to allow his team to participate in such an event, citing the \"inferiority\" of the upstart American League. John McGraw, the Giants' manager, even went so far as to say that his Giants were already \"world champions\" since they were the champions of the \"only real major league\". At the time of the announcement, their new cross-town rivals, the New York Highlanders (now the New York Yankees), were leading the AL, and the prospect of facing the Highlanders did not please Giants management. Boston won on the last day of the season, and the leagues had previously agreed to hold a World's Championship Series in 1904, but it was not binding, and Brush stuck to his original decision. In addition to political reasons, Brush also factually cited the lack of rules under which money would be split,", "Gambling and game-fixing had been a problem in professional baseball from the beginning; star pitcher Jim Devlin was banned for life in 1877, when the National League was just two years old. Baseball's gambling problems came to a head in 1919, when eight players of the Chicago White Sox were alleged to have conspired to throw the 1919 World Series. The Sox had won the Series in 1917 and were heavy favorites to beat the Cincinnati Reds in 1919, but first baseman Chick Gandil had other plans. Gandil, in collaboration with gambler Joseph \"Sport\" Sullivan, approached his teammates and got six of them to agree to throw the Series: starting pitchers Eddie Cicotte and Lefty Williams, shortstop Swede Risberg, left fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson, center fielder Happy Felsch, and utility infielder Fred McMullin. Third baseman Buck Weaver knew of the fix but declined to participate, hitting.324 for the series from 11 hits and committing no errors in the field. The Sox, who were promised $100,000 for cooperating, proceeded to lose the Series in eight games, pitching poorly, hitting poorly and making many errors. Though he took the money,", "The New York Yankees purchased Babe Ruth from the Boston Red Sox after the 1919 season, appeared in their first World Series two years later in 1921, and became frequent participants thereafter. The 1921 World Series was the first to be broadcast on radio. Over a period of 45 years from 1920 to 1964, the Yankees played in 29 World Series championships, winning 20. The team's dynasty reached its apex between 1949 and 1964, when the Yankees reached the World Series 14 times in 16 years, helped by an agreement with the Kansas City Athletics (after that team moved from Philadelphia during 1954–1955 offseason) whereby the teams made several deals advantageous to the Yankees (until ended by new Athletics' owner Charles O. Finley). During that span, the Yankees played in all World Series except 1954 and 1959, winning nine of them. From 1949 to 1953, the Yankees won the World Series five years in a row; from 1936–1939 the Yankees won four World Series Championships in a row. There are only two other occasions when a team has won at least three consecutive World Series: 1972 to 1974 by the Oakland Athletics, and 1998 to 2000 by the Yankees.", "In an 18-year span from 1947 to 1964, except for 1948 and 1959, the World Series was played in New York City, featuring at least one of the three teams located in New York at the time. The Dodgers and Giants moved to California after the 1957 season, leaving the Yankees as the lone team in the city until the Mets were enfranchised in 1962. In 1947, 1949, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1955, and 1956, both teams in the World Series were from New York, with the Yankees playing against either the Dodgers or Giants.", "In 1958, the Brooklyn Dodgers and New York Giants took their long-time rivalry to the west coast, moving to Los Angeles and San Francisco, respectively, bringing Major League Baseball west of St. Louis and Kansas City. The Dodgers were the first of the two clubs to contest a World Series on the west coast, defeating the Chicago White Sox in 1959. The 1962 Giants made the first California World Series appearance of that franchise, losing to the Yankees. The Dodgers made three World Series appearances in the 1960s: a 1963 win over the Yankees, a 1965 win over the Minnesota Twins and a 1966 loss to the", "Prior to 1969, the National League and the American League each crowned its champion (the \"pennant winner\") based on the best win-loss record at the end of the regular season. A structured playoff series began in 1969, when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners", "", "Night games were played in the major leagues beginning with the Cincinnati Reds in 1935, but the World Series remained a strictly daytime event for years thereafter. In the fifth and final game of the 1949 World Series, a Series game was finished under the lights for the first time due to encroaching darkness", "During this seven-year period, only three teams won the World Series: the Oakland Athletics from 1972 to 1974, Cincinnati Reds in 1975 and 1976, and New York Yankees in 1977 and 1978. This is the only time in World Series history in which three teams have won consecutive series in succession. This period was book-ended by World Championships for the Pittsburgh Pirates, in 1971 and 1979. However, the Baltimore Orioles made three consecutive World Series appearances: 1969 (losing to the \"amazing\" seven-year-old franchise New York Mets), 1970 (beating the Reds", "The National and American Leagues operated under essentially identical rules until 1973, when the American League adopted the designated hitter (DH) rule, allowing its teams to use another hitter to bat in place of the (usually) weak-hitting pitcher. The National League did not adopt the DH rule. This presented a problem for the World Series, whose two contestants would now be playing their regular-season games under different rules. From 1973 to 1975, the World Series did not include a DH. Starting in 1976, the World Series allowed for the use of a DH in even-numbered years only. (The Cincinnati Reds swept the 1976 Series in four games, using the same nine-man lineup in each contest. Dan Driessen was the Reds' DH during the series, thereby becoming the National League's first designated hitter.) Finally, in 1986, baseball adopted the current rule in which the DH is used for World Series games played in the AL champion's park but not the NL champion's. Thus, the DH rule's use or non-use can not affect the performance of the home team.", "", "The 1984 Detroit Tigers gained distinction as just the third team in major league history (after the 1927 New York Yankees and 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers) to lead a", "The 1985 Kansas City Royals won the series four games to three over the St. Louis Cardinals. The key turning point of", "The 1987 Minnesota Twins became the 1st team in the history of the World Series to win the championship", "The 1988 World Series is remembered for the iconic home run by the Los Angeles Dodgers' Kirk Gibson with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 1. The Dodgers were huge underdogs against the 104-win Oakland Athletics, who had swept the Boston Red Sox in the ALCS. Baseball's top relief pitcher, Dennis Eckersley, closed out all four games in the ALCS, and he appeared ready to do the same in Game 1 against a Dodgers team trailing 4–3 in the ninth. After getting the first two outs, Eckersley walked Mike Davis of the Dodgers, who were playing without", "When the 1989 World Series began, it was notable chiefly for being the first ever World Series matchup between the two San Francisco Bay Area teams, the San Francisco Giants and Oakland Athletics. Oakland won the first two games at home, and the two teams crossed the bridge to San Francisco to play Game 3 on Tuesday, October 17. ABC's broadcast of Game 3 began at 5 pm local time, approximately 30 minutes before the first pitch was scheduled. At 5:04, while broadcasters Al Michaels and Tim McCarver were narrating highlights and the teams were warming", "", "The 1991 World Series saw the Minnesota Twins defeating the Atlanta Braves four games to three to win the championship. ESPN selected it as the \"Greatest of All Time\" in their \"World Series 100th Anniversary\" countdown, with five of its games being decided by a single run, four games decided in the final at-bat and three games", "World Series games were contested outside of the United States for the first time in 1992, with the Toronto Blue Jays defeating the Atlanta Braves in six games. The World Series returned to Canada in 1993, with the Blue Jays victorious again, this time against the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. No other Series has featured a team from outside of the", "In 1994, each league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and the newly introduced wild card winner advancing to a best-of-five playoff round (the \"division series\"), the National League Division Series (NLDS) and American League Division Series (ALDS). The team with the best league record is matched against the wild card team, unless they are", "After the boycott of 1904, the World Series was played every year until 1994 despite World War I, the global influenza pandemic of 1918–1919, the Great Depression of the 1930s, America's involvement in World War II, and even an earthquake in the host cities of the 1989 World Series. A breakdown in collective bargaining led to a strike in August 1994 and the eventual cancellation of the rest of the season, including the playoffs. As the labor talks began, baseball franchise owners demanded a salary cap in order to limit payrolls, the elimination of salary arbitration, and the right to retain free agent players by matching a competitor's best offer. The Major League Baseball Players Association (MLBPA) refused to agree to limit payrolls, noting that the responsibility for high payrolls lay with those owners who were voluntarily offering contracts. One difficulty in reaching a settlement was the absence of a commissioner. When Fay", "The 2001 World Series was the first World Series to end in November, due to the week-long delay in the regular season after the September 11 attacks. Game 4 had begun on Oct. 31 but went into extra innings and ended early on the morning of Nov. 1, the first time the Series had been played in November. Yankee shortstop Derek Jeter won the game with a 10th inning walk-off home run and was dubbed \"Mr. November\" by elements of the media echoing the media's designation of Reggie Jackson as \"Mr. October\" for his slugging achievements during the 1977 World Series. The Boston Red Sox broke their 86-year drought, known as the Curse of the Bambino, defeating the Yankees in the 2004 ALCS after losing the first three games, and then defeating the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. With the 2006 World Series victory by the St. Louis Cardinals, Tony La Russa became the second manager to a win a World Series in both the American and National Leagues.", "Prior to 2003, home-field advantage in the World Series alternated from year to year between the NL and AL. After the 2002 Major League Baseball All-Star Game ended in a tie, MLB decided to award home-field advantage in the World Series to the winner of the All-Star Game. Originally implemented as a two-year trial from 2003 to 2004, the practice was extended. The American League had won every All-Star Game since this change until 2010 and thus enjoyed home-field advantage from 2002, when it also had home-field advantage based on the alternating schedule, through 2009. From 2003 to 2010, the AL and NL had each won the", "The San Francisco Giants won the World Series in 2010, 2012, and 2014 while failing to qualify to play in the postseason in the intervening seasons. The Texas Rangers were twice only one strike away from winning their first World Series title in 2011, but the St. Louis Cardinals' David Freese, the eventual Series MVP, drove in both the tying and winning runs late in Game 6 to force a Game 7. In 2013, the Boston Red Sox won their first world series of the 2010's, this time at Fenway Park for the first time since 1918. The Kansas City Royals reached the World Series in 2014, which was their first appearance in the postseason since winning the series in 1985. At the time, it was the longest postseason drought in baseball. They lost in seven games to the Giants. The following season, the Royals finished with the American League's best record, and won a second consecutive American League pennant. They defeated the New York Mets in the", "", "American League (AL) teams have won 66 of the 115 World Series played (57.3%). The New York Yankees have won the most titles in MLB with 27 total, accounting for 23.4% of all series played and 40.9% of the wins by American League teams. The St. Louis Cardinals have won 11 World Series, second-most among all 30 teams and most among National League franchises, accounting for 9.5% of all series played and 22.4% of the 49 National League victories. When the first modern World Series was played in", "This information is up to date through the present time:", "When two teams share the same state or metropolitan area, fans often develop strong loyalties to one and antipathies towards the other, sometimes building on already-existing rivalries between cities or neighborhoods. Before the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the only opportunity for two teams playing in the same area but in different leagues to face each other in official competition would have been in a World Series.", "The historic rivalry between Northern and Southern California added to the interest in the Oakland Athletics-Los Angeles Dodgers series in 1974 and 1988 and in the San Francisco Giants' series against the then-Anaheim Angels in 2002. Other than the St. Louis World Series of 1944, the only postseason tournament held entirely within Missouri was the I-70 Series in 1985 (named for the Interstate Highway connecting the two cities) between the St. Louis Cardinals and the Kansas City Royals, who won at home in the seventh game. Going into the 2020 season, there has never been an in-state World Series between the teams in Ohio (Cleveland Indians and Cincinnati Reds), Florida (Tampa Bay Rays and Miami Marlins), Texas (Texas Rangers and Houston Astros – who now both play in the American League since", "At the time the first modern World Series began in 1903, each league had eight clubs, all of which survive today (although sometimes in a different city or with a new nickname), composing the \"original sixteen\".", "When the World Series was first broadcast on television in 1947, it was only televised to a few surrounding areas via coaxial inter-connected stations: New York City (WNBT); Philadelphia (WPTZ); Schenectady/Albany, New York (WRGB); Washington, D.C. (WNBW) and surrounding suburbs/environs. In, games in Boston were only seen in the Northeast. Meanwhile, games in Cleveland were only seen in the Midwest and Pittsburgh. The games", "As part of a multiyear partnership that began in 2017,", "Despite its name, the World Series remains solely the championship of the major-league baseball teams in the United States and Canada, although MLB, its players, and North American media sometimes informally refer to World Series winners as \"world champions of baseball\". Some Americans, even those close to 'world champions' themselves, question whether the title is justified. The United States, Canada, and Mexico (\"Liga Méxicana de Béisbol\", established 1925) were the only professional baseball countries until a few decades into the 20th century. The first Japanese professional baseball efforts began in 1920. The current Japanese leagues date from the late 1940s (after World War II). Various Latin American leagues also formed around that time. By the 1990s, baseball was played at a highly skilled level in many countries. Reaching North America's high-salary major leagues is the goal of many of the best players around the world, which gives a strong international flavor to the Series. Many talented players from Latin America, the Caribbean, the Pacific Rim, and elsewhere now play in the majors. One notable exception is Cuban citizens, because of the political tensions between the US and Cuba since 1959 (yet a number of Cuba's finest ballplayers have still managed to defect to the United States over the past half-century to play in the American professional leagues). Japanese professional players also have a difficult time coming to the North American leagues. They become free agents only after nine years playing service in the NPB, although their Japanese teams may at any time \"post\" them for bids from MLB teams, which commonly happens at the player's request. Several tournaments feature teams composed only of players from one country, similar to national teams in other sports. The World Baseball Classic, sponsored by Major League Baseball and sanctioned by the sport's world governing body, the World Baseball Softball Confederation (WBSC), uses a format similar to the FIFA World Cup to promote competition between nations every four years. The WBSC has since added the Premier12, a tournament also involving national teams; the first event was held in 2015, and is planned to be held every four years (in the middle of the World Baseball Classic cycle). The World Baseball Classic is held in March and the Premier12 is held in November, allowing both events to feature top-level players from all nations. The predecessor to the WBSC as the sport's international governing body, the International Baseball Federation, also sponsored a Baseball World Cup to crown a world champion. However, because the World Cup was held during the Northern Hemisphere summer, during the playing season of almost all top-level leagues, its teams did not feature the best talent from each nation. As a result, baseball fans paid little or no attention to the World Cup and generally disregarded its results. The Caribbean Series features competition among the league champions from Mexico, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela but unlike the FIFA Club World Cup, there is no club competition that features champions from all professional leagues across the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Team history.", "Brooklyn Dodgers.", "Jackie Robinson.", "Move to Los Angeles.", "Los Angeles Dodgers.", "Other historical notes.", "Origin of the nickname.", "Uniforms.", "Asian players.", "Rivalries.", "San Francisco Giants.", "Los Angeles Angels.", "Historical rivalry.", "New York Yankees.", "Fan support.", "Radio and television.", "Achievements.", "Retired numbers.", "Personnel.", "Managers.", "Public address announcers/organists.", "Other.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early 20th century, the team, then sometimes called the Brooklyn Robins after manager Wilbert Robinson, won league pennants in 1916 and 1920, losing the World Series both times, first to Boston and then Cleveland. In the 1930s, the team officially adopted the Dodgers nickname, which had been in use since the 1890s, named after the Brooklyn pedestrians who dodged the streetcars in the city. In 1941, the Dodgers captured their third National League pennant, only to lose to the New York Yankees. This marked the onset of the Dodgers–Yankees rivalry, as the Dodgers would face them in their next six World Series appearances. Led by Jackie Robinson, the first black Major League Baseball player of the modern era; and three-time National League Most Valuable Player Roy Campanella, also signed out of the Negro Leagues, the Dodgers captured their first World Series title in 1955 by defeating the Yankees for the first time, a story notably described in the 1972 book \"The Boys of Summer\". Following the 1957 season the team left Brooklyn. In just their second season in Los Angeles, the Dodgers won their second World Series title, beating the Chicago White Sox in", "", "The Dodgers were founded in 1883 as the Brooklyn Atlantics, taking the name of a defunct team that had played in Brooklyn before them. The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890. They promptly won the NL Championship their first year in the League. The team was known alternatively as the", "For most of the first half of the 20th century, no Major League Baseball team employed an African American player. Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play for a Major League Baseball team when he played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. This was mainly due to general manager Branch Rickey's efforts. The deeply religious Rickey's motivation appears to have been primarily moral, although business considerations were also a factor. Rickey was a member of The Methodist Church, the antecedent denomination to The United Methodist Church of today, which was a strong", "Real estate investor Walter O'Malley acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought the 25 percent share of co-owner Branch Rickey and became allied with the widow of the another equal partner, Mrs. John L. Smith. Before long, he was working to buy new land in Brooklyn to build a more accessible and profitable ballpark than the aging Ebbets Field. Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field was no longer well-served by its aging infrastructure and the Dodgers could no longer sell out the park even in the heat of a pennant race, despite largely dominating the National League from 1946 to 1957. O'Malley wanted to build a new, state of the art stadium in Brooklyn. But City Planner Robert Moses and New York politicians refused to grant him the eminent domain authority required to build pursuant to O'Malley's plans. To put pressure on the city, during the 1955 season, O'Malley announced that the team would play seven regular season games and one exhibition game at Jersey City's Roosevelt Stadium in 1956. Moses and the City considered this an empty threat, and did not believe", "The Dodgers were the first Major League Baseball team to ever play in Los Angeles. On April 18, 1958, the Dodgers played their first LA game, defeating the former New York and now new San Francisco Giants, 6–5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off-season accident, was never able to play in Los Angeles. Construction on Dodger Stadium was completed in time for Opening", "", "The Dodgers' official history reports that the term \"Trolley Dodgers\" was attached to the Brooklyn ballclub due to the complex maze of trolley cars that weaved its way through the borough of Brooklyn. In 1892, the city of Brooklyn (Brooklyn was an independent city until annexed by New York City in 1898) began replacing its slow-moving, horse-drawn trolley lines with the faster, more powerful electric trolley lines. Within less than three years, by the end of 1895, electric trolley accidents in Brooklyn had resulted in more than 130 deaths and", "The Dodgers' uniform has remained relatively unchanged since the 1930s. The home jersey is white with \"Dodgers\" written in script across the chest in royal. The road jersey is gray with \"Los Angeles\" written in script across the chest in royal. The word \"Dodgers\" was first used on the front of the team's home jersey in 1933; the uniform was then white with red pinstripes and a stylized \"B\" on the left shoulder. The Dodgers also wore green outlined uniforms and green caps throughout the 1937 season but reverted to blue the following year. The current design was created in 1939, and has remained the same ever since with only cosmetic changes. Originally intended for the 1951 World Series for which the ballclub failed to qualify, red numbers under the \"Dodgers\" script", "The Dodgers have been groundbreaking in their signing of players from Asia; mainly Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Former owner Peter O'Malley began reaching out in 1980 by starting clinics in China and South Korea, building baseball fields in two Chinese cities, and in 1998 becoming the first major league team to open an office in Asia. The Dodgers were the second team to start a Japanese player in recent history, pitcher Hideo Nomo, the first team to start a South Korean player, pitcher Chan Ho Park, and the first Taiwanese player, Chin-Feng Chen. In addition, they were the first team to", "The Dodgers' rivalry with the San Francisco Giants dates back to the 19th century, when the two teams were based in New York; the rivalry with the New York Yankees took place when the Dodgers were based in New York, but was revived with their East Coast/West Coast World Series battles in 1963, 1977, 1978, and 1981. The Dodgers rivalry with the Philadelphia Phillies also dates back to their days in New York, but was most fierce during the 1970s, 1980s, and 2000s. The Dodgers also had a heated rivalry with the Cincinnati Reds during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. The rivalry with the Los Angeles Angels and the San Diego Padres dates back to the Angels' and Padres' respective inaugural seasons (Angels in 1961, Padres in 1969). Regional proximity is behind the rivalries with both the Angels and the Padres.", "The Dodgers–Giants rivalry is one of the longest-standing rivalries in U.S. baseball. The feud between the Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers playing in Brooklyn and the Giants playing at the Polo Grounds in Manhattan. After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley moved the team to Los Angeles for financial and other reasons. Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner Horace Stoneham—who was considering moving his team to Minnesota—to preserve the rivalry by bringing his team to California as well. New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move. Given that the cities of Los Angeles", "This rivalry refers to a series of games played with the Los Angeles Angels. The Freeway Series takes its name from the massive freeway system in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, the home of both teams; one could travel from one team's stadium to the other simply by traveling along Interstate 5. The term is akin to \"Subway Series\" which refers to meetings between New York City baseball teams. The term \"\"Freeway Series\"\" also inspired the official name", "", "The Dodgers–Yankees rivalry is one of the most well-known rivalries in Major League Baseball. The two teams have met eleven times in the World Series, more times than any other pair from the American and National Leagues. The initial significance was embodied in the two teams' proximity in New York City, when the Dodgers initially played in Brooklyn. After the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958, the rivalry retained its significance as the two teams represented the dominant cities on each coast of the United States, and since the 1980s, the two largest cities in the United States. Although the rivalry's significance arose from the two teams' numerous World Series meetings, the Yankees and Dodgers have not met in the World Series since. They would not play each other in a non-exhibition game until 2004, when they played a three-game interleague series. Their last meeting was in August 2019, when the Yankees won two out of three games in Los Angeles.", "The Dodgers have a loyal fanbase, evidenced by the fact that the Dodgers were the first MLB team to attract more than 3 million fans in a season (in 1978), and accomplished that feat six more times before any other franchise did it once. The Dodgers drew at least 3 million fans for 15 consecutive seasons from 1996 to 2010, the longest such streak in all of MLB. On July 3, 2007, Dodgers management announced that total franchise attendance, dating back to 1901, had reached 175 million, a record for all professional sports. In 2007, the Dodgers set a franchise record for single-season attendance, attracting over 3.8 million fans. In 2009, the Dodgers led MLB in total attendance. The Dodger baseball cap is consistently in the top three in sales. During the 2011–2012 season, Frank McCourt, the owner of the Dodgers at that time, was going through a rough divorce with his wife over who should be the owner of", "Vin Scully called Dodgers games from 1950 to 2016. His longtime partners were Jerry Doggett (1956–1987) and Ross Porter (1977–2004). In 1976, he was selected by Dodgers fans as the Most Memorable Personality (on the field or off) in the team's history. He is also a recipient of the Baseball Hall of Fame's Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasters (inducted in 1982). Unlike the modern style in which multiple sportscasters have an on-air conversation (usually with one functioning as play-by-play announcer and the other[s] as color commentator), Scully, Doggett and Porter generally called games solo, trading with each other inning-by-inning. In the 1980s and 1990s, Scully would call the entire radio broadcast except for the third and seventh inning, allowing the other Dodger commentators to broadcast an inning. When Doggett retired after the 1987 season, he was replaced by Hall-of-Fame Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale, who previously broadcast games for the California Angels and Chicago White Sox. Drysdale died in his hotel room following a heart attack before a game in Montreal in 1993. This was a difficult broadcast for Scully and Porter who could not mention it on-air until", "", "Koufax, Campanella, and Robinson were the first Dodgers to have their numbers retired, in a ceremony at Dodger Stadium on June 4, 1972. This was the year in which Koufax was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame; Robinson and Campanella were already Hall-of-Famers. Alston's number was retired in the year following his retirement as the Dodgers manager, six years before he was inducted into the Hall of Fame. Gilliam died suddenly in 1978 after a 28-year career with the Dodgers organization. The Dodgers retired his number two days after his death, prior to Game 1 of the 1978 World Series. As of 2018, he", "", "Since 1884, the Dodgers have used a total of 31 Managers, the most current being Dave Roberts, who was appointed following the 2015 postseason, after the departure of Don Mattingly. Over the nearly 43 years from 1954 to mid-1996, the Dodgers employed only two managers,", "During their time in Brooklyn, stadium organist Gladys Goodding became so well known that fans would joke that she was \"the only Dodger who played every game without an error\". From the Dodgers' move to Los Angeles from Brooklyn in 1958, the Dodgers employed a handful of well-known public address announcers; the most famous of which was John Ramsey, who served as the PA voice of the Dodgers from 1958 until his retirement in 1982; he was also well known for announcing at other venerable Los Angeles venues, including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Sports Arena, and the Forum. Ramsey died in 1990. From 1958 to 1982, Doug Moore, Philip Petty, and Dennis Packer served as back-up voices for John Ramsey for the Dodgers, California Angels, Los Angeles Chargers, USC football and Los Angeles Rams. Packer was Ramsey's primary backup for the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings until Ramsey's retirement from the Forum in 1978. Thereafter, Packer became the public address announcer for the Lakers, Kings, indoor soccer and indoor tennis", "Vin Scully is permanently honored in the Baseball Hall of Fame's \"Scribes & Mikemen\" exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award", "The Los Angeles Dodgers farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "Geomorphology.", "Ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The oldest rocks in the shield consist of Archean Imataca Complex, composed of a quartz-feldspar gneiss and subordinate mafic gneiss. The Guri Fault marks the southern boundary of the complex. South of that fault are Early Proterozoic rocks consisting of the metavolcanic Pastora Supergroup and the granitic plutonic Supamo Complex. The Cuchivero Group consists of ash flow tuff and granitic plutonic rocks. The Early to Middle Proterozoic Roraima Group consists of continental clastic sedimentary rocks. These Precambrian sediments include quartz sandstones, quartzites, and conglomerates presumed to be 1.8 to 1.4 Ga in age.", "There are three upland areas of the Guiana Shield: The north-central part of the Guiana Highlands is dominated by high flat-topped peaks called tepuis, of the Roraima supergroup and Quasi-Roraima formation, and the rounded granite peaks of the Parguaza and Imataca complexes to the north and southwestern edges of the area. The highest point in the shield is Pico da Neblina in Brazil at. Pico da Neblina is the highest summit of the larger Neblina massif, a highly eroded sandstone plateau that straddles the Venezuela-Brazil border and that has lost the typical tabletop shape of the other tepuis in the region.", "The Guiana Shield is one of the regions of highest biodiversity in the world, and has many endemic species. The region houses has over 3000 vertebrate species: 1168 fresh water fish, 269 amphibians (54% endemics), 295 reptiles (29%), 1004 birds (7.7%), and 282 mammals (11%). Diversity of invertebrates remains largely undocumented, but there are several species of endemic butterflies and dung beetles. Plant life is equally rich and 13,367 species of vascular plants have been found, approximately 40% of which is considered endemic. The shield is overlain by the largest expanse of tropical forest on any Precambrian shield area in the world. Guianan rain forest is similar in nature to Amazonian rain forest and known protected areas include the Iwokrama Forest of central Guyana, Kaieteur, Kanuku National Park of southern Guyana, the UNESCO World Heritage Site Central Suriname Nature Reserve of Suriname, the Guiana Amazonian Park in French Guiana and the Tumucumaque National Park in the Amapá State of Brazil. In Venezuela the forests are protected by Canaima, Parima-Tapirapeco and Serranía de la Neblina national parks. In 2014, the Government of Colombia designated a 250 hectare area of the Guaina Shield, as a Ramsar Wetland, thus becoming a protected area of international importance in accordance to the Ramsar Convention. According to recent researches, ecosystems of the Guayana Highlands are in danger because of non-native plant species (including \"a well-known invasive plant elsewhere\" \"Poa annua\" and \"one of the most aggressive weeds\" \"Polypogon elongatus\") and infectious faecal bacteria \"Helicobacter pylori\" introduced by tourists." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uniform.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "Home attendance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Denver had long been a hotbed of Denver Bears/Zephyrs minor league baseball and residents and businesses in the area desired a Major League team. Denver's Mile High Stadium was built originally as Denver Bears Stadium, a minor league baseball stadium that could be upgraded to major league standards. Following the Pittsburgh drug trials in 1985, an unsuccessful attempt was made to purchase the Pittsburgh Pirates and relocate them. However, in January 1990, Colorado's chances for a new team improved significantly when Coors Brewing Company became a limited partner with the AAA Denver Zephyrs. In 1991, as part of Major League Baseball's two-team expansion (along with the Florida (now Miami) Marlins), an ownership group representing Denver led by John Antonucci and Michael I. Monus was granted a franchise. They took the name \"Rockies\" due to Denver's proximity to the Rocky Mountains, which is reflected in their logo; the name was previously used by the city's first NHL team (who are now the New Jersey Devils). Monus and Antonucci were forced to drop out in 1992 after Monus' reputation was ruined by an accounting scandal. Trucking magnate Jerry McMorris stepped in at the 11th hour to save the franchise, allowing the team to begin play in 1993. The Rockies shared Mile High Stadium with the National Football League (NFL)'s Denver Broncos for their first two seasons while Coors Field was constructed. It was completed for the 1995 Major League Baseball season. In 1993, they started play in the West division of the National League. The Rockies were MLB's first team based in the Mountain Time Zone. They have reached the Major League Baseball postseason five times, each time as the National League wild card team. Twice (1995 and 2009) they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. In 2007, the Rockies advanced to the World Series, only to be swept by the Boston Red Sox. Like their expansion brethren, the Miami Marlins, they have never won a division title since their establishment; they are also one of two current MLB teams that have never won their division. The Rockies have played their home games at Coors Field since 1995. Their newest spring training home, Salt River Fields at Talking Stick in Scottsdale, Arizona, opened in March 2011 and is shared with the Arizona Diamondbacks.", "At the start of the 2012 season, the Rockies introduced \"Purple Mondays\" in which the team wears its purple uniform every Monday game day.", "In 2020, Larry Walker was the first Colorado Rockies player to be inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Todd Helton is the first Colorado player to have his number (17) retired, which was done on Sunday, August 17, 2014. Newly-elected Hall of Fame member, Larry Walker, will have his number (33) retired on April 19, 2020 at Coors Field. Jackie Robinson's number, 42, was retired throughout all of baseball in 1997. Keli McGregor had worked with the Rockies since their inception in 1993, rising from senior director of operations to team president in 2002, until his death on April 20, 2010. He is honored at Coors Field alongside Helton and Robinson with his initials.", "The Colorado Rockies farm system consists of eight minor league affiliates.", "As of 2010, Rockies' flagship radio station is KOA 850AM, with some late-season games broadcast on KHOW 630 AM due to conflicts with Denver Broncos games. The Rockies Radio Network is composed of 38 affiliate stations in eight states. As of 2019, Jack Corrigifan is the radio announcer, serving as a backup TV announcer whenever Drew Goodman is not available. In January 2020, long-time KOA radio announcer Jerry Schemmel was let go from his role for budgetary reasons from KOA’s parent company. As of 2013, Spanish language radio broadcasts of the Rockies are heard on KNRV 1150 AM. As of 2013, all games are produced and televised by AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain. All 150 games produced by AT&T SportsNet Rocky Mountain are broadcast in HD. Jeff Huson and Drew Goodman are the usual the TV broadcast team, with Ryan Spilborghs and Taylor McGregor handling on-field coverage and clubhouse interviews. Jenny Cavnar, Jason Hirsh, and Cory Sullivan handle the pre-game and post-game shows. Schemmel, Corrigan, Spilborghs, Cavnar, and Sullivan also fill in as play-by-play or color commentator during absences of Huson or Goodman.", "The Rockies led MLB attendance records for the first seven years of their existence. The inaugural season is currently the MLB all-time record for home attendance. + = 57 home games in strike shortened season. ++ = 72 home games in strike shortened season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The ancestors of the Croats in the Czech Republic arrived in the 1500s from central Croatia, fleeing before the Ottoman Turks. The period of their settling is at the same time as the arrival of the Croats to Austria, Hungary and Slovakia, who are called the Burgenland Croats. The migration of the Croats to Moravia got the attention of ethnographers, linguists, and historians in that era. The first mention of Croats was at the end of the eighteenth century. They tried to explain the reasons for the migration of the Croats from their ancestral homeland. They believed that the colonization of the Croats started from the Croatian regions south of the Kupa and Petrova Gora, better known as Banska Krajina [or today Banovina], was summarized by Adolf Turek. The Czech Croats lived without a main settlement in parts of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany and Austria. Once, it used to be a continuous string of villages, especially the so-called \"Croatian Corridor\", assimilation and repression was brought onto the local Croats which directly affected the ties of the Czech Croats with the other Croatians in the Diaspora, especially the Burgenland Croatians. In fact, this corridor was known as link a between the Western Slavs and the Southern Slavs, more precisely, Slovene-Croat-Serb state or later, the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, and Czechoslovakia itself. Croat-Prague student groups thought of the idea of a \"Slavic corridor\" that went between Bratislava and Varazdin. Later, idea of a \"Croatian corridor\" was given life and personally published by Stjepan Radić. This idea as well as others that were national orientation, and started by the Croats ended ingloriously. However it did allow the creation of the Burgenland, the cradle of the Burgenland Croatians in neighboring Austria.", "A saying of the Czech Croats was \"We are a people of three languages.\" Of all the national minorities, only the Croats were trilingual. They spoke German, and Czech and nurtured Croatian at home. Considering that they often used Czech and German in schools, churches, public administration, the grammar and vocabulary of the Moravian Croats did not remain untouched. The Croatian Cakavian and Ikavian language was mixed with loan words of both Czech and German origins. Croatian is not studied in Czech schools, so the majority younger generation does not speak it. The older generation of Czech Croats preserved the language, culture, and customs by gathering in organizations and reading magazines in Croatian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Crest and shirt.", "Stadium.", "Attendances.", "Rivalries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Viking was founded in Stavanger in 1899 and played mainly local games in the early years. From the 1930s, the club established itself at the national level, playing in the 1933 cup final, which it lost to Mjøndalen. During the 1930s the club produced several of its best known players, most prominently Reidar Kvammen, who played in Norway's bronze medal winning 1936 olympic team. His brother Arthur Kvammen was also capped for Norway, while Bernhard Lund later went on to write the club anthem. After the Second World War, Viking became a dominant side in the 1950s, beating Lillestrøm in the 1953 cup final and Sandefjord in the 1959 final, as well as winning the league title in 1957–58. Long-serving goalkeeper Sverre Andersen was the most prominent player in this generation, while Edgar Falch also earned several caps for Norway. Rolf and Kåre Bjørnsen, Asbjørn Skjærpe and Leif Nicolaysen were other prominent players, while a young Olav Nilsen began his remarkable Viking career in 1959. The club attendance record also stems from the semifinal of the 1959 cup, when 18,892 spectators saw Viking beat Odd 4–0. While the 1960s was a somewhat quieter decade for Viking, the club returned to dominate Norwegian football in the 1970s. Viking won four straight league titles from 1972 to 1975, as well as the double in 1979. Innovative 1972 manager Kjell Schou-Andreassen has been credited for laying the foundation for the success, with his ideas on cooperative behaviour and his revolutionary use of pacey, attacking full backs Sigbjørn Slinning and Anbjørn Ekeland. However, the team had a new manager every year, with Sverre Andersen, Stuart Williams and Olav Nilsen leading them to the title in the subsequent years, and Tony Knapp managing the 1979 team. Midfielder Olav Nilsen was also a crucial player on the pitch in the first half of the decade, earning the nickname \"Olav Viking\", while fellow midfielder Svein Kvia was awarded the Norwegian Player of the Year title on several occasions. Arvid Knutsen, Reidar Goa, Hans Edgar Paulsen, Erik Johannessen, Inge Valen, Johannes Vold, Svein Hammerø, Gunnar Berland and Trygve Johannessen were other key players. The 1980s started well for the club. Kjell Schou Andreassen returned to guide the club to the league title in 1982. They also finished runners-up in the league in 1981 and 1984, and in the cup in 1984, producing players such as Bjarne Berntsen, Per Henriksen, Erik Thorstvedt, Svein Fjælberg, Nils Ove Hellvik, Tonning Hammer, Isak Arne Refvik, Torbjørn Svendsen, Trygve Johannessen and Gary Goodchild. However, the mid-80s saw the club relegated to the Second Division, and 1987 was the club's worst season in recent memory as the club fell to 8th position in the Second Division, while local rivals Bryne won the cup and neighbouring minnows Vidar almost won promotion to the Tippeligaen. Swedish manager Benny Lennartsson and players Kjell Jonevret and Per Holmberg arrived on large salaries to save the club. The gamble paid off when charismatic striker Alf Kåre Tveit secured a controversial penalty in the 95th minute against Vard in the final league game of the 1988 season. Arild Ravndal converted the spot kick to give Viking the victory and secure promotion, dubbed \"the miracle in Haugesund\". This signalled the start of a new era, and the club won the cup in 1989 and the league in 1991. Lars Gaute Bø, Roger Nilsen, Kent Christiansen, Egil Fjetland, Jan Fjetland, Trond Egil Soltvedt, Mike McCabe and Børre Meinseth were other key players in a young Viking team. However, many of the young players from the 1991 league winning squad did not manage to live up to their expectations, and the club was almost relegated under new manager Arne Larsen Økland in 1992. Bjarne Berntsen took over as manager in mid-season and secured renewed Tippeligaen status. Viking FK almost knocked the world famous side FC Barcelona, the second sports team with 100 million Facebook followers, out of the European Cup. While the club spent most of the 1990s challenging for Premier League medals, it did however never manage to challenge Rosenborg for the league championships. The 1990s was also the era of player exports in Norwegian football, and Viking made substantial earnings from the sales of striker Egil Østenstad to Southampton for £900,000 in 1996 and goalkeeper Thomas Myhre to Everton for £800,000 in 1997, among others. Gunnar Aase, Lars Gaute Bø, Magnus Svensson, Bjarte Aarsheim, Kenneth Storvik, Roger Nilsen and Ingve Bøe were other key players in this generation. Benny Lennartson returned in 2000 to take over from Dane Poul Erik Andreasen, and this resulted in two bronze medals, a cup title and a memorable European Cup victory over Chelsea. In 2003, Kjell Inge Olsen took over as manager, and the club finished fifth in the league. At the beginning of the 2004 season, the club moved to its new stadium in Jåttåvågen, named Viking Stadion. At the same time, Englishman Roy Hodgson took over as manager. The club finished ninth in its first season in the new stadium and fifth in the 2005 campaign. Brede Hangeland, Egil Østenstad, Peter Kopteff and Frode Hansen were notable players in this period. At the end of the 2005 season, Roy Hodgson quit his job as Viking coach to take over as Finland manager, and he was replaced by Tom Prahl. The 2006 season started poorly for Prahl's team and poor soon turned to terrible. With seven matches to go, the once so feared team were situated at the bottom of the table. Former Start coach Tom Nordlie was brought in on a three-month contract to replace Tom Prahl and save Viking from relegation. Under new leadership, Viking won three of the first four games, jumping to tenth place in the standings, but were then defeated twice in a row to once again fall into the relegation zone. Now lying second from the bottom, it looked like the best the club could hope for was making the play-off spot. The season finale proved to be extraordinary, however, as Viking crushed league runners-up Brann 5–0 at home to pass both HamKam and Odd Grenland in the standings and ultimately retain their spot in the Tippeligaen. Tom Nordlie was considered the favorite for the manager role after the season, but he chose a move to Lillestrøm instead. On 22 November 2006, Viking appointed Uwe Rösler (who was replaced by Tom Nordlie in Lillestrøm just one week earlier) as their new manager. Under Rösler, Viking returned as a top team, and claimed the 3rd spot on the table in 2007. However, the following seasons were less successful, with Viking ending on 6th place in 2008 and 10th in 2009. They were also surprisingly knocked out of the UEFA Cup by Finnish team FC Honka in 2008, and suffered an embarrassing loss against local rivals Bryne in the domestic cup in 2009. After not living up to the expectations two seasons in a row, Rösler resigned from his position as manager on 18 November 2009. In early December 2009, after a period of massive speculation in local newspapers, Viking appointed Åge Hareide, former manager of the Norway national football team, as their new manager. Failing to bring any titles to Stavanger, Hareide was sacked by the club on 9 June 2012. Kjell Jonevret signed as the club's new manager on 19 June 2012. Jonevret had previously had a spell at Viking during his playing career, from 1988 to 1990. Jonevret spent over four years in charge of a team suffering from the club's increasing financial difficulties, achieving acceptable results despite of the difficult financial premises. In August 2015, he renewed his contract until the end of the 2018 season. However, after the 2016 season the club reached a mutual agreement with Jonevret to terminate his contract. On 24 November 2016, Englishman Ian Burchnall was announced as the club's new manager. Despite Viking signing an inexperienced manager and having financial trouble, Norwegian media predicted Viking to finish mid-table ahead of the 2017 season. However, it proved to be a difficult season for Burchnall, as the team struggled throughout the year, being in the relegation zone from start to finish. Two matches before the end of the 2017 season, Burchnall was fired from the job following the club's relegation to the 1. divisjon. Assistant manager Bjarte Lunde Aarsheim took charge as head coach for the last two matches, achieving a win in Viking's last match in the league. On 19 December 2017, Bjarne Berntsen left his role as vice president of the Norwegian FA to take over the manager position at Viking. Berntsen has previously served as player, manager and director at the club. On 11 November 2018 Viking secured promotion to Eliteserien by placing 1st in 1. divisjon, in a tight ending of the season where 3 points were the difference between 1st and 3rd place. Viking defeated Kongsvinger 3–1 in front of a packed Viking Stadion on the last day of the season to secure the 1. divisjon title and put the club back in the Eliteserien after just one season on the second tier of Norwegian football.", "The original kit colours in 1899 were all white. This turned out to be problematic at that time. To avoid colour bleeding from the red and yellow club badge when cleaning the white shirts, the badge had to be removed from each shirt prior to washing and then re-attached afterwards. The club therefore changed to dark blue, and is now nicknamed after the dark blue colour of their shirts. The club badge is shaped like a flag, and remained relatively unchanged from the club's formation in 1899 until 2020. In January 2020, the club introduced a redesigned badge. The flag shape remained, but the font was changed. The oak tree stump graphics were also changed, the year of foundation (1899) was moved and the name of the home city (Stavanger) was made slightly smaller. The flag shape is not uncommon for Norwegian football clubs formed during the transition from the 19th to the 20th century; other examples include Start and Fredrikstad. From 2011, Diadora is the technical sponsor. The Norwegian power company Lyse has been the club's main shirt sponsor since 1999.", "Since the 2004 season, Viking Stadion has been Viking's home stadium. Previously, the club played at Stavanger Stadion, which had a capacity of 17,555. Stavanger Stadion had been the club's stadium since the club was founded in 1899.", "The first season with Viking Stadion saw the average attendance increase from 6,712 in 2003 to 12,450 in 2004. The average attendance numbers have been around 10,000 since the stadium was inaugurated. The lowest average attendance came in 2017, when Viking finished in 16th place and were relegated from Eliteserien. In 2007, Viking had an average attendance of 15,842, which is the highest in Viking's history. The official supporter club of Viking, is \"Vikinghordene\" (the Viking hordes). Other supporter groups are \"F19 Stavanger\", \"Viking Oslo\" and \"Blå Brigade 99\".", "Viking's biggest rivals both locally and historically are Brann, Bryne, Haugesund, Sandnes Ulf and Start. The rivalries with Brann and Haugesund are often referred to as \"Vestlandsderbyet\" (the Western Norway derby). The rivalry with Start is commonly known as \"Sørvestlandsderbyet\" (the Southwestern Norway derby). Bryne, Haugesund and Sandnes Ulf are all located in Rogaland, the same county as Viking. Bryne and Sandnes Ulf are geographically the two closest rivals. Bryne is often considered Viking's biggest rival. The 2003 season was the last season Bryne and Viking played against each other in the league, even though the clubs have met in the cup since then." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Minor league team.", "Major league team.", "Spring training.", "Logos and colors.", "Military appreciation.", "Mascot.", "Achievements.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Team Hall of Fame.", "San Diego Hall of Champions.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "Educational involvement." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Padres adopted their name from the Pacific Coast League team that arrived in San Diego in 1936. That minor league franchise won the PCL title in 1937, led by 18-year-old Ted Williams, the future Hall-of-Famer who was a native of San Diego. The team's name, Spanish for \"fathers\", refers to the Spanish Franciscan friars who founded San Diego in 1769.", "In 1969, the Padres joined the ranks of Major League Baseball as one of four new expansion teams, along with the Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals), the Kansas City Royals, and the Seattle Pilots (now the Milwaukee Brewers). Their original owner was C. Arnholt Smith, a prominent San Diego businessman and former owner of the PCL Padres whose interests included banking, tuna fishing, hotels, real estate and an airline. Despite initial excitement, the guidance of longtime baseball executives, Eddie Leishman and Buzzie Bavasi as well as a new playing field, the team struggled; the Padres finished in last place in each of its first six seasons in the NL West, losing 100 games or more four times. One of the few bright spots on the team during the early years was first baseman and slugger Nate Colbert, an expansion draftee from the Houston Astros and still the Padres' career leader in home runs. The team's fortunes gradually improved as they won five National League West titles and reached the World Series twice, in 1984 and in 1998, but lost both times. The Padres' main draw during the 1980s and 1990s was Tony Gwynn, who won eight league batting titles. They moved into their current stadium, Petco Park, in 2004. As of 2019, the Padres are the only team in MLB yet to throw a no-hitter. On September 5, 1997, Andy Ashby took a no-hitter into the 9th inning, which is as close as the team has come to achieving this feat.", "The team has played its spring training games at the Peoria Sports Complex in Peoria, Arizona since 1994. They share the stadium with the Seattle Mariners. From 1969 to 1993, the Padres held spring training in Yuma, Arizona at Desert Sun Stadium. Due to the short driving distance and direct highway route (170 miles, all on Interstate 8), Yuma was very popular with Padres fans, and many fans would travel by car from San Diego for spring training games. The move from Yuma to Peoria was very controversial, but was defended by the team as a reflection on the low quality of facilities in Yuma and the long travel necessary to play against other Arizona-based spring training teams (whose sites were all in the Phoenix and Tucson areas, both rather far from Yuma).", "Throughout the team's history, the San Diego Padres have used multiple logos, uniform, and color combinations. Their first logo depicted a friar swinging a bat with Padres written at the top while standing in a sun-like figure with San Diego Padres on the exterior of it. The \"Swinging Friar\" has popped up on the uniform on and off ever since. Although the \"Swinging Friar\" is no longer used as the primary logo, it remains as the mascot of the team and is now utilized as an alternate logo and on the uniform sleeve. In 1985, the Padres switched to using a script-like logo in which \"Padres\" was written sloped up. That would later become a script logo for the Padres. The team's colors were changed to brown and orange and remained this way through the 1990 season. In 1989, the Padres took the scripted Padres logo that was used from 1985 to 1988 and put it in a gray ring that read \"San Diego Baseball Club\" with a striped center. In 1991, the color of the ring was changed to silver, and the Padres script was changed from brown to blue. The logo only lasted one year, as the Padres changed their logo for the third time in three years, again by switching colors of the ring. The logo became a white ring with fewer stripes in the center and a darker blue Padres script with orange shadows. In 1991, the team's colors were also changed, to a combination of orange and navy blue. For the 2002 season, the Padres removed the stripes off the home jersey and went with a white home jersey with a cleaner look. The pinstripe jerseys were worn as alternate jerseys on certain occasions throughout the 2002 season. The Padres kept this design for two seasons until their 2004 season, in which they moved into their new ballpark. The logo was completely changed when the team changed stadiums between the 2003 and 2004 seasons, with the new logo looking similar to home plate with \"San Diego\" written in sand font at the top right corner and the Padres new script written completely across the center. Waves finished the bottom of the plate. Navy remained but a sandy beige replaced orange as a secondary color. The team's colors were also changed, to navy blue and sand brown. For the next seven seasons the Padres were the only team in Major League Baseball that did not have a gray jersey, with the team typically playing in either blue or sand jerseys on the road and white or blue jerseys at home. In 2009, the \"San Diego\" was removed from the top right corner of the logo and two years later, the away uniform changed from sand to gray. For the 2012 season, the Padres unveiled a new primary logo, featuring the cap logo inside a navy blue circle with the words \"San Diego Padres Baseball Club\" adorning the outer circle. The \"swinging friar\" logo was recolored to the current colors of navy blue and white. Another secondary logo features the Padres script carried over from the previous year's primary logo below the depiction of Petco Park in sand and above the year of the team's first season (EST. 1969). Until 2015, the blue and sand version was used on the home uniform, while the blue and white version was used on the away and alternate uniforms. In the 2016 season, the Padres wore a navy blue and yellow color scheme, similar to the one used on the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game logo. To coincide with the change, the Padres added a new brown and yellow alternate uniform to be worn mostly during Friday home games. For the 2017 season, the Padres revealed a new color scheme and new jerseys for the second straight year. The yellow was scrapped from the home uniform and the team reverted to a navy blue-and-white combo. The word \"Padres\" returned to the front of the home uniform, but with a new script, while the script on the road uniform reverted to the \"San Diego\" wordmark style it used from 2004–11. Despite this major change, the brown and yellow alternate uniform from the previous set was retained. The club announced on January 25, 2019 that the original brown and gold colors would return for the 2020 Major League Baseball season. The new uniform designs featuring the brown and gold colors were officially unveiled on November 9. The team featured brown and gold on each of the three unveiled jerseys, including the return of pinstripes to the Padre home jersey for the first time since 2001 and a non-gray road jersey for the first time since 2010.", "Starting in 1996, the Padres became the first national sports team to have an annual military appreciation event. Following in 2000, the Padres began wearing a camouflage to honor the military. The jersey will now have had seven different versions since. Starting in 2008, the Padres began wearing camouflage jerseys for every Sunday home game. They also wear these uniforms on Memorial Day, Independence Day, and Labor Day. For 2011, the Padres changed the camouflage design to a more modern \"digital\" design, using the MARPAT design after receiving permission from then-Commandant Conway, and dropped the green from the lettering and logo of the jersey. Green was replaced by a sand-olive color (also in the cap worn with the jersey). For 2016, to coincide with hosting the 2016 Major League Baseball All-Star Game, the Padres changed the camouflage jersey once again; this time to navy blue, however, this design was only worn for one season as for 2017, the Padres switched the camouflage jersey to Marine, which was used through 2019. For 2020, the Padres will begin using two different camouflage jersey colors: green and sand-olive, both with the current \"Padres\" wordmark. Since 1995 Marine Recruits from the nearby Marine Corps Recruit Depot often visit the games en masse during Military Appreciation Day, in uniform, often filling entire sections in the upper deck of Petco Park. When they are present, the team commemorates this with a special Fourth Inning Stretch featuring the Marine Hymn. Through April 2005 over 60,000 marine recruits were hosted by the Padres. This is part of an extensive military outreach program, which also includes a series of Military Appreciation Night games, and game tapes mailed to deployed United States Navy ships of the Pacific Fleet for onboard viewing (a large portion of the Pacific Fleet is homeported in San Diego). The San Diego area is home to a number of military installations, including several Navy and Coast Guard bases centered on San Diego Bay, Marine Corps Air Station Miramar (former home of the \"Top Gun\" training program), and the Marine Corps training ground at Camp Pendleton. Civilians employed at those bases account for around 5% of the county's working population.", "The \"Swinging Friar\" is currently the mascot of the team. Some in the past have confused The Famous Chicken as the mascot of the Padres. Although he does make appearances occasionally at San Diego sporting events, he has never been the official mascot of any San Diego sports team.", "", "The following elected members of the Baseball Hall of Fame played and/or managed for the Padres.", "The Padres have retired six numbers. Five were in honor of Padre players and one was Jackie Robinson's number 42, which was retired by all of Major League Baseball. The retired numbers are displayed on the upper deck facade behind home plate. The Padres also have a \"star on the wall\" in honor of broadcaster Jerry Coleman, in reference to his trademark phrase \"Oh Doctor! You can hang a star on that baby!\" Nearby the initials of the late owner Ray Kroc are also displayed. Both the star and the initials are painted in gold on the front of the pressbox down the right field line accompanied by the name of the person in white. Kroc was honored in 1984, Coleman in 2001.", "The following 14 people have been inducted into the San Diego Padres Hall of Fame since it was founded in 1999.", "Gwynn, Winfield, Fingers, Gossage, Randy Jones, and Graig Nettles (3B, 1984–1987) are members of the San Diego Hall of Champions, which is open to athletes native to the San Diego area (such as Nettles) as well as to those who played for San Diego teams (such as Gwynn).", "The San Diego Padres farm system consists of eight minor league affiliates.", "Padres' games are currently televised by Fox Sports San Diego. Don Orsillo is the play-by-play announcer, with Mark Grant as color analyst and either Julie Alexandria, Ron Zinter, or Bob Scanlan as field reporter. Mike Pomeranz hosts the \"Padres Live\" pre- and post-game show along with Mark Sweeney. As of the 2018 season, Padres radio broadcasts in English are carried by KWFN \"97.3 The Fan\", after having previously been carried by sister station 94.9 KBZT upon the acquisition of the radio rights by Entercom in 2017. Ted Leitner is the primary play-by-play announcer, with Jesse Agler working the middle innings of each game and Bob Scanlan serving as color analyst. The games are also broadcast in Spanish on XEMO-AM,\"La Poderosa 860 AM\", with Eduardo Ortega, Carlos Hernández and Pedro Gutiérrez announcing. Padre games were also aired from 2006–2010 on XHPRS-FM 105.7. Spanish language telecasts of Sunday games are seen XHAS-TDT channel 33. Until September 2007, Friday and Saturday games were seen in Spanish on KBOP-CA channel 43, until that station changed to an all-infomercial format. This makes XHAS-TDT the only over-the-air-television station carrying Padres baseball. English-language Padres over-the-air broadcasts aired through the years on XETV-TV 6, KCST-TV 39, KUSI-TV 51, KFMB-TV 8 and KSWB-TV 69. John Demott was the Padres' first public address announcer when the team began in 1969. By the late 1970s Bruce Binkowski had taken over as PA announcer, and became the longest-serving public address announcer in the team's history, remaining until the end of the 1999 season. First DeMott and then Binkowski also were responsible with PA announcing duties for the San Diego Chargers and the San Diego State University Aztecs, both of which were joint tenants at Qualcomm Stadium with the Padres until the Padres moved into Petco Park. From Petco Park's opening in 2004 until 2013, the PA announcer was Frank Anthony, a radio host with 105.7 XHPRS-FM. On April 19, 2014, Alex Miniak was announced as the new Public Address announcer for the San Diego Padres. Miniak was formerly the PA announcer for the New Hampshire Fisher Cats, the Double-A affiliate of the Toronto Blue Jays. The San Diego Padres were first portrayed in the 1979 NBC made-for-TV film \"The Kid from Left Field,\" starring Gary Coleman as Jackie Robinson \"J.R.\" Cooper, a youngster who is passionate about baseball, and puts his knowledge to good use when he becomes the manager of the Padres and helps them lead to the World Series. In 2016, the San Diego Padres were portrayed once again in the one-season Fox television series \"Pitch\", starring Kylie Bunbury as Ginny Baker, the first female to play in Major League Baseball.", "The San Diego Padres established The Padres Scholars program, the first of its kind among professional sports. Originally each Padres scholar was selected as a seventh grader and received a $5,000 scholarship after graduation from high school to go towards higher education. This program has reached 389 students from its establishment in 1995 to now. Over the past few years the program has undergone a few changes to be effective an education standpoint. This program focuses on creating a close relationship between the chosen scholars and the team. As of 2011, 3 high school seniors will be chosen to receive a $30,000 scholarship to be awarded through the course of their higher education. Maintaining this prestigious award is conditional on maintaining contact with the Padres and providing proof of good academic standing. The San Diego Padres are the sponsors of and heavily involved in most aspects of the Sports Business Management MBA degree program offered in conjunction with San Diego State University's College of Business Administration. SDSU's Sports MBA is the only program of its kind created in partnership with a professional sports franchise. The curriculum focuses on the entire sports business industry, not just baseball. The program includes an internship. Members of Padres senior management regularly participate, including work with the development and continued coordination of SDSU's International Case Competition, which annually attracts participation from top business schools." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemistry.", "Optical rotation.", "Definition and measurement.", "Definition of the inversion point.", "Chirality and specific rotation.", "Effects of water.", "Mixtures in general.", "Fully hydrolyzed sucrose.", "Partly hydrolyzed sucrose.", "Monitoring reaction progress.", "Production.", "Shelf life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Table sugar (sucrose) is converted to invert sugar by hydrolysis. Heating a mixture or solution of table sugar and water breaks the chemical bond that links together the two simple-sugar components. The balanced chemical equation for the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose and fructose is:", "Once a sucrose solution has had some of its sucrose turned into glucose and fructose the solution is no longer said to be pure. The gradual decrease in purity of a sucrose solution as it is hydrolyzed affects a chemical property of the solution called optical rotation that can be used to figure out how much of the sucrose has been hydrolyzed and therefore whether the solution has been inverted or not.", "A kind of light called plane polarized light can be shone through a sucrose solution as it is heated up for hydrolysis. Such light has an 'angle' that can be measured using a tool called a polarimeter. When such light is shone through a solution of pure sucrose it comes out the other side with a different angle than when it entered; its angle is therefore said to be 'rotated' and how many degrees the angle has changed (the degree of its rotation or its 'optical rotation') is given a letter name, formula_1 (alpha). When the rotation between the angle the light has when it enters and when it exits is in the clockwise direction, the light is said to be 'rotated right' and formula_1 is given to have a \"positive\" angle such as 64°. When the rotation between the angle the light has when it enters and when it exits is in the counterclockwise direction, the light is said to be 'rotated left' and formula_1 is given a \"negative\" angle such as –39°.", "When plane polarized light enters and exits a solution of \"pure\" sucrose its angle is rotated 66.5° (clockwise or to the right). As the sucrose is heated up and hydrolyzed the amount of glucose and fructose in the mixture increases and the optical rotation decreases. After formula_1 passes zero and becomes a negative optical rotation, meaning that the rotation between the angle the light has when it enters and when it exits is in the counter clockwise direction, it is said that the optical rotation has 'inverted' its direction. This leads to the definition of an 'inversion point' as the per cent amount sucrose that has to be hydrolyzed before formula_1 equals zero. Any solution which has passed the inversion point (and therefore has a negative value of formula_1 is said to be 'inverted'.", "As the shapes of the molecules ('chemical structures') of sucrose, glucose, and fructose are all asymmetrical the three sugars come in several different forms, called stereoisomers. The existence of these forms is what gives rise to these chemicals' optical properties. When plane polarized light passes through a pure solution of one of these \"forms\" of one of the sugars it is thought to hit and 'glance off' certain asymmetrical chemical bonds within the molecule of that form of that sugar. Because those particular bonds (which in cyclic sugars like sucrose, glucose, and fructose include a kind of bond called an anomeric bond) are different in each form of the sugar, each form rotates the light to a different degree. When any one form of a sugar is purified and put in water, it rapidly takes other forms of the same sugar. This means that a solution of a pure sugar normally has all of its stereoisomers present in the solution in different amounts which usually do not change much. This has an 'averaging' effect on all of the optical rotation angles (formula_1 values) of the different forms of the sugar and leads to the pure sugar solution having its own 'total' optical rotation, which is called its'specific rotation' or 'observed specific rotation' and which is written as formula_8.", "Water molecules do not have chirality, therefore they do not have any effect on the measurement of optical rotation. When plane polarized light enters a body of pure water its angle is no different than when it exits. Thus, for water, formula_8 = 0°. Chemicals that, like water, have specific rotations that equal zero degrees are called 'optically inactive' chemicals and like water, they do not need to be considered when calculating optical rotation.", "The overall optical rotation of a mixture of chemicals can be calculated if the proportion of the amount of each chemical in the solution is known. If there are formula_10-many optically active different chemicals ('chemical species') in a solution and the molar concentration (the number of moles of each chemical per liter of liquid solution) of each chemical in the solution is known and written as formula_11 (where formula_12 is a number used to identify the chemical species); and if each species has a specific rotation (the optical rotation of that chemical were it made as a pure solution) written as formula_13, then the mixture has the overall optical rotationformula_14Where formula_15 is the mole fraction of the formula_16 species.", "Assuming no extra chemical products are formed by accident (\"that is\", there are no side reactions) a completely hydrolyzed sucrose solution no longer has any sucrose and is a half-and-half mixture of glucose and fructose. This solution has the optical rotationformula_17", "If a sucrose solution has been partly hydrolyzed, then it contains sucrose, glucose and fructose and its optical rotation angle depends on the relative amounts of each for the solution;formula_18Where formula_19, formula_20, and formula_21 stand for sucrose, glucose, and fructose. The particular values of formula_22 do not need to be known to make use of this equation as the inversion point (per cent amount of sucrose that must be hydrolyzed before the solution is inverted) can be calculated from the specific rotation angles of the pure sugars. The reaction stoichiometry (the fact that hydrolyzing one sucrose molecule makes one glucose molecule and one fructose molecule) shows that when a solution begins with formula_23 moles of sucrose and no glucose nor fructose and formula_24 moles of sucrose are then hydrolyzed the resulting solution has formula_25 moles of sucrose, formula_24 moles of glucose and formula_24 moles of fructose. The total number of moles of sugars in the solution is therefore formula_28and the reaction progress (per cent completion of the hydrolysis reaction) equals formula_29. It can be shown that the solution's optical rotation angle is a function of (explicitly depends on) this per cent reaction progress. When the quantity formula_30 is written as formula_31 and the reaction is formula_32 done, the optical rotation angle isformula_33By definition, formula_1 equals zero degrees at the 'inversion point'; to find the inversion point, therefore, alpha is set equal to zero and the equation is manipulated to find formula_31. This givesformula_36Thus it is found that a sucrose solution is inverted once at least formula_37 of the sucrose has been hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose.", "Holding a sucrose solution at temperatures of hydrolyzes no more than about 85% of its sucrose. Finding formula_1 when r = 0.85 shows that the optical rotation of the solution after hydrolysis is done is –12.7° this reaction is said to invert the sugar because its final optical rotation is less than zero. A polarimeter can be used to figure out when the inversion is done by detecting whether the optical rotation of the solution at an earlier time in its hydrolysis reaction equals –12.7°.", "Common sugar can be inverted quickly by mixing sugar and citric acid or cream of tartar at a ratio of about 1000:1 by weight and adding water. If lemon juice which is about five percent citric acid by weight is used instead then the ratio becomes 50:1. Such a mixture, heated to and added to another food, prevents crystallization without tasting sour. Inverted sugar syrup can be made without acids or enzymes by heating it up alone: two parts granulated sugar and one part water, simmered for five to seven minutes, will be partly inverted. Commercially prepared enzyme-catalyzed solutions are inverted at. The optimum pH for inversion is 5.0. Invertase is added at a rate of about 0.15% of the syrup's weight, and inversion time will be about 8 hours. When completed the syrup temperature is raised to inactivate the invertase, but the syrup is concentrated in a vacuum evaporator to preserve color. Commercially prepared hydrochloric-acid catalyzed solutions may be inverted at the relatively low temperature of. The optimum pH for acid-catalyzed inversion is 2.15. As the inversion temperature is increased, the inversion time decreases. They are neutralized when the desired level of inversion is reached. In confectionery and candy making, cream of tartar is commonly used as the acidulant, with typical amounts in the range of 0.15-0.25% of the sugar's weight. The use of cream of tartar imparts a honey-like flavor to the syrup. After the inversion is completed, it may be neutralized with baking soda using a weight of 45% of the cream of tartar's weight. The amount of water can be increased to increase the time it takes to reach the desired final temperature, and increasing the time increases the amount of inversion that occurs. In general, higher final temperatures result in thicker syrups, and lower final temperatures, in thinner ones. All constituent sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose) support fermentation, so invert sugar solutions of any composition can be fermented.", "Fully inverted sugar's low water content improves the shelf lives of products that contain it. The shelf life of partly inverted sugar is about six months and varies by storage and climatic conditions. Crystallized invert sugar solutions can be restored to their liquid state by gently heating." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Logos.", "Radio and television.", "Spanish broadcasts.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On March 9, 1995, Phoenix was awarded an expansion franchise to begin play for the season. A $130 million franchise fee was paid to Major League Baseball and on January 16, 1997, the Diamondbacks were officially voted into the National League. The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the Colorado Rockies on March 31, 1998, at Bank One Ballpark. The ballpark was renamed Chase Field in 2005, as a result of Bank One Corporation's merger with JPMorgan Chase & Co. Since their debut, the Diamondbacks have won five NL West division titles, one NL pennant, one Wild Card game, and the 2001 World Series.", "The Diamondbacks' original colors were purple, black, teal and copper. Their first logo was an italicized block letter \"A\" with a diamond pattern, and the crossbar represented by a snake's tongue. Prior to their inaugural season, they released their baseball caps. The home cap had a cream color crown with a purple visor and button. The road cap was black and had a turquoise visor and button. Their alternate cap had a turquoise crown with a purple visor and button. Depending on the cap, the \"A\" logo on the front of the cap had different color variations. In the Diamondbacks' second season, they introduced a new logo which was a copper color snake in the shape of a letter \"D\". It was used on a solid black cap, which in the beginning, was worn as a road cap. The franchise unveiled new uniforms and colors of Sedona red, Sonoran sand and black on November 8, 2006. The red shade is named for the sandstone canyon at Red Rock State Park near Sedona, while the beige (sand) shade is named for the Sonoran Desert. A sleeve patch was added featuring a lowercase \"d\" and \"b\" configured to look like a snake's head. The team also kept the \"D\" logo, but was slightly altered and put on an all red cap to be used as their game cap. They also kept the \"A\" logo with the new colors applied to it, with a solid black cap used as the alternate cap. A similar color scheme is currently used by the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League. Prior to the 2016 season, the Diamondbacks reincorporated teal into its color scheme while keeping Sedona Red, Sonoran Sand and black. They also unveiled eight different uniform combinations, including two separate home white and away grey uniforms. One major difference between the two sets is that the non-teal uniforms feature a snakeskin pattern on the shoulders, while the teal-trimmed uniforms include a charcoal/grey snakeskin pattern on the back. Arizona also kept the throwback pinstriped sleeveless uniforms from their 2001 championship season for use during Thursday home games. Starting with the 2020 season, the Diamondbacks made slight redesigns to their current uniforms. The snakeskin patterns were removed while the teal-trimmed grey uniforms were retired. The team also reverted to a standard grey uniform after wearing a darker shade on the previous set. Two home white uniforms remain in use: the primary Sedona Red and the alternate teal. They would also wear two black uniforms: one with the primary \"A\" logo on the left chest and the other with \"Los D-Backs\" trimmed in teal. Three cap designs were also unveiled: the primary \"A\" cap, the teal-trimmed \"snake\" cap (paired exclusively on the teal alternates), and the sand-trimmed \"snake\" cap (paired exclusively on the Sedona Red alternates). The Nike swoosh logo is also placed on the right chest near the shoulder.", "The primary television play-by-play voice for the team's first nine seasons of play was Thom Brennaman, who also broadcasts baseball and college football games nationally for Fox Television. Brennaman was the TV announcer for the Chicago Cubs and Cincinnati Reds (along with his father Marty Brennaman) before being hired by Diamondbacks founder Jerry Colangelo in 1996, two years before the team would begin play. In October 2006, Brennaman left the Diamondbacks to call games with his father for the Reds beginning in 2007, signing a four-year deal (his FOX duties remained unchanged). The English language flagship radio station is KTAR. Greg Schulte is the regular radio play-by-play voice, a 25-year veteran of sports radio in the Phoenix market, also well known for his previous work on Phoenix Suns, Arizona Cardinals and Arizona State University (ASU) broadcasts. Jeff Munn is a backup radio play-by-play announcer; he served as the regular public address announcer at Chase Field in the early days of the franchise. He is well known to many Phoenix area sports fans, having also served as the public address announcer for the Suns at America West Arena (now Talking Stick Resort Arena) in the 1990s. He is also the play-by-play radio voice for ASU women's basketball. On November 1, 2006, the team announced that the TV voice of the Milwaukee Brewers since 2002, Daron Sutton, would be hired as the Diamondbacks primary TV play-by-play voice. Sutton was signed to a five-year contract with a team option for three more years. Sutton is considered one of the best of the younger generation of baseball broadcasters. His signature chants include \"let's get some runs\" when the D-backs trail in late innings. Sutton's father is Hall of Fame pitcher and current Atlanta Braves broadcaster Don Sutton. Former Diamondbacks and Chicago Cubs first baseman Mark Grace and former Major League knuckleball pitcher Tom Candiotti were the Diamondbacks primary color analysts for the 2006 and 2007 seasons. Former Diamondbacks third baseman Matt Williams also did color commentary on occasion, as did former Cardinals and NBC broadcast legend Joe Garagiola, Sr., a longtime Phoenix-area resident and father of Joe Garagiola, Jr., the first GM of the Diamondbacks (as head of the Maricopa County Sports Authority in the early 1990s, Garagiola, Jr. was one of the primary people involved in Phoenix obtaining a Major League Baseball franchise). The Diamondbacks announced in July 2007 that for the 2008 season, all regionally broadcast Diamondbacks TV games will be shown exclusively on Fox Sports Arizona, and a few could possibly be shown on the national Fox MLB telecasts. Fox Sports Arizona (or FS Arizona) is currently seen in 2.8 million households in Arizona and New Mexico. The previous flagship station, since the inaugural 1998 season, was KTVK, a popular over-the-air independent station (and former longtime ABC affiliate) in Phoenix. From 2009 to 2012, Mark Grace and Daron Sutton were tagged as the main broadcasters of the Diamondbacks with pre-game and postgame shows on Fox Sports Arizona, being hosted by former big-league closer Joe Borowski. On June 21, 2012, Daron Sutton was suspended indefinitely, amid rumors of insubordination. Then on August 24, the team announced that Mark Grace had requested an indefinite leave of absence after being arrested for his second DUI in less than two years (Grace was later indicted on four DUI counts). For the remainder of the 2012 season, Sutton was replaced by Greg Schulte (Jeff Munn replaced Schulte on the radio broadcast) and Grace was replaced by Luis Gonzalez. At the end of the 2012 season, the team announced that neither Sutton nor Grace would be returning for the 2013 season. On October 18, 2012, the team announced that Bob Brenly would be returning as a broadcaster to replace Grace, and that he would be joined by then-ESPN personality Steve Berthiaume.", "The flagship Spanish language radio station is KHOV-FM 105.1 with Oscar Soria, Rodrigo Lopez, and Richard Saenz. Games were televised in Spanish on KPHE-LP—with Oscar Soria and Jerry Romo as the announcers—but this arrangement ended prior to the 2009 season due to the team switching fully to Fox Sports Arizona and the lack of carriage of KHPE-LP on the Cox cable system. <nowiki>*</nowiki> signifies current Major League player", "The Arizona Diamondbacks farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "New York Giants.", "San Francisco Giants.", "Rivalries.", "Los Angeles Dodgers.", "Oakland Athletics.", "Historical rivalry.", "New York Yankees.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Other.", "San Francisco Giants Wall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Also honored.", "Team captains.", "Season records.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "Home run call glitch.", "Fight song and other music.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Giants originated in New York City as the New York Gothams in 1883 and were known as the New York Giants from 1885 until the team relocated to San Francisco after the 1957 season. During most of their 75 seasons in New York City, the Giants played home games at various incarnations of the Polo Grounds in Upper Manhattan. Numerous inductees of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum played for the New York Giants, including John McGraw, Mel Ott, Bill Terry, Willie Mays, Monte Irvin, and Travis Jackson. During the club's tenure in New York, they produced five of the franchise's eight World Series wins (1905, 1921, 1922, 1933, 1954) and 17 of its 23 National League pennants. Famous moments in the Giants' New York history include the 1922 World Series, in which the Giants swept the Yankees in four games, the 1951 home run by New York Giants outfielder and third baseman Bobby Thomson known as the \"Shot Heard 'Round the World\", and the defensive feat by Mays during Game 1 of the 1954 World Series known as \"the Catch\". The Giants had intense rivalries with their fellow New York teams, the New York Yankees and the Brooklyn Dodgers. The Giants faced the Yankees in six World Series and played the league rival Dodgers multiple times per season. Games between any two of these three teams were known collectively as the Subway Series. The Dodgers-Giants rivalry continues, as both teams moved to California after the 1957 season, with the Dodgers relocating to Los Angeles. The New York Giants of the National Football League are named after the team.", "The Giants, along with their rival Los Angeles Dodgers, became the first Major League Baseball teams to ever play on the west coast. On April 15, 1958, the Giants played their first game in San Francisco, defeating the former Brooklyn and now Los Angeles Dodgers, 8–0. The Giants played for two seasons at Seals Stadium before moving to Candlestick Park in 1960. The Giants played at Candlestick Park until 1999, before opening Pacific Bell Park (now known as Oracle Park) in 2000, where the Giants currently play. The Giants were unable to sustain success in their first 50 years in San Francisco. They made nine playoff appearances and won three NL pennants between 1958 and 2009. The Giants lost the 1962 World Series in seven games to the New York Yankees. The Giants were swept in the 1989 World Series by their cross-town rival Oakland Athletics, a series best known for the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake causing a 10-day delay between Games 2 and 3. The Giants also lost the 2002 World Series to the Anaheim Angels. One of the team's biggest highlights during this time was the 2001 season, in which OF Barry Bonds hit 73 home runs, breaking the record for most home runs in a season. In 2007, Bonds would surpass Hank Aaron's career record of 755 home runs. Bonds finished his career with 762 home runs (586 hit with the Giants), still the MLB record. The Giants won three World Series championships in 2010, 2012, and 2014, giving the team eight total World Series titles, including the five won as the New York Giants. Players inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum as San Francisco Giants include 1B Orlando Cepeda P Juan Marichal, 1B Willie McCovey, and P Gaylord Perry.", "The Giants' rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers dates back to when the two teams were based in New York, as does their rivalry with the New York Yankees. The Dodger and Giants rivalry is one of the longest rivalries in sports history. Their rivalry with the Oakland Athletics dates back to when the Giants were in New York and the A's were in Philadelphia and played each other in the 1905, 1911, & 1913 World Series, and was renewed in 1968 when the Athletics moved from Kansas City and the teams again played each other in the earthquake-interrupted 1989 Bay Bridge World Series. The 2010 NLCS inaugurated a Giants rivalry with the Philadelphia Phillies after confrontations between Jonathan Sánchez and Chase Utley, and between Ramón Ramírez and Shane Victorino. However, with the Philadelphia Phillies dropping off as one of the premier teams of the National League, this rivalry has died down since 2010 and 2011. Another rivalry that has intensified recently is with the St. Louis Cardinals, whom the team has faced 4 times in the NLCS. The rivalry between the New York Giants and Chicago Cubs in the early 20th century was once regarded as one of the most heated in baseball, with Merkle's Boner leading to a 1908 season-ending matchup in New York of particular note. That historical rivalry was revisited when the Giants beat the Cubs in the 1989 NL playoffs, in their tiebreaker game in Chicago at the end of the 1998 season, and on June 6, 2012 in a \"Turn Back The Century\" game in which both teams wore replica 1912 uniforms.", "The Giants-Dodgers rivalry is one of the greatest and longest-standing rivalries in team sports, and has been regarded as the most intense in American baseball. The Giants-Dodgers feud began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers based in Brooklyn and the Giants playing at the Polo Grounds in upper Manhattan. After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley decided to move the team to Los Angeles primarily for financial reasons. Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner Horace Stoneham (who was considering moving his team to Minnesota) to preserve the rivalry by taking his team to San Francisco as well. New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move. Given that the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have long been competitors in economic, cultural and political arenas, their new California venues became fertile ground for transplantation of the ancient rivalry. Both teams' having endured for over a century while leaping across an entire continent, as well as the rivalry's growth from cross-city to cross-state, have led to its being considered one of the greatest in sports history. The Giants-Dodgers rivalry has been marked by the Giants' slightly better success. While the Giants have more total wins, head-to-head wins, and World Series titles in their franchise histories, the Dodgers have won the National League West 10 more times than the Giants since the start of division play in 1969. Both teams have made the postseason as a National League wild card twice. The Giants won their first world championship in California in 2010, while the Dodgers won their last world title in 1988. As of the end of the 2019 baseball season, the Los Angeles Dodgers lead the San Francisco Giants in California World Series triumphs, 5–3, whereas in 20th century New York, the Giants led the Dodgers in World Series championships, 5–1. The combined franchise histories give the Giants an 8–6 edge in MLB championships, overall.", "A geographic rivalry with the cross-Bay American League Athletics greatly increased with the 1989 World Series, nicknamed the \"Battle of the Bay\", which Oakland swept (and which was interrupted by the Loma Prieta earthquake moments before the scheduled start of Game 3 in San Francisco). In addition, the introduction of interleague play in 1997 has pitted the two teams against each other for usually six games every season since 1997, three in each city (but only four in 2013, two in each city). Before 1997, they played each other only in Cactus League spring training. Their interleague play wins and losses (63–57 in favor of the A's) have been fairly evenly divided despite differences in league, style of play, stadium, payroll, fan base stereotypes, media coverage and World Series records, all of which have heightened the rivalry in recent years. The intensity of the rivalry and how it is understood varies among Bay Area fans. A's fans generally view the Giants as a hated rival, while Giants fans generally view the A's as a friendly rival much lower on the scale. This is most likely due to the A's lack of a historical rival, while the Giants have their heated rivalry with the Dodgers. Some Bay Area fans are fans of both teams. The \"split hats\" that feature the logos of both teams best embodies the shared fan base. Other Bay Area fans view the competition between the two teams as a \"friendly rivalry\", with little actual hatred compared to similar ones such as the Subway Series (New York Mets vs. New York Yankees), the Red Line Series (Chicago Cubs vs. Chicago White Sox) and the Freeway Series (Los Angeles Dodgers vs. Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim). The Giants and A's enjoyed a limited rivalry at the start of the 20th century before the Yankees began to dominate after the acquisition of Babe Ruth in 1920, when the Giants were in New York and the A's were in Philadelphia. The teams were managed by legendary leaders John McGraw and Connie Mack, who were considered not only friendly rivals but the premier managers during that era, especially in view of their longevity (Mack for 50 years, McGraw for 30) since both were majority owners. Each team played in five of the first 15 World Series (tying them with the Red Sox and Cubs for most World Series appearances during that time period). As the New York Giants and the Philadelphia A's, they met in three World Series, with the Giants winning in and the A's in &. After becoming the San Francisco Giants and Oakland A's, they met in a fourth Series in resulting in the A's last world championship (as of 2018).", "", "Though in different leagues, the Giants have also been historical rivals of the Yankees, starting in New York before the Giants moved to the West Coast. Before the institution of interleague play in 1997, the two teams had little opportunity to play each other except in seven World Series:,,,,, and, the Yankees winning last five of the seven Series. The teams have met five times in regular season interleague play: In 2002 at the old Yankee Stadium, in 2007 at Oracle Park (then known as AT&T Park), in 2013 and 2016 at the current Yankee Stadium, and in 2019 at Oracle Park. The teams' next regular season meetings will occur in 2022. In a September 2013 meeting, Yankees 3B Alex Rodriguez hit a grand slam, breaking Lou Gehrig's grand slam record. In his July 4, 1939 farewell speech ending with the renowned \"Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth\", Yankee slugger Lou Gehrig, who played in 2,130 consecutive games, declared that the Giants were a team he \"would give his right arm to beat, and vice versa.\"", "As of 2012, the Major League Baseball Hall of Fame has inducted 66 representatives of the Giants (55 players and 11 managers) into the Hall of Fame, more than any other team in the history of baseball.", "The following inducted members of the Hall of Fame played or managed for the Giants, but either played for the Giants and were inducted as a manager having never managed the Giants, or managed the Giants and were inducted as a player having never played for the Giants: Broadcasters Russ Hodges, Lon Simmons, and Jon Miller are permanently honored in the Hall's \"Scribes & Mikemen\" exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award in 1980, 2004, and 2010 respectively. As with all Frick Award winners, none are officially recognized as an inducted member of the Hall of Fame.", "The Giants Wall of Fame recognizes retired players whose records stand highest among their teammates on the basis of longevity and achievements. Those honored have played a minimum of nine seasons for the San Francisco Giants, or five seasons with at least one All-Star selection as a Giant.", "The Giants have retired 11 numbers in the history of the franchise, most recently Barry Bonds' number 25 in 2018. Of the Giants whose numbers have been retired, all but Bonds have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame. In 1944, Carl Hubbell (#11) became the first National Leaguer to have his number retired by his team. Bill Terry (#3), Mel Ott (#4), and Hubbell played and/or managed their entire careers for the New York Giants. Willie Mays (#24) began his career in New York, moving with the Giants to San Francisco in 1958; he did not play in most of 1952 and all of 1953 due to his service in the Korean War. Mathewson and McGraw are honored by the Giants, but played in an era before uniform numbers became standard in baseball. It was announced that the Giants will retire Will Clark's #22 on July 11, 2020.", "John McGraw (3B, 1902–06; manager, 1902–32) and Christy Mathewson (P, 1900–16), who were members of the New York Giants before the introduction of uniform numbers, have the letters \"NY\" displayed in place of a number. Broadcasters Lon Simmons (1958–73, 1976–78, 1996–2002 & 2006), Russ Hodges (1949–70), and Jon Miller (1997–current) are each represented by an old-style radio microphone displayed in place of a number. The Giants present the Willie Mac Award annually to the player that best exemplifies the spirit and leadership shown by Willie McCovey throughout his career.", "The Giants have had a number of captains over the years:", "All-time regular season record: 11,165–9,687 (.535) (through 2019 season)", "The San Francisco Giants farm system consists of eight minor league affiliates.", "Giants' television telecasts are split between NBC-owned KNTV (broadcast) and NBC Sports Bay Area (cable). KNTV's broadcast contract with the Giants began in 2008, one year after the team and KTVU mutually ended a relationship that dated to 1961. Jon Miller regularly calls the action on KNTV, while the announcing team for NBCSBA telecasts is Mike Krukow and Duane Kuiper, affectionately known as \"Kruk and Kuip\" (pronounced \"Kruke\" and \"Kype\"). During the 2016 season, the Giants had an average 4.71 rating and 117,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts. The Giants' flagship radio station is KNBR (680 AM). KNBR's owner, Cumulus Media, is a limited partner in San Francisco Baseball Associates LP, the owner of the team. Jon Miller and Dave Flemming are the regular play-by-play announcers. In addition to KNBR, the Giants can be heard throughout Northern California and parts of Nevada, Oregon, and Hawaii on the Giants Radio Network. When games are televised on KNTV, Kuiper replaces Miller on the radio, and Miller goes to television. Erwin Higueros and Tito Fuentes handle Spanish-language radio broadcasts on KXZM (93.7 FM).", "On May 28, 2006, Flemming called the 715th career home run of Barry Bonds, which moved Bonds into second on the all-time home run list. Unfortunately, the power from Flemming's microphone to the transmitter cut off while the ball was in flight, so the radio audience heard only crowd noise. Greg Papa took over the broadcast and apologized to listeners. Kuiper's TV call was submitted to the Baseball Hall of Fame as an artifact, instead of the usual radio call.", "First used for Giants radio broadcasts on KSFO, the team's fight song \"Bye, Bye Baby!\" is currently used following any Giants home run. The song is played in the stadium, and an instrumental version is played on telecasts when the inning in which the home run was hit concludes. The title and chorus \"Bye bye baby!\" coming from famed former Giants broadcaster Russ Hodges, which was his home run call. Following a Giants home win, Tony Bennett's \"I Left My Heart in San Francisco\" is played in Oracle Park in celebration. If the Giants are leading after the 8th inning, they play Journey's \"When the Lights Go Down in the City\". If they are trailing, they play Journey's \"Don't Stop Believin'\".", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Milwaukee Brewers (1901).", "St. Louis Browns (1902-1953).", "Baltimore Orioles (1954-present).", "Seeds of success (1954–1959).", "Pennant contenders (1960–1965).", "Milt Pappas for Frank Robinson.", "Glory years (1966–1983).", "Final seasons at Memorial Stadium (1984–1991).", "Camden Yards opens (1992–1993).", "Strike year (1994).", "Ripken breaks the streak (1995).", "Playoff years (1996–1997).", "Fourteen Consecutive Losing Seasons (1998–2011).", "Return to success (2012–2016).", "Rebuilding (2017–present).", "Uniform.", "Radio and television coverage.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Musical traditions.", "\"O!\".", "\"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\".", "\"Orioles Magic\" and other songs.", "The First Army Band.", "PA announcer.", "Postseason appearances.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Baltimore Orioles Hall of Fame.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Rivalry with the Washington Nationals.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The modern Orioles franchise can trace its roots back to the original Milwaukee Brewers of the minor Western League, beginning in 1877, when the league reorganized. The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the American League in 1900.", "At the end of the 1900 season, the American League removed itself from baseball's National Agreement (the formal understanding between the NL and the minor leagues). Two months later, the AL declared itself a competing major league. As a result of several franchise shifts, the Brewers were one of only two Western League teams that didn't fold, move or get kicked", "After one year in Milwaukee, the club relocated to St Louis, and for a while enjoyed some success, especially in the 1920s behind Hall of Fame first baseman George Sisler. However, the team's fortunes declined from then on, as playing success and gate receipts instead went increasingly to the Browns' own tenants at Sportsman's Park, the National League Cardinals. During this period the Browns won only one", "The Miles-Krieger (Gunther Brewing Company)-Hoffberger group renamed their new team the Baltimore Orioles soon after taking control of the franchise. The name has a rich history in Baltimore, having been used by a National League team in the 1890s. In 1901, Baltimore and John McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, naming the team the Orioles. After a battle with Ban Johnson, the Head of the American League in 1902, McGraw took many of the top players including Walter Scott \"Steve\" Brodie, Dan McGann, Roger Bresnahan, and Joe McGinnity to the New York Giants.", "After starting the 1954 campaign with a two-game split against the Tigers in Detroit, the Orioles returned to Baltimore on April 15 to a welcoming parade that wound through the streets of downtown, with an estimated 350,000 spectators lining the route. In its first-ever home opener at Memorial Stadium later in the afternoon, they treated a sellout crowd of 46,354 to a 3–1 victory over the Chicago White Sox. The remainder of the season would not be as pleasant, with the team enduring 100 losses while avoiding the AL cellar by only three games. With fellow investors both frustrated with his domination of the franchise's business operations and dissatisfied with yet another seventh-place finish, Clarence Miles resigned in early November 1955. Real estate developer James Keelty Jr. succeeded him as president with investment banker Joseph Iglehart the new board chairman. The seeds of long-term success were planted on September 14, 1954,", "One month prior to the end of the 1961 season, Richards resigned as the team's skipper to become the general manager of the expansion Houston Colt.45s. A year earlier, he succeeded in establishing the Orioles as a legitimate contender when they stood atop the AL standings as late as early September before finishing in second place at 89–65. In 1964, the Birds, piloted by Hank Bauer in his first year of managing the ballclub, were involved in a tight pennant race against the Yankees and White Sox. They ended up in third place with a 97–65 record, only two games out. It has been suggested they would likely have advanced to the Fall Classic had it not been for a minor wrist injury that sidelined Powell for two weeks in late August. Nevertheless, Brooks Robinson enjoyed a breakout season with a league-high 118 RBIs, and won the AL", "On December 9, 1965, the Orioles traded pitcher Milt Pappas (and several others) to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for slugging outfielder Frank Robinson. The following year, Robinson won the American League Most Valuable Player award, thus becoming the first (and so far only) man to win the MVP in each league (Robinson won the NL MVP in 1961, leading the Reds to the pennant). In addition to winning the 1966 MVP, Robinson also won the Triple Crown (leading the American League in batting average, home runs, and runs batted in), a feat also achieved the following season by Boston's Carl Yastrzemski. The Orioles won their first-ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the defending World Champion", "In the 1960s, the Orioles farm system produced an especially large number of high-quality players and coaches and laid the foundation for two decades of on-field success. This period included eighteen consecutive winning seasons (1968–1985)a run of success that saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the winningest team in baseball. During this period, the Orioles played baseball the \"Oriole Way\", an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken Sr.'s phrase \"perfect practice makes perfect!\" The Oriole Way was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to success at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce \"replacement parts\" that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. Elaborations on the Oriole way include pitching coach and manager Ray Miller's maxim \"Work fast, change speeds, and throw strikes\" and manager Earl Weaver's maxim \"Pitching, defense and", "After winning the 1983 World Series, the Orioles spent the next five years in steady decline, finishing 1986 in last place for the first time since the franchise moved to Baltimore. The team hit bottom in 1988 when it started the season 0–21, en route to 107 losses and the worst record in the majors that year. The", "Opening to much fanfare in 1992, Oriole Park at Camden Yards was an instant success, spawning other retro-designed major league ballparks within the next two decades. The stadium became the site of the 1993 All-Star Game. The Orioles returned to contention in those first two seasons at Camden Yards, only to finish in third place both times.", "After the 1993 season, the Orioles acquired first baseman Rafael Palmeiro from the Texas Rangers. The Orioles, who spent all of", "The labor impasse would continue into the spring of 1995. Almost all the major league clubs held spring training using replacement players, with the intention of beginning the season with them. The Orioles, whose owner was a labor union lawyer, were the lone dissenters against creating an ersatz team, choosing instead to sit out spring training and possibly the entire season. Had they fielded a substitute team, Cal Ripken Jr.'s consecutive games streak would", "", "", "", "", "The Orioles' home uniform is white with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest. The road uniform is gray with the word \"Baltimore\" written across the chest. A long campaign of several decades was waged by numerous fans and sportswriters to return the name of the city to the \"away\" jerseys which was used since the 1950s and had been formerly dropped during the 1970s era of Edward Bennett Williams when the ownership was continuing to market the team also to fans in the nation's capital region after the moving of the former Washington Senators in 1971. After several decades, approximately 20% of the team's attendance came from the metro Washington area. An alternate uniform is black with the word \"Orioles\" written across the chest. The Orioles wear their black alternate jerseys for Friday night games with the alternate \"O's\" cap, whether at home or", "", "In Baltimore, Orioles games on radio can be heard over WJZ-FM (105.7 FM). Jim Hunter and Kevin Brown alternate as play-by-play announcers. WJZ-FM also feeds the games to a network of 36 stations, covering Washington, D.C. and all or portions of Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Virginia, West Virginia, and North Carolina. WJZ-FM is in its second stint as the Orioles' flagship radio outlet; the station had carried the team previously from 2007 through 2010. Previous radio flagships for the Orioles have been WCBM (680 AM) from 1954 to 1956, and again for the 1987 season; WBAL (1090 AM) over three separate stints (1957–1978, 1988–2006, and 2011–2014);", "The Mid-Atlantic Sports Network (MASN), co-owned by the Orioles and the Washington Nationals, is the team's exclusive television broadcaster. MASN airs almost the entire slate of regular season games. Some exceptions include Saturday games on either Fox (via its Baltimore affiliate, WBFF) or Fox Sports 1, or \"Sunday Night Baseball\" on ESPN. Many MASN telecasts in conflict with Nationals' game telecasts air on an alternate MASN2 feed. Veteran sportscaster Gary Thorne is the current lead television announcer, with Jim Hunter as his backup along with Hall of Fame member and former Orioles pitcher Jim Palmer and former Oriole infielder Mike Bordick as color analysts, who almost always work separately. All telecasts on MASN and WJZ-TV", "", "Since its introduction at games by the \"Roar from 34\", led by Wild Bill Hagy and others, in the late 1970s, it has been a tradition at Orioles games for fans to yell out the \"Oh\" in the line \"Oh, say does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave\" in \"The Star-Spangled Banner\". \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" has special meaning to Baltimore historically, as it was written during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 by Francis Scott Key, a Baltimorean. \"O\" is not only short for \"Oriole\", but the vowel is also a stand-out aspect of the Baltimorean accent. The tradition is often carried out at other sporting events, both professional and amateur, and even sometimes at non-sporting events where the anthem is played, throughout the Baltimore/Washington area and beyond. Fans in Norfolk, Virginia, chanted \"O!\" even before the Tides became an Orioles affiliate. The practice caught some attention in", "It has been an Orioles tradition since 1975 to play John Denver's \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\" during the seventh-inning stretch. In the edition of July 5, 2007, of Baltimore's weekly sports publication \"Press Box\", an article by Mike Gibbons covered the details of how this tradition came to be. During \"Thank God I'm a Country Boy\", Charlie Zill, then", "Songs from notable games in the team's history include \"One Moment in Time\" for Cal Ripken's record-breaking game in 1995, as well as the theme from \"Pearl Harbor\", \"There You'll Be\" by Faith Hill, during his final game in 2001. The theme from \"Field of Dreams\" was played at the last game at Memorial Stadium in 1991, and the song \"Magic to Do\" from the stage musical \"Pippin\" was used that season", "During the Orioles' final homestand of the season, it is a tradition to display a replica of the 15-star, 15-stripe American flag at Camden Yards. Prior to 1992, the 15-star, 15-stripe flag flew from Memorial Stadium's center-field flagpole in place of the 50-star, 13-stripe flag during the final homestand. Since the move", "For 23 years, Rex Barney was the PA announcer for the Orioles. His voice became a fixture of both Memorial Stadium and Camden Yards, and his expression \"Give that fan a contract\", uttered whenever a fan caught a foul ball, was one of his trademarksthe other being his distinct \"Thank Yooooou...\" following every announcement. (He was also known on occasion", "Of the eight original American League teams, the Orioles were the last of the eight to win the World Series, doing so in 1966 with its four–game sweep of the heavily favored Los Angeles Dodgers. When the Orioles were the St.", "", "The Orioles will retire a number only when a player has been inducted into the Hall of Fame with Cal Ripken Jr. being the only exception. However, the Orioles have placed moratoriums on other former Orioles' numbers following their deaths (see note", "The Orioles also have an official team hall of fame, located on", "The Baltimore Orioles farm", "The Orioles have a burgeoning regional rivalry with the nearby Washington Nationals nicknamed", "Orioles do not claim St. Louis Browns as part of their franchise history. Therefore, players, stats etc. of St. Louis browns are not recorded/calculated in Orioles franchise totals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "1819: Coppermine expedition.", "1823: Marriage and third Arctic expedition.", "1837: Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land.", "1845: Northwest Passage expedition.", "Legacy.", "Rediscovery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Franklin was born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, on, the ninth of twelve children born to Hannah Weekes and Willingham Franklin. His father was a merchant descended from a line of country gentlemen while his mother was the daughter of a farmer. One of his brothers later entered the legal profession and eventually became a judge in Madras; another joined the East India Company; while a sister, Sarah, was the mother of Emily Tennyson, wife of Alfred, Lord Tennyson. John Franklin must have been affected by an obvious desire to better his social and economic position, given that his elder brothers struggled, sometimes successfully and sometimes not, to establish themselves in a wide variety of careers. Educated at King Edward VI Grammar School in Louth, he soon became interested in a career at sea. His father, who intended for Franklin to enter the church or become a businessman, was initially opposed but was reluctantly convinced to allow him to go on a trial voyage on a merchant ship when he was aged 12. His experience of seafaring only confirmed his interest in a career at sea, so in March 1800, Franklin's father secured him a Royal Navy appointment on. Commanded by Captain Lawford, the \"Polyphemus\" carried 64 guns and, at the time of Franklin's appointment, was still at sea. He did not join the vessel until the autumn of 1800. Initially serving as a first class volunteer, Franklin soon saw action in the Battle of Copenhagen in which the \"Polyphemus\" participated as part of Horatio Nelson's squadron. An expedition to the coast of Australia aboard, commanded by Captain Matthew Flinders, followed, with Franklin now a midshipman. He accompanied Captain Nathaniel Dance on the, frightening off Admiral Charles de Durand-Linois at the Battle of Pulo Aura in the South China Sea on. He was present at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 aboard. During the War of 1812 against the United States, Franklin, now a lieutenant, served aboard and was wounded during the Battle of Lake Borgne in December 1814, just prior to the decisive U.S. victory at the Battle of New Orleans one month later. Franklin commanded in 1818 on a journey from London to Spitzbergen, now Svalbard.. The overall expedition was commanded by Captain David Buchan on HMS \"Dorothea\".", "In 1819, Franklin was chosen to lead the Coppermine expedition overland from Hudson Bay to chart the north coast of Canada eastwards from the mouth of the Coppermine River. On his 1819 expedition, Franklin fell into the Hayes River at Robinson Falls and was rescued by a member of his expedition about downstream. Between 1819 and 1822, he lost 11 of the 20 men in his party. Most died of starvation, but there were also at least one murder and suggestions of cannibalism. The survivors were forced to eat lichen and even attempted to eat their own leather boots. This gained Franklin the nickname of \"the man who ate his boots\".", "In 1823, after returning to England, Franklin married the poet Eleanor Anne Porden. Their daughter, Eleanor Isabella, was born the following year. His wife died of tuberculosis in 1825. In 1825, he left for his second Canadian and third Arctic expedition, the Mackenzie River expedition. The goal this time was the mouth of the Mackenzie River from which he would follow the coast westward and possibly meet Frederick William Beechey who would try to sail northeast from the Bering Strait. With him was John Richardson who would follow the coast east from the Mackenzie to the mouth of the Coppermine River. At the same time, William Edward Parry would try to sail west from the Atlantic. (Beechey reached Point Barrow and Parry became frozen in east. At this time, the only known points on the north coast were a hundred or so miles east from the Bering Strait, the mouth of the Mackenzie, Franklin's stretch east of the Coppermine, and a bit of the Gulf of Boothia which had been seen briefly from land.) Supplies were better organized this time, in part because they were managed by Peter Warren Dease of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). After reaching Great Slave Lake using the standard HBC route, Franklin took a reconnaissance trip down the Mackenzie and on, became the second European to reach its mouth. He erected a flagpole with buried letters for Parry. He returned to winter at Fort Franklin (modern day Délı̨nę) on Great Bear Lake. The following summer he went downriver and found the ocean frozen. He worked his way west for several hundred miles and gave up on at Return Reef when he was about east of Beechey's Point Barrow. Reaching safety at Fort Franklin on 21 September, he left on and spent the rest of the winter and spring at Fort Chipewyan. He reached Liverpool on the first of September 1827. Richardson's eastward journey was more successful. Franklin's diary from this expedition describes his men playing hockey on the ice of the Great Bear Lake; Délı̨nę, built on the site of Fort Franklin, thus considers itself to be one of the birthplaces of the sport. On, he married Jane Griffin, a friend of his first wife and a seasoned traveller who proved indomitable in the course of their life together. On, he was knighted by George IV and the same year awarded the first Gold Medal of the Société de Géographie of France. On, he was made Knight Commander of the Royal Guelphic Order and a Knight of the Greek Order of the Redeemer.", "Franklin was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Van Diemen's Land in 1837, but was removed from office in 1843. He is remembered by a significant landmark in the centre of Hobart—a statue of him dominates the park known as Franklin Square, which was the site of the original Government House. On the plinth below the statue appears Tennyson's epitaph: His wife worked to set up a university, which was eventually established in 1890, and a museum, credited to the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1843 under the leadership of her husband. Lady Franklin may have worked to have the Lieutenant-Governor's private botanical gardens, established in 1818, managed as a public resource. Lady Franklin also established a glyptotheque and surrounding lands to support it near Hobart. The village of Franklin, on the Huon River, is named in his honour, as is the Franklin River on the West Coast of Tasmania, one of the better known Tasmanian rivers due to the Franklin Dam controversy. Shortly after leaving his post as Governor of Tasmania, Franklin revisited a cairn on Arthurs Seat, a small mountain just inside Port Phillip Bay, that he had visited as a midshipman with Captain Matthew Flinders in April 1802. On this trip he was accompanied by Captain Reid of The Briars and Andrew Murison McCrae of Arthurs Seat Station, now known as McCrae Homestead.", "Exploration of the Arctic coastal mainland after Franklin's second Arctic expedition had left less than of unexplored Arctic coastline. The British decided to send a well-equipped Arctic expedition to complete the charting of the Northwest Passage. After Sir James Clark Ross declined an offer to command the expedition, an invitation was extended to Franklin, who despite being 59 years old, accepted what was to become Franklin's lost expedition. A younger man, Captain James Fitzjames, was given command of and Franklin was named the expedition commander. Captain Francis Crozier, who had commanded during the Ross expedition of 1841–1844 to the Antarctic, was appointed executive officer and commander of \"Terror\". Franklin was given command on, and received official instructions on. \"Erebus\" and \"Terror\" were sturdily built and were outfitted with recent inventions. These included steam engines from the London and Greenwich Railway that enabled the ships to make on their own power, a unique combined steam-based heating and distillation system for the comfort of the crew and to provide large quantities of fresh water for the engine's boilers, a mechanism that enabled the iron rudder and propeller to be drawn into iron wells to protect them from damage, ships' libraries of more than 1,000 books, and three years' worth of conventionally preserved or tinned preserved food supplies. The tinned preserved food was supplied from a cut-rate provisioner who was awarded the contract a few months before the ships were to sail. Though the provisioner's \"patent process\" was sound, the haste with which he had prepared thousands of cans of food led to sloppily-applied beads of solder on the cans' interior edges, allowing lead to leach into the food. Additionally, the water distillation system may have used lead piping and lead-soldered joints, which would have produced drinking water with a high lead content. The Franklin Expedition set sail from Greenhithe, England, on, with a crew of 24 officers and 110 men. The ships travelled north to Aberdeen and the Orkney Isles for supplies. From Scotland, the ships sailed to Greenland with and a transport ship, \"Barretto Junior\". After misjudging the location of Whitefish Bay on Disko Island, the expedition backtracked and finally harboured in that far north outpost to prepare for the rest of their voyage. Five crew members were discharged and sent home on the \"Rattler\" and \"Barretto Junior\", reducing the ships' final crew size to 129. The expedition was last seen by Europeans on, when Captain Dannett of the whaler encountered \"Terror\" and \"Erebus\" moored to an iceberg in Lancaster Sound. It is now believed that the expedition wintered on Beechey Island in 1845–46. \"Terror\" and \"Erebus\" became trapped in ice off King William Island in September 1846 and never sailed again. According to a note later found on that island, Franklin died there on but the exact location of his grave is unknown. After two years and no word from the expedition, Lady Franklin urged the Admiralty to send a search party. Because the crew carried supplies for three years, the Admiralty waited another year before launching a search and offering a £20,000 reward for finding the expedition. The money and Franklin's fame led to many searches. At one point, ten British and two American ships, and, headed for the Arctic. Eventually, more ships and men were lost looking for Franklin than in the expedition itself. Ballads such as \"Lady Franklin's Lament\", commemorating Lady Franklin's search for her lost husband, became popular. In the summer of 1850, expeditions, including three from England as well as one from the United States, joined in the search. They converged off the east coast of Beechey Island, where the first relics of the Franklin expedition were found, including the gravesites of three of Franklin's crewmen. Many presumed Franklin was still alive, and he was promoted to Rear-Admiral of the Blue in October 1852, an example of an unintentional posthumous promotion. In 1854, the Scottish explorer John Rae, while surveying the Boothia Peninsula for the Hudson's Bay Company, discovered the true fate of the Franklin party from talking to Inuit hunters. He was told both ships had become icebound, and the men had tried to reach safety on foot but had succumbed to cold, and some had resorted to cannibalism. Rae's report to the Admiralty was leaked to the press, which led to widespread revulsion in Victorian society, enraged Franklin's widow, and condemned Rae to ignominy. Lady Franklin's efforts to eulogise her husband, with support from the British Establishment, led to a further 25 searches over the next four decades, none of which would add much further information of note regarding Franklin and his men, but contributed hugely to the mapping of the Arctic. In the mid-1980s, Owen Beattie, a University of Alberta professor of anthropology, began a 10-year series of scientific studies that showed that the Beechey Island crew had most likely died of pneumonia and perhaps tuberculosis. Toxicological reports indicated that lead poisoning was also a possible factor. In 1997, more than 140 years after his report, Dr. Rae's account was finally vindicated; blade-cut marks on the bones of some of the crew found on King William Island strongly suggested that conditions had become so dire that some crew members resorted to cannibalism. Evidence suggestive of breakage and boiling of bones, characteristic of efforts to extract marrow, was subsequently identified. It appeared from these studies that a combination of bad weather, years locked in ice, poisoned food, botulism, starvation, and disease including scurvy, had killed everyone in the Franklin party. In October 2009, marine archaeologist Robert Grenier outlined recent discoveries of sheet metal and copper which have been recovered from 19th-century Inuit hunting sites. Grenier firmly believes these pieces of metal once belonged to the \"Terror\" and formed the protective plating of the ship's hull. A quote from the British newspaper \"The Guardian\" states:", "For years after the loss of the Franklin party, the media of the Victorian era portrayed Franklin as a hero who led his men in the quest for the Northwest Passage. A statue of Franklin in his home town bears the inscription: \"Discoverer of the North West Passage\". Statues of Franklin outside the Athenaeum Club in London and in Tasmania bear similar inscriptions. Many geographic locales are named after Franklin, among them Franklin Island in Antarctica, Franklin Island in Greenland, Franklin Sound north of Tasmania, Franklin Strait in northern Canada, Franklin, Quebec and the Franklin River in Tasmania, as well as many streets and schools. The Australian oceanographic research vessel bears his name as well. The wintering site of Franklin's second Canadian expedition, in Deline, Northwest Territories, was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1996. The explorer was also memorialized when one of Canada's Northwest Territories subdivisions was named the District of Franklin. In 2009, a special service of Thanksgiving was held in the chapel at the Royal Naval College to accompany the rededication of the national monument to Sir John Franklin. It was a celebration of the contributions made by the United Kingdom in the charting of northern Canada, and honoured the loss of life in the pursuit of geographical discovery. The service also marked the 150th anniversary of Francis McClintock's voyage aboard the yacht \"Fox\", and that expedition's return to London with news of the tragedy.", "In September 2014, the wreck of was rediscovered, and in September 2016 the wreck of was discovered, south of King William Island in Terror Bay and in \"pristine\" condition. This is many miles south of the last known location of the \"Terror\". Archaeologists believe the \"Terror\" must have been crewed and sailed to its new location, as the anchor was used and it was sailed through a maze of islands and channels. The wrecks are designated as the Wrecks of HMS Erebus and HMS Terror National Historic Site, with the precise locations of the designations in abeyance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Editions.", "Project 2010.", "Project 2013.", "Project 2016." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "'Project' was an MS-DOS software application originally written in Microsoft 'C' (and some assembly) language for the IBM PC. The idea originated from the vision of Ron Bredehoeft, a former IBM S/E and PC-enthusiast in the early 1980s, to express the recipe and all preparation for a breakfast of eggs Benedict in project management terms. Mr. Bredehoeft formed Microsoft Application Services (MAS) during the birth of the application and the company later entered an OEM agreement with Microsoft Corporation. Alan M. Boyd, Microsoft's Manager of Product Development, introduced the application as an internal tool to help manage the huge number of software projects that were in development at any time inside the company. Boyd wrote the specification and engaged a local Seattle company to develop the prototype. The first commercial version of Project was released for DOS in 1984. Microsoft bought all rights to the software in 1985 and released version 2. Version 3 for DOS was released in 1986. Version 4 for DOS was the final DOS version, released in 1986. The first Windows version was released in 1990, and was labelled version 1 for Windows. In 1991 a Macintosh version was released. Development continued until Microsoft Project 4.0 for Mac in 1993. Microsoft Project 4 for the Mac included both 68k and PowerMac versions, Visual Basic for Applications and integration with Microsoft office 4.2 for the Mac. In 1994, Microsoft stopped development of most of its Mac applications and did not offer a new version of Office until 1998, after the creation of the new Microsoft Macintosh Business Unit the year prior. The Mac Business Unit never released an updated version of Project, and the last version does not run natively on Mac OS X. Microsoft Project 1.0 was the only version to support Windows 2.x. It came bundled with Windows 2.x runtime but was fully compatible with Windows 3.0, especially Standard and Enhanced modes. The setup program runs in DOS, like the most Windows-based applications at the time. Microsoft Project 3.0 introduced macro support, toolbars, print preview, DDE and OLE support, spell checking, Resource Allocation view and Planning Wizards and was the last to support Windows 3.0. The setup program now runs in Windows, and it is based on Microsoft's own setup program, which was also used by e.g. Microsoft Visual Basic 2.0/3.0, Works 2.0, Access 1.x. Microsoft Project 4.0 was the first to use common Office menus, right-click context menus, Acme setup program and the last to support Windows 3.1x, Windows NT 3.1 and 3.5. It was the last 16-bit version. Additionally it was the first version to use VBA macro language and introduced screen tooltips, Cue Cards, GanttChartWizard, Calendar view, Assign Resources dialog, recurring tasks, workgroup abilities, Drawing toolbar, Microsoft Project Exchange file format support, OLE 2.0 and ability to create reports. This version allowed user to consolidate up to 80 projects. Microsoft Project 95 (4.1) was the first 32-bit version and it was designed for Windows 95, hence the name. It introduced ODBC support, AutoCorrect, Answer Wizard, like all Office 95 applications. Updated version, called Microsoft Project 4.1a improved Windows NT support. Additionally it was the first version to be available on CD-ROM. Additionally it was the last version to open Project 3.0 files. Microsoft Project 98 was the first to use Tahoma font in the menu bars, to contain Office Assistant, like all Office 97 applications, introduced view bar, AutoFilter, task splitting, Assignment Information dialog, resource availability dates, project status date, user-entered actual costs, new task types, multiple critical paths, in-sheet controls, ability to rename custom fields, Web publishing features, new database format, Task Usage, Tracking Gantt and Resource Usage views, Web features, Web toolbar, PERT analysis features, resource contouring, cost rate tables, effort-driven scheduling, cross-project linking, indicators, progress lines, ability to save project files in HTML format, ability to analyze time-scaled data in Excel, improved limits for the number of tasks, resources, outline levels etc., IntelliMouse and Microsoft Office Binder support, Microsoft Outlook timeline integration, selective data import and export, ability to save as Microsoft Excel pivot tables, Microsoft Project Map, Project menu and allowed user to consolidate 1,000 projects. It was the last version to run on Windows NT 3.51, the last to open Project 4.0/95 files and save in.mpx (Microsoft Project Exchange) file format, the last to use Acme setup program and the last to be available on floppy disks. Project 98 SR-1 was a major service release addressing several issues in Project 98. Microsoft Project 2000 was the first to use personalized menus, Microsoft Agent-based Office Assistant and to use Windows Installer-based setup interface, like all Office 2000 applications, and introduced Microsoft Project Central (later renamed Microsoft Project Server). PERT Chart was renamed Network Diagram and was greatly improved in this version. Notable new features include ability to create personal Gantt charts, ability to apply filters in Network Diagram view, AutoSave, task calendars, ability to create projects based on templates and to specify default save path and format, graphical indicators, material resources, deadline dates, OLE DB, grouping, outline codes, estimated durations, month duration, value lists and formulas custom fields, contoured resource availability, ability to clear baseline, variable row height, in-cell editing, fill handle, ability to set fiscal year in timescale, single document interface, accessibility features, COM add-ins, pluggable language user interface, roaming user and Terminal Services support, ability to set task and project priority up to 1,000 (previously 10) and HTML help. Project 2000 was also the last version to support Find Fast (available in Windows 9x and NT 4.0 only) and to run on Windows 95. Project 2000 SR-1 fixed several bugs. Microsoft Project 2002 was the first to contain task panes, safe mode, smart tags, import/setup tracking/new project/calendar/import and export mapping wizards, ability to import tasks from Outlook and to save multiple baselines along with additional baseline fields, Project Guide, EPM/portfolio features (Professional only), Excel task list template, rollup baseline data to summary tasks on a selective baseline save, ability to choose which baseline the earned value calculations are based on, calculation options, multiple project manager support (Project Server is required), Collaborate menu, \"Type a question for help\" in the top right corner, error reporting along with mandatory product activation, like Office XP and Windows XP and ability to open and save Microsoft Project Data Interchange (.mspdi) files. It was also the last version to run on Windows NT 4.0, 98 (SE) and ME. It was available in two editions for the first time, \"Standard\" and \"Professional\". Office Assistant is installed but not enabled by default. Support for accounts with limited rights under Windows 2000/XP was improved. Find Fast was dropped in favor of Windows 2000/XP Indexing Service. Microsoft Project 2003 was the first to support Windows XP visual styles and to contain SharePoint support, XML importing/printing/Copy Picture to Office wizards, built-in Office Online help, ability to create WBS charts in Visio, add-in for comparing projects (available as a freely downloadable add-on for Project 2000 and 2002), resource availability graphs, ability to import resource information from Active Directory and Exchange address book, Windows XP-style icons, like all Office 2003 applications, and the last to contain Office Assistant (not installed by default) and to run on Windows 2000 (Service Pack 3 required). Microsoft Project 2007 was the last to contain the menu bar and toolbars. New features include top level budget planning, multiple level undo, ability to manage non-working time, background cell highlighting, cost/team resources, change highlighting, visual reports, desktop OLAP cube and Report menu. Office Assistant was removed entirely. Microsoft Project 2010 was the first to contain ribbon and Backstage view, like all Office 2010 applications, contextual guidance, ability to zoom in/out quickly, user-controlled scheduling, top down summary tasks, placeholder text in project fields, timeline view, ability to add columns dynamically, text wrap, expanded color palette and formatting, task inspector, schedule warnings, ability to save as PDF or XPS and to synchronize with SharePoint, enhanced copy/pase and the last to open Microsoft Project 98 and.mpx files and to run on Windows XP and Vista. Additionally it was the first 64-bit version. Volume licensing activation was introduced in this version. Microsoft Project 2013 was the first to contain Modern UI-based look, and introduced Microsoft account and OneDrive integration. New features include integrated communication (Skype for Business is required). Microsoft Project 2016 is the last to support Windows 7 and Windows 8(.1). New features include multiple timeline view, Tell Me, colorful/dark gray/white themes, resource engagements, resource manager views, resource capacity heat maps, ability to give feedback directly to Microsoft in the File tab. Microsoft Project 2019 runs only on Windows 10, and it contains features carried over from Office 365. New features include ability to link tasks using a drop-down menu, Task Summary Name field, timeline bar labels and task progress, accessibility improvements. Versions for Windows were released in 1990 (v1.0), 1992 (v3.0), 1993 (v4.0), 1995 (Project 95, v4.1a), Project 98 (v8.0), Project 98 SR-1 (1999), Project 2000 (v9.0), Project 2000 SR-1 (2001), Project 2002 (v10.0), Project 2003 (v11.0), Project 2007 (v12.0), Project 2010 (v14.0), Project 2013 (v15.0) and Project 2016 (v16.0). There was no Version 2 on the Windows platform; the original design spec was augmented with the addition of macro capabilities and the extra work required to support a macro language pushed the development schedule out to early 1992 (Version 3).", "Project creates budgets based on assignment work and resource rates. As resources are assigned to tasks and assignment work estimated, the program calculates the cost, equal to the work times the rate, which rolls up to the task level and then to any summary tasks and finally to the project level. Resource definitions (people, equipment and materials) can be shared between projects using a shared resource pool. Each resource can have its own calendar, which defines what days and shifts a resource is available. Resource rates are used to calculate resource assignment costs which are rolled up and summarized at the resource level. Each resource can be assigned to multiple tasks in multiple plans and each task can be assigned multiple resources, and the application schedules task work based on the resource availability as defined in the resource calendars. All resources can be defined in label without limit. Therefore, it cannot determine how many finished products can be produced with a given amount of raw materials. This makes Microsoft Project unsuitable for solving problems of available materials constrained production. Additional software is necessary to manage a complex facility that produces physical goods. The application creates critical path schedules, and critical chain and event chain methodology third-party add-ons also are available. Schedules can be resource leveled, and chains are visualized in a Gantt chart. Additionally, Microsoft Project can recognize different classes of users. These different classes of users can have differing access levels to projects, views, and other data. Custom objects such as calendars, views, tables, filters, and fields are stored in an enterprise global which is shared by all users.", "Project is available in two editions, Standard and Professional; both editions are available either as 32 or 64bit options. The Professional edition includes all the features of the Standard version, plus more features like team collaboration tools and ability to connect to Microsoft Project Server.", "Microsoft Project 2010 includes the Fluent user interface known as the Ribbon.", "What's new in Project 2013 includes new Reports section, better integration with other Microsoft products, and appearance of user interface items:", "Project 2016 adds a new Reports section, backwards-compatibility with Project Server 2013, better integration with other Microsoft products, and improved appearance of user interface items:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Series overview.", "Main series.", "\"Artemis Fowl\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Arctic Incident\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Opal Deception\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Time Paradox\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Atlantis Complex\".", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Last Guardian\".", "Other works.", "Characters.", "Artemis Fowl.", "Butler.", "Holly Short.", "Foaly.", "Opal Koboi.", "Mulch Diggums.", "Julius Root.", "Briar Cudgeon.", "Themes.", "Critical reception.", "Film adaptation.", "Terms and slangs.", "Mud People.", "D'Arvit." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the first book, \"Artemis Fowl\", twelve-year-old genius Artemis Fowl kidnaps Holly Short, a Fairy and a captain of the Lower Elements Police Reconnaissance force (LEPRecon). He holds her for a ransom of gold to exploit the magical Fairy People and restore his family's fortune. In the sequel, \"Artemis Fowl and the Arctic Incident\", he reluctantly allies with the People to rescue his father from the Russian mafia. The series introduces Artemis as a villain and the Fairies' enemy, but as the series progresses, Artemis's character develops and changes; as an antihero, he assists the People in resolving conflicts with worldwide ramifications. The original series concluded with \"Artemis Fowl and the Last Guardian\".", "", "\"Artemis Fowl\" is the first book in the \"Artemis Fowl\" series. It follows the adventures of Artemis Fowl, a 12 year-old criminal mastermind, as he kidnaps a fairy for a large ransom of gold with the help of his bodyguard, Domovoi Butler, and his sister, Juliet Butler, to restore the Fowl family fortune. After multiple attempts by the Lower Elements Police (LEP) fairy police, including sending a criminal dwarf called Mulch Diggums, it concludes with Artemis finally releasing Holly Short, the elf fairy, whom he kidnapped, and having his mother cured of madness (in exchange for half of the gold that he had stolen from the fairies).", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Arctic Incident\" is the second book of the series. It follows the rescue of Artemis's father Artemis Fowl I from the Russian Mafia, alongside the battle against the B'wa Kell goblin gang who have allied themselves with maniacal, evil genius Opal Koboi and officer Briar Cudgeon helping her out. Holly Short, an LEP captain; Julius Root, the LEP commander; and Foaly, a centaur and the main technology supervisor for the LEP, make an agreement with Artemis (after initially suspecting him to have orchestrated the events) to help them stop the goblin rebellion, with the help of Mulch Diggums half-way through. In the end, to fulfill their part of the agreement, they help Artemis find his father, who had been missing for 2 years.", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Eternity Code\" covers Jon Spiro's theft of the fictional C Cube and its recovery. Jon Spiro is an American businessman, who has his bodyguard kill Butler and steals Artemis's C Cube, which is a handheld supercomputer that he made from stolen fairy technology. Butler, after dying (and being put into a fish freezer in an emergency attempt at cryonic preservation), is resurrected by the elf Holly Short. Mulch Diggums (under the pseudonym Mo Digence) is hired alongside Loafers McGuire by Spiro to kidnap Artemis to access the C Cube, which is encrypted by an Eternity Code only Artemis knows how to decrypt. Holly agrees to help, but with the condition that Artemis and his allies are to be mind-wiped. With the help of the dwarf and Butler's sister, Juliet, they raid Spiro Needle, the building housing Spiro's company, and retrieve the C Cube again. It ends with the fairies and Foaly mind-wiping the three humans, and Artemis gives Mulch Diggums a (supposed) medallion that Holly gave to Artemis in \"The Arctic Incident\", while secretly being a disk that will bring back his memories of the fairies.", "The fourth book, \"Artemis Fowl and the Opal Deception\", covers power-hungry and insane pixie Opal Koboi's second attempt at world domination, after her first unfruitful attempt in. Koboi uses magic to persuade Giovanni Zito, a fictional environmentalist, to send a probe into the ground, which could lead to the uncovering of the fairy world, thrusting the fairy city of Haven into human clutches. In the process of stopping her, Commander Root is killed and the mind-wiped Artemis and Butler are saved from her bio-bomb. The two have their memories restored from the medallion, and Mulch, Artemis, Holly, and Butler stop Opal Koboi.", "\"Artemis Fowl and the Lost Colony\" involves bringing the demon island Hydras back from \"Limbo\" with the help of N°1, a powerful demon warlock. Artemis, Butler, Holly, Mulch, and Foaly reunite after Artemis encounters a demon from the island Hydras, and Holly and Mulch capture the pixie fish smuggler Doodah Day. Foaly tells them after the Battle of Taillte, the war for land against fairy and human, the demon fairy family sent themselves out of time on the island Hydras, and that on their island their time can be anything on ours. The time spell is crumbling, and demons are appearing on earth without warning. If the humans discover the demons, they will inevitably uncover the rest of the fairies. Artemis and his now friends go after the demon N°1, who finds out that he is actually a demon warlock, and has extremely dangerous powers. N°1 is kidnapped by child prodigy Minerva Paradizo, whom they encounter multiple times when trying to stop her research. Minerva intends to present N°1 to humans to win the Nobel Prize. She eventually lets go of her project and joins them after Billy Kong, her security guard, \"opens the Trojan Horse\", also known as revealing the traitors he planted at the Paradise Chateau. Artemis, Holly, N°1, and Qwan, a demon warlock that N°1 frees from a gargoyle spell that turned him into stone, travel through time and space to Hydras, which Artemis had planned to get rid of with the live bomb Billy Kong had given Holly to annihilate the demons in Hydras, due to his belief that his brother was killed by a gang of demons. In Hydras, the pack leader Leon Abbot (N'Zall) and his army of demons fight Artemis and his friends. They knock Leon unconscious and create a bomb explosion powerful enough for them to use its energy – converting it into magic, using Holly, N°1, Qwan, and Leon Abbot's magic (which he gained from fusing with Qweffor, an apprentice warlock) and Artemis' stolen magic to send the island back to earth, where 3 years have passed because of the time spell. Artemis and Minerva are now noted to be very close in age. The book ends with Holly finding out that Mulch has recruited Doodah Day, and Artemis finds out that he is the brother of toddlers.", "The sixth book of the series, \"Artemis Fowl and the Time Paradox\", was released in the United Kingdom on 7 August 2008 and in the United States on 15 July 2008. Artemis's mother, Angeline Fowl, becomes ill with Spelltropy, and the only cure lies in the brain fluids of the silky sifaka lemur, the last of which Artemis sold to a group named the Extinctionists when he was 10 to procure money to fund the expedition to search for his father. N°1 sends Artemis and Holly to the past, where Artemis must battle his former self to recover the last silky sakai lemur before the younger Artemis kills it in a business transaction with Damon Kronsky, the leader of the Extinctionists. Things get more complicated when Opal Koboi is revealed to be controlling the Extinctionists, feeding on the fluids of many extremely rare animals, to grant her special abilities and extraordinary prowess in certain fields. The chase finally leads to the two Artemises reaching an agreement, whereupon they are teleported to the future. Near to the ending, Opal is revealed to have possessed Angeline Fowl.", "Artemis contracts Atlantis Complex, a fairy condition resembling a combination of obsessive-compulsive disorder, extreme paranoia, and multiple personality disorder – becoming the alter ego of Fowl, Orion, when the latter strikes. The story follows Turnball Root, the criminal brother of Julius Root, breaking out of jail and sending probes to destroy his enemies, including Artemis, his fairy friends, and Butler, whom Artemis sent away due to paranoia being one of the symptoms of Atlantis Complex. After Butler, Artemis, and his fairy friends reunite, along with being saved by Mulch Diggums from a gang of dwarfs sent by Turnball, they hunt down Turnball, tracking him with a computer orb connected to the probes that Artemis found underwater, along with being attacked by a giant, squid-like creature, and find out that Turnball has kidnapped demon warlock N°1 to force him to reverse the aging of Turnball's wife, Leonor. In the end, Leonor and Turnball are killed in an explosion of a shuttle Leonor drives, to fulfill her last wish – to fly once again – and Artemis is sent to a fairy clinic to be cured of Atlantis Complex.", "The final book of the original series, \"Artemis Fowl and the Last Guardian\", was released on 10 July 2012. Opal Koboi opens the Berserker's Gate, a portal located on the Fowl Estate, in which dwell the spirits of fairy soldiers, the last victims of the Battle of Taillte, the final blow in the war that sent the Fairy People underground. Artemis, after his last session of being cured of Atlantis Complex, rushes to stop her along with Holly and Butler. They fail, and Opal opens the first gate, which releases the spirits of the warriors who begin to possess other people and animals around them, including corpses, animals, Juliet Butler, and Artemis's toddler brothers, Myles and Beckett. After escaping Opal and the possessed beings, they are helped by Mulch Diggums, and they attempt to stop Opal from opening the second gate, which destroys every human on the surface. While doing so, they (reluctantly) battle Artemis's possessed toddler brother Myles, who reveals to them Opal's plan after the fairy warrior spirit left his body. While they fight, Opal has also sent a dangerous fake present to Foaly's wife to make him suffer. Her plan fails because Caballine masters martial arts and Foaly comes to save her from goblins that Opal sent as well. Artemis and his friends fail to destroy the second gate with a laser he created, and Mulch saves them from possessed pirate corpses by riding the oldest troll in the world and knocking out most of them, causing the spirits of fairy warriors to leave their bodies to the afterlife. They then enter Fowl Manor where Artemis decides to sacrifice himself in order to stop Opal from opening the second gate. Foaly sends the clone of Opal that she created in the 4th book, and using her hand he is able to make the clone close the gates since the magic recognizes the clone's DNA as Opal's. Everyone in that area, including the spirits, immediately go to heaven, excluding Artemis, whose humanity and sheer willpower enables him to stay on Earth. Six months later, with the saliva that Artemis produced when he kissed Holly, they extract his DNA and make a clone of Artemis Fowl, which is then taken to the now overgrown gate. Artemis's spirit then takes control of the clone and he is alive once more.", "\"\" is a short story written for World Book Day set between the first and second books. \"The Artemis Fowl Files\" is a companion book to the series published 4 October 2004, which included The Seventh Dwarf and other stories. it also includes bonus material such Artemis Fowl's School Report, exclusive interviews with Artemis, Butler, Holly, Root, Mulch, Foaly and Colfer, and text from the Fairy People's book to translate. Electronic Arts has brought the first six books in the series to the Nintendo DS and Nintendo DSi as parts in its \"Flips\" kids' range, which was released 4 December 2009. The audiobooks were narrated by Nathaniel Parker. Adrian Dunbar and Enn Reitel narrated certain versions from different audiobook companies. The series has been followed by a spin-off book series centered around the characters of Myles and Beckett Fowl, with the first book being called \"The Fowl Twins\" and released on 5 November 2019.. The second book in the series \"Deny All Charges\" is set to be released on October 20th 2020.", "", "Artemis Fowl II uses his intelligence to build his family fortune through crime. This stems from his family, who have been criminals for generations. Artemis is cold, cynical, and often outright ruthless in his manipulation of people for his own ends. Following his father's presumed death at the hands of the Russian Mafia, and his mother's subsequent descent into madness, Artemis stopped attending his boarding school, assumed control of the Fowl criminal empire, and embarked on a crime spree to restore the family fortune and fund Arctic expeditions to rescue his father. His investigation into the supernatural eventually leads him into contact with the People in the first book. Due to a strict upbringing, and a lack of any intellectual equals to ground him, Artemis is socially awkward, his best friend and bodyguard Butler being one of the few individuals whom Artemis trusts. He is very pale with raven-black hair and blue eyes. In \"The Lost Colony\", Holly Short and he switch eyes, leaving him with one blue eye and one hazel eye. Artemis is famed for his intelligence; he claims to have the \"highest IQ tested in Europe\", but is also known for a lack of coordination and athletic ability. Throughout the series, he learns profound morals from the Fairy People and becomes more compassionate and trustworthy, but still maintains much of his intelligence. Because of the time travel in \"The Lost Colony\", his legal age is older than his real age.", "Butler is the Fowl family's loyal manservant and Artemis's bodyguard, and accompanies him around the world on his adventures. He is the third-most skilled martial artist on the planet (the first is a monk on a Pacific Island and the second is his uncle), a formidable marksman and firearms expert, and has immense experience of the criminal underworld, often providing help to Artemis through his many contacts. His first name is Domovoi. He also has a little sister, Juliet, who appears in some of the books. Butler is rendered clinically dead temporarily in \"The Eternity Code\", but is rescued by the ingenuity of his principal and the healing powers of Holly Short. Butler arms himself with a Sig Sauer P226 pistol chambered in 9mm Parabellum, but often must resort to other fairy weaponry for his tasks. Due to his healing in \"The Eternity Code\", his body is older than he actually is.", "Holly is a determined, forthright elf and the only female captain of LEPrecon, the reconnaissance division of the LEP. Holly is three feet tall and slender, with nut-brown skin and auburn hair. In the first book, she is kidnapped by Artemis and held for ransom, but over the course of the series they slowly become friends. She helped Artemis save the world on numerous occasions, and is one of Artemis's few friends. Holly holds a disregard for the rules and orders given to her. She is also one of the best pilots in LEPrecon.", "Foaly is a centaur, technical genius, and computer geek. He works for the LEP, the fairy authorities, and is in charge of preventing humankind from discovering the fairy civilization. His intelligence makes him paranoiac, which causes him to wear a foil hat to \"protect him from human mind-probing technology\". He designs most of the weaponry, wings, and other technical gadgets that the LEP use, such as the 'Iris Cam'. His sarcasm and talkative nature often annoy LEP officers, though his greatest pleasure outside of his engineering is aggravating the notoriously bad-tempered Commander Root. He 'hitches' or marries a centaur named Caballine in \"The Lost Colony\" while Captain Short and Artemis are in Limbo, and apparently has foals. He has a rivalry with Opal Koboi, which she sporadically mentions throughout her dialogue.", "Opal is a deranged, paranoid genius pixie whose dream is world domination and the destruction of the LEP. A prodigy, she built Koboi Laboratories, a technology company, which she used to crush her father's company out of spite. Opal is featured in several of the Artemis Fowl books as the main antagonist. She detests Foaly, as he won a science competition in college over her, and she believes the judges chose Foaly instead just because he was male. However, she became Artemis' archenemy after he and Holly foiled her plans numerous times. In \"The Opal Deception\", she creates a clone of herself to escape imprisonment, later killing Julius Root rather violently with a bomb, and framing Holly Short. In the past, it is revealed that she harvested a silky silfaka lemur's brain fluid as one of the steps to achieving world domination. She later kills her past self created in \"The Time Paradox\", creating a paradox. Opal is later killed by Oro Shaydova, the leader of fairy soldiers killed in the battle of Taillte.", "Mulch is a kleptomaniac, criminal dwarf who has been involved in crime for four centuries. When considered with the average dwarf lifespan, he is not that old. He once was a mining dwarf, but later decided that stealing from Mud Men (humans) suited him much better. Because he has stolen from Mud Men, Mulch no longer has the significant magic powers of the usual fairy, but he has retained the gift of tongues, and has even shown his ability to speak 'American dog' in \"The Arctic Incident\". He insists that humans were stealing from fairy-kind and the earth and that he is simply taking them back or repossessing the items. In the early books, he assisted the LEP against Artemis Fowl, although later, he sides with Artemis Fowl. Eventually, when the fairies and Artemis are on stable ground, he joins forces with the Fairy People on many adventures, acting as an LEP helper at the beginning of \"The Time Paradox\".", "Julius Root commanded the LEPrecon and was in charge of all activities related to the tracking of those who leave fairy civilization, to prevent them making contact with humans. Known for his ruddy face (hence his nickname, \"Beetroot\") and extremely short temper, he led the LEPrecon on missions until Koboi killed him with an explosive in \"The Opal Deception\" and framed Holly Short. He usually despised Holly's disregard for rules and orders. However, Root also seems to have been a lot like Holly Short when he was younger; a book states that Holly Short had recently beat the speed record that had been set 80 years prior by Julius Root. Julius Root hates when Foaly called him by his first name. Julius Root also had a brother, Turnball Root, the main antagonist in \"The Atlantis Complex\".", "A minor antagonist in the first novel, Cudgeon was an ex-LEP lieutenant who was humiliated by Commander Julius Root and had the misfortune of having a terrible-looking face, the result of illegal mind-boosting liquid colliding with sedative Julius Root used to put him to sleep in the first novel. Looking for revenge, Cudgeon teams up with Opal Koboi in \"The Arctic Incident\". Their plan suddenly goes wrong when LEP technical consultant Foaly inserts a video in Koboi Laboratories to expose to Briar Cudgeon's treacherous confessions to Foaly. Enraged by this, Opal attacks Cudgeon, and in the struggle, they smash into a pipeline containing reignited plasma, which violently fries Cudgeon to death, and gruesomely incapacitates Opal.", "Colfer has said in interviews that the series is about Artemis growing up. Themes of greed, trust, and the difference between good and evil are also present in the books. Colfer wanted to end the series with a simple choice between being kind without reward or being unkind for a reward.", "Colfer summed up the first book as \"\"Die Hard\" with fairies.\" Critics call the series \"the new \"Harry Potter\",\" although Colfer stated in 2001 that he disagreed. Kate Kellaway of \"The Observer\" called the first book \"a smart, amusing one-off. It flashes with hi-tech invention – as if Colfer were as much an inspired boffin as a writer\". Time magazine said of the book, \"\"Artemis Fowl\" is pacy, playful, and very funny, an inventive mix of myth and modernity, magic and crime\", while \"The New York Times Book Review\" said that \"Colfer has done enormously, explosively well\" in writing a book that could be accurately described as \"\"Die Hard\" with fairies\". \"The Guardian\" gave a favorable review to, the seventh book in the series, but noted \"it is also clearly a prelude to the grand finale.\" \"The Last Guardian\", the eighth and final novel of the series, received favorable reviews from \"Kirkus Reviews\", \"Entertainment Weekly\", and \"The Irish Times\", also winning the 2012 Irish Book Award in the \"Irish Children's Book – Senior\" category. In 2010 \"Artemis Fowl\" was selected by readers as the favorite Puffin Books title of all time, which Colfer described as his \"proudest professional moment.\"", "In 2001 plans were announced for a film adaptation of the series. Miramax Films was named as purchasing the film rights with Lawrence Guterman signed to direct. In 2003 Colfer stated that a screenplay had been finalized and that casting was due to start the same year but expressed skepticism over whether or not this would come to pass, though Colfer revealed the film was in pre-production. The film remained in development and was assumed to be in development hell until 2011, when it was reported that Jim Sheridan was interested in directing the movie, with Saoirse Ronan attached to portray Holly Short. In July 2013, Walt Disney Pictures announced that an \"Artemis Fowl\" film covering the events of the first and second novels of the series would be produced by Disney and The Weinstein Company, with the screenplay by Michael Goldenberg. Robert De Niro and Jane Rosenthal signed onto the project as executive producers. On 1 September 2015, \"Variety\" reported that Kenneth Branagh had been hired to direct the film for Disney, with Irish playwright Conor McPherson as screenwriter and Judy Hofflund as an executive producer. Eoin Colfer confirmed this in a video to Artemis Fowl Confidential, and spoke with RTE Radio 1 about meeting Branagh several times to discuss this prior to the announcement. On 12 September 2017, Disney announced that the film adaptation would be released on 9 August 2019. It was also announced to be based on the first two books in the series. It was announced on 11 October 2017 that Disney immediately removed Harvey Weinstein as the producer of the film as well as terminating its production with The Weinstein Company following a sexual misconduct controversy involving Weinstein. On 20 December 2017, it was announced that Irish newcomer Ferdia Shaw had been cast as Artemis Fowl II, alongside Judi Dench as Commander Root, Josh Gad as Mulch Diggums, Lara McDonnell as Captain Holly Short, and Nonso Anozie as Butler. Principal photography began in March 2018 with filming in England, Northern Ireland, and Ho Chi Minh City. On 7 May 2019, the film's originally scheduled release date of 9 August 2019 was delayed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to 29 May 2020, as part of a change to their release schedule, while Colin Farrell was announced to be portraying Artemis Fowl I. The film was pulled completely on 3 April 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and instead debuted on Disney+, 12 June 2020. Upon the film's release, the film was criticised for the removal of the character arcs of both Artemis Fowl II and Holly Short from the book series in the film, with Fowl switched from antagonist to protagonist, and Short being relegated from protagonist to supporting character. McDonnell's casting was also criticised as whitewashing due to Short being physically described in the book series as having nut-brown skin of a coffee complexion. The casting of Nonso Anozie as Butler was also criticised for several reasons: that the character is described as Eurasian who can pass as Japanese and Russian in the book series, and that the character's physical description of terrifying anyone in his presence, combined with his backstory of his family having served the Fowl family for centuries and Anozie's casting, embodies several stereotypes of African Americans, in particular the \"scary black man\" and \"black servant\" tropes.", "In the books, several terms and fairy slang are used.", "This term (also Mud Men, Mud Boy, Mud Girl, Mud Maid, Mud Woman, Mud Wench, etc.) is used to refer to humans. Fairies already had advanced technology when humans first existed. According to the fairies, humans first crawled in mud, hence the term Mud People.", "D'Arvit is a fictional curse word in the fictional language of Gnommish. It appeared in the first book. The word was said to have no need to be translated, as it would be censored anyway. Readers have translated D'Arvit as the expletives'shit', though the original word itself is more widely accepted. Its usage in the books suggests a similar meaning, expressing extreme frustration or anger." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Team history.", "1925–1932: Early years and first championship.", "1933–1946: Record-setting defense and two championships.", "1947–1963: \"The Greatest Game Ever Played\" and fourth title.", "1964–1982: Postseason drought and resurgence.", "1983–1990: Bill Parcells era.", "1986: First Super Bowl.", "1990: Second Super Bowl.", "1991–1996: Decline and rebuild.", "1997–2003: Jim Fassel era.", "2004–2016: Tom Coughlin/Eli Manning era.", "2007: Third Super Bowl.", "2008–2010: Late season collapses.", "2011: Fourth Super Bowl.", "2012–2015: Post-Super Bowl struggles.", "2016: Back to the playoffs.", "2017–present: Further struggles.", "Championships.", "League championships.", "Pre-Super Bowl NFL championships.", "Super Bowl championships.", "NFC championships.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Ownerships, financial history and fan base.", "Rivalries.", "Philadelphia Eagles.", "Washington Redskins.", "Dallas Cowboys.", "San Francisco 49ers.", "New York Jets.", "Players.", "Pro Football Hall of Famers.", "Ring of Honor.", "Media, radio and television.", "Past." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Giants played their first game as an away game against All New Britain in New Britain, Connecticut, on October 4, 1925. They defeated New Britain 26–0 in front of a crowd of 10,000. The Giants were successful in their first season, finishing with an 8–4 record. In its third season, the team finished with the best record in the league at 11–1–1 and was awarded the NFL title. After a disappointing fourth season (1928) owner Mara bought the entire squad of the Detroit Wolverines, principally to acquire star quarterback Benny Friedman, and merged the two teams under the Giants name. In 1930, there were still many who questioned the quality of the professional game, claiming the college \"amateurs\" played with", "In a 14-year span from 1933 to 1947, the Giants qualified to play in the NFL championship game 8 times, winning twice. During this period the Giants were led by Hall of Fame coach Steve Owen, and Hall of Fame players Mel Hein, Red Badgro and Tuffy Leemans. The period also featured the 1944 Giants, which are ranked as the #1 defensive team in NFL history, \"...a truly awesome unit\". They gave up only 7.5 points per game (a record that still", "They did not win another league title until 1956, the first year the team began playing at Yankee Stadium in the Bronx borough of New York City. Aided by a number of future Pro Football Hall of Fame players such as running back Frank Gifford, linebacker Sam Huff, and offensive tackle Roosevelt Brown, as well as all-pro running back Alex Webster. The Giants' 1956 championship team not only included players who would eventually find their way to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, but a Hall of Fame coaching staff, as well. Head coach Jim Lee Howell's staff had Vince Lombardi coaching the offense and Tom Landry coaching the defense. From 1958 to 1963,", "From 1964 to 1978, the Giants registered only two winning seasons and no playoff appearances. With players, such as Tittle and Gifford approaching their mid 30s, the team declined rapidly, finishing 2–10–2 in 1964. They rebounded with a 7–7 record in 1965, before compiling a league-worst 1–12–1 record, and allowing more than 500 points on defense in 1966. During the 1969 preseason, the Giants lost their first meeting with the New York Jets, 37–14, in front of 70,874 fans at the Yale Bowl in New Haven, Connecticut. Following the game, Wellington Mara fired coach Allie Sherman, and", "In 1983, Bill Parcells was promoted to head coach from defensive coordinator. One of his first moves was to change his starting quarterback, sitting the injury-prone and struggling Phil Simms (who had missed the entire 1982 season with an injury) and electing instead to go with Scott Brunner, who had gone 4-5 as the starter in place of Simms in the strike-shortened previous season. Parcells went as far as to demote Simms to the third string position, promoting Jeff Rutledge over Simms to be Brunner's backup. Parcells later said the move was a mistake and", "After 9–7 and 10–6 finishes in 1984 and 1985 respectively, the Giants compiled a 14–2 record in 1986 led by league MVP and Defensive Player of the Year Lawrence Taylor and the Big Blue Wrecking Crew defense. As of 2017, this is the Giants' best regular season record since the NFL began playing 16-game seasons in 1978. After clinching the top seed in the NFC, the Giants defeated the 49ers 49–3 in the divisional round of the NFC playoffs and the Redskins 17–0 in the NFC championship game, advancing to their first Super Bowl, Super Bowl XXI, against the Denver Broncos at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena. Led by MVP Simms who completed 22 of 25 passes for a Super Bowl record 88% completion percentage,", "In 1990, the Giants went 13–3 and, at the time, set an NFL record for fewest turnovers in a season (14). They defeated the San Francisco 49ers, who were attempting to win the Super Bowl for an unprecedented third straight year, 15–13 at San Francisco and then defeated the Buffalo Bills 20–19 in Super Bowl XXV.", "Following the 1990 season, Parcells resigned as head coach and was replaced by the team's offensive-line coach Ray Handley. Handley served as coach for two disappointing seasons (1991 and 1992), which saw the Giants fall from Super Bowl champions to an 8–8 record in 1991 and a 6–10 record in 1992. He was fired following the 1992 season, and replaced by former Denver Broncos' coach Dan Reeves. In the early 1990s, Simms", "In 1997, the Giants named Jim Fassel, who had spent the previous season as offensive coordinator of the Arizona Cardinals, as their 16th head coach. Fassel named Danny Kanell the team's starting quarterback. The Giants finished the 1997 season with a record of 10–5–1 and qualified for the playoffs for the first time in four years. However, they lost in the Wild Card round to the Vikings at home. The following year, the Giants began the season 4–8 before rallying to finish the season 8–8. One of the notable games of that season was a win over the eventual Super Bowl champion Denver Broncos in week 15, giving the Broncos their first loss of the season after starting 13–0. Before the 1999 season, the Giants signed ex-Carolina Panthers quarterback Kerry Collins. Collins was the first-ever draft choice of the expansion Carolina Panthers in 1995, and led the Panthers to the NFC Championship game in his second season. However, problems with alcohol, conflicts with his teammates and questions about his character led to his release from the Panthers. The Giants finished the season with a 7–9 record, Fassel's first losing season as head", "In 2004, three years after their last Super Bowl appearance, Fassel was replaced by Tom Coughlin. Although Collins had several solid seasons as the Giants quarterback, he experienced his share of struggles. In 2004, the Giants completed a draft day trade for University of Mississippi quarterback Eli Manning. Manning became the team's starting quarterback in the middle of the 2004 season, taking over for Kurt Warner. During the three-year period from 2004 to 2006, Tom Coughlin's Giants compiled a 25–23 regular season record and two appearances in the Wild Card Round — both losses (to the Carolina Panthers in 2005 and to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2006.) and spawned intense media scrutiny concerning the direction of the team. During this period in their history, standout players included defensive end Michael Strahan, who set the NFL single season record in sacks in 2001, and running back Tiki Barber, who set a team record for rushing yards in a season in 2005. Barber retired at the end of the 2006 season.", "Going into 2007, the Giants had made the playoffs in back-to-back seasons. In 2007, the Giants became the third NFL franchise to win at least 600 games when they defeated the Atlanta Falcons 31–10 on \"Monday Night Football\". For the 2007 season, the NFL scheduled the Giants' road game against the Miami Dolphins on October 28 in London's Wembley Stadium; this was the first NFL regular-season game to be played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13–10. The Giants finished 10–6, and became NFC Champions after defeating the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Dallas Cowboys, and Green Bay Packers in the NFC Playoffs. They set a record for most consecutive road wins in a single season with 10 (a streak which ended with a loss to the Cleveland Browns", "The Giants began the 2008 NFL season with a record of 11–1, but lost three of their last four regular season games partially due to a self-inflicted gunshot wound to wide receiver Plaxico Burress. However, the Giants still won the NFC East with a record of 12–4, and clinched the number one seed in the NFC after beating the Carolina Panthers for home field advantage and a first-round bye. In the Divisional Round of the playoffs, the Giants lost 23–11 to the Philadelphia Eagles at home. In 2009, the Giants", "During the 2011 preseason, the Giants lost Kevin Boss, Steve Smith, Rich Seubert, Keith Bulluck, Derek Hagan, and Pro Bowl center Shaun O'Hara to free agency. However, the season also saw the emergence of second-year wide receiver Victor Cruz and second-year tight end Jake Ballard. The Giants opened their season with a 28–14 loss to the Washington Redskins at FedEx Field on the 10th anniversary of the September 11th attacks. However, the Giants secured a 6–2 record by the midpoint of the season, including road victories over the Philadelphia Eagles and the New England Patriots. The latter victory ended the Patriots'", "The Giants began the 2012 season with a home loss to the Cowboys, but rebounded to finish October with a 6–2 record and on a four-game winning streak that included a 26–3 road victory against the eventual NFC champion San Francisco 49ers. Following the arrival of Hurricane Sandy in the Northeastern United States, the Giants lost back-to-back games against the Steelers and Bengals to fall to 6–4. Despite impressive blowout home victories over the Packers, Saints and Eagles, the Giants finished the season 9–7 and out of the playoffs. Quarterback Eli Manning, defensive end Jason Pierre-Paul, wide receiver Victor Cruz, and guard Chris Snee represented the Giants at the Pro Bowl. The 2013 season", "On January 14, 2016, the Giants announced that Ben McAdoo would become the team's head coach. He replaced Tom Coughlin, who had resigned the previous week. The Giants turned it around in 2016, ending their five-year playoff drought. The Giants later lost to the Green Bay Packers 38–13 in the Wild Card round.", "After having high expectations due to their 11–5 record in 2016, the Giants had an unexpected 0–5 start to the season, before pulling a massive upset versus the Broncos at Sports Authority Field at Mile High for their first win of the season. However, during the Week 5 game against the Los Angeles Chargers, Odell Beckham Jr. fractured his fibula, an injury that ended his season. During the same game, the Giants also lost wide receivers Brandon Marshall and Dwayne Harris to season-ending injuries. The season was also marred by suspensions of Dominique Rodgers-Cromartie and Janoris Jenkins. The Giants finished the 2017 season with a 3–13 record, the second worst in the league. This was also the first time since 1983 in which the Giants finished the regular season with three or less wins, and their worst record since the 16 game season was adopted in the NFL. The season was also highlighted the controversial benching of long-term quarterback Eli Manning in Week 13, and the high-profile firings of head coach Ben McAdoo and General Manager Jerry Reese, who were the first mid-season staff firings since the 1976", "", "The Giants have won a total of eight League Championships: 1927, 1934, 1938, 1956, 1986, 1990, 2007 and 2011. The first four of those championships came in the pre-Super Bowl era. New York's eight championships put them third among all active and defunct NFL teams, trailing only the Green Bay Packers (13) and the Chicago Bears (9).", "Before the Super Bowl was instituted,", "The Giants have won four Super Bowls, tied with Green Bay for the fifth most behind Dallas, San Francisco (both with 5), and New England and Pittsburgh (6 each).", "The Giants have won five NFC", "With over 80 years of team history, the Giants have used numerous uniforms and logos, while maintaining a consistent identity. The Giants' logos include several incarnations of a giant quarterback preparing to throw a football, a lowercase \"ny\", and stylized versions of the team nickname. Giants' jerseys are traditionally blue or red (or white with blue or red accents), and their pants alternate between white and gray. Currently, the Giants wear home jerseys that are solid blue with white block numbering, white pants with five thin blue/gray/red/gray/blue stripes on the pant legs, and solid blue socks. For this they gained their most renowned nickname, \"Big Blue\". For road uniforms, they wear a white jersey with red block numbering and red \"Northwestern\" stripes on the sleeves, gray pants with three thin non-contiguous red/blue/red stripes on the pant", "The Giants have had a long and, at times, turbulent financial history. The team was founded by Tim Mara with an investment of US$500 in 1925 and became one of the first teams in the then five-year-old NFL. To differentiate themselves from the baseball team of the same name, they took the name \"New York Football Giants\", which they still use as their legal corporate name. Although the Giants were successful on the field in their initial seasons, their financial status was a different story. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing, and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925. The Giants were in dire financial straits until the 11th game of the season when Red Grange and the Chicago Bears came to town, attracting over 73,000 fans. This gave the Giants a much needed influx of revenue, and perhaps altered the history of the franchise. The following year, Grange and his agent formed a rival league and stationed a competing team, led by Grange, in New York. Though the Giants lost $50,000 that season, the rival league folded and was subsumed into the NFL. Following the 1930 season, Mara transferred ownership of the team over to his two sons to insulate the team from creditors, and by 1946, he had given over complete control of the team to them. Jack, the older son, controlled the business aspects, while Wellington controlled the on-field operations. After their initial struggles the Giants financial status stabilized, and they led the league in attendance several times in the 1930s and 1940s. By the early 1960s, the Giants had firmly established themselves as one of the league's biggest attractions. However, rather than continuing to receive their higher share of the league television revenue, the Mara sons pushed for equal sharing of revenue for the benefit of the entire league. Revenue sharing is still practiced in the NFL today, and is credited with strengthening the league. After their struggles in the latter half of the 1960s and the entire 1970s, the Giants hired an outsider, George Young, to run the football operations for the first time in franchise history. The Giants' on-field product and business aspects improved rapidly following the move. In 1991, Tim Mara, grandson of the founder, was struggling with cancer and sold his half of the team to", "", "The rivalry between the New York Giants and the Philadelphia Eagles is one of the oldest in the NFL, dating back to 1933. The two teams have frequently fought for playoff contention, NFC East titles, and respect. While the Giants have dominated this rivalry throughout most of its history, the series began to even in the", "The Giants have an old and storied rivalry with the Redskins, dating back to 1932. While this rivalry is typically given less significance than the rivalries with the Eagles and Cowboys, there have been periods of great competition between the two. In the 1980s the Giants and Redskins clashed as both struggled against each other for division titles and", "The Giants have maintained a fierce divisional rivalry with the Dallas Cowboys since the Cowboys first began play in 1960. The two teams have a combined nine Super Bowl victories between them, and have played many games in which the NFC East title", "Despite never being in the same division, the Giants and 49ers have developed a heated rivalry over the years. The two teams have met eight times in the playoffs (including two NFC Championship Games, both won by New", "The Giants and Jets for many years had the only intracity rivalry in the NFL, made even more unusual by sharing a stadium. They have met annually in the preseason since 1969. Since 2011, this meeting has been known as the \"MetLife Bowl\", after the naming sponsor of the teams' stadium. Regular season matchups between the teams occur once every four years, as they follow the NFL scheduling formula for interconference games. Since the two teams play each other so infrequently in the regular", "", "In the Pro Football Hall of Fame, the Giants boast the second-most enshrined members with 29. Tim Mara, Mel Hein, Pete Henry, Cal Hubbard and Jim Thorpe were a part of the original class of inductees in 1963, while defensive end Michael", "The New York Giants unveiled their own Ring of Honor on October 3, 2010 during halftime of their. John Mara had long wished to create a Giants Ring of Honor and Hall of Fame to honor Giants who helped the franchise achieve each of their championships, and the building", "As of 2010, the Giants' flagship radio station is WFAN, with games simulcast on WFAN-FM as of November 2012. Beginning in 2012, the Giants became WFAN's top priority during the entire football season; prior to that, games that conflicted with late season New York Mets baseball games in September and early October were moved to other CBS Radio owned stations. This arrangement only lasted for 2012, and the Mets received priority again in 2013. WFAN acquired the rights to New York Yankees games for 2014, and thus the Giants' schedule will be in conflict with them for the foreseeable future. From 2014, the Giants' overflow station has been WCBS-AM, which was the former radio home of the Yankees and a sister station to WFAN. However, beginning in 2019, WCBS-AM replaced WOR-AM as the flagship radio home for the Mets and the Giants have yet to announce an overflow station for the coming season. Bob Papa on play-by-play and Carl Banks on color commentary are the Giants' radio broadcast team, with Howard Cross as the sideline reporter. When Papa is unavailable to call games Chris Carrino, WFAN's lead broadcaster for the Brooklyn Nets, substitutes for him. Games are carried over the New York Giants Radio Network over various stations in New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut. Preseason telecasts not seen nationally air in the area on WNBC, with WWOR-TV serving as an overflow station for when WNBC is airing other programming such as the Summer Olympic Games. Papa and Banks call these games on television, with studio host Paul Dottino as Papa's substitute. WPIX-TV or WABC-TV will also air any Giants broadcast that is carried by ESPN, as per the local carriage rules (WABC-TV corporate parent, The Walt Disney Company, holds an 80% majority ownership stake in ESPN, and has a right of first refusal for these telecasts). Thursday Night Football games exclusive to NFL Network are carried locally by the producing network's O&O, either WCBS-TV, WNBC or WNYW (as is the case for 2018). The Giants' public address announcer at MetLife Stadium is Jim Hall, who for years was Bob Sheppard's substitute at Yankee Stadium due to their very similar voices. Hall took over the Giants PA job after Sheppard elected to leave the position in 2005 to focus solely on his Yankee Stadium duties.", "WFAN has produced the Giants' radio broadcasts since 1995, but has not always aired them on the station. For 1995, then-Giants flagship WOR continued to carry the games as they had for the previous two seasons. In 1996 the games were simulcast on WFAN and WOR, which caused some conflict as at the time, WFAN was the radio flagship of the New York Jets as well. To remedy the situation, beginning the next year WFAN moved the Giants' radio broadcasts to the FM dial and sister station WNEW-FM, where they remained until the end of the 1999 season. In 2000 WFAN lost the Jets' radio contract to WABC and the Giants moved back to WFAN where they have been ever since. The Giants' longtime radio home was WNEW, where games aired from the mid-1950s until 1993 when the station was bought by Bloomberg L.P. and changed its format. Marty Glickman teamed with Al DeRogatis for a long stretch beginning in the early 1960s on WNEW. Chip Cipolla and later Sam Huff joined Glickman after DeRogatis left to join Curt Gowdy on NBC. After the WNEW split, games began airing on WOR. Glickman moved to the crosstown Jets in 1973 and was succeeded by Marv Albert. Jim Gordon succeeded Albert in 1977, beginning an 18-year tenure as the Giants' play-by-play voice. Meanwhile, Dick Lynch took over as color analyst in 1976 and continued in that role through 2007, with his last game being Super Bowl XLII, and retired following the season due to his advancing leukemia, which took his life in September 2008. Eventually Gordon and Lynch were joined by Karl Nelson, a former lineman for the Giants. Gordon and Nelson were fired after the 1994 season, after which Papa took over the play-by-play (after being studio host) and led a two-man booth with Lynch. Dave Jennings joined the broadcast team in 2002 following his firing by the Jets," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nickname.", "History.", "1901–1919: The Golden Era.", "Sale of Babe Ruth and Aftermath (1920–1938).", "1939–1960: The Ted Williams Era.", "1960s: Yaz and the Impossible Dream.", "1970s: The Red Hat Era.", "1975.", "1978 pennant race.", "1986 World Series and Game Six.", "1988–1991: Morgan Magic.", "1992–2001: Mixed Results.", "2002–present: John Henry era.", "2002–03.", "\"The Idiots\": 2004 World Series Championship.", "2007: World Series Championship.", "2008–2012: Injuries and Collapses.", "Boston Strong: 2013 World Series Champions.", "2014–2017.", "\"Damage Done\": 2018 World Series Championship.", "2019.", "2020.", "Awards.", "Spring training.", "JetBlue Park.", "Truck Day.", "Rivalry with the Yankees.", "Radio and television.", "Music.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Red Sox\", chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning in 1908. \"Sox\" had been previously adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline-friendly form of \"Stockings\", as \"Stockings Win!\" in large type did not fit in a column. The team name \"Red Sox\" had previously been used as early as 1888 by a 'colored' team from Norfolk, Virginia. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as \"Medias Rojas\", a translation of \"red socks\". The official Spanish site uses the variant \"Los Red Sox\". The Red Stockings nickname was first used by a baseball team by the Cincinnati Red Stockings, who were members of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired by Boston businessman Ivers Whitney Adams to organize a new team in Boston, and he did, bringing three teammates and the \"Red Stockings\" nickname along. (Most nicknames were then unofficial — neither club names nor registered trademarks — so the migration was informal.) The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league. When a new Cincinnati club was formed as a charter member of the National League in 1876, the \"Red Stockings\" nickname was commonly reserved for them once again, and the Boston team was referred to as the \"Red Caps\". Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname \"Braves\" in 1912; the club eventually left Boston for Milwaukee and is now playing in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1901, the upstart American League established", "", "In 1901, the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of the league to the American League, leading teams in his league to be christened with the unofficial nickname \"Americans\". This was especially true in the case of the new Boston franchise, which did not adopt an official nickname until 1908. The upstart league placed franchises in Baltimore, Maryland and Buffalo. After looking at his new league, Ban Johnson decided that he needed a team in Boston to compete with the National League team there, and so cancelled the Buffalo club's franchise, offering one to a new club in", "Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in 1916 for about $500,000. A couple of notable trades involving Harry Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard (who had posted a modern record 0.96 ERA in 1914), and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. As all three players were well regarded in Boston—Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard only four years before had set a modern record for earned run average—this trade was regarded as a poor one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine-style pitching star Carl Mays was traded", "In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the \"Ted Sox.\" Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right-field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called \"Williamsburg.\" Before this addition, it was over to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing", "The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl \"Yaz\" Yastrzemski, Williams' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching-rich decade. Red Sox fans know 1967 as the season of the \"Impossible Dream.\" The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play \"Man of La Mancha\". 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team won the pennant to reach the 1967 World Series.", "Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when they lost by a half-game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and the Red Sox had lost one more game to the strike than the Tigers had. Games lost to the strike were not made up. The Red Sox went to Detroit with a half-game lead for the final series of the season, but lost the first two of those three and were eliminated from the pennant race.", "The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975. The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill \"The Spaceman\" Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in 2001. In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A's. In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered", "In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox (known as \"The Boston Massacre\"), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead. On September 16 the Yankees held a game lead over the Red Sox, but the Sox won 11 of their next 13 games and by the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one—with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division.", "Carl Yastrzemski retired after the 1983 season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven-team AL East, posting their worst record since 1966. However, in 1986, it appeared that the team's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24–4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20-strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in 1971. Despite spending a month and a half on the disabled list in the middle of the season, left-hander Bruce Hurst went 13–8, striking out 167 and pitching four shutout", "The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All-Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Walpole resident and longtime minor-league manager Joe Morgan on July 15. The club immediately won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what was called \"Morgan Magic\". But the magic was short-lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. The Most Valuable Player of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox again won the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A's sweeping the ALCS", "Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in 1992. Their initials are shown in two stripes on the left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership. In 1994, General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had", "", "In 2002, the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little. While nearly all offseason moves were made under Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland Athletics, the new ownership made additions such as outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games—becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20", "During the 2003–04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Due to some midseason struggles with injuries, management shook up the team at the July 31 trading deadline as part of a four-team trade. The Red Sox traded the team's popular, yet oft-injured, shortstop Nomar Garciaparra and outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs, and received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Minnesota Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Montreal Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox acquired center fielder Dave Roberts from the Los Angeles Dodgers. Following the trades,", "The 2005 AL East was decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one-game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95–67. However, a playoff was not needed, as the loser of such a playoff would still make the playoffs as a wild card team. As the Yankees had won the season series, they were awarded the division title, and the Red Sox competed", "The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A's in the Tokyo Dome. On May 19, Jon Lester threw the 18th no-hitter in team history, defeating the Kansas City Royals 7–0. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez became embroiled in controversy surrounding public incidents with fellow players and other team employees, as well as criticism of ownership and not playing, which some claimed was due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgruntled outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three-way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox improved vastly and made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. The Red Sox defeated the Angels in", "Boston, which finished last in the American League East with a 69–93 record in 2012–26 games behind the Yankees, became the 11th team in major league history to go from worst in the division to first the next season when it clinched the A.L. East division title on September 20, 2013. Many credit the team's turnaround with the hiring of manager John Farrell, the former Red Sox pitching coach under Terry Francona from 2007 to 2010. As a former member of the staff, he had the respect of influential players such as Lester, Pedroia, and Ortiz. But there were other moves made in the offseason by general manager Ben Cherington who targeted", "Following the 2013 championship, the team finished last in the AL East during 2014 with a record of 71–91, and again in 2015 with a record of 78–84. On September 12, 2015, David Ortiz hit his 500th career home run off Matt Moore in Tropicana Field becoming the 27th player in MLB history to achieve that prestigious milestone; in November 2015, Ortiz announced that the 2016 season was to be his last. The Red Sox had a record of 93–69 and won their division in 2016, with six American League All-Stars, the AL Cy Young Award winner in Rick Porcello,", "The Red Sox finished with a record, winning the American League East division title for the third consecutive season, eight games ahead of the second-place New York Yankees, and were the first team to clinch a berth in the 2018 postseason. The Red Sox surpassed the 100-win mark for the first time since 1946, broke the franchise record of 105 wins that had been set in 1912, and won the most games of any MLB team since the 2001 Seattle Mariners won 116. The 2018 Red Sox were highlighted by All-Stars Mookie Betts, J. D. Martinez,", "Despite retaining most players from the 2018 championship team, the 2019 Red Sox won 24 fewer games, finishing third in the division and missing the playoffs", "On January 7, it was reported in \"The Athletic\" that the Red Sox had used their video replay room to steal signs during their 2018 season. On January 15, the Red Sox and manager Alex Cora agreed to mutually part ways after he was named in MLB's report about the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal, which occurred during his tenure as bench coach with the 2017 Astros. Ron Roenicke was subsequently named Boston's interim manager. On February 10, a trade of Mookie Betts and David Price to the Los Angeles Dodgers was made official, in a move seen as a salary dump by analysts, although denied by Red Sox executives. In March, the start of the MLB season was indefinitely postponed, due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April, MLB's investigation into 2018 sign-stealing resulted in a finding of improper actions by the team's replay operator, who as a result was suspended for the 2020 season (including postseason) and the team forfeited their second-round selection in the 2020 MLB draft. The \"interim\" tag was subsequently removed from Roenicke's title.", "For major MLB awards, voted by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA), Red Sox players have won the MVP Award 12 times, most recently by Mookie Betts", "The franchise's first spring training was held in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1901, when the team was known as the Boston Americans. Since 1993, the city of Fort Myers, Florida, has hosted Boston's spring training, first at City of Palms Park, and since 2012 at jetBlue Park at Fenway South.", "In October 2008, the Lee County, Florida, Board of Commissioners approved an agreement with the Red Sox to build a new spring training facility for the team. In November 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County intended to keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years. In April 2009, the Red Sox announced that the", "The unofficial beginning of the spring training season for the Red Sox is Truck Day, the", "The Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Red Sox and New York Yankees have been rivals. The rivalry is often a heated subject of conversation in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, every playoffs has featured one or both of the American League East rivals and they both have squared off in the American League Championship Series three times, with the Yankees winning twice in 1999 and 2003 and the Sox winning in 2004. The two teams faced off most recently in the 2018 American League Division Series where the Red Sox won in 4 games. In", "The flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WEEI-FM/93.7. Joe Castiglione has broadcast Red Sox games since 1983 (initially assisting Ken Coleman) and has been the lead play-by-play announcer since 1993. Tim Neverett worked with him from 2016 through 2018, but in 2019, WEEI opted for a more conversational format with a variety of commentators (see the above link) alongside Castiglione. Former Red Sox player Lou Merloni has provided color commentary since 2013. Castiglione's", "The integration of music into the culture of the Red Sox dates back to the Americans era, which saw the first use of the popular 1902 showtune \"Tessie\" as a rallying cry by fans. The tune saw a resurgence in popularity when a new version by Boston area band The Dropkick Murphys was featured in the 2005 film \"Fever Pitch\", which tells the story of an obsessive Red Sox fan. The song is frequently played after home wins and inspired the name of Red Sox mascot Wally the Green Monster's \"sister\" \"Tessie\". Their song \"I'm Shipping Up to Boston\" was", "Previously, the Red Sox published three official requirements for a player to have his number retired on their website and in their annual media guides. The requirements were as follows: These requirements were reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame in 2000; who met the first two requirements but played the second half of his career with the White Sox. As a means of meeting the criteria, then-GM Dan Duquette hired Fisk for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically finish his career with the Red Sox. In 2008, the Red Sox made an \"exception\" by retiring #6 for Johnny Pesky. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited \"... his versatility of his contributions—on the field, off the field, [and] in the dugout...\", including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well-earned. Pesky spent 57 years with the Red Sox organization; as a minor league player (1940–1941), major league player (1942, 1946–1952), minor league manager (1961–1962, 1990), major league manager (1963–1964, 1980), broadcaster (1969–1974), major league coach (1975–1984), and as a special instructor and assistant general manager (1985–2012). In 2015, the Red Sox chose to forgo the official criteria and retire Pedro Martínez's #45. Martínez only spent 7 of his 18 seasons in Boston. In justifying the number's retirement, Red Sox principal owner John Henry stated, \"To be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame upon his first year of eligibility speaks volumes regarding Pedro's outstanding career, and is a testament to the respect and admiration so many in baseball have", "The Boston Red Sox farm system consists of eight minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Career.", "Accusation of espionage.", "Perjury trials and conviction.", "Incarceration.", "Post-incarceration.", "Personal life and death.", "Later evidence, for and against.", "Testimony by Bullitt and Weyl.", "Fake typewriter hypothesis.", "Noel Field.", "Venona and \"ALES\".", "Oleg Gordievsky.", "Aleksandr Feklisov.", "Soviet archives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Alger Hiss was one of five children born in Baltimore, Maryland, to Mary \"Minnie\" Lavinia (née Hughes) and Charles Alger Hiss. Both parents came from substantial Baltimore families who could trace their roots to the middle of the eighteenth century. Hiss's paternal great-great-grandfather had emigrated from Germany in 1729, married well, and changed his surname from \"Hesse\" to \"Hiss\". Minnie Hughes had attended teacher's college and was active in Baltimore society. Shortly after his marriage at age 24, Charles Hiss entered the business world and joined the dry goods importing firm Daniel Miller and Co. He did well, becoming an executive and stockholder. When Charles's brother John died suddenly at age 33, Charles assumed financial and emotional responsibility for his brother's widow and six children in addition to his own expanding family. Charles also helped his wife's favorite brother, Albert Hughes, find work at Daniel Miller. Hughes at first distinguished himself and was promoted to treasurer of the firm, but then he became involved in a complicated business deal and was unable to meet the financial obligation that was part of a joint agreement. As a matter of honor, Charles Hiss felt compelled to sell all his stocks to make good his brother-in-law's debts, as well as to resign from the firm. This was in 1907, the year of a great financial panic. After inconclusive attempts by relatives to find him a job, Charles fell into a", "During the era of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal, Hiss became a government attorney. In 1933, he served briefly at the Justice Department and then became a temporary assistant on the Senate's Nye Committee, investigating cost overruns and alleged profiteering by military contractors during World War I. During this period, Hiss was also a member of the liberal legal team headed by Jerome Frank that defended the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) against challenges to its legitimacy. Because of intense opposition from agribusiness in Arkansas, Frank and his left-wing assistants, who included future labor lawyer Lee Pressman, were fired in 1935 in what came to be known as \"the purge of liberals\". Hiss was not fired, but allegations that during this period he was connected with radicals on the Agriculture Department's legal team were to be the source of future controversy. In the meantime, Hiss also served initially as \"investigator\" and then \"legal assistant\" (counsel) to the Nye Committee from July 1934 to August 1935. He \"badgered\" DuPont officials and questioned and cross-examined Bernard Baruch on March 29, 1935. In 1947, Baruch and Hiss both attended the burial of Nicholas Murray Butler. In 1988, he called Baruch a \"vain and overrated Polonius much given to trite pronouncements about the nation\". In 1936, Alger Hiss and his younger brother Donald Hiss began working under Cordell Hull in the State Department. Alger was an assistant to Assistant Secretary of State Francis B. Sayre (son-in-law of Woodrow Wilson) and then special assistant to the director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs. From 1939 to 1944 Hiss was an assistant to Stanley Hornbeck, a special adviser to Cordell Hull on Far Eastern affairs. In 1944, Hiss was named Director of the", "On August 3, 1948, Whittaker Chambers, a former Communist Party member, appeared before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) to denounce Alger Hiss. A senior editor at \"Time\" magazine, Chambers had written a scathingly satirical editorial critical of the Yalta agreements. Chambers asserted that he had known Hiss as a member of \"an underground organization of the United States Communist Party\" in the 1930s. The group, which Chambers called the \"Ware Group\", had been organized by agriculturalist Harold Ware, an American communist intent on organizing black and white tenant farmers in the American South against exploitation and debt peonage by the cotton industry (Ware had died in 1935). According to Chambers, \"the purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the communist infiltration of the American government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.\" As historian Tim Weiner points out, \"This was a crucial point. Infiltration and invisible political influence were immoral, but arguably not illegal. Espionage was treason, traditionally punishable by death. The distinction was not lost on the cleverest member of HUAC, Congressman Richard Nixon... He had been studying the FBI's files for five months, courtesy of J. Edgar Hoover. Nixon launched his political career in hot pursuit of Hiss and the alleged secret Communists of the New Deal.\" Rumors had circulated about Hiss since 1939, when Chambers, at the urging of anti-Stalinist Isaac Don Levine, had gone to Assistant Secretary of State Adolf A. Berle, Jr. and accused Hiss of having belonged to an underground communist cell at the Department of Agriculture. In 1942, Chambers repeated this allegation to the FBI. In 1945 two other sources appeared to implicate Hiss. In September 1945, Igor Gouzenko, a 26-year-old Ukrainian whose three-year tour as a cipher clerk stationed at the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa was coming to an end, defected from the Soviet Union and remained in Canada. In exchange for asylum, Gouzenko offered to Canadian authorities evidence about a Soviet espionage network actively working to acquire information about nuclear weapons, along with information that an unnamed assistant (or more precisely an \"assistant to an assistant\") to U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet agent. When informed of this, Hoover assumed Gouzenko was referring to Alger Hiss. Three months later (in December 1945), Elizabeth Bentley, an American spy for the Soviet Union, who served also as a courier between communist groups, told the FBI, as documented in the FBI Silvermaster File that \"At this time Kramer told me that the person who had originally taken Glasser away from Perlo's group was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.\" Bentley also said that the man in question, whom she called \"Eugene Hiss\" worked in the State Department and was an adviser to Dean Acheson. In both cases (Gouzenko and Bentley), the FBI decided that Alger Hiss was the likely match. Hoover put a wiretap on Hiss's home phone and had him and his wife investigated and tailed for the next two years. In response to Chambers's accusations, Hiss protested his innocence and insisted on appearing before HUAC to", "The grand jury charged Hiss with two counts of perjury—it did not indict him for espionage since the period of limitations had run out. Chambers was never charged with a crime. Hiss went to trial twice. The first trial, presided over by Judge Samuel Kaufman, started on May 31, 1949, and ended in a hung jury on July 7. Chambers admitted on the witness stand that he had previously committed perjury several times while he was under oath, including deliberately falsifying key dates in his story. Hiss's character witnesses at his first trial included such notables as future Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson, Supreme Court Justices Felix Frankfurter, and Stanley Reed, and former Democratic presidential candidate John W. Davis. President Truman famously called the investigation \"a red herring\". The second trial, presided over by Judge Henry W. Goddard, lasted from November 17, 1949, to January 21, 1950. At both trials, a key to the prosecution's case was testimony from expert witnesses, stating that identifying characteristics of the typed Baltimore documents matched samples typed on a typewriter owned by the Hisses at the time of his alleged espionage work with Chambers. The prosecution also presented as evidence the typewriter itself. Given away years earlier, it had been located by defense investigators. This trial resulted in an eight-to-four deadlocked jury. \"That, according to one of Hiss's friends and lawyers, Helen Buttenweiser, was the only time that she had ever seen Alger shocked—stunned by the fact that eight", "Although he had been sentenced to five years' imprisonment, Hiss served only three years and eight months in Lewisburg Federal", "After his release in 1954, Hiss, who had been disbarred, worked as a salesman for the stationery company S. Novick & Sons located in the Puck Building, 295 Lafayette St. in New York City. In 1957, he published \"In the Court of Public Opinion\", a book challenging in detail the prosecution's case against him, and maintaining the typewritten documents traced to his typewriter had been forged. Hiss separated from his first wife, Priscilla, in 1959, though they remained married until her death in 1984. In 1985 he married Isabel Johnson, who had been living with him since soon after they met in 1960. On November 11, 1962, following Richard Nixon's failed 1962 bid for governor of California, Hiss appeared in a segment titled \"The Political Obituary of Richard M. Nixon\" on the \"\" show on ABC television. (The \"Chicago Tribune\" reported targets of Hiss's \"invective\" and whom he \"denounced as conspirators in a monstrous plot to convict him on concocted evidence\" included: the presiding judge at his second trial, the three appellate court judges who rejected his appeal, J. Edgar Hoover and the FBI, assistant attorney general Alexander M. Campbell, federal prosecutor Thomas F. Murphy, members of the New York grand jury who indicted him, jury members in his two trials who convicted him, and HUAC members and", "In 1929, Hiss married Priscilla Fansler Hobson, a Bryn Mawr graduate and grade school teacher. Priscilla, previously married", "", "In 1952, former US Ambassador to France William C. Bullitt testified before the McCarran Committee (the Senate Internal Security Subcommittee) that in 1939, Premier Édouard Daladier had advised him of French intelligence reports that two State Department officials named Hiss were Soviet agents. When asked about it the next day, Daladier, then 68 years old, told reporters that he did not recall this conversation from 13 years previously. Also called to testify before the McCarran committee was economist Nathaniel Weyl, a former Communist Party member \"at large\" who had worked for the", "At both trials FBI typewriter experts testified that the Baltimore documents in Chambers's possession matched samples of typing done in the 1930s by Priscilla Hiss on the Hisses' home typewriter, a Woodstock brand. As early as December 1948 the chief investigator for the Hiss defense, Horace W. Schmahl, set off a race to find Hiss's typewriter. The FBI, with superior resources, was also searching for the typewriter, which the Hiss family had discarded some years earlier. Nevertheless, Schmahl was able to track it down first, and the Hiss defense introduced it with the intention of showing that its typeface would not be a match for that on the FBI's documents. Surprisingly, however, the typefaces proved to be an excellent match and confirmed the FBI's evidence. Schmahl subsequently changed sides and went to work for the prosecution. After Hiss had gone to prison, his lawyer, Chester T. Lane, acting on a tip he had received from someone who had worked with Schmahl that Hiss might have been framed, filed a motion in January 1952 for a new trial. Lane sought to show that (1) forgery by typewriter was feasible and (2) such forgery had occurred in the Hiss case. Unaware that the feasibility of such forgeries had already been established throughout the War by the military intelligence services that engaged in such practices, the Hiss defense sought to establish feasibility directly by hiring a civilian typewriter expert, Martin Tytell, to create a typewriter that would be indistinguishable from the one the Hisses owned. Tytell spent two years creating a facsimile Woodstock typewriter whose print characteristics would match the peculiarities of the Hiss typewriter. To demonstrate that forgery by typewriter was not merely a theoretical possibility but had actually occurred in the Hiss case, the defense sought to show that Exhibit #UUU was not Hiss's old machine but a newer one altered to type like it. According to former Woodstock executives, the production date of a machine could be inferred from the machine's serial number. The serial number on the Exhibit #UUU typewriter indicated that it would have been \"manufactured\" after the man who sold the Hiss machine had retired from the company and the salesman insisted that he did not sell any typewriters after his retirement. Decades later, when FBI files were disclosed under the Freedom of Information Act, it turned out that the FBI had also doubted that the trial exhibit was Hiss's machine and for exactly the same reasons; although the FBI expressed these concerns internally as the first trial was about to begin, the public did not learn about the FBI's doubts until the mid-1970s. To explain why typing from Exhibit #UUU seemed indistinguishable from the typing on Hiss's old machine, Lane assembled experts prepared to testify that Exhibit #UUU had been tampered with in a way inconsistent with professional repair work to make it type like Hiss's old typewriter. In addition, experts were prepared to testify that Priscilla Hiss was not the typist of the Baltimore documents. In summarizing the conclusions of the forensic experts he had assembled in his motion for a new trial, Lane told the court, \"I no longer just question the authenticity of Woodstock N230099. I now say to the Court that Woodstock N230099—the typewriter in evidence at the trials—is a fake machine. I present in affidavit form, and will be able to produce at the hearing, expert testimony that this machine is a deliberately fabricated job, a new type face on an old body. This being so, it can only have been planted on the defense by or on behalf of Whittaker Chambers as part of his plot for the false incrimination of Alger Hiss.\" In July 1952 Judge Goddard denied Hiss's motion for", "In 1992, records were found in Hungarian Interior Ministry archives in which self-confessed Soviet spy Noel Field named Alger Hiss as a fellow agent. An American citizen from a Quaker family who had grown up in Switzerland, Field attended Harvard and worked in the US Foreign Service from 1929 until 1936, when he left the State Department for a job at the League of Nations in Geneva, helping refugees from the Spanish Civil War. During World War II, Field, who never concealed he was a communist, headed a Unitarian Services organization to aid displaced persons in Marseilles, before fleeing to Geneva, where he collaborated with Allen Dulles of the OSS (who was based in Bern). In 1948, when the Hiss trials started, Field and his German wife were still living in Switzerland. By 1949 Field was broke, having been fired from the U.S.-based Unitarian Service Committee for his communist associations. Wishing to avoid returning to the United States and possibly having to testify before Congress, Field traveled to Prague, hoping to be hired as a lecturer at the Charles University. Instead, he was seized by Stalinist security services from Poland and Czechoslovakia", "In 1995, the CIA and the NSA for the first time made public the existence of the World War II Venona project, which, beginning in 1943, had decrypted or partially decrypted thousands of telegrams sent from 1940 to 1948 to the primary Soviet foreign intelligence agency—for most of that period, the NKVD—by its U.S. operatives. Although known to the FBI, Venona had been kept secret even from President Truman. One cable, Venona #1822, mentioned a Soviet spy codenamed \"ALES\" who worked with a group of \"Neighbors\"—members of another Soviet intelligence organization, such as the military's GRU. FBI Special Agent Robert J. Lamphere, who supervised the FBI's spy chasing squad, concluded that the codename \"ALES\" was \"probably Alger Hiss\". In 1997, Allen Weinstein, in the second edition of his 1978 book \"\", calls the Venona evidence \"persuasive but not conclusive\". The bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, chaired by Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, however, stated in its findings that year: \"The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department seems settled. As does that of Harry Dexter White of the Treasury Department.\" In his 1998 book \"Secrecy: The American Experience\", Moynihan wrote, \"Belief in the guilt or innocence of Alger Hiss became a defining issue in American intellectual life. Parts of the American government had conclusive evidence of his guilt, but they never told.\" In their numerous books, Harvey Klehr, professor of political science at Emory University, and John Earl Haynes, historian of twentieth-century politics at the Library of Congress, have mounted an energetic defense of Lamphere's conclusion that ALES indeed referred to Alger Hiss. National Security Agency analysts have also gone on record asserting that ALES could only have been Alger Hiss. The Venona transcript # 1822, sent March 30, 1945, from the", "In 1985, a high-ranking KGB agent, Oleg Gordievsky (b. 1938), who was recruited in 1974 to become a British double agent, defected and wrote a series of memoirs, in one of which, \"The KGB\" (1990), he recalled attending a lecture given before a KGB audience by Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov, who identified Hiss as a", "According to Serguei Kostine in the introduction to Alexandr Feklisov's book \"The Man Behind the Rosenbergs\"", "After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Alger Hiss petitioned General Dmitry Antonovich Volkogonov, who had become President Yeltsin's military advisor and the overseer of all the Soviet intelligence archives, to request the release of any Soviet files on the Hiss case. Both former President Nixon and the director of his presidential library, John H. Taylor, wrote similar letters, though their full contents are not yet publicly available. Russian archivists responded by reviewing their files, and in late 1992 reported back that they had found no evidence Hiss ever engaged in espionage for the Soviet Union nor that he was a member of the Communist Party. However, Volkogonov subsequently stated he spent only two days on the search and had mainly relied on the word of KGB archivists. \"What I saw gave me no basis to claim a full clarification\", he said. Referring to Hiss's lawyer, he added, \"John Lowenthal pushed me to say things of which I was not fully convinced.\" General-Lieutenant Vitaly Pavlov, who ran Soviet intelligence work in North America in the late 1930s and early 1940s for the NKVD said that Hiss never worked for the USSR as one of his agents. In 2003, retired Russian intelligence official General Julius Kobyakov disclosed that it was he who had actually searched the files for Volkogonov. Kobyakov stated that Hiss did not have a relationship with SVR predecessor organizations, although Hiss was accused of being with the GRU, a military intelligence organization separate from SVR predecessors. In 2007, Svetlana Chervonnaya, a Russian researcher who had been studying Soviet archives since the early 1990s, argued that based on documents she reviewed, Hiss was not implicated in spying. In May 2009, at a conference hosted by the Wilson Center, Mark Kramer, director of Cold War Studies at Harvard University at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, stated that he did not \"trust a word [Kobyakov] says\", At the same conference, historian Ronald Radosh reported that while researching the papers of Marshal Voroshilov in Moscow, he and Mary Habeck had encountered two GRU (Soviet military intelligence) files referring to Alger Hiss as \"our agent\". In 2009, Haynes, Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev published \"Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America\", based on KGB documents reportedly hand-copied by Vassiliev, a former KGB agent, during the 1990s. The authors attempted to show definitively that Alger Hiss had indeed been a Soviet spy and argue that KGB documents prove not only that Hiss was the elusive ALES, but that he also went by the codenames \"Jurist\" and \"Leonard\" while working for the GRU. Some documentation brought back by Vassiliev also refers to Hiss by his actual name, leaving no room, in the authors' opinion, for doubt about his guilt. Calling this the \"massive weight of accumulated evidence\", Haynes and Klehr conclude, \"to serious students of history continued claims for Hiss's innocence are akin to a terminal case of ideological blindness.\" In a review published in the \"Journal of Cold" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1901–1902: Origins in Baltimore.", "1903–1912: Move to New York and the Highlanders years.", "1913–1922: New owners, a new home, and a new name: Years at the Polo Grounds.", "1923–1935: Sluggers and the Stadium: Ruth, Gehrig, and Murderer's Row.", "1936–1951: Joltin' Joe DiMaggio.", "1951–1959: Stengel's Squad.", "1960–1964: Mantle and Maris.", "1965–1972: New ownership and a steep decline.", "1973–1981: Steinbrenner, Martin, Jackson, and Munson: the Bronx Zoo.", "1982–1995: Struggles during the Mattingly years.", "1996–2007: Core Four: Jeter, Posada, Pettitte, and Rivera.", "2008–2016: Championship run, followed by losing streak.", "2017–present: Baby Bombers.", "Distinctions.", "World Series championships.", "Team nicknames.", "Popularity.", "Fan support.", "The Bleacher Creatures.", "The Judge's Chambers at Yankee Stadium.", "Global expansion and business model.", "Criticism.", "Fight and theme songs.", "Radio and television.", "Roster.", "Retired numbers.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Red Sox.", "Subway Series.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Front office." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1900, Ban Johnson, the president of a minor league known as the Western League (1894–1899), changed the Western League name to the American League (AL) and asked the National League to classify it as a major league. Johnson held that his league would operate in friendly terms with the National League, but the National league ridiculed the plan. Johnson declared official major league status for his league in 1901. Plans to add a team in", "The team's new ballpark, Hilltop Park (formally known as \"American League Park\"), was constructed in one of Upper Manhattan's highest points—between 165th and 168th Streets. The team was named the New York Highlanders. Fans believed the name was chosen because of the team's elevated location in Upper Manhattan, or as a nod to team president Joseph Gordon's Scottish-Irish heritage (the Gordon Highlanders were a well known Scottish military unit). Initially, the team was commonly", "The original Polo Grounds burned down in 1911 and the Highlanders shared Hilltop Park with the Giants during a two-month renovation period. Later, from 1913 to 1922, the Highlanders shared the Polo Grounds with the Giants. While playing at the Polo Grounds,", "In the years around 1920, the Yankees, the Red Sox, and the Chicago White Sox had a détente. The trades between the three ball clubs antagonized Ban Johnson and garnered the teams the nickname \"The Insurrectos\". This détente paid off well for the Yankees as they increased their payroll. Most new players who later contributed to the team's success came from the Red Sox, whose owner, Harry Frazee, was trading them for large sums of money to finance his theatrical productions. Pitcher-turned-outfielder Babe Ruth was the most talented of all the acquisitions from Boston, and the outcome of that trade would haunt the Red Sox for the next 86 years, a span in which", "After Ruth left the Yankees following the 1934 season, Gehrig finally had a chance to take center stage, but it was only one year before a new star appeared, Joe DiMaggio. The team won an unprecedented four straight World Series titles from 1936 to 1939. For most of 1939, however, they had to do it without Gehrig, who took himself out of the lineup on May 2 and retired due to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which was later known as \"Lou Gehrig's Disease\" in his memory. The Yankees declared July 4, 1939 to be \"Lou Gehrig Day\", on which they retired his number 4, the first retired number in baseball. Gehrig made a famous speech in which he declared himself to be \"the luckiest man on the face of the earth.\" He died two years later on June 2, 1941. The 1941 season was often described as the last year of the \"Golden Era\" before the United States entered World War II and other realities intervened. It was a thrilling year as America watched two major events unfold: Ted Williams of the Red Sox hitting for the elusive.400 batting average and Joe DiMaggio getting hits in consecutive", "Bettering the clubs managed by Joe McCarthy, the Yankees won the World Series five consecutive times from – under Stengel, which remains an MLB record. Led by players like center fielder Mickey Mantle, pitcher Whitey Ford, and catcher Yogi Berra, Stengel's teams won ten pennants and seven World Series titles in his 12 seasons as the Yankees manager. The title was the only one of those five championships not to be won against either the New York Giants or Brooklyn Dodgers; it was won in four straight games against the Whiz Kids of the Philadelphia Phillies. In 1954, the Yankees won 103 games, but the Cleveland Indians took the pennant with a then-AL record 111 wins; 1954 was famously referred to as \"The Year the Yankees Lost the Pennant\". In, the", "Arnold Johnson, owner of the Kansas City Athletics, was a longtime business associate of then-Yankees co-owners Del Webb and Dan Topping. Because of this \"special relationship\" with the Yankees, he traded young players to them in exchange for cash and aging veterans. Invariably, these trades ended up being heavily tilted in the Yankees' favor, leading to accusations that the Athletics were little more than a Yankees farm team at the major league level. Kansas City had been home to the Yankees' top farm team for almost 20", "After the 1964 season, CBS purchased 80% of the Yankees from Topping and Webb for $11.2 million. With the new ownership, the team began to decline. The 1965 edition of the team posted a record of 77–85 — the Yankees' first losing record in 40 years. In 1966, the Yankees finished in last place in the AL for the first time since 1912. It also marked their first consecutive losing seasons since 1917 and 1918. They finished next-to-last in", "A group of investors, led by Cleveland-based shipbuilder George Steinbrenner (1930–2010), purchased the club from CBS in 1973, for $8.7 million. Mike Burke stayed on as president until he quit in April. Within a year, Steinbrenner bought out most of his other partners and became the team's principal owner, although Burke continued to hold a minority share into the 1980s. One of Steinbrenner's major goals was to renovate Yankee Stadium. It had greatly deteriorated by the late 1960s, and the surrounding neighborhood had gone south as well. CBS initially suggested renovations, but the team needed to play elsewhere, and the Mets refused to open their home, Shea Stadium, to the Yankees. A new stadium in the Meadowlands, across the Hudson River in New Jersey, was suggested (and was eventually built, as Giants Stadium, specifically for football). Finally, in mid-1972, Mayor John Lindsay stepped in. The city bought the stadium and began an extensive two-year renovation period. Since the city also owned Shea Stadium, the Mets were forced allow the Yankees to play two seasons there. The renovations modernized the look of the stadium, significantly altered the dimensions, and reconfigured some of the seating. In 1973, Steinbrenner started the rule as", "Following the team's loss to the Dodgers in the 1981 World Series, the Yankees began their longest absence from the playoffs since 1921. Following the example set by the St. Louis Cardinals and the Big Red Machine, Steinbrenner announced his plan to transform the Yankees from the \"Bronx Bombers\" into the \"Bronx Burners,\" increasing the Yankees' ability to win games based on speed and defense instead of \"waiting around for a 3 run home run.\" As a first step towards this end, the Yankees signed Dave Collins from the Cincinnati Reds during the 1981 off-season. Collins was traded to the Toronto Blue Jays after the 1982 season in a deal that also included future All-Stars Fred McGriff and Mike Morgan. In return the Yankees got Dale Murray and Tom Dodd. The Yankees of the 1980s were led by All-Star first baseman Don Mattingly. In spite of accumulating the most total wins of any major league team, they failed", "Joe Torre had a mediocre run as a manager in the National League, and the choice was initially derided (\"Clueless Joe\" was a headline in the \"New York Daily News\"). However, his calm demeanor proved to be a good fit, and his tenure was the longest under George Steinbrenner's ownership. The 1996 season saw the rise of three Yankees who formed the core of the team for years to come: rookie shortstop Derek Jeter, second-year starting pitcher Andy Pettitte, and second-year pitcher Mariano Rivera, who served as setup man in 1996 before becoming closer in 1997. Aided by these young players, the Yankees won their first AL East title in 15 years. They defeated the Texas Rangers in the ALDS, and in ALCS beat the Baltimore Orioles 4–1, which included a notable fan interference by Jeffrey Maier that was called as a home run for the Yankees. In the World Series the team rebounded from an 0–2 series deficit and defeated the defending champion Atlanta Braves, ending an 18-year championship drought. Jeter", "After Torre's departure, the Yankees signed former catcher Joe Girardi to a three-year contract to manage the club. The 2008 season was the last season played at Yankee Stadium. To celebrate the final year and history of Yankee Stadium, the 2008 Major League Baseball All-Star Game was played there. The final regular-season game at Yankee Stadium was played on September 21, 2008. After the game, Jeter addressed the crowd, thanking them for their support over the years, and urging them to \"take the memories of this field, add them to the new memories that will come at the new Yankee Stadium and continue to pass them on from generation to generation.\" Despite multiple midseason roster moves, the team was hampered by injuries and missed the playoffs for the first time in 14 seasons. During the off-season, the Yankees retooled their roster with several star free agent acquisitions, including CC Sabathia, Mark Teixeira, and A. J. Burnett. At the beginning of the 2009 season, the Yankees opened the new Yankee Stadium, located just a block", "On July 25, 2016, the Yankees traded Aroldis Chapman to the Chicago Cubs for a group of players that included top shortstop prospect Gleyber Torres, and traded Andrew Miller to the Cleveland Indians for prospects outfielder Clint Frazier and pitcher Justus Sheffield. In addition, the Yankees traded 39-year-old designated hitter Carlos Beltran to the Texas Rangers for minor league prospects. The Yankees' decision to be sellers, rather than buyers, at the trade deadline was unusual, given the Yankees' typical win-now approach. In discussing the midseason trades, Yankees general manager Brian Cashman said that the Yankees recognized the \"need to look toward the future.\" In early August, both Teixeira and Rodriguez revealed their plans to retire by the season's end. Rodriguez played his final game on August 12, 2016. In his fourth-to-last game, Teixeira hit a", "The Yankees have won a record 27 World Series in 40 appearances (which, since the first World Series in 1903, currently amounts to an average appearance every 2.7 seasons and a championship every 4.0 seasons); the St. Louis Cardinals are in second place with 11 World Series championships. The Yankees' number of World Series losses, 13, is also an MLB record. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers are second in total World Series appearances with 20. The Yankees have faced the Dodgers 11 times, going 8–3. Among North American major sports, the Yankees' success is approached only by the 24 Stanley", "The Yankees have won a record 27 World Series Championships. Their most recent one", "The \"Yankees\" name is often shortened to \"the Yanks.\" Their most prominently used nickname is \"the Bronx Bombers\" or simply \"the Bombers\", a reference to their home and their prolific hitting. A less used nickname is \"the Pinstripes\", in reference to the iconic feature on their home uniforms. Critics often refer to the team and the", "", "With their recurring success since the 1920s, the Yankees have since been one of the most popular teams in the world, with their fan base coming from much further than the New York metropolitan area. The Yankees typically bring an upsurge in attendance at all or most of their various road-trip venues, drawing crowds of their own fans, as well as home-town fans whose interest is heightened when the Yankees come to town. The first 1 million-fan season was in 1920, when 1,289,422 fans attended Yankee games at the Polo Grounds. The first 2 million-fan season was in 1946, when 2,265,512 fans attended the games at Yankee Stadium. The Yankees have beaten the league average for home attendance 83 out of", "The \"Bleacher Creatures\" are a notorious group of season ticket holders who occupied Section 39 in the right field bleachers at the old Yankee Stadium and occupy Section 203 in the new one. They are known for their strict allegiance to the Yankees and are often merciless to", "In 2017, team management ordered the creation of a special cheer section within Section 104 for fans of Yankees outfielder Aaron Judge, called \"the Judge's Chambers\". They were the second AL team to create a special cheering section, following the Seattle Mariners. The Judge's Chambers was added in response to his rise as one of the league's most popular young stars.", "The Yankees baseball club is formally owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, which owns the team's regional YES sports network. The club has claimed that it is operating under annual losses in excess of $47 million, but this figure is attributed only to the ballclub's finances and not to finances attributed to YES or Yankees Global Enterprises. The Yankees have become well known for a winning reputation on a global level. In 2007, they reached an agreement with the Chinese Baseball Association to allow coaches, scouts and trainers to work in China to promote baseball and judge talent. They are trying to do the same with the Yomiuri Giants and the Hanshin Tigers in Japan. The Yankees and Yomiuri Giants currently have a close relationship and share", "With the long-term success of the franchise and a large Yankee fanbase, many fans of other teams have come to dislike the Yankees. The organization is sometimes referred to by detractors as \"the Bronx Zoo\" (echoing the title of Sparky Lyle's book) or \"the Evil Empire.\" When the Yankees are on the road,", "The official fight song for the Yankees is \"Here Come the Yankees\", written in 1967 by Bob Bundin and Lou Stallman. While it is not used as often, it is still heard frequently in instrumental form, most prominently in radio broadcasts, until 1990 it was played as the theme for television broadcasts in several versions. Another song strongly linked to the team is \"New York, New York\", which is played in the stadium after home games. The Frank Sinatra cover version is traditionally played after victories, and the Liza Minnelli original version after losses. However, due to a complaint from Minnelli, regardless of the result of the game played in the stadium it is the Sinatra version that is played to close it out. When the Yankees take the field before the start of every game, 2 Unlimited's \"Get Ready For This\" is played, with the fans usually clapping along. When the Yankees score", "The Yankees Entertainment and Sports (YES) Network was launched in 2002 and serves as the primary home of the New York Yankees. Michael Kay is the play-by-play announcer with Ken Singleton, David Cone, Al Leiter, John Flaherty, and Paul O'Neill working as commentators as part of a three-man, or occasionally two-man, booth. Bob Lorenz hosts the pre-game show and the post-game show with Jack Curry, and Meredith Marakovits and", "", "The Yankees have retired 21 numbers for 23 individuals, the most in Major League Baseball. The retired numbers were displayed behind the old Yankee Stadium's left field fence and in front of the opposing team's bullpen, forming a little alley that connects Monument Park to the left field stands. When the franchise moved across the street to the new stadium, the numbers were incorporated into Monument Park that sits place in center field between both bullpens. The 21 numbers are placed on the wall in chronological order, beginning with Lou Gehrig's number 4. This was retired soon after Gehrig left baseball on July 4, 1939, the same", "", "The Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is one of the oldest, most famous, and fiercest rivalries in professional sports. For over 100 years, the Yankees and Boston Red Sox Yankees have been intense rivals. The rivalry is often termed \"the best\" and \"greatest rivalry in all of sports.\" Games between the two teams are often broadcast on national television. The rivalry is sometimes so polarizing that it is often a heated subject, like religion or politics, in the Northeastern United States. Since the inception of the wild card team and an added Division Series, the rivals have met in the playoffs four times (with the", "The Subway Series is a series of games played between teams based in New York City. The term's historic usage has been in reference to World Series games played between New York teams. The Yankees have appeared", "The New York Yankees farm", "The Yankees front office, as of 2019, included Hal Steinbrenner (Managing General Partner/Co-Chairperson), Randy Levine (President), Lonn A. Trost (Chief Operating Officer and General Counsel), and Brian Cashman (Senior Vice President, General Manager)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Media.", "Motion pictures.", "Television.", "Photography.", "Printing.", "Films with a color/black-and-white mix.", "Contemporary use.", "Computing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The history of various visual media has typically begun with black and white, and as technology improved, altered to color. However, there are exceptions to this rule, including black-and-white fine art photography, as well as many motion pictures and art films.", "Most early forms of motion pictures or film were black and white. Some color film processes, including hand coloring were experimented with, and in limited use, from the earliest days of motion pictures. The switch from most films being in black-and-white to most being in color was gradual, taking place from the 1930s to the 1960s. Even when most film studios had the capability to make color films, the technology's popularity was limited, as using the Technicolor process was expensive and cumbersome. For many years, it was not possible for films in color to render realistic hues, thus its use was restricted to historical films, musicals, and cartoons until the 1950s, while many directors preferred to use black-and-white stock. For the years 1940–1966, a separate Academy Award for Best Art Direction was given for black-and-white movies along with one for color; similarly, from 1939–1966 (excepting 1957), a separate Academy Award for Best Cinematography was given for both black-and-white and color movies.", "The earliest television broadcasts were transmitted in black-and-white, and received and displayed by black-and-white only television sets. Scottish inventor John Logie Baird demonstrated the world's first color television transmission on July 3, 1928 using a mechanical process. Some color broadcasts in the U.S. began in the 1950s, with color becoming common in western industrialized nations during the late 1960s or early 1970s. In the United States, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) settled on a color NTSC standard in 1953, and the NBC network began broadcasting a limited color television schedule in January 1954. Color television became more widespread in the U.S. between 1963 and 1967, when major networks like CBS and ABC joined NBC in broadcasting full color schedules. Some TV stations (small and medium) in the US were still broadcasting in B&W until the late 80s to early 90s, depending on network. Canada began airing color television in 1966 while the United Kingdom began to use an entirely different color system from July 1967 known as PAL. The Republic of Ireland followed in 1970. Australia experimented with color television in 1967 but continued to broadcast in black-and-white until 1975, and New Zealand experimented with color broadcasting in 1973 but did not convert until 1975. In China, black-and-white television sets were the norm until as late as the 1990s, color TVs not outselling them until about 1989. In 1969, Japanese electronics manufacturers standardized the first format for industrial/non-broadcast videotape recorders (VTRs) called EIAJ-1, which initially offered only black-and-white video recording and playback. While seldom used professionally now, many consumer camcorders have the ability to record in black-and-white.", "Throughout the 19th century, most photography was monochrome photography: images were either black-and-white or shades of sepia. Occasionally personal and commercial photographs might be hand tinted. Colour photography was originally rare and expensive and again often containing inaccurate hues. Color photography became more common from the mid-20th century. However, black-and-white photography has continued to be a popular medium for art photography, as shown in the picture by the well-known photographer Ansel Adams. This can take the form of black-and-white film or digital conversion to grayscale, with optional digital image editing manipulation to enhance the results. For amateur use certain companies such as Kodak manufactured black-and-white disposable cameras until 2009. Also, certain films are produced today which give black-and-white images using the ubiquitous C41 color process.", "Printing is an ancient art, and color printing has been possible in some ways from the time colored inks were produced. In the modern era, for financial and other practical reasons, black-and-white printing has been quite common through the 20th century. However, with the technology of the 21st century, home color printers, which can produce color photographs, are common and relatively inexpensive, a technology relatively unimaginable in the mid-20th century. Most American newspapers were black-and-white until the early 1980s; \"The New York Times\" and \"The Washington Post\" remained in black-and-white until the 1990s. Some claim that \"USA Today\" was the major impetus for the change to color. In the UK, color was only slowly introduced from the mid-1980s. Even today, many newspapers restrict color photographs to the front and other prominent pages since mass-producing photographs in black-and-white is considerably less expensive than color. Similarly, daily comic strips in newspapers were traditionally black-and-white with color reserved for Sunday strips. Color printing is more expensive. Sometimes color is reserved for the cover. Magazines such as \"Jet\" magazine were either all or mostly black-and-white until the end of the 2000s when it became all-color. Manga (Japanese or Japanese-influenced comics) are typically published in black-and-white although now it is part of its image. Many school yearbooks are still entirely or mostly in black-and-white.", "\"The Wizard of Oz\" (1939) is in color when Dorothy is in Oz, but in black-and-white when she is in Kansas, although the latter scenes were actually in sepia when the film was originally released. In a similar manner, in \"Stalker\" (1979), the \"zone\", in which natural laws do not apply, is in colour, and the world outside the \"zone\" generally in sepia. In contrast, the British film \"A Matter of Life and Death\" (1946) depicts the other world in black-and-white (a character says \"one is starved of Technicolor... up there\"), and earthly events in color. Similarly, Wim Wenders's film \"Wings of Desire\" (1987) uses sepia-tone black-and-white for the scenes shot from the angels' perspective. When Damiel, the angel (the film's main character), becomes a human the film changes to color, emphasising his new \"real life\" view of the world. The films \"Pleasantville\" (1998), and \"Aro Tolbukhin. En la mente del asesino\" (2002), play with the concept of black-and-white as an anachronism, using it to selectively portray scenes and characters who are either more or less outdated or duller than the characters and scenes shot in full-color. This manipulation of color is used in the film \"Sin City\" (2005) and the occasional television commercial. The film \"American History X\" (1998) is told in a nonlinear narrative in which the portions of the plot that take place \"in the past\" are shown entirely in black and white, while the \"present\" storyline's scenes are displayed in color. In the documentary film Night and Fog (1955) a mix of black-and-white documentary footage is contrasted with color film of the present. In a black and white pre-credits opening sequence in the 2006 Bond film, \"Casino Royale\", a young James Bond (played by Daniel Craig) gains his licence to kill and status as a 00 agent by assassinating the traitorous MI6 section chief Dryden at the British Embassy in Prague, as well as his terrorist contact, Fisher, in a bathroom in Lahore. The remainder of the film starting with the opening credits is shown in color.", "Since the late 1960s, few mainstream films have been shot in black-and-white. The reasons are frequently commercial, as it is difficult to sell a film for television broadcasting if the film is not in color. 1961 was the last year in which the majority of Hollywood films were released in black and white. Some modern film directors will occasionally shoot movies in black-and-white as an artistic choice, though it is much less common for a major Hollywood production. The use of black-and-white in the mass media often connotes something \"nostalgic\" or historic. The film director Woody Allen has used black-and-white a number of times since \"Manhattan\" (1979), which also had a George Gershwin derived score. The makers of \"The Good German\" (2006) used camera lenses from the 1940s, and other equipment from that era, so that their black-and-white film imitated the look of early \"noir\". Monochrome film stock is now rarely used at the time of shooting, even if the films are intended to be presented theatrically in black-and-white. Movies such as John Boorman's \"The General\" (1998) and Joel Coen's \"The Man Who Wasn't There\" (2001) were filmed in color despite being presented in black-and-white for artistic reasons. \"Raging Bull\" (1980) and \"Clerks\" (1994) are two of the few well-known modern films deliberately shot in black-and-white. In the case of \"Clerks\", because of the extremely low budget, the production team could not afford the added costs of shooting in color. Although the difference in film stock price would have been slight, the store's fluorescent lights could not have been used to light for color. By shooting in black-and-white, the filmmakers did not have to rent lighting equipment. The movie \"Pi\" is filmed entirely in black-and-white, with a grainy effect until the end. In black-and-white still photography, many photographers choose to shoot in solely black-and-white since the stark contrasts enhance the subject matter. Some formal photo portraits still use black-and-white. Many visual-art photographers use black-and-white in their work. As a form of censorship when movies and TV series are aired on Philippine television, many gory scenes are shown in black-and-white. Sometimes the exposure of innards or other scenes too bloody or gruesome are also blurred, not just rendered in monochrome, in compliance with Philippine broadcasting standards.", "Most computers had monochrome (black-and-white, black and green, or black and amber) screens until the late 1980s, although some home computers could be connected to television screens to eliminate the extra cost of a monitor. These took advantage of NTSC or PAL encoding to offer a range of colors from as low as 4 (IBM CGA) to 128 (Atari 800) to 4096 (Commodore Amiga). Early videogame consoles such as the Atari 2600 supported both black-and-white and color modes via a switch, as did some of the early home computers; this was to accommodate black-and-white TV sets, which would display a color signal poorly. (Typically a different shading scheme would be used for the display in the black-and-white mode.) In computing terminology, \"black-and-white\" is sometimes used to refer to a binary image consisting solely of pure black pixels and pure white pixels; what would normally be called a black-and-white image, that is, an image containing shades of gray, is referred to in this context as grayscale." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Professional baseball in Tampa Bay.", "\"Tampa Bay\".", "Season results.", "Rivals.", "AL East.", "Citrus Series.", "Ballparks.", "Tropicana Field.", "New ballpark.", "Uniforms.", "Past uniforms.", "\"Turn Back the Clock\" Nights.", "Team media.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Awards.", "Promotions.", "\"The Rookie\".", "Rays fandom.", "More Cowbell.", "DJ Kitty.", "Professional wrestlers.", "Mohawks.", "Team slogans.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Awards, league leaders, and individual records.", "Retired numbers.", "Selected individual franchise single-season records.", "Team salaries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Former civic leader and \"St. Petersburg Times\" (now \"Tampa Bay Times\") publisher, Jack Lake, first suggested St. Petersburg pursue a Major League baseball team in the 1960s. The notable influences Lake held in the sport are what led to the serious discussions that changed St. Petersburg from a spring training location to a major league city. He spoke to anyone who would listen about his desire to see the city of St. Petersburg have a Major league baseball team. His colorful direction dominated the mindset in both sports and business circles dating back to 1966. He was said to have the foresight and prominence to make it happen. Local leaders made many unsuccessful attempts to acquire a major league baseball team in the 1980s and 1990s. The Minnesota Twins, San Francisco Giants, Chicago White Sox, Texas Rangers, and Seattle Mariners all considered moving to either Tampa or St. Petersburg before deciding to remain in their current locations. The Florida Suncoast Dome (now named Tropicana Field) was built in St. Petersburg in 1990 with the purpose of luring a major league team. That same year two separate groups, one in Tampa and another in Sarasota, were seeking to get an expansion team. The Tampa group even registered the name \"Florida Panthers\", after a local feline - a trademark that ended up being purchased by entrepreneur Wayne Huizenga one year later, and used by him to name an NHL ice hockey team. When Major League Baseball announced that it would add two expansion teams for the 1993 season, it was widely assumed that one of the teams would be placed in the Dome. However, in addition to the application from St. Petersburg, a competing group applied to field a team in Tampa, prompting much conflict over the bid. The two National League teams were awarded to Denver (Colorado Rockies) and Miami (Florida Marlins) instead. In 1992, San Francisco Giants owner Bob Lurie agreed in principle to sell his team to a Tampa Bay-based group of investors led by Vince Naimoli, who would then move the team to St. Petersburg. However, at the 11th hour, MLB owners nixed the move under pressure from San Francisco officials and the Giants were sold to a group that kept them in San Francisco. Finally, on March 9, 1995, new expansion franchises were awarded to Naimoli's Tampa Bay group and a group from Phoenix (the Arizona Diamondbacks). The new franchises were scheduled to begin play in 1998. The Tampa Bay area finally had a team, but the stadium in St. Petersburg was already in need of an upgrade. In 1993, the stadium was renamed the Thunderdome and became the home of the Tampa Bay Lightning hockey team and the Tampa Bay Storm Arena Football League team. After the birth of the Rays, the naming rights were sold to Tropicana Products and $70 million was spent on renovations.", "The name \"Tampa Bay\" is often used to describe a geographic metropolitan area which encompasses the cities around the body of water known as Tampa Bay, including Tampa, St. Petersburg, Clearwater, Bradenton, and Sarasota. Unlike in the case of Green Bay, Wisconsin, there is no municipality known as \"Tampa Bay\". The \"Tampa Bay\" in the names of local professional sports franchises, such as the Rays, Rowdies, Buccaneers, Lightning, and the former Storm and Mutiny, denotes that they represent the entire region, not just the city of Tampa.", "The records of the Rays' last five seasons in Major League Baseball. These statistics are current through the 2019 Major League Baseball regular season.", "", "Tampa Bay's primary rivals are the Boston Red Sox and the New York Yankees. The Red Sox/Rays rivalry dates back to the 2000 season, when Devil Ray Gerald Williams took exception to being hit by a pitch thrown by Boston pitcher Pedro Martínez and charged the mound, resulting in a game full of retaliations and ejections on both sides. There have been several other incidents between the teams during the ensuing years, including one in 2005 that resulted in two bench-clearing fights during the game and a war of words between then-Devil Rays manager Lou Piniella and then-Boston pitcher Curt Schilling through the media in the following days. The rivalry reached its highest level to date during the 2008 season, including a brawl during a June meeting in Fenway Park and a seven-game American League Championship Series between the teams that ended in the Rays' first ever pennant win. As a fellow member of the AL East division, the Yankees and Rays play many times each season. There has always been some feeling of a rivalry between the teams because the Yankees make Tampa their spring training, as well as having a minor league team in the Tampa Tarpons; home and fan loyalty in the Tampa Bay area has historically been divided, especially among transplants from the northeastern U.S. The rivalry became more heated in spring training of 2008, when a home plate collision between Rays outfielder Elliot Johnson and Yankees catcher Francisco Cervelli was followed the next day by spikes-high slide by Yankees outfielder Shelley Duncan into Rays' second baseman Akinori Iwamura, prompting Rays outfielder Jonny Gomes to charge in from his position in right field and knock Duncan to the ground.", "The Rays also have a geographical rivalry with the Miami Marlins. Tampa Bay currently leads the series, 59–56.", "", "The Rays have played at Tropicana Field since their inception in 1998. The facility, which was originally called the \"Florida Suncoast Dome\", was built in the late 1980s to attract an MLB team through either relocation or expansion. After St. Petersburg was awarded an expansion franchise in 1995, the dome underwent extensive renovations and naming rights were sold to Tropicana Products, which was based in nearby Bradenton. Tropicana Field underwent further renovations in 2006 and 2007 after Stu Sternberg gained controlling ownership of the team. Most of the changes sought to improve fans' game-day experience. For the players, the biggest change was the installation of a new Field Turf surface in 2007, which was replaced in turn with a new version of AstroTurf for the 2011 season.", "The Rays' current ownership has long hinted that Tropicana Field does not generate enough revenue and that it is too far from the Tampa Bay Area's population center. In 2007, the team announced a plan to build a covered ballpark at the current site of Al Lang Field on the St. Petersburg waterfront, and a local referendum was scheduled to decide on public financing. However, in the face of vocal opposition, the Rays withdrew the proposal in 2009 and stated they had abandoned all plans for a ballpark in downtown St. Petersburg waterfront, preferring a location nearer the center of Pinellas County or across the bay in Tampa. Since 2009, local officials, media, and business leaders have explored possibilities for a new stadium for the Rays somewhere in the Tampa Bay area. However, St. Petersburg mayor Bill Foster has repeatedly insisted that the Rays honor their lease agreement with the city, which runs through 2027 and prohibits the team from entering into talks with other communities, resulting in a protracted stalemate. In October 2014, Sternberg, frustrated with efforts to build a new stadium in the Tampa Bay area, had discussions with Wall Street associates about moving the Rays to Montreal, which has been without a Major League Baseball franchise since the Montreal Expos moved to Washington, D.C. in 2005 to become the Washington Nationals. On December 9, 2014, reports surfaced that owner Stuart Sternberg will sell the team if a new stadium is not built. On February 9, 2018, the team said that Ybor City is their preferred site for a new stadium. However, at the December 2018 Winter Meetings in Las Vegas, Sternberg announced that plans for the proposed stadium in Ybor fell through, meaning the Rays were still on track to play at Tropicana Field until 2027. Later in December 2018, the team sent a letter to St. Petersburg's mayor, Rick Kriseman, foregoing an extension to search for a new stadium outside of the city. On June 20, 2019, Major League Baseball's executive council gave the team permission to explore playing early-season home games in the Tampa Bay area and later-season home games in Montreal.", "The current Rays primary uniform has been used with little change since the team officially shortened its name from \"Devil Rays\" to \"Rays\" for the 2008 season. The home jersey is a traditional white with the name \"Rays\" in dark blue across the chest and a yellow \"sunburst\" on the letter \"R\". The Rays' road uniform is gray, also with a sunburst and the team name across the chest. Both feature dark blue piping and caps featuring a white \"TB\" logo. The Rays' first alternate jersey also features the name \"Rays\" and a yellow sunburst on chest, but is a dark blue material with Columbia blue piping, white characters for the player name, and player numbers that are simply a white outline. This alternate jersey is worn both at home and on the road with either white or gray pants. The Rays' second alternate jersey is similar, but is a light Columbia blue. This second alternate is usually worn only for Sunday home games with white pants.", "During their first three seasons, the Devil Rays wore traditional white home and gray road uniforms with the text \"Devil Rays\" (home) and \"Tampa Bay\" (road) in an unconventional multicolor \"rainbow\" across the chest. The inaugural caps were also unusual: black with a purple brim at home and all black on the road, with both versions featuring a devil ray graphic and no letters at all. The caps changed in 1999 to feature a smaller ray and the letters \"TB\" and were all black for both home and road games. During the 1999 and 2000 seasons, the Devil Rays wore an alternate black jersey featuring the same rainbow text as the white and gray uniforms. In 2001, the Devil Rays dropped the multicolor text and de-emphasized purple in favor of more green. They also changed the font on their jersey tops and shortened the name on the home whites to read simply \"Rays\" while keeping \"Tampa Bay\" on the road grays. In 2005, the home uniforms were again tweaked to include still more green. The primary home whites became a sleeveless jersey worn with green sleeved undershirts, and the primary home caps were changed from black to green. In addition, a small ray with a long tail was added under the name \"Rays\" on the chest of the home jerseys.", "The Rays staged a \"Turn Back the Clock\" promotion with a retro theme and throwback uniforms several times early in their existence, and it has become an annual tradition since 2006. Because the franchise does not yet have a long history from which to choose uniforms, they have usually worn the uniforms of other historical local teams. On these special occasions, Rays have worn the uniforms of the Tampa Tarpons of the Florida State League (in 1999, 2006, and 2010), the St. Petersburg Pelicans of the Senior Professional Baseball Association (in 2008), the St. Petersburg Saints (in 2000 and 2007) and Tampa Smokers (in 2011) of the Florida International League, and the University of Tampa Spartans (in 2000). The Rays have worn their own uniforms for Turn Back the Clock night only once: in 2009, when they wore Devil Rays \"rainbow\" uniforms from their 1998 inaugural season. For Turn Back the Clock night during the 2012, 2013, and 2014 seasons, the Rays took the field wearing specially designed 1980 Tampa Bay Rays \"faux-back\" uniforms that represented what the team might have worn had the franchise existed during the late 1970s and early 80s. These uniforms are patterned after the San Diego Padres' uniforms from the late 1970s, only in Rays' team colors. The Rays' opponent on Turn Back the Clock night also wears throwbacks from the same era as the Rays' retro uniforms. For example, the Houston Astros wore their 1980s \"Rainbow Guts\" uniforms, the New York Mets wore the road uniforms of their 1969 championship team, the Chicago White Sox wore their red and white home uniforms from the 1970s, and the Baltimore Orioles wore their rare all-orange uniforms from the early 1970s. Perhaps the most memorable such game was on June 23, 2007, when the Devil Rays wore St. Pete Saints uniforms from the early 1950s, and the Los Angeles Dodgers wore the gray road uniforms of the World Series-winning 1955 Brooklyn Dodgers to honor Don Zimmer, who played on that Dodger team and was a senior adviser for the Rays prior to his death. Rays management also gave away a bobblehead at the game featuring a young Zimmer in a Dodgers uniform and an older Zimmer in a Devil Rays uniform.", "", "WDAE (620 AM) has been the flagship station of the Rays radio network since 2009. The play-by-play announcers are Dave Wills and Andy Freed with Neil Solondz serving as the pregame and postgame host. Rich Herrera served as the host during pre- and post-game shows for the Tampa Rays Baseball Radio Network from 2005–2011. The (Devil) Rays original radio team consisted of Paul Olden and Charlie Slowes, who broadcast games from 1998 to 2005. Slowes went to the Washington Nationals, where he is now lead announcer, while Olden pursued a photography career before replacing Bob Sheppard as the public address announcer at Yankee Stadium in 2008. Rays games have been aired on WFLA 970 AM (1998–2004) and WHNZ 1250 AM (2005–2008) in the past. In 2013, the Rays became the second team to enter into a contract to have games broadcast nationally by Compass Media Networks in a Game of the Week format. The broadcast team utilized during the 2013 season was TJ Rives calling play-by-play and a rotating circuit of analysts in Rob Dibble, Jeff Nelson, and Steve Phillips. 22 Rays games were produced nationally by Compass Media for the 2013 season.", "Fox Sports Sun broadcasts the Rays' games on television. Through the 2008 season, many games also aired on Ion Television affiliate broadcast stations throughout the state of Florida, with WXPX-TV in Tampa as the flagship. However, after the 2008 season, Fox Sports signed an agreement to become the exclusive local broadcaster of the Rays, and will air 155 games per year through 2016. Fox Sports Florida began broadcasting a portion of the schedule in HD beginning in 2007 after Tropicana Field's broadcast equipment was upgraded for in-house HD production. Most Rays home games are now broadcast in HD. Dewayne Staats (play-by-play) and former MLB pitcher Brian Anderson (color commentary) are the TV voices of the Rays. For the first 11 seasons of the franchise, Staats teamed with former MLB pitcher Joe Magrane on the Rays' TV broadcasts. Magrane departed after conclusion of the 2008 season to take a position at the MLB Network. Former minors catcher and MLB manager Kevin Kennedy then served as the primary color commentator in 2009 and 2010, with Brian Anderson filling in on some road trips, after which Anderson took over as the everyday commentator from 2011. Early on, as Staats' first wife was battling cancer, Paul Olden would occasionally fill in for Staats. As a result, Paul Olden ended up calling Wade Boggs' 3,000th hit.", "Staats, Magrane, Wills, Olden and Slowes have all been nominated for the Ford C. Frick Award, the broadcasters' path to the Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Bobbleheads 2013 This year the Rays released several bobbleheads. The first was released on April 22 and featured David Price's dog \"Astro\". On April 24 the Rays released the famous \"Joe Gnome\" bobblehead. May 24–26 saw the release of the Fernando Rodney bobblehead in his famous shooting-the-arrow position. On July 6 the team released the Evan Longoria retro bobblehead. Bobbleheads 2012 The first bobblehead released was Kyle Farnsworth on May 24. June 3 saw the release of a Desmond Jennings Bobblehead. Coach Joe Maddon saw his bobblehead released on June 15. On June 29 the Rays released the whimsical Zim Bear. Although this was not a bobblehead, the likeness of long-time coach Don Zimmer proved to be a fan favorite. July saw the release of two bobbleheads with James Shields on July 1 and Matt Moore on July 22. The last bobblehead was Matt Joyce on September 23.", "The Tampa Bay Devil Rays were featured in the movie, The Rookie, a 2002 drama directed by John Lee Hancock. It is based on the true story of pitcher Jim Morris, who had a brief but famous Major League Baseball career with the team. Morris was a 35-year-old high school baseball coach who could repeatedly throw a baseball, an ability that only a few major leaguers could equal at the time. He was persuaded to try out for professional ballclubs and signed with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays organization. Morris was initially assigned to the minor league Class AA Orlando Rays (now the Montgomery Biscuits), but quickly moved up to the AAA Durham Bulls and was called up to the \"Bigs\" during the September 1999 roster expansions. Jim Morris spent parts of two seasons with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays as a reliever, pitching 15 innings in 21 games, with an earned run average of 4.80 and no decisions.", "Although widespread support has been slow to build with the lack of success in its first ten seasons, it has taken some cues from the powerhouses of the American League East. Whereas Red Sox fans are referred to as Red Sox Nation, the Orioles fan base is referred to Birdland, and Yankee fans are referred to as Yankees Universe (and the team itself being called the \"Evil Empire\"), the Rays have adopted the term Rays Republic for their fan base. The team has also had its fair share of notable fans and outrageous fan traditions over the years.", "The Rays' Cowbell was originally a promotional idea thought up by principal owner Stuart Sternberg, who got the idea from the \"Saturday Night Live\" sketch. Since then, it has become a standard feature of home games, something akin to the Sacramento Kings of the NBA and the bells their fans ring during games. Road teams have often considered the cowbell a nuisance. Once a year the Rays hold an annual \"cowbell night\" and give away free cowbells. Cowbells are available for purchase throughout the year as well. The cowbells are rung most prominently when the opposing batter has two strikes, when the opposing fans try to chant, and when the Rays make a good play.", "Whenever the game situation calls for a rally, the 'DJ Kitty' appears on the large video screen in Tropicana Field. A large anthropomorphic cat, wearing a Rays jersey, appears on the screen wielding a turntable similar to those used by rap DJs. Loud music is played over the PA system while the arrival of the DJ Kitty is proclaimed on display boards throughout the ballpark. The character was created in 2010 by Rays entertainment director Lou Costanza in an attempt to rally the Rays players and the fans at Tropicana Field.", "Rays games are frequently visited by professional wrestlers, as there are a large number of wrestlers living in the Tampa Bay Area. The Nasty Boys (Brian Knobs and Jerry Sags), Brutus Beefcake, and Hulk Hogan all appear on a semi-regular basis at Rays games. John Cena appears on occasion. The Rays held a \"Legends of Wrestling Night\" on May 18, 2007, featuring several wrestling matches after the game, an 8–4 loss to the Florida Marlins. Outfielder and wrestling fan Jonny Gomes ran interference for the Nasty Boys during the main event. A second \"Wrestling Night\" was held on April 19, 2008, after a 5–0 win over the Chicago White Sox. Gomes participated again, this time making a post-match save for the Nasty Boys.", "During the playoffs, Rays players and coaches sport mohawk haircuts. The trend started during their 2008 World Series run.", "", "The mantra \"9=8\" (spoken as \"nine equals eight\") was used by the Rays during the 2008 season. The phrase was originally created by manager Joe Maddon while riding his bike after the 2007 season. The meaning of the phrase was that if nine players play nine innings of hard baseball everyday, that team would become one of the eight teams who qualify for the post-season. Prior to 2008 season, the Rays had never had a winning season in franchise history, much less a post-season appearance. After a slow start to the 2008 season, the Rays began to pick up speed and found themselves among the best teams in the league that year. Maddon had blue T-shirts made with the phrase on the back in yellow, representing the team's new colors, and gave them to the players during the season. His idea to put the slogan on the back of the shirt, rather than the front, was that a person who was walking behind someone wearing the shirt would see it. Rays right fielder Gabe Gross, who was acquired by the team through a trade early into the 2008 campaign, said that as much as it was 9=8, it was more along the lines that 13=8, because the Rays had many players contributing to the team's success that season. The Rays played well enough throughout the year that they surpassed their previous team record for wins in a single season by more than 30 wins, and ultimately clinched a spot in the 2008 MLB post-season for their first postseason appearance in franchise history. As the phrase \"9=8\" had come to fruition, Maddon stated that the phrase also meant that theory and reality had come together. With each level the Rays reached, the equation was changed. After they clinched their post-season spot, it became \"9=4\", to represent the teams advancing to the LCS. When they won the ALDS, it became \"9=2\", for the teams advancing to the World Series. When they won the ALCS, it became \"9=1\", representing the possible World Series Championship. In the end, they did not win the World Series, losing to the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one.", "A week before Spring training for the 2009 season, Maddon introduced a new slogan, \"'09 > '08\". The meaning of his new idea was that he doesn't like to use the words \"great\" or \"greater\", but would rather the phrase be spoken as \"better than.\" His only problem was that there is no symbol for \"better than.\" Originally thinking about creating a new symbol to mean \"better than\", he admitted that he didn't want to get \"too nuts\", so the symbol for greater than would have to do. Re-emphasizing that 9 would always equal 8 in the Rays' math, the upcoming season would be greater than the previous. He wanted the players to understand that \"in order to build this new road we have to be better than we were last year.\" Unfortunately for the Rays, 2009 was not better than 2008. Though they finished the season in 3rd place with an 84–78 record, making it the second best season in franchise history, they failed to reach the post-season.", "For the 2010 season, another slogan was created. Unlike the previous two seasons, this slogan did not involve any sort of math. The slogan was \"WIN\", an acronym that stood for \"What's Important Now?\", with the message being \"stay in the moment.\" In his explanation of the slogan, Maddon credited Ken Ravizza, the performance consultant of the Rays and a sports psychologist, as the creator. Maddon stated, \"It's always about staying in the present tense and having a higher state of awareness.\" \"GTMI\" became another notable slogan during the year, standing for \"Get The Man In\" (though it is reported a player has used a \"more colorful\" term to take place of the word \"man\"), referring to an in-game situation in which the Rays had runners in scoring position. Historically, the team had a habit of stranding runners on third base with less than two outs. In practices during the 2010 season, the Rays would run the \"get-the-man-in drill\" to improve situational hitting. Derek Shelton, who came into the season as the team's new hitting coach, taught that batters should not look for a pitch they could hit for a home run, but one that they could hit well enough to score runners.", "The Tampa Bay Rays farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates.", "", "The Tampa Bay Rays have retired three numbers. These numbers are displayed to the left of the center field scoreboard and \"K Counter\" on a small wall. Jackie Robinson's number 42 was retired by all of Major League Baseball.", "\"Statistics below are through the end of the 2018 season.\"", "Opening Day payrolls for 25-man roster (since 1998):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Expansion team.", "1977–1994: The Pat Gillick era.", "1977–1981.", "1982–1984.", "1985: The \"Drive of '85\" and first AL East title.", "1986–1988.", "1989–1991: Cito Gaston takes charge, two more AL East titles.", "1992–1993: World Series champions.", "1994 season.", "1995–2001: The Gord Ash era.", "1995–2000.", "2000–2001.", "2002–2009: The J. P. Ricciardi and Roy Halladay era.", "2002 season.", "2003 season.", "2004 season.", "2005 season.", "2006 season.", "2007 season.", "2008 season.", "2009 season.", "2010–2015: The Alex Anthopoulos and José Bautista era.", "2010 season.", "2011 season.", "2012 season.", "2013 season.", "2014 season.", "2015: Return to the playoffs, AL East champions.", "2016–present: The Ross Atkins era.", "2016: Wild Card winners.", "2017 season.", "2018 season.", "2019 season.", "2020 season.", "Popularity.", "Culture.", "\"OK Blue Jays\".", "Mascots.", "Sunday Salute.", "National anthems.", "Rivalries.", "Montreal Expos.", "Detroit Tigers.", "Seattle Mariners.", "Broadcasting.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Awards and other achievements.", "No-hitters.", "Triple crown champions.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Level of Excellence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Blue Jays were approved as part of the 1977 Major League Baseball expansion discussions, after Toronto's original plan of getting a Major League Baseball team by luring", "", "The Blue Jays played their first game on April 7, 1977 against the Chicago White Sox before a home crowd of 44,649. The game is now perhaps best remembered for the minor snowstorm which began just before the game started. Toronto won the snowy affair 9–5, led by Doug Ault's two home runs. That win would be one of only 54 of the 1977 season, as the Blue Jays finished last in the AL East, with a record of 54–107. After the season, assistant general manager Pat Gillick succeeded Peter Bavasi as general manager of the team, a position he would hold until 1994. In 1978, the", "Under new manager Bobby Cox, Toronto's first solid season came in 1982 as they finished 78–84. Their pitching staff was led by starters Dave Stieb, Jim Clancy, and Luis Leal, and the outfield featured a young Lloyd Moseby and Jesse Barfield. 1982 was also the Blue Jays' first season outside the bottom, as they finished sixth in the East out of seven teams. In 1983, the", "In 1985, Toronto won its first championship of any sort: the first of their six American League East division titles. The Blue Jays featured strong pitching and a balanced offence. Tony Fernández excelled in his first full season, and veteran pitcher Doyle Alexander led the team with 17 wins, including a division-clinching complete game win. Their mid-season call up of relief pitcher Tom Henke also proved to be", "With Jimy Williams taking over for Cox as manager, the Blue Jays could not duplicate their success in 1986, sliding to a fourth-place tie at 86–76. Jesse Barfield and George Bell led the way with 40 and 31 home runs, respectively, while Jim Clancy, Mark Eichhorn, and Jimmy Key tied for the team wins lead with 14 each. In 1987, the Blue Jays held a 31⁄2-game lead with a week to go in the season, then lost their last seven in a row to finish two", "In 1989, the Blue Jays' new retractable roofed home, SkyDome, opened mid-season. It also marked the beginning of an extremely successful five-year period for the team. In May, management fired manager Jimy Williams and replaced him with Cito Gaston, the team's hitting instructor. The club had a dismal 12–24 record at the time of the firing, but went 77–49 under Gaston to win the AL East title by two games, with an 89–73 record. On May 28, George Bell's walk-off home run, off of Chicago White Sox closer Bobby Thigpen, marked the end of the Exhibition Stadium era. The first game at the new stadium took place on June 5 against the Milwaukee Brewers; the Jays lost 5–3. In the 1989 ALCS, Rickey Henderson led the World Series champion Oakland Athletics to a 4–1 series win. In 1990,", "", "Expectations were high for the Blue Jays for the 1994 season, following back-to-back championships, but they slumped to a 55–60 record and a third-place finish (16 games back of the New York Yankees) before the players' strike. It was their first losing season since 1982. Joe Carter, Paul Molitor and John Olerud enjoyed good years at the plate, but the pitching fell off. Juan Guzmán slumped considerably from his first three years (40–11, 3.28 ERA), finishing 1994 at 12–11 with a 5.68 ERA. Three young players, Alex Gonzalez, Carlos Delgado and Shawn Green, did show much promise for the future. At the time of the strike, their fellow Canadian cousins, the Montreal Expos, had the best record in the majors, leading some to consider the possibility of a Canadian three-peat in 1994. On October 31, 1994, Gillick, the longtime Blue Jays general manager, resigned and handed the reins of the team to assistant general manager and Toronto native Gord Ash, who would lead the team in its most tumultuous era yet.", "", "In the 1995 season, the Blue Jays proved that they had lost their contending swagger of the past 12 years. Although they had most of the same cast of the World Series teams, the Blue Jays freefell to a dismal 56–88 record, last place in the AL East, 30 games behind the Boston Red Sox. That year, team owner Labatt Breweries was bought by Belgian-based brewer Interbrew, making the Blue Jays the second major league team owned by interests outside of North America, after their expansion cousins, the Seattle Mariners (who were then owned by Nintendo). 1996 was another mediocre year for the Blue Jays, despite Pat Hentgen's Cy Young Award (20–10, 3.22", "On September 1, 2000, Rogers Communications Inc. purchased 80% of the baseball club for $160 million, with Interbrew (later InBev) maintaining 20% interest and the Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce relinquishing its 10% share. Rogers eventually acquired the 20% owned by Interbrew and now has full ownership of the team. The 2001 season marked the 25th anniversary of the franchise's inception. Buck Martinez, a former catcher and broadcast announcer for the Blue Jays, took over as manager before the season began. The Blue Jays had", "", "The Blue Jays started the 2002 season with slow progress in performance. Buck Martinez was fired about a third of the way through the season, with a 20–33 record. He was replaced by third base coach Carlos Tosca, an experienced minor league manager. They went 58–51 under Tosca to finish the", "The 2003 season was a surprise to both team management and baseball analysts. After a poor April, the team had its most successful month ever in May. Carlos Delgado led the majors in RBI, followed closely by Wells. Despite their hitting successes, poor pitching continued to plague the team. Halladay", "The 2004 season was a disappointing year for the Blue Jays right from the beginning. They started the season 0–8 at SkyDome and never started a lengthy winning streak. Much of that was due to injuries to All-Stars Carlos Delgado, Vernon Wells and Roy Halladay among others. Although the additions of starting pitchers Ted Lilly and Miguel Batista and reliever Justin Speier were relatively successful, veteran Pat Hentgen faltered throughout the season and retired on", "SkyDome was renamed Rogers Centre and was extensively renovated. The Blue Jays had a good start to the 2005 season. They led the AL East from early to mid-April and held their record around.500 until late August. The Jays were hit with the injury bug when third baseman Corey Koskie broke his finger, taking him out of the line-up, but the club was pleasantly surprised with the performance of rookie call-up Aaron Hill in his stead. On July 8, just prior to the All-Star", "In 2006, the team experienced its most successful season in years. On July 2, Troy Glaus, Vernon Wells, Roy Halladay, B. J. Ryan, and Alex Ríos were picked to represent the Blue Jays at the All-Star Game. It was the largest number of Blue Jay All-Stars selected for the game since 1993. The team played well in the critical month of September, going", "The 2007 season was blighted by persistent injuries, with 12 Blue Jays landing on the disabled list. The most serious injury was that of B. J. Ryan, who was out for the entire season having had Tommy John surgery. Prior to the season, the team signed starting pitchers John Thomson,", "The Blue Jays' 2008 season featured a strong pitching staff, which led the major leagues with a 3.49 ERA. For much of the season, however, the team struggled to hit home runs and drive in runs. On May 24, starter Jesse Litsch set a team record, with 38 consecutive innings without giving up a walk. On June 20,", "The 2009 season saw the addition of two new patches on the Blue Jays' uniforms: on the right arm, a bright red maple leaf (part of the Canadian flag), and on the left arm, a small black band with \"TED\" written on it, in reference to the late team owner Ted Rogers, who died in the off-season. On Opening Day at the Rogers Centre, the Blue Jays, led by Roy Halladay, beat the Detroit Tigers 12–5. Aaron Hill and Roy Halladay both had excellent years and represented", "", "In the off-season, the Jays' ace Roy Halladay was traded to the Philadelphia Phillies for Kyle Drabek, Travis d'Arnaud, and Michael Taylor; Taylor was immediately traded to the Oakland Athletics for Brett Wallace. The team's significant free agent signings were that of catcher John Buck and shortstop Álex González. The 2010 season was a surprising 10-win improvement over the last season. It was a career year for José Bautista, who hit 54 home runs, breaking George Bell's franchise record of 47. In doing so, he became the 26th player to reach 50 home runs and the first since Alex Rodriguez and Prince Fielder achieved the feat in 2007. The Blue Jays also set a franchise", "Led by new manager John Farrell, the 2011 Blue Jays finished with a.500 record. After signing a five-year $64 million contract extension, José Bautista followed up his record-setting 2010 season with an arguably better season. He finished with a Major League-leading 43 home runs, along with 103 RBI, 132 walks, and a.302 average. Rookie J. P. Arencibia also had a successful year, setting a Blue Jays single-season record with 23 home runs by a catcher. In August, third base prospect Brett Lawrie made his Major League debut and", "The 2012 season was an injury-plagued year for the Blue Jays, having used 31 total pitchers, which set a franchise record. In June, three starting pitchers (Brandon Morrow, Kyle Drabek, and Drew Hutchison) were lost to injury in a span of four days, two of whom required Tommy John surgery; in addition, starters Dustin McGowan and Jesse Litsch missed the entire season due to injury. In the second half of the season, some key players in Toronto's line-up, including All-Star José Bautista, missed a significant amount of playing time due to injury, sending the team into a freefall", "During the offseason, the Toronto Blue Jays traded Farrell to the Boston Red Sox per his wishes, and former manager John Gibbons returned to manage the Blue Jays. The Jays also made a blockbuster trade with the Miami Marlins, leading to a series of other blockbuster trades and signings, including with the", "Pitcher Roy Halladay signed a one-day contract with the Blue Jays before retiring from baseball, citing injuries. The Jays had a nine-game win streak from May 20 to 28, as well", "During the off-season, the Jays signed Toronto-born catcher Russell Martin through free agency. The Jays acquired Marco Estrada, Devon Travis, All-Star third baseman Josh Donaldson, and Michael Saunders in trades. The Jays claimed Justin Smoak, Andy Dirks, and Chris Colabello off waivers. However, Dirks, along with John Mayberry Jr., were eventually non–tendered; the Jays later signed Dirks to a minor league contract. Melky Cabrera and Brandon Morrow left through free agency and Juan Francisco was claimed off waivers by the Boston Red Sox. The Jays later traded José Reyes and pitching prospects Miguel Castro, Jeff Hoffman, and Jesus Tinoco to the Colorado Rockies for All-Star shortstop Troy Tulowitzki and reliever LaTroy Hawkins. Two days later, they acquired All-Star pitcher David Price from the Detroit Tigers in exchange for pitching prospects Daniel Norris, Matt Boyd, and Jairo Labourt. The Jays had two 11-game winning streaks during", "", "Upon the expiration of Paul Beeston's contract, Mark Shapiro replaced him as president of the Blue Jays. Alex Anthopoulos resigned two months after the hiring of Shapiro. Ross Atkins subsequently took his place. During the off-season, David Price left the Blue Jays through free agency, signing with the Boston Red Sox, while the Blue Jays signed J. A. Happ. On March 4, 2016, infielder Maicer Izturis announced his retirement from baseball. A few weeks later, Brad Penny and Rafael Soriano, both veterans under minor league contract with the Blue Jays, retired from baseball as well. On May 15, 2016, the Blue Jays and the Texas Rangers brawled against each other in Arlington, Texas. The brawl happened when Matt Bush threw a pitch at Jose Bautista, then Bautista made an illegal slide, and Rougned Odor punched Bautista. Bautista was", "On November 11, 2016, it was announced that Toronto had signed designated hitter Kendrys Morales to a three-year, $33 million deal. The contract became official on November 18. On December 5, 2016, Steve Pearce signed a two-year, $12.5 million contract with Toronto. On January 5, 2017, Edwin Encarnación signed a three-year, $60 million contract with the Cleveland Indians. On January 18, 2017, Bautista signed a one-year, $18 million contract with the Blue Jays. The contract includes a $17 million mutual option for the 2018 season, as well as a $20 million vesting", "The Blue Jays declined their mutual option on José Bautista, allowing him to enter free agency. He then signed with the Atlanta Braves, later the New York Mets, and eventually with the Philadelphia Phillies. The Blue Jays traded two prospects to the San Diego Padres for Yangervis Solarte. The Blue Jays also acquired Curtis Granderson and Seung-hwan Oh as free agents. On June 22, Roberto Osuna was suspended for 75 games after being accused of sexual assault on", "On October 25, 2018, the Blue Jays announced that Charlie Montoyo had been hired as their new manager. Early in the season, the Blue Jays traded Kendrys Morales to the Oakland Athletics and Kevin Pillar to the San Francisco Giants. During the season, the Blue Jays", "Over the 2019–20 off-season, the Blue Jays signed free agents Tanner Roark and Hyun-jin Ryu. The Blue Jays also signed Shun Yamaguchi from the Yomiuri Giants, the first player the Blue Jays successfully signed via the posting system. On January 18, 2020, the Toronto Blue Jays unveiled a new blue alternate uniform.", "In 1977, after just 50 home games, the Blue Jays set an MLB record for a first-year expansion team, with an overall attendance of 1,219,551 during those games. By the end of the season, 1,701,152 fans had attended. After setting an attendance record in 1990, with 3,885,284 fans, in 1991, the Blue Jays became the first MLB team to attract over four million fans, with an attendance of 4,001,526, followed by 4,028,318 in 1992. Each of those records were broken in 1993 by the", "", "During the seventh-inning stretch of home games, before singing \"Take Me Out to the Ball Game\", Blue Jay fans sing and clap", "From 1979 to 1999, BJ Birdy served as the Blue Jays' sole mascot, played by Kevin Shanahan. In 2000, he was replaced by a duo named Ace and Diamond. After the 2003 season, Diamond was removed by the team, leaving Ace as the team's sole mascot.", "Since 2012, every Sunday home game, the Blue Jays pay tribute to a", "Since 2005, The Star Spangled Banner has been sung before O Canada at every home game. In some home games, O Canada is sung in English and French. On June", "", "The Montreal Expos were the Blue Jays' geographic National League rival, being the other Canadian MLB team before it was relocated. From 1978 to 1986, the teams played an annual mid-season exhibition game, known as the Pearson", "The Detroit Tigers are the Blue Jays' geographic and traditional rival, dating back to the 1980s, when the teams were AL East contenders. The Tigers moved to the AL Central in 1998, and the rivalry has died", "Although the Seattle Mariners are not a divisional rival, many Blue Jays fans from western Canada travel to Seattle when the Blue Jays play there.", "", "The Blue Jays' former radio play-by-play announcer, Tom Cheek, called every Toronto Blue Jays game from the team's inaugural contest on April 7, 1977 until June 3, 2004, when he took two games off following the death of his father—a streak of 4,306 consecutive regular season games and 41 postseason games. Cheek later died on October 9, 2005 and the team commemorated him during their 2006 season by wearing a circular patch on the left sleeve of their home and road game jerseys. The patch was adorned with the letters 'TC', Cheek's initials, as well as a stylized microphone. Cheek is also honoured with a place in the Blue Jays' \"Level of Excellence\" in the upper level of the Rogers Centre; the number 4,306 is depicted beside his name. In 2008, Cheek received the third most votes by fans to be nominated for the Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasting excellence. Cheek finally received the Frick Award, posthumously, in 2013 after nine years on the", "All Blue Jays games are carried nationally on Sportsnet (which, like the Blue Jays, is owned by Rogers Communications), with Buck Martinez as the play-by-play announcer, and Pat Tabler as the primary colour analyst. On select games, play-by-play is handled by Dan Shulman, with Martinez and Tabler on commentary. Blue Jays Central updates occur after the fourth inning and in the middle of the eighth inning. Toronto Raptors play-by-play announcer Matt Devlin has also filled in for Martinez in a select number of games. In previous years, the colour analyst role", "The Toronto Blue Jays farm", "", "Only one Blue Jays pitcher has thrown a no-hitter in franchise history. It was accomplished by Dave Stieb on September 2, 1990, after losing three no-hit bids with two outs in the ninth inning. A no-hitter is officially recognized by Major League Baseball only “when a pitcher (or pitchers) allows no hits during the", "Roger Clemens won the", "Eight former Blue Jays, one former manager, and one former general manager, have been elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame. Second baseman Roberto Alomar, elected to the Hall of Fame in 2011, is the first player to be inducted based primarily on service as a Blue Jay. Bobby", "Soon after becoming the first person to be inducted in the Hall of Fame as a Blue Jay, on July 31, 2011, second baseman Roberto Alomar was the first person", "The team has also instituted a \"Level of Excellence\" on the 400 level of the Rogers Centre, where the following Jays personnel are honoured: Players' uniform numbers were listed—and in Tom Cheek's case, the number of consecutive games he called for the Blue Jays—until the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ballparks.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Culture.", "Nicknames.", "Mascots.", "Fight and theme songs.", "Rivalries.", "Crosstown Classic.", "Historical.", "Broadcasting.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Awards and accolades.", "American League championships.", "Retired numbers.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Silver Chalice subsidiary." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The White Sox originated as the Sioux City Cornhuskers of the Western League, a minor league under the parameters of the National Agreement with the National League. In 1894, Charles Comiskey bought the Cornhuskers and moved them to St. Paul, Minnesota, where they became the St. Paul Saints. In 1900, with the approval of Western League president Ban Johnson, Charles Comiskey moved the Saints into his hometown neighborhood of Armour Square, where they became known as the White Stockings, the former name of Chicago's National League team, the Orphans (now the Chicago Cubs). In 1901, the Western League broke the National Agreement and became the new major league American League. The first season in the American League ended with a White Stockings championship. However, that would be the end of the season, as the World Series did not begin until 1903. The franchise, now known as the Chicago White Sox, made its first World Series appearance in 1906, beating the crosstown Cubs in six games. The White Sox won a third pennant and second World Series in 1917, beating the New York Giants in six games with help from stars Eddie Cicotte and \"Shoeless\" Joe Jackson. The Sox were heavily favored in the 1919 World Series, but lost to the Cincinnati Reds in eight games. Huge bets on the Reds fueled speculation that the series had been fixed. A criminal investigation went on in the 1920 season, and though all players were acquitted, commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis banned eight of the White Sox players for life, in what was known as the Black Sox Scandal. This set the franchise back, as they did not win another pennant for 40 years. The White Sox did not finish in the upper half of the American League again until after club founder Charles Comiskey died and passed ownership of the club to his son, J. Louis Comiskey. They finished in the upper half most years between 1936 and 1946 under the leadership of manager Jimmy Dykes, with star shortstop Luke Appling, known as Ol' Aches and Pains, and pitcher Ted Lyons. Appling and Lyons have their numbers 4 and 16 retired. After J. Louis Comiskey died in 1939, ownership of the club was passed down to his widow, Grace Comiskey. The club was later passed down to Grace's children Dorothy and Chuck in 1956, with Dorothy selling a majority share to a group led by Bill Veeck after the 1958 season. Veeck was notorious for his promotional stunts, attracting fans to Comiskey Park with the new \"exploding scoreboard\" and outfield shower. In 1961, Arthur Allyn, Jr. briefly owned the club before selling to his brother John Allyn. From 1951 to 1967, the White Sox had their longest period of sustained success, scoring a winning record for 17 straight seasons. Known as the \"Go-Go White Sox\" for their tendency to focus on speed and getting on base versus power hitting, they featured stars such as Minnie Miñoso, Nellie Fox, Luis Aparicio, Billy Pierce, and Sherm Lollar. From 1957 to 1965, the Sox were managed by Al López. The Sox finished in the upper half of the American League in eight of his nine seasons, including six years in the top two of the league. In 1959, the White Sox ended the New York Yankees' dominance over the American League, and won their first pennant since the ill-fated 1919 campaign. Despite winning game one of the 1959 World Series 11-0, they fell to the Los Angeles Dodgers in six games. The late 1960s and 70s were a tumultuous time for the Sox, as they struggled to win games and attract fans. Allyn and Bud Selig agreed to a handshake deal that would give Selig control of the club and move them to Milwaukee; however, this was blocked by the American League. Selig instead bought the Seattle Pilots and moved them to Milwaukee, putting enormous pressure on the American League to place a team in Seattle. A plan was in place for the Sox to move to Seattle and for Charlie Finley to move his Oakland A's to Chicago. However, Chicago had a renewed interest in the Sox after the 1972 season, and the American League instead added the expansion Seattle Mariners. The 1972 White Sox had the lone successful season of this", "In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to Tampa Bay (as did the San Francisco Giants), but frantic lobbying on the part of the Illinois governor James R. Thompson and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium. Designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a \"multipurpose\" stadium) New Comiskey Park (redubbed U.S. Cellular in 2003 and Guaranteed Rate Field in 2016) was built in a 1960s style similar to Dodger Stadium and Kauffman Stadium. It opened in to positive reviews; many praised its wide open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era such as Rogers Centre in Toronto). The park's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans — at the time, an all-time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team. In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to the field has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan friendly. Notable renovations of early phases included: reorientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul-line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multitiered batter's eye, allowing fans to see out through one-way screens from the center-field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar-style seating on its \"fan deck\"; and renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel. The stadium's steel and concrete were repainted dark gray and black. The scoreboard Jumbotron was also replaced with a new Mitsubishi Diamondvision HDTV giant screen. More recently, the top quarter of the upper deck was removed in and a black wrought-metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first eight rows of seats. This decreased seating capacity from 47,098 to 40,615; 2005 also had the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and reupholstering) 200 lower-deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat-side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse. The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 2005's FUNdamentals Deck, a multitiered structure on the left-field concourse containing batting cages, a small Tee Ball field, speed pitch, and several other child-themed activities intended to entertain and educate young fans with the help of coaching staff from the Chicago Bulls/Sox Training Academy. This structure was used during the 2005 playoffs by ESPN and Fox Broadcasting Company as a broadcasting platform. Designed as a seven-phase plan, the renovations were completed before the 2007 season with the seventh and final phase. The most visible renovation in this final phase was replacing the original blue seats with green seats. The upper deck already had new green seats, put in before the beginning of the 2006 season. Beginning with the 2007 season, a new luxury-seating section was added in the former press box. This section has amenities similar to those of the Scout Seats section. After the 2007 season, the ballpark continued renovation projects despite the phases bring complete. In July 2019, the White Sox extended the netting to the foul pole. This construction lasted over the 2019 All-Star Game.", "Over the years, the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes. In 1960, they became the first team in the major sports to put players' last names on jerseys for identification purposes. In 1912 the White Sox debuted a large \"S\" in a Roman-style font, with a small \"O\" inside the top loop of the \"S\" and a small \"X\" inside the bottom loop. This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox. With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark-blue logo with the large \"S\" lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the 1940s). Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red. The White Sox logo in the 1950s and 1960s (actually beginning in the 1949 season) was the word \"SOX\" in an Old English font, diagonally arranged, with the \"S\" larger than the other two letters. From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951). The Old English \"SOX\" in black lettering is the logo associated with the Go-Go Sox era. In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue. In 1971, the team's primary color changed from royal blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red. The 1971–1975 uniform included red socks. In 1976, the team's uniforms changed again. The team's primary color changed back from red to navy. The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, and blue on the road. The team brought back white socks for the last time in team history. The socks featured a different stripe pattern every year. The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey. Additionally, the team's \"SOX\" logo was changed to a modern-looking \"SOX\" in a bold font, with 'CHICAGO' written across the", "", "The White Sox were originally known as the White Stockings, a reference to the original name of the Chicago Cubs. To fit the name in headlines, local newspapers such as the \"Chicago Tribune\" abbreviated the name alternatively to Stox and Sox. Charles Comiskey would officially adopt the White Sox nickname in the club's first years, making them the first team to officially use the \"Sox\" name. The Chicago White Sox", "From 1961 until 1991, lifelong Chicago resident Andrew Rozdilsky performed as the unofficial yet popular mascot \"Andy the Clown\" for the White Sox at the original Comiskey Park. Known for his elongated \"Come on you White Sox\" battle cry, Andy got his start after a group of friends invited him to a Sox game in 1960, where he decided to wear his clown costume and entertain fans in his section. That response was so positive that when he won free 1961 season tickets, he decided to wear his costume to all games.", "Nancy Faust became the White Sox organist in 1970, a position she held for 40 years. She was one of the first ballpark organists to play pop music, and became known for her songs playing on the names of opposing players (such as Iron Butterfly's \"In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida\" for", "", "The Chicago Cubs are the crosstown rivals of the White Sox, a rivalry that some made fun of prior to the White Sox's 2005 title because both of them had extremely long championship droughts. The nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the 1906 World Series, in which the White Sox upset the favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until, when interleague play was introduced. In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games. The White Sox currently lead the regular-season series 48–39, winning the last four seasons in a row. The BP Crosstown Cup was introduced in 2010 and the White Sox won the first three seasons (2010-2012) until the Cubs first won the Cup in 2013 by sweeping the season series. The White Sox won the Cup the next season and retained the Cup the following two years (series was a tie - Cup remains with defending team in the event of a tie). The", "A historical regional rival was the St. Louis Browns. Through the 1953 season, the two teams were located fairly close to each other (including the 1901 season when the Browns were the Milwaukee Brewers), and could have been seen as the American League equivalent of the Cardinals–Cubs rivalry, being that Chicago and St. Louis have for years been connected by the same highway (U.S. Route 66 and now Interstate 55). The rivalry has been somewhat revived at times in the past, involving the Browns' current identity, the Baltimore Orioles, most notably in 1983. The current Milwaukee Brewers franchise were arguably the White Sox's main and biggest rival, due to the proximity of the two cities (resulting in large numbers of White Sox fans who would regularly be in attendance at the Brewers' former home, Milwaukee County Stadium), and with the teams competing in the same American League division for the 1970 and 1971 seasons and then again from 1994 to 1997. The rivalry has since cooled off, however, when the Brewers moved to the National League in 1998.", "", "The White Sox did not sell exclusive rights for radio broadcasts from radio's inception until 1944, instead having local stations share rights for games, and after WGN (720) was forced to abdicate their rights to the team in the 1943 after 16 seasons due to children's programming commitments from their network, Mutual. The White Sox first granted exclusive rights in 1944, and bounced between stations until 1952, when they started having all games broadcast on WCFL (1000). Throughout this period of instability, one thing remained constant, the White Sox play-by-play announcer, Bob Elson. Known as the \"Commander\", Elson was the voice of the Sox from 1929 until his departure from the club in 1970. In 1979, he was the recipient of the Ford Frick Award, and his profile is permanently on display in the National Baseball Hall of Fame. After the 1966 season, radio rights shifted", "White Sox games appeared sporadically on television throughout the first half of the 20th century, most commonly announced by Jack Brickhouse on WGN-TV (channel 9). Starting in 1968, Jack Drees took play-by-play duties as the Sox were broadcast on WFLD (channel 32). After 1972, Harry Caray (joined by Jimmy Piersall in 1977) began double duty as a TV and radio announcer for the Sox, as broadcasts were moved to channel 44, WSNS-TV, from 1972 to 1980, followed by one year on WGN-TV. Don Drysdale became the play-by-play announcer in 1982, as the White Sox began splitting their broadcasts between WFLD and the new regional cable television network, Sportsvision. Ahead of its time, Sportsvision had a chance to", "", "\"Note: American League", "The White Sox have retired a total of 12 jersey numbers: 11 worn by former White Sox and number 42 in honor of Jackie Robinson. Luis Aparicio's number 11 was issued at his request for 11 time Gold", "The Chicago White Sox farm", "Silver Chalice is a digital and media investment subsidiary of the White Sox with Brooks Boyers as CEO. Silver Chalice was co-founded by Jerry Reinsdorf, White Sox executive Brooks Boyer, Jason Coyle and John Burris in 2009. Chalice has since partnered with IMG on Campus Insiders, a college sports digital channel. The company also invested in 120 Sports, a digital sports channel, that launched in June 2016. These efforts have since been merged with Sinclair Broadcasting Group's American Sports Network into the new multi-platform network Stadium as of September 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cleveland baseball prior to the Indians franchise.", "Franchise history.", "1894–1935: Beginning to middle.", "1936–1946: Bob Feller enters the show.", "1946–1949: The Bill Veeck years.", "1950–1959: Near misses.", "1960–1993: The 33-year slump.", "Frank Lane becomes general manager.", "Curse of Rocky Colavito.", "1969: Move to the AL East division.", "Organizational turnaround.", "1994–2001: New beginnings.", "1994: Jacobs Field opens.", "1995: First AL pennant since 1954.", "1996.", "1997: One inning away.", "1998–2001.", "2002–2010: The Shapiro/Wedge years.", "First \"rebuilding of the team\".", "Second \"rebuilding of the team\".", "2011–present: Antonetti/Francona era.", "Rivalries.", "Interleague.", "Divisional.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Fan support and traditions.", "The Drummer.", "Sellout streak.", "Signature songs.", "Nickname and logo controversy.", "Media.", "Cleveland Indians in popular culture.", "Awards and honors.", "Statues.", "In and around Cleveland.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "\"\"In 1857 baseball games were a daily spectacle in Cleveland's Public Squares. City authorities tried to find an ordinance forbidding it, to the joy of the crowd, they were unsuccessful. – Harold Seymour\"\" From 1865 to 1868 Forest Citys was an amateur ball club. During the 1869 season, Cleveland was among several cities that established professional baseball teams following the success of the 1869 Cincinnati Red Stockings, the first fully professional team. In the newspapers before and after 1870, the team was often called the Forest Citys, in the same generic way that the team from Chicago was sometimes called The Chicagos. In 1871 the Forest Citys joined the new National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (NA), the first professional league. Ultimately, two of the league's western clubs went out of business during the first season and the Chicago Fire left that city's White Stockings impoverished, unable to field a team again until 1874. Cleveland was thus the NA's westernmost outpost in 1872, the year the club folded. Cleveland played its full schedule to July 19 followed by two games versus Boston in mid-August and disbanded at the end of the season. In 1876, the National League (NL) supplanted the NA as the major professional league. Cleveland was not among its charter members, but by 1879 the league was looking for new entries and the city gained an NL team. The Cleveland Forest Citys were recreated, but rebranded in 1882 as the Cleveland Blues, because the National League required distinct colors for that season. The Blues had mediocre records for six seasons and were ruined by a trade", "", "The Grand Rapids Rustlers were founded in Michigan in 1894 and were part of the Western League. In 1900 the team moved to Cleveland and was named the Cleveland Lake Shores. Around the same time Ban Johnson changed the name of his minor league (Western League) to the American League. In 1900 the American League was still considered a minor league. In 1901 team was renamed the Cleveland Bluebirds when the American League broke with the National Agreement and declared itself a competing Major League. The Cleveland franchise was among its eight charter members, and is one of four teams that remain in its original city, along with Boston, Chicago, and Detroit. The new team was owned by coal magnate Charles Somers and tailor Jack Kilfoyl. Somers, a wealthy industrialist and also co-owner of the Boston Americans, lent money to other team owners, including Connie Mack's Philadelphia Athletics, to keep them and the new league afloat. Players didn't think the name \"Bluebirds\" was suitable for a baseball team. Writers frequently shortened it to Cleveland Blues due to the players' all-blue uniforms, but the players didn't like this unofficial name either. The players themselves tried to change the name to Cleveland Broncos in, but this unofficial name never really caught on. The", "The Indians were a middling team by the 1930s, finishing third or fourth most years. brought Cleveland a new superstar in 17-year-old pitcher Bob Feller, who came from Iowa with a dominating fastball. That season, Feller set a record with 17 strikeouts in a single game and went on to lead the league in strikeouts from 1938–1941. On August 20, 1938, Indians catchers Hank Helf and Frank Pytlak set the \"all-time altitude mark\" by catching baseballs dropped from the Terminal Tower. By, Feller, along with Ken Keltner, Mel Harder and Lou Boudreau, led the Indians to within one game of the pennant.", "In, Bill Veeck formed an investment group that purchased the Cleveland Indians from Bradley's group for a reported $1.6 million. Among the investors was Bob Hope, who had grown up in Cleveland, and former Tigers slugger, Hank Greenberg. A former owner of a minor league franchise in Milwaukee, Veeck brought to Cleveland a gift for promotion. At one point, Veeck hired rubber-faced Max Patkin, the \"Clown Prince of Baseball\" as a coach. Patkin's appearance in the coaching box was the sort of promotional stunt that delighted fans but infuriated the American League front office. Recognizing that he had acquired a solid team, Veeck soon abandoned the aging, small and lightless League Park to take", "In, Al Rosen was an All Star for the second year in a row, was named \"The Sporting News\" Major League Player of the Year, and won the American League Most Valuable Player Award in a unanimous vote playing for the Indians after leading the AL in runs, home runs, RBIs (for the second year in a row), and slugging percentage, and coming in second by one point in batting average. Ryan was forced out in 1953 in favor of Myron Wilson, who in turn gave way to William Daley in. Despite this turnover in the ownership, a powerhouse team composed of Feller, Doby, Minnie Miñoso, Luke Easter, Bobby Ávila, Al", "From 1960 to 1993, the Indians managed one third-place finish (in 1968) and six fourth-place finishes (in 1960, 1974 to 1976, 1990, and 1992) but spent the rest of the time at or near the bottom of the standings.", "The Indians hired general manager Frank Lane, known as \"Trader\" Lane, away from the St. Louis Cardinals in 1957. Lane over the years had gained a reputation as a GM who loved to make deals. With the White Sox, Lane had made over 100 trades involving over 400 players in seven years. In a short stint in St. Louis, he traded away Red Schoendienst and Harvey Haddix. Lane summed up his philosophy when he said that the only deals he regretted were the ones that he didn't make.", "In 1960, Lane made the trade that would define his tenure in Cleveland when he dealt slugging right fielder and fan favorite Rocky Colavito to the Detroit Tigers for Harvey Kuenn just before Opening Day in. It was a blockbuster trade that swapped the AL home run co-champion (Colavito) for the AL batting champion (Kuenn). After the trade, however, Colavito hit over 30 home runs four times and made three All-Star teams for Detroit and Kansas City before returning to Cleveland in. Kuenn, on the other hand, played only one season for the Indians before departing for San Francisco in a trade for an aging Johnny Antonelli and Willie Kirkland.", "The 1970s were not much better, with the Indians trading away several future stars, including Graig Nettles, Dennis Eckersley, Buddy Bell and 1971 Rookie of the Year Chris Chambliss, for a number of players who made no impact. Constant ownership changes did not help the Indians. In 1963, Daley's syndicate sold the team to a group headed by general manager Gabe Paul. Three years later, Paul sold the Indians to Vernon Stouffer, of the Stouffer's frozen-food empire. Prior to Stouffer's purchase, the team was rumored to be relocated due to poor attendance. Despite the potential for a financially strong", "Throughout the 1980s, the Indians' owners had pushed for a new stadium. Cleveland Stadium had been a symbol of the Indians' glory years in the 1940s and 1950s. However, during the lean years even crowds of 40,000 were swallowed up by the cavernous environment. The old stadium was not aging gracefully; chunks of concrete were falling off in sections and the old wooden pilings now petrified. In 1984, a proposal for a $150 million domed stadium was defeated in a referendum 2–1. Finally, in May 1990, Cuyahoga County voters passed an excise tax on sales of alcohol and cigarettes in the county. The tax proceeds were to be used for financing the construction of the Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex, which would include Jacobs Field for the Indians and Gund Arena for the Cleveland Cavaliers basketball team. The team's fortunes started to turn in, ironically with a very unpopular trade. The team sent power-hitting outfielder Joe Carter to", "", "Indians General Manager John Hart and team owner Richard Jacobs managed to turn the team's fortunes around. The Indians opened Jacobs Field in 1994", "Having contended for the division in the aborted 1994 season, Cleveland sprinted to a 100–44 record (the season was shortened by 18 games due to player/owner negotiations) in 1995, winning its first ever divisional title. Veterans Dennis Martínez, Orel Hershiser and Eddie Murray combined with a young core of players including Omar", "Tickets for every Indians home game sold out several months before opening day", "In 1997 Cleveland started slow but finished with an 86–75 record. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Indians defeated the New York Yankees in the Division Series, 3–2. After defeating the Baltimore Orioles in the ALCS, Cleveland went on to face the Florida Marlins in the World Series that featured", "In 1998, the Indians made the postseason for the fourth straight year. After defeating the wild-card Boston Red Sox 3–1 in the Division Series, Cleveland lost the 1998 ALCS in six games to the New York Yankees, who had come into the postseason with a then-AL record 114 wins in the regular season. For the 1999 season, Cleveland added relief pitcher Ricardo Rincón and second baseman Roberto Alomar, brother of catcher Sandy Alomar, Jr, and won the Central Division title for the fifth consecutive year. The team scored 1,009 runs, becoming the first (and to date only) team since the 1950 Boston Red Sox to score more than 1,000 runs in a season. This time, Cleveland did not make it past the first round, losing the Division Series to the Red Sox, despite taking a 2–0 lead in the series. In game three, Indians starter Dave Burba went down with an injury in the 4th inning. Four pitchers, including presumed game four starter Jaret Wright, surrendered nine runs in relief. Without a long reliever or emergency starter on the playoff roster, Hargrove started both Bartolo Colón and Charles Nagy in games four and five on only three days rest. The Indians lost", "", "Shapiro moved to rebuild by dealing aging veterans for younger talent. He traded Roberto Alomar to the New York Mets for a package that included outfielder Matt Lawton and prospects Alex Escobar and Billy Traber. When the team fell out of contention in mid-, Shapiro fired manager Charlie Manuel and traded pitching ace Bartolo Colón for prospects Brandon Phillips, Cliff Lee, and Grady Sizemore; acquired Travis Hafner from the Rangers for Ryan Drese and Einar Díaz; and picked up Coco Crisp from the St. Louis Cardinals for aging starter Chuck Finley. Jim Thome left after the", "The Indians struggled during the 2008 season. Injuries to sluggers Travis Hafner and Victor Martinez, as well as starting pitchers Jake Westbrook and Fausto Carmona led to a poor start. The Indians, falling to last place for a short time in June and July, traded CC Sabathia to the Milwaukee Brewers for prospects Matt LaPorta, Rob Bryson, and Michael Brantley. and traded starting third baseman Casey Blake for catching prospect Carlos Santana. Pitcher Cliff Lee went 22–3 with an ERA of 2.54 and earned the AL Cy Young Award. Grady Sizemore had a career year, winning a Gold Glove Award and a Silver Slugger Award, and the Indians finished with a record of 81–81. Prospects", "On January 18, 2011, longtime popular former first baseman and manager Mike Hargrove was brought in as a special adviser. The Indians started the 2011 season strong – going 30–15 in their first 45 games and seven games ahead of the Detroit Tigers for first place. Injuries led to a slump where the Indians fell out of first place. Many minor leaguers such as Jason Kipnis and Lonnie Chisenhall got opportunities to fill in for the injuries. The biggest news of the season came on July 30 when the Indians traded four prospects for Colorado Rockies star pitcher, Ubaldo Jiménez. The Indians sent their top two pitchers in the minors, Alex White and Drew Pomeranz along with Joe Gardner and Matt McBride. On August 25, the Indians signed the team leader in home runs, Jim Thome off of waivers. He made his first appearance in an Indians uniform since he left Cleveland after the 2002 season. To honor Thome, the Indians placed him at his original position, third base, for one pitch against the Minnesota Twins on September 25. It was his first appearance at third base since 1996, and his last for Cleveland. The Indians finished the season in 2nd place, 15 games behind the division champion Tigers. The Indians broke Progressive Field's Opening Day attendance record with 43,190 against the Toronto Blue Jays on April 5, 2012. The game went 16 innings, setting the MLB Opening Day record, and lasted 5 hours and 14 minutes. On September 27, 2012, with", "", "The rivalry with fellow Ohio team the Cincinnati Reds is known as the Battle of Ohio or Buckeye Series and features the Ohio Cup trophy for the winner. Prior to 1997, the winner of the cup was determined by an annual pre-season baseball game, played each year at minor-league Cooper Stadium in the state capital of Columbus, and staged just days before the start of each new Major League Baseball season. A total of eight Ohio Cup games were played, with the Indians winning six of them. It ended with the start of interleague play in 1997.", "As the Indians play 19 games every year with each of their AL Central competitors, several rivalries have developed. The Indians have a geographic rivalry with the Detroit Tigers, highlighted in recent years by intense battles for the AL Central title. The match up has some carryover elements from the Ohio State-Michigan rivalry, as well as the general historic rivalry between Michigan and Ohio dating back to the Toledo War. The Chicago", "For the first time in over 70 years, the Indians featured uniforms without the Chief Wahoo logo in 2019, with the official team colors being red, navy blue, and white. The primary home uniform is white with navy piping around each sleeve. Across the front of the jersey in script font is the word \"Indians\" in red with a navy blue outline, with navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks. The alternate home jersey is red with a navy blue script \"Indians\" trimmed in white on the front, and navy blue piping on the sleeves, with navy blue undershirts, belts, and socks.", "", "John Adams, known by baseball fans as \"The Drummer\", has played a bass drum at nearly every home game since 1973. He is the only fan for whom the team has dedicated a", "Between June 12, 1995 and April 4, 2001, the Indians sold out 455 consecutive home games, drawing a total of 19,324,248 fans to Jacobs Field. The demand for", "The Indians play \"Hang On Sloopy\" by The McCoys during the middle of the 8th inning, bringing with", "The club nickname and its cartoon logo have been criticized by some for perpetuating Native American stereotypes. In 1997 and 1998, protesters were arrested after effigies were burned. Charges were dismissed in the 1997 case, and were not filed in the 1998 case. Protesters arrested in the 1998 incident subsequently fought and lost a lawsuit alleging that their First Amendment rights had been violated. Bud Selig (then-Commissioner of Baseball) said in 2014 that he had never received a complaint about the logo. He has heard that there are some protesting mascots, but individual teams such as", "Cleveland radio stations WTAM (1100 AM) and WMMS (100.7 FM) serve as flagship stations for the Cleveland Indians Radio Network. Tom Hamilton and Jim Rosenhaus serve as play-by-play announcers. The television rights are held by SportsTime Ohio (STO), Matt Underwood and former Indians Gold Glove winning CF Rick Manning form the announcing team, with veteran Cleveland sportscaster Andre Knott as field reporter, and Al Pawlowski and former Indians pitcher Jensen Lewis as pregame/postgame", "Over the years, the Indians have", "", "Numerous Indians players have had statues made in their honor:", "(*) – Inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame as an Indian/Nap.", "The Cleveland Indians farm system consists of nine minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uniforms.", "Spring training.", "Season records.", "T-Mobile Park.", "Seattle Mariners Hall of Fame.", "Retired numbers.", "Culture.", "Louie Louie.", "Hydroplane Races and Cap-and-Ball Game.", "Buhner Buzz Cut Night.", "Rally Fries.", "King's Court.", "The Maple Grove.", "Roster and Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Mariners were created as a result of a lawsuit. In, in the aftermath of the Seattle Pilots' purchase and relocation to Milwaukee as the Milwaukee Brewers by Bud Selig, the city of Seattle, King County, and the state of Washington (represented by then-state Attorney General and future U.S. Senator Slade Gorton) sued the American League for breach of contract. Confident that Major League Baseball would return to Seattle within a few years, King County built the multi-purpose Kingdome, which would become home to the National Football League's expansion Seattle Seahawks in 1976. The name \"Mariners\" was chosen by club officials in August 1976 from over 600 names submitted by 15,000 entrants in a name-the-team contest. The Mariners played their first game on April 6,, to a sold-out crowd of 57,762 at the Kingdome, losing 7–0 to the California Angels. The first home run in team history was hit on April 10, 1977, by designated hitter Juan Bernhardt. That year, star pitcher Diego Seguí, in his last major league season, became the only player to play for both the Pilots and the Mariners. The Mariners finished with a 64–98 record, echoing the record the 1969 Pilots once held; however, the team was able to avoid last place in the AL West by half a game. In 1979, Seattle hosted the 50th Major League Baseball All-Star Game. After the 1981 season, the Mariners were sold to California businessman George Argyros, who in turn sold the team to Jeff Smulyan in 1989, and then to Nintendo of America in 1992. During the 1992–93 offseason, the Mariners hired manager Lou Piniella, who had led the Cincinnati Reds to victory in the 1990 World Series. Mariner fans embraced Piniella, and he would helm the team from through, winning two American League Manager of the Year Awards along the way. The Mariners club finished with a record of 116-46, leading all of Major League Baseball in winning percentage for the duration of the season and easily winning the American League West division championship. In doing so, the team broke the 1998 Yankees American League single-season record of 114 wins and matched the all-time MLB single-season record for wins set by the Chicago Cubs. At the end of the season, Ichiro Suzuki won the AL MVP, AL Rookie of the Year, and one of three outfield Gold Glove Awards, becoming the first player since the Boston Red Sox's Fred Lynn to win all three in the same season. On October 22, the Mariners announced the hiring of Jack Zduriencik, formerly scouting director of the Milwaukee Brewers, as their general manager. Weeks later, on November 18, the team named Oakland Athletics bench coach Don Wakamatsu as its new field manager. Wakamatsu and Zduriencik hired an entirely new coaching staff for 2009, which included former World Series MVP John Wetteland as bullpen coach. The off-season also saw a litany of roster moves, headlined by a 12-player, 3-team trade that included sending All-Star closer J. J. Putz to the New York Mets and brought 5 players—including prospect Mike Carp and outfielder Endy Chávez from New York and outfielder Franklin Gutiérrez from the Cleveland Indians—to Seattle. Many of the moves, like the free agent signing of Mike Sweeney, were made in part with the hope of squelching the clubhouse infighting that plagued the Mariners in 2008. It also saw the return of Seattle favorite Griffey Jr. The 2009–10 offseason was highlighted by the trade for 2008 American League Cy Young Award winner Cliff Lee from the Philadelphia Phillies, the signing of third baseman Chone Figgins and the contract extension of star pitcher \"King\" Félix Hernández. Griffey Jr. announced his retirement on June 2, 2010, after 22 MLB seasons. The Mariners fired field manager Don Wakamatsu along with bench coach Ty Van Burkleo, pitching coach Rick Adair and performance coach Steve Hecht on August 9, 2010. Daren Brown, the manager of the AAA affiliate Tacoma Rainiers, took over as interim field manager. Roger Hansen, the former Minor League catching coordinator, was promoted to bench coach. Carl Willis, the former Minor League pitching coordinator, was promoted to pitching coach. The Mariners hired former Cleveland Indians manager Eric Wedge as their new manager on October 19, 2010. Dave Niehaus, the Mariners' play-by-play announcer since the team's inception, died of a heart attack on November 10, 2010, at the age of 75. In memory of Niehaus, Seattle rapper Macklemore wrote a tribute song called \"My Oh My\" in December 2010. He performed the song at the Mariners' Opening Day game on April 8,. On April 21, 2012, Philip Humber of the Chicago White Sox threw the third perfect game in Chicago White Sox history against the Mariners at Safeco Field in Seattle. It was the 21st perfect game in MLB history. Mariners starting pitcher Kevin Millwood and five other pitchers combined to throw the tenth combined no-hitter in MLB history and the first in team history on June 8, 2012. The last combined one occurred in 2003, when six Houston Astros no-hit the New York Yankees in New York. The six pitchers used in a no-hitter is a major league record. Félix Hernández pitched the first perfect game in team history, shutting down the Tampa Bay Rays 1-0 at Safeco Field on August 15, 2012. It was the 23rd perfect game in Major League Baseball history. The Mariners became the first team in Major League Baseball to be involved in two perfect games in one season. General Manager (GM) Jack Zduriencik was relieved of his position by the team on August 28, 2015. Jerry Dipoto, who formerly served as GM of the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim, was hired as the new GM of the Mariners one month later. On October 9, 2015, manager Lloyd McClendon was fired, and the search for a new manager was begun. Scott Servais was named the new Mariners' manager on October 23, 2015. Nintendo of America issued a press release on April 27, 2016, stating it would sell most shares it held of Seattle Mariners ownership to First Avenue Entertainment limited partnership. Nintendo retained a 10% ownership share of the team after the sale was completed in August 2016.", "The Mariners donned their current uniforms in (with a slight change to the color arrangement of the wordmarks made in 2015). White jerseys and pants are worn for most home games, while gray jerseys and pants are worn on the road. In 2011, the team brought back an alternate \"Northwest Green\" jersey that was previously part of the uniform set from 1994 to 1996 to be worn during Friday home games. A navy blue alternate jersey is worn for occasional road games; other variations of a navy jersey had been used as home alternates prior to the reintroduction of the Northwest Green jersey. A navy blue cap that features a ball and compass \"S\" logo is paired with the home white, road gray, and navy blue jerseys. A variation of this cap with a Northwest Green brim is worn with the home alternate jersey. In January 2015 the team announced a new alternate uniform to be worn for Sunday home games. This cream-colored \"fauxback\" uniform features the current logo and lettering style in a royal blue and gold color scheme, a throwback to the original team colors. Unlike the rest of the uniform set, the back of the jersey does not display the player name. The cap features the current cap logo in the throwback colors. In January 2019, the Mariners announced a new home and away uniform as to be worn during Spring Training. The jersey has a design similar to their home white jerseys but features a powder blue throwback to the team colors during the 80's. The cap has the usual navy blue color but with a logo that features the signature compass rose but with a large M in the center.", "The Peoria Sports Complex in Peoria, Arizona, has been the Mariners' home spring training facility since 1994. The complex is shared with the San Diego Padres. On March 25, 2013, in a 16-0 victory over the Cincinnati Reds, the Mariners broke the team record for total home runs during a spring training season with 52.", "\"This is a partial list listing the past 21 completed regular seasons. For the full season records, see here.\"", "T-Mobile Park (known as \"Safeco Field\" from 1999 to 2018) has been home to the Seattle Mariners since the first game vs. the San Diego Padres on July 15, 1999. There were 44,607 people in attendance that night.", "Seattle Mariners former chairman and CEO John Ellis announced on June 14, 1997 the creation of a Mariners Hall of Fame. It is operated by the Seattle Mariners organization. It honors the players, staff and other individuals that greatly contributed to the history and success of the Mariners franchise. It is located at the Baseball Museum of the Pacific Northwest in T-Mobile Park.", "The Mariners plan to retire uniform numbers only very selectively and subject to substantially higher expectations than those applied to the Mariners' Hall of Fame. To be eligible to have one's number retired, in addition to the criteria outlined for the Mariners' Hall of Fame, the former Mariners should have either: a) been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame and been in a Mariner's uniform for at least five years, or b) come close to such election and have spent substantially his entire career with the Mariners. Eligibility shall not commence until after the former player has been voted on once for the National Baseball Hall of Fame, which for all practical purposes means six years after retirement. Ken Griffey Jr.'s number 24 was retired at the beginning of the 2016 season, with the retirement ceremony taking place on August 6, 2016. Griffey had been elected to the Hall of Fame in January of that year. Edgar Martínez's number 11 was retired during the 2017 season, with the retirement ceremony taking place on August 12, 2017. Martínez played his entire major-league career in Seattle and first appeared on the Hall of Fame ballot in. His number 11 was retired in 2017, predating his 2019 election to the Hall of Fame and seemingly establishing the 58.6% of the vote he received that year as sufficiently \"close\" to election to satisfy the club's bylaws. Jersey number 11 was not issued to anyone else between Martínez's retirement as a player in 2004 until his return to the Mariners as hitting coach in 2015. Currently, only one other player has definitively met the requirements to have his number retired: Randy Johnson, who played 10 seasons with the Mariners (1989–1998) and was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2015. Despite not officially retiring number 19, the team has not reissued it since Jay Buhner left the team in 2001. Number 51, worn by Randy Johnson, was withheld from players from 1998 until 2001, when it was issued to Ichiro Suzuki upon his request after wearing it for his entire career in Japan. It was presumably taken out of circulation again, following Ichiro's 2012 trade to the Yankees coupled with Johnson's 2015 election into the Baseball Hall of Fame. The number was once again worn by Ichiro upon his return to the Mariners in 2018, until retiring in 2019. Number 14 (Lou Piniella) was not given to any uniformed personnel between Piniella's 2002 departure and 2015, but it was issued to third-base coach Manny Acta for the 2016 season. Jackie Robinson's number 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball on April 15, 1997. Uniform number 00 is presumed off-limits, as it has been worn by the Mariner Moose since 1997 (outfielder Jeffrey Leonard was the last player to wear 00 for the M's, in 1990). From 1990 to 1996, the Moose wore the last 2 digits of the year of the current season.", "", "As part of the seventh inning stretch, after the crowd is led in singing \"Take Me Out To The Ball Game\" or \"God Bless America\" the public address system plays the Kingsmen's version of \"Louie Louie\". This commemorates a 1985 prank attempt to make \"Louie Louie\" the state song of Washington.", "As part of the mid-inning entertainment during games, three animated hydroplanes race on the T-Mobile Park Jumbotron screen. Each boat is \"sponsored\" by a local business. Fans are encouraged to cheer the boats on. The hydroplane races are inspired by actual hydroplane races held annually during Seafair, Seattle's primary summer event. Similarly, in a separate event, a baseball is hidden underneath one of three animated Mariners baseball caps and the fans are encouraged to shout out which cap they think the ball is under at the end of the caps' \"dance.\" Both events are strictly for fun and no prizes are awarded.", "In 1994, the Mariners started a promotion called \"Buhner Buzz Cut Night\" Inspired by Jay Buhner's shaved head; any fan who was willing to have their head shaved before the game—or was already bald—would receive a free ticket to the game and a T-shirt with a slogan such as \"Bald is Buhnerful\" or \"Take Me Out To The Bald Game\". Hair 10 inches or longer was collected for charity. The promotion continued until Buhner's retirement in 2001, with a year's hiatus in 2000, and is still remembered by fans today.", "Rally Fries are a baseball tradition started by Mariners broadcaster Mike Blowers in 2007. During a game against the Cincinnati Reds, a fan tried to catch a foul ball along the right-field line but in turn spilled his tray of french fries along the track. While chatting on the air and seeing the mishap, Blowers' partner, Dave Sims, suggested that he should send a new tray of fries to the fan. Blowers agreed, and sent his intern to deliver a plate of fries to the man. At the Mariners' next game, fans made signs and boards asking Blowers for fries as well. Coincidentally, every time the fries were delivered, the Mariners seem to score or rally from a deficit, and thus the \"Rally Fries\" were created. This became so popular with the fans that signs were even seen when the Mariners were the visiting team, although on August 1, 2009, Blowers established that he only gives out fries at home games. Generally, Blowers would select a person or a group of people that appealed to him, whether it was through fans wearing elaborate costumes or waving funny signs and boards. The fries were usually delivered from Ivar's, a Seattle-based seafood restaurant with a location at T-Mobile Park. The amount of fries given out varied with the size of the winning group of fans. The winners were generally selected around the 5th or 6th inning, although potential candidates were shown in almost every inning beforehand.", "As the 2011 season progressed, the Mariners marketing staff came up with an idea to encourage the growing fanbase of star pitcher \"King\" Félix Hernández. Every Hernandez start at T-Mobile Park was accompanied by the King's Court, a designated cheering section for fans to sing, chant, and cheer while donning yellow T-shirts and \"K\" cards that are supplied by the team. The King's Court was both a personal rooting section for Hernandez and trend-setter for T-Mobile Park. The team encouraged fans to dress like Larry Bernandez, Hernandez's alter ego from a Mariners TV Commercial, or show up in wacky costumes, rewarding the best with a ceremonial turkey leg. The Supreme Court was a special event where the King's Court section was extended to the entirety of T-Mobile Park. The first Supreme Court was Félix's first home game following his perfect game in 2012. Following opening day 2012, it occurred each year at Félix's first home game of each season. Following Felix's departure from the Mariners at the end of the 2019 season, the King's Court is now officially retired.", "The ultimately disappointing 2017 season had a few bright spots, including the establishment of the Maple Grove, a variation of the King’s Court which honors James Paxton rather than Félix Hernández. At home games where Paxton starts, a group of fans sit by a Maple Grove banner, typically in the left field bleachers. A potted maple tree is also present in their section, provided by the Mariners; the Grove dubbed the tree \"Stick Rizzs\", in honor of a long-time Mariner broadcaster Rick Rizzs. When Paxton got to two strikes on a batter, the Grove held up “Eh” Cards, a tip of the cap to Paxton’s home country of Canada and a nod to the \"K\" (for strikeout) cards held up in King's Court. Variant cards have also been produced for special occasions, such as when a planned Paxton start turned into a Hernández start (a King's Grove, with \"K'eh\" cards to cheer for Hernández). Other examples include when celebrating Paxton reaching 300 strikeouts, or in tribute to broadcaster Angie Mentink (\"A\" cards, to show support after she had publicly disclosed her being diagnosed with breast cancer). The Maple Grove differs from the King’s Court in that it was created and organized by fans, while the Court was promoted by the Mariners marketing team. When asked, Paxton stated that fans creating the Maple Grove was really special to him and that he never imagined that something of the sort would ever be done for him. The Grove continued until Paxton was traded to the Yankees following the 2018 season.", "", "The following elected members of the Baseball Hall of Fame spent part of their careers with the Mariners.", "The Seattle Mariners farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.", "The Mariners' flagship radio station is KIRO-AM (710 ESPN Radio), which previously broadcast Mariners contests from 1985 to 2002. Former flagship stations include KOMO-AM (2003–2008), and KVI-AM 570 (1977–1984). Television rights are held by Root Sports Northwest. During the 2016 season, the Mariners averaged a 5.84 rating and 103,000 viewers on primetime TV broadcasts. In years past, Mariners games have also appeared in Seattle on over-the-air stations KING-TV, KIRO-TV, KTZZ-TV (now KZJO), and KSTW. Selected Mariners games are also available on Canadian television, due to an agreement between Root Sports Northwest and Rogers Sportsnet Pacific. Since 2013, Rick Rizzs and Aaron Goldsmith have called games on the radio. The television broadcasts are anchored by play-by-play announcer Dave Sims and color commentator (and former Mariners player) Mike Blowers. Seattle radio personality Matt Pitman hosts the post-game show on the Mariners' radio network, along with clubhouse reporter Shannon Drayer. Spanish-language radio broadcast duties are handled by Alex Rivera on play-by-play and former second baseman Julio Cruz providing color commentary. The Mariners' broadcast team for 2010 featured Dave Niehaus and Rizzs—back for their 32nd and 23rd seasons with the club, respectively—as well as Sims and Blowers. For the first three innings of each game, Niehaus worked the television broadcast with Blowers while Rizzs and Sims handled radio duties; after the third inning, Niehaus and Sims traded places. Niehaus, who had broadcast for the Mariners since their inaugural season of 1977, died on November 10, 2010. For the 2011 season, Dave Niehaus' duties in the broadcast booth were filled by a collection of former Mariners broadcasters such as Ron Fairly, Ken Levine, and Ken Wilson; and former Mariners' players such as Dave Valle, Dan Wilson, Jay Buhner, and Dave Henderson. Tom Hutyler has been the Mariners' public address announcer since 1987, first at the Kingdome, and presently at T-Mobile Park. While KOMO 1000 AM was the Mariners' flagship radio station, Hutyler occasionally hosted the post-game radio show." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1969–1979: Taking Off.", "1980–1984: From Pennant to Pine Tar Incident.", "1985: \"The I-70 Series\".", "1985 World Series.", "1986–1994: Staying in the Picture.", "1995–2002: Decline in the Post-Kauffman Era.", "2003: A Winning Season.", "2004–2008: Rock Bottom.", "2009–2012: Kauffman Renovations and Further Rebuilding.", "2013: Return to Respectability.", "2014: Return to the World Series.", "2015: World Series Champions.", "2016–2017: End of an Era.", "2018–present: Another Rebuild and Selling of the Team.", "Rivalries.", "St. Louis Cardinals.", "Historic rivalry.", "Other players of note.", "Retired numbers.", "Out of circulation, but not retired.", "Managers.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "Mascot.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Royals began play in 1969 in Kansas City, Missouri. In their inaugural game, on April 8, 1969, the Royals defeated the Minnesota Twins 4–3 in 12 innings. The Royals went 69–93 in their first season, highlighted by Lou Piniella, who won the AL Rookie of the Year Award. The team was quickly built through a number of trades engineered by its first General Manager, Cedric Tallis, who picked up center fielder Amos Otis, who became the team's first great star, first baseman John Mayberry, who provided power, second baseman Cookie Rojas, shortstop Fred Patek, designated hitter Hal McRae, and others. The Royals also invested in a strong farm system and soon developed such future stars as pitchers Paul Splittorff,", "After the Royals finished in second place in 1979, Herzog was fired and replaced by Jim Frey. Under Frey and a legendary.390 season from George Brett, the Royals rebounded in 1980 and advanced to the ALCS, where they again faced the Yankees. The Royals vanquished the Yankees in a three-game sweep punctuated by a Brett's home run off of Yankees' star relief pitcher Goose Gossage. After reaching their first World Series, the Royals fell to the Philadelphia Phillies in six games. Game 6 was also significant because it remains the most-watched game in World Series history with a television audience of 54.9 million viewers. In July 1983, while the Royals were headed for a second-place finish behind the Chicago White Sox another chapter in the team's rivalry with the New York Yankees occurred. In what has come to be known as \"the Pine Tar Incident\", umpires discovered illegal placement of pine tar (more than 18 inches up the handle) on third baseman", "In the 1985 regular season the Royals topped the Western Division for the sixth time in ten years, led by Bret Saberhagen's Cy Young Award-winning performance and George Brett's self-described best \"all around year.\" Throughout the ensuing playoffs, the Royals came back from 2–0 and 3–1 deficits, but managed to win the Series. In game three, with KC down 2 games to 0, George Brett homered twice and doubled off the fence in right field to put Kansas City back into the series. With the Royals down three-games-to-one in the American League Championship Series against the Toronto Blue Jays, the Royals eventually rallied to win the series 4–3.", "In the 1985 World Series (nicknamed the \"I-70 Series\" because the two teams are both located in the state of Missouri and connected by Interstate 70) against the cross-state St. Louis Cardinals, the Royals again fell behind, three games to one. After Danny Jackson pitched the Royals to a 6–1 win in game five, the Cardinals and Royals headed back to Kansas City for game six. Facing elimination, the Royals trailed 1–0 in the bottom of the 9th inning, when Jorge Orta led off, hitting a bouncing ground ball to Cardinals 1st basemen Jack Clark, who flipped the ball back to pitcher Todd Worrell at first base. The ball beat Orta to the bag, but umpire Don Denkinger called him safe, and following a dropped popup by Clark and a pass ball the Royals rallied to score two runs, winning on a walk-off single from pinch hitter Dane Iorg to send the series to game seven. In game seven Bret Saberhagen shutout the Cardinals as Kansas City dominated the Cardinals 11–0, clinching their first title in franchise history.", "The Royals maintained a reputation as one of the American League West's top teams throughout the late 1980s. The club posted a winning record in three of the four seasons following its 1985 World Series championship, while developing young stars such as Bo Jackson, Tom Gordon, and Kevin Seitzer. The Royals finished the 1989 season with a 92–70 record (third-best in the major leagues) but did not qualify for the playoffs, finishing second in their division behind the eventual World Series champion Oakland Athletics. At the end of the 1989 season, the team boasted a powerhouse pitching rotation, including the AL Cy Young Award-winner Bret Saberhagen (who set franchise record 23 wins that year), two-time All-Star Mark Gubicza (a 15-game winner in 1989) and 1989 AL Rookie of the Year runner-up Tom Gordon (who won 17 games that year). But the organization felt it was still missing a few necessary pieces to give", "At the start of the 1990s, the Royals had been hit with a double-whammy when General Manager John Schuerholz departed in 1990 and team owner Ewing Kauffman died in 1993. Shortly before Kauffman's death, he set up an unprecedented complex succession plan to keep the team in Kansas City. The team was donated at his death to the Greater Kansas City Community Foundation and Affiliated Trusts with operating decisions of the team decided by a five-member group chaired by Wal-Mart executive David", "The 2003 season saw a temporary end to the losing, when manager Tony Peña, in his first full season with the club, guided the team to", "From the 2004 season through the 2012 season, the Royals posted nine consecutive losing records, the longest streak in team history. In six of those seasons, the team finished in last place in the American League Central, and in eight of those nine seasons the team lost at least 90 games. The worst seasons came in 2004–2006, when the Royals lost at least 100 games each year and set the franchise's all-time record for losses (56–106 in 2005). Picked by many to win their division in 2004 after faring well in the free agent", "Prior to the 2009 season, the Royals renovated Kauffman Stadium. After the season began, the Royals ended April at the top of the AL Central, all of which raised excitement levels among fans. However, the team faded as the season progressed and finished the year with a final record of 65–97, in a fourth place tie in its division. The season was highlighted by starter Zack Greinke, who did not allow an earned run in the first 24 innings of the season, went on to finish the year with a Major League-leading 2.16 earned run average, and won the American League Cy Young Award. Greinke joined Bret Saberhagen (in 1985 and 1989) and David Cone (in 1994) as the only three players in Royals history to receive the award. The Royals began the 2010 season with a rocky start, and after the team's record fell to 12–23, manager Trey Hillman was fired. Former Milwaukee Brewers skipper Ned Yost took over as manager. At the end of the", "On December 10, 2012, in an attempt to strengthen the pitching staff (which was among the worst in baseball in 2012), the Royals traded for Rays pitchers James Shields and Wade Davis giving Tampa top prospects Wil Myers, Jake Odorizzi, Mike Montgomery, and Patrick Leonard. This trade helped catalyze a return to", "The 2014 season was even more successful, featuring a return to the postseason for the first time in 29 years, and what would unfold as a historic playoff run to the 2014 World Series. Anchored by the HDH Line (Bullpen trio of Kelvin Herrera, Wade Davis, and Greg Holland), the bullpen became one of the most dominant in MLB history. Entering the 2014 season, the Royals had the longest playoff drought of any team in the four main American professional sports leagues (NFL, MLB, NHL, and NBA). On July 21, 2014, the Royals had a losing record (48–50) and were eight games behind the Detroit Tigers in the AL Central standings. But spurred by a 22–5 record from July 22 to August 19 coinciding with a mediocre 12–15 stretch by the", "After earning a wild-card entry to the playoffs in 2014, in 2015 the Royals won the franchise's first division title since 1985 and first Central division title ever (the Central was created in 1994). The Royals went on to win the 2015 World Series – the first championship for the Royals since 1985 – beating the New York Mets four games to one. The Royals entered the 2015 All-Star break with the best record in the American League (52–34). The team continued its momentum into the second half of the season, and on July 26, Royals management traded three prospects Brandon Finnegan, John Lamb, and Cody Reed for 2014 All-Star pitcher Johnny Cueto to help bolster its starting pitching rotation, as well as trading for super-utility player Ben Zobrist. The team ended the regular season with a record of 95–67, best in the American League, and the organization's best since 1980. The Royals faced the Houston", "The Royals followed up their World Series victory with an underachieving, injury-riddled campaign in 2016. The Royals had an inconsistent season in which they fittingly finished 81–81, third place in the division and out of the playoffs. This season is notable for the debut of future star Whit", "Although Hosmer and Cain left in free agency, the Royals were still able to re-sign Mike Moustakas and Alcides Escobar. In 2018, the team started a new rebuild, trading Moustakas mid-season for prospects, and giving playing time to young players like Adalberto Mondesi, Ryan O'Hearn, and Brad Keller. Despite this, the team finished with a 58-win season, the team's fewest wins total since 2005. The season also marked the emergence of Merrifield as a star, as", "", "The Royals' most prominent rivalry is with the intrastate St. Louis Cardinals. For geographic reasons, the teams long played exhibition games, but a true rivalry began with the Royals' victory over the Cardinals in the 1985 World Series, known as the \"I-70 Series.\" Notably, the manager for the Cardinals in the series was Whitey Herzog, who had been the", "From 1976 to 1980, the Royals faced the New York Yankees four times in five years in the American League Championship Series. The Yankees won in 1976, 1977 and 1978, while the Royals won in 1980. In a 2013 article about the 1983 Pine Tar Incident", "", "The Royals have retired the numbers of former players George Brett (No. 5) and Frank White (No. 20). Former manager Dick Howser's No. 10 was retired following his death in 1987. Former Brooklyn Dodgers player Jackie Robinson's No. 42 is retired throughout Major League Baseball.", "No. 29, worn by Royals greats Dan Quisenberry (238 saves, 2.55 ERA) and Mike Sweeney (.299 batting average, 197 home runs, 837 RBI), has not been assigned since Sweeney's departure in 2007. Additionally, the team has not issued No. 30, worn by pitcher Yordano Ventura, since his death in 2017.", "\"Statistics current", "The Kansas City Royals farm", ", the Royals affiliate radio station is KCSP 610AM, the station having entered into a new four-year deal starting from the 2015 season. The radio announcers are Denny Matthews and Ryan Lefebvre, with Steve Stewart and Steve Physioc. Televised games are aired on Fox Sports Kansas City, a branch of Fox Sports", "Sluggerrr is the mascot of the Royals. Sluggerrr is a lion, and made his first appearance on April 5, 1996. On", "& 2015" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Team history.", "Washington Nationals/Senators: 1901–1960.", "Minnesota Twins: 1961 to present.", "Threatened contraction or relocation of the team.", "Target Field.", "Roster.", "Minor league affiliates.", "Achievements.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Retired numbers.", "Radio and television.", "Team and franchise traditions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The team was founded in Washington, D.C. in as one of the eight original teams of the American League, named the Washington Senators or Washington Nationals (both names had been used in the club's early years and no official name was used thereafter). The team endured long bouts of mediocrity immortalized in the 1955 Broadway musical \"Damn Yankees\". The Washington Senators spent the first decade of their existence finishing near the bottom of the American League standings. Their fortunes began to improve with the arrival of 19-year-old pitcher, Walter Johnson, in 1907. Johnson blossomed in 1911 with 25 victories, although the Senators still finished the season in seventh place. In 1912, the Senators improved dramatically, as their pitching staff led the league in team earned run average and in strikeouts. Johnson won 33 games while teammate Bob Groom added another 24 wins to help the Senators finish the season in second place. Manager Clark Griffith joined the team in 1912 and became the team's owner in 1920. (The franchise remained under Griffith family ownership until 1984.) The Senators continued to perform respectably in 1913 with Johnson posting a career-high 35 victories, as the team once again finished in second place. The Senators then fell into another period of decline for the next decade. The team had a period of prolonged success in the 1920s and 1930s, led by Walter Johnson, as well as additional Hall-of-Famer Bucky Harris, Goose Goslin, Sam Rice, Heinie Manush, and Joe Cronin. In particular, a rejuvenated Johnson rebounded in 1924 to win 23 games with the help of his catcher, Muddy Ruel, as the Senators won the American League pennant for the first time in the history of the franchise. The Senators then faced John McGraw's heavily favored New York Giants in the 1924 World Series. The two teams traded wins back and forth with three games of the first six being decided by one run. In the deciding 7th game, the Senators were trailing the Giants 3 to 1 in the 8th inning when Bucky Harris hit a routine ground ball to third which hit a pebble and took a bad hop over Giants third baseman Freddie Lindstrom. Two runners scored on the play, tying the score at three. An aging Walter Johnson then", "In 1960, Major League Baseball granted the city of Minneapolis an expansion team. Washington owner Calvin Griffith, Clark's nephew and adopted son, requested that he be allowed to move his team to Minneapolis-St. Paul and instead give Washington the expansion team. Upon league approval, the team moved to Minnesota after the 1960 season, setting up shop in Metropolitan Stadium, while Washington fielded a brand new \"Washington Senators\" (which later became the Texas Rangers prior to the 1972 season). Success came quickly to the team in Minnesota. Sluggers Harmon Killebrew and Bob Allison, who had already been stars in Washington, were joined by Tony Oliva and Zoilo Versalles, and later second baseman Rod Carew and pitchers Jim Kaat and Jim Perry, winning the American League pennant in 1965. A second wave of success came in the late 1980s and early 1990s under manager Tom Kelly, led by Kent Hrbek, Bert Blyleven, Frank Viola, and Kirby Puckett, winning the franchise's second and third World", "The quirks of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, including the turf floor and the white roof, gave the Twins a significant home-field advantage that played into their winning the World Series in both 1987 and 1991, at least in the opinion of their opponents, as the Twins went 12–1 in postseason home games during those two seasons. These were the first two World Series in professional baseball history in which a team won the championship by winning all four home games. (The feat has since been repeated once, by the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2001.) Nevertheless, the Twins argued that the Metrodome was obsolete and that the lack of a dedicated baseball-only ballpark limited team revenue and made", "In response to the threatened loss of the Twins, the Minnesota private and public sector negotiated and approved a financing package for a replacement stadium— a baseball-only outdoor, natural turf ballpark in the Warehouse District of downtown Minneapolis— owned by a new entity known as the Minnesota Ballpark Authority. Target Field was constructed at a cost of $544.4 million (including site acquisition and infrastructure), utilizing the proceeds of a $392 million public bond offering based on a 0.15% sales tax in Hennepin County and private financing of $185 million provided by the Pohlad family. As part of the deal, the Twins also signed a 30-year lease of the new stadium, effectively guaranteeing the continuation of the team in Minnesota for a", "Minnesota Twins all-time roster: A complete list of", "The Minnesota Twins farm", "", "Molitor, Morris, and Winfield were all St. Paul natives who joined the Twins late in their careers and were warmly received as \"hometown heroes\", but were elected to the Hall primarily on the basis of their tenures with other teams. Both Molitor and Winfield swatted their 3,000th hit with Minnesota, while Morris pitched", "The Metrodome's upper deck in center and right fields was partly covered by a curtain containing banners of various titles won, and retired numbers. There was no acknowledgment of the Twins' prior championships in Washington and several Senator Hall of Famers, such as Walter Johnson, played in the days prior to numbers being used on uniforms. However Killebrew played seven seasons as a Senator, including two full seasons as a regular prior to the move to Minnesota in 1961. Prior to the addition of the banners, the Twins acknowledged their retired numbers on the Metrodome's outfield fence. Harmon Killebrew's #3 was the first to be displayed, as it was the only one", "In 2007, the Twins took the rights to the broadcasts in-house and created the Twins Radio Network (TRN). With that new network in place the Twins secured a new Metro Affiliate flagship radio station in KSTP (AM 1500). It replaced WCCO (AM 830), which held broadcast rights for the Twins since the team moved to Minneapolis in 1961. For 2013, the Twins moved to FM radio on KTWN-FM \"96.3 K-Twin\", which is owned by the Pohlad family. The original radio voices of the Twins in 1961 were Ray Scott, Halsey Hall and Bob Wolff. After the first season, Herb Carneal replaced Wolff. Twins TV and radio broadcasts were originally sponsored by the Hamm's Brewing Company. In 2009, Treasure Island Resort & Casino became the first ever naming rights partner for the Twins Radio Network, making the commercial name of TRN the Treasure Island Baseball Network. In 2017, it was announced that WCCO would become the flagship station the Twins again starting in 2018, thus returning the", "Fans wave a \"Homer Hanky\" to rally the team during play-offs and other crucial games. The Homer Hanky was created by Terrie Robbins of the Star Tribune newspaper in the Twin Cities in 1987. It was her idea to originally give away 60,000 inaugural Homer Hankies. That year, over 2.3 million Homer Hankies were distributed. The party atmosphere of the Twins clubhouse after a win is well-known, the team's players unwinding with loud rock music (usually the choice of the winning pitcher) and video games. The club has several hazing rituals, such as requiring the most junior relief pitcher on the team to carry water and snacks to the bullpen in a brightly colored small child's backpack (Barbie in 2005, SpongeBob SquarePants in 2006, Hello Kitty in 2007, Disney Princess and Tinkerbell in 2009, Chewbacca and Darth Vader in 2010), and many of its players, both past and present, are notorious pranksters. For example, Bert Blyleven earned the nickname \"The Frying Dutchman\" for his ability to pull the \"hotfoot\" – which entails crawling under the bench in the dugout and lighting a teammate's shoelaces on fire." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Official status.", "India.", "Nepal.", "Fiji.", "Geographical distribution.", "Comparison with Modern Standard Urdu.", "Script.", "Romanization.", "Vocabulary.", "Prakrit.", "Sanskrit.", "Persian.", "Arabic.", "Media.", "Literature.", "Internet.", "Sample text." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"Hindī\" originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was borrowed from Classical Persian \"Hindī\" (Iranian Persian pronunciation: \"Hendi\"), meaning \"of or belonging to \"Hind\" (India)\" (hence, \"Indian\"). Another name \"Hindavī\" (हिंदवी) or \"Hinduī\" (हिंदुई) (from \"of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people\") was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrow in his poetry. The terms \"\"Hindi\"\" and \"\"Hindu\"\" trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name \"Sindhu\" (सिन्धु ), referring to the river Indus. The Greek cognates of the same terms are \"\"Indus\"\" (for the river) and \"\"India\"\" (for the land of the river).", "Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Sauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit \"apabhraṃśa\" \"corrupt\"), which emerged in the 7th century CE. Afer the arrival of Islamic administrative rule in northern India, Hindi acquired many loanwords from Persian, as well as Arabic. Before the standardisation of Hindi on the Delhi dialect, various dialects and languages of the Hindi belt attained prominence through literary standardisation, such as Avadhi and Braj Bhasha. Early Hindi literature came about in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. This body of work included the early epics such as renditions of the \"Dhola Maru\" in the Marwari of Marwar, the \"Prithviraj Raso\" in the Braj Bhasha of Braj, and the works of Amir Khusrow in the dialect of Delhi. Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect, the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi, Maithili (sometimes regarded as separate from the Hindi dialect continuum) and Braj. \"Urdu\" – considered another form of Hindustani – acquired linguistic prestige in the latter part of the Mughal period (1800s), and underwent significant Persian influence. Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18th century. John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored \"An English-Hindustani Dictionary\", \"A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language\", \"The Oriental Linguist\", and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration. He is also known for his role in the foundation of University College London and for endowing the Gilchrist Educational Trust. In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form. In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi. After independence, the government of India instituted the following conventions: On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu's previous usage in British India. To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language. Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.", "", "Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union has been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English: (1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals. (2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union. It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages. It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351), with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as the those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies. At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. It is one of the additional official languages of West Bengal. Each may also designate a \"co-official language\"; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: National Capital Territory, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu. National language status for Hindi is a long-debated theme. In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.", "Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.", "Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji. It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji, where it referred to it as \"Hindustani\", however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called \"Fiji Hindi\". It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.", "Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English. In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a \"lingua franca\" for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively. In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively. Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, the Indian media is widely viewed in Pakistan. A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films and songs in the region. Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but have migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the \"Hindi Belt\" of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in United States of America; 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji; 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname; 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in United Kingdom; 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago; 3,000 in Singapore.", "Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible. Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords than does Hindi. However, both share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words, with large numbers of Arabic and Persian loanwords. Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar, a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu. Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India. Urdu is the and \"lingua franca\" of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, and Delhi. The comparison of Hindi and Urdu as separate languages is largely motivated by politics, namely the Indo-Pakistani rivalry.", "Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike for Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa dropping in spoken Standard Hindi.", "The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.", "Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology: Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.", "Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Śaurasenī Prākṛt, in the form of \"tadbhava\" words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit \"tīkṣṇa\" > Prakrit \"tikkha\" > Hindi \"tīkhā\".", "Much of Modern Standard Hindi's vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as \"tatsam\" borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding \"tatsam\" words, is called \"Śuddh Hindi\" (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi. Excessive use of \"tatsam\" words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi, causing difficulties in pronunciation. As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as \"dūrbhāṣ\" \"telephone\", literally \"far-speech\" and \"dūrdarśan\" \"television\", literally \"far-sight\" have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings \"(ṭeli)fon\" and \"ṭīvī\".", "Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani. Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. \"Muhammad\", \"islām\") and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi. Post-Partition the Indian government advocated for a policy of Sanskritization leading to a marginalisation of the Persian element in Hindi. However, many Persian words (e.g. \"muśkil\" \"difficult\", \"bas\" \"enough\", \"havā\" \"air\", \"x(a)yāl\" \"thought\") have remained entrenched in Modern Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script.", "Arabic also shows influence in Hindi, often via Persian but sometimes directly.", "", "Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being \"Bhakti\" (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); \"Śṛṇgār\" (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); \"Vīgāthā\" (epic); and \"Ādhunik\" (modern). Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Modern Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect. \"Chandrakanta\", written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi. The person who brought realism in the Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered as the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or \"Sāhityik\", Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with the educated people. The \"Dvivedī Yug\" (\"Age of Dwivedi\") in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love. In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as \"Chāyāvād\" (\"shadow-ism\") and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as \"Chāyāvādī\". Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala', Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major \"Chāyāvādī\" poets. \"Uttar Ādhunik\" is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the \"Chāyāvādī\" movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.", "The Hindi Wikipedia was the first Indian-language wiki to reach 100,000 articles. Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi. Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.", "The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of the Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team traditions.", "The Rally Monkey.", "Rivalries.", "Texas Rangers.", "Los Angeles Dodgers.", "Game attendance.", "Logos and colors.", "Radio and television.", "Awards and honors.", "Angels Hall of Fame.", "Baseball Hall of Fame.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Los Angeles Angels\" name originates from the first Los Angeles-based sports team, the \"Los Angeles Angels\", who took the name \"Angels\" from the English translation of \"Los Angeles\", which means \"The Angels\" in Spanish. The team name started in 1892; in 1903, the team name continued in L.A. through the PCL, which is now a minor league affiliate of MiLB. The Angels franchise of today was established in MLB in 1961 after former owner Gene Autry bought the rights to continue the franchise name from Walter O'Malley, the former Los Angeles Dodgers owner who had acquired the franchise from Phil Wrigley, the owner of the Chicago Cubs at the time. As stated in the book \"Under the Halo: The Official History of Angels Baseball\", \"Autry agreed to buy the franchise name for $350,000, and continue the history of the previously popular Pacific Coast League team as his own expansion team in the MLB.\" After the Angels joined the Major Leagues, some players from the Angels' PCL team joined the Major League Angels in 1961. As an expansion franchise, the club continued in Los Angeles as the \"Los Angeles Angels\", and played their home games at Los Angeles' Wrigley Field (not to be confused with Chicago's stadium of the same name), which had formerly been the home of the PCL Los Angeles Angels. The Angels were one of two expansion teams established as a result of the 1961 Major League Baseball expansion, along with the second incarnation of the Washington Senators (now Texas Rangers). The team then moved in to newly built Dodger Stadium, which the Angels referred to as Chavez Ravine, where they were tenants of the Los Angeles Dodgers through. The team's founder, entertainer Gene Autry, owned the franchise for its first 36 years. During Autry's ownership, the team made the playoffs three times, but never won the pennant. The team has gone through several name changes in their history, first changing their name to the California Angels on September 2, 1965, with a month still left in the season, in recognition of their upcoming move to the newly constructed Anaheim Stadium in Anaheim at the start of the 1966 season. When The Walt Disney Company took control of the team in, it extensively renovated Anaheim Stadium, which was then renamed Edison International Field of Anaheim. The City of Anaheim contributed $30 million to the $118 million renovation with a renegotiated lease providing that the names of both the stadium and team contain the word \"Anaheim\". The team was renamed the Anaheim Angels and became a subsidiary of Disney Sports, Inc. (later renamed Anaheim Sports, Inc.). Under Disney's ownership and the leadership of manager Mike Scioscia, the Angels won their first pennant and World Series championship in 2002. In 2005, new owner Arturo Moreno added \"Los Angeles\" to the team's name. In compliance with the terms of its lease with the city of Anaheim, which required \"Anaheim\" be a part of the team's name, the team was officially renamed the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. Fans, residents, and the municipal governments of both Anaheim and Los Angeles all objected to the change, with the City of Anaheim pursuing litigation; nevertheless, the change was eventually upheld in court and the city dropped its lawsuit in 2009. The team usually refers to itself as the \"Angels\" or \"Angels Baseball\" in its home media market, and the words \"Los Angeles\" typically do not appear in the stadium, on the Angels' uniforms, or on official team merchandise. Local media in Southern California tend to omit a geographic identifier and refer to the team as \"the Angels\" or \"the Halos\". The Associated Press, the most prominent news service in the U.S., refers to the team as \"the Los Angeles Angels\", \"the Angels\", or \"Los Angeles\". In 2013, the team was to officially drop \"of Anaheim\" from its name, as part of a new Angel Stadium lease negotiated with the Anaheim city government. Although the deal was never finalized, as of 2020, most official sources omit the \"of Anaheim\" suffix. However, officially speaking, the club is still officially referred to as the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. On December 20, 2019, the city of Anaheim voted to sell the stadium and land around it to a group led by owner Arte Moreno for $325 million.", "The mantra \"Win One for the Cowboy\" is a staple that is deeply rooted in Angels history for fans. The saying refers to the Angels' founder and previous owner, Gene Autry, who never saw his Angels win a World Series in his 38 years as owner. Years went by as the team experienced many losses just strikes away from American League pennants. By the Angels' first World Series Championship in 2002, Autry had died, but after winning the World Series, Angels player Tim Salmon ran into the home dugout and brought out one of Autry's signature white Stetson hats in honor of the \"singing cowboy\". Autry's #26 was retired as the 26th man on the field for the Angels. Angel Stadium of Anaheim is nicknamed \"The Big A\". It has a section in center field nicknamed the \"California Spectacular\", a formation of artificial rocks made to look like a desert mountain in California. The California Spectacular has a running waterfall, and also shoots fireworks from the rocks before every game; anytime the Angels hit a home run or win a home game the fireworks shoot from the rocks as well. Each game begins with the song \"Calling All Angels\" by Train being played accompanied by a video that shows historical moments in team history, with an instrumental version of Norman Greenbaum's \"Spirit in the Sky\" being played during the team's starting lineup announcement. During every Angels homerun, they play \"Bro Hymn\" by Pennywise, which has been used since 2015. Previous homerun songs include \"Song 2\" by Blur, \"Chelsea Dagger\" by The Fratellis and \"Kernkraft 400\" by Zombie Nation. Anytime the Angels win a game, the saying \"Light That Baby Up!\" is used in reference to the giant landmark which is a big tall A with a halo surrounding the top which lights up every time the Angels win a home game. Fans also use the saying, \"Just another Halo victory\", as the late Angels broadcaster Rory Markas, who would say the catch phrase after each win. The Angels organization was the first North American team to employ the use of thundersticks.", "The Rally Monkey is a mascot for the Angels which appears if the Angels are losing a game or if the game is tied from the 7th inning on, but sometimes earlier depending on the situation. The Rally Monkey appears on the scoreboard in various movies or pop culture references that have been edited to include him. The Rally Monkey was born in 2000 when the scoreboard showed a clip from \"\", after which the Angels rallied to win the game. The clip proved to be so popular that the team hired Katie, a white-haired capuchin monkey, to star in original clips for later games. When seen, she jumps up and down to the House of Pain song \"Jump Around\" and holds a sign that says \"RALLY TIME!\" The Rally Monkey came to national and worldwide attention during the Angels' appearance in the 2002 World Series against the San Francisco Giants. In the 6th game, the Angels were playing at home, but were trailing the series 3-2 and facing elimination. They were down 5-0 as the game entered the bottom of the 7th inning. Amid fervid rally-monkey themed fan support, the Angels proceeded to score six unanswered runs over the next two innings, winning the game and turning the momentum of the series for good (they went on to clinch the championship in game 7). From 2007 to 2009, the Angels reached the post-season each year, sparking a renewal of the Rally Monkey's popularity.", "The Angels have developed many rivalries in and also outside of their division. They include the New York Yankees, Texas Rangers, Oakland Athletics, and the neighboring Los Angeles Dodgers.", "The Angels-Rangers rivalry has been said to have developed over a domination in the division between the two teams, and also in recent years more animosity between the two teams due to the players to play for both teams, including Nolan Ryan, Mike Napoli, Darren Oliver, Vladimir Guerrero, C. J. Wilson, and Josh Hamilton. In 2012, Wilson played a joke on Napoli, his former teammate, by tweeting his phone number, causing Napoli to exchange words with Wilson. The feuds go back to two incidents between Angels second baseman Adam Kennedy and Rangers catcher Gerald Laird which led to punches being thrown. The Angels and Rangers have each pitched a perfect game against each other, making them the only pair of MLB teams to have done so. Mike Witt pitched a perfect game for the Angels against the Rangers in 1984 at Arlington Stadium and Kenny Rogers for the Rangers against the Angels in 1994.", "The rivalry with the Los Angeles Dodgers has been referred to as the \"Freeway Series\" because of the freeway system (mostly via I-5) linking the two teams' home fields. The Freeway Series rivalry developed mostly over the two teams sharing similar regions and fans having been split due to neighboring counties, similar to the Chicago Cubs vs. Chicago White Sox rivalry, the San Francisco Giants vs. Oakland A's rivalry, or the New York Mets vs. New York Yankees rivalry.", "The Angels have drawn more than 3 million fans to the stadium since 2003, and at least 2 million since 2002, and a game average in 2010, 2011, 2012, & 2013 of 40,000 fans at each game despite not making the playoffs all four years. This is 2nd in all of MLB, only trailing the New York Yankees. In 2019, the Angels were fifth in the MLB in attendance, with a total of 3,019,012 people. As of 2015, the Angels fans have set 6 Guinness World Records for the largest gatherings of people wearing blankets, wrestling masks, cowboy hats, wigs, Santa hats, superhero capes, and sombreros. They've also set the world record for largest gathering of people with selfie sticks. In 2009, the Angels were voted the number one franchise in professional sports in Fan Value by ESPN magazine. In 2011, ESPN & Fan polls by ESPN ranked the Angels #4 in the best sports franchises, ahead of every Major League team in baseball at #1 and also making it the #1 sports franchise in Los Angeles. The rankings were determined through a combination of sports analysts and fan votes ranking all sports franchises by a combination of average fan attendance, fan relations, \"Bang for your Buck\" or winning percentage over the past 3 years, ownership, affordability, stadium experience, players effort on the field and likability, coaching, and \"Title Track\".", "The Los Angeles Angels have used ten different logos and three different color combinations throughout their history. Their first two logos depict a baseball with wings and a halo over a baseball diamond with the letters \"L\" and \"A\" over it in different styles. The original team colors were the predominantly blue with a red trim. This color scheme would be in effect for most of the franchise's history lasting from 1961 to 1996. On September 2, 1965, with the team still a tenant of the Dodgers at Chavez Ravine, Autry changed its name from the \"Los Angeles Angels\" to the \"California Angels\". With the club's 1966 move to Anaheim, the logo changed as well. During the 31 years of being known as the \"California Angels\", the team kept the previous color scheme, however, their logo did change six times during this period. The first logo under this name was very similar to the previous \"LA\" logo, the only difference was instead of an interlocking \"LA\", there was an interlocking \"CA\". Directly after this from 1971 to 1985, the Angels adopted a logo that had the word \"Angels\" written on an outline of the State of California. Between the years 1971–1972 the \"A\" was lower-case while from 1973 to 1985 it was upper-case. It was in 1965, while the stadium was being finished, that Bud Furillo (of the Herald Examiner) coined its nickname, \"the Big A\" after the tall letter A that once stood beyond left-center field and served as the arena's primary scoreboard (it was later relocated to a section of the parking lot, south-east of the stadium). In 1986, the Angels adopted the \"big A\" on top of a baseball as their new logo, with the shadow of California in the background. After the \"big A\" was done in 1992, the Angels returned to their roots and re-adopted the interlocking \"CA\" logo with some differences. The Angels used this logo from 1993 to 1996, during that time, the \"CA\" was either on top of a blue circle or with nothing else. After the renovations of then-Anaheim Stadium and the takeover by the Walt Disney Company, the Angels changed their name to the \"Anaheim Angels\" along with changing the logo and color scheme. The first logo under Disney removed the halo and had a rather cartoon-like \"ANGELS\" script with a wing on the \"A\" over a periwinkle plate and crossed bats. With this change, the Angels' color scheme changed to dark blue and periwinkle. After a run with the \"winged\" logo from 1997 to 2001, Disney changed the Angels' logo back to a \"Big A\" with a silver halo over a dark blue baseball diamond. With this logo change, the colors changed to the team's current color scheme: predominantly red with some dark blue and white. When the team's name changed from the \"Anaheim Angels\" to the \"Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim\", the logo changed only slightly, the name \"ANAHEIM ANGELS\" and the blue baseball diamond were removed leaving only the \"Big A\". For the 2011 season, as part of the 50th anniversary of the Angels franchise, the halo on the 'Big A' logo temporarily changed colors from silver to old gold, paying tribute to the Angels logos of the past (and also the 50th Anniversary tradition of gold). The uniforms also reflected the change to the gold halo for this season. During the 50th Anniversary season the players wore throwback jerseys at each Friday home game reflecting all the different logos and uniforms previously worn by players. Also, Angels alumni from past seasons threw the ceremonious first pitch at every home game during the 50th Anniversary season. A new patch was added on the uniforms before the 2012 season, featuring a red circle encircling the words \"Angels Baseball\" and the club logo inside and flanking the year 1961 in the middle, which was the year the Angels franchise was established. With this new patch, the Angels' A with the halo now appears on three different locations of the jersey: the right shoulder, the wordmark, and the left shoulder.", ", the Angels' flagship radio station is Orange-licensed KLAA 830AM, which is owned by the Angels themselves and carries ESPN Radio programming. It replaces KSPN (710 ESPN), on which frequency had aired most Angels games since the team's inception in 1961. That station, then KMPC, aired games from to. In &, the flagship station became KRLA (1110AM). In, it was replaced by KLAC for four seasons, including the 2002 World Series season. The Angels 2010 broadcast line-up was thrown into doubt with the death of Rory Markas in January 2010. The Angels had announced in November 2009 that Markas and Mark Gubicza would broadcast Angels' televised games, with Terry Smith and José Mota handling the radio side. At the same time, the Angels announced that Steve Physioc and Rex Hudler would not return to the broadcasting team. On March 3, 2010 it was announced that Victor Rojas will replace Markas. In 2008, KLAA broadcast spring training games on tape delay from the beginning on February 28 to March 9 because of advertiser commitments to some daytime talk shows. Those games were available live only online. Live preseason broadcasts were to begin on March 10. In 2009, KFWB 980AM started broadcasting 110 weekday games, including postseason games, to better reach listeners in Los Angeles County and other areas to the north. All 162 games plus post season games still air on KLAA. In 2010, KSPN 710AM broadcast at least 60 weekday games. This was a partial return to their old station from 2007. Angels radio broadcasts are also in Spanish on KWKW 1330AM and KWKU 1220AM. Fox Sports West holds the exclusive rights to the regional telecasts of approximately 150 Angels home and away games. Fox owned and operated MyNetworkTV affiliate KCOP-TV broadcast select games from 2006 to 2011, but opted to move those games to Fox Sports West in 2012. As all MLB teams, select national Angels telecasts can be found on Fox, ESPN, TBS or MLB Network. During Disney's ownership of the franchise, the company planned to start an ESPN West regional sports network in 1999, which would also carry Mighty Ducks of Anaheim ice hockey games, but the plan was abandoned. During the 2009 season, Physioc and Hudler called about 100 games, while Markas and Gubicza had the remaining game telecasts (about 50, depending on ESPN and Fox exclusive national schedules). The split arrangement dated back to the 2007 season, when Mota and Gubicza were the second team. Markas debuted on TV in a three-game series at the Toronto Blue Jays in August 2007. Mota, who is bilingual and the son of former Dodger Manny Mota, has also called Angels games in Spanish, and at one time did analysis from the dugout rather than the usual booth position. All locally broadcast games are produced by FSN regardless of the outlet actually showing the games. Dick Enberg, who broadcast Angels baseball in the 1970s, is the broadcaster most identified with the Angels, using such phrases as \"Oh, my!\", \"Touch 'em all!\" after Angel home runs, and \"The halo shines tonight!\" Other former Angels broadcasters over the past three decades include Buddy Blattner, Don Wells, Dave Niehaus, Don Drysdale, Bob Starr, Joe Torre, Paul Olden, Al Wisk, Al Conin, Mario Impemba, Sparky Anderson, Jerry Reuss, Ken Wilson, Ken Brett, and Ron Fairly. Jerry Coleman also spent time with the Angels organization in the early 1970s as a pre-game and post-game host before joining the San Diego Padres broadcast team. From 1994 until the end of the 2012 season, the public address announcer for most Angels home games was David Courtney, who also served as the public address announcer for the Los Angeles Kings and Los Angeles Clippers and a traffic reporter for Angels flagship KLAA 830 AM until his death on November 29, 2012. Starting in the 2013 season, Michael Araujo, the PA Announcer for the LA Galaxy since 2002, was selected as the new public address announcer for the Angels. Anaheim Ducks announcer Phil Hulett serves as the secondary public address announcer.", "", "The Angels have a team Hall of Fame, with the following members:", "The Angels have one member in the Hall of Fame, Vladimir Guerrero, who was inducted in. Also, several Hall of Famers have spent part of their careers with the Angels and the Hall lists the Angels as the \"primary team\" of Nolan Ryan.", "The Los Angeles Angels farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Washington Senators (1961–1971).", "Texas Rangers (1972–present).", "First years in Texas (1972–1984).", "Valentine, Ryan, and Bush (1985–1994).", "First division titles (1995–2000).", "The lean years (2001–2004).", "Making changes (2005–2009).", "Rangers Baseball Express, LLC.", "Rise to contention (2010–2016).", "2017–present.", "Radio and television.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Ballpark.", "Mascot.", "Achievements.", "Baseball Hall of Famers.", "Texas Rangers Hall of Fame.", "Retired numbers.", "Team records.", "Minor league affiliations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "When the Washington Senators announced their move to Minnesota in 1960 to become the Twins, Major League Baseball decided to expand a year earlier than planned to stave off the twin threats of competition from the proposed Continental League and loss of its exemption from the Sherman Antitrust Act. As part of the expansion, the American League added two new teams for the 1961 season–the Los Angeles Angels and a new Washington Senators team. However, the new Senators were (and still are) considered an expansion team since the Twins retained the old Senators' records and history. The Senators and Angels began to fill their rosters with American League players in an expansion draft. The team played the season at old Griffith Stadium before moving to the new District of Columbia Stadium under a 10-year lease. For most of their existence, the new Senators were the definition of futility, losing an average of 90 games a season. The team's struggles led to a twist on a joke about the old Senators: \"Washington: first in war, first in peace and \"still\" last in the American League.\" Their only winning season was in when Hall of Famer Ted Williams managed the club to an 86–76 record, placing fourth in the AL East. Frank Howard, an outfielder/first baseman from 1965 to 1972 known for his towering home runs, was the team's most accomplished player, winning two home run titles. The concurrent rise of the Baltimore Orioles to regular championship contenders (winning their first World Series in ) did not help the Senators' cause either. Ownership changed hands several times during the franchise's stay in Washington and was often plagued by poor decision-making and planning. Following their brief success in 1969, owner Bob Short was forced to make many questionable trades to lower the debt he had incurred to pay for the team. By the end of the campaign, Short had issued an ultimatum: unless someone was willing to buy the Senators for $12 million (by comparison, the New York Yankees were sold in 1973 for $8.8 million), he would not renew the stadium lease and would move the team elsewhere. Short was especially receptive to an offer brought up by Arlington, Texas, mayor Tom Vandergriff, who had been trying to obtain a major league sports team to play in the Metroplex for over a decade. Years earlier, Charles O. Finley, the owner of the Kansas City Athletics, sought to relocate his baseball team to Dallas, but the idea was rebuffed and ultimately declined by the other AL team owners. Arlington's hole card was Turnpike Stadium, a 10,000-seat park which had been built in to house the Double-A Dallas-Fort Worth Spurs of the Texas League. However, it had been built to MLB specifications, and only minor excavations would be necessary to expand the park to accommodate major league crowds. Vandergriff's offer of a multimillion-dollar down payment prompted Short to make the move to Arlington. On September 21, 1971, by a vote of 10 to 2, American League owners granted approval to move the franchise to Arlington for the season. Senators fans were livid. Enmity came to a head at the club's last game in Washington. Thousands of fans simply walked in without paying after the security guards left early, swelling the paid attendance of 14,460 to around 25,000, while fans unfurled a banner reading \"SHORT STINKS\". With the Senators leading 7–5 and two outs in the top of the ninth inning, several hundred youths stormed the field, raiding it for souvenirs. One man grabbed first base and ran off with it. With no security in sight and only three bases, umpire crew chief Jim Honochick forfeited the game to the New York Yankees. The nation's capital went without Major League Baseball for 33 years until the relocation of the National League's Montreal Expos who became the Washington Nationals.", "", "Prior to the 1972 season, improvements were made to Turnpike Stadium, which reopened as Arlington Stadium, in preparation for the inaugural season of the Texas Rangers. The team played its first game on April 15, 1972, a 1–0 loss at the hands of the California Angels, their 1961 expansion cousins. The next day, the Rangers defeated the Angels, 5–1, for the club's first victory. In 1974, the Rangers experienced their first winning season after finishing last in both 1972 and 1973. Under the ownership of Brad Corbett, they finished second in the American League West with an 84–76 record, behind the eventual World Series champion Oakland Athletics. The 1974 Rangers are still the only MLB team to finish above.500 after two consecutive 100-loss seasons. Mike Hargrove was awarded American League Rookie of the Year, Billy Martin was named AL Manager of the Year, Jeff Burroughs won AL MVP, and Ferguson Jenkins was named the Comeback Player of the Year after winning 25 games, a club record to this day. The team posted winning records again from 1977 to 1979 but fell short of reaching the playoffs. The Rangers came very close to clinching a playoff spot in 1981, but wound up losing the first half of the AL West by one-and-a-half games to Oakland at the time of the players' strike. Texas went on to finish under.500 each season through 1985. The Rangers faced an attendance problem for a few years in Texas, due in part to both the team's inconsistent performance and the oppressive heat and humidity that can encompass the area in the summer. Until the Florida Marlins arrived in 1993, Arlington Stadium was often the hottest stadium in the majors, with temperatures frequently topping throughout the summer. So, the Rangers began playing most of their weekend games between May and September at night, a tradition that continues to this day.", "Manager Bobby Valentine became steward over an influx of talent in the late 1980s and early 1990s. A winning season in 1986 was a shock to pundits and fans alike as the Rangers remained in the race for the American League pennant for the entire season. With a team consisting of stellar young rookies such as Rubén Sierra, Pete Incaviglia, Mitch Williams, Bobby Witt, and Edwin Correa, the Rangers finished the season in second place with an 87–75 record, just five games behind the division-champion Angels. The season marked a dramatic 25-win improvement over the 1985 season, which resulted in yet another last-place finish in the West. The signing of 41-year-old star pitcher Nolan Ryan prior to the 1989 season allowed Ryan to reach his 5,000th strikeout, 300th win, and 6th and 7th no-hitters with the Rangers. Despite powerful lineups including the likes of Juan González, Rubén Sierra, Julio Franco, and Rafael Palmeiro and a pitching staff that also included Charlie Hough, Bobby Witt, Kevin Brown, and Kenny Rogers, Valentine's Rangers never finished above second place and he was relieved of his duties during the 1992 season. In April 1989, Rangers owner and oil tycoon Eddie Chiles, sold the team to an investment group headed by George W. Bush for $89 million. While his own equity in the team was a small one ($500,000), Bush was named Managing General Partner of the new ownership group. He increased his investment to $600,000 the following year. Bush left his position with the Rangers when he was elected Governor of Texas in 1994, and he sold his stake in the team in 1998. Bush went on to be elected President of the United States in 2000. During Bush's tenure, the Rangers and the City of Arlington decided to replace the aging Arlington Stadium with a new publicly funded stadium, at a cost of $193 million, financed by Arlington residents, through a sales tax increase. Ground was broken on October 30, 1991, on what would become The Ballpark in Arlington (now named Globe Life Park in Arlington). In 1993, Kevin Kennedy took over managerial duties, presiding over the team for two seasons, keeping the 1993 Rangers in the hunt for a playoff berth into mid-September; Nolan Ryan also retired after that season. Kennedy was let go in 1994, although the team led the AL West prior to the players' strike which prompted commissioner Bud Selig to cancel the remainder of the season and the playoffs. On July 28, Kenny Rogers pitched the 12th perfect game in major league history in Arlington against the California Angels.", "Johnny Oates was hired as the Rangers' manager in 1995. Oates and company helped to bring home the 1996 AL Western Division Championship, the first division championship in franchise history. The first playoff series, 24 years after the franchise came to Texas, saw the Rangers lose to the New York Yankees, 3 games to 1. Oates was named AL Manager of the Year and Juan González was named AL MVP. The team featured a powerful lineup of hitters including González, Iván Rodríguez, and Rusty Greer, but continued to struggle with pitching despite having Rick Helling and Aaron Sele on their roster. Oates led the team to consecutive AL West championships in 1998 and 1999. Neither of Oates' last two playoff teams could win a single game, losing all six in back-to-back sweeps at the hands of the Yankees, a team that won three World Series in the 1990s after defeating Rangers teams in the first round. The 1999 team was to be the last playoff-bound team until 2010. En route to a second-straight last-place finish, Oates resigned his position 28 games into the 2001 season. In 1998, venture capital billionaire Tom Hicks bought the team for $250 million.", "Prior to the 2001 season, star free agent shortstop Alex Rodriguez was signed by the Rangers in the most lucrative deal in baseball history: a 10-year, $252 million contract. The move was controversial and is frequently maligned by fans and writers who thought that owner Tom Hicks was placing too much emphasis on one player instead of utilizing team resources to acquire several players, especially for a team that lacked pitching talent. Club officials maintained that Rodriguez would be the cornerstone of future postseason success. Although Rodriguez's individual performance was outstanding, the Rangers continued to struggle, and manager Jerry Narron was fired following the 2002 season and was replaced by seasoned manager Buck Showalter. The 2003 season signified the Rangers' fourth-straight last-place finish, and after a postseason fallout between Rodriguez and club management, the reigning AL MVP and newly appointed Rangers captain was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Alfonso Soriano and infield prospect Joaquin Arias. The Rangers battled with the Anaheim Angels and Oakland Athletics for first place in the AL West for much of the 2004 season. Mark Teixeira, Alfonso Soriano, Michael Young, and Hank Blalock became some of the best-hitting infielders in the league, with Young, Blalock, and Soriano being selected for the 2004 All-Star Game. Soriano was named the All-Star MVP after going 2 for 3 with a three-run home run. Despite a late-season push, the Rangers ended up losing six of their final ten games and finished in third place behind the Angels and A's, a mere three games out of first place.", "In 2005, the Rangers again struggled to find consistency amid controversy and injuries. John Hart stepped down as general manager following the 2005 season. Jon Daniels was promoted from assistant general manager to replace him. Daniels, at 28 years and one month, became the youngest general manager in major league history. Daniels and the Rangers front office were very active in acquiring new players before and during the 2006 season. New acquisitions included Brad Wilkerson, Adam Eaton, Kevin Millwood, Carlos Lee, and Nelson Cruz. Despite bolstering their roster, the Rangers' 2006 season ended with a disappointing 80–82 record and a third-place finish in the AL West. Buck Showalter was dismissed as manager after the season. The team hired Oakland third base coach Ron Washington as their next manager. A change at manager was the first of several moves to strengthen the team in yet another busy offseason. The team lost Gary Matthews, Jr., Mark DeRosa, Carlos Lee, and Adam Eaton, but gained Kenny Lofton, Sammy Sosa, Frank Catalanotto, and pitchers Éric Gagné and Brandon McCarthy. The Rangers struggled offensively early in the 2007 season, despite playing in a notoriously hitter-friendly park. A number of roster moves before the 2007 trade deadline were the beginnings of a rebuilding project headed by Jon Daniels with a focus on the acquisition and development of young players. In the coming years, more club resources would be dedicated to improving the quality of the farm system and scouting departments, most notably in Latin America and the Far East. Daniels' objective was to field a legitimately competitive team by the 2010 season. The Rangers began the 2008 season exceptionally well, headlined by newcomer Josh Hamilton who looked to be a threat to win the Triple Crown, before fading off as the season wore on. During the All-Star festivities at Yankee Stadium, Hamilton crushed a first round home run record in the 2008 Home Run Derby with 28. Hamilton hit another four in the second round and three during the final round, for a total of 35 home runs, but lost to the Twins' Justin Morneau. Four Rangers played in the All Star Game: Hamilton, Ian Kinsler, Milton Bradley, and Michael Young, who would repeat his 2006 All-Star Game feat by driving in the winning run via a sac fly. The Rangers finished the season with yet another sub-.500 record (79–83), yet ended the season second in the AL West, the club's best finish since 1999. The 2009 season saw the Rangers soar into playoff contention for the first time since 2004. Despite injuries to Josh Hamilton and Ian Kinsler, the Rangers held first place in their division for long stretches of the summer before fading after September 1, losing the division to the Los Angeles Angels. The Rangers finished the season at 87–75, their first winning season since 2004 and good enough for second place in the AL West. Michael Young responded to his move to third base by posting one of his best offensive seasons ever while committing just nine errors and earning a sixth-straight All-Star appearance. Josh Hamilton and Nelson Cruz were also named 2009 AL All-Stars.", "Following financial problems, including defaulting on a $525 million loan, Tom Hicks and Hicks Sports Group reached an agreement to sell the Texas Rangers to group headed by Pittsburgh sports lawyer Chuck Greenberg and Rangers team president Nolan Ryan for approximately $570 million on January 22, 2010. Hicks also sold much of the land surrounding Rangers Ballpark to Greenberg and Ryan's group in a separate deal. However, one of HSG's principal lenders, Monarch Alternative Capital, opposed the sale on grounds that the proceeds would not fully repay the defaulted HSG notes. On April 21, Major League Baseball issued a statement declaring the Rangers' sale to be under the control of the Commissioner to expedite the process. As the stalemate between HSG and its creditors continued, the Texas Rangers filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy on May 24. As of that date, the Rangers and HSG had an estimated debt of $575 million. Much of the unsecured debt was owed in back salary. Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez topped the list of unsecured creditors with an estimated $24.9 million owed by the Rangers. The sale would repay all the team's creditors, including Rodriguez and other players owed back salary. Following a court-ordered public auction to be held on August 4 with the winning bid submitted by Greenberg/Ryan, the bankruptcy court closed the case. The sale to Greenberg/Ryan was approved by all 30 MLB owners at the owners meeting in Minneapolis on August 12. The new ownership group was called Rangers Baseball Express, LLC and had Chuck Greenberg serving as managing general partner and Nolan Ryan as club president. Oil magnates Ray Davis and Bob R. Simpson paid the bulk of the $539 million sale price, and became co-chairmen, with the largest stakes in the ownership group. However, they remained mostly in the background as senior consultants, leaving the team mostly in Greenberg and Ryan's hands.", "With the influx of talent and success in 2009, the Rangers entered the 2010 season expecting to compete for the division and achieve the front office's 2007 goals. During the off-season, Nolan Ryan spoke about the Rangers' chances in the upcoming season saying, \"My expectations today are that we're going to be extremely competitive and if we don't win our division, I'll be disappointed.\" After stumbling out of the gates with a sub-.500 start in April 2010, the Rangers took the division lead with a franchise-best month of June, going 21–6. The Rangers never relinquished first place after an 11-game winning streak. The team made several mid-season moves to acquire players such as Cliff Lee, Bengie Molina, Jorge Cantú, and Jeff Francoeur. After the All-Star Game, in which six Rangers were present, came the debut of the claw and antler hand gestures, which gained much popularity, especially after the release of various apparel and souvenir options. Foam claws and helmets with deer antlers became quite commonplace in the ballpark as the Rangers played further into the fall. The Rangers won the AL West on September 25, advancing to the postseason for the first time since 1999 with a 90–72 record. The Rangers entered the playoffs against the Tampa Bay Rays in the first round, which ultimately resulted in a 3–2 series victory and marked the first postseason series victory in the 50-year history of the Rangers/Washington Senators franchise. Facing the Rangers in the American League Championship Series were the defending World Champion New York Yankees, the team the Rangers failed against three separate times in the 1990s. In a six-game ALCS, Texas came out victorious, winning the first pennant in franchise history in front of an ecstatic home crowd. Josh Hamilton was awarded ALCS MVP. The Texas Rangers faced the San Francisco Giants in the 2010 World Series, but their offense struggled against the Giants' young pitching and eventually lost the Series, 4–1. In March 2011, Chick Greenberg resigned as Chief Executive and Managing General Partner and sold his interest in the Rangers after a falling out with his partners. Following his resignation, Nolan Ryan was named CEO in addition to his continuing role as team president. Ryan was subsequently approved as the team's controlling owner by a unanimous vote of the 30 owners of Major League Baseball on May 12. The Rangers successfully defended their AL West Division title in 2011, making the club's second-straight division title and postseason appearance. The Rangers set records for best win–loss record (96–66,.592) and home attendance (2,946,949). On October 15, they went back to the 2011 World Series after beating the Detroit Tigers 15–5 in game six of the ALCS. The series featured Nelson Cruz hitting six home runs, the most home runs by one player in a playoff series in MLB history. In game two, Cruz also became the first player in postseason history to win a game with a walk-off grand slam as the Rangers defeated the Tigers 7–3 in 11 innings. However, they proceeded to lose to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games, after twice being one strike away from the championship in game six. The Rangers dominated the American League standings for much of the 2012 season, but floundered in September, culminating in a sweep by the Oakland Athletics in the final series. They did, however, qualify for the first American League wild-card playoff game. In the new Wild Card Game, the Rangers' woes continued, as they lost 5–1 to the Orioles. The Rangers figured in the 2013 wild card as well. They finished the season in second place in the American League West with a 91–72 record, tied with the Tampa Bay Rays for a wild card spot. A 163rd play-in tie-breaker game was held to determine the second participant in the 2013 American League Wild Card Game against the Cleveland Indians. The Rangers lost to the Rays, 5–2, in the tie-breaker and were eliminated from playoff contention after reaching the postseason in three consecutive seasons. Nolan Ryan stepped down as Rangers CEO effective October 31, 2013. Since then, Daniels has served as operating head of the franchise, with Davis and Simpson continuing to serve mostly as senior consultants. Injuries took a major toll on the Rangers in 2014 and 2015. The lone bright spot was Adrián Beltré, who despite spending some time injured, was the most consistent offensive player on the team. With the acquisition of Cole Hamels in 2015, the Rangers overtook the Houston Astros to clinch the American League West title on the final day of the season with a record of 88–74. The Rangers went on to lose to the Toronto Blue Jays in five games in the Division Series after squandering a 2–0 series lead. Texas again clinched the AL West in 2016, but lost to Toronto, 3–0, in the ALDS.", "The Rangers finished the 2017 campaign 23 games out of first place with a 78–84 record. In 2018, the Rangers partnered with the KBO League's LG Twins, in business and baseball operations. On September 21, 2018, holding on to a 64–88 record, the Rangers fired Jeff Banister who had led the team since 2015. He was replaced by bench coach Don Wakamatsu for the remainder of the season. The Rangers ended the season at 67–95. Chris Woodward was later selected to be the team's manager beginning with the 2019 season. He led the team to a 78–84 record in his first season. The 2019 season also marked the Rangers' final season of play at Globe Life Park. They plan to move into the new Globe Life Field in 2020.", "", "In addition to the flagship stations listed above, Rangers games can be heard on affiliates throughout much of Texas, and also in parts of Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana, and New Mexico. Eric Nadel is the primary play-by-play announcer. He has called games for the club since 1979 beginning on television broadcasts, then moving exclusively to radio beginning in 1985. He became the primary announcer after the late Mark Holtz moved to television. Currently, Nadel provides play-by-play in the 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th, 8th, and 9th innings, and color commentary for the other innings. On December 11, 2013, he was awarded the 2014 Ford C. Frick Award by the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum for excellence in broadcasting. Matt Hicks now shares the broadcast booth with Nadel. He joined the broadcast in 2012 after Steve Busby moved from radio to television to replace Dave Barnett. Hicks provides play-by-play in the 3rd, 4th, and 7th innings, and color commentary for the other innings. Jared Sandler hosts the pre-game and post-game shows, and also fills in whenever Nadel or Hicks have a day off. For the Spanish radio affiliates, Eleno Ornelas is the play-by-play announcer, and former Rangers pitcher José Guzmán is the color analyst.", "Texas Rangers games currently air on regional television network Fox Sports Southwest. During the 2016 season, they had an average 3.96 rating and 105,000 viewers on primetime broadcasts. Due to the Rangers having to play many of their Sunday home games at night, the team has been featured frequently on ESPN's \"Sunday Night Baseball\" during the summer months. Rangers games can also be seen on MLB on Fox and TBS. Since 2017, Dave Raymond is the primary television play-by-play announcer and former MLB pitcher C. J. Nitkowski is the primary color commentator. Nitkowski also fills in for Raymond on play-by-play for select games. Raymond replaced Steve Busby, who since 1982 on both TV and radio has had various stints in various positions on Rangers broadcasts from play-by-play to color commentary to pre-game and post-game analysis. In June 2012, Busby moved back to television play-by-play after Dave Barnett left his position as game announcer following an episode in which he experienced speech difficulties. Beginning in 2016, Raymond substituted for Busby on select games. Previously the primary color commentator, Tom Grieve still broadcasts many games. A former Rangers player and general manager, Grieve has been in the TV booth since 1995, following the end of his tenure as GM. Another former Ranger, Mark McLemore, has substituted for Grieve in the past and often joins the booth for an inning during home games. He and former Ranger Iván Rodríguez are among the pre-game and post-game analysts used on Fox Sports Southwest. FSSW pre-game and post-game shows are hosted by a rotation among Dana Larson, John Rhadigan, Ric Renner, Erin Hartigan, and David Murphy. In-game reporters include Rhadigan, Hartigan, Lesley McCaslin, and Rangers employee Emily Jones (formerly of FSSW).", "Globe Life Field, under construction in Arlington, Texas, will serve as the home of the Texas Rangers beginning in 2020. It was scheduled to open on March 23, 2020. Globe Life and Accident Insurance Company, a subsidiary of McKinney-based Torchmark Corporation, owns the naming rights for the facility through 2048. The new ballpark is being constructed across the street just south of Globe Life Park.", "Rangers Captain is the mascot for the Texas Rangers. Introduced in 2002, he is a palomino-style horse, dressed in the team's uniform. He wears the uniform number 72 in honor of 1972, the year the Rangers relocated to Arlington. He has multiple uniforms to match each of the variants the team wears. Captain's outfits sometimes match a theme the team is promoting; on April 24, 2010, he was dressed up like Elvis Presley as part of an Elvis themed night.", "", "Chuck Hinton and Frank Howard, who played for the franchise in Washington (although Howard played for the Rangers in 1972), are listed on the Washington Hall of Stars display at Nationals Park in Washington. So are Gil Hodges and Mickey Vernon, who managed the \"New Senators\". Vernon also played for the \"Old Senators\", who became the Minnesota Twins.", "The Texas Rangers Hall of Fame was created in 2003 to honor the careers of former Texas Rangers players, managers, executives, and broadcasters. There are currently 20 members, with 2 additional members to be inducted on August 17, 2019. The Hall is located in Globe Life Park in Arlington, behind right field. The Hall's two levels cover and included a 235-seat theater and various plaques, photos, and memorabilia. It can accommodate up to 600 people.", "All of the Rangers' retired numbers are directly incorporated into the posted dimensions of Globe Life Field. The left-field foul line distance is 329 feet (Beltré), the deepest point of the ballpark is 410 feet (Young), straightaway center field is 407 feet (Rodríguez), the right-field foul line is 326 feet (Oates), and the backstop distance, measured from the rear point of home plate via a line running through second base, is 42 feet (Robinson). A sign just inside the left-field foul line is marked as 334 feet to honor Ryan. The power alleys, at 372 feet in left and 374 feet in right, respectively pay homage to the Rangers' first season in Arlington (1972) and first.500 season (1974).", "These are partial records of players with the best performance in distinct statistical categories during a single season.", "The Texas Rangers farm system consists of eight minor league affiliates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Team name.", "Elephant mascot.", "Team uniform.", "Ballpark.", "Improvements to the Coliseum.", "Championship Plaza.", "The Treehouse.", "A’s Stomping Ground.", "Premium Spaces.", "Other Additions.", "New Ballpark.", "Current proposals.", "Prior proposals.", "Fremont.", "San Jose.", "Peralta.", "Rivals.", "San Francisco Giants.", "Historic rivalries.", "Philadelphia Phillies.", "Achievements.", "Retired numbers.", "Athletics Hall of Fame.", "Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame.", "Philadelphia Baseball Wall of Fame.", "Season-by-season records.", "Individuals.", "Minor league affiliations.", "Radio and television.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "4", "4", "4", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The history of the Athletics Major League Baseball franchise spans the period from 1901 to the present day, having begun in Philadelphia before moving to Kansas City in 1955 and then to its current home in Oakland, California, in 1968. The A's made their Bay Area debut on Wednesday, April 17, 1968, with a 4–1 loss to the Baltimore Orioles at the Coliseum, in front of an opening-night crowd of 50,164.", "The Athletics' name originated in the term \"Athletic Club\" for local gentlemen's clubs—dates to 1860 when an amateur team, the Athletic (Club) of Philadelphia, was formed. (A famous image from that era, published in \"Harper's Weekly\" in 1866, shows the Athletic players dressed in uniforms displaying the familiar blackletter \"A\" on the front.) The team later turned professional through 1875, becoming a charter member of the National League in 1876, but were expelled from the N.L. after one season. A later version of the Athletics played in the American Association from 1882 to 1891.", "After New York Giants manager John McGraw told reporters that Philadelphia manufacturer Benjamin Shibe, who owned the controlling interest in the new team, had a \"white elephant on his hands\", team manager Connie Mack defiantly adopted the white elephant as the team mascot, and presented McGraw with a stuffed toy elephant at the start of the 1905 World Series. McGraw and Mack had known each other for years, and McGraw accepted it graciously. By 1909, the A's were wearing an elephant logo on their sweaters, and in 1918 it turned up on the regular uniform jersey for the first time. In 1963, when the A's were located in Kansas City, then-owner Charlie Finley changed the team mascot from an elephant to a mule, the state animal of Missouri. This is rumored to have been done by Finley in order to appeal to fans from the region who were predominantly Democrats at the time. (The traditional Republican Party symbol is an elephant, while the Democratic Party's symbol is a donkey.) Since 1988, the Athletics' 21st season in Oakland, an illustration of an elephant has adorned the left sleeve of the A's home and road uniforms. Beginning in the mid 1980s, the on-field costumed incarnation of the A's elephant mascot went by the name Harry Elephante. In 1997, he took his current form, Stomper. Stomper was debuted during Opening Night on April 2, 1997.", "Through the seasons, the Athletics' uniforms have usually paid homage to their amateur forebears to some extent. Until 1954, when the uniforms had \"Athletics\" spelled out in script across the front, the team's name never appeared on either home or road uniforms. Furthermore, neither \"Philadelphia\" nor the letter \"P\" ever appeared on the uniform or cap. The typical Philadelphia uniform had only a script \"A\" on the left front, and likewise the cap usually had the same \"A\" on it. In the early days of the American League, the standings listed the club as \"Athletic\" rather than \"Philadelphia\", in keeping with the old tradition. Eventually, the city name came to be used for the team, as with the other major league clubs. After buying the team in 1960, owner Charles O. Finley introduced new road uniforms with \"Kansas City\" printed on them, as well as an interlocking \"KC\" on the cap. Upon moving to Oakland, the \"A\" cap emblem was restored, although in 1970 an \"apostrophe-s\" was added to the cap and uniform emblem to reflect the fact that Finley was in the process of officially changing the team's name to the \"A's\". Also while in Kansas City, Finley changed the team's colors from their traditional red, white and blue to what he termed \"Kelly Green, Wedding Gown White and Fort Knox Gold\". It was also here that he began experimenting with dramatic uniforms to match these bright colors, such as gold sleeveless tops with green undershirts and gold pants. The innovative uniforms only increased after the team's move to Oakland, which also came at the time of the introduction of polyester pullover uniforms. During their dynasty years in the 1970s, the A's had dozens of uniform combinations with jerseys and pants in all three team colors, and in fact did not wear the traditional gray on the road, instead wearing green or gold, which helped to contribute to their nickname of \"The Swingin' A's\". After the team's sale to the Haas family, the team changed its primary color to a more subdued forest green and began a move back to more traditional uniforms. Currently, the team wears home uniforms with \"Athletics\" spelled out in script writing and road uniforms with \"Oakland\" spelled out in script writing, with the cap logo consisting of the traditional \"A\" with \"apostrophe-s\". The home cap is green with a gold bill and white lettering, while the road cap, debuting in 2014, is all green with \"A's\" in white with gold trim. Regardless of road or home games, the batting helmets used are green with gold brim. However, before 2009, when the black A's helmets appeared, road helmets were green with green brim. From 1994 until 2013, the A's wore green alternate jerseys with the word \"Athletics\" in gold. It was used on both road and home games. During the 2000s, the Athletics introduced black as one of their colors. They began wearing a black alternate jersey with \"Athletics\" written in green. After a brief discontinuance, the A's brought back the black jersey, this time with \"Athletics\" written in white with gold highlights. Commercially popular but rarely chosen as the alternate by players, in 2011 they were replaced by a new gold alternate jersey with \"A's\" in green on the left chest. With the exception of several road games during the 2011 season, the Athletics' gold uniforms are used as the designated home alternates. A green version of their gold alternates was introduced for the 2014 season to replace their previous green alternates. The new green alternates feature the piping, \"A's\" and lettering in white with gold trim. In 2018, as part of the franchise's 50th anniversary since the move to Oakland, the A's wore a kelly green alternate uniform with \"Oakland\" in white with gold trim, and was paired with an all-kelly green cap. The nickname \"A's\" has long been used interchangeably with \"Athletics\", dating to the team's early days when headline writers wanted a way to shorten the name. From 1972 through 1980, the team nickname was officially \"Oakland A's\", although, during that time, the Commissioner's Trophy, given out annually to the winner of baseball's World Series, still listed the team's name as the \"Oakland Athletics\" on the gold-plated pennant representing the Oakland franchise. According to Bill Libby's Book, \"Charlie O and the Angry A's\", owner Charlie O. Finley banned the word \"Athletics\" from the club's name because he felt that name was too closely associated with former Philadelphia Athletics owner Connie Mack, and he wanted the name \"Oakland A's\" to become just as closely associated with him. The name also vaguely suggested the name of the old minor league Oakland Oaks, which were alternatively called the \"Acorns\". New owner Walter Haas restored the official name to \"Athletics\" in 1981, but retained the nickname \"A's\" for marketing purposes. At first, the word \"Athletics\" was restored only to the club's logo, underneath the much larger stylized-\"A\" that had come to represent the team since the early days. By 1987, however, the word returned, in script lettering, to the front of the team's jerseys. Prior to the mid-2010s, the A's had a long-standing tradition of wearing white cleats team-wide (in line with the standard MLB practice that required all uniformed team members to wear a base cleat color), which date back to the Finley ownership. Since the mid-2010s, however, MLB has gradually relaxed its rules on specific sneaker colors that could be worn by individual players, and several A's players began wearing cleats in non-white colors, most notably Jed Lowrie's green cleats.", "The Oakland Alameda Coliseum—originally known as the Oakland–Alameda County Coliseum, and later named as Network Associates, McAfee, Overstock.com/O.co and RingCentral Coliseum—was built as a multi-purpose facility. Louisiana Superdome officials pursued negotiations with Athletics officials during the 1978–79 baseball offseason about moving the Athletics to the Superdome in New Orleans. The Athletics were unable to break their lease at the Coliseum, and remained in Oakland. After the Oakland Raiders football team moved to Los Angeles in 1982, many improvements were made to what was suddenly a baseball-only facility. The 1994 movie \"Angels in the Outfield\" was filmed in part at the Coliseum, filling in for Anaheim Stadium. Then, in 1995, a deal was struck whereby the Raiders would move back to Oakland for the 1995 season. The agreement called for the expansion of the Coliseum to 63,026 seats. The bucolic view of the Oakland foothills that baseball spectators enjoyed was replaced with a jarring view of an outfield grandstand contemptuously referred to as \"Mount Davis\" after Raiders' owner Al Davis. Because construction was not finished by the start of the 1996 season, the Athletics were forced to play their first six-game homestand at 9,300-seat Cashman Field in Las Vegas. Although official capacity was stated to be 43,662 for baseball, seats were sometimes sold in Mount Davis as well, pushing \"real\" capacity to the area of 60,000. The ready availability of tickets on game day made season tickets a tough sell, while crowds as high as 30,000 often seemed sparse in such a venue. On December 21, 2005, the Athletics announced that seats in the Coliseum's third deck would not be sold for the 2006 season, but would instead be covered with a tarp, and that tickets would no longer be sold in Mount Davis under any circumstances. That effectively reduced capacity to 34,077, making the Coliseum the smallest stadium in Major League Baseball. Beginning in 2008, sections 316–318 were the only open third-deck sections for A's games, which brought the total capacity to 35,067 until 2017 when new team president Dave Kaval took the tarps off of the upper deck, increasing capacity to 47,170. The Athletics were the last remaining MLB team to share a stadium with an NFL team on a full-time basis, a situation that ended at the end of 2019 when the Raiders relocated to Las Vegas in 2020 making the Coliseum a baseball-only facility once again. The Athletics' Spring training facility is Hohokam Stadium, located in Mesa, Arizona. From 1982 to 2014, their spring training facility was Phoenix Municipal Stadium, located in Phoenix, Arizona. Previous spring-training sites since they moved to Oakland in 1968 were Yuma and Mesa, Arizona, as well as Las Vegas, Nevada, all in the 1970s.", "In his time as president, Dave Kaval has enhanced the fan experience by making upgrades to the Oakland Coliseum, including the addition of a number of club and premium seating areas, renovating Shibe Park Tavern, and introducing three new fan areas: Championship Plaza, The Treehouse and a kids' zone.", "In 2017, the team created this new outdoor plaza in the space between the Coliseum and Oracle Arena. The grassy area is open to all ticketed fans, and it features food trucks, seating and games like corn hole for every A's home game.", "The A's introduced The Treehouse at the start of the 2018 season. The area is open to all fans and features two full-service bars, standing-room and lounge seating, numerous televisions and pre- and postgame entertainment.", "The A's Stomping Ground transformed part of the Eastside Club and the area near the right field flag poles into a fun and interactive space for kids and families. The inside section features a stage and video wall for interactive events, a digital experience that lets youngsters race their favorite A's players, replica A's dugouts, a simulated hitting and pitching machine, foosball, and a photo booth. The outside area includes play areas, a grassy seating area, drink rails for parents, and picnic tables. Later this season, the A's will add a miniature baseball field and spiderweb play area.", "The A's added three new premium spaces, including The Terrace, Lounge Seats, and the Coppola Theater Boxes, to the Coliseum for the 2019 season. The new premium seating options offer fans a high-end game day experience with luxury amenities. The team also added two new group spaces - the Budweiser Hero Deck and Golden Road Landing - to the Coliseum.", "Dave Kaval, the president of the team, has innovated the fan experience by removing the tarps on the upper deck, introducing a modern version of the beloved mechanical Harvey the Rabbit to deliver the first pitch ball, and naming the playing surface at the Coliseum \"Rickey Henderson Field.\" The Club hosted the first free game in MLB history for 46,028 fans on April 17, 2018 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the A's first game in Oakland. On July 21, 2018, the A's set a Coliseum record for the largest attendance with a crowd of 56,310 when the team played host to the San Francisco Giants.", "", "Since the mid-2000s, the A's have been in talks with Oakland and other Northern California cities about building a new baseball-only stadium. The team has said it wants to remain in Oakland. On November 28, 2018, the Athletics announced that the team had chosen to build its new 34,000-seat ballpark at the Howard Terminal site at the Port of Oakland. The team also announced its intent to purchase the Coliseum site and renovate it into a tech and housing hub, preserving Oakland Arena and reducing the Coliseum to a low-rise sports park as San Francisco did with Kezar Stadium.", "", "After the city of Oakland failed to make any progress toward a stadium, the A's began contemplating a move to the Warm Springs district of suburban Fremont. Fremont is about 25 miles south of Oakland; many nearby residents are already a part of the current Athletics fanbase. On November 7, 2006, many media sources announced the Athletics would be leaving Oakland as early as 2010 for a new stadium in Fremont, confirmed the next day by the Fremont City Council. The plan was strongly supported by Fremont Mayor Bob Wasserman. The team would have played in what was planned to be called Cisco Field, a 32,000-seat, baseball-only facility. The proposed ballpark would have been part of a larger \"ballpark village\" which would have included retail and residential development. On February 24, 2009, however, Lew Wolff released an open letter regarding the end of his efforts to relocate the A's to Fremont, citing \"real and threatened\" delays to the project. The project faced opposition from some in the community who thought the relocation of the A's to Fremont would increase traffic problems in the city and decrease property values near the ballpark site.", "In 2009, the City of San Jose attempted to open negotiations with the team regarding a move to the city. Although parcels of land south of Diridon Station would be acquired by the city as a stadium site, the San Francisco Giants' claim on Santa Clara County as part of their home territory would have to be settled before any agreement could be made. By 2010, San Jose was \"aggressively wooing\" A's owner Lew Wolff. Wolff referred to San Jose as the team's \"best option\", but Major League Baseball Commissioner Bud Selig said he would wait on a report on whether the team could move to the area because of the Giants conflict. In September 2010, 75 Silicon Valley CEOs drafted and signed a letter to Bud Selig urging a timely approval of the move to San Jose. In May 2011, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed sent a letter to Bud Selig asking the commissioner for a timetable of when he might decide whether the A's can pursue this new ballpark, but Selig did not respond. Selig addressed the San Jose issue via an online town hall forum held in July 2011, saying, \"Well, the latest is, I have a small committee who has really assessed that whole situation, Oakland, San Francisco, and it is complex. You talk about complex situations; they have done a terrific job. I know there are some people who think it's taken too long and I understand that. I'm willing to accept that. But you make decisions like this; I've always said, you'd better be careful. Better to get it done right than to get it done fast. But we'll make a decision that's based on logic and reason at the proper time.\" On June 18, 2013, the City of San Jose filed suit against Selig, seeking the court's ruling that Major League Baseball may not prevent the Oakland A's from moving to San Jose. Wolff criticized the lawsuit, stating he did not believe business disputes should be settled through legal action. Most of the city's claims were dismissed in October 2013, but a U.S. District Judge ruled that San Jose could move forward with its count that MLB illegally interfered with an option agreement between the city and the A's for land. On January 15, 2015, a three-judge panel of the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals ruled unanimously that the claims were barred by baseball's antitrust exemption, established by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1922 and upheld in 1953 and 1972. San Jose Mayor Sam Liccardo commented that the city would seek a ruling from the U.S. Supreme Court. On October 5, 2015, the United States Supreme Court rejected San Jose's bid on the Athletics.", "A 2017 plan would have placed a new 35,000 seat A's stadium near Laney College and the Eastlake neighborhood on the current site of the Peralta Community College District's administration buildings. The plan was announced by team president Dave Kaval in September 2017. However, just three months later, college officials abruptly ended the negotiations.", "", "The Bay Bridge Series is the name of a series games played between (and the rivalry of) the A's and San Francisco Giants of the National League. The series takes its name from the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge which links the cities of Oakland and San Francisco. Although competitive, the regional rivalry between the A's and Giants is considered a friendly one with mostly mutual companionship between the fans, as opposed to White Sox–Cubs, or Yankees–Mets games where animosity runs high. Hats displaying both teams on the cap are sold from vendors at the games, and once in a while the teams both dress in original team uniforms from the early era of baseball. The series is also occasionally referred to as the \"BART Series\" for the Bay Area Rapid Transit system that links Oakland to San Francisco. However, the name \"BART Series\" has never been popular beyond a small selection of history books and national broadcasters and has fallen out of favor. Bay Area locals almost exclusively refer to the rivalry as the \"Battle of the Bay\". Originally, the term described a series of exhibition games played between the two clubs after the conclusion of spring training, immediately prior to the start of the regular season. It was first used to refer to the 1989 World Series in which the Athletics won their most recent championship and the first time the teams had met since they moved to the San Francisco Bay Area (and the first time they had met since the A's also defeated the Giants in the 1913 World Series). Today, it also refers to games played between the teams during the regular season since the commencement of interleague play in 1997. Through the 2018 regular season, the Athletics have won 63 games, and the Giants have won 57 contests. The A's also have edges on the Giants in terms of overall postseason appearances (18-12), division titles (16-8) and World Series titles (4-3) since both teams moved to the Bay Area, even though the Giants franchise moved there a decade earlier than the A's did. On March 24, 2018, the Oakland A's announced that for the Sunday March 25, 2018 exhibition game against the San Francisco Giants, A's fans would be charged $30 for parking and Giants fans would be charged $50. However, the A's stated that Giants fans could receive $20 off if they shout \"Go A's\" at the parking gates. In 2018, the Athletics and Giants started battling for a \"Bay Bridge\" Trophy made from steel taken from the old bay bridge which was taken down after a new bridge was opened in 2013. The A's won the inaugural season with the trophy, allowing them to place their logo atop its bay bridge stand.", "", "The City Series was the name of a series of baseball games played between the Athletics and the Philadelphia Phillies of the National League that ran from 1903 through 1955. After the A's move to Kansas City in 1955, the City Series rivalry came to an end. Since the introduction of interleague play in 1997, the teams have since faced each other during the regular season (with the first games taking place in 2003) but the rivalry has effectively died in the intervening years since the A's left Philadelphia. In 2014, when the A's faced the Phillies in inter-league play at the Oakland Coliseum, the Athletics didn't bother to mark the historical connection, going so far as to have a Connie Mack promotion the day before the series while the Texas Rangers were in Oakland. The first City Series was held in 1883 between the Phillies and the American Association Philadelphia Athletics. When the Athletics first joined the American League, the two teams played each other in a spring and fall series. No City Series was held in 1901 and 1902 due to legal warring between the National League and American League.", "", "The Athletics have retired six numbers, and honored one additional individual with the letter \"A\". Walter A. Haas, Jr., owner of the team from 1980 until his death in 1995, was honored by the retirement of the letter \"A\". Of the six players with retired numbers, five were retired for their play with the Athletics and one, 42, was universally retired by Major League Baseball when they honored the 50th anniversary of Jackie Robinson's breaking the color barrier. No A's player from the Philadelphia era has his number retired by the organization. Though Jackson and Hunter played small portions of their careers in Kansas City, no player that played the majority of his years in the Kansas City era has his number retired either. The A's have retired only the numbers of Hall-of-Famers who played large portions of their careers in Oakland. The Athletics have all of the numbers of the Hall-of-Fame players from the Philadelphia Athletics displayed at their stadium, as well as all of the years that the Philadelphia Athletics won World Championships (1910, 1911, 1913, 1929, and 1930). The Athletics will retire #34 again for pitcher Dave Stewart on May 23, 2020. It will be the first time the Athletics have retired a number a second time and the first time they will have honored a non-Hall-of-Famer.", "On September 5, 2018, the Athletics held a ceremony to induct seven members into the inaugural class of the team's Hall of Fame. Each member was honored with an unveiling of a painting in their likeness and a bright green jacket. Hunter, who died in 1999, was represented by his widow, while Finley, who died in 1996, was represented by his son. If the team ever gets a new stadium, a physical site will be designated for the Hall of Fame, as the Coliseum does not have enough space for a full-fledged exhibit.", "17 members of the Athletics organization have been honored with induction into the Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame.", "The Athletics have all of the numbers of the Hall-of-Fame players from the Philadelphia Athletics displayed at their stadium, as well as all of the years that the Philadelphia Athletics won World Championships (1910, 1911, 1913, 1929, and 1930). Also, from 1978 to 2003 (except 1983), the Philadelphia Phillies inducted one former Athletic (and one former Phillie) each year into the Philadelphia Baseball Wall of Fame at the then-existing Veterans Stadium. 25 Athletics have been honored. In March 2004, after Veterans Stadium was replaced by the new Citizens Bank Park, the Athletics' plaques were relocated to the Philadelphia Athletics Historical Society in Hatboro, Pennsylvania, and a single plaque listing all of the A's inductees was attached to a statue of Connie Mack that is located across the street from Citizens Bank Park.", "The records of the Athletics' last ten seasons in Major League Baseball are listed below.", "Khris Davis (outfielder/hitter) has been called “the most consistent hitter in baseball history” with his 2014 to 2018 season averages of.244,.247,.247,.247, and.247.", "The Oakland Athletics farm system consists of seven minor league affiliates.", "As of the 2020 season, the Oakland Athletics have had 14 radio homes. Since 2020, the Athletics' have not had a flagship radio station but instead have a partnership with TuneIn which includes a free live 24/7 exclusive A's station branded as \"A's Cast\" to stream the radio broadcast within the Athletics market and other A's programming. The Athletics are the only team in Major League Baseball to not have a radio partner in their home market and one of only two teams (the other being the National Hockey League Los Angeles Kings) to not have a home market radio partner in the big 4 major sports leagues. The announcing team features Ken Korach and Vince Cotroneo. Television coverage is exclusively on NBC Sports California. Some A's games air on an alternate feed of NBCS, called NBCS Plus, if the main channel shows a Sacramento Kings game at the same time. On TV, Glen Kuiper covers play-by-play, and Ray Fosse typically provides color commentary. Kuiper and Fosse are frequently joined by Dallas Braden, who adds additional color from the field level.", "The 2003 Michael Lewis book \"Moneyball\" chronicles the 2002 Oakland Athletics season, with a specific focus on Billy Beane's economic approach to managing the organization under significant financial constraints. Beginning in June 2003, the book remained on \"The New York Times\" Best Seller list for 18 consecutive weeks, peaking at number 2. In 2011, Columbia Pictures released a film adaptation based on Lewis' book, which featured Brad Pitt playing the role of Beane. On September 19, 2011, the U.S. premiere of \"Moneyball\" was held at the Paramount Theatre in Oakland, which featured a green carpet for attendees to walk, rather than the traditional red carpet." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and adolescence.", "Travelling the world.", "Growth of writing career.", "Personal life.", "Failing health.", "Legacy.", "List of works.", "Honours and awards.", "Commemoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "White was born in Knightsbridge, London, to Victor Martindale White and Ruth (née Withycombe), both Australians, in their apartment overlooking Hyde Park, London on 28 May 1912. His family returned to Sydney, Australia, when he was six months old. As a child he lived in a flat with his sister, a nanny, and a maid while his parents lived in an adjoining flat. In 1916 they moved to a house in Elizabeth Bay that many years later became a nursing home, Lulworth House, the residents of which included Gough Whitlam, Neville Wran, and White's partner Manoly Lascaris. At the age of four, White developed asthma, a condition that had taken the life of his maternal grandfather. White's health was fragile throughout his childhood, which precluded his participation in many childhood activities. He loved the theatre, which he first visited at an early age (his mother took him to see \"The Merchant of Venice\" at the age of six). This love was expressed at home when he performed private rites in the garden and danced for his mother's friends. At the age of five, he attended kindergarten at Sandtoft in Woollahra, in Sydney's Eastern Suburbs. At the age of ten, White was sent to Tudor House School, a boarding school in Moss Vale in the Southern Highlands of New South Wales, in an attempt to abate his asthma. It took him some time to adjust to the presence of other children. At boarding school, he started to write plays. Even at this early age, White wrote about palpably adult themes. In 1924, the boarding school ran into financial trouble, and the headmaster suggested for White to be sent to a public school in England, a suggestion that his parents accepted. White struggled to adjust to his new surroundings at Cheltenham College, England. He later described it as \"a four-year prison sentence\". White withdrew socially and had a limited circle of acquaintances. Occasionally, he would holiday with his parents at European locations, but their relationship remained distant. However he did spend time with his cousin Jack Withycombe during this period, and Jack's daughter Elizabeth Withycombe became a mentor to him while he was writing his first book of poems, \"Thirteen Poems\" between the years 1927–29. While at school in London, White made one close friend, Ronald Waterall, an older boy who shared similar interests. White's biographer, David Marr, wrote that \"the two men would walk, arm-in-arm, to London shows; and stand around stage doors crumbing for a glimpse of their favourite stars, giving a practical demonstration of a chorus girl's high kick... with appropriate vocal accompaniment\". When Waterall left school, White withdrew again. He asked his parents if he could leave school to become an actor. The parents compromised and allowed him to finish school early if he came home to Australia to try life on the land. His parents felt that he should work on the land rather than become a writer and hoped that his work as a jackaroo would temper his artistic ambitions. White spent two years working as a stockman at Bolaro, a station near Adaminaby, on the edge of the Snowy Mountains, in southeastern Australia. Although he grew to respect the land and his health improved, it was clear that he was not cut out for this life.", "From 1932 to 1935, White lived in England, studying French and German literature at King's College, Cambridge University. During his time at Cambridge he developed a romantic attraction to a young man who had come to King's College to become an Anglican priest. White dared not speak of his feelings for fear of losing the friendship and, like many other gay men of that period, he feared that his sexuality would doom him to a lonely life. Then, one night, the student priest, after an awkward liaison with two women, admitted to White that women meant nothing to him sexually. That became White's first love affair. During White's time at Cambridge he published a collection of poetry entitled \"The Ploughman and Other Poems\", and wrote a play named \"Bread and Butter Women\", which was later performed by an amateur group (which included his sister Suzanne) at the tiny Bryant's Playhouse in Sydney. After being admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts in 1935, White briefly settled in London, where he lived in an area that was frequented by artists. There, the young author thrived creatively for a time, writing several unpublished works and reworking \"Happy Valley\", a novel that he had written while jackarooing. In 1937, White's father died, leaving him ten thousand pounds in inheritance. The fortune enabled him to write full-time in relative comfort. Two more plays followed before he succeeded in finding a publisher for \"Happy Valley\". The novel was received well in London but poorly in Australia. He began writing another novel, \"Nightside\", but abandoned it before its completion after receiving negative comments, a decision that he later admitted regretting. In 1936, White met the painter Roy De Maistre, 18 years his senior, who became an important influence in his life and work. The two men never became lovers but remained firm friends. In White's own words, \"He became what I most needed, an intellectual and aesthetic mentor\". They had many similarities: they were both gay and they both felt like outsiders in their own families; as a result they both had ambivalent feelings about their families and backgrounds, yet both maintained close and lifelong links with their families, particularly their mothers. They also both appreciated the benefits of social standing and connections and Christian symbolism and biblical themes are common in both artists' work. White dedicated his first novel \"Happy Valley\" to De Maistre and acknowledged De Maistre's influence on his writing. In 1947, De Maistre's painting \"Figure in a Garden (The Aunt)\" was used as the cover for the first edition of White's \"The Aunt's Story\". White bought many of De Maistre's paintings. In 1974 White gave all his paintings by De Maistre to the Art Gallery of New South Wales. Towards the end of the 1930s, White spent time in the United States, including Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and New York City, which were artistic hotbeds at the time, where he wrote \"The Living and the Dead\". By the time World War II broke out, he had returned to London and joined the British Royal Air Force. He was accepted as an intelligence officer, and was posted to the Middle East. He served in Egypt, Palestine, and Greece before the war was over. While in the Middle East, he had an affair with a Greek army officer, Manoly Lascaris, who was to become his life partner. White and Lascaris lived together in Cairo for six years before moving to a small farm purchased by White at Castle Hill, near Sydney, in 1948. After the death of White's mother in 1963, they moved into a large house, Highbury, in Centennial Park, where they lived for the rest of their lives.", "After the war, White once again returned to Australia, buying an old house in Castle Hill, now a Sydney suburb but then semi-rural. He named the house \"The Dogwoods,\" after trees he planted there. In this house, he settled down with Lascaris, the Greek he had met during the war. They lived there for 18 years, selling flowers, vegetables, milk, and cream as well as pedigreed puppies. During these years he started to make a reputation for himself as a writer, publishing \"The Aunt's Story\" and \"The Tree of Man\" in the United States in 1955 and shortly after in the United Kingdom. \"The Tree of Man\" was released to rave reviews in the United States, but in what had become a typical pattern, it was panned in Australia. White had doubts about whether to continue writing after his books were largely dismissed in Australia (three of them having been called 'un-Australian' by critics), but, in the end, he decided to persevere. His first breakthrough in Australia came when his next novel, \"Voss\", won the inaugural Miles Franklin Literary Award. In 1961, White published \"Riders in the Chariot\". It was to become both a bestseller and a prizewinner, gaining him a second Miles Franklin Award. In 1963, White and Lascaris decided to sell the house at Castle Hill that they had named \"Dogwoods\". A number of White's works from the 1960s depict the fictional town of Sarsaparilla, including his collection of short stories, \"The Burnt Ones\", and the play, \"The Season at Sarsaparilla\". By now, he had clearly established his reputation as one of the world's great authors, but remained an essentially private person, resisting opportunities for interviews and public appearances although his circle of friends had widened significantly. In 1968, White wrote \"The Vivisector\", a searing character portrait of an artist. Many people drew links to the Sydney painter John Passmore (1904–84) and White's friend, the painter Sidney Nolan, but White denied the connections. Patrick White was an art collector who had, as a young man, been deeply impressed by his friends Roy De Maistre and Francis Bacon, and later said he wished he had been an artist. By the mid-1960s, he had also become interested in encouraging dozens of young and less established artists, such as James Clifford, Erica McGilchrist, and Lawrence Daws. White was later friends with Brett Whiteley, the young star of Australian painting, in the 1970s. That friendship ended when White felt that Whiteley, a heroin addict, was deceitful and pushy about selling his paintings. A portrait of White by Louis Kahan won the 1962 Archibald Prize. White decided not to accept any more prizes for his work, and he declined both the $10,000 Britannia Award and another Miles Franklin Award. White was approached by Harry M. Miller to work on a screenplay for \"Voss\" but nothing came of it. He became an active opponent of literary censorship and joined a number of other public figures in signing a statement of defiance against Australia's decision to participate in the Vietnam War. His name had sometimes been mentioned as a contender for the Nobel Prize in Literature, but in 1971, after losing to Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, he wrote to a friend: \"That Nobel Prize! I hope I never hear it mentioned again. I certainly don't want it; the machinery behind it seems a bit dirty, when we thought that only applied to Australian awards. In my case to win the prize would upset my life far too much, and it would embarrass me to be held up to the world as an Australian writer when, apart from the accident of blood, I feel I am temperamentally a cosmopolitan Londoner\". Nevertheless, in 1973, White did accept the Nobel Prize \"for an epic and psychological narrative art, which has introduced a new continent into literature\". His cause was said to have been championed by a Scandinavian diplomat resident in Australia. White enlisted Nolan to travel to Stockholm to accept the prize on his behalf. The award had an immediate impact on his career, as his publisher doubled the print run for \"The Eye of the Storm\" and gave him a larger advance for his next novel. White used the money from the prize to establish a trust to fund the Patrick White Award, given annually to established creative writers who have received little public recognition. He was invited by the House of Representatives to be seated on the floor of the House in recognition of his achievement. White declined, explaining that his nature could not easily adapt itself to such a situation. The last time such an invitation had been extended was in 1928, to Bert Hinkler. White was made Australian of the Year for 1974, but in a typically rebellious fashion, his acceptance speech encouraged Australians to spend the day reflecting on the state of the country. Privately, he was less than enthusiastic about it. In a letter to Marshall Best on 27 January 1974, he wrote: \"Something terrible happened to me last week. There is an organisation which chooses an Australian of the Year, who has to appear at an official lunch in Melbourne Town Hall on Australia Day. This year I was picked on as they had run through all the swimmers, tennis players, yachtsmen\".", "White and Lascaris hosted many dinner parties at Highbury, their Centennial Park home, in a leafy part of the affluent Eastern Suburbs of Sydney. In \"Patrick White, A Life\", his biographer David Marr portrays White as a genial host but one who easily fell out with friends. White supported the conservative, business oriented Liberal Party of Australia until the election of Gough Whitlam's Labor government and, following the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, he became particularly antiroyalist, making a rare appearance on national television to broadcast his views on the matter. White also publicly expressed his admiration for the historian Manning Clark, satirist Barry Humphries, and unionist Jack Mundey.", "During the 1970s, White's health began to deteriorate: his teeth were crumbling, his eyesight was failing, and he had chronic lung problems - however, he also became a more openly political person, and began sometimes commenting on current issues. He was among the first group of Companions of the Order of Australia in 1975 but resigned in June 1976 in protest at the dismissal of the Whitlam government in November 1975 by the Governor-General Sir John Kerr. In 1979, his novel \"The Twyborn Affair\" was shortlisted for the Booker Prize, but White requested that it to be removed to give younger writers a chance to win. (The prize was won by Penelope Fitzgerald, who ironically was just four years younger than White.) Soon after, White announced that he had written his last novel, and from then on, he would write only for radio or the stage. Director Jim Sharman introduced himself to White while walking down a Sydney street, some time after White had seen a politically loaded stage revue by Sharman, \"Terror Australis\", which had been panned by Sydney newspaper critics, and had written a letter to the editor of a newspaper defending the show. White felt somewhat cautious at first, not least due to the gulf in age between them, but after a while the two men became friends and Sharman and his theatrical circle, as well as his visual style as a director, would inspire White to a couple of new plays, notably \"Big Toys\" with its satirical portrayal of a posh and vulgar upper-class Sydney society. A few years later, Sharman asked White if he could make a film of \"The Night the Prowler\". White agreed and wrote the screenplay for the film. In 1981, White published his autobiography, \"Flaws in the Glass: a self-portrait\", which explored issues about which he had publicly said little such as his homosexuality, his dislike of the \"subservient\" attitude of Australian society towards Britain and the Royal family, and also the distance he had felt towards his mother. On Palm Sunday, 1982, White addressed a crowd of 30,000 people, calling for a ban on uranium mining and for the destruction of nuclear weapons. In 1986 White released one last novel, \"Memoirs of Many in One\", but it was published under the pen name \"Alex Xenophon Demirjian Gray\" with White named as editor. In the same year, \"Voss\" was turned into an opera, with music by Richard Meale and the libretto adapted by David Malouf. White refused to see it when it was first performed at the Adelaide Festival of Arts, because Queen Elizabeth II had been invited, and chose instead to see it later in Sydney. In 1987, White wrote \"Three Uneasy Pieces\", with his musings on ageing and society's efforts to achieve aesthetic perfection. When David Marr finished his biography of White in July 1990, his subject spent nine days going over the details with him. White died in Sydney on 30 September 1990.", "In 2009, The Sydney Theatre Company staged White's play \"The Season at Sarsaparilla\". In 2010 White received posthumous recognition for his novel \"The Vivisector\", which was shortlisted for the Lost Man Booker Prize for 1970. In 2011 Fred Schepisi's film of \"The Eye of the Storm\" was released with screenplay adaptation by Judy Morris, Geoffrey Rush playing the son Basil, Judy Davis as the daughter Dorothy, and Charlotte Rampling as the dying matriarch Elizabeth Hunter. This is the first screen realisation of a White novel, fittingly the one that played a key role in the Swedish panel's choice of White as Nobel prize winner.", "Novels Short story collections Poetry Thirteen Poems / under the pseudonym Patrick Victor Martindale. – Sydney : Privately printed, (ca. 1929) The Ploughman and Other Poems. – Sydney : Beacon Press, (1935) Plays Screenplay Autobiography", "In 1970, White was offered a knighthood but declined it. Both White and Nugget Coombs were members of the first group of six people appointed Companion of the Order of Australia (AC) in the civil division, (now called the general division). The awards were announced in the 1975 Queen's Birthday Honours List. They both resigned from the order in 1976, when the Knight of the Order of Australia (AK) was created.", "White is commemorated by the Patrick White Lawns adjacent to the National Library of Australia in Canberra. The lawns are on two levels, with the part nearest the library about wide from the approximately retaining wall of the main library entrance esplanade and higher than the lower lawn. The lawns extend from the library north to Lake Burley Griffin and provide a venue for concerts and other large scale public events under the auspices of the National Capital Authority." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Origins.", "History.", "Saint Columba (565).", "D. Mackenzie (1871 or 1872).", "Alexander Macdonald (1888).", "George Spicer (1933).", "Hugh Gray (1933).", "Arthur Grant (1934).", "\"Surgeon's photograph\" (1934).", "Taylor film (1938).", "William Fraser (1938).", "Sonar readings (1954).", "Peter MacNab (1955).", "Dinsdale film (1960).", "\"Loch Ness Muppet\" (1977).", "Holmes video (2007).", "Sonar image (2011).", "George Edwards photograph (2011).", "David Elder video (2013).", "Apple Maps photograph (2014).", "Google Street View (2015).", "Searches.", "Edward Mountain expedition (1934).", "Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau (1962–1972).", "Sonar study (1967–1968).", "Robert Rines studies (1972, 1975, 2001, 2008).", "Operation Deepscan (1987).", "\"Searching for the Loch Ness Monster\" (2003).", "DNA survey (2018).", "Explanations.", "Misidentification of known animals.", "Bird wakes.", "Eels.", "Elephant.", "Greenland shark.", "Wels catfish.", "Resident animals.", "Misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects.", "Trees.", "Seiches and wakes.", "Optical effects.", "Seismic gas.", "Folklore.", "Hoaxes.", "Exotic large-animal species.", "Plesiosaur.", "Long-necked giant amphibian.", "Invertebrate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The creature has been", "The first modern discussion of a sighting of a strange creature in the loch may have been in the 1870s, when D. Mackenzie claimed to have seen something \"wriggling and churning up the water\". This account was not published until 1934, however. Research indicates that several newspapers did publish items about a creature in the loch well before 1934. The best-known article that first attracted a great deal of attention about a creature was published on 2 May 1933 in \"Inverness Courier\", about a large \"beast\" or \"whale-like fish\". The article by Alex Campbell, water bailiff for Loch Ness and a part-time journalist, discussed a sighting by Aldie Mackay of an enormous creature with the body of a whale rolling in the water in the loch while she and her husband John were driving on the A82 on 15 April 1933. The word \"monster\" was reportedly applied for the first time in Campbell's article, although some reports claim that it was coined by editor Evan Barron. \"The Courier\" in 2017 published excerpts from the Campbell article, which had been titled \"Strange Spectacle in Loch Ness\". \"The creature disported itself, rolling and plunging for fully a minute, its body resembling that of a whale, and the water cascading and churning like a simmering cauldron. Soon, however, it disappeared in a boiling mass", "", "The earliest report of a monster in the vicinity of Loch Ness appears in the \"Life of St. Columba\" by Adomnán, written in the sixth century AD. According to Adomnán, writing about a century after the events described, Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he encountered local residents burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man was swimming in the river when he was attacked by a \"water beast\" which mauled him and dragged him underwater. They had tried to rescue him in a boat but he was killed. Columba sent a follower, Luigne moccu Min, to swim across the river. The beast approached him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and said: \"Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once.\" The creature stopped as if it had been \"pulled back with", "In October 1871 (or 1872), D. Mackenzie of Balnain reportedly saw an object resembling a log or an upturned boat \"wriggling and churning", "In 1888, mason Alexander Macdonald of Abriachan sighted \"a large stubby-legged animal\" surfacing from the loch and propelling itself", "Modern interest in the monster was sparked by a sighting on 22 July 1933, when George Spicer and his wife saw \"a most extraordinary form of animal\" cross the road in front of their car. They described the creature as having a large body (about high and long) and a long, wavy, narrow neck, slightly thicker than an elephant's trunk and as long as the width of the road. They saw no limbs. It lurched", "Hugh Gray's photograph taken near Foyers on 12 November 1933 was the first photograph alleged to depict the monster. It was slightly blurred, and it has been noted that if one looks closely the head of a dog can be seen. Gray had taken his Labrador for a", "On 5 January 1934 a motorcyclist, Arthur Grant, claimed to have nearly hit the creature while approaching Abriachan (near the north-eastern end of the loch) at about 1 a.m. on a moonlit night. According to Grant, it had a small head attached to a long neck; the creature saw him, and crossed the road back to the loch. Grant, a veterinary student, described it as", "The \"surgeon's photograph\" is reportedly the first photo of the creature's head and neck. Supposedly taken by Robert Kenneth Wilson, a London gynaecologist, it was published in the \"Daily Mail\" on 21 April 1934. Wilson's refusal to have his name associated with it led to it being known as the \"surgeon's photograph\". According to Wilson, he was looking at the loch when he saw the monster, grabbed his camera and snapped four photos. Only two exposures came out clearly; the first reportedly shows a small head and back, and the second shows a similar head in a diving position. The first photo became well known, and the second attracted little publicity because", "On 29 May 1938, South African tourist G. E. Taylor filmed something in the loch for three minutes on 16 mm colour film. The film was", "On 15 August 1938, William Fraser, chief constable of Inverness-shire, wrote a letter that the monster existed beyond doubt and expressed concern about a hunting party which had", "In December 1954, sonar readings were taken by the fishing boat \"Rival III\". Its crew noted a large", "Peter MacNab at Urquhart Castle on 29 July 1955 took a photograph that depicted two long black humps in the water. The photograph was not made public until it appeared in Constance Whyte's 1957 book on the subject. On 23 October 1958 it was published by the \"Weekly Scotsman\". Author Ronald Binns wrote that the", "Aeronautical engineer Tim Dinsdale filmed a hump which left a wake crossing Loch Ness in 1960. Dinsdale, who reportedly had the sighting on his final day of search, described it as reddish with a blotch on its side. He said that when he mounted his camera the object began to move, and he shot 40 feet of film. According to JARIC, the object was \"probably animate\". Others were sceptical, saying", "On 21 May 1977 Anthony \"Doc\" Shiels, camping next to Urquhart Castle, took \"some of the clearest pictures of the monster until this day\". Shiels, a magician and psychic, claimed to have summoned the animal out of the water. He", "On 26 May 2007, 55-year-old laboratory technician Gordon Holmes videotaped what he said was \"this jet black thing, about long, moving fairly fast in the water.\" Adrian Shine, a marine biologist at the Loch Ness 2000", "On 24 August 2011 Loch Ness boat captain Marcus Atkinson photographed a sonar image of a, unidentified object which seemed to follow his boat for", "On 3 August 2012, skipper George Edwards claimed that a photo he took on 2 November 2011 shows \"Nessie\". Edwards claims to have searched for the monster for 26 years, and reportedly spent 60 hours per week on the loch aboard his boat, \"Nessie Hunter IV\", taking tourists for rides on the lake. Edwards said, \"In my opinion, it probably looks kind of like a manatee, but not a mammal. When people see three humps, they're probably just seeing three separate monsters.\" Other researchers have questioned the photograph's authenticity, and Loch Ness researcher Steve Feltham suggested that the object in the water is a fibreglass", "On 27 August 2013, tourist David Elder presented a five-minute video of a \"mysterious wave\" in the loch. According to Elder, the wave was produced by a \"solid black object\" just under the surface of the water. Elder, 50, from East Kilbride, South", "On 19 April 2014, it was reported that a satellite image on Apple Maps showed what appeared to be a large creature (thought by some to be the Loch", "Google commemorated the 81st anniversary of the \"surgeon's photograph\" with a Google Doodle, and added a new feature to Google Street View with which users can explore the", "", "After reading Rupert Gould's \"The Loch Ness Monster and Others\", Edward Mountain financed a search. Twenty men with binoculars and cameras positioned themselves around the loch from 9 am to 6 pm for", "The \"Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau\" (LNPIB) was a UK-based society formed in 1962 by Norman Collins, R. S. R. Fitter, politician David James, Peter Scott and Constance Whyte \"to study Loch Ness to identify the creature known as the Loch Ness Monster or determine the causes of reports of it\". The society's name was later shortened to", "D. Gordon Tucker, chair of the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering at the University of Birmingham, volunteered his services as a sonar developer and expert at Loch Ness in 1968. His gesture, part of a larger effort led by the LNPIB from 1967 to 1968, involved collaboration between volunteers and professionals in a number of fields.", "In 1972, a group of researchers from the Academy of Applied Science led by Robert H. Rines conducted a search for the monster involving sonar examination of the loch depths for unusual activity. Rines took precautions to avoid murky water with floating wood and peat. A submersible camera with a floodlight was deployed to record images below the surface. If Rines detected anything on the sonar, he turned the light on and took pictures. On 8 August, Rines' Raytheon DE-725C sonar unit, operating at a frequency of 200 kHz and anchored at a depth of, identified a moving target (or targets) estimated by echo strength at in length. Specialists from", "Operation Deepscan was conducted in 1987. Twenty-four boats equipped with echo sounding equipment were deployed across the width of the loch, and simultaneously sent acoustic waves. According to BBC News the scientists had made sonar contact with an unidentified object of unusual size and strength. The researchers returned, re-scanning the area. Analysis of the echosounder images seemed to indicate debris at the", "In 2003, the BBC sponsored a search of the loch using 600 sonar beams and satellite tracking. The search had sufficient resolution to identify a", "An international team consisting of researchers from the universities of Otago, Copenhagen, Hull and the Highlands and Islands, did a DNA survey of the lake in June 2018, looking for unusual species. The results were published in 2019; there was no DNA of large fish such as sharks, sturgeons and catfish. There was no otter or seal DNA either. A lot", "A number of explanations have been suggested to account for sightings of the creature. According to Ronald Binns, a former member of the Loch Ness Phenomena Investigation Bureau, there is probably no single explanation of the monster. Binns wrote two sceptical books, the 1983 \"The Loch Ness Mystery Solved\", and his 2017 \"The Loch Ness Mystery Reloaded\". In these he contends that an aspect of human psychology is the ability of the eye to see what it wants, and expects, to see. They may be categorised as misidentifications of known animals, misidentifications of inanimate objects or effects, reinterpretations of Scottish folklore, hoaxes, and exotic species of large animals. A reviewer wrote that Binns had \"evolved into the author of... the definitive, skeptical book on the subject\". Binns does not call the sightings a hoax, but \"a myth in the true sense of the term\" and states that the \"'monster is a sociological... phenomenon....After 1983 the search... (for the) possibility that there just \"might\" be continues to enthrall a small number for whom eye-witness evidence outweighs all other considerations\".", "", "Wakes have been reported when the loch is calm, with no boats nearby. Bartender David Munro reported a wake he believed was a creature", "A large eel was an early suggestion for what the \"monster\" was. Eels are found in Loch Ness, and an unusually large one would explain many sightings. Dinsdale dismissed the hypothesis because eels undulate side to side like snakes. Sightings in 1856 of a \"sea-serpent\" (or kelpie) in a freshwater lake near Leurbost in the", "In a 1979 article, California biologist Dennis Power and geographer Donald Johnson claimed that the \"surgeon's photograph\" was the top of the head, extended trunk and flared nostrils of a swimming elephant photographed elsewhere", "Zoologist, angler and television presenter Jeremy Wade investigated the creature in 2013 as part of the series \"River Monsters\", and concluded that it is a Greenland shark. The Greenland shark, which can reach up to 20 feet in", "In July 2015 three news outlets reported that Steve Feltham, after a vigil at the loch which was recognized", "It is difficult to judge the size of an object in water through a telescope or binoculars with no external reference. Loch Ness has resident otters, and photos of them and deer swimming in the loch which were cited by author Ronald Binns may have been misinterpreted. According to Binns, birds may be mistaken for a \"head and neck\" sighting.", "", "In 1933, the \"Daily Mirror\" published a picture with the caption: \"This queerly-shaped tree-trunk, washed ashore at Foyers [on Loch Ness] may, it is thought, be responsible for the reported appearance of a 'Monster. In a 1982 series of articles for \"New Scientist\", Maurice Burton proposed that sightings of Nessie", "Loch Ness, because of its long, straight shape, is subject to unusual ripples affecting its surface. A seiche is a large oscillation", "Wind conditions can give a choppy, matte appearance to the water with calm patches appearing dark from the shore (reflecting the mountains). In 1979", "Italian geologist Luigi Piccardi has proposed geological explanations for ancient legends and myths. Piccardi noted that in the earliest recorded sighting of a creature (the \"Life of Saint Columba\"), the creature's emergence was accompanied \"\"cum ingenti fremitu\"\" (\"with loud roaring\"). The Loch Ness is along the Great Glen Fault, and this could be a description of an earthquake. Many reports consist only of a large disturbance on the surface of the water; this could be a release of gas through the fault, although it may be mistaken for something swimming below the surface.", "In 1980 Swedish naturalist and author Bengt Sjögren wrote that present beliefs in lake monsters such as the Loch Ness Monster are associated with kelpie legends. According to Sjögren, accounts of loch monsters have changed over time; originally describing horse-like creatures, they were intended to keep", "A number of hoax attempts have been made, some of which were successful. Other hoaxes were revealed rather quickly by the perpetrators or exposed after diligent research. A few examples follow. In August 1933, Italian journalist Francesco Gasparini submitted what he said was the first news article on the Loch Ness Monster. In 1959, he reported sighting a \"strange fish\" and fabricated eyewitness accounts: \"I had the inspiration to get hold of the item about the strange fish. The idea of the monster had never dawned on me, but then I noted that the strange fish would not yield a long article, and I decided to promote the imaginary being to the rank of monster without further ado.\" In the 1930s, big-game hunter Marmaduke Wetherell went to Loch Ness to look for the monster. Wetherell claimed to have found footprints, but when casts of the footprints were sent to scientists for analysis they turned out to be from a hippopotamus; a prankster had used a hippopotamus-foot umbrella stand. In 1972 a team", "", "In 1933 it was suggested that the creature \"bears a striking resemblance to the supposedly extinct plesiosaur\", a long-necked aquatic reptile which became extinct during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. A popular explanation at the time, the following arguments", "R. T. Gould suggested a long-necked newt; Roy Mackal examined", "In 1968 F. W. (Ted) Holiday proposed that Nessie and other lake monsters, such as Morag, may be a large invertebrate such as a bristleworm; he cited the extinct \"Tullimonstrum\" as an example of the shape. According to Holiday, this explains the land sightings and the variable back shape; he likened it to the medieval description of dragons as \"worms\". Although this theory was considered by Mackal, he found it less convincing than eels, amphibians or plesiosaurs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Morphology.", "Theca structure and formation.", "The dinoflagellate nucleus: dinokaryon.", "Classification.", "Identification.", "Ecology and physiology.", "Habitats.", "Endosymbionts.", "Nutritional strategies.", "Blooms.", "Harmful algal blooms.", "Bioluminescence.", "Lipid and sterol production.", "Transport.", "Life cycle.", "Genomics.", "Evolutionary history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1753, the first modern dinoflagellates were described by Henry Baker as \"Animalcules which cause the Sparkling Light in Sea Water\", and named by Otto Friedrich Müller in 1773. The term derives from the Greek word δῖνος (\"dinos\"), meaning whirling, and Latin \"flagellum\", a diminutive term for a whip or scourge. In the 1830s, the German microscopist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg examined many water and plankton samples and proposed several dinoflagellate genera that are still used today including \"Peridinium, Prorocentrum\", and \"Dinophysis\". These same dinoflagellates were first defined by Otto Bütschli in 1885 as the flagellate order Dinoflagellida. Botanists treated them as a division of algae, named Pyrrophyta or Pyrrhophyta (\"fire algae\"; Greek \"pyrr(h)os\", fire) after the bioluminescent forms, or Dinophyta. At various times, the cryptomonads, ebriids, and ellobiopsids have been included here, but only the last are now considered close relatives. Dinoflagellates have a known ability to transform from noncyst to cyst-forming strategies, which makes recreating their evolutionary history extremely difficult.", "Dinoflagellates are unicellular and possess two dissimilar flagella arising from the ventral cell side (dinokont flagellation). They have a ribbon-like transverse flagellum with multiple waves that beats to the cell's left, and a more conventional one, the longitudinal flagellum, that beats posteriorly. The transverse flagellum is a wavy ribbon in which only the outer edge undulates from base to tip, due to the action of the axoneme which runs along it. The axonemal edge has simple hairs that can be of varying lengths. The flagellar movement produces forward propulsion and also a turning force. The longitudinal flagellum is relatively conventional in appearance, with few or no hairs. It beats with only one or two periods to its wave. The flagella lie in surface grooves: the transverse one in the cingulum and the longitudinal one in the sulcus, although its distal portion projects freely behind the cell. In dinoflagellate species with desmokont flagellation (e.g., \"Prorocentrum\"), the two flagella are differentiated as in dinokonts, but they are not associated with grooves. Dinoflagellates have a complex cell covering called an amphiesma or cortex, composed of a series of membranes, flattened vesicles called alveolae (= amphiesmal vesicles) and related structures. In armoured dinoflagellates, these support overlapping cellulose plates to create a sort of armor called the theca or lorica, as opposed to athecate dinoflagellates. These occur in various shapes and arrangements, depending on the species and sometimes on the stage of the dinoflagellate. Conventionally, the term tabulation has been used to refer to this arrangement of thecal plates. The plate configuration can be denoted with the plate formula or tabulation formula. Fibrous extrusomes are also found in many forms. Together with various other structural and genetic details, this organization indicates a close relationship between the dinoflagellates, the Apicomplexa, and ciliates, collectively referred to as the alveolates. Dinoflagellate tabulations can be grouped into six \"tabulation types\": gymnodinoid, suessoid, gonyaulacoid–peridinioid, nannoceratopsioid, dinophysioid, and prorocentroid. The chloroplasts in most photosynthetic dinoflagellates are bound by three membranes, suggesting they were probably derived from some ingested algae. Most photosynthetic species contain chlorophylls \"a\" and c2, the carotenoid beta-carotene, and a group of xanthophylls that appears to be unique to dinoflagellates, typically peridinin, dinoxanthin, and diadinoxanthin. These pigments give many dinoflagellates their typical golden brown color. However, the dinoflagellates \"Karenia brevis, Karenia mikimotoi,\" and \"Karlodinium micrum\" have acquired other pigments through endosymbiosis, including fucoxanthin. This suggests their chloroplasts were incorporated by several endosymbiotic events involving already colored or secondarily colorless forms. The discovery of plastids in the Apicomplexa has led some to suggest they were inherited from an ancestor common to the two groups, but none of the more basal lines has them. All the same, the dinoflagellate cell consists of the more common organelles such as rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lipid and starch grains, and food vacuoles. Some have even been found with a light-sensitive organelle, the eyespot or stigma, or a larger nucleus containing a prominent nucleolus. The dinoflagellate \"Erythropsidium\" has the smallest known eye. Some athecate species have an internal skeleton consisting of two star-like siliceous elements that has an unknown function, and can be found as microfossils. Tappan gave a survey of dinoflagellates with internal skeletons. This included the first detailed description of the pentasters in \"Actiniscus pentasterias\", based on scanning electron microscopy. They are placed within the order Gymnodiniales, suborder Actiniscineae.", "The formation of thecal plates has been studied in detail through ultrastructural studies.", "'Core dinoflagellates' (dinokaryotes) have a peculiar form of nucleus, called a dinokaryon, in which the chromosomes are attached to the nuclear membrane. These carry reduced number of histones. In place of histones, dinoflagellate nuclei contain a novel, dominant family of nuclear proteins that appear to be of viral origin, thus are called dinoflagellate/ viral nucleoproteins (DVNPs) which are highly basic, bind DNA with similar affinity to histones, and occur in multiple posttranslationally modified forms. Dinoflagellate nuclei remain condensed throughout interphase rather than just during mitosis, which is closed and involves a uniquely extranuclear mitotic spindle. This sort of nucleus was once considered to be an intermediate between the nucleoid region of prokaryotes and the true nuclei of eukaryotes, so were termed mesokaryotic, but now are considered advanced rather than primitive traits. In addition to dinokaryotes, DVNPs can be found in a group of basal dinoflagellates (known as Marine Alveolates, \"MALVs\") that branch as sister to dinokaryotes (Syndiniales).", "Dinoflagellates are protists which have been classified using both the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN, now renamed as ICN) and the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). About half of living dinoflagellate species are autotrophs possessing chloroplasts and half are nonphotosynthesising heterotrophs. The peridinin dinoflagellates, named after their peridinin plastids, appears to be ancestral for the dinoflaggelate lineage. Almost half of all known species have chloroplasts, which are either the original peridinin plastids or new plastids acquired from other lineages of unicellular algae through endosymbiosis. The remaining species have lost their photosynthetic abilities and have adapted to a heterotrophic, parasitic or kleptoplastic lifestyle. Most (but not all) dinoflagellates have a dinokaryon, described below (see: Life cycle, below). Dinoflagellates with a dinokaryon are classified under Dinokaryota, while dinoflagellates without a dinokaryon are classified under Syndiniales. Although classified as eukaryotes, the dinoflagellate nuclei are not characteristically eukaryotic, as some of them lack histones and nucleosomes, and maintain continually condensed chromosomes during mitosis. The dinoflagellate nucleus was termed ‘mesokaryotic’ by Dodge (1966), due to its possession of intermediate characteristics between the coiled DNA areas of prokaryotic bacteria and the well-defined eukaryotic nucleus. This group, however, does contain typically eukaryotic organelles, such as Golgi bodies, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. Jakob Schiller (1931–1937) provided a description of all the species, both marine and freshwater, known at that time. Later, Alain Sournia (1973, 1978, 1982, 1990, 1993) listed the new taxonomic entries published after Schiller (1931–1937). Sournia (1986) gave descriptions and illustrations of the marine genera of dinoflagellates, excluding information at the species level. The latest index is written by Gómez.", "English-language taxonomic monographs covering large numbers of species are published for the Gulf of Mexico, the Indian Ocean, the British Isles, the Mediterranean and the North Sea. The main source for identification of freshwater dinoflagellates is the \"Süsswasser Flora\". Calcofluor-white can be used to stain thecal plates in armoured dinoflagellates.", "", "Dinoflagellates can occur in all aquatic environments: marine, brackish, and fresh water, including in snow or ice. They are also common in benthic environments and sea ice.", "All Zooxanthellae are dinoflagellates and most of them are members within the genus \"Symbiodinium\". The association between \"Symbiodinium\" and reef-building corals is widely known. However, endosymbiontic Zooxanthellae inhabit a great number of other invertebrates and protists, for example many sea anemones, jellyfish, nudibranchs, the giant clam \"Tridacna\", and several species of radiolarians and foraminiferans. Many extant dinoflagellates are parasites (here defined as organisms that eat their prey from the inside, i.e. endoparasites, or that remain attached to their prey for longer periods of time, i.e. ectoparasites). They can parasitize animal or protist hosts. \"Protoodinium, Crepidoodinium, Piscinoodinium\", and \"Blastodinium\" retain their plastids while feeding on their zooplanktonic or fish hosts. In most parasitic dinoflagellates, the infective stage resembles a typical motile dinoflagellate cell.", "Three nutritional strategies are seen in dinoflagellates: phototrophy, mixotrophy, and heterotrophy. Phototrophs can be photoautotrophs or auxotrophs. Mixotrophic dinoflagellates are photosynthetically active, but are also heterotrophic. Facultative mixotrophs, in which autotrophy or heterotrophy is sufficient for nutrition, are classified as amphitrophic. If both forms are required, the organisms are mixotrophic \"sensu stricto\". Some free-living dinoflagellates do not have chloroplasts, but host a phototrophic endosymbiont. A few dinoflagellates may use alien chloroplasts (cleptochloroplasts), obtained from food (kleptoplasty). Some dinoflagellates may feed on other organisms as predators or parasites. Food inclusions contain bacteria, bluegreen algae, small dinoflagellates, diatoms, ciliates, and other dinoflagellates. Mechanisms of capture and ingestion in dinoflagellates are quite diverse. Several dinoflagellates, both thecate (e.g. \"Ceratium hirundinella\", \"Peridinium globulus\") and nonthecate (e.g. \"Oxyrrhis marina\", \"Gymnodinium\" sp. and \"Kofoidinium\" spp.), draw prey to the sulcal region of the cell (either via water currents set up by the flagella or via pseudopodial extensions) and ingest the prey through the sulcus. In several \"Protoperidinium\" spp., e.g. \"P. conicum\", a large feeding veil — a pseudopod called the pallium — is extruded to capture prey which is subsequently digested extracellularly (= pallium-feeding). \"Oblea\", \"Zygabikodinium\", and \"Diplopsalis\" are the only other dinoflagellate genera known to use this particular feeding mechanism. \"Katodinium (Gymnodinium) fungiforme\", commonly found as a contaminant in algal or ciliate cultures, feeds by attaching to its prey and ingesting prey cytoplasm through an extensible peduncle. Two related species, polykrikos kofoidii and neatodinium, shoots out a harpoon-like organelle to capture prey. The feeding mechanisms of the oceanic dinoflagellates remain unknown, although pseudopodial extensions were observed in \"Podolampas bipes\".", "Dinoflagellate blooms are generally unpredictable, short, with low species diversity, and with little species succession. The low species diversity can be due to multiple factors. One way a lack of diversity may occur in a bloom is through a reduction in predation and a decreased competition. The first may be achieved by having predators reject the dinoflagellate, by, for example, decreasing the amount of food it can eat. This additionally helps prevent a future increase in predation pressure by cause predators that reject it to lack the energy to breed. A species can then inhibit the growth of its competitors, thus achieving dominance.", "Dinoflagellates sometimes bloom in concentrations of more than a million cells per millilitre. Under such circumstances, they can produce toxins (generally called dinotoxins) in quantities capable of killing fish and accumulating in filter feeders such as shellfish, which in turn may be passed on to people who eat them. This phenomenon is called a red tide, from the color the bloom imparts to the water. Some colorless dinoflagellates may also form toxic blooms, such as \"Pfiesteria\". Some dinoflagellate blooms are not dangerous. Bluish flickers visible in ocean water at night often come from blooms of bioluminescent dinoflagellates, which emit short flashes of light when disturbed. The same red tide mentioned above is more specifically produced when dinoflagellates are able to reproduce rapidly and copiously on account of the abundant nutrients in the water. Although the resulting red waves are an unusual sight, they contain toxins that not only affect all marine life in the ocean, but the people who consume them, as well. A specific carrier is shellfish. This can introduce both nonfatal and fatal illnesses. One such poison is saxitoxin, a powerful paralytic neurotoxin. Human inputs of phosphate further encourage these red tides, so strong interest exists in learning more about dinoflagellates, from both medical and economic perspectives. Dinoflagellates are known to be particularly capable of scavenging dissolved organic phosphorus for P-nutrient, several HAS species have been found to be highly versatile and mechanistically diversified in utilizing different types of DOPs. The ecology of harmful algal blooms is extensively studied.", "At night, water can have an appearance of sparkling light due to the bioluminescence of dinoflagellates. More than 18 genera of dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, and the majority of them emit a blue-green light. These species contain scintillons, individual cytoplasmic bodies (about 0.5 μm in diameter) distributed mainly in the cortical region of the cell, outpockets of the main cell vacuole. They contain dinoflagellate luciferase, the main enzyme involved in dinoflagellate bioluminescence, and luciferin, a chlorophyll-derived tetrapyrrole ring that acts as the substrate to the light-producing reaction. The luminescence occurs as a brief (0.1 sec) blue flash (max 476 nm) when stimulated, usually by mechanical disturbance. Therefore, when mechanically stimulated—by boat, swimming, or waves, for example—a blue sparkling light can be seen emanating from the sea surface. Dinoflagellate bioluminescence is controlled by a circadian clock and only occurs at night. Luminescent and nonluminescent strains can occur in the same species. The number of scintillons is higher during night than during day, and breaks down during the end of the night, at the time of maximal bioluminescence. The luciferin-luciferase reaction responsible for the bioluminescence is pH sensitive. When the pH drops, luciferase changes its shape, allowing luciferin, more specifically tetrapyrrole, to bind. Dinoflagellates can use bioluminescence as a defense mechanism. They can startle their predators by their flashing light or they can ward off potential predators by an indirect effect such as the \"burglar alarm\". The bioluminescence attracts attention to the dinoflagellate and its attacker, making the predator more vulnerable to predation from higher trophic levels. Bioluminescent dinoflagellate ecosystem bays are among the rarest and most fragile, with the most famous ones being the Bioluminescent Bay in La Parguera, Lajas, Puerto Rico; Mosquito Bay in Vieques, Puerto Rico; and Las Cabezas de San Juan Reserva Natural Fajardo, Puerto Rico. Also, a bioluminescent lagoon is near Montego Bay, Jamaica, and bioluminescent harbors surround Castine, Maine. Within the United States, Central Florida is home to the Indian River Lagoon which is abundant with dinoflagellates in the summer and bioluminescent ctenophore in the winter.", "Dinoflagellates produce characteristic lipids and sterols. One of these sterols is typical of dinoflagellates and is called dinosterol.", "Dinoflagellate theca can sink rapidly to the seafloor in marine snow.", "Dinoflagellates have a haplontic life cycle, with the possible exception of \"Noctiluca\" and its relatives. The life cycle usually involves asexual reproduction by means of mitosis, either through desmoschisis or eleuteroschisis. More complex life cycles occur, more particularly with parasitic dinoflagellates. Sexual reproduction also occurs, though this mode of reproduction is only known in a small percentage of dinoflagellates. This takes place by fusion of two individuals to form a zygote, which may remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate fashion and is then called a planozygote. This zygote may later form a resting stage or hypnozygote, which is called a dinoflagellate cyst or dinocyst. After (or before) germination of the cyst, the hatchling undergoes meiosis to produce new haploid cells. Dinoflagellates appear to be capable of carrying out several DNA repair processes that can deal with different types of DNA damage", "One of their most striking features is the large amount of cellular DNA that dinoflagellates contain. Most eukaryotic algae contain on average about 0.54 pg DNA/cell, whereas estimates of dinoflagellate DNA content range from 3–250 pg/cell, corresponding to roughly 3000–215 000 Mb (in comparison, the haploid human genome is 3180 Mb and hexaploid \"Triticum\" wheat is 16 000 Mb). Polyploidy or polyteny may account for this large cellular DNA content, but earlier studies of DNA reassociation kinetics and recent genome analyses do not support this hypothesis. Rather, this has been attributed, hypothetically, to the rampant retroposition found in dinoflagellate genomes. In addition to their disproportionately large genomes, dinoflagellate nuclei are unique in their morphology, regulation, and composition. Their DNA is so tightly packed it is still uncertain exactly how many chromosomes they have. The dinoflagellates share an unusual mitochondrial genome organisation with their relatives, the Apicomplexa. Both groups have very reduced mitochondrial genomes (around 6 kilobases (kb) in the Apicomplexa vs ~16kb for human mitochondria). One species, \"Amoebophrya ceratii\", has lost its mitochondrial genome completely, yet still has functional mitochondria. The genes on the dinoflagellate genomes have undergone a number of reorganisations, including massive genome amplification and recombination which have resulted in multiple copies of each gene and gene fragments linked in numerous combinations. Loss of the standard stop codons, trans-splicing of mRNAs for the mRNA of cox3, and extensive RNA editing recoding of most genes has occurred. The reasons for this transformation are unknown. In a small group of dinoflagellates, called ‘dinotoms’ (Durinskia and Kryptoperidinium), the endosymbionts (diatoms) still have mitochondria, making them the only organisms with two evolutionarily distinct mitochondria. In most of the species, the plastid genome consist of just 14 genes. The DNA of the plastid in the peridinin-containing dinoflagellates is contained in a series of small circles. Each circle contains one or two polypeptide genes. The genes for these polypeptides are chloroplast-specific because their homologs from other photosynthetic eukaryotes are exclusively encoded in the chloroplast genome. Within each circle is a distinguishable 'core' region. Genes are always in the same orientation with respect to this core region. In terms of DNA barcoding, ITS sequences can be used to identify species, where a genetic distance of p≥0.04 can be used to delimit species, which has been successfully applied to resolve long-standing taxonomic confusion as in the case of resolving the Alexandrium tamarense complex into five species. A recent study revealed a substantial proportion of dinoflagellate genes encode for unknown functions, and that these genes could be conserved and lineage-specific.", "Dinoflagellates are mainly represented as fossils by fossil dinocysts, which have a long geological record with lowest occurrences during the mid-Triassic, whilst geochemical markers suggest a presence to the Early Cambrian. Some evidence indicates dinosteroids in many Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks might be the product of ancestral dinoflagellates (protodinoflagellates). Molecular phylogenetics show that dinoflagellates are grouped with ciliates and apicomplexans (=Sporozoa) in a well-supported clade, the alveolates. The closest relatives to dinokaryotic dinoflagellates appear to be apicomplexans, \"Perkinsus, Parvilucifera\", syndinians, and \"Oxyrrhis\". Molecular phylogenies are similar to phylogenies based on morphology. The earliest stages of dinoflagellate evolution appear to be dominated by parasitic lineages, such as perkinsids and syndinians (e.g. \"Amoebophrya\" and \"Hematodinium\"). All dinoflagellates contain red algal plastids or remnant (nonphotosynthetic) organelles of red algal origin. The parasitic dinoflagellate \"Hematodinium\" however lacks a plastid entirely. Some groups that have lost the photosynthetic properties of their original red algae plastids has obtained new photosynthetic plastids (chloroplasts) through so-called serial endosymbiosis, both secondary and tertiary. Like their original plastids, the new chloroplasts in these groups can be traced back to red algae, except from those in the members of the genus Lepidodinium, which possess plastids derived from green algae, possibly Trebouxiophyceae or Ulvophyceae. Lineages with tertiary endosymbiosis are Dinophysis, with plastids from a cryptomonad, the Karenia, Karlodinium, and Takayama, which possess plastids of haptophyte origin, and the Peridiniaceae, Durinskia and Kryptoperidinium, which has plastids derived from diatoms Some species also perform kleptoplasty. Dinoflagellate evolution has been summarized into five principal organizational types: prorocentroid, dinophysoid, gonyaulacoid, peridinioid, and gymnodinoid. The transitions of marine species into fresh water have been infrequent events during the diversification of dinoflagellates and in most cases have not occurred recently, possibly as late as the Cretaceous. Recently, the \"living fossil\" \"Dapsilidinium pastielsii\" was found inhabiting the Indo-Pacific Warm Pool, which served as a refugium for thermophilic dinoflagellates." ] }

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{ "title": [ "State of the Byzantine Empire.", "Preparations.", "European support.", "Strength.", "Ottoman dispositions and strategies.", "Byzantine dispositions and strategies.", "Siege.", "Aftermath.", "Cultural references.", "Legends.", "Cultural impact.", "Impact on the Renaissance.", "Renaming of the city." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Constantinople had been an imperial capital since its consecration in 330 under Roman emperor Constantine the Great. In the following eleven centuries, the city had been besieged many times but was captured only once: before the Sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The crusaders established an unstable Latin state in and around Constantinople while the remainder of the Byzantine empire splintered into a number of successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. They fought as allies against the Latin establishments, but also fought among themselves for the Byzantine throne. The Nicaeans eventually reconquered Constantinople from the Latins in 1261,", "When Mehmed II succeeded his father in 1451, he was just nineteen years old. Many European courts assumed that the young Ottoman ruler would not seriously challenge Christian hegemony in the Balkans and the Aegean. This calculation was boosted by Mehmed's friendly overtures to the European envoys at his new court. But Mehmed's mild words were not matched by his actions. By early 1452, work began on the construction of a second fortress (\"Rumeli hisarı\") on the European side of the Bosphorus, several miles north of Constantinople. The new fortress sat directly across the strait from the \"Anadolu Hisarı\" fortress, built by Mehmed's great-grandfather Bayezid I. This pair of fortresses ensured complete control of sea traffic on the Bosphorus and defended against attack by the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast to the north. In fact, the new fortress was called \"Boğazkesen\", which means \"strait-blocker\" or \"throat-cutter\", to emphasize its strategic position. In October 1452, Mehmed ordered Turakhan Beg to station a large garrison force in the Peloponnese to block Thomas and Demetrios (despotes in Southern Greece) from providing aid to their brother Constantine XI Palaiologos during the impending siege of Constantinople. The Greek historian Michael Critobulus quotes Mehmed II's speech to his soldiers before the siege:", "Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI swiftly understood Mehmed's true intentions and turned to Western Europe for help; but now the price of centuries of war and enmity between the eastern and western churches had to be paid. Since the mutual excommunications of 1054, the Pope in Rome was committed to establishing authority over the eastern church. The union was agreed by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1274, at the Second Council of Lyon, and indeed, some Palaiologoi emperors had since been received into the Latin Church. Emperor John VIII Palaiologos had also recently negotiated union with Pope Eugene IV, with the Council of Florence of 1439 proclaiming a \"Bull of Union\". The imperial efforts to impose", "The army defending Constantinople was relatively small, totalling about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners. At the onset of the siege, probably fewer than 50,000 people were living within the walls, including the refugees from the surrounding area. Turkish commander Dorgano, who was in Constantinople working for the Emperor, was also guarding one of the quarters of the city on the seaward side with the Turks in his pay. These Turks kept loyal to the Emperor and perished in the ensuing battle. The defending army's Genoese corps were well trained and equipped, while the rest of the army consisted of small numbers of well-trained soldiers, armed civilians, sailors and volunteer forces from foreign communities, and finally monks. The", "Mehmed built a fleet (partially manned by Spanish sailors from Gallipoli) to besiege the city from the sea. Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span from 110 ships to 430. (Tedaldi: 110; Barbaro: 145; Ubertino Pusculo: 160, Isidore of Kiev and Leonardo di Chio: 200–250; (Sphrantzes): 430) A more realistic modern estimate predicts a fleet strength of 110 ships comprising 70 large galleys, 5 ordinary galleys, 10 smaller galleys, 25 large rowing boats, and 75 horse-transports. Before the siege of Constantinople, it was known that the Ottomans had the ability to cast medium-sized", "The city had about 20 km of walls (land walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), one of the strongest sets of fortified walls in existence. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape, giving the defenders sufficient reason to believe that they could hold out until help from the West arrived. In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped with a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Aragon, 1 from France, and about 10 from the empire itself. On 5 April, the Sultan himself arrived with his last troops, and the defenders took up their positions. As Byzantine numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the \"Mesoteichion\", the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Giustiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate (\"Myriandrion\"); later during the", "At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmara were taken within a few days. The Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmara were taken by Admiral Baltoghlu's fleet. Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading, the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, mitigating the cannon's effect. Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the chain the Byzantines had previously stretched across the entrance. Although one of the fleet's main tasks was to prevent any foreign ships from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April, a small flotilla of four Christian ships managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan. Baltoghlu's life was spared after his subordinates testified to his bravery during the conflict. Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and dragged his ships over the hill, directly into the Golden Horn on 22 April, bypassing the chain barrier. This action seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genoese ships from the nominally neutral colony of Pera, and it demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. 40 Italians escaped their sinking ships and swam to the northern shore. On orders of Mehmed, they were impaled on stakes, in sight of the city's defenders on the sea walls across the Golden Horn. In retaliation, the defenders brought their Ottoman prisoners, 260 in all, to the walls, where they were executed, one by one, before the eyes of the Ottomans. With the failure of their attack on the Ottoman vessels, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to defend the sea walls along the Golden Horn. The Ottoman army had made several frontal assaults on the land wall of Constantinople, but they were always repelled with heavy losses. Venetian surgeon Niccolò Barbaro, describing in his diary one such land attack by the Janissaries, wrote: After these inconclusive frontal offensives, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing tunnels in an effort to mine them from mid-May to 25 May. Many of the sappers were miners of Serbian origin sent from Novo Brdo and were under the command of Zagan Pasha. However, an engineer named Johannes Grant, a German who came with the Genoese contingent, had counter-mines dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the mines and kill the workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunnels were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, and destroyed with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were subsequently destroyed. On 21 May, Mehmed sent an ambassador to Constantinople and offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. He promised he would allow the Emperor and any other inhabitants to leave with their possessions. Moreover, he would recognize the Emperor as governor of the Peloponnese. Lastly, he guaranteed the safety of the population that might choose to remain in the city. Constantine XI only agreed to pay higher tributes to the sultan and recognized the status of all the conquered castles and lands in the hands of the Turks as Ottoman possession. However, the Emperor was not willing to leave the city without a fight: Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Zagan Pasha argued against Halil Pasha and insisted on an immediate attack. Believing that the beleaguered Byzantine defence was already weakened sufficiently, Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force and started preparations for a final all-out offensive.", "On the third day of the conquest, Mehmed II ordered all looting to stop and issued a proclamation that all Christians who had avoided capture or who had been ransomed could return to their homes without further molestation, although many had no homes to return to, and many more had been taken captive and not ransomed. Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes, an eyewitness to the fall of Constantinople, described the Sultan's actions: The \"Hagia Sophia\" was converted into a mosque, but the Greek Orthodox Church was allowed to remain intact and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. This was once thought to be the origin of the Ottoman \"millet\" system; however, it is now considered a myth and no such system existed in the fifteenth century. The fall of Constantinople shocked many Europeans, who viewed it as a catastrophic event for their civilization. Many feared other European Christian kingdoms would suffer the same fate as Constantinople. Two possible responses emerged amongst the humanists and churchmen of that era: Crusade or dialogue. Pope Pius II strongly advocated for another Crusade, while the German Nicholas of Cusa supported engaging in a dialogue with the Ottomans. The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore. Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other Western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed. Constantine XI had died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed to Murad, became a personal favourite of Mehmed and served as Beylerbey (Governor-General) of Rumeli (the Balkans). The younger son, renamed Mesih Pasha, became Admiral of the Ottoman fleet and Sancak Beg (Governor) of the Province of Gallipoli. He eventually served twice as Grand Vizier under Mehmed's son, Bayezid II. With the capture of Constantinople, Mehmed II had acquired the \"natural\" capital of its kingdom, albeit one in decline due to years of war. The loss of the city was a crippling blow to Christendom, and it exposed the Christian west to a vigorous and aggressive foe in the east. The Christian re-conquest of Constantinople remained a goal in Western Europe for many years after its fall to the House of Osman. Rumours of Constantine XI's survival and subsequent rescue by an angel led many to hope that the city would one day return to Christian hands. Pope Nicholas V called for an immediate counter-attack in the form of a crusade. When no European monarch was willing to lead the crusade, the Pope himself decided to go, but his early death stopped this plan. As Western Europe entered the 16th century, the age of Crusading began to come to an end. For some time Greek scholars had gone to Italian city-states, a cultural exchange begun in 1396 by Coluccio Salutati, chancellor of Florence, who had invited Manuel Chrysoloras, a Byzantine scholar to lecture at the University of Florence. After the conquest many Greeks, such as John Argyropoulos and Constantine Lascaris, fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition to Italy and other regions that further propelled the Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople mostly lived in the Phanar and Galata districts of the city. The Phanariotes, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman rulers.", "", "There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. It was said that the partial lunar eclipse that occurred on 22 May 1453 represented a fulfilment of a prophecy of the city's demise. Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the Hagia Sophia, which some interpreted as the Holy Spirit departing from the city. \"This evidently indicated the departure of the Divine Presence, and its leaving the City in total abandonment and desertion, for the", "Guillaume Dufay composed several songs lamenting the fall of the Eastern church, and the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Good, avowed to take up arms against the Turks. However, as the growing Ottoman power from this date on coincided with the Protestant Reformation and subsequent Counter-Reformation, the", "The migration waves of Byzantine scholars and émigrés in the period following the sacking of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople in 1453 is considered by many scholars key to the revival of Greek", "Ottomans used the Arabic transliteration of the city's name \"Kostantiniyye,\" (القسطنطينية), as can be seen in numerous Ottoman documents. \"Islambol\" (, \"Full of Islam\") or \"Islambul\" (\"find Islam\") or \"Islam(b)ol\" (\"old Turkic: be Islam\"), both in Turkish Language, were folk-etymological adaptations of \"Istanbul\" created after the Ottoman conquest of 1453 to express the city's new role as the capital of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Cosmogony.", "Influence.", "Reconstruction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to tradition Pherecydes was a native of the island of Syros and flourished in the 59th Olympiad (544–541 BC). It was said that he was a son of one Babys. Schibli (1990) dates his birth in the 49th olympiad (584–581). Anecdotes of \"unknown reliability\" place Pherecydes on the island of Samos, and in the city of Ephesus, where he is supposed to have been buried, although another tradition claims he was buried on Delos. Aristotle wrote in his \"Metaphysics\" of Pherecydes being in part a mythological writer and Plutarch, in his \"Parallel Lives\", instead wrote of him being a theologian. He was considered to have had the greater significance in teaching on the subject of metempsychosis. His writings were extant in the Hellenistic period, although only fragments have survived to the present day. His works were written in prose rather than verse and he has been said to have been the first to have communicated or conveyed philosophical musings in this form. Tradition maintains that Pherecydes lived in two caves in the northern part of the island of Syros. His summer habitation remains a popular tourist destination to this day.", "Some sources say that Pherecydes' book was entitled \"Pentemychos\" (Πεντέμυχος \"Pentemuchos\") translated as five () \"recesses\" (μυχός \"muchos\", \"nook, cranny, recess\", also \"sanctuary\" as in \"small domestic altar in a corner\"). in some sources said to have been titled \"Heptamychos\" (\"seven () recesses\"). There seems to be no complete agreement among scholars on which sources to trust regarding the title of Pherecydes' book, the standard survey reference on the Presocratic philosophers by Kirk, Raven and Schofield, opts for \"Heptamychos\". The author of the only modern scholarly book devoted entirely to Pherecydes, Hermann S. Schibli, argues that \"Pentemychos\" was the true title. In this work, Pherecydes taught his philosophy through the medium of mythic representations. Although it is lost, the fragments that survive are enough to reconstruct a basic outline. In the older cosmogony of Hesiod (8th–7th century BC) the initial state of the universe is Chaos, a dark void considered as a divine primordial condition and the creation is \"ex nihilo\" (out of nothing). Pherecydes probably interpreted \"chaos\" as water and he does not place it at the very beginning. In his cosmogony there are three divine principles, \"Zas\" (Ζάς, Zeus), \"Cthonie\" (Χθονίη, Earth) and \"Chronos\" (Χρόνος, Time) who always existed. The semen (seeds) of Chronos which can probably be considered as a \"watery chaos\" was placed in the recesses and composed numerous other offspring of gods. This is described in a fragment preserved in Damascius' \"On First Principles\". A close relationship is thought to exist between these recesses and Chthonie. Hesiod described Tartaros as being \"in a recess (\"muchos\") of broad-wayed earth\". Hermann S. Schibli thinks the five \"muchos\" were actually harboured within Chthonie, or at least were so initially when Chronos disposed his seed in the five \"nooks\". Alongside Chthonie and Chronos, Pherecydes held a power called Zas. Zas (Zeus), comparable with the Orphic Eros in function, and as such a personification of masculine (sexual) creativity. Proclus said that \"Pherecydes used to say that Zeus changed into Eros when about to create, for the reason that, having created the world from opposites, he led it into agreement and peace and sowed sameness in all things, and unity that interpenetrates the universe\". The act of creation itself (perhaps it is more accurate to say that Chronos creates and that Zas orders and distributes) is described mytho-poetically as Zas making a cloth on which he decorates earth and sea, and which he then presents as a wedding gift to Chthonie, and wraps around her. Yet, in another fragment it is not Chthonie, but \"a winged oak\" that he wraps the cloth around. The \"winged oak\" in this cosmology has no precedent in Greek tradition. The stories are different but not mutually exclusive, because much is lacking in the fragments, but it seems clear that creation is hindered by chaotic forces. Before the world is ordered a cosmic battle takes place, with Cronus as the head of one side and Ophioneus as the leader of the other. The same story is elsewhere enacted with Zeus and Typhon/Typhoeus as leading characters, and it also has close parallels in many myths from cultures other than the Greek (Marduk vs. Tiamat, etc.). Ophioneus and its brood are often depicted as ruling the birthing cosmos for some time, before falling from power. The chaotic forces are eternal and cannot be destroyed; instead they are thrown out from the ordered world and locked away in Tartaros in a kind of \"appointment of the spheres\", in which the victor (Zeus-Cronus) takes possession of the sky and of space and time. The locks to Tartaros are fashioned in iron by Zeus, and might hence have been associated with his element of \"aither\", and in bronze by Poseidon, which might indicate a link to water (which was often conceived of as the \"first matter\"). Judging from some ancient fragments Ophioneus is thrown into Okeanos, not into Tartaros. Exactly what entities or forces that were locked away in Pherecydes’ story cannot be known for sure. There may have been five principal figures. Ophioneus and Typhon are one and the same, and Eurynome fought on the side of Ophioneus against Cronus. Chthonie is a principal \"thing\" of the underworld, but whether she is to be counted as one of the five or the five \"sum-total\" is an open question. Apart from these it is known that Ophioneus-Typhon mated with Echidna, and that Echidna herself was somehow mysteriously \"produced\" by Callirhoe. If Pherecydes counted five principal entities in association the pentemychos doctrine, then Ophioneus, Eurynome, Echidna, Calirrhoe and Chthonie are the main contenders. Cronus (or Zeus in the more popularly known version) orders the offspring out from the cosmos to Tartaros. There they are kept behind locked gates, fashioned in iron (associated with Zeus and his element of sky/space) and bronze (by Poseidon—the water force). We are told about chaotic beings put into the pentemychos, and we are told that the Darkness has an offspring that is cast into the recesses of Tartaros. No surviving fragment makes the connection, but it is possible that the prison-house in Tartaros and the pentemychos are ways of referring to the essentially same thing. According to Celsus, Pherecydes said that: \"Below that portion is the portion of Tartaros; the daughters of Boreas [the north wind], the Harpies and Thuella [Storm], guard it; there Zeus banished any of the gods whenever one behaves with insolence.\" Thus the identity between Zeus' prison-house and the pentemychos seems likely.", "Pherecydes' \"Pentemychos\" was thought to have contained a mystical esoteric teaching, treated allegorically. One ancient commentator said that: A comparatively large number of sources say Pherecydes was the first to teach the eternality and transmigration (\"metempsychosis\") of human souls. Both Cicero and Augustine thought of him having given the first teaching of the \"immortality of the soul\". It is not surprising that some considered Pherecydes to have been the teacher of Pythagoras. That he was the first to teach such a thing is doubtful, but that he was among the first and that he did profess this teaching is certain. Hermann S. Schibli concludes that Pherecydes \"included in his book [\"Pentemychos\"] at least a rudimentary treatment of the immortality of the soul, its wanderings in the underworld, and the reasons for the soul’s incarnations\". Pherecydes was occasionally counted among the Seven Sages of Greece. A sun-dial (\"heliotropion\"), supposedly made by Pherecydes, was said by Diogenes Laërtius to be \"preserved on the island of Syros.\"", "Basing himself on the extant fragments of Pherecydes' work, on testimonia from ancient authors regarding Pherecydes' philosophy, as well as on themes from Ancient Greek and Near Eastern mythologies, Hermann S. Schibli offers the following reconstruction of the main elements of Pherecydes' lost book:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early days.", "Pop success.", "Reformation.", "Acoustic Strawbs and beyond.", "Spin-off bands.", "Recently.", "Members.", "Acoustic Strawbs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Strawbs formed in 1964 as the Strawberry Hill Boys while the founder members were at St Mary's Teacher Training College, Strawberry Hill, London. The name was shortened to \"the Strawbs\" for a June 1967 concert in which they wanted to display the band name on stage. Their long-time leader and most active songwriter is guitarist and singer Dave Cousins (guitar, dulcimer, banjo, vocals) (born David Joseph Hindson, 7 January 1945, Hounslow, Middlesex). In the early days Strawbs played with Sandy Denny (later lead singer of Fairport Convention and Fotheringay). Although they started out in the 1960s as a bluegrass band, the band's repertoire shifted to favour their own (mainly Cousins') material. While in Denmark in 1967, the Strawbs (Cousins, Tony Hooper and Ron Chesterman) with Sandy Denny recorded 13 songs for a proposed first album, \"All Our Own Work\". It was apparently not issued in Denmark and the fledgling band could not get a UK record deal. (Meanwhile, Denny left to join Fairport Convention and the album was forgotten until it was issued on Pickwick Hallmark in the UK in the mid-1970s.) They were the first UK group signing to Herb Alpert's A&M Records and recorded their first single, \"Oh How She Changed\" in 1968, which was produced and arranged by Gus Dudgeon and Tony Visconti, who also worked on their critically acclaimed first album, \"Strawbs\" (1969). Between the first and second A&M albums, in 1969, a sampler, \"Strawberry Music Sampler No. 1\" was recorded. According to the 2001 CD reissue, only 99 copies of the original vinyl LP were pressed up. After the folk-tinged \"Dragonfly\", Cousins and Hooper added Rick Wakeman on keyboards, Richard Hudson on drums, and John Ford on bass. The new line-up had their London debut at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, where they recorded their third album, \"Just a Collection of Antiques and Curios\"; the \"Melody Maker\" reported on the concert with the headline \"Tomorrow's superstar\" in reference to Wakeman. Wakeman stayed with them for one further album, \"From the Witchwood\", then departed to join Yes, remarking to the press that \"I'm sure we'll all benefit from the split because we were beginning to compromise a lot on ideas – like we'd use half of my ideas and half of theirs – and I don't think it was helping what was eventually coming out. We ended up lacking challenge. Complacency set in, and for the last couple of months we just weren't working.\" He was replaced by Blue Weaver, who had previously been with Amen Corner and Fair Weather. This line-up produced what many feel to be the archetypal Strawbs album \"Grave New World\", before yet another change, the departure of founding member Hooper, who was replaced by electric guitarist Dave Lambert, formerly of Fire and the King Earl Boogie Band.", "Lambert's arrival in 1972 coincided with a move towards a harder rock style on the next album, \"Bursting at the Seams\". The first single from the album with Lambert on board, \"Lay Down\", hit the UK Singles Chart at number 12, followed by a further single from the album, \"Part of the Union\", which went up to number 2. The album also reached number 2 in the UK Albums Chart and the band undertook a 52-date UK tour to packed houses. The harder rock style was also evidenced by Cousins' solo album recorded that summer, with guests such as Roger Glover from Deep Purple and Jon Hiseman from Colosseum. However, during the course of a US tour, tensions came to a head and the \"Bursting at the Seams\" band did just that, with Hudson and Ford splitting off to record their own material, firstly as Hudson Ford, later as The Monks and High Society. Weaver also left the band, eventually finding a gig with the Bee Gees; he also played with Mott the Hoople. Cousins and Lambert rebuilt the band, adding John Hawken (formerly of The Nashville Teens and Renaissance) on keyboards, Rod Coombes formerly with Stealers Wheel and Chas Cronk on bass. This line-up recorded the 1974 \"Hero and Heroine\" and \"Ghosts\", and tended to concentrate on the North American market with relatively little touring in the UK. Strawbs still retain a great fan-base today in the US and Canada. \"Hero And Heroine\" went platinum in Canada, and both albums sold extremely well in the US too. A further album, \"Nomadness\", recorded without Hawken, was less successful, and was their last for A&M Records. In a review in \"Rolling Stone\" in 1974, Ken Barnes wrote: \"Strawbs moved from folkier days to a lush, stately and mellotron-dominated sound, with similarities to Yes, King Crimson and the Moody Blues. They wrote more compelling songs than the former two, and possessed more lyrical/musical substance than the latter.\" Signed to the Deep Purple-owned Oyster label, they recorded two more albums with two keyboardists replacing Hawken – Robert Kirby, also known for his string arrangements (notably Nick Drake) and John Mealing of jazz-rock group If. Coombes was replaced by Tony Fernandez (known for working on Rick Wakeman's solo albums) for a further album, \"Deadlines\", this time on the Arista label. Although recording was complete on a further album, \"Heartbreak Hill\", featuring Andy Richards on keyboards, Cousins' decision in 1980 to leave the band to work in radio effectively signalled the band's demise, and the album remained in the vaults for many years.", "A reunion on Rick Wakeman's TV show \"Gas Tank\" in 1983 resulted in an invitation to reform to headline 1983's Cambridge Folk Festival. The \"Grave New World\" line-up plus Brian Willoughby (who had replaced Lambert when he left in 1978 during the making of \"Heartbreak Hill\", and had also begun a partnership with Dave Cousins as an acoustic duo from 1979 onwards) went on from there to perform occasionally in the UK, US and Europe over the next few years, replacing Weaver with Chris Parren from the Hudson Ford band and Ford himself (when he relocated to the US) with bass player Rod Demick. 1993 saw the band touring in the UK for their 25th anniversary, but the next few years proved rather quiet. Until 1998, that is, when Cousins staged a 30th anniversary bash in Chiswick Park in London, which saw several different line-ups of the band perform on a bright summer's day in the open air. The final line-up of the night – the \"Bursting at the Seams\" line-up plus Willoughby – became the ongoing version of the band, with annual tours in 1999, 2000 and 2001.", "An injury to Cousins' wrist coinciding with a Cousins & Willoughby commitment brought Dave Lambert in to work with Cousins & Willoughby, which soon became \"Acoustic Strawbs\", recording an album \"Baroque & Roll\" in 2001. That trio began to tour on a regular basis – first in the UK, then the US and Canada, and on into Europe, the three guitars of Acoustic Strawbs effortlessly reproducing much of the majesty and depth of the \"big\" Strawbs keyboard-laden instrumentation. Willoughby was replaced by Chas Cronk when Willoughby left in 2004 to spend more time working with his partner, Cathryn Craig. Cronk has brought bass and bass pedals, which further add to the depth of the Acoustic Strawbs sound. 2004 also saw the return of the \"Hero And Heroine\" line-up of the electric band, touring in tandem with the acoustic line-up, and recording their first new album for 25 years, \"Deja Fou\", on the Strawbs' own label, Witchwood Records.", "In 1973, Hudson and Ford then quit to form Hudson Ford, with the line-up of Chris Parren (keyboards), Mickey Keen (guitar and sound engineer), and Ken Laws (drums). They produced four albums, three for A&M (\"Nickelodeon\", \"Free Spirit\", \"Worlds Collide\") and a fourth for CBS (\"Daylight\"). They also had hit singles with \"Pick Up the Pieces\" and \"Burn Baby Burn\", and toured extensively in the UK, US and Canada. Switching genres in the late 70s, Hudson, Ford and Terry Cassidy combined together with Clive Pearce on drums (Hudson was then playing guitar, having switched from drums) to produce the punk-flavoured 1979 album, \"Bad Habits\", as The Monks (not to be confused with the 1960s garage/beat group of the same name). The album spawned a number 19 hit in the UK singles chart, \"Nice Legs, Shame About the Face\", which featured a mildly risquė cover. They dabbled with 1930s-style music in 1980 as \"High Society\" before returning to the pseudo-punk format of The Monks for a follow-up album released in Canada only, \"Suspended Animation\", with the addition of Brian Willoughby on guitar and Chris Parren on keyboards. While the album failed to produce further UK chart success, the band were huge in Canada particularly, playing stadium gigs; \"Suspended Animation\" went platinum in Canada too. The CD re-release of \"Suspended Animation\" includes six bonus tracks, recorded for a third album but never before released, by Hudson, Ford and Cassidy — Huw Gower guests on one track on lead guitar. All details of Strawbs' activity and that of ex-members can be found at their official website.", "Since 2007, Strawbs have been recording and touring in two formats: the acoustic format with Cousins, Lambert and Cronk; and the entirely original \"Hero and Heroine/Ghosts\" line-up of the electric band from 1974: Cousins, Lambert, Cronk, Coombes and Hawken. The line-up undertook two tours in 2006. For that particular recording, and other concerts on the same tour, vocalist and bass player John Ford (member of an earlier Strawbs line-up) flew over from New York to perform with members of the \"Hero and Heroine\" line-up. The \"Hero and Heroine\" line-up toured again in 2007 in the UK, including gigs at the Robin 2 (Bilston), The Stables (Wavendon), and several locations in Southern and South-Western England. This line-up also toured the UK and US in May–June 2008. Following the end of the US Tour, John Hawken announced his intention to leave the group. The remaining four members (the \"Nomadness\" line-up) continued as the core of the electric band. In January 2009, it was announced that Oliver Wakeman, would be playing keyboards with the band on tours of Canada, the UK and Italy. In 2006, Strawbs released a 4-disc boxed set called \"A Taste of Strawbs\". The \"Hero and Heroine\"/\"Ghosts\" line-up recorded a new studio album, \"The Broken Hearted Bride\", released in September 2008. Dave Cousins recorded a new solo album, \"The Boy in the Sailor Suit\", with The Blue Angel Orchestra. In 2008, he released his third solo album, \"Secret Paths\", with steel guitarist Melvin Duffy. Along with the album, he toured the US in Spring 2008 (joined by Ian Cutler for the early part of the tour). A concert album from this tour, entitled \"Duochrome\", was released in September 2008. \"Lambert Cronk\" also released an album in April 2007 entitled \"Touch the Earth\", on which former Strawbs drummer Tony Fernandez and former Strawbs keyboard player Andy Richards both play. The Strawbs' website announced that neither Rod Coombes nor Oliver Wakeman were available for the October/November 2010 tours of Canada and the UK. (Coombes has educational commitments, and Wakeman was committed to recording a new Yes album). For these tours: Tony Fernandez (who played with Strawbs on Deadlines and Heartbreak Hill) was employed on drums, and John Young on keyboards. The November 2012 tour featured a line-up of Cousins, Lambert, Cronk, Adam Wakeman and Adam Falkner. In February 2014 the band gigged with a line-up of Cousins, Lambert, Cronk, Wakeman and Fernandez. Their album \"Prognostic\" was issued in October 2014. In 2017, the band released \"The Ferryman's Curse\" with a line-up of Cousins, Lambert, Cronk, Fernandez and Dave Bainbridge. The band is touring the USA in 2019 as part of their 50th Anniversary Celebration. The tour included a special three day event in Lakewood, NJ featuring former members along with special guests/friends appearing (Annie Haslam, Larry Fast, Tony Visconti, Wesley Stace among others). On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Strawbs among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "Current Former Supporting musicians", "Current Former" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Works by genre.", "Works by Opus number.", "Liszt misattribution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart was born in Vienna, five months before his father's death. Although he was baptized Franz Xaver Mozart, from birth on he was always called Wolfgang by his family. He received excellent musical instruction from Antonio Salieri and Johann Nepomuk Hummel, and studied composition with Johann Georg Albrechtsberger and Sigismund von Neukomm. He learned to play both the piano and violin. Like his father, he started to compose at an early age. \"In April 1805, the thirteen-year-old Wolfgang Mozart made his debut in Vienna in a concert in the Theater an der Wien.\" Wolfgang became a professional musician and enjoyed moderate success both as a teacher and a performer. Unlike his father, he was introverted and given to self-deprecation. He constantly underrated his talent and feared that whatever he produced would be compared with what his father had been. Needing money, in 1808 he traveled to Lemberg (now Lviv), where he gave music lessons to the daughters of the Polish count Wiktor Baworowski. Although the pay was good, Franz felt lonely in the town of Pidkamin, near Rohatyn, so in 1809 he accepted an offer from another Polish aristocrat, the imperial chamberlain, Count von Janiszewski, to teach his daughters music in the town of Burshtyn. Besides teaching, he gave local concerts, playing his own and his father's pieces. These concerts introduced him to the important people in Galicia. After two years in Burshtyn he moved to Lemberg (Lwów) in 1813 where he spent 25 years teaching (with students including Julie von Webenau, née Baroni-Cavalcabò) and giving concerts. Between 1826 and 1829 he conducted the choir of Saint Cecilia which consisted of 400 amateur singers. In 1826 he conducted his father's \"Requiem\" during a concert at the Ukrainian Greek Catholic cathedral of St. George. From this choir he created the musical brotherhood of Saint Cecilia and thus the first school of music in Lemberg. He did not give up performing and in the years 1819 to 1821 traveled throughout Europe. In 1819 he gave concerts in Warsaw, Elbing and Danzig (Gdańsk). In the 1820s, Mozart was one of 50 composers to write a variation on a theme of Anton Diabelli for part II of the \"Vaterländischer Künstlerverein\". Part I was devoted to the 33 variations supplied by Beethoven which have gained an independent identity as his \"Diabelli Variations\" Op. 120. In 1838 Mozart left for Vienna, and then for Salzburg, where he was appointed as the \"Kapellmeister\" of the Mozarteum. From 1841 he taught the pianist Ernst Pauer. Mozart died from stomach cancer on 29 July 1844 in the town of Karlsbad (now Karlovy Vary) where he was buried. He never married nor did he have any children. His will was executed by Josephine de Baroni-Cavalcabò (1788–1860), a longtime patron to whom he dedicated his cello sonata. The shadow of his father loomed large over him even in death. The following epitaph was etched on his tombstone: \"May the name of his father be his epitaph, as his veneration for him was the essence of his life.\"", "Franz Xaver Wolfgang had a relatively small output (his opus numbers only go up to 30) and after 1820 he seems to have given up composing almost entirely; in particular, there is an 11-year gap (1828 to 1839) when he seems to have not written anything. Nevertheless, recordings of his music can be found today. He wrote mainly chamber music and piano music, with his largest compositions being the two piano concertos. Orchestral works Concertante The two piano concertos differ somewhat. The first concerto could pass for one of his father's late (K. 550 and above) works, except for a youthful exuberance and the piano's tessitura which had been expanded in 1795, just after Mozart senior died. The second concerto is more contemporary to the 1810s with a more virtuosic piano part showing hints that the younger Mozart was developing his own style. Chamber works Piano works Choral and vocal works", "Without opus", "Franz Xaver Mozart's Five Variations on a romance from Méhul's \"Joseph\", Op. 23, was published in 1820. But the work was until 1994 mistakenly attributed to the young Liszt: a copyist's manuscript of the work wrongly noted that it was \"par le jeune Liszt\" (by the young Liszt). The work was published in good faith by the \"\" in 1990 and catalogued as Liszt's S147a. Liszt scholar Leslie Howard recorded the work in similar good faith in 1992 for his series of recordings of the complete music for solo piano by Liszt (for the disc entitled \"The Young Liszt\"). But shortly afterwards Howard noted in his sleeve notes for the disc's release: It has since been established that the attribution is false and that the work is from the pen of Mozart’s son Franz Xaver and was published as his opus 23 in 1820. But since the work remains unknown and unrecorded, like the vast majority of F X Mozart's output, and since the writing is not vastly different from some of the other pieces in this collection, it was thought best not to discard it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Pskov Republic.", "Modern history.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Landmarks and sights.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Pskov is one of the oldest cities in Russia. The name of the city, originally Pleskov (historic Russian spelling, \"Plěskov\"), may be loosely translated as \"[the town] of purling waters\". It was historically known in English as Plescow. Its earliest mention comes in 903, which records that Igor of Kiev married a local lady, St. Olga. Pskovians sometimes take this year as the city's foundation date, and in 2003 a great jubilee took place to celebrate Pskov's 1,100th anniversary. The first prince of Pskov was Vladimir the Great's youngest son Sudislav. Once imprisoned by his brother Yaroslav, he was not released until the latter's death several decades later. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the town adhered politically to the Novgorod Republic. In 1241, it was taken by the Teutonic Knights, but Alexander Nevsky recaptured it several months later during a legendary campaign dramatized in Sergei Eisenstein's 1938 movie \"Alexander Nevsky\". In order to secure their independence from the knights, the Pskovians elected a Lithuanian prince, named Daumantas, a Roman Catholic converted to Orthodox faith and known in Russia as Dovmont, as their military leader and prince in 1266. Having fortified the town, Daumantas routed the Teutonic Knights at Rakvere and overran much of Estonia. His remains and sword are preserved in the local kremlin, and the core of the citadel, erected by him, still bears the name of \"Dovmont's town\".", "By the 14th century, the town functioned as the capital of a de facto sovereign republic. Its most powerful force was the merchants who brought the town into the Hanseatic League. Pskov's independence was formally recognized by Novgorod in 1348. Several years later, the veche promulgated a law code (called the Pskov Charter), which was one of the principal sources of the all-Russian law code issued in 1497. For Russia, the Pskov Republic was a bridge towards Europe; for Europe, it was a western outpost of Russia. Already in the 13th century German merchants were present in \"Zapskovye\" area of Pskov and the Hanseatic League had a trading post in the same area in the first half of 16th century which moved to \"Zavelichye\" after a fire in 1562. The wars with Livonian Order, Poland-Lithuania and Sweden interrupted the trade but it was maintained until the 17th century, with Swedish merchants gaining the upper hand eventually. The importance of the city made it the subject of numerous sieges throughout its history. The Pskov Krom (or Kremlin) withstood twenty-six sieges in the 15th century alone. At one point, five stone walls ringed it, making the city practically impregnable. A local school of icon-painting flourished, and the local masons were considered the best in Russia. Many peculiar features of Russian architecture were first introduced in Pskov. Finally, in 1510, the city fell to Muscovite forces. The deportation of noble families to Moscow under Ivan IV in 1570 is a subject of Rimsky-Korsakov's opera \"Pskovityanka\" (1872). As the second largest city of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, Pskov still attracted enemy armies. Most famously, it withstood a prolonged siege by a 50,000-strong Polish army during the final stage of the Livonian War (1581–1582). The king of Poland Stephen Báthory undertook some thirty-one attacks to storm the city, which was defended mainly by civilians. Even after one of the city walls was broken, the Pskovians managed to fill the gap and repel the attack. \"It's amazing how the city reminds me of Paris\", wrote one of the Frenchmen present at Báthory's siege.", "Peter the Great's conquest of Estonia and Latvia during the Great Northern War in the early 18th century spelled the end of Pskov's traditional role as a vital border fortress and a key to Russia's interior. As a consequence, the city's importance and well-being declined dramatically, although it served as a seat of separate Pskov Governorate since 1777. During World War I, Pskov became the center of much activity behind the lines. It was at a railroad siding in Pskov, aboard the imperial train, that Tsar Nicholas II signed the manifesto announcing his abdication in March 1917, and after the Russo-German Brest-Litovsk Peace Conference (December 22, 1917 – March 3, 1918), the Imperial German Army invaded the area. Pskov was also occupied by the Estonian army between 25 May 1919 and 28 August 1919 during the Estonian War of Independence when Bułak-Bałachowicz became the military administrator of Pskov. He personally ceded most of his responsibilities to a democratically elected municipal duma and focused on both cultural and economical recovery of the war-impoverished city. He also put an end to censorship of press and allowed for creation of several socialist associations and newspapers. Under the Soviet government, large parts of the city were rebuilt, many ancient buildings, particularly churches, were demolished to give space for new constructions. During World War II, the medieval citadel provided little protection against modern artillery of Wehrmacht, and Pskov suffered substantial damage during the German occupation from July 9, 1941 until July 23, 1944. A huge portion of the population died during the war, and Pskov has since struggled to regain its traditional position as a major industrial and cultural center of Western Russia.", "Pskov is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Pskovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the City of Pskov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the City of Pskov is incorporated as Pskov Urban Okrug.", "Pskov still preserves much of its medieval walls, built from the 13th century on. Its medieval citadel is called either the Krom or the Kremlin. Within its walls rises the Trinity Cathedral, founded in 1138 and rebuilt in the 1690s. The cathedral contains the tombs of saint princes Vsevolod (died in 1138) and Dovmont (died in 1299). Other ancient cathedrals adorn the Mirozhsky Monastery (completed by 1152), famous for its 12th-century frescoes, St. John's (completed by 1243), and the Snetogorsky monastery (built in 1310 and stucco-painted in 1313). Pskov is exceedingly rich in tiny, squat, picturesque churches, dating mainly from the 15th and the 16th centuries. There are many dozens of them, the most notable being St. Basil's on the Hill (1413), St. Kozma and Demian's near the Bridge (1463), St. George's from the Downhill (1494), Assumption from the Ferryside (1444, 1521), and St. Nicholas' from Usokha (1536). The 17th-century residential architecture is represented by merchant mansions, such as the Salt House, the Pogankin Palace, and the Trubinsky mansion. Among the sights in the vicinity of Pskov are Izborsk, a seat of Rurik's brother in the 9th century and one of the most formidable fortresses of medieval Russia; the Pskov Monastery of the Caves, the oldest continually functioning monastery in Russia (founded in the mid-15th century) and a magnet for pilgrims from all over the country; the 16th-century Krypetsky Monastery; Yelizarov Convent, which used to be a great cultural and literary center of medieval Russia; and Mikhaylovskoye, a family home of Alexander Pushkin where he wrote some of the best known lines in the Russian language. The national poet of Russia is buried in the ancient cloister at the Holy Mountains nearby. Unfortunately, the area presently has only a minimal tourist infrastructure, and the historic core of Pskov requires serious investments to realize its great tourist potential. On 7 July 2019, the Churches of the Pskov School of Architecture was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "", "The climate of Pskov is humid continental (Köppen climate classification \"Dfb\") with maritime influences due to the city's relative proximity to the Baltic Sea and Gulf of Finland; with relative soft (for Russia) but long winter (usually five months per year) and warm summer. Summer and fall have more precipitation than winter and spring.", "Pskov is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Members.", "Description.", "Classifications.", "Pascher (1914).", "Smith (1938).", "Bourrely (1957).", "Starmach (1985).", "Kristiansen (1986).", "Margulis et al. (1990).", "van den Hoek \"et al.\" (1995).", "Preisig (1995).", "Guiry and Guiry (2019).", "Ecology.", "Evolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Originally they were taken to include all such forms of the diatoms and multicellular brown algae, but since then they have been divided into several different groups (e.g., Haptophyceae, Synurophyceae) based on pigmentation and cell structure. Some heterotrophic flagellates as the bicosoecids and choanoflagellates were sometimes seen as related to golden algae too. They are now usually restricted to a core group of closely related forms, distinguished primarily by the structure of the flagella in motile cells, also treated as an order Chromulinales. It is possible membership will be revised further as more species are studied in detail.", "The \"primary\" cell of chrysophytes contains two specialized flagella. The active, \"feathered\" (with mastigonemes) flagellum is oriented toward the moving direction. The smooth passive flagellum, oriented toward the opposite direction, may be present only in rudimentary form in some species. An important characteristic used to identify members of the class Chrysophyceae is the presence of a siliceous cyst that is formed endogenously. Called statospore, stomatocyst or statocyst, this structure is usually globose and contains a single pore. The surface of mature cysts may be ornamented with different structural elements and are useful to distinguish species.", "", "Classification of the class Chrysophyceae according to Pascher (1914):", "According to Smith (1938):", "According to Bourrely (1957):", "According to Starmach (1985):", "Classification of the class Chrysophyceae and splinter groups according to Kristiansen (1986):", "Classification of the phylum Chrysophyta according to Margulis et al. (1990):", "According to van den Hoek, Mann and Jahns (1995):", "Classification of the class Chrysophyceae and splinter groups according to Preisig (1995):", "According to Guiry and Guiry (2019):", "Chrysophytes live mostly in freshwater, and are important for studies of food web dynamics in oligotrophic freshwater ecosystems, and for assessment of environmental degradation resulting from eutrophication and acid rain.", "Chrysophytes contain the pigment fucoxanthin. Because of this, they were once considered to be a specialized form of cyanobacteria. Because many of these organisms had a silica capsule, they have a relatively complete fossil record, allowing modern biologists to confirm that they are, in fact, not derived from cyanobacteria, but rather an ancestor that did not possess the capability to photosynthesize. Many of the chrysophyta precursor fossils entirely lacked any type of photosynthesis-capable pigment. Most biologists believe that the chrysophytes obtained their ability to photosynthesize from an endosymbiotic relationship with fucoxanthin-containing cyanobacteria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Standards.", "HTTP request.", "The \"open\" method.", "The \"setRequestHeader\" method.", "The \"send\" method.", "The \"onreadystatechange\" event listener.", "The HTTP response.", "Cross-domain requests.", "Fetch alternative." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The concept behind the \"XMLHttpRequest\" object was originally created by the developers of Outlook Web Access (by Microsoft) for Microsoft Exchange Server 2000. An interface called \"IXMLHTTPRequest\" was developed and implemented into the second version of the MSXML library using this concept. The second version of the MSXML library was shipped with Internet Explorer 5.0 in March 1999, allowing access, via ActiveX, to the \"IXMLHTTPRequest\" interface using the XMLHTTP wrapper of the MSXML library. Internet Explorer versions 5 and 6 did not define the XMLHttpRequest object identifier in their scripting languages as the XMLHttpRequest identifier itself was not standard at the time of their releases. Backward compatibility can be achieved through object detection if the XMLHttpRequest identifier does not exist. Microsoft added the \"XMLHttpRequest\" object identifier to its scripting languages in Internet Explorer 7.0 released in October 2006. The Mozilla project developed and implemented an interface called \"nsIXMLHttpRequest\" into the Gecko layout engine. This interface was modeled to work as closely to Microsoft's \"IXMLHTTPRequest\" interface as possible. Mozilla created a wrapper to use this interface through a JavaScript object which they called XMLHttpRequest. The \"XMLHttpRequest\" object was accessible as early as Gecko version 0.6 released on December 6 of 2000, but it was not completely functional until as late as version 1.0 of Gecko released on June 5, 2002. The \"XMLHttpRequest\" object became a \"de facto\" standard in other major web clients, implemented in Safari 1.2 released in February 2004, Konqueror, Opera 8.0 released in April 2005, and iCab 3.0b352 released in September 2005. With the advent of cross-browser JavaScript libraries such as jQuery, developers can invoke XMLHttpRequest functionality indirectly.", "The World Wide Web Consortium published a \"Working Draft\" specification for the \"XMLHttpRequest\" object on April 5, 2006, edited by Anne van Kesteren of Opera Software and Dean Jackson of W3C. Its goal is \"to document a minimum set of interoperable features based on existing implementations, allowing Web developers to use these features without platform-specific code.\" The W3C also published another \"Working Draft\" specification for the \"XMLHttpRequest\" object, \"XMLHttpRequest Level 2\", on February 25 of 2008. Level 2 consists of extended functionality to the XMLHttpRequest object, including, but not limited to, progress events, support for cross-site requests, and the handling of byte streams. At the end of 2011, the Level 2 specification was abandoned and absorbed into the original specification. At the end of 2012, the WHATWG took over development and maintains a living standard using Web IDL. W3C's current drafts are based on snapshots of the WHATWG standard.", "The following sections demonstrate how a request using the XMLHttpRequest object functions within a conforming user agent based on the W3C Working Draft. As the W3C standard for the XMLHttpRequest object is still a draft, user agents may not abide by all the functionings of the W3C definition and any of the following is subject to change. Extreme care should be taken into consideration when scripting with the XMLHttpRequest object across multiple user agents. This article will try to list the inconsistencies between the major user agents.", "The HTTP and HTTPS requests of the XMLHttpRequest object must be initialized through the open method. This method must be invoked prior to the actual sending of a request to validate and resolve the request method, URL, and URI user information to be used for the request. This method does not assure that the URL exists or the user information is correct. This method can accept up to five parameters, but requires only two, to initialize a request. The first parameter of the method is a text string indicating the HTTP request method to use. The request methods that must be supported by a conforming user agent, defined by the W3C draft for the XMLHttpRequest object, are currently listed as the following. However, request methods are not limited to the ones listed above. The W3C draft states that a browser may support additional request methods at their own discretion. The second parameter of the method is another text string, this one indicating the URL of the HTTP request. The W3C recommends that browsers should raise an error and not allow the request of a URL with either a different port or \"ihost\" URI component from the current document. The third parameter, a boolean value indicating whether or not the request will be asynchronous, is not a required parameter by the W3C draft. The default value of this parameter should be assumed to be true by a W3C conforming user agent if it is not provided. An asynchronous request (\"true\") will not wait on a server response before continuing on with the execution of the current script. It will instead invoke the onreadystatechange event listener of the XMLHttpRequest object throughout the various stages of the request. A synchronous request (\"false\") however will block execution of the current script until the request has been completed, thus not invoking the onreadystatechange event listener. Note that starting with Gecko 30.0 (Firefox 30.0 / Thunderbird 30.0 / SeaMonkey 2.27), Blink 39.0 (Chrome), and Edge 13, synchronous requests on the main thread have been deprecated due to their negative impact on the user experience as they will cause freezing of the UI while the thread performs the request. The fourth and fifth parameters are the username and password, respectively. These parameters, or just the username, may be provided for authentication and authorization if required by the server for this request. var xmlhttp; if (window.XMLHttpRequest) {", "Upon successful initialization of a request, the setRequestHeader method of the XMLHttpRequest object can be invoked to send HTTP headers with the request. The first parameter of this method is the text string name of the header. The second parameter is the text string value. This method must be invoked for each header that needs to be sent with the request. Any headers attached here will be removed the next time the \"open\" method is invoked in a W3C conforming user agent.", "To send an HTTP request, the send method of the XMLHttpRequest must be invoked. This method accepts a single parameter containing the content to be sent with the request. This parameter may be omitted if no content needs to be sent. The W3C draft states that this parameter may be any type available to the scripting language as long as it can be turned into a text string, with the exception of the DOM document object. If a user agent cannot serialise the parameter, then the parameter should be ignored. Firefox 3.0.x and previous versions will however throw an exception if codice_1 is called without an argument. If the parameter is a DOM \"document\" object, a user agent should assure the document is turned into well-formed XML using the encoding indicated by the \"inputEncoding\" property of the \"document\" object. If the Content-Type request header was not added through \"setRequestHeader\" yet, it should automatically be added by a conforming user agent as \"application/xml;charset=\"charset\",\" where \"charset\" is the encoding used to encode the document. If the user agent is configured to use a proxy server, then the XMLHttpRequest object will modify the request appropriately so as to connect to the proxy instead of the origin server, and send codice_2 headers as configured.", "If the open method of the XMLHttpRequest object was invoked with the third parameter set to \"true\" for an asynchronous request, the onreadystatechange event listener will be automatically invoked for each of the following actions that change the readyState property of the XMLHttpRequest object. State changes work like this: 0 The request is not initialized. The listener will only respond to state changes which occur after the listener is defined. To detect states 1 and 2, the listener must be defined before the open method is invoked. The open method must be invoked before the send method is invoked. var request = new XMLHttpRequest(); request.onreadystatechange = function () { }; request.open('GET','somepage.xml', true); request.setRequestHeader('X-Requested-With', 'XMLHttpRequest'); // Tells server that this call is made for ajax purposes. request.send(null); // No data needs to be sent along with the request.", "After a successful and completed call to the send method of the XMLHttpRequest, if the server response was well-formed XML and the Content-Type header sent by the server is understood by the user agent as an Internet media type for XML, the responseXML property of the XMLHttpRequest object will contain a DOM document object. Another property, responseText will contain the response of the server in plain text by a conforming user agent, regardless of whether or not it was understood as XML.", "In the early development of the World Wide Web, it was found possible to breach users' security by the use of JavaScript to exchange information from one web site with that from another less reputable one. All modern browsers therefore implement a same origin policy that prevents many such attacks, such as cross-site scripting. XMLHttpRequest data is subject to this security policy, but sometimes web developers want to intentionally circumvent its restrictions. This is sometimes due to the legitimate use of subdomains as, for example, making an XMLHttpRequest from a page created by codice_3 for information from codice_4 will normally fail. Various alternatives exist to circumvent this security feature, including using JSONP, Cross-Origin Resource Sharing (CORS) or alternatives with plugins such as Flash or Silverlight. Cross-origin XMLHttpRequest is specified in W3C's XMLHttpRequest Level 2 specification. Internet Explorer did not implement CORS until version 10. The two previous versions (8 and 9) offered similar functionality through the XDomainRequest (XDR) API. CORS is now supported by all modern browsers (desktop and mobile). The CORS protocol has several restrictions, with two models of support. The \"simple\" model does not allow setting custom request headers and omits cookies. Further, only the HEAD, GET and POST request methods are supported, and POST only allows the following MIME types: \"text/plain\", \"application/x-www-urlencoded\" and \"multipart/form-data\". Only \"text/plain\" was initially supported. The other model detects when one of the \"non-simple\" features are requested and sends a \"pre-flight request\" to the server to negotiate the feature.", "Program flow using asynchronous XHR callbacks can present difficulty with readability and maintenance. ECMAScript 2015 (ES6) added the promise construct to simplify asynchronous logic. Browsers have since implemented the alternative codice_5 interface to achieve the same functionality as XHR using promises instead of callbacks. Fetch is also standardized by WHATWG." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Making of the album.", "Critical reception.", "Commercial performance.", "Personnel.", "Release history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Rasmus recorded \"Dead Letters\" in June–December 2002 at Nord Studios in Sweden, reuniting with Mikael Nord Andersen and Martin Hansen, who had produced their Scandinavian hit album \"Into\". Lead singer Lauri Ylönen explained the title of the album on the band's website. \"Each song is a letter to somebody. It could be an apology, confession or cry out for help\". The back side of the album booklet reads:", "Allmusic rated the album 3 stars out of 5. The review said \"This Finnish group is more than capable of presenting dark and moody yet very finely tuned rock songs\". It rated the best tracks as \"Time to Burn\", \"Not Like the Other Girls\" and the re-recording of \"F-F-F-Falling\", of which the original version appears on the \"Into\" album, and was added to the UK release as a bonus track.", "\"Dead Letters\" was released in Europe in early 2003. It reached the top of the album charts in Germany, Austria and Switzerland as well as in Finland, where it stayed in the Top 20 Album chart for over a year. The album was released in the UK in 2004, being the first record to be released in the country by the band, and was one of the Top 50 best-selling albums of 2004. Commercial success in Europe led to the release of the album in other parts of the world. \"Dead Letters\" and lead single \"In the Shadows\" both reached the Top 50 of the Australian ARIA charts in 2004, as well as the Top 20 of the American Billboard Heatseeker charts. The Rasmus received numerous music awards across Europe, winning the 'Best Nordic Act' category in the 2003 MTV Europe Music Awards, and five Finnish EMMA awards for Best Group, Best Album, Best Video (In My Life), Best Artist and Export in 2004. The band also won an ECHO award for best international newcomer and were awarded \"Best International Artist\" at the 2004 MTV Russia Music Awards. \"In The Shadows\" was on the nominations list for the 2004 Kerrang! Award for Best Single.", "The Rasmus Additional musicians Production and design", "A list of countries and the date when the album was released. Video directed by Finn Andersson for Film Magica Oy in Helsinki, Finland. Video directed by Niklas Fronda and Fredrik Löfberg, Baranga Film/Topaz. Video directed by Niklas Fronda & Fredrik Löfberg, Baranga Film in Stockholm, Sweden. Video directed by Sven Bollinger and produced by Volker Steinmetz (Erste Liebe Filmproduktion) in Lausitzring, Germany. Video directed by Philipp Stöltzl in Bucharest, Romania. Video directed by Niklas Fronda and Fredrik Löfberg, Baranga Film in Stockholm, Sweden. Video directed by Nathan Cox in Los Angeles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Content.", "Production.", "Contemporary reaction.", "Cinematic techniques.", "3D version.", "Current status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This 50-second silent film shows the entry of a train pulled by a steam locomotive into the gare de La Ciotat, the train station of the French coastal town of La Ciotat. Like most of the early Lumière films, \"L'arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat\" consists of a single, unedited view illustrating an aspect of everyday life. There is no apparent intentional camera movement, and the film consists of one continuous real-time shot.", "This 50-second movie was filmed in La Ciotat, Bouches-du-Rhône, France. It was filmed by means of the Cinématographe, an all-in-one camera, which also serves as a printer and film projector. As with all early Lumière movies, this film was made in a 35 mm format with an aspect ratio of 1.33:1.", "The film is associated with an urban legend well known in the world of cinema. The story goes that when the film was first shown, the audience was so overwhelmed by the moving image of a life-sized train coming directly at them that people screamed and ran to the back of the room. Hellmuth Karasek in the German magazine \"Der Spiegel\" wrote that the film \"had a particularly lasting impact; yes, it caused fear, terror, even panic.\" However, some have doubted the veracity of this incident such as film scholar and historian in his essay, \"Lumiere's Arrival of the Train: Cinema's Founding Myth\". Others such as theorist Benjamin H. Bratton have speculated that the alleged reaction may have been caused by the projection being mistaken for a camera obscura by the audience which at the time would have been the only other technique to produce a naturalistic moving image. Whether or not it actually happened, the film undoubtedly astonished people unaccustomed to the illusion created by moving images.", "This film is interesting because it contains the first example of several common cinematic techniques: camera angle, long shot, medium shot, close-up, and forced perspective. It is evident from their films, taken as a whole, that the Lumière brothers knew what the effect of their choice of camera placement would be. They placed the camera on the platform to produce a dramatic increase in the size of the arriving train. The train arrives from a distant point and bears down on the viewer, finally crossing the lower edge of the screen. A significant aspect of the film is that it illustrates the use of the long shot to establish the setting of the film, followed by a medium shot, and then a close-up. As the camera is static for the entire film, the effect of these various \"shots\" is achieved by the movement of the subject alone. Nonetheless, these different types of shots are clearly illustrated here. Later filmmakers moved their cameras to achieve these shots.", "What most film histories leave out is that the Lumière Brothers were trying to achieve a 3D image even prior to this first-ever public exhibition of motion pictures. Louis Lumière eventually re-shot \"L'Arrivée d’un Train\" with a stereoscopic film camera and exhibited it (along with a series of other 3D shorts) at a 1934 meeting of the French Academy of Science. Given the contradictory accounts that plague early cinema and pre-cinema accounts, it is plausible that early cinema historians conflated the audience reactions at these separate screenings of \"L'Arrivée d’un Train\". The intense audience reaction fits better with the latter exhibition, when the train apparently \"was\" actually coming out of the screen at the audience. But due to the fact that the 3D film never took off commercially as the conventional 2D version did, including such details would not make for a compelling myth.", "The short has been featured in a number of film collections including \"Landmarks of Early Film volume 1\". A screening of the film was depicted in the 2011 film \"Hugo\", and in the intro sequence for the 2013 video game \"\". The scene of the train pulling in was placed at #100 on Channel 4's two-part documentary \"The 100 Greatest Scary Moments\". In March 2017, the film was encoded into DNA by Yaniv Erlich and Dina Zielinski. In 2020 was created upscaled and resounded version of a classic B&W movie: Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, The Lumière Brothers, 1896 in 4K resolution and 60 fps." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Coat of arms.", "History.", "Early history.", "Novgorodians arrive.", "Norwegian-Russian conflict.", "Trade with England, Scotland, and the Netherlands.", "Founding and further development.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "City divisions.", "Economy and infrastructure.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Literature.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Sports.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The arms of the city display the Archangel Michael in the act of defeating the Devil. Legend states that this victory took place near where the city stands, hence its name, and that Michael still stands watch over the city to prevent the Devil's return.", "", "Vikings knew the area around Arkhangelsk as Bjarmaland. Ohthere of Hålogaland told circa 890 of his travels in an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the place later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, Vikings led by Thorir Hund raided this area in 1027. In 1989, an unusually impressive silver treasure was found by local farm workers by the mouth of Dvina, right next to present-day Arkhangelsk. It was probably buried in the beginning of the 12th century, and contained articles that may have been up to two hundred years old at that time. Most of the findings comprised a total of of silver, largely in the form of coins. Jewelry and pieces of jewelry come from Russia or neighboring areas. The majority of the coins were German, but the hoard also included a smaller number of Kufan, English, Bohemian, Hungarian, Danish, Swedish and Norwegian coins. It is hard to place this find historically until further research is completed. There are at least two possible interpretations. It may be a treasure belonging to the society outlined by the Norse source material. Generally such finds, whether from Scandinavia, the Baltic area, or Russia, are closely tied to well-established agricultural societies with considerable trade activity. Alternatively, like the Russian scientists who published the find in 1992, one may see it as evidence of a stronger case of Russian colonization than previously thought.", "In the 12th century, the Novgorodians established the Archangel Michael Monastery (named after Michael the Archangel) in the estuary of the Northern Dvina. The main trade center of the area at that time was Kholmogory, located southeast of Arkhangelsk, up the Dvina River, about downstream from where the Pinega River flows into the Dvina. Written sources indicate that Kholmogory existed early in the 12th century, but there is no archeological material to illuminate the early history of the town. It is not known whether the origin of this settlement was Russian, or if it goes back to pre-Russian times. In the center of the small town (or Gorodok) that is there today is a large mound of building remains and river sand, but it has not been archeologically excavated.", "The area of Arkhangelsk came to be important in the rivalry between Norwegian and Russian interests in the northern areas. From Novgorod, the spectrum of Russian interest was extended far north to the Kola Peninsula in the 12th century. However, here Norway enforced taxes and rights to the fur trade. A compromise agreement entered in 1251 was soon broken. In 1411, Yakov Stepanovich from Novgorod went to attack Northern Norway. This was the beginning of a series of clashes. In 1419, Norwegian ships with five hundred soldiers entered the White Sea. The \"Murmaners\", as the Norwegians were called (cf. Murmansk), plundered many Russian settlements along the coast, among them the Archangel Michael Monastery. Novgorod managed to drive the Norwegians back. However, in 1478 the area was taken over by Ivan III and passed to the Grand Duchy of Moscow with the rest of the Novgorod Republic.", "Three English ships set out to find the Northeast passage to China in 1553; two disappeared, and one ended up in the White Sea, eventually coming across the area of Arkhangelsk. Ivan the Terrible found out about this, and brokered a trade agreement with the ship's captain, Richard Chancellor. Trade privileges were granted to English merchants in 1555, leading to the founding of the Company of Merchant Adventurers, which began sending ships annually into the estuary of the Northern Dvina. Dutch merchants also started bringing their ships into the White Sea from the 1560s. Scottish and English merchants also traded in the 16th century; however, by the 17th century it was mainly the Dutch that sailed to the White Sea area.", "In 1584 Ivan ordered the founding of New Kholmogory (which would later be renamed after the nearby Archangel Michael Monastery). At the time access to the Baltic Sea was still mostly controlled by Sweden, so while Arkhangelsk was icebound in winter, it remained Moscow's almost sole link to the sea-trade. Local inhabitants, called Pomors, were the first to explore trade routes to Northern Siberia as far as the trans-Urals city of Mangazeya and beyond. In December 1613, during the Time of Troubles, Arkhangelsk was besieged by Polish-Lithuanian marauders commanded by Stanislaw Jasinski (Lisowczycy), who failed to capture the fortified town. In 1619 and in 1637 a fire broke out, and the complete city was burned down. In 1693, Peter the Great ordered the creation of a state shipyard in Arkhangelsk. A year later the ships \"Svyatoye Prorochestvo\" (Holy Prophecy), \"Apostol Pavel\" (Apostle Paul), and the yacht \"Svyatoy Pyotr\" (Saint Peter) were sailing in the White Sea. However, he also realized that Arkhangelsk would always be limited as a port due to the five months of ice cover, and after a successful campaign against Swedish armies in the Baltic area, he founded St. Petersburg in May 1703. Nonetheless, Akhangelsk continued to be an important naval base and maritime centre in the Russian north. In 1722, Peter the Great decreed that Arkhangelsk should no longer accept goods that amounted to more than was sufficient for the town (for so-called domestic consumption). It was due to the Tsar's will to shift all international marine trade to St. Petersburg. This factor greatly contributed to the deterioration of Arkhangelsk that continued up to 1762 when this decree was canceled. Arkhangelsk declined in the 18th century as the Baltic trade became ever more important. In the early years of the 19th century, the arrest and prolonged detention by Russian authorities of John Bellingham, an English export representative based at Arkhangelsk, was the indirect cause of Bellingham later assassinating British Prime Minister Spencer Perceval. Arkhangelsk's economy revived at the end of the 19th century when a railway to Moscow was completed and timber became a major export. The city resisted Bolshevik rule from 1918 to 1920 and was a stronghold of the anti-Bolshevik White Army supported by the military intervention of British-led Entente forces along an Allied expedition, including a North American contingent known as the Polar Bear Expedition. It was also the scene of Mudyug concentration camp. During both world wars, Arkhangelsk was a major port of entry for Allied aid. During World War II, the city became known in the West as one of the two main destinations (along with Murmansk) of the Arctic Convoys bringing supplies in to assist the Soviet Union. During Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Arkhangelsk was one of two cities (the other being Astrakhan) selected to mark the envisaged eastern limit of Nazi control. This military operation was to be halted at this A-A line but never reached it as the German forces failed to capture either of the two cities and also failed to capture Moscow. Arkhangelsk was also the site of Arkhangelsk ITL, or the Arkhangelsk Labour Camp, in the 1930s and 1940s. Today, Arkhangelsk remains a major seaport, now open year-round due to improvements in icebreakers. The city is primarily a center for the timber and fishing industries. On March 16, 2004, fifty-eight people were killed in an explosion at an apartment block in the city.", "Arkhangelsk is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Primorsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with five rural localities, incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Arkhangelsk is incorporated as Arkhangelsk Urban Okrug. The mayor (as of July 2017) is Igor Viktorovich Godzish, who was elected in 2015.", "For administrative purposes, the city is divided into nine territorial okrugs:", "Smartavia (formerly Aeroflot Nord and Nordavia) airline has its head office on the grounds of the Talagi Airport in Arkhangelsk.", "Arkhangelsk was home to Pomorsky State University and Arkhangelsk State Technical University which merged with several other institutions of higher learning in 2010 to form the Northern (Arctic) Federal University. Arkhangelsk is also home to the Northern State Medical University, Makarov state Maritime Academy, and a branch of the All-Russian Distance Institute of Finance and Economics.", "Mikhail Lomonosov came from a Pomor village near Kholmogory. A monument to him was installed to a design by Ivan Martos in 1829. A monument to Peter the Great was designed by Mark Antokolsky in 1872 and installed in 1914. After its historic churches were destroyed during Joseph Stalin's rule, the city's main extant landmarks are the fort-like Merchant Yards (1668–1684) and the New Dvina Fortress (1701–1705). The Assumption Church on the Dvina embankment (1742–1744) was rebuilt in 2004. In 2008, it was decided that the city's cathedral, dedicated to the Archangel Michael, which had been destroyed under the Soviets, would be rebuilt. The foundation stone was laid in November 2008 by the regional Bishop Tikhon. The cathedral, situated near the city's main bus station and river port, is expected to be completed and consecrated in 2019. Another remarkable structure is the Arkhangelsk TV Mast, a tall guyed mast for FM-/TV-broadcasting built in 1964. This tubular steel mast has six crossbars equipped with gangways, which run in two levels from the central mast structure out to the each of the three guys. On these crossbars there are also several antennas installed (image). An unusual example of local \"vernacular architecture\" was the so-called Sutyagin house. This thirteen-story, tall residence of the local entrepreneur Nikolay Petrovich Sutyagin was reported to be the world's, or at least Russia's, tallest wooden house. Constructed by Mr. Sutyagin and his family over the course of fifteen years (starting in 1992), without plans or a building permit, the structure deteriorated while Mr. Sutyagin spent a few years in prison on racketeering charges. In 2008, it was condemned by the city as a fire hazard, and the courts ordered it to be demolished by February 1, 2009. On December 26, 2008, the tower was pulled down, and the remainder of the building was dismantled manually by early February 2009. The cultural life of Arkhangelsk includes: An airstrip in Arkhangelsk was the fictional setting for a level in the 1997 hit videogame \"Goldeneye 007\".", "The Russian North, and, in particular, the area of Arkhangelsk, is notable for its folklore. Until the mid-20th century, fairy tales and \"bylinas\" were still performed on the daily basis by performers who became professionals. Starting from the 1890s, folkloric expeditions have been organized to the White Sea area and later to other areas of the Arkhangelsk Governorate in order to write down the tales and the \"bylinas\", especially in Pomor dialects. In the 1920s, mostly due to the efforts of Anna Astakhova, these expeditions became systematic. By the 1960s, the performing art was basically extinct. These folkloric motives and fairy tales inspired the literary works of Stepan Pisakhov and Boris Shergin, who were both natives of Arkhangelsk.", "", "Arkhangelsk experiences a subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification \"Dfc\"), with long (November–March) and very cold winters and short (June–August) and cool summers.", "Bandy is the biggest sport in the city and is considered a national sport in Russia. Vodnik, the local team, nine times became the Russian champion (1996–2000 and 2002–2005). Their home arena has the capacity of 10000. Arkhangelsk hosted the Bandy World Championship in 1999 and 2003. The 2011–2012 season Russian Bandy League final was played here on March 25, 2012. The 2016 Youth-17 Bandy World Championship was played in Arkhangelsk between 28–31 January.", "Arkhangelsk is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Allied campaign in New Georgia had begun on 30 June as part of their advance through the central Solomon Islands towards Rabaul under the guise of Operation Cartwheel. In the initial phase of the operation, Rendova had been captured to provide a staging point for U.S. forces assigned to capture the Japanese airfield at Munda Point, which was one of the campaign's key objectives. On 2 July, troops of the U.S. 43rd Infantry Division landed on New Georgia to attack Munda, while three days later a battalion Marine Raiders and two U.S. Army battalions were landed at Rice Anchorage on New Georgia's northern shore to seize Bairoko. In response to the Allied landings, the Japanese sought to reinforce New Georgia to shore up the southern flank to their base around Rabaul. On the night of 12 July 1943, a Japanese \"Tokyo Express\" naval reinforcement force made a run down \"The Slot\" from the Rabaul to land troops at Vila on Kolombangara by way of the Kula Gulf. This force was commanded by Rear Admiral (少将 \"shōshō\") Shunji Isaki and consisted of the light cruiser, the destroyers,,, and, as well as the destroyer transports,,, and. These four ships carried 1,200 ground troops which were to be landed on Kolombangara as part of efforts to reinforce area in response to the Allied landings in New Georgia. The Japanese ships of Isaki's force had been drawn from a number of different numbered elements, but the core was formed by Destroyer Squadron 2. The movement of Japanese ships was detected by Allied coastwatchers and reported. In response Admiral William Halsey ordered a naval task force to intercept the Japanese ships. The Allied naval force, designated Task Force 18, was commanded by Rear Admiral Walden L. Ainsworth. It consisted of two United States Navy light cruisers, and and the Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser, and the destroyers,,,,,,,,, and. In battle these Allied vessels deployed in a single column with five destroyers in the van followed by the light cruisers and then by five destroyers in the rear. Each group of five destroyers formed a squadron. The first of these, designated Destroyer Squadron 21, was commanded by Captain Francis X. McInerney. The second destroyer squadron was Captain Thomas J. Ryan's Destroyer Squadron 12; it had only recently been assigned to Ainworth's task force, as had the New Zealand cruiser which had been assigned to Ainsworth's force following the loss of during the Battle of Kula Gulf on 6 July. Together, the three cruisers were grouped together as Cruiser Division 9. Ainsworth's mission was to prevent Japanese troops and supplies from landing as part of efforts to stem the flow of reinforcements towards Munda.", "The U.S. task force sailed from its base around Tulagi at 17:00 on 12 July, amidst clear skies and calm seas. Passing Savo Island, Ainsworth steered a course along the west coast of Santa Isabel Island, hoping to use it to hide his force from Japanese reconnaissance aircraft. His plan for the attack was to use the first squadron of five destroyers that formed his vanguard to fire torpedoes while his cruisers maneuvered into a position to use their main guns. After laying down a heavy barrage the cruisers would maneuver again to avoid return torpedoes from the Japanese destroyers. Having gone to general quarters due to concerns about being spotted in the bright moonlight of the clear night sky, around midnight the U.S task force altered course towards Visu Visu. They then increased their speed following reports from Allied reconnaissance aircraft that had spotted Isaki's force about away. Hamstrung by their slowest ship, \"Leander\", Ainsworth's task group was only able to make while Isaki's force was estimated to cruising at. As the skies began to grow overcast, at 01:00 on 13 July, the Allied ships established radar contact about east of the northern tip of Kolombangara at. Ainsworth assumed he had a complete surprise as the Japanese lacked radar, but in reality, the Japanese had been aware of the Allied force for almost two hours. Despite not possessing radar, the Japanese ships had the ability to detect the electric impulses of the Allied radar systems, and from this, the Japanese crews were able to gain an accurate plot of Ainsworth's dispositions. After sighting the Japanese force at 01:03, the U.S. destroyers of McInerney's squadron increased speed to engage the Japanese force with their torpedoes while the cruisers turned to deploy their main batteries and engage to starboard. Unknown to Ainsworth, the Japanese destroyers had already launched Long Lance torpedoes, which had a longer range than the Allied torpedoes. After firing their salvoes between 01:08 and 01:14, the Japanese destroyers turned away to regroup. The first U.S. torpedoes hit the water about a minute after their Japanese counterparts, with \"Nicholas\" engaging \"Jintsū\" at a range of just under. \"Jintsū\" turned on her searchlight and engaged the Allied ships, but was subjected to concentrated Allied fire from a range of around, with 2,630 rounds being fired under the direction of spotting aircraft overhead. After minor corrections to their fall of shot, the Japanese cruiser was heavily damaged. After losing steerage around 01:17, \"Jintsū\" came to a dead stop. It was eventually reduced to a wreck, broken in two by several torpedo hits, and sank at about 01:45, with the loss of nearly her entire crew, including Isaki. On the Allied side, \"Leander\" was hit by a shell from \"Jintsū\". The damage was light, but severed radio communications. Several Japanese torpedoes were spotted, and the Allied ships began evasive action. These counter maneuvers were hampered by faulty communications and thick gunsmoke that reduced visibility. Consequently, several ships turned wide to avoid collisions, including \"Leander\", which was struck by one of the Japanese torpedoes. Severely damaged, the New Zealand cruiser retired from the battle escorted by \"Radford\" and \"Jenkins\". Amidst the confusion of the initial battle, Ryan's destroyer squadron began its torpedo run from a distance of, firing his first salvo around 01:12. McInerney's destroyers, except \"Radford\" and \"Jenkins\", were detached from the task force by Ainsworth at 01:31 to pursue contacts to the west following a reconnaissance report from the supporting aircraft that indicated several destroyers were withdrawing in that direction. Meanwhile, the four Japanese destroyer-transports began to withdraw along the coast, while the four Japanese escort destroyers temporarily retired north under the command of Captain Yoshima Shimai to use the cover of a rain squall to reload their torpedo tubes, doing so in only 18 minutes. Ainsworth then pursued the Japanese destroyers with Ryan's destroyers and his own three cruisers, altering course to the northwest. Radar contact was reestablished by the U.S. ships at 01:56, but there was uncertainty about the identity of the ships among Ainsworth's advisers. Believing that they may have been McInerney's destroyers, the U.S. ships initially held their fire while they sought to confirm the location of three detached destroyers. At 02:03, starshells were fired to illuminate the contacts that had begun to withdraw. Shortly afterward, Ainsworth deployed his ships to begin firing with their main batteries, maneuvering to starboard. In the process, they moved into the path of a number of torpedoes that had been fired by the Japanese destroyers before they had turned about. In the process, \"St. Louis\" and \"Honolulu\" were both struck by torpedoes and damaged, although this was not mortal. The destroyer \"Ralph Talbot\" managed to reply with a salvo of four torpedoes, but these failed to hit anything. A minute later the destroyer \"Gwin\" was also struck by a torpedo amidships, inflicting heavy damage. Despite efforts to save the ship by its crew, \"Gwin\" was scuttled at 09:30. A total of 61 men were killed on \"Gwin\" as a result of the torpedo attack. Its surviving crew were subsequently evacuated on \"Ralph Talbot\".", "Following the battle, Ainsworth's force withdrew back to Tulagi. Sailing through The Slot in daylight risked air attack from the Japanese. As a result, Ainsworth requested air support and a strong fighter force was provided from bases in the Russell Islands to cover the withdrawal. Early on 13 July, a force of 18 Japanese dive bombers, escorted by 20 fighters, was dispatched to attack the Allied ships, but they were turned back after clashing off Visu Visu. Except for \"Jintsū\", which went down with 482 men, the Japanese force escaped damage. After withdrawing along the coast, the four destroyer transports had diverted through the Vella Gulf and successfully landed 1,200 men at Sandfly Harbor, on the western coast of Kolombangara. They completed unloading at 03:40 after which the Japanese ships searched for survivors from \"Jintsū\" and then returned to Buin. A total of 21 survivors from \"Jintsū\" were subsequently rescued by ; a few others were rescued by American ships. Allied losses amounted to one destroyer sunk, and three light cruisers damaged, one heavily. A total of 89 Allied sailors were killed, including 28 New Zealanders from \"Leander\". \"Honolulu\" and \"St. Louis\" were out of action for several months, while \"Leander\" was under repair for a year and never returned to action during World War II. The Japanese had won a tactical victory, and had demonstrated that they possessed superior night-fighting techniques, but of the action the naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote: \"A string of such victories add[ed] up to defeat.\" Paul Dull further describes the battle as one in a \"series of Pyrrhic victories for the Japanese\" as they were unable to match the capacity of US industry to replace their losses. Ainsworth's force was unable to prevent the flow of Japanese reinforcements south as the lines between Bairoko and the Diamond Narrows remained open. Nevertheless, strategically, the battle forced a change in Japanese tactics. Combined with the earlier Battle of Kula Gulf, the engagement eventually deterred the Japanese from future use of the Kula Gulf to reinforce Munda. The Allied naval commander, Admiral Chester Nimitz, also changed tactics, deciding that the use of cruisers in the confined waters around the Solomon Islands was too dangerous and ineffective. Meanwhile, for the Japanese destroyer losses necessitated the use of \"Daihatsu\" barges to move reinforcements between the Shortland Islands and the Kula Gulf. Consequently, the U.S. Navy concentrated responsibility for its interdiction efforts on its destroyer force and PT boats. Throughout July and into early August, a series of nightly actions took place involving by U.S. destroyers and PT boats against their reinforcement efforts. The most significant action during this time came on 19 July, when a heavy cruiser \"Suzuya\" was sunk along with three destroyers. After this, the Japanese chose to use the Vella Gulf and the Blackett Strait along the western coast of Kolombangara rather than the direct route through the Kula Gulf. This resulted in the Battle of Vella Gulf and Battle off Horaniu in early August. In late September and early October, the Japanese began evacuating their ground troops from Kolombangara. A series of interdiction actions took place during which the U.S. Navy claimed to have sunk 46 barges, killing thousands of Japanese troops. Another action was fought between Japanese and U.S. destroyers off Kolombangara on the night of 2–3 October during which both sides ineffectively exchanged torpedoes and gunfire." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Major theoretical approaches and history.", "Classic theories.", "Contemporary theories.", "SIDE.", "Major empirical discoveries.", "Milgram (1963).", "Philip Zimbardo (1969).", "Philip Zimbardo (1971).", "Diener, Fraser, Beaman, and Kelem (1976).", "Nadler, A., Goldberg, M., Jaffe, Y. (1982).", "Dodd, D. (1985).", "Reicher, S., Levine, R. M., Gordijn, E. (1998).", "Lee, E.J. (2007).", "Applications.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Theories of deindividuation propose that it is a psychological state of decreased self-evaluation and decreased evaluation apprehension causing antinormative and disinhibited behavior. Deindividuation theory seeks to provide an explanation for a variety of antinormative collective behavior, such as violent crowds, lynch mobs, etc. Deindividuation theory has also been applied to genocide and been posited as an explanation for antinormative behavior online and in computer-mediated communications. Although generally analyzed in the context of negative behaviors, such as mob violence and genocide, deindividuation has also been found to play a role in positive behaviors and experiences. There still exists some variation as to understanding the role of deindividuation in producing anti-normative behaviors, as well as understanding how contextual cues affect the rules of the deindividuation construct. Deindividuation is losing the sense of self in a group.", "In contemporary social psychology, deindividuation refers to a diminishing of one's sense of individuality that occurs with behavior disjointed from personal or social standards of conduct. For example, someone who is an anonymous member of a mob will be more likely to act violently toward a police officer than a known individual. In one sense, a deindividuated state may be considered appealing if someone is affected such that he or she feels free to behave impulsively without mind to potential consequences. However, deindividuation has also been linked to \"violent and anti-social behavior\".", "Gustave Le Bon was an early explorer of this phenomenon as a function of crowds. Le Bon introduced his crowd psychology theory in his 1895 publication \"The Crowd: A study of the Popular Mind\". The French psychologist characterized his posited effect of crowd mentality, whereby individual personalities become dominated by the collective mindset of the crowd. Le Bon viewed crowd behavior as \"unanimous, emotional, and intellectually weak\". He theorized that a loss of personal responsibility in crowds leads to an inclination to behave primitively and hedonistically by the entire group. This resulting mentality, according to Le Bon, belongs more to the collective than any individual, so that individual traits are submerged. The idea of a \"group mind\" is comparable to the shared autism theory, which holds that individuals within a group may develop shared beliefs that have no basis in reality (\"delusions\"). Already, Le Bon was tending toward the conception of deindividuation as a state brought on by a lowering of accountability, resulting from a degree of anonymity due to membership within a crowd, where attention is shifted from the self to the more stimulating, external qualities of the group’s action (which may be extreme). Essentially, individuals of Le Bon's crowd are enslaved to the group's mindset and are capable of conducting the most violent and heroic acts. Le Bon's group-level explanation of behavioral phenomena in crowds inspired further theories regarding collective psychology from Freud, McDougall, Blumer, and Allport. Festinger, Pepitone, and Newcomb revisited Le Bon's ideas in 1952, coining the term deindividuation to describe what happens when persons within a group are not treated as individuals. According to these theorists, whatever attracts each member to a particular group causes them to put more emphasis on the group than on individuals. This unaccountability inside a group has the effect of \"reducing inner restraints and increasing behavior that is usually inhibited.\" Festinger \"et al.\", agreed with Le Bon's perception of behavior in a crowd in the sense that they believed individuals do become submerged into the crowd leading to their reduced accountability. However, these relatively modern theorists distinguished deindividuation from crowd theory by reforming the idea that the loss of individuality within a crowd is replaced by the group's mindset. Instead, Festinger \"et al.\", argued that the loss of individuality leads to loss of control over internal or moral constraints. Alternatively, R. C. Ziller (1964) argued that individuals are subject to deindividuation under more specific situational conditions. For instance, he suggested that under rewarding conditions, individuals have the learned incentive to exhibit individualized qualities in order to absorb credit for themselves; whereas, under punishing conditions, individuals have the learned tendency to become deindividuated through submergence into the group as a means of diffusing responsibility. P. G. Zimbardo (1969) suggested \"the expression of normally inhibited behavior\" may have both positive and negative consequences. He expanded the proposed realm of factors that contribute to deindividuation, beyond anonymity and loss of personal responsibility, to include: \"arousal, sensory overload, a lack of contextual structure or predictability, and altered consciousness due to drugs or alcohol,\" as well as \"altered time perspectives...and degree of involvement in group functioning\" Zimbardo postulated that these factors lead to \"loss of identity or loss of self-consciousness,\" which result in unresponsiveness to external stimuli by the individual and the loss of \"cognitive control over motivations and emotions.\" Consequently, individuals reduce their compliance with good and bad sanctions held by influences outside the group. Zimbardo was consistent with Festinger \"et al.\" in his suggestion that loss of individuality leads to a loss of control, causing affected persons to behave intensely and impulsively, having let go of internal restraints. However, he developed this model by specifying the \"input variables\" (situational factors) that lead to this loss of individuality, as well as the nature of behaviors that result (emotional, impulsive, and regressive). Zimbardo further developed existing deindividuation theory by suggesting these outcome behaviors are \"self-reinforcing\" and therefore difficult to cease. Moreover, Zimbardo did not restrict his application to group situations; he also applied deindividuation theory to \"suicide, murder, and interpersonal hostility.\"", "In the late seventies, Ed Diener began to express dissatisfaction with the current deindividuation hypothesis, which he deemed invalid without specific focus on the psychological processes that yield a deindividuated state. Not only was Zimbardo's model deficient in that respect, but the role of his input variables in causing anti-normative behaviors was not uniform. Consequently, Diener took it upon himself to refine Zimbardo's model by specifying further the internal processes which lead to deindividuation. In 1980, he argued that paying attention to one's personal values through self-awareness increases the ability of that person to self-regulate. In a group context, when attention is distributed outward (in line with this model) away from the self, the individual loses the ability to plan his actions rationally and substitutes planned behaviors with a heightened responsiveness to environmental cues. Thus, according to Diener, the reduction of self-awareness is the \"defining feature of deindividuation\". Diener proposed that the strict focus on anonymity as the primary factor of deindividuation had created an empirical obstacle, calling for a redirection of empirical research on the topic. While Diener was able to take the focus away from anonymity in the theoretical evolution of deindividuation, he was unable to empirically clarify the function of reduced self-awareness in causing disinhibited behavior. In response to this ambiguity, Prentice-Dunn and Rogers (1982, 1989) extended Diener's model by distinguishing public self-awareness from private self-awareness. Public self-awareness they theorized to be reduced by \"accountability cues,\" like diffusion of responsibility or anonymity. Such factors, according to these theorists, cause members of a crowd to lose a sense of consequences for their actions; thus, they worry less about being evaluated and do not anticipate punishment. Private self-awareness (where attention is shifted away from the self), however, was reduced by \"attentional cues,\" e.g. group cohesiveness and physiological arousal. This reduction leads to \"an internal deindividuated state\" (comprising decreased private self-awareness and altered thinking as a natural by-product) that causes \"decreased self-regulation and attention to internalized standards for appropriate behavior.\" The \"differential self-awareness\" theorists suggested both forms of self-awareness could lead to \"antinormative and disinhibited behavior\" but only the decreased private self-awareness process was in their definition of deindividuation.", "The most recent model of deindividuation, the social identity model of deindividuation effects (SIDE), was developed by Russell Spears and Martin Lea in 1995. The SIDE model argues that deindividuation manipulations can have the effect of decreasing attention to individual characteristics and interpersonal differences within the group. They outlined their model by explaining that social identity performance can fulfill two general functions: This model attempts to make sense of a range of deindividuation effects which were derived from situational factors such as group immersion, anonymity, and reduced identifiability. Therefore, deindividuation is the increased salience of a group identity that can result from the manipulation of such factors. The SIDE model is in contrast to other deindividuation explanations which involve the reduced impact of the self. Further explanations by Reicher and colleagues state that deindividuation manipulations affect norm endorsement through not only their impact on self-definition, but also their influence on power relations between group members and their audience. Classical and contemporary approaches agree on the main component of deindividuation theory, that deindividuation leads to \"anti-normative and disinhibited behavior\" as seen in Dissociative identity disorder, or split personalities.", "", "Stanley Milgram's study is a classic study of blind obedience, however, many aspects of this study explicitly illustrate characteristics of situations in which deindividuation is likely to occur. Participants were taken into a room and sat in front of a board of fake controls. They were then told by the experimenter that they were completing a task on learning and that they were to read a list of word pairs to the “learner” and then test the learner on accuracy. The participant then read a word and four possible matches. If the confederate got the match wrong, they were to administer a shock (which was not real, unbeknownst to the participant) from the fake control panel they were sitting in front of. After each wrong answer, the intensity of the shock increased. The participant was instructed by the experimenter to continue to administer the shocks, stating that it was their duty in the experiment. As the voltage increased, the confederate began to complain of pain, yelled out discomfort, and eventually screamed the pain was too much and sometimes they even began to bang on the wall. At the greatest amount of voltage administered, the confederate stopped speaking at all. The results of the study showed that 65 percent of experiment participants administered the experiment's final, and most severe, 450-volt shock. Only 1 participant refused to administer shocks past the 300- volt level. The participants, covered by a veil of anonymity, were able to be more aggressive in this situation than they possibly would have in a normal setting. Additionally, this is a classic example of diffusion of responsibility in that participants looked to an authority figure (the experimenter) instead of being self-aware of the pain they were causing or engaging in self-evaluation which may have caused them to adhere to societal norms.", "This study prompted Zimbardo to write his initial theory and model of deindividuation based on the results of his research. In one study, participants in the experimental condition were made to be anonymous by being issued large coats and hoods which largely concealed their identity. These New York University women were dressed up like Ku Klux Klan members in groups of four. In contrast, the participants in the control condition wore normal clothes and name tags. Each participant was brought into a room and given the task of “shocking” a confederate in another room at different levels of severity ranging from mild to dangerous (similar to Stanley Milgram's study in 1963.) Zimbardo noted that participants who were in the anonymous condition “shocked” the confederates longer, which would have caused more pain in a real situation, than those in the non-anonymous control group. However, a second study using soldiers was done which showed the exact opposite results. When the soldiers were identifiable, they shocked longer than the unidentifiable soldiers. Zimbardo proposed that as a result of anonymity, the soldiers may have felt isolated from their fellow soldiers. These studies motivated Zimbardo to examine this deindividuation and aggression in a prison setting, which is discussed in the next study listed.", "Now a more widely recognized study since the publication of his book, \"The Lucifer Effect\", the Stanford Prison Experiment is infamous for its blatant display of aggression in deindividuated situations. Zimbardo created a mock prison environment in the basement of Stanford University’s psychology building in which he randomly assigned 24 men to undertake the role of either guard or prisoner. These men were specifically chosen because they had no abnormal personality traits (e.g.: narcissistic, authoritarian, antisocial, etc.) The experiment, originally planned to span over two weeks, ended after only six days because of the sadistic treatment of the prisoners by the guards. Zimbardo attributed this behavior to deindividuation due to immersion within the group and creation of a strong group dynamic. Several elements added to the deindividuation of both guards and prisoners. Prisoners were made to dress alike, wearing stocking caps and hospital dressing gowns, and also were identified only by a number assigned to them rather than by their name. Guards were also given uniforms and reflective glasses which hid their faces. The dress of guards and prisoners led to a type of anonymity on both sides because the individual identifying characteristics of the men were taken out of the equation. Additionally, the guards had the added element of diffusion of responsibility which gave them the opportunity to remove personal responsibility and place it on a higher power. Several guards commented that they all believed that someone else would have stopped them if they were truly crossing the line, so they continued with their behavior. Zimbardo's prison study would have not been stopped if one of Zimbardo's graduate students, Christina Maslach, had not pointed it out to him.", "In this classic study, Diener and colleagues had a woman place a bowl of candy in her living room for trick-or-treaters. An observer was placed out of sight from the children in order to record the behaviors of the trick-or-treaters. In one condition, the woman asked the children identification questions such as where they lived, who their parents were, what their name was, etc. In the other condition, children were completely anonymous. The observer also recorded whether children came individually or in a group. In each condition, the woman invited the children in, claimed she had something in the kitchen she had to tend to so she had to leave the room, and then instructed each child to take only one piece of candy. The anonymous group condition far outnumbered the other conditions in terms of how many times they took more than one piece of candy. In 60% of cases, the anonymous group of children took more than one piece, sometimes even the entire bowl of candy. The anonymous individual and the identified group condition tied for second, taking more than one piece of candy 20% of the time. The condition which broke the rule the fewest times was the identified individual condition, which took more than one piece of candy only in 10% of cases.", "This study by Nadler, Goldberg, and Jaffe measured the effects that deindividuating conditions (anonymity vs. identifiable) had on two subject conditions (self-differentiated vs. undifferentiated individuals). The self-differentiated individual is said to have definite boundaries between inner characteristics identified as self and the social environment. In the undifferentiated individual, such a distinction is less marked. Subjects who were preselected as being self-differentiated or undifferentiated were observed under conditions of high or low anonymity. Each subject was exposed to transgressions and donations made by confederates, and then their own transgressive and prosocial actions were measured. Also, measures of verbal aggression directed toward the experimenter and measures of internal state of deindividuation were taken. Major findings of the study: Overall, the study supports the hypothesis that deindividuating conditions cause behavioral changes in undifferentiated individuals but have relatively little effect on the behavior of self-differentiated individuals.", "Dodd's experiment evaluates the association between deindividuation and anonymity. Dodd measured his subjects by asking them what they would do (within the realm of reality) if their identity were kept anonymous and they would receive no repercussions. The responses were grouped into four categories: prosocial, antisocial, nonnormative, and neutral. Results of his study yielded that 36% of the responses were antisocial, 19% nonnormative, 36% neutral and only 9% prosocial. The most frequent responses recorded were criminal acts. This study on deindividuation exhibits the importance of situational factors, in this case anonymity, when reporting antisocial behavior. Furthermore, this study demonstrates that personal traits and characteristics are not much of predictor when predicting the behavior. Overall, this study is supportive of the concept of deindividuation as Dodd found that behavior changes from what would be normal of a certain individual, to a behavior that is not representative of normal behavioral decisions.", "Following the social models of identity proposed by deindividuation, the study conducted by Reicher, Levine and Gordijn expresses the strategic effects of visibility on the ingroup. The experimenters suggest that increasing visibility amongst the in-group members subsequently increases their ability to support each other against the outgroup—this also leads to an increase in the traits of the in-group that would normally be sanctioned by the out-group. The study was based on the debate over whether fox hunting should or should not be banned. The experimenters were mainly concerned with the participants that defined themselves as ‘anti-hunting;’ The participants involved thirty male and female students in the first year of their A-level psychology course located in a rural town in South West England—the mean age was 17 years. The study involved two separate sessions where the participants completed a pre-test and were assigned to the pro- or anti- hunting groups. A spokesperson representing each view was brought in to discuss their opinions individually with each participant. The pro-hunting group was taken to another room and did not take further part in the study. For the in-group low-visibility condition part of the anti-hunting participants were taken to individual booths where they were not visible to others in the experiment. The remaining anti-hunting participants who were categorized under the in-group high visibility condition, were seated in a circle where each was visible to all throughout the experiment. At this point both groups were shown a video. After watching the video the participants were handed a questionnaire. They were asked to write their names on the front so that the out-group spokesperson would be able to identify the authors of the questionnaire before discussing the comments individually. To the experimenters’ surprise the experiment demonstrated the inverse of their hypothesis. The study showed that more participants were more likely to express normative behaviors that are punishable by powerful out-group when they are visible to fellow members of the same in-group. Experimenters also found that in-group participants actually expressed opposition to the roles imposed by the experimenters themselves. Instead of just uniting against hunt, some of the in-group participants resented being told that their group supported certain views—some regarded themselves as moderate pro- or anti- hunters instead. In this case, the experimenters themselves triggered a response from the in-group, which was later analyzed through follow up experiments.", "This study conducted by Lee investigates the effects of deindividuation on group polarization. Group polarization refers to the finding that following group discussion, individuals tend to endorse a more extreme position in the direction already favored by the group. In Lee's study subjects were either assigned to a deindividuation or individuation condition. Next, each subject answered questions and provided an argument about a given dilemma. They were then shown their partners’ decisions and the subjects were asked to indicate how convincing and valid the overall arguments were. In analyzing her results, Lee came to several conclusions: Overall, this study provides solid research for which the previous findings regarding deindividuation can be solidified. The finding that deindividuation was associated with stronger group polarization and identification corresponds with the basis of deindividuation: individuals that are more polarized and identified with a group will be more apt to act out of character and display anti-normative behavior.", "Deindividuation is the perceived loss of individuality and personal responsibility that can occur when someone participates as part of a group. It can cause a person to be more likely to donate a large amount of money to charity, but also cause them to be more likely to engage in mob violence. There are many instances in which the effects of deindividuation can be seen in real-world instances. Deindividuation can occur in as varied instances as in the police force, the military, the internet, sports teams, gangs, cults, and social organizations. Although they may seem very different on the surface, these groups share many traits that make them conducive to, and even contingent on, deindividuation. All of the examples share the strong drive towards group cohesiveness. Police officers, soldiers, and sports teams all wear uniforms that create a distinct in-group while eliminating the individual differences of personal style. Men in the military are even required to shave their heads in order to better unify their appearance. Although gangs, cults, and fraternities and sororities do not require the same degree of physical uniformity, they also display this tendency towards unifying the exterior in order to unify their group. For example, gangs may have a symbol that they tattoo on their bodies in order to identify themselves as part of the in-group of their gang. Members of fraternities and sororities often wear clothing marked with their “letters” so that they can quickly be identified as part of their specific group. By reducing individual differences, these various groups become more cohesive. The cohesiveness of a group can make its members lose their sense of self in the overwhelming identity of the group. For example, a young man in the military might identify himself through a variety of individual constructs, however while in uniform with a shaved head and dog tags around his neck, he might suddenly only identify himself as a soldier. Likewise, a girl wearing the letters of her sorority on her shirt, and standing in a crowd of her sorority sisters, may feel less like herself, and more like a “Chi-Oh” or “Tridelt.” Physically normalized to the standards of their respective groups, these various group members are all at risk to feel deindividuized. They may begin to think of themselves as a mere part of the group, and lose the awareness that they are an individual with the capacity to think and act completely separately from their group. They could do things they might not usually do out of shyness, individual morality, self-consciousness, or other factors. Due to reduced feelings of accountability, and increased feelings of group cohesion and conformity, these group members could act in a manner of non-normative ways. Deindividuation often occurs without face-to-face interaction and is a prevalent feature of the internet. The loosening of normal constraints on behavior caused by deindividuation thrives within online environments and contributes to cyberbullying behavior. Furthermore, deindividuation online has been thought to be responsible for a widespread willingness to illegally download software. One researcher tested the hypothesis that “Persons who prefer the anonymity and pseudonymity associated with interaction on the Internet are more likely to pirate software,” but found that neither anonymity nor pseudonymity predicted self-reported software piracy From buying drinks for an entire bar of strangers to committing violence as dire as murder or rape, deindividuation can lead a variety of people to act in ways they may have thought impossible.", "Questions have been raised about the external validity of deindividuation research. As deindividuation has evolved as a theory, some researchers feel that the theory has lost sight of the dynamic group intergroup context of collective behavior that it attempts to model. Some propose that deindividuation effects may actually be a product of group norms; crowd behavior is guided by norms that emerge in a specific context. More generally, it seems odd that while deindividuation theory argues that group immersion causes antinormative behavior, research in social psychology has also shown that the presence of a group produces conformity to group norms and standards. Certain experiments, such as Milgram's obedience studies (1974) demonstrate conformity to the experimenter's demands; however the research paradigm in this experiment is very similar to some employ in deindividuation studies, except the role of the experimenter is usually not taken into account in such instances. A larger criticism is that our conception of the antinormative behaviors which deindividuation causes is based on social norms, which is problematic because norms by nature are variable and situation specific. For instance, Johnson and Downing (1979) demonstrated that group behaviors vary greatly depending on the situation. Participants who dressed in Ku Klux Klan robes shocked a research confederate more, but participants dressed as nurses actually shocked less regardless of whether they were identifiable or anonymous. They explained these results as a product of contextual cues, namely the costumes. This explanation runs counter to Zimbardo's initial theory of deindividuation which states that deindividuation increases antinormative behavior regardless of external cues. Researchers who examine deindividuation effects within the context of situational norms support a social identity model of deindividuation effects." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Characteristics.", "Species list.", "Former species in this genus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The genus \"Motacilla\" was introduced by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his \"Systema Naturae\". The type species is the white wagtail. \"Motacilla\" is the Latin name for the pied wagtail; although actually a diminutive of \"motare\", \"to move about\", from medieval times it led to the misunderstanding of \"cilla\" as \"tail\". At first glance, the wagtails appear to be divided into a yellow-bellied group and a white-bellied one, or one where the upper head is black and another where it is usually grey, but may be olive, yellow, or other colours. However, these are not evolutionary lineages; change of belly colour and increase of melanin have occurred independently several times in the wagtails, and the colour patterns which actually indicate relationships are more subtle. mtDNA cytochrome \"b\" and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data (Voelker, 2002) is of limited use: the suspicion that there is a superspecies of probably 3 white-bellied, black-throated wagtails is confirmed. Also, there is another superspecies in sub-Saharan Africa, three white-throated species with a black breast-band. The remaining five species are highly variable morphologically and their relationships with each other and with the two clades have not yet been satisfactorily explained. The origin of the genus appears to be in the general area of Eastern Siberia/Mongolia. Wagtails spread rapidly across Eurasia and dispersed to Africa in the Zanclean (Early Pliocene) where the sub-Saharan lineage was later isolated. The African pied wagtail (and possibly the Mekong wagtail) diverged prior to the massive radiation of the white-bellied black-throated and most yellow-bellied forms, all of which took place during the late Piacenzian (early Late Pliocene), c. 3 mya. Three species are poly- or paraphyletic in the present taxonomical arrangement and either subspecies need to be reassigned and/or species split up. The blue-headed wagtail (AKA yellow wagtail and many other names), especially, has always been a taxonomical nightmare with over a dozen currently accepted subspecies and many more invalid ones. The two remaining \"monochrome\" species, Mekong and African pied wagtail may be closely related, or a most striking example of convergent evolution. Prehistoric wagtails known from fossils are \"Motacilla humata\" and \"Motacilla major\".", "Wagtails are slender, often colourful, ground-feeding insectivores of open country in the Old World. Species of wagtail breed in Africa, Europe and Asia, some of which are fully or partially migratory. Two species also breed in Alaska, and wintering birds may reach Australia. They are ground nesters, laying up to six speckled eggs at a time. Among their most conspicuous behaviours is a near constant tail wagging, a trait that has given the birds their common name. In spite of the ubiquity of the behaviour and observations of it, the reasons for it are poorly understood. It has been suggested that it may flush up prey, or that it may signal submissiveness to other wagtails. Recent studies have suggested instead that it is a signal of vigilance that may aid to deter potential predators.", "The genus contains 13 species.", "Formerly, some authorities also considered the following species (or subspecies) as species within the genus \"Motacilla\":" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Modern history and heritage.", "Geography.", "Topography.", "Climate.", "Politics.", "Coat of arms.", "Administrative divisions.", "Government.", "Parliament.", "Elections.", "National Council.", "Demographics.", "Population.", "Historic population.", "Religion.", "Crime.", "Transport.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Libraries.", "Tertiary education.", "Primary and secondary schools.", "Culture and arts.", "Heritage sites of national significance.", "Culture.", "Museums.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Romans built a military camp, which they called, at the site of a Celtic settlement, near the lake where Vidy and Ouchy are situated; on the hill above was a fort called or (The \"-y\" suffix is common to many place names of Roman origin in the region (e.g.) Prilly, Pully, Lutry, etc.). By the 2nd century AD, it was known as and in 280 as. By 400, it was, and in 990 it was mentioned as. After the fall of the Roman Empire, insecurity forced the residents of Lausanne to move to its current centre, a hilly site that was easier to defend. The city which emerged from the camp was ruled by the Dukes of Savoy and the Bishop of Lausanne. Then it came under Bern from 1536 to 1798, and a number of its cultural treasures, including the hanging tapestries in the Cathedral, were permanently removed. Lausanne has made repeated requests to recover them. After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, Lausanne became (along with Geneva) a place of refuge for French Huguenots. In 1729, a seminary was opened by Antoine Court and Benjamin Duplan. By 1750, 90 pastors had been sent back to France to work clandestinely; this number would rise to 400. Official persecution ended in 1787; a faculty of Protestant theology was established at Montauban in 1808, and the Lausanne seminary was finally closed on 18 April 1812. During the Napoleonic Wars, the city's status changed. In 1803, it became the capital of a newly formed Swiss canton, Vaud, under which it joined the Swiss Federation.", "In 1964, the city played host to the Swiss National Exhibition, displaying its newly found confidence to play host to major international events. From the 1950s to 1970s, a large number of Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese immigrated to Lausanne, settling mostly in the industrial district of Renens and transforming the local diet. The city has served as a refuge for European artists. While under the care of a psychiatrist at Lausanne, T. S. Eliot composed most of his 1922 poem \"The Waste Land\" (\"by the waters of Leman I sat down and wept\"). Ernest Hemingway also visited from Paris with his wife during the 1920s, to holiday. In fact, many creative people – such as historian Edward Gibbon and Romantic era poets Shelley and Byron — have \"sojourned, lived, and worked in Lausanne or nearby\". The city has been traditionally quiet, but in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a series of demonstrations took place that exposed tensions between young people and the police. In the early 1980s, the Lôzane Bouge protests demanded the city \"open an autonomous centre, lower cinema ticket prices, liberalise cannabis and end the process of keeping records on homosexuals, all accompanied by leaflets, chants, and songs in the street\". Protests occurred in 2003, against the G8 meetings.", "", "The most important geographical feature of the area surrounding Lausanne is Lake Geneva (\"Lac Léman\" in French). Lausanne is built on the southern slope of the Swiss plateau, with a difference in elevation of about between the lakeshore at Ouchy and its northern edge bordering Le Mont-sur-Lausanne and Épalinges. Lausanne boasts a dramatic panorama over the lake and the Alps. In addition to its generally southward-sloping layout, the centre of the city is the site of an ancient river, the Flon, which has been covered since the 19th century. The former river forms a gorge running through the middle of the city south of the old city centre, generally following the course of the present \"Rue Centrale\", with several bridges crossing the depression to connect the adjacent neighbourhoods. Due to the considerable differences in elevation, visitors should make a note as to which plane of elevation they are on and where they want to go, otherwise they will find themselves tens of metres below or above the street which they are trying to negotiate. The name \"Flon\" is also used for the metro station located in the gorge. The municipality includes the villages of Vidy, Cour, Ouchy, Mornex, Chailly, La Sallaz, Vennes, Montblesson, Vers-chez-les-Blanc, Montheron and Chalet-à-Gobet () as well as the exclave of Vernand. Lausanne is located at the limit between the extensive wine-growing regions of Lavaux (to the east) and la Côte (to the west). Lausanne has an area,, of (depending on calculation method). Of this area, or 16.0% is used for agricultural purposes, while or 39.1% is forested. Of the rest of the land, or 44.6% is settled (buildings or roads), or 0.1% is either rivers or lakes and or 0.0% is unproductive land. Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 1.6% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 21.6% and transportation infrastructure made up 12.5%. Power and water infrastructure as well as other special developed areas made up 1.4% of the area while parks, green belts and sports fields made up 7.5%. Out of the forested land, all of the forested land area is covered with heavy forests. Of the agricultural land, 11.1% is used for growing crops and 4.2% is pastures. All the water in the municipality is in lakes. The municipality was part of the old Lausanne District until it was dissolved on 31 August 2006, and it became the capital of the new district of Lausanne.", "Lausanne has an average of 119.7 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives of precipitation. The wettest month is May during which time Lausanne receives an average of of rain. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 12.1 days. The driest month of the year is February with an average of of precipitation over 8.8 days. The USDA Hardiness Zone for Lausanne-Pully is 8b with an average minimum temperature of −7.0 C over the past 20 years (1997–2016), but at the lake level, it can be considered 9a.", "", "The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is \"Gules, chief argent\".", "The city is divided into 18 \"quartiers\", or districts, sometimes composed of several neighborhoods. They are: Centre (1), Maupas/Valency (2), Sébeillon/Malley (3), Montoie/Bourdonnette (4), Montriond/Cour (5), Sous-Gare/Ouchy (6), Montchoisi (7), Florimont/Chissiez (8), Mousquines/Bellevue (9), Vallon/Béthusy (10), Chailly/Rovéréaz (11), Sallaz/Vennes/Séchaud (12), Sauvabelin (13), Borde/Bellevaux (14), Vinet/Pontaise (15), Bossons/Blécherette (16), Beaulieu/Grey/Boisy (17), and Les Zones foraines (90)", "The municipality (\"la Municipalité\") constitutes the executive government of the City of Lausanne and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of seven councilors (), each presiding over a directorate. One of the members act as mayor (\"syndic\"). In the mandate period 2016–2021 (\"la législature\") the Municipality is presided by \"Monsieur le Syndic\" Grégoire Junod. Directoral tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Communal Council are carried by the Municipality. The regular election of the Municipality by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every five years. Any resident of Lausanne allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipality. Since 14 April 2003, due to the constitution by canton of Vaud not only Swiss citizen have the right to vote and elect and being elected on communal level, but also foreigners with a residence permit of at least 10 years in Switzerland and 3 years in the canton of Vaud. The current mandate period is from 1 July 2016 to 30 June 2021. The delegates are elected by means of a system of Majorz. The mayor is later on elected as such by a public election as well by a system of Majorz, while the heads of the other departments are assigned by the collegiate. The executive body holds its meetings in the Town Hall (\"L'Hôtel de Ville\"), in the old city on \"Place de la Palud\". , Lausanne's Municipality is made up of three representatives of the PS (Social Democratic Party, of whom one is also the mayor), and two members of PES (Green Party), and one each of le Parti Ouvrier et Populaire Vaudois (POP) & \"gauche en mouvement\" (an alliance of the left parties POP (\"Parti Suisse du Travail – Parti Ouvrier et Populaire\") and solidaritéS and \"indépendant.e.s\"), and PLR (Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR)), giving the left parties a very strong six out of seven seats. The last election was held on 28 February/20 March 2016. The mayor was elected by two ballots on 17 April/8 May 2016. Simon Affolter is Town Chancellor (chancelier municipal) since for the Municipality.", "The Communal Council (\"Conseil communal\") holds legislative power. It is made up of 100 members, with elections held every five years. The Communal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Municipality and the administration. The sessions of the Communal Council are public. Unlike members of the Municipality, members of the Communal Council are not politicians by profession, and they are paid a fee based on their attendance. Any resident of Lausanne allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Communal Council. Since 14 April 2003, due to the constitution by canton of Vaud not only Swiss citizen have the right to vote and elect and being elected on communal level, but also foreigners with a residence permit of at least 10 years in Switzerland and 3 years in the canton of Vaud. The Parliament holds its meetings in the Town Hall (\"Hôtel de Ville\"), in the old city on \"Place de la Palud\". The last election of the Communal Council was held on 28 February 2016 for the mandate period (\"la législature\") from 1 June 2016 to 31 May 2021. Currently the Communal Council consist of 33 members of the Social Democratic Party (PS), 21 Les Libéraux-Radicaux (PLR), 17 Green Party (PES), 12 Swiss People's Party (UDC), 11 \"Ensemble à Gauche\" (an alliance of the left parties POP (\"Parti Suisse du Travail – Parti Ouvrier et Populaire\") and solidaritéS and \"indépendant.e.s\"), and 6 \"Le Centre\" (an alliance of Christian Democratic People's Party (PDC) and Green Liberal Party (pvl)).", "", "In the 2019 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the Green Party which received 27.3% (+11.4) of the vote. The next five most popular parties were the PS (26.7%, -4.2), PLR (15.1%, -3.6), the UDC (9.3%, -6), the POP/solidaritéS (9%, +1.9), the pvl (6.9%, +3.4). In the federal election a total of 26,070 votes were cast, and the voter turnout was 39.7%. In the 2015 federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the PS which received 30.8% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the PLR (18.7%), the Green Party (15.9%), and the UDC (15.4%). In the federal election, a total of 26,116 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 41.0%.", "", "Lausanne has a population () of., 42% of the population were resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (1999–2009) the population has changed at a rate of 9.9%. It has changed at a rate of 8.3% due to migration and at a rate of 2.6% due to births and deaths. The population of the greater Lausanne area (\"grand Lausanne\") is 402,900 (as of December 2014). Of the population in the municipality, 58% or 80,828 have a Swiss citizenship, while 16,908 or 12.1% are from Lausanne and still lived there in December 2013. There were 27,653 or 19.8% who are from somewhere else in the same canton, while 36,276 or 26.0% have a Swiss citizenship in another canton. 58,9562 or 42.0% have a foreign citizenship. In 2000, most of the population spoke French (98,424 or 78.8%), with German being second most common (5,365 or 4.3%) and Italian being third (4,976 or 4.0%). There were 62 people who speak Romansh. In there were 840 live births to Swiss citizens and 623 births to non-Swiss citizens, and in same time span there were 862 deaths of Swiss citizens and 127 non-Swiss citizen deaths. Ignoring immigration and emigration, the population of Swiss citizens decreased by 22 while the foreign population increased by 496. There were 9 Swiss men and 57 Swiss women who emigrated from Switzerland. At the same time, there were 2230 non-Swiss men and 1802 non-Swiss women who immigrated from another country to Switzerland. The total Swiss population change in 2008 (from all sources, including moves across municipal borders) was an increase of 883 and the non-Swiss population increased by 2221 people. This represents a population growth rate of 2.6%. The age distribution,, in Lausanne is; 11,818 children or 9.4% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 12,128 teenagers or 9.7% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 21,101 people or 16.8% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 22,158 people or 17.6% are between 30 and 39, 18,016 people or 14.4% are between 40 and 49, and 13,940 people or 11.1% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 11,041 people or 8.8% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 8,277 people or 6.6% are between 70 and 79, there are 5,896 people or 4.7% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 1,171 people or 0.9% who are 90 and older., there were 58,100 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 48,990 married individuals, 7,797 widows or widowers and 10,027 individuals who are divorced. , there were 62,258 private households in the municipality, and an average of 1.9 persons per household. There were 31,205 households that consist of only one person and 2,184 households with five or more people. Out of a total of 63,833 households that answered this question, 48.9% were households made up of just one person and there were 306 adults who lived with their parents. Of the rest of the households, there are 13,131 married couples without children and 11,603 married couples with children. There were 3,883 single parents with a child or children. There were 2,130 households that were made up of unrelated people, and 1,575 households that were made up of some sort of institution or another collective housing.", "The historical population is given in the following chart:", "From the Reformation in the 16th century, the city was mostly Protestant until the late 20th century, when it received substantial immigration, particularly from largely Catholic countries. Catholics now form a plurality of the city's population. From the, 47,225 people (37.8% of the population) were Roman Catholic, while 33,993 (27.2%) belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 2,698 members of an Orthodox church (2.16%), there were 65 individuals (0.05%) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 4,437 individuals (3.55%) who belonged to another Christian church. There were 849 individuals (0.68%) who were Jewish, and 7,501 (6.00%) who were Muslim. There were 452 individuals who were Buddhist, 772 individuals who were Hindu and 343 individuals who belonged to another church. 21,080 (16.88%) belonged to no church, were agnostic or atheist, and 7,590 individuals (6.08%) did not answer the question.", "In 2014 the crime rate, of crimes listed in the Swiss Criminal Code, in Lausanne was 167.3 per thousand residents. During the same period, the rate of drug crimes was 49.5 per thousand residents, and the rate of violations of immigration, visa and work permit laws was 21 per thousand residents.", "Lausanne is served by an extensive network of local, national and international public transport. National and international passenger trains of the Swiss Federal Railways depart from Lausanne railway station, which is also the hub of the Réseau Express Vaudois commuter rail system, and a stop on the city's metro. The metro and local buses are operated by Transports publics de la région lausannoise (TL), with many routes run using trolleybuses. Additional commuter trains are run by the Lausanne–Echallens–Bercher railway (LEB) from Lausanne-Flon station. Ships across Lake Geneva are provided by the Compagnie Générale de Navigation sur le lac Léman (CGN). Lausanne became the first city in Switzerland to have a rubber-tyred metro system, with the m2 Line which opened in October 2008. The rolling stock is a shorter version of the one used on Paris Métro Line 14. Further expansion of the system is planned, as is the re-introduction of trams. Lausanne is connected to the A1 motorway on its west side (Geneva – Zürich axis) and to the A9 on its north and east side (for transit with Italy and France); the interchange between these two motorways is on the north-west side of the city. Lausanne Airport is located at Blécherette, and also houses a Boeing 737 Simulator. The city is also directly linked by train to the Geneva International Airport, four times an hour, in 42min.", ", Lausanne had an unemployment rate of 8%., there were 114 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 25 businesses involved in this sector. 6,348 people were employed in the secondary sector and there were 698 businesses in this sector. 83,157 people were employed in the tertiary sector, with 6,501 businesses in this sector. There were 59,599 residents of the municipality who were employed in some capacity, of which females made up 47.4% of the workforce. the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 75,041. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 93, of which 56 were in agriculture, 34 were in forestry or lumber production and 3 were in fishing or fisheries. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 6,057 of which 1,515 or (25.0%) were in manufacturing, 24 or (0.4%) were in mining and 3,721 (61.4%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 68,891. In the tertiary sector; 8,520 or 12.4% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 2,955 or 4.3% were in the movement and storage of goods, 4,345 or 6.3% were in a hotel or restaurant, 4,671 or 6.8% were in the information industry, 6,729 or 9.8% were the insurance or financial industry, 8,213 or 11.9% were technical professionals or scientists, 5,756 or 8.4% were in education and 14,312 or 20.8% were in health care. , there were 55,789 workers who commuted into the municipality and 19,082 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 2.9 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. About 1.9% of the workforce coming into Lausanne are coming from outside Switzerland, while 0.1% of the locals commute out of Switzerland for work. Of the working population, 40.9% used public transportation to get to work, and 35.1% used a private car.", "In Lausanne about 40,118 or (32.1%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 22,934 or (18.4%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a \"Fachhochschule\"). Of the 22,934 who completed tertiary schooling, 38.7% were Swiss men, 31.3% were Swiss women, 17.1% were non-Swiss men and 12.9% were non-Swiss women. In the 2009/2010 school year there were a total of 12,244 students in the Lausanne school district. In the Vaud cantonal school system, two years of non-obligatory pre-school are provided by the political districts. During the school year, the political district provided pre-school care for a total of 2,648 children of which 1,947 children (73.5%) received subsidized pre-school care. The canton's primary school program requires students to attend for four years. There were 6,601 students in the municipal primary school program. The obligatory lower secondary school program lasts for six years and there were 5,244 students in those schools. There were also 399 students who were home schooled or attended another non-traditional school. Lausanne is home to a number of museums including; the \"Collection de l'art brut\", the \"Espace Arlaud\", the \"Fondation de l'Hermitage\", the \"Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire\", the \"Musée cantonal de géologie\", the \"Musée cantonal de zoologie\", the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts, the Musée de l'Élysée and the \"Musée historique de Lausanne\". In 2009 the \"Collection de l'art brut\" was visited by 27,028 visitors (the average in previous years was 33,356). The \"Espace Arlaud\" was visited by 9,222 visitors (the average in previous years was 14,206). The \"Fondation de l'Hermitage\" was visited by 89,175 visitors (the average in previous years was 74,839). The \"Musée cantonal d'archéologie et d'histoire\" was visited by 14,841 visitors (the average in previous years was 15,775). The \"Musée cantonal de zoologie\" was visited by 30,794 visitors (the average in previous years was 30,392). The \"Musée cantonal de géologie\" was visited by 28,299 visitors (the average in previous years was 24,248). The Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts was visited by 26,456 visitors (the average in previous years was 26,384). The Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts was visited by 28,554 visitors (the average in previous years was 22,879). The Musée de l'Élysée was visited by 36,775 visitors (the average in previous years was 37,757). The \"Musée historique de Lausanne\" was visited by 23,116 visitors (the average in previous years was 22,851). , there were 12,147 students in Lausanne who came from another municipality, while 2,258 residents attended schools outside the municipality.", "Lausanne is home to eight large libraries or collections of libraries. These libraries include: Cantonal and University Library of Lausanne, the library of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne (EPFL), the libraries of the \"Réseau EPFL\", the \"Bibliothèque municipale de Lausanne\", the \"Haute école de travail social et de la santé (EESP)\", the \"HECV Santé\", the \"Haute école de la santé La Source\" and the École cantonale d'art de Lausanne (ECAL). There was a combined total () of 3,496,260 books or other media in the libraries, and in the same year a total of 1,650,534 items were loaned out.", "Lausanne enjoys some world class education and research establishments (see also Lausanne campus), including private schools, attended by students from around the world.", "International schools:", "", "There are 46 buildings or sites that are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. Additionally, the entire old city of Lausanne and the Vernand-Dessus region are listed in the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.", "The \"Orchestre de chambre de Lausanne\", the Lausanne Opera and the \"Ensemble vocal de Lausanne\" provide a diverse and rich musical life. The latter has been under the direction of Michel Corboz for many years. In January, the Prix de Lausanne, a famous dance competition, takes place at the Palais de Beaulieu (the biggest theatre in Switzerland) over a one-week period. The event attracts dancers and some of the big names in dance from all over the world. The Swiss Film Archive is based in Lausanne and the city hosts film festivals such as the \"Festival cinémas d'Afrique\" and the Lausanne Underground Film and Music Festival. In addition to modern cinemas, the \"Capitole\" (in activity since 1929) is the biggest cinema in Switzerland (currently 867 seats). The town hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 1989. Each July, the \"Festival de la cité\" is held in the old part of town. Other music festivals include the Bach Festival, the \"Festival et concours Bach de Lausanne\", which follows the \"Nuit de musées\" (museums' night) in the fall season. Lausanne is also the home of the Béjart Ballet.", "Lausanne is also the site of many museums:", "Lausanne is home to the IOC, with water sports available on the nearby lake and mountaineering in the nearby mountains. Cycling is also a common pastime, with the vineyards in the surrounding hills providing extensive views and challenging routes. There is an annual Track and field meeting (\"Athletissima\"), road running through the city (the 20 km (12 mi) of Lausanne), the Tour de Romandie road cycling race, Marathon of Lausanne and triathlon competition, among other sports events. The two most important sports are ice hockey and football. Lausanne will host the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics and the 2020 IIHF World Championship. Lausanne hosts the headquarters of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), and many other international sport associations:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Career.", "World War II.", "Post-war exile.", "Exhumation and state funeral." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Józef Michał Hubert Unrug was born in Brandenburg an der Havel into a noble family of German descent. He was the son of Thaddäus Gustav von Unruh, a Generalmajor in the Prussian Army. After graduating from the \"gymnasium\" in Dresden, Unrug completed naval college in 1907 and began his service in the German Navy. During World War I he commanded a U-boat, and was promoted to command the training-submarine half-flotilla.", "In 1919, after Poland regained independence, Unrug left Germany and volunteered for the Polish Armed Forces. Soon afterwards, he was transferred to the nascent Polish Navy, where he served as chief of the Hydrographic Division and then as commanding officer of a submarine flotilla. One of the most skilled officers in the Polish Navy, Unrug was quickly promoted to Counter Admiral. Overcoming his limitations in the Polish language, he became Commander of the Fleet of the Polish Navy in 1925.", "During the 1939 invasion of Poland, Unrug executed his plan of strategically withdrawing the Polish Navy's major vessels to the United Kingdom (\"Operation Peking\"). At the same time, he got all Polish submersibles to lay naval mines in the Bay of Gdańsk (\"\"Plan Worek\"\"). Following that operation, these vessels either escaped to the United Kingdom or sought refuge in neutral countries. Despite having effectively given up control of Poland's naval vessels, Unrug remained in command of multiple military units, which he tasked with protecting the Polish Corridor from German attacks. On 1 October 1939, however, after both Warsaw and Modlin had capitulated, Admiral Unrug decided that further defence of the isolated Hel Peninsula was pointless, and the following day all units under his command capitulated. Unrug spent the rest of World War II in various German POW camps, including Fort Srebrna Góra, Oflag II-C in Woldenberg, Oflag XVIII-C in Spittal, Stalag X-B in Sandbostel, Oflag IV-C (Colditz Castle), and finally Oflag VII-A Murnau. In Oflag VII-A Murnau, Unrug was the highest-ranking officer and commander of the Polish soldiers interned there as prisoners of war. The Germans treated Unrug with great respect, on account of him having previously been a German officer, by bringing former Imperial German Navy friends to visit him with the intention of making him switch sides. Unrug responded by refusing to speak German, saying that he had forgotten that language in September 1939. To the irritation of the Germans, Unrug would always insist on having a translator present or communicating in French, when speaking with the Germans, even though he was a native German speaker. Unrug's spirit and unbowed attitude proved to be an inspiration to his fellow prisoners.", "After Poland was taken over by the Soviet Union in 1945, Unrug went to the United Kingdom, where he served with the Polish Navy in the West and took part in its demobilisation. After the Allies withdrew support from the Polish government, Unrug remained in exile, in the United Kingdom, and then moved to France. He died there on 28 February 1973 in the Polish Veterans' care home in Lailly-en-Val near Beaugency, at the age of 88. On 5 March 1973, he was buried in Montrėsor cemetery. In 1976, a stone tablet commemorating Unrug was unveiled in Oksywie. Unrug had specified in his will that he should not be buried on Polish soil until such time as all the remains of his fellow naval officers and men had been recovered from enemy control.", "On 24 September 2018 Admiral of the fleet Joseph Unrug and his wife, Zofia (died 1980), were exhumed and transferred with a guard of honour at the French port of Brest for reburial in the Polish port of Gdynia, Poland, after a delay of 45 years. A state funeral was held in Oksywie on 2 October 2018 in the presence of Andrzej Duda, the President of Poland among other members of the Polish government and leaders of the Polish Armed Forces. The chief mourner was Christophe Unrug, the admiral's grandson and, by happenstance, the current mayor of Montrésor in France. In September 2018, Polish President Andrzej Duda had posthumously promoted Counter Admiral Joseph Unrug to \"Admiral of the fleet\". The promotion citation was handed to Unrug's family during the funeral at the cemetery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nickname.", "World War II.", "Development.", "Variants.", "Rocket variants.", "Combat history.", "Post-war development.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Initially, concerns for secrecy kept the military designation of the Katyushas from being known by the soldiers who operated them. They were called by code names such as \"Kostikov guns\", after the head of the RNII, the Reaction-Engine Scientific Research Institute, and finally classed as \"Guards Mortars\". The name \"BM-13\" was only allowed into secret documents in 1942, and remained classified until after the war. Because they were marked with the letter \"K\" (for Voronezh Komintern Factory), Red Army troops adopted a nickname from Mikhail Isakovsky's popular wartime song, \"Katyusha\", about a girl longing for her absent beloved, who has gone away on military service. Katyusha is the Russian equivalent of \"Katie\", an endearing diminutive form of the name Katherine: \"Yekaterina →Katya →Katyusha\". German troops coined the nickname \"Stalin's organ\" (), after Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, comparing the visual resemblance of the launch array to a pipe organ, and the sound of the weapon's rocket motors, a distinctive howling sound which terrified the German troops, adding a psychological warfare aspect to their use. Weapons of this type are known by the same name in Denmark (), Finland (), France (), Norway (), the Netherlands and Belgium (), Hungary (), Spain and other Spanish-speaking countries () as well as in Sweden (). The heavy BM-31 launcher was also referred to as \"Andryusha\" (\"Андрюша\", an affectionate diminutive of \"Andrew\").", "Katyusha rocket launchers, which were invented in Voronezh, were mounted on many platforms during World War II, including on trucks, artillery tractors, tanks, and armoured trains, as well as on naval and riverine vessels as assault support weapons. Soviet engineers also mounted single Katyusha rockets on lengths of railway track to serve in urban combat. The design was relatively simple, consisting of racks of parallel rails on which rockets were mounted, with a folding frame to raise the rails to launch position. Each truck had 14 to 48 launchers. The M-13 rocket of the BM-13 system was long, in diameter and weighed. The weapon is less accurate than conventional artillery guns, but is extremely effective in saturation bombardment, and was particularly feared by German soldiers. A battery of four BM-13 launchers could fire a salvo in 7–10 seconds that delivered 4.35 tons of high explosives over a impact zone, making its power roughly equivalent to that of 72 conventional artillery guns. With an efficient crew, the launchers could redeploy to a new location immediately after firing, denying the enemy the opportunity for counterbattery fire. Katyusha batteries were often massed in very large numbers to create a shock effect on enemy forces. The weapon's disadvantage was the long time it took to reload a launcher, in contrast to conventional guns which could sustain a continuous low rate of fire.", "In June 1938, the Soviet Reaction-Engine Scientific Research Institute (RNII) in Moscow was authorized by the Main Artillery Directorate (GAU) to develop a multiple rocket launcher for the RS-132 aircraft rocket (RS for, 'rocket-powered shell'). I. Gvay led a design team in Chelyabinsk, Russia, which built several prototype launchers firing the modified 132 mm M-132 rockets over the sides of ZiS-5 trucks. These proved unstable, and V.N. Galkovskiy proposed mounting the launch rails longitudinally. In August 1939, the result was the BM-13 (BM stands for \"боевая машина\" (translit. \"boyevaya mashina\"), 'combat vehicle' for M-13 rockets). The first large-scale testing of the rocket launchers took place at the end of 1938, when 233 rounds of various types were used. A salvo of rockets could completely straddle a target at a range of 5,500 metres (3.4 mi). But the artillery branch was not fond of the Katyusha, because it took up to 50 minutes to load and fire 24 rounds, while a conventional howitzer could fire 95 to 150 rounds in the same time. Testing with various rockets was conducted through 1940, and the BM-13-16 with launch rails for sixteen rockets was authorized for production. Only forty launchers were built before Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941. After their success in the first month of the war, mass production was ordered and the development of other models proceeded. The Katyusha was inexpensive and could be manufactured in light industrial installations which did not have the heavy equipment to build conventional artillery gun barrels. By the end of 1942, 3,237 Katyusha launchers of all types had been built, and by the end of the war total production reached about 10,000. The truck-mounted Katyushas were installed on ZiS-6 6×4 trucks, as well as the two-axle ZiS-5 and ZiS-5V. In 1941, a small number of BM-13 launchers were mounted on STZ-5 artillery tractors. A few were also tried on KV tank chassis as the KV-1K, but this was a needless waste of heavy armour. Starting in 1942, they were also mounted on various British, Canadian and U.S. Lend-Lease trucks, in which case they were sometimes referred to as BM-13S. The cross-country performance of the Studebaker US6 21⁄2-ton 6x6 truck was so good that it became the GAU's standard mounting in 1943, designated BM-13N (\"normalizovanniy\",'standardized'), and more than 1,800 of this model were manufactured by the end of World War II. After World War II, BM-13s were based on Soviet-built ZiS-151 trucks. The 82 mm BM-8 was approved in August 1941, and deployed as the BM-8-36 on truck beds and BM-8-24 on T-40 and T-60 light tank chassis. Later these were also installed on GAZ-67 jeeps as the BM-8-8, and on the larger Studebaker trucks as the BM-8-48. In 1942, the team of scientists Leonid Shvarts, Moisei Komissarchik and engineer Yakov Shor received the Stalin prize for the development of the BM-8-48. Based on the M-13, the M-30 rocket was developed in 1942. Its bulbous warhead required it to be fired from a grounded frame, called the M-30 (single frame, four round; later double frame, 8 round), instead of a launch rail mounted on a truck. In 1944 it became the basis for the BM-31-12 truck-mounted launcher. A battery of BM-13-16 launchers included four firing vehicles, two reload trucks and two technical support trucks, with each firing vehicle having a crew of six. Reloading was executed in 3–4 minutes, although the standard procedure was to switch to a new position some 10 km away due to the ease with which the battery could be identified by the enemy. Three batteries were combined into a division (company), and three divisions into a separate mine-firing regiment of rocket artillery.", "Soviet World War II rocket systems were named according to standard templates which are the following: where: In particular, BM-8-16 is a vehicle which fires M-8 missiles and has 16 rails. BM-31-12 is a vehicle which fires M-31 missiles and has 12 launch tubes. Short names such as BM-8 or BM-13 were used too. Number of launch rails/tubes is absent here. Such names describe launchers only no matter what vehicle they are mounted on. In particular BM-8-24 had a number of variants: vehicle mounted (ZiS-5 truck), tank mounted (T-40) and tractor mounted (STZ-3). All of them had the same name: BM-8-24. Other launchers had a number of variants mounted on different vehicles too. Typical set of vehicles for soviet missile systems is the following: Note: There was also an experimental KV-1K – Katyusha mounted on KV-1 tank which was not taken in service. A list of some implementations of the Katyusha follows:", "Rockets used in the above implementations were: The M-8 and M-13 rocket could also be fitted with smoke warheads, although this was not common.", "The multiple rocket launchers were top secret in the beginning of World War II. A special unit of the NKVD troops was raised to operate them. On July 14, 1941, an experimental artillery battery of seven launchers was first used in battle at Orsha in the Vitebsk Region of Belarus, under the command of Captain Ivan Flyorov, destroying a concentration of German troops with tanks, armored vehicles and trucks at the marketplace, causing massive German Army casualties and its retreat from the town in panic. Following the success, the Red Army organized new Guards mortar batteries for the support of infantry divisions. A battery's complement was standardized at four launchers. They remained under NKVD control until German \"Nebelwerfer\" rocket launchers became common later in the war. On August 8, 1941, Stalin ordered the formation of eight special Guards mortar regiments under the direct control of the Reserve of the Supreme High Command (RVGK). Each regiment comprised three battalions of three batteries, totalling 36 BM-13 or BM-8 launchers. Independent Guards mortar battalions were also formed, comprising 12 launchers in three batteries of four. By the end of 1941, there were eight regiments, 35 independent battalions, and two independent batteries in service, fielding a total of 554 launchers. In June 1942 heavy Guards mortar battalions were formed around the new M-30 static rocket launch frames, consisting of 96 launchers in three batteries. In July, a battalion of BM-13s was added to the establishment of a tank corps. In 1944, the BM-31 was used in motorized heavy Guards mortar battalions of 48 launchers. In 1943, Guards mortar brigades, and later divisions, were formed equipped with static launchers. By the end of 1942, 57 regiments were in service—together with the smaller independent battalions, this was the equivalent of 216 batteries: 21% BM-8 light launchers, 56% BM-13, and 23% M-30 heavy launchers. By the end of the war, the equivalent of 518 batteries were in service.", "The success and economy of multiple rocket launchers (MRL) have led them to continue to be developed. In the years following WWII, the BM-13 was replaced by the 140 mm BM-14 and the BM-31 was replaced by the 240 mm BM-24. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union fielded several models of Katyusha-like MRL, notably the BM-21 Grad launchers somewhat inspired by the earlier weapon, and the larger BM-27 Uragan. Advances in artillery munitions have been applied to some Katyusha-type multiple launch rocket systems, including bomblet submunitions, remotely deployed land mines, and chemical warheads. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia inherited most of its military arsenal including its large complement of MRLs. In recent history, they have been used by Russian forces during the First and Second Chechen Wars and by Armenian and Azerbaijani forces during the Nagorno-Karabakh War. Georgian government forces are reported to have used BM-21 Grad or similar rocket artillery in fighting in the 2008 South Ossetia war. Katyusha-like launchers were exported to Afghanistan, Angola, Czechoslovakia, Egypt, East Germany, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Mongolia, North Korea, Poland, Syria, Yemen and Vietnam. They were also built in Czechoslovakia, the People's Republic of China, North Korea, and Iran. Proper Katyushas (BM-13s) also saw action in the Korean War, used by the Chinese People's Volunteer Army against the South and United Nations forces. Soviet BM-13s were known to have been imported to China before the Sino-Soviet split and were operational in the People's Liberation Army. Israel captured BM-24 MRLs during the Six-Day War (1967), used them in two battalions during the Yom Kippur War (1973) and the 1982 Lebanon War, and later developed the MAR-240 launcher for the same rockets, based on a Sherman tank chassis. The rockets were employed by the Tanzania People's Defence Force in the Uganda-Tanzania War. Tanzanian forces called them \"Baba Mtakatifu\" (Kiswahili for \"Holy Father\") while the Ugandans called them Saba Saba. During the 2006 Lebanon War, Hezbollah fired between 3,970 and 4,228 rockets, from light truck-mounts and single-rail man-portable launchers. About 95% of these were 122 mm (4.8 in) Syrian-manufactured M-21OF type artillery rockets which carried warheads up to 30 kg (66 lb) and had a range of 20 km, perhaps up to 30 km (19 mi). Most rockets fired at Israel from the Gaza Strip are of the simpler Qassam rocket type, but Hamas has also launched 122-mm Grad-type Katyusha rockets against several cities in Israel, although they are not reported to have truck-mounted launchers. Although Katyusha originally referred to the mobile launcher, today the rockets are often referred to as Katyushas. Some allege that the CIA bought Katyushas from the Egyptian military and supplied them to the Mujahideen (via Pakistan's ISI) during the Soviet Afghan war. Katyusha-like MRLs were also allegedly used by the Rwandan Patriotic Front during its 1990 invasion of Rwanda, through the 1994 genocide. They were effective in battle, but translated into much anti-Tutsi sentiment in the local media. It was reported that BM-21 Grad launchers were used against American forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. They have also been used in the Afghanistan and Iraq insurgencies. In Iraq, according to Associated Press and Agence France-Presse reports, Katyusha-like rockets were fired at the Green Zone late March 2008. Katyusha rockets were reportedly used by both Gaddafi Loyalists and anti-Gaddafi forces during the Libyan Civil War. In February 2013, the Defence Ministry of Yemen reported seizing an Iranian ship, and that the ship's cargo included (among its other weapons) Katyusha rockets. On May 19, 2019, a Katyusha rocket was fired inside the Green Zone in Baghdad, Iraq, landing less than a mile from the US Embassy near the statue of the Unknown Soldier. No casualties were reported. On January 4, 2020, four Katyusha rockets were fired in the Baghdad area. According to two Iraqi police sources and an official Iraqi military statement, one Katyusha rocket landed in the Green Zone in Celebration Square near the U.S. Embassy and another landed in the nearby Jadriya neighborhood. Two other Katyusha rockets landed in the Balad air base, which houses U.S. troops, according to two security sources.", "Notes Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Thermodynamic passivity.", "Incremental passivity.", "Other definitions of passivity.", "Stability.", "Passive filter." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In control systems and circuit network theory, a passive component or circuit is one that consumes energy, but does not produce energy. Under this methodology, voltage and current sources are considered active, while resistors, capacitors, inductors, transistors, tunnel diodes, metamaterials and other dissipative and energy-neutral components are considered passive. Circuit designers will sometimes refer to this class of components as dissipative, or thermodynamically passive. While many books give definitions for passivity, many of these contain subtle errors in how initial conditions are treated and, occasionally, the definitions do not generalize to all types of nonlinear time-varying systems with memory. Below is a correct, formal definition, taken from Wyatt et al. which also explains the problems with many other definitions. Given an \"n\"-port \"R\" with a state representation \"S\", and initial state \"x\", define available energy \"E\" as: where the notation sup indicates that the supremum is taken over all \"T\" ≥ 0 and all admissible pairs {\"v\"(·), \"i\"(·)} with the fixed initial state \"x\" (e.g., all voltage–current trajectories for a given initial condition of the system). A system is considered passive if \"E\" is finite for all initial states \"x\". Otherwise, the system is considered active. Roughly speaking, the inner product formula_2 is the instantaneous power (e.g., the product of voltage and current), and \"E\" is the upper bound on the integral of the instantaneous power (i.e., energy). This upper bound (taken over all \"T\" ≥ 0) is the \"available energy\" in the system for the particular initial condition \"x\". If, for all possible initial states of the system, the energy available is finite, then the system is called \"passive.\"", "In circuit design, informally, passive components refer to ones that are not capable of power gain; this means they cannot amplify signals. Under this definition, passive components include capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes, transformers, voltage sources, and current sources. They exclude devices like transistors, vacuum tubes, relays, tunnel diodes, and glow tubes. Formally, for a memoryless two-terminal element, this means that the current–voltage characteristic is monotonically increasing. For this reason, control systems and circuit network theorists refer to these devices as locally passive, incrementally passive, increasing, monotone increasing, or monotonic. It is not clear how this definition would be formalized to multiport devices with memory – as a practical matter, circuit designers use this term informally, so it may not be necessary to formalize it. This term is used colloquially in a number of other contexts:", "In electronic engineering, devices that exhibit gain or a rectifying function (such as diodes) are considered active. Only capacitors, inductors, and resistors are considered passive. In terms of abstract theory, diodes can be considered non-linear resistors, but non-linearity in a resistor would not normally be directional, which is the property that leads to diodes being classified as active. United States Patent and Trademark Office is amongst the organisations classing diodes as active devices.", "Passivity, in most cases, can be used to demonstrate that passive circuits will be stable under specific criteria. Note that this only works if only one of the above definitions of passivity is used – if components from the two are mixed, the systems may be unstable under any criteria. In addition, passive circuits will not necessarily be stable under all stability criteria. For instance, a resonant series LC circuit will have unbounded voltage output for a bounded voltage input, but will be stable in the sense of Lyapunov, and given bounded energy input will have bounded energy output. Passivity is frequently used in control systems to design stable control systems or to show stability in control systems. This is especially important in the design of large, complex control systems (e.g. stability of airplanes). Passivity is also used in some areas of circuit design, especially filter design.", "A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made only from passive components – in contrast to an active filter, it does not require an external power source (beyond the signal). Since most filters are linear, in most cases, passive filters are composed of just the four basic linear elements – resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers. More complex passive filters may involve nonlinear elements, or more complex linear elements, such as transmission lines. A passive filter has several advantages over an active filter: They are commonly used in speaker crossover design (due to the moderately large voltages and currents, and the lack of easy access to a power supply), filters in power distribution networks (due to the large voltages and currents), power supply bypassing (due to low cost, and in some cases, power requirements), as well as a variety of discrete and home brew circuits (for low-cost and simplicity). Passive filters are uncommon in monolithic integrated circuit design, where active devices are inexpensive compared to resistors and capacitors, and inductors are prohibitively expensive. Passive filters are still found, however, in hybrid integrated circuits. Indeed, it may be the desire to incorporate a passive filter that leads the designer to use the hybrid format." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath.", "Namesakes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After their victory in the Battle of Kolombangara on 13 July, the Japanese had established a powerful garrison of 12,400 around Vila on the southern tip of Kolombangara island in an attempt to block further island hopping by the American forces, which had taken Guadalcanal the previous year as part of Operation Cartwheel. Vila was the principal port on Kolombangara, and it was supplied at night using fast destroyer transport runs the Americans called the \"Tokyo Express\". Three supply runs on 19 July, 29 July, and 1 August were successfully completed. During the final run on 1 August, a force of 15 US PT boats launched an unsuccessful attack, firing between 26 and 30 torpedoes. Four Japanese destroyers responded, and in the ensuing battle \"PT-109\", captained by Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, later President of the United States, was sunk. By 5 August, the Americans were driving towards the Japanese held airfield at Munda on New Georgia Island just south of Kolombangara and the Japanese decided to send a fourth transport run to Vila with reinforcements.", "On the night of 6 August, the Imperial Japanese Navy sent a force of four destroyers under Captain Kaju Sugiura—,, of Sugiara's own Destroyer Division 4 and of Captain Tameichi Hara's Destroyer Division 27—carrying about 950 soldiers and their supplies. The Japanese airfield at Munda on New Georgia, which the force at Vila was assigned to reinforce, was on the verge of being captured; it would actually fall later that day. The Imperial Japanese commanders expected that Vila would become the center of their next line of defense. The Japanese operational plan specified the same approach route through Vella Gulf as the three previous successful transport runs over the objections of Hara, who argued that repeating prior operations was courting disaster. The U.S. Navy Task Group 31.2 (TG 31.2) of six destroyers—,,,,, and —commanded by Commander Frederick Moosbrugger, having been forewarned of the Japanese operation, was dispatched to intercept the Japanese force. The morale of Moosbrugger's crews was buoyed by the realization that at last they would be free of the combat doctrine that required them to stick close to the cruisers; on this night, they would be able to apply their own tactics. The US ships made radar contact with the Japanese force at 23:33. Moosbrugger's battle plan divided his forces into two divisions. Moosbrugger's own Destroyer Division 12 (\"Dunlap\", \"Craven\" and \"Maury\"), whose ships retained their full pre-war torpedo batteries, was to launch a surprise torpedo attack out of the shadow of Kolambangara Island. Meanwhile, Commander Roger Simpson's Destroyer Division 15 (\"Lang\", \"Sterett\" and \"Stack\"), whose ships had exchanged some of their torpedo tubes for extra 40 mm guns, was to cover Moosburger's division from an overwatch position, turning to cross the enemy's course. The idea was that any attempt by the Japanese to turn into the first division's torpedo attack would expose their broadsides to torpedo attack from the second division. The two divisions could then switch roles if a repeat torpedo attack proved necessary, or alternate roles if barges were encountered, which could be dealt with by the second division's extra guns if necessary. Having learned the harsh lessons of naval combat at night after the Battle of Kolombangara, the Battle of Kula Gulf, and a previous PT boat skirmish, and having finally addressed the technical problems that had plagued their Mark 15 torpedoes since the beginning of the war, the American destroyers did not give away their position with gunfire until their torpedoes started striking their targets. \"Dunlap\", \"Craven\" and \"Maury\" fired a total of 24 torpedoes in the space of 63 seconds before turning to starboard and withdrawing at high speed, using the mountainous island to their east to help camouflage their movements. The Americans were operating on the assumption that the Japanese had nothing to match their new centrimetric SG radar; they knew that their older meter band radars could not differentiate between the surface ships and the island and presumed Japanese radars were no better. In the event, none of the Japanese ships present actually had radar and the looming mass of the island served to conceal the American ships from visual observation. \"Lang\", \"Sterett\" and \"Stack\" turned to port to cross their opponent's T and opened fire as soon as the torpedoes started detonating. All four Japanese destroyers were hit by American torpedoes. \"Hagikaze\", \"Arashi\", and \"Kawakaze\" burst into flames and either sank immediately or were quickly sunk by naval gunfire. The torpedo that hit \"Shigure\" was a dud that passed through her rudder without detonating, allowing her to escape into the darkness. \"Shigure\" fired eight torpedoes as Hara retreated from the scene, all of which missed their targets.", "Many of the Japanese soldiers and sailors left floating in the water after their ships sank refused rescue by American ships. A total of 1,210 Japanese soldiers and sailors were lost, mostly by drowning. Six hundred and eighty-five troops were lost. In addition, 356 men were lost on \"Hagikaze\" and \"Arashi\" (178 on each), while 169 were lost on \"Kawakaze\". A small group of 300 survivors reached Vella Lavella. They were later transferred to Kolombangara Island. During this battle, not one U.S. ship was struck by so much as a single bullet or shell, with the only casualty being a crush injury to a gun loader caused by an accident. The battle—coming less than one month after the night action at the Battle of Kolombangara—was the first time that the Japanese had been beaten in a night destroyer action. The six destroyers had accomplished what a squadron of 15 American PT boats could not shortly before: sink the Tokyo Express with torpedoes with no American or friendly navy losses. The Empire of Japan could no longer supply their garrison on Kolombangara Island, and the Allies bypassed it, landing instead on Vella Lavella to the west on 15 August. The Japanese Army soon abandoned Kolombangara, completing their withdrawal by early October. Two of the US destroyer captains, Lieutenant Commanders Clifton Iverson (\"Dunlap\") and Frank Gardner Gould (\"Sterett\"), were later awarded the Navy Cross for their actions during the battle.", "The escort aircraft carrier, in commission from 1945 to 1946, and the guided-missile cruiser, in commission since 1993, were named for this battle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life and musical exposure.", "The formation of the Plastic People.", "Social impact.", "Hiatus, Půlnoc, and reuniting the Plastic People.", "Death.", "Memorable Concerts.", "19.4.1990 - ULUV, Prague, Czech Republic - Lou Reed solo + w/Pulnoc & Velvet Revival Band." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Milan Hlavsa was born on March 6, 1951 in Prague, Czechoslovakia. His father was employed as a bank clerk. Hlavsa himself labored as a butcher's apprentice before he founded the Plastic People of the Universe (PPU) in 1968. Due to oppression by Czechoslovakia's communist regime, access to Western music was limited. Native Czechs maintained a link to the Western music world by obtaining albums from friends and family abroad. This is how a young Hlavsa developed an affinity for American rock and roll. He was also a part of the movement called \"máničky\".", "In 1967, a friend of Hlavsa's introduced him to the music of The Velvet Underground. They would prove to be a tremendous influence, along with the music of Frank Zappa. At the time, Hlavsa was in a band known as The Primitives. In 1968, Hlavsa abandoned The Primitives and joined with Michal Jernek, Jiří Števich and Josef Brabec to form the Plastic People of the Universe.", "In 1970, two years after the Plastic People of the Universe were formed, the government stripped them of their professional license. Without this, they were unable to play legally. To circumvent the system, the members of the PPU took jobs working in the forest. They continued to perform despite minor skirmishes with the police. That year, the PPU were members of a festival that promoted \"druhá kultura\", or second culture. The communist regime denounced the festival, arrested the members of the PPU, and tried them on various charges. Three members were jailed, and a former member (Canadian Paul Wilson) was deported. Hlavsa, the founding member, was the only one who escaped without a sentence. It was the arrest and trial of the PPU that would convince Václav Havel, along with others, to take action against the communist government. Their efforts would culminate in the organization Charter 77, which aimed to persuade the government to follow the UN Declaration of Human Rights and the Helsinki Accords, both of which the government had signed. This organization would be one of the most prominent dissident societies to arise in Czechoslovakia in opposition to the communist government. Following their release from prison, the PPU would continue to perform discreetly until the government permitted them to play publicly in 1988.", "In 1988, the Czech government ended its 18-year-old policy of suppressing the PPU and allowed them to perform publicly. Unfortunately, the band split up soon afterwards. Hlavsa formed a new group called Půlnoc (which means \"midnight\" in Czech). The band included PPU keyboardist Josef Janíček and violist Jiří Kabeš. Půlnoc released City of Hysteria in the United States on Arista Records in 1991. In 1997, at Havel's suggestion, Hlavsa reunited with the other Plastic People of the Universe and performed a series of concerts to mark the 20th anniversary of Charter 77, the Czech declaration of human rights. In 1999, the PPU performed at the White House along with Lou Reed.", "On January 5, 2001, Hlavsa died of lung cancer. He was 49 years old.", "", "Lou Reed traveled to Prague in April 1990 to interview Czech president Vaclav Havel. Later that night, Reed was taken to a club where a band Pulnoc was playing. Reed joined them on stage where they performed for Havel and 300 of his friends. Lou Reed : \"I suddenly realized the music sounded familiar. They were playing Velvet Underground songs „ beautiful, heartfelt, impeccable versions of my songs.To say I was moved would be an understatement.\" Ivo Pospisil ( Czech underground musician, member of DG 307 and Garage, interviewed by Ian Willoughby, Czech Radio ) “It was some kind of a full stop. We’d been living in the mistaken conviction that The Velvet Underground had an ‘underground’ agenda – as we had – and rejected the mainstream. We later learned this was far from the case. We had it in our heads that their ‘underground outlook’ was, in a way, supporting our lives in the underground under socialism.” “For us, Lou Reed was a god, you could say the biggest god, of the underground ideal and of our musical world. And suddenly our god was here and playing at the Úluv gallery. But he behaved very oddly, in a hostile manner, you could say. So for me the Lou Reed that I had previously had in my mind came to an end that evening.”" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origins.", "Epithets.", "Cult history and temples.", "Festivals.", "Mythology and literature.", "Iconography.", "Signs and symbols.", "Classical art.", "Post-classical culture.", "Medieval art.", "Art in the classical tradition.", "Medieval and modern music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Latin name \"Venus\" ('love, charm') stems from Proto-Italic \"*wenos-\" ('desire'), ultimately from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) \"*wenh1-os\" ('desire'; compare with Messapic \"Venas\", Old Indic \"vánas\" 'desire'). It is cognate with the Latin \"venia\" (\"favour, permission\") through to common PIE root \"*wenh1-\" (\"to strive for, wish for, desire, love\"). The Latin verb \"venerārī\" (\"to honour, worship, pay homage\") is a derivative of \"Venus\".", "Venus has been described as perhaps \"the most original creation of the Roman pantheon\", and \"an ill-defined and assimilative\" native goddess, combined \"with a strange and exotic Aphrodite\". Her cults may represent the religiously legitimate charm and seduction of the divine by mortals, in contrast to the formal, contractual relations between most members of Rome's official pantheon and the state, and the unofficial, illicit manipulation of divine forces through magic. The ambivalence of her persuasive functions has been perceived in the relationship of the root \"*wenos-\" with its Latin derivative \"venenum\" ('poison'; from \"*wenes-no\" 'love drink' or 'addicting'), in the sense of \"a charm, magic philtre\". In myth, Venus-Aphrodite was born of sea foam (Greek αφρός, \"aphros\"). Roman theology presents Venus as the yielding, watery female principle, essential to the generation and balance of life. Her male counterparts in the Roman pantheon, Vulcan and Mars, are active and fiery. Venus absorbs and tempers the male essence, uniting the opposites of male and female in mutual affection. She is essentially assimilative and benign, and embraces several otherwise quite disparate functions. She can give military victory, sexual success, good fortune and prosperity. In one context, she is a goddess of prostitutes; in another, she turns the hearts of men and women from sexual vice to virtue. Prospective brides offered Venus a gift \"before the wedding\"; the nature of the gift, and its timing, are unknown. Some Roman sources say that girls who come of age offer their toys to Venus; it is unclear where the offering is made, and others say this gift is to the Lares. In dice-games, a popular pastime among Romans of all classes, the luckiest, best possible roll was known as \"Venus\".", "Like other major Roman deities, Venus was given a number of epithets that referred to her different cult aspects, roles, and her functional similarities to other deities. Her \"original powers seem to have been extended largely by the fondness of the Romans for folk-etymology, and by the prevalence of the religious idea \"nomen-omen\" which sanctioned any identifications made in this way.\" Venus Acidalia, in Virgil's \"Aeneid\" (1.715–722, as \"mater acidalia\"). Servius speculates this as reference to a \"Fountain of Acidalia\" (\"fons acidalia\") where the Graces (Venus' daughters) were said to bathe; but he also connects it to the Greek word for \"arrow\", whence \"love's arrows\" and love's \"cares and pangs\". Ovid uses \"acidalia\" only in the latter sense. It is likely a literary conceit, not a cultic epithet. Venus Caelestis (Celestial or Heavenly Venus), used from the 2nd century AD for Venus as an aspect of a syncretised supreme goddess. \"Venus Caelestis\" is the earliest known Roman recipient of a taurobolium (a form of bull sacrifice), performed at her shrine in Pozzuoli on 5 October 134. This form of the goddess, and the taurobolium, are associated with the \"Syrian Goddess\", understood as a late equivalent to Astarte, or the Roman Magna Mater, the latter being another supposedly Trojan \"Mother of the Romans\" Venus Calva (\"Venus the bald one\"), a legendary form of Venus, attested only by post-Classical Roman writings which offer several traditions to explain this appearance and epithet. In one, it commemorates the virtuous offer by Roman matrons of their own hair to make bowstrings during a siege of Rome. In another, king Ancus Marcius' wife and other Roman women lost their hair during an epidemic; in hope of its restoration, unafflicted women sacrificed their own hair to Venus. Venus Cloacina (\"Venus the Purifier\"); a fusion of Venus with the Etruscan water goddess Cloacina, who had an ancient shrine above the outfall of the Cloaca Maxima, originally a stream, later covered over to function as Rome's main sewer. The shrine contained a statue of Venus, whose rites were probably meant to purify the culvert's polluted waters and noxious airs. Pliny the Elder, remarking Venus as a goddess of union and reconciliation, identifies the shrine with a legendary episode in Rome's earliest history, when the warring Romans and Sabines, carrying branches of myrtle, met there to make peace. Venus Erycina (\"Erycine Venus\"), a Punic idol of Astarte captured from Sicily and worshiped in Romanised form by the elite and respectable matrons at a temple on the Capitoline Hill. A later temple, outside the Porta Collina and Rome's sacred boundary, may have preserved some Erycine features of her cult. It was considered suitable for \"common girls\" and prostitutes\". Venus Frutis honoured by all the Latins with a federal cult at the temple named \"Frutinal\" in Lavinium. Inscriptions found at Lavinium attest the presence of federal cults, without giving precise details. Venus Felix (\"Lucky Venus\"), probably a traditional epithet, later adopted by the dictator Sulla. It was Venus's cult title at Hadrian's temple to \"Venus Felix et Roma Aeterna\" on the Via Sacra. This epithet is also used for a specific sculpture at the Vatican Museums. Venus Genetrix (\"Venus the Mother\"), as a goddess of motherhood and domesticity, with a festival on September 26, a personal ancestress of the Julian lineage and, more broadly, the divine ancestress of the Roman people. Julius Caesar dedicated a Temple of Venus Genetrix in 46 BC. This name has attached to an iconological type of statue of Aphrodite/Venus. Venus Heliopolitana (\"Venus of Heliopolis Syriaca\"), worshipped at Baalbek. A form of Ashtart who formed a third of the Heliopolitan Triad, in which she was the consort of Jupiter (Baʿal) and mother of Mercury (Adon). Venus Kallipygos (\"Venus with the beautiful buttocks\"), worshiped at Syracuse. Venus Libertina (\"Venus the Freedwoman\"), probably arising through the semantic similarity and cultural inks between \"libertina\" (as \"a free woman\") and \"lubentina\" (possibly meaning \"pleasurable\" or \"passionate\"). Further titles or variants acquired by Venus through the same process, or through orthographic variance, include Libentia, Lubentina, and Lubentini. Venus Libitina links Venus to a patron-goddess of funerals and undertakers, Libitina; a temple was dedicated to Venus Libitina in Libitina's grove on the Esquiline Hill, \"hardly later than 300 BC.\" Venus Murcia (\"Venus of the Myrtle\"), merging Venus with the little-known deity Murcia (or Murcus, or Murtia). Murcia was associated with Rome's Mons Murcia (the Aventine's lesser height), and had a shrine in the Circus Maximus. Some sources associate her with the myrtle-tree. Christian writers described her as a goddess of sloth and laziness. Venus Obsequens (\"Indulgent Venus\"), Venus' first attested Roman epithet. It was used in the dedication of her first Roman temple, on August 19 in 295 BC during the Third Samnite War by Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges. It was sited somewhere near the Aventine Hill and Circus Maximus, and played a central role in the Vinalia Rustica. It was supposedly funded by fines imposed on women found guilty of adultery. Venus Physica: Venus as a universal, natural creative force that informs the physical world. She is addressed as \"Alma Venus\" (\"Mother Venus\") by Lucretius in the introductory lines of his vivid, poetic exposition of Epicurean physics and philosophy, \"De Rerum Natura\". She seems to have been a favourite of Lucretius' patron, Memmius. Pompeii's protective goddess was \"Venus Physica Pompeiana\", who had a distinctive, local form as a goddess of the sea, and trade. When Sulla captured Pompeii from the Samnites, he resettled it with his veterans and renamed it for his own family and divine protector Venus, as \"Colonia Veneria Cornelia\" (for Sulla's claims of Venus' favour, see \"Venus Felix\" above). Venus Urania (\"Heavenly Venus\"), used as the title of a book by Basilius von Ramdohr, a relief by Pompeo Marchesi, and a painting by Christian Griepenkerl. (cf. Aphrodite Urania.) Venus Verticordia (\"Venus the Changer of Hearts\"). See #Festivals and Veneralia. Venus Victrix (\"Venus the Victorious\"), a Romanised aspect of the armed Aphrodite that Greeks had inherited from the East, where the goddess Ishtar \"remained a goddess of war, and Venus could bring victory to a Sulla or a Caesar.\" Pompey, Sulla's protégé, vied with his patron and with Caesar for public recognition as her protégé. In 55 BC he dedicated a temple to her at the top of his theater in the Campus Martius. She had a shrine on the Capitoline Hill, and festivals on August 12 and October 9. A sacrifice was annually dedicated to her on the latter date. In neo-classical art, her epithet as Victrix is often used in the sense of 'Venus Victorious over men's hearts' or in the context of the Judgement of Paris (e.g. Canova's \"Venus Victrix\", a half-nude reclining portrait of Pauline Bonaparte).", "The first known temple to Venus was vowed to \"Venus Obsequens\" (\"Indulgent Venus\") by Q. Fabius Gurges in the heat of a battle against the Samnites. It was dedicated in 295 BC, at a site near the Aventine Hill, and was supposedly funded by fines imposed on Roman women for sexual misdemeanours. Its rites and character were probably influenced by or based on Greek Aphrodite's cults, which were already diffused in various forms throughout Italian Magna Graeca. Its dedication date connects \"Venus Obsequens\" to the \"Vinalia rustica\" festival. In 217 BC, in the early stages of the Second Punic War with Carthage, Rome suffered a disastrous defeat at the battle of Lake Trasimene. The Sibylline oracle suggested that if the Venus of Eryx (, a Roman understanding of the Punic goddess Astarte), patron goddess of Carthage's Sicilian allies, could be persuaded to change her allegiance, Carthage might be defeated. Rome laid siege to Eryx, offered its goddess a magnificent temple as reward for her defection, captured her image, and brought it to Rome. It was installed in a temple on the Capitoline Hill, as one of Rome's twelve \"\". Shorn of her more overtly Carthaginian characteristics, this \"foreign Venus\" became Rome's \"Venus Genetrix\" (\"Venus the Mother\"), As far as the Romans were concerned, this was the homecoming of an ancestral goddess to her people. Roman tradition made Venus the mother and protector of the Trojan prince Aeneas, ancestor of the Roman people. Soon after, Rome's defeat of Carthage confirmed Venus's goodwill to Rome, her links to its mythical Trojan past, and her support of its political and military hegemony. The Capitoline cult to Venus seems to have been reserved to higher status Romans. A separate cult to \"Venus Erycina\" as a fertility deity, was established in 181 BC, in a traditionally plebeian district just outside Rome's sacred boundary, near the Colline Gate. The temple, cult and goddess probably retained much of the original's character and rites. Likewise, a shrine to Venus Verticordia (\"Venus the changer of hearts\"), established in 114 BC but with links to an ancient cult of Venus-Fortuna, was \"bound to the peculiar milieu of the Aventine and the Circus Maximus\" – a strongly plebeian context for Venus's cult, in contrast to her aristocratic cultivation as a Stoic and Epicurian \"all-goddess\". Towards the end of the Roman Republic, some leading Romans laid personal claims to Venus' favour. The general and dictator Sulla adopted \"Felix\" (\"Lucky\") as a surname, acknowledging his debt to heaven-sent good fortune and his particular debt to \"Venus Felix\", for his extraordinarily fortunate political and military career. His protégé Pompey competed for Venus' support, dedicating (in 55 BC) a large temple to \"Venus Victrix\" as part of his lavishly appointed new theatre, and celebrating his triumph of 54 BC with coins that showed her crowned with triumphal laurels. Pompey's erstwhile friend, ally, and later opponent Julius Caesar went still further. He claimed the favours of \"Venus Victrix\" in his military success and \"Venus Genetrix\" as a personal, divine ancestress – apparently a long-standing family tradition among the Julii. When Caesar was assassinated, his heir, Augustus, adopted both claims as evidence of his inherent fitness for office, and divine approval of his rule. Augustus' new temple to Mars Ultor, divine father of Rome's legendary founder Romulus, would have underlined the point, with the image of avenging Mars \"almost certainly\" accompanied by that of his divine consort Venus, and possibly a statue of the deceased and deified Caesar. Vitruvius recommends that any new temple to Venus be sited according to rules laid down by the Etruscan haruspices, and built \"near to the gate\" of the city, where it would be less likely to contaminate \"the matrons and youth with the influence of lust\". He finds the Corinthian style, slender, elegant, enriched with ornamental leaves and surmounted by volutes, appropriate to Venus' character and disposition. Vitruvius recommends the widest possible spacing between the temple columns, producing a light and airy space, and he offers Venus's temple in Caesar's forum as an example of how not to do it; the densely spaced, thickset columns darken the interior, hide the temple doors and crowd the walkways, so that matrons who wish to honour the goddess must enter her temple in single file, rather than arm-in arm. In 135 AD the Emperor Hadrian inaugurated a temple to Venus and \"Roma Aeterna\" (Eternal Rome) on Rome's Velian Hill, underlining the Imperial unity of Rome and its provinces, and making Venus the protective \"genetrix\" of the entire Roman state, its people and fortunes. It was the largest temple in Ancient Rome.", "Venus was offered official (state-sponsored) cult in certain festivals of the Roman calendar. Her sacred month was April (Latin \"Mensis Aprilis\") which Roman etymologists understood to derive from \"aperire\", \"to open,\" with reference to the springtime blossoming of trees and flowers. Veneralia (April 1) was held in honour of \"Venus Verticordia\" (\"Venus the Changer of Hearts\"), and Fortuna Virilis (Virile or strong Good Fortune), whose cult was probably by far the older of the two. Venus Verticordia was invented in 220 BC, in response to advice from a Sibylline oracle during Rome's Punic Wars, when a series of prodigies was taken to signify divine displeasure at sexual offenses among Romans of every category and class, including several men and three Vestal Virgins. Her statue was dedicated by a young woman, chosen as the most \"pudica\" (sexually pure) in Rome by a committee of Roman matrons. At first, this statue was probably housed in the temple of \"Fortuna Virilis\", perhaps as divine reinforcement against the perceived moral and religious failings of its cult. In 114 BC \"Venus Verticordia\" was given her own temple. She was meant to persuade Romans of both sexes and every class, whether married or unmarried, to cherish the traditional sexual proprieties and morality known to please the gods and benefit the State. During her rites, her image was taken from her temple to the men's baths, where it was undressed and washed in warm water by her female attendants, then garlanded with myrtle. Women and men asked Venus Verticordia's help in affairs of the heart, sex, betrothal and marriage. For Ovid, Venus's acceptance of the epithet and its attendant responsibilities represented a change of heart in the goddess herself. Vinalia urbana (April 23), a wine festival shared by Venus and Jupiter, king of the gods. Venus was patron of \"profane\" wine, for everyday human use. Jupiter was patron of the strongest, purest, sacrificial grade wine, and controlled the weather on which the autumn grape-harvest would depend. At this festival, men and women alike drank the new vintage of ordinary, non-sacral wine in honour of Venus, whose powers had provided humankind with this gift. Upper-class women gathered at Venus's Capitoline temple, where a libation of the previous year's vintage, sacred to Jupiter, was poured into a nearby ditch. Common girls (\"vulgares puellae\") and prostitutes gathered at Venus' temple just outside the Colline gate, where they offered her myrtle, mint, and rushes concealed in rose-bunches and asked her for \"beauty and popular favour\", and to be made \"charming and witty\". Vinalia Rustica (August 19), originally a rustic Latin festival of wine, vegetable growth and fertility. This was almost certainly Venus' oldest festival and was associated with her earliest known form, \"Venus Obsequens\". Kitchen gardens and market-gardens, and presumably vineyards were dedicated to her. Roman opinions differed on whose festival it was. Varro insists that the day was sacred to Jupiter, whose control of the weather governed the ripening of the grapes; but the sacrificial victim, a female lamb (\"agna\"), may be evidence that it once belonged to Venus alone. A festival of Venus Genetrix (September 26) was held under state auspices from 46 BC at her Temple in the Forum of Caesar, in fulfillment of a vow by Julius Caesar, who claimed her personal favour as his divine patron, and ancestral goddess of the Julian clan. Caesar dedicated the temple during his unprecedented and extraordinarily lavish quadruple triumph. At the same time, he was pontifex maximus and Rome's senior magistrate; the festival is thought to mark the unprecedented promotion of a personal, family cult to one of the Roman state. Caesar's heir, Augustus, made much of these personal and family associations with Venus as an Imperial deity. The festival's rites are not known.", "As with most major gods and goddesses in Roman mythology, the literary concept of Venus is mantled in whole-cloth borrowings from the literary Greek mythology of her counterpart, Aphrodite. In some Latin mythology, Cupid was the son of Venus and Mars, the god of war. At other times, or in parallel myths and theologies, Venus was understood to be the consort of Vulcan. Virgil, in compliment to his patron Augustus and the \"gens Julia\", embellished an existing connection between Venus, whom Julius Caesar had adopted as his protectress, and Aeneas. Vergil's Aeneas is guided to Latium by Venus in her heavenly form, the morning star, shining brightly before him in the daylight sky; much later, she lifts Caesar's soul to heaven. In Ovid's \"Fasti\" Venus came to Rome because she \"preferred to be worshipped in the city of her own offspring\". In Vergil's poetic account of Octavian's victory at the sea-battle of Actium, the future emperor is allied with Venus, Neptune and Minerva. Octavian's opponents, Antony, Cleopatra and the Egyptians, assisted by bizarre and unhelpful Egyptian deities such as \"barking\" Anubis, lose the battle. In the \"interpretatio romana\" of the Germanic pantheon during the early centuries AD, Venus became identified with the Germanic goddess \"Frijjo\", giving rise to the loan translation \"Friday\" for \"dies Veneris\".", "", "Images of Venus have been found in domestic murals, mosaics and household shrines (\"lararia\"). Petronius, in his \"Satyricon\", places an image of Venus among the Lares (household gods) of the freedman Trimalchio's \"lararium\". Venus' signs were for the most part the same as Aphrodite's. They include roses, which were offered in Venus' Porta Collina rites, and above all, myrtle (Latin \"myrtus\"), which was cultivated for its white, sweetly scented flowers, aromatic, evergreen leaves and its various medical-magical properties. Venus' statues, and her worshipers, wore myrtle crowns at her festivals. Before its adoption into Venus' cults, myrtle was used in the purification rites of Cloacina, the Etruscan-Roman goddess of Rome's main sewer; later, Cloacina's association with Venus' sacred plant made her Venus Cloacina. Likewise, Roman folk-etymology transformed the ancient, obscure goddess Murcia into \"Venus of the Myrtles, whom we now call Murcia\". Myrtle was thought a particularly potent aphrodisiac. As goddess of love and sex, Venus played an essential role at Roman prenuptial rites and wedding nights, so myrtle and roses were used in bridal bouquets. Marriage itself was not a seduction but a lawful condition, under Juno's authority; so myrtle was excluded from the bridal crown. Venus was also a patron of the ordinary, everyday wine drunk by most Roman men and women; the seductive powers of wine were well known. In the rites to Bona Dea, a goddess of female chastity, Venus, myrtle and anything male were not only excluded, but unmentionable. The rites allowed women to drink the strongest, sacrificial wine, otherwise reserved for the Roman gods and Roman men; the women euphemistically referred to it as \"honey\". Under these special circumstances, they could get virtuously, religiously drunk on strong wine, safe from Venus' temptations. Outside of this context, ordinary wine (that is, Venus' wine) tinctured with myrtle oil was thought particularly suitable for women. Roman generals given an ovation, a lesser form of Roman triumph, wore a myrtle crown, perhaps to purify themselves and their armies of blood-guilt. The ovation ceremony was assimilated to Venus Victrix (\"Victorious Venus\"), who was held to have granted and purified its relatively \"easy\" victory.", "Roman and Hellenistic art produced many variations on the goddess, often based on the Praxitlean type Aphrodite of Cnidus. Many female nudes from this period of sculpture whose subjects are unknown are in modern art history conventionally called 'Venus'es, even if they originally may have portrayed a mortal woman rather than operated as a cult statue of the goddess. Examples include: The Venus types 'Venus Pompeiana' and 'Venus Pescatrice' are found almost exclusively in Pompeii.", "", "Venus is remembered in \"De Mulieribus Claris\", a collection of biographies of historical and mythological women by the Florentine author Giovanni Boccaccio, composed in 136162. It is notable as the first collection devoted exclusively to biographies of women in Western literature..", "Venus became a popular subject of painting and sculpture during the Renaissance period in Europe. As a \"classical\" figure for whom nudity was her natural state, it was socially acceptable to depict her unclothed. As the goddess of sexuality, a degree of erotic beauty in her presentation was justified, which appealed to many artists and their patrons. Over time, \"venus\" came to refer to any artistic depiction in post-classical art of a nude woman, even when there was no indication that the subject was the goddess. In the field of prehistoric art, since the discovery in 1908 of the so-called \"Venus of Willendorf\" small Neolithic sculptures of rounded female forms have been conventionally referred to as Venus figurines. Although the name of the actual deity is not known, the knowing contrast between the obese and fertile cult figures and the classical conception of Venus has raised resistance to the terminology.", "In Wagner's opera \"Tannhäuser\", which draws on the medieval German legend of the knight and poet Tannhäuser, Venus lives beneath the Venusberg mountain. Tannhäuser breaks his knightly vows by spending a year there with Venus, under her enchantment. When he emerges, he has to seek penance for his sins. The Dutch band Shocking Blue had a number one hit on the Billboard Top Ten in 1970 with the song titled \"Venus\", which was also a hit when covered by Bananarama in 1986. The song \"Venus\" by the band Television from the 1978 album \"Marquee Moon\" references the Venus de Milo. There is also a song named \"Venus\" co-written, co-produced and sung by Lady Gaga, as well as a song named \"Birth of Venus Illegitima\" by the Swedish symphonic metal Therion, on the album \"Vovin\", and the song \"Venus as a Boy\" by the Icelandic artist Björk. Another reference to Venus is from Billy Idol's album \"Cyberpunk\", in track # 16 titled \"Venus\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Celtics.", "New York Knicks.", "Toronto Raptors.", "Season-by-season record.", "Culture.", "Mascot.", "Team anthem.", "Management.", "Ownership history.", "Facilities.", "Home arenas.", "Practice facilities.", "Players and coaches.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise leaders.", "NBA D-League/G League affiliation.", "Media.", "Television.", "Radio." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Brooklyn Nets were founded in 1967 as the ‘New Jersey Americans’ and initially played in Teaneck, New Jersey, as the New Jersey Americans. In its early years, the team led a nomadic existence, moving to Long Island in 1968 and playing in various arenas there as the New York Nets. Led by Hall of Famer Julius \"Dr. J\" Erving, the Nets won two ABA championships in New York before becoming one of four ABA teams to be admitted into the NBA as part of the ABA–NBA merger in 1976. Unlike the other three ABA teams entering the NBA, who played in cities without any NBA presence, the Nets were required by the NBA to pay an \"encroachment fee\" of $4.8 million to the New York Knicks. The team financed that payment by selling Erving's contract to the Philadelphia 76ers; and the Nets went from winning the last ABA title in 1975–76 to having the worst record in the NBA in 1976–77. The team then moved back to New Jersey in 1977 and became the New Jersey Nets. During their time in the state, the Nets played in two consecutive NBA Finals in the 2001–02 and 2002–03 seasons by teams led by point guard Jason Kidd. After playing 35 seasons in New Jersey, the team moved back to the state of New York, changed its geographic name to Brooklyn, and began playing in the new Barclays Center, starting with the 2012–13 NBA season.", "", "The Boston Celtics were once rivals of the Nets during the early 2000s because of their respective locations and their burgeoning stars. The Nets were led by Jason Kidd and Kenyon Martin, while the Celtics were experiencing newfound success behind Paul Pierce and Antoine Walker. The rivalry began to heat up in the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals, which was preceded by trash-talking from the Celtics who claimed Martin was a \"fake\" tough guy. Things progressed as the series started, and on-court tensions seemed to spill into the stands. Celtic fans berated Kidd and his family with chants of \"Wife Beater!\" in response to Kidd's 2001 domestic abuse charge. When the series returned to New Jersey, Nets fans responded, with some brandishing signs that read \"Will someone please stab Paul Pierce?\" referring to a night club incident in 2000 in which Pierce was stabbed 11 times. When asked about the fan barbs being traded, Kenyon Martin stated, \"Our fans hate them, their fans hate us.\" Bill Walton said at the time that Nets-Celtics was the \"beginning of the next great NBA rivalry\" during the Eastern Conference Finals in 2002. Led by Kidd, the Nets advanced to the NBA Finals, and the following year, swept Boston in the 2003 playoffs. On November 28, 2012, there were indications that the rivalry might be rekindled when an altercation occurred on the court, resulting in the ejection of Rajon Rondo, Gerald Wallace, and Kris Humphries. Rondo was suspended for two games in the aftermath, while Wallace and Kevin Garnett were fined. The story was revisited on December 25, when Wallace grabbed Garnett's shorts and the two had to be broken up by referees and players alike. However, the rivalry between the Nets and the Celtics appeared significantly cooled off by the June 2013 blockbuster trade that dealt Celtics stars Garnett and Paul Pierce to the Nets in exchange for Wallace, Humphries, and others. This move was billed as a merger of the two Atlantic Division teams. Celtics announcer Sean Grande said, \"It's almost as if you found a great home for these guys. You couldn't have found a better place. These guys will be in the New York market, they'll be on a competitive team, they'll stay on national TV. It's funny, because the enemy of my enemy is my friend. So with Celtics fans feeling the way they do about the Heat, feeling the way they do about the Knicks, the Nets are going to become almost the second [Boston] team now.\" In the 2019 NBA off-season, the Nets signed point guard Kyrie Irving. Irving coming off two seasons with the Celtics was described as selfish by many critics. This impression caused many Celtics fans to blame Irving for the Celtics' inability to get through to the playoffs. During a regular season game in the 2019–20 season between the Celtics and Nets, the Celtics' fans displayed their displeasure of Irving by chanting \"Kyrie sucks\" in TD Garden. When the series returned to Brooklyn two days later, the Nets' fans chanted \"Kyrie's better\" in response to the chants in Boston. The \"Kyrie's Better\" chants reference to how the Celtics signed Kemba Walker after Irving left for the Nets.", "The Knicks–Nets rivalry has historically been a geographical one, with the Knicks playing in Madison Square Garden in the New York City borough of Manhattan, while the Nets played in the suburban area of Long Island and in New Jersey, and since 2012 have been playing at Barclays Center in Brooklyn. Media outlets have noted the Knicks–Nets rivalry's similarity to those of other New York City teams, such as the Major League Baseball (MLB) Subway Series rivalry between the American League (AL)'s New York Yankees and the National League (NL)'s New York Mets, and the National Football League (NFL) rivalry between the National Football Conference (NFC)'s New York Giants and the American Football Conference (AFC)'s New York Jets, the result of the boroughs' proximity through the New York City Subway. Historically, the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn competed via the Dodgers–Giants rivalry, when the two teams were known as the Brooklyn Dodgers and the New York Giants. Like the Knicks and Nets, the Giants and Dodgers played in Manhattan and Brooklyn, respectively, and were fierce intraleague rivals. The rivalry between the New York Islanders and New York Rangers of the National Hockey League has also taken on a similar dimension since the Islanders moved to Barclays Center in 2015. Due to the Knicks being located in Manhattan and the Nets being located in Brooklyn, some media outlets have dubbed this rivalry \"Clash of the Boroughs\".", "A rivalry with the Toronto Raptors had begun in 2004, when then-Raptors guard/forward Vince Carter had been traded to the then-New Jersey Nets. However, the two teams did not meet in the playoffs until 2007, when the Nets defeated the Raptors in the first round series, 4–2, after a go-ahead shot by Richard Jefferson with 8 seconds left in Game 6 led to a 98–97 victory. Seven years later, the two teams met again in the first round, and the series went to seven games, with a game-winning block by Paul Pierce, giving the Nets the 104–103 victory. The series was also noted for controversy when Toronto Raptors general manager Masai Ujiri made derogatory remarks towards Brooklyn at a fan rally outside Maple Leaf Square in Toronto before Game 1. Ujiri later apologized at halftime.", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Nets. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Brooklyn Nets seasons.\" \"Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning Percentage\";", "", "The mascot of the New Jersey Nets was Sly the Silver Fox, who debuted on October 31, 1997 as part of the rebranding of the Nets for the 1997–98 season. Prior to that, the Nets' mascot was an anthropomorphic dragon named Duncan the Dragon. After the Nets' move to Brooklyn, the team introduced a new superhero mascot named BrooklyKnight (a pun on the demonym \"Brooklynite\") on November 3, 2012. In his first appearance, he was lowered from the ceiling of Barclays Center amid sparks and fanfare and introduced by then-Nets PA announcer David Diamante: \"Here to defend Brooklyn, he's the BrooklyKnight.\" The mascot was co-created by Marvel Entertainment, a sister company to NBA broadcasters ABC and ESPN. The character also starred in 32-page comic book published by Marvel titled \"BrooklyKnight #1\", written by Jason Aaron with art by Mike Deodato. After the Nets' second season in Brooklyn, the BrooklyKnight mascot was retired.", "On November 3, 2012, the Nets introduced a new team anthem titled \"Brooklyn: Something To Lean On\", written and recorded by Brooklyn-born musician John Forté. The song is notable for its refrain, which features the \"Brooklyn\" chant that has been popular with fans in the Barclays Center.", "On September 18, 2019, Joseph Tsai, the executive vice chairman of the Alibaba Group, completed the acquisition of full ownership of the Brooklyn Nets. With the closing of the transaction, Tsai became NBA Governor of the Nets and its affiliates. Additionally, former Turner Broadcasting president David Levy was named CEO of the Nets and Barclays Center. On November 12, the Nets and Barclays Center announced that David Levy would step down from the CEO position he had assumed less than two months before. Oliver Weisberg, president of Tsai's holding company J Tsai Sports, assumed an interim CEO role.", "The original owner of the Nets franchise was trucking magnate Arthur J. Brown, who founded the team in 1967. The next year, Brown sold the team for $1.1 million to entrepreneur Roy Boe. Due to financial losses suffered while the team was on Long Island, Boe moved the team back to New Jersey in 1977 and sold the team a year later to a group of seven local businessmen led by Alan N. Cohen and Joseph Taub, who became known as the \"Secaucus Seven\". After a lengthy ownership of the franchise and numerous attempts to improve the financial situation of the team, the \"Secaucus Seven\" finally sold the team in 1998 to a group of local real estate developers led by Raymond Chambers and Lewis Katz, who called themselves the \"Community Youth Organization\" and wanted to move the team to Newark, New Jersey. The next year the group signed an agreement with New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner to form YankeeNets, a holding company that owned the two teams, and later also the New Jersey Devils, and increase leverage in future broadcast contracts by negotiating together. After receiving offers from numerous broadcast partners, including what was their then-current rights holder Cablevision, YankeeNets decided to launch its own regional sports television called the YES Network. YankeeNets failed in its attempts to secure a deal with Newark to construct a new arena in the city. By that point in time, tensions between the management of the Yankees, Nets, and the Devils had cause a rift between them, and a decision was made to split the group up. With their plan to move the Nets dead, the Community Youth Organization placed the team on sale. After a short bidding process, the group secured a deal in 2004 with real estate developer Bruce Ratner to buy the team for $300 million, defeating a similar offer by Charles Kushner and Senator Jon S. Corzine of New Jersey. Ratner had purchased the team with the intent of moving it to a new arena in Brooklyn, which was to be a centerpiece of the large-scale Atlantic Yards development. On September 24, 2009, Mikhail Prokhorov, Russia's third-richest man according to \"Forbes\", confirmed his intention to become majority owner of the Nets. Prokhorov sent an offer to the team owners requesting that the control shareholding of the basketball club be sold to his company, Onexim, for a symbolic price. In return, Prokhorov funded a loan for the construction of a $700 million arena in Brooklyn which was later named the Barclays Center, and attracted additional funds from Western banks. Prokhorov stated that he initiated the deal to help push Russian basketball to a new level of development. On May 11, 2010, following approval from the other owners of the NBA, Prokhorov had become a principal owner of the Nets. In late 2017, Prokhorov agreed to sell a 49% stake in the team to Tsai, with an option for Tsai to become the majority owner. The option was exercised in August 2019, with Tsai also buying the Nets' arena, the Barclays Center, from Prokhorov for nearly $1 billion in a separate deal. The NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved the sale to Tsai on September 18, 2019.", "", "Source:", "The Nets' practice facility and headquarters for the team's basketball operations are located at the Hospital for Special Surgery Training Center (HSS Center) in the Industry City complex in the Sunset Park neighborhood of Brooklyn. The facility opened on February 17, 2016, and is built on the roof of an empty warehouse in the complex, occupying 70,000 square feet of space in total. The renovation project cost roughly $50 million. The opening of the training center completed the Nets' move to Brooklyn. The team's previous practice facility was at the 65,000-square-foot PNY Center in East Rutherford, New Jersey, which opened in 1998. Prior to that, the team practiced at the APA Recreation Center in North Bergen, New Jersey, sharing their lockers and practice courts with truck drivers who used the facility. In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy in November 2012, PNY Center suffered a power outage and extensive water damage due to flooding, and for several months, the team used the smaller training spaces and practice courts inside the Barclays Center instead.", "", "The Nets hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.", "Bold denotes still active with the team. \"Italics\" denotes still active, but not with the team. \"Name*\" includes combined statistics for the team from both the ABA and NBA.", "The Nets signed an agreement with the Springfield Armor to become its exclusive NBA Development League affiliate starting in the 2011–12 season. This made the Nets the second team to opt for a D-League \"hybrid affiliation\", the first being the Houston Rockets with the Rio Grande Valley Vipers. Springfield ownership maintained control over business, marketing, and day-to-day operations, with the Nets having control over coaching and player decisions. This hybrid model was well received by GMs and owners. However, after three seasons, the Pistons purchased the Armor from its former owners, and moved and renamed the team the Grand Rapids Drive. On November 6, 2015, the Nets announced that they had purchased a new D-League team to be called the Long Island Nets. The team played their home games during the 2016–17 season at the Barclays Center and then at the Nassau Coliseum in Uniondale, New York after renovations were complete for the 2017–18 season. The Long Island Nets became the twelfth D-League team to be owned by an NBA team.", "The television home of the Nets is currently the YES Network, which the team helped create while they were under the corporate umbrella of YankeeNets LLC, a merger of business operations between the Nets and the New York Yankees. After the dissolution of YankeeNets and Bruce Ratner's purchase of the team, YES signed a long-term deal to keep broadcasting Nets games. The sale to the Ratner group did not include the percentage of YES that was previously owned by the Nets, which remains with the pre-merger Nets owners. Prior to that, the Nets' TV home was Fox Sports Net New York and SportsChannel New York. The team's local broadcast partner is WWOR-TV, and games have aired on WLNY-TV in the past as well. The current flagship radio station of the Nets is WFAN, which took over the radio rights to the Nets after losing their basketball contract with the Knicks (who moved to WEPN). Prior to that, Nets games aired on WNEW, WMCA, WVNJ, WNBC, WQEW, and WOR. In the club's early ABA years, some Sunday road games were televised in a package carried by WPIX. The team's later ABA tenure featured more frequent road telecasts on their current broadcast partner, WWOR-TV. Known then as WOR-TV, it continued airing road games for a time once the team joined the NBA in 1976.", "Ian Eagle has television duties for the Nets after the departure of Marv Albert in 2011. Eagle became the lead television voice for the team in 1995 after serving as the team's radio voice for one year, while Albert joined the Nets following his firing by MSG Network in 2005 after four decades as the lead voice of the New York Knicks. When Albert joined the broadcast team, he became the lead broadcaster with Eagle as his substitute; beginning in the 2009–10 season, due to Albert's advancing age and his other commitments, Eagle once again assumed the lead play-by-play spot. As of the 2011–12 season, Eagle is the sole lead announcer after Albert decided to move to CBS Sports for both NFL and NCAA basketball, in addition to his work on the \"NBA on TNT\". Ryan Ruocco substitutes for Eagle during the latter's CBS NFL and NCAA commitments. Joining Eagle in the booth for 2013 are former NBA player and ex-Net Donny Marshall and longtime Nets analyst Jim Spanarkel. Marshall replaced Mike Fratello as the lead analyst following the 2012–13 season and Spanarkel shares duties with him as he has in the past with other announcers. As of 2019, Sarah Kustok and Richard Jefferson provide color commentary on YES Network broadcasts, and Michael Grady serves as courtside reporter.", "WFAN is the Nets' current radio flagship, the station having assumed radio rights from WOR following the 2003–04 season. Chris Carrino and Tim Capstraw comprise the broadcast team, Carrino on play-by-play and Capstraw as the analyst. The games air on other Entercom-operated stations, such as WCBS (AM) and WNSH, when there are programming conflicts on WFAN. Other broadcasters who have worked for the Nets include Howard David, Bob Papa, Bill Raftery, Kelly Tripucka, Albert King, Mike O'Koren, Spencer Ross, Mel Proctor, Joe Tait, John Sterling, Mike DiTomasso, WFAN update man John Minko and Mark Jackson. Nets games have also aired on WNEW and WQEW in the past. During the club's ABA years, announcers included Marty Glickman, Marv Albert's brothers Al Albert and Steve Albert, baseball Hall of Fame pitcher Bob Gibson, Bob Goldsholl, as well as Sterling and DiTomasso. The latter two joined the club's move into the NBA." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Current status.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Three separate versions of this film exist, which differ from one another in numerous ways- the clothing style changes demonstrating the different seasons in which they were filmed. They are often referred to as the \"one horse\", \"two horses\", and \"no horse\" versions, in reference to a horse-drawn carriage that appears in the first two versions (pulled by one horse in the original and two horses in the first remake). Another film with the same theme was made in 1896, that features another factory (or another entrance to the same factory) with different people.", "This film was made in the 35 mm format with an aspect ratio of 1.33:1, and at a speed of 16 frames per second. At that rate, the 17 meters of film length provided a duration of 46 seconds, holding a total of 800 frames.", "Given its age, this short film is available to freely download from the Internet. It has also featured in a number of film collections including \"Landmarks of Early Film volume 1\", \"The Movies Begin – A Treasury of Early Cinema, 1894–1913\" and \"The Lumière Brothers' First Films\". The film has been known by a large number of alternative titles in France and the United States over the years since its production including \"La Sortie des Usines Lumière à Lyon-Montplaisir\", \"Sortie de l'Usine Lumière\", \"La Sortie des Usines\", \"Les ouvriers et ouvrières sortant de l'Usine Lumière\", \"Employees Leaving the Lumière Factory\", \"Leaving the Factory\", \"Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory\", \"Lunch Hour at the Lumière Factory\", \"Dinner Hour at the Factory Gate of M. Lumière at Lyon\", \"Exiting the Factory\", \"La Sortie des ouvriers de l'Usine Lumière\".", ".archive.org/web/20050912104656/http://www.institut-lumiere.org/francais/films/1seance/accueil.html Institut-lumiere.org ], an earlier version (in very low definition) at the Institut Lumière." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Creation.", "1995–1999: Struggles of a new franchise.", "1999–2002: Success during the Vince Carter era.", "2002–2006: Another period of struggle.", "2006–2010: Chris Bosh era.", "2010–2013: Rebuilding.", "2013–2018: DeRozan and Lowry era.", "2018–2019: Arrival of Kawhi Leonard and first championship.", "Season-by-season record.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Logos.", "Court art.", "Uniforms.", "Uniform evolution.", "2015 redesign.", "2017 onward.", "Jersey sponsors.", "Throwback and other jerseys.", "Personnel.", "Retained draft rights.", "Management.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Awards and records.", "Broadcasters.", "Fanbase and marketing.", "Rivalries.", "New Jersey/Brooklyn Nets.", "New York Knicks.", "Community service." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Toronto Raptors were established on November 4, 1993, when the NBA, as part of its expansion into Canada, awarded its 28th franchise to a group headed by Toronto businessman John Bitove for a then-record expansion fee of US$125 million. Bitove and Allan Slaight of Slaight Communications each owned 44 per cent, with the Bank of Nova Scotia (10 per cent), David Peterson (1 per cent), and Phil Granovsky (1 per cent) being minority partners. Wagering on NBA games in Ontario nearly cost Toronto the expansion franchise, due to strict league rules at the time that prohibited gambling. However, an agreement was reached whereby the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation (OLG),", "In the team's first official NBA game, Alvin Robertson scored the first NBA points in Raptors history, while Stoudamire recorded 10 points and 10 assists in a 94–79 victory over the New Jersey Nets. The Raptors concluded their inaugural season with a 21–61 win–loss record, although they were one of the few teams to defeat the Chicago Bulls, who set a then all-time NBA best 72–10 win–loss regular season record. With averages of 19.0 points and 9.3 assists per game, Stoudamire also won the 1995–96 Rookie of the Year Award. In November of the 1996–97 season, Bitove sold his ownership interest in the team to Slaight for $65 million after Slaight had activated a shotgun clause in", "During the 1999 NBA draft, believing that the Raptors still lacked a strong frontcourt presence, Grunwald traded first-round draft pick Jonathan Bender for power forward Antonio Davis of the Indiana Pacers. Davis quickly entered the Raptors starting lineup and he would develop into an All-Star in the coming years. Conversely, Bender would only play nine seasons and would be out of the league by age 29. In the backcourt, Carter, Christie and Dell Curry played at the shooting guard position and Alvin Williams and Muggsy Bogues at point guard. The rotation of Davis, Oakley and Willis in the frontcourt and Carter's and McGrady's improvement helped the team make its first ever playoff appearance, fulfilling a promise Carter had made to fans in the previous season. Lacking significant post-season experience, Toronto was defeated 3–0 by the New York Knicks in the first round. Nonetheless, team improvements", "The 2002–03 season began with the same optimism that the Raptors exhibited in three consecutive playoff seasons, although it faded early. Carter, while voted as a starter in the 2003 All-Star Game, suffered a knee injury, while Davis expressed disinterest in Toronto and Wilkens' \"laissez-faire\" attitude created a team that lacked the motivation and spirit of the previous years' teams. The team was ravaged with injuries, losing an NBA record number of player games due to injury. Furthermore, the Raptors recorded the dubious honour of being the only team in NBA history not to dress 12 players for a single game in a season. Wilkens was criticized heavily by the Toronto media for his inability to clamp down on his players when necessary, especially given this was the year that Wilkens overtook Bill Fitch for the most losses by an NBA coach, with his loss total getting dangerously close to his win total. The Raptors ended the season with a 24–58 record and Wilkens was fired. This turned out to be a blessing in disguise, when the Raptors were given the 4th overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft and brought another star to Toronto in Chris Bosh. Canadian country", "The 2006–07 season represented a watershed year for the Raptors franchise. The roster was overhauled, including the selection of 2006 NBA draft number one pick Andrea Bargnani, the acquisition of point guard T. J. Ford in exchange for Villanueva, and the signing of shooting guard Anthony Parker and small forward Jorge Garbajosa. Bosh was given a three-year contract extension, while Maurizio Gherardini of Benetton Treviso was hired as the club's vice-president and assistant general manager. The first half of the season produced mixed results as Toronto struggled towards the.500 mark. After the All-Star break, Bargnani continued to work on his defence and shooting (averaging 14.3 points per game and 3.9 rebounds per game in 12 games for the month of February 2007), and he was selected as the Eastern Conference Rookie of the Month for the second straight time on March 1, 2007. Bargnani became the third Raptor ever to win the award twice, joining Vince Carter and Damon Stoudamire. Toronto ended the regular season with a 47–35 record, securing the third seed in the Eastern Conference for the 2007 NBA playoffs along with the Atlantic Division title, as well as homecourt advantage for the first time in franchise history. Bosh was voted to start in the 2007 NBA All-Star Game.", "Before the 2010–11 season began, there was much anticipation around the league over the fates of an elite pack of free agents, featuring the likes of Bosh, Dwyane Wade, LeBron James, and Amar'e Stoudemire. Bosh and James eventually chose to converge in Miami with Wade, and the sign-and-trade transaction that ensued resulted in the Raptors receiving two first-round draft picks and a trade exception from Miami. Prior to this, Toronto had drafted Ed Davis, also a left-handed power forward like Bosh. After Bosh left, Colangelo sought to trade Calderón, Evans and the disenchanted Türkoğlu for Tyson Chandler, Leandro Barbosa, and Boris Diaw, but the trade involving Chandler collapsed at the last minute, as Chandler was traded to the Dallas Mavericks instead. Belinelli was then traded to New Orleans Hornets for Julian Wright, and 13 games into the season, Jack, David Andersen, and Marcus Banks to New Orleans for Peja Stojaković and Jerryd Bayless. Bosh's first return to Toronto was received to a chorus of boos, but not as nearly as harsh as what former Raptors Tracy McGrady and", "During the 2013 off-season, new general manager Masai Ujiri traded Bargnani to the New York Knicks for Marcus Camby, Steve Novak, Quentin Richardson, a future first-round draft pick, and two future second-round picks; Camby and Richardson were both waived shortly after the trade. The Raptors also added Tyler Hansbrough, D. J. Augustin, Dwight Buycks, and Austin Daye via free agency. On December 9, 2013, the Raptors traded Rudy Gay, Quincy Acy, and Aaron Gray to the Sacramento Kings for John Salmons, Greivis Vásquez, Patrick Patterson, and Chuck Hayes, and waived Augustin. During the 2013–14 season, the Raptors were 6–12 before the Rudy Gay trade; after the trade they went on a 10–3 run, as they maintained their lead in the division and rose above the.500 mark for the first time in almost three years. The Raptors entered the All-Star break with a 28–24 record, and DeRozan was also selected to play in the All-Star game, being only the fourth ever Raptor to do so. On March 28, 2014, the Raptors clinched a playoff berth for the", "Toronto's roster underwent two major changes during the 2018–19 season. First, on July 18, DeRozan was traded, along with Jakob Pöltl and a protected 2019 first-round draft pick, to the San Antonio Spurs in exchange for Kawhi Leonard and Danny Green. Leonard was a two-time All-Star and two-time Defensive Player of the Year, but owing to the short length of his contract, there was uncertainty over his longer-term future with the franchise. Secondly, during the trade deadline, the Raptors traded Jonas Valančiūnas, Delon Wright, C. J. Miles, and a 2024 second-round draft pick to the Memphis Grizzlies for Marc Gasol—another multiple All-Star and former Defensive Player of the Year—and signed Jeremy Lin shortly thereafter. The Raptors got off to a 6–0 start, a franchise record. Winning their 16th game on November 23, the Raptors broke their franchise record for the best start through 20 games with a 16–4 record. They reached the 20-win mark quicker than any time in their history when they won the 24th game of their season on December 1 against the Cleveland Cavaliers in Cleveland. On January 13, 2019, the Toronto", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Raptors. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "Fueled by the success of the \"Jurassic Park\" film and the popularity of dinosaurs with younger audiences, who would grow up to be fans of the franchise, the team's first logo originally featured an aggressive-looking, red \"Velociraptor\" wearing white sneakers with exposed toe claws dribbling a basketball. The team's original colours were purple, bright red, black and \"Naismith silver\" (in honour of the Canadian inventor of basketball, James Naismith). The logo proved to be very popular among fans, as by the end of 1994, the Raptors were seventh in the league in merchandise sales. For the 2008−09 season, the franchise dropped the colour purple from the original logo, making bright red the predominant colour in both the logo and the team's jerseys. On December 19, 2014, the Toronto Raptors unveiled a new primary logo, which the team described as \"a circular shield with a ball torn by the unmistakable attack of a Raptor\".", "The Toronto Raptors used various court art over the team's existence. For retro games, the Raptors used the Huskies logo, given that the Raptors are among the newest NBA teams. Beginning in early 2018, in some games, the Raptors use the Welcome Toronto logo, as the Raptors have strong connections with Toronto-based rapper Drake, as well as the 3D Raptors logo. Scotiabank subsidiary Tangerine Bank's name and logo are printed on the court as well (Tangerine Bank was formerly ING Direct Canada, until Scotiabank purchased the company in 2012 and re-branded it in 2013).", "", "The uniforms the Raptors unveiled prior to the 1995–96 season, and wore until 1999, had black and white tears as pinstripes, edgy asymmetric lettering, a raptor claw on one side of the shorts, a raptor biting the ‘T’ of the ‘TR’ franchise acronym on the other side; and featured a red giant and aggressive \"Velociraptor\" dribbling a", "On August 3, 2015, the Toronto Raptors unveiled four new uniforms. The uniforms were released in partnership with 2K Sports' \"NBA 2K16\" video game. The team said in a press release that the new uniform designs were intended to pay tribute to the city of Toronto and to Canada as a whole, noting that the Raptors were the sole Canadian club in the NBA since the Grizzlies' move to Memphis. The main colours would remain centred on Canada's national colours of red and white, whereas black and silver will continue to be used", "In 2017, as part of the NBA's partnership with Nike, each team was allotted four primary uniforms, classified as “editions\". The Raptors made small changes to their regular home (now called \"Association edition\") and road (now the \"Icon edition\") uniforms,", "In the 2017 off-season, the Raptors announced that Toronto-based Sun", "On December 8, 2009, the Raptors introduced a blue-and-white throwback jersey to commemorate the Toronto Huskies of the Basketball Association of America, regarded by many as the unofficial, geographical predecessor of the Raptors. The uniforms were the same as those worn by the Huskies during the 1946–47 season, with the exception of the nickname and length of the shorts. These uniforms were worn in six games in the 2009–10 season and have since been used as \"retro\" jerseys, worn during special \"Huskies Nights\". In the 2016–17 NBA season, the Raptors not only unveiled the season's \"retro\" uniforms in commemoration of the", "", "The Raptors hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "General managers Presidents", "", "Since their inception in 1995, the Raptors have made the playoffs 11 times (2000–2002, 2007, 2008, and 2014–2019), advancing past the first round five times (2001 and 2016–2019). The Raptors have won the Atlantic Division six times (2007, 2014–2016, and 2018–2019), and the franchise record number of wins in the regular season is 59 (2018). The Raptors advanced", "Raptors games are primarily broadcast on television by Canadian sports channels TSN and Sportsnet, owned by Bell Media and Rogers Communications, respectively. Through MLSE, the Raptors also operate the Canadian version of NBA TV (formerly known", "The Raptors have enjoyed a consistent fanbase throughout their history. They set NBA attendance records in their 2000, 2001, and 2002 seasons when they made the playoffs. Attendance dipped slightly between 2003 and 2006. This improved during the 2006–07 regular season to an average of 18,258 fans (13th in the league), 92.2 per cent of capacity at the Air Canada Centre. Following the success of the 2006–07 season, Toronto became one of the league leaders in season ticket sales for the 2007–08 season. Their television ratings, however, are considerably lower than other more established Toronto sports teams and most other sporting events aired on Canadian television. Another successful run starting in 2013–14 led to a spike in the Raptors' support. For the 2014–15 season, the team sold out the 12,500 season tickets, the first time it occurred since 2011. Public watchings of the Raptors games, particularly during the playoffs, started being held in 2014 at Maple Leaf Square, which the fans nicknamed \"Jurassic Park\". MLSE decided to endorse this practice by setting up concession stands and branded sponsorships at the square with naming rights sold to Ford Motor Company's Canadian operations, along with increased security. At times, footage from the square is broadcast to the Raptors locker room. The victorious Game 7 against the Indiana Pacers on the 2016 playoffs was the most watched Raptors broadcast ever and the biggest television audience in Canada that day, averaging 1.53 million viewers with a peak of 2.63 million. This record has since been broken during the Raptors' victorious 2019 playoff run. The value of the Raptors franchise has risen over the years. In 1998, the franchise was bought for US$125 million. With the continued popularity of the Raptors, the value of the franchise doubled from US$148 million in 2000 to $297 million in 2004. The value of the franchise grew again from $315 million in 2006 to $373 million in 2007, and $400 million in 2008. By 2018, \"Forbes\" estimated the Raptors were worth $1.4 billion, 12th in the NBA. On game day, the fans are usually entertained by the Raptor mascot, the Raptors Dance Pak, and the 4 Korners Raptors Soundcrew during pre-game, time-outs, and intervals. During the 2013–14 season, a new \"Drake Zone\" was created in the lower bowl. Limited edition shirts were given away to fans sitting in the Drake Zone. Giveaways are sometimes bundled with tickets to encourage attendance. Further, whenever Toronto scores more than 100 points in a home game and wins, fans can redeem their ticket for a cheese or pepperoni pizza slice at standalone Pizza Pizza locations throughout Ontario for the business day after the game that was played. This is part of a promotion made by the Raptors' official pizza sponsor. However, beginning in the 2018–19 season, the promotion added an extra requirement of purchasing a first slice before receiving the free second slice, though it requires using the Pizza Pizza mobile app instead of using a Raptors ticket, allowing Raptors fans who did not attend the game to receive a free second slice after purchasing a first slice. Beginning in the same NBA season, McDonald's Canadian operations also offer fans in Ontario using the McDonald's Canada mobile app, regardless of game attendance, a free medium-sized serving of French fries with a minimum C$1 purchase of another item the next day after when the Raptors make at least a dozen successful three-pointers in home or away games regardless of final outcome.", "The Toronto Raptors have a rivalry with both the New York Knicks and the Brooklyn Nets.", "The New Jersey/Brooklyn Nets and the Raptors have been minor rivals since the trade of Vince Carter to the Nets during the 2004–05 season. The rivalry began to heat up as the two teams faced each other in the opening round of the 2007 NBA Playoffs, with the Nets winning the series, 4–2, after a go-ahead shot by Richard Jefferson with 8 seconds left in Game 6 ensuring a 98–97 defeat for the Raptors. The rivalry was rekindled during", "The New York Knicks and the Raptors had a playoff rivalry in 2000 and 2001. The Raptors made their first-ever playoff appearance during the 1999–2000 season, in which", "The Raptors Foundation was the charitable arm of the Raptors, dedicated to assisting Ontario's registered charities that support programs and sports initiatives for at-risk children and youth. The Foundation strove to lift spirits and change lives for young people by supporting local and provincial organizations that provide recreational, educational and other youth-oriented activities. Through its community ties and with the help of its corporate partners, donors, Raptors players and volunteers, the Foundation had successfully raised more than $14 million between 1995 and 2007, and reached out to thousands of other charities. The Raptors Foundation was one of three parts of the Raptors' community service program. The other projects were Raptors Community Relations and Raptors Basketball Development, both of which focus on providing basketball development programs. The Toronto Raptors lead the NBA for amount of money donated to the community. In 2009, the Raptors Foundation merged with the other charitable arms of MLSE's other sports franchises to form the Team Up Foundation. In 2018, the Raptors, in partnership with Drake, announced the Welcome Toronto program. The program will see the Raptors and OVO contribute $2 million to Canada Basketball over the next four years. In addition, the Raptors and OVO also announced a donation of $1 million over the next three years in order to refurbish four community basketball courts within Toronto city limits. The four courts are located at Flemingdon Community Centre in the North York district in the north end of the city, Malvern Community Recreation Centre in the Scarborough district in the east end of the city, Matty Eckler Community Centre in the Riverdale neighbourhood of the Old Toronto district just to the east of downtown, and Thistletown Community Centre in the Etobicoke district in the west end of the city." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Extradition treaties or agreements.", "Bars to extradition.", "Failure to fulfill dual criminality.", "Political nature of the alleged crime.", "Possibility of certain forms of punishment.", "Jurisdiction.", "Own citizens.", "Right to private and family life.", "Fair trial standards.", "Human rights and extradition.", "\"Aut dedere aut judicare\".", "Controversies.", "International tensions.", "2019 Hong Kong extradition law protests.", "Abductions.", "\"Extraordinary rendition\".", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The consensus in international law is that a state does not have any obligation to surrender an alleged criminal to a foreign state, because one principle of sovereignty is that every state has legal authority over the people within its borders. Such absence of international obligation, and the desire for the right to demand such criminals from other countries, have caused a web of extradition treaties or agreements to evolve. When no applicable extradition agreement is in place, a sovereign may still request the expulsion or lawful return of an individual pursuant to the requested state's domestic law. This can be accomplished through the immigration laws of the requested state or other facets of the requested state's domestic law. Similarly, the codes of penal procedure in many countries contain provisions allowing for extradition to take place in the absence of an extradition agreement. Sovereigns may, therefore, still request the expulsion or lawful return of a fugitive from the territory of a requested state in the absence of an extradition treaty. No country in the world has an extradition treaty with all other countries; for example, the United States lacks extradition treaties with China, the Russian Federation, Namibia, the United Arab Emirates, North Korea, Bahrain, and many other countries. (See Extradition law in the United States.)", "By enacting laws or in concluding treaties or agreements, countries determine the conditions under which they may entertain or deny extradition requests. Observing fundamental human rights is also an important reason for denying some extradition requests. It is common for human rights exceptions to be specifically incorporated in bilateral treaties. Such bars can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence. These bars may also extend to take account of the effect on family of the individual if extradition proceeds. Therefore, human rights recognised by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests. However, cases where extradition is denied should be treated as independent exceptions and will only occur in exceptional circumstances. Common bars to extradition include:", "Generally the act for which extradition is sought must constitute a crime punishable by some minimum penalty in both the requesting and the requested states. The requirement has been abolished for broad categories of crimes in some jurisdictions, notably within the European Union.", "Many countries refuse to extradite suspects of political crimes. See political offence exception.", "Some countries refuse extradition on grounds that the person, if extradited, may receive capital punishment or face torture. A few go as far as to cover all punishments that they themselves would not administer.", "Jurisdiction over a crime can be invoked to refuse extradition. In particular, the fact that the person in question is a nation's own citizen causes that country to have jurisdiction (see next point).", "Some countries, such as Austria, Brazil, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, France, Germany, Japan, Norway, the People's Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), Russia, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Syria and Vietnam forbid extradition of their own citizens. These countries often have laws in place that give them jurisdiction over crimes committed abroad by or against citizens. By virtue of such jurisdiction, they prosecute and try citizens accused of crimes committed abroad as if the crime had occurred within the country's borders (see, e.g., trial of Xiao Zhen).", "In a limited number of cases Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights has been invoked to stop extradition from proceeding. Article 8 states that everyone has the right to the respect of their private and family life. This is achieved by way of balancing the potential harm to private life against the public interest in upholding the extradition arrangement. While this article is useful as it provide for a prohibition to extradition, the threshold required to meet this prohibition is high. Article 8 does explicitly provide that this right is subject to limits in the interests of national security and public safety, so these limits must be weighed in a balancing of priority against this right. Cases where extradition is sought usually involve serious crimes so while these limits are often justified there have been cases where extradition could not be justified in light of the individual's family life. Cases to date have mostly involved dependant children where the extradition would be counter to the best interests of this child. In the case of \"FK v. Polish Judicial Authority\" the court held that it would violate article 8 for a mother of five young children to be extradited amidst charges of minor fraud which were committed number of years ago. This case is an example of how the gravity of the crime for which extradition was sought was not proportionate to protecting the interests of the individual's family. However the court in this case noted that even in circumstances where extradition is refused a custodial sentence will be given to comply with the principles of international comity. In contrast the case of \"HH v Deputy Prosecutor of the Italian Republic, Genoa\" is an example of when the public interest for allowing extradition outweighed the best interests of the children. In this case both parents were being extradited to Italy for serious drug importation crimes. Article 8 does not only address the needs of children, but also all family members, yet the high threshold required to satisfy Article 8 means that the vulnerability of children is the most likely circumstance to meet this threshold. In the case of \"Norris v US (No 2)\" a man sought to argue that if extradited his health would be undermined and it would cause his wife depression. This claim was rejected by the Court which stated that a successful claim under Article 8 would require “exceptional” circumstances. Suicide Risk: Cases where there is risk of the individual committing suicide have also invoked article 8 as the public interest of extraditing must be considered in light of the risk of suicide by the individual if extradited. In the case of \"Jason's v Latvia\" extradition was refused on these grounds, as the crime for which the individual was sought was not enough of a threat to public interest to outweigh the high risk of suicide which had been assessed to exist for the individual if extradited.", "Consideration of the right to a fair trial is particularly complex in extradition cases. Its complexity arises from the fact that while the court deciding whether to surrender the individual must uphold these rights this same court must also be satisfied that any trial undertaken by the requesting state after extradition is granted also respects these rights. Article 14 of the ICCPR provides a number of criteria for fair trial standards. These standards have been reflected in courts who have shown that subjective considerations should be made in determining whether such trials would be ‘unjust’ or ‘oppressive’ by taking into account factors such as the duration of time since the alleged offences occurred, health of the individual, prison conditions in the requesting state and likelihood of conviction among other considerations. Yet exactly how the standards provided for in ICCPR are incorporated or recognised by domestic courts and decision makers is still unclear although it seems that these standards can at a minimum be used to inform the notions of such decision makers. If it is found that fair trial standards will not be satisfied in the requesting country this may be a sufficient bar to extradition. Article 6 of the ECHR also provides for fair trial standards, which must be observed by European countries when making an extradition request. This court in the \"Othman\" case, whom if extradited would face trial where evidence against him had been obtained by way of torture. This was held to be a violation of Article 6 ECHR as it presented a real risk of a ‘flagrant denial of justice’. The court in Othman stressed that in order for a breach of Article 6 to occur the trial in the requesting country must constitute a flagrant denial of justice, going beyond merely an unfair trial. Evidence obtained by way of torture has been sufficient to satisfy the threshold of a flagrant denial of justice in a number of case. This is in part because torture evidence threatens the “integrity of the trial process and the rule of law itself.”", "Human rights as a bar to extradition can be invoked in relation to the treatment of the individual in the receiving country, including their trial and sentence as well as the effect on family of the individual if extradition is granted. The repressive nature and the limitations of freedoms imposed on an individual is part of the extradition process and is the reason for these exceptions and the importance that human rights are observed in the extradition process. Therefore, human rights protected by international and regional agreements may be the basis for denying extradition requests, but only as independent exceptions. While human rights concerns can add to the complexity of extradition cases it is positive as it adds to the legitimacy and institutionalisation of the extradition system. Determining whether to allow extradition by the requested state is, among other considerations, a balancing exercise between the interests of the requesting state's pursuit of justice over the accused individuals, the requested state's interests in holding dominion over those presently in its territory, and the rights of the extraditable persons. Extradition raises human rights concerns in determining this balance in relation to the extraditable person. States make provision to recognise these rights both expressing in bilateral treaty agreements and also, potentially by way of state's obligations under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is particularly relevant to extradition. Although regional, the European Convention of Human Rights has also been invoked as a bar to extradition in a number of cases falling within its jurisdiction and decisions from the European Court of Human Rights have been a useful source of development in this area.", "A concept related to extradition that has significant implications in transnational criminal law is that of \"aut dedere aut judicare\". This maxim represents the principle that states must either surrender a criminal within their jurisdiction to a state that wishes to prosecute the criminal or prosecute the offender in its own courts. Many international agreements contain provisions for \"aut dedere aut judicare\". These include all four 1949 Geneva Conventions, the U.N. Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, the U.N. Convention Against Corruption, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of an Armed Conflict, and the International Convention for the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. Some contemporary scholars hold the opinion that \"aut dedere aut judicare\" is not an obligation under customary international law but rather “a specific conventional clause relating to specific crimes” and, accordingly, an obligation that only exists when a state has voluntarily assumed the obligation. Cherif Bassiouni, however, has posited that, at least with regard to international crimes, it is not only a rule of customary international law but a \"jus cogens\" principle. Professor Michael Kelly, citing Israeli and Austrian judicial decisions, has noted that “there is some supporting anecdotal evidence that judges within national systems are beginning to apply the doctrine on their own”.", "", "The refusal of a country to extradite suspects or criminals to another may lead to international relations being strained. Often, the country to which extradition is refused will accuse the other country of refusing extradition for political reasons (regardless of whether or not this is justified). A case in point is that of Ira Einhorn, in which some US commentators pressured President Jacques Chirac of France, who does not intervene in legal cases, to permit extradition when the case was held up due to differences between French and American human rights law. Another long-standing example is Roman Polanski whose extradition was pursued by California for over 20 years. For a brief period he was placed under arrest in Switzerland, however subsequent legal appeals there prevented extradition. The questions involved are often complex when the country from which suspects are to be extradited is a democratic country with a rule of law. Typically, in such countries, the final decision to extradite lies with the national executive (prime minister, president or equivalent). However, such countries typically allow extradition defendants recourse to the law, with multiple appeals. These may significantly slow down procedures. On the one hand, this may lead to unwarranted international difficulties, as the public, politicians and journalists from the requesting country will ask their executive to put pressure on the executive of the country from which extradition is to take place, while that executive may not in fact have the authority to deport the suspect or criminal on their own. On the other hand, certain delays, or the unwillingness of the local prosecution authorities to present a good extradition case before the court on behalf of the requesting state, may possibly result from the unwillingness of the country's executive to extradite. Even though the United States has an extradition treaty with Japan, most extraditions are not successful due to Japan's domestic laws. In order for the United States to be successful, they must present their case for extradition to the Japanese authorities. However, certain evidence is barred from being in these proceedings such as the use of confessions, searches or electronic surveillance. In most cases involving international drug trafficking, this kind of evidence constitutes the bulk of evidence gathered in the investigation on a suspect for a drug-related charge. Therefore, this usually hinders the United States from moving forward with the extradition of a suspect. There is at present controversy in the United Kingdom about the Extradition Act 2003, which dispenses with the need for a \"prima facie\" case for extradition. This came to a head over the extradition of the Natwest Three from the UK to the U.S., for their alleged fraudulent conduct related to Enron. Several British political leaders were heavily critical of the British government's handling of the issue. In 2013, the United States submitted extradition requests to many nations for former National Security Agency employee Edward Snowden. It criticized Hong Kong for allowing him to leave despite an extradition request.", "A proposed Hong Kong extradition law tabled in April 2019 led to one of the biggest protests in the island's history, with 1 million demonstrators joining the protests on the 9th of June, 2019. They took place three days before the Hong Kong government planned to bypass the committee process and bring the contentious bill straight to the full legislature to hasten its approval. The bill, which would ease extradition to communist People's Republic of China, includes 37 types of crimes. While the Beijing-friendly ruling party maintains that the proposal contains protections of the dual criminality requirement and human rights, its opponents allege that after people are surrendered to the mainland, it could charge them with some other crime and impose the death penalty for that other crime. There are also concerns about the retroactive effect of the new law. The government's proposal was amended to remove some categories after complaints from the business sector, such as \"the unlawful use of computers\". Experts have noted that the legal systems of mainland China and Hong Kong follow 'different protocols' with regard to the important conditions of \"double criminality\" and non-refoulement, as well as on the matter of executive vs. judicial oversight on any extradition request.", "In some cases a state has abducted an alleged criminal from the territory of another state either after normal extradition procedures failed, or without attempting to use them. Notable cases are listed below:", "\"Extraordinary rendition\" is an extrajudicial procedure in which criminal suspects, generally suspected terrorists or supporters of terrorist organisations, are transferred from one country to another. The procedure differs from extradition as the purpose of the rendition is to extract information from suspects, while extradition is used to return fugitives so that they can stand trial or fulfill their sentence. The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) allegedly operates a global extraordinary rendition programme, which from 2001 to 2005 captured an estimated 150 people and transported them around the world. The alleged US programme prompted several official investigations in Europe into alleged secret detentions and illegal international transfers involving Council of Europe member states. A June 2006 report from the Council of Europe estimated 100 people had been kidnapped by the CIA on EU territory (with the cooperation of Council of Europe members), and rendered to other countries, often after having transited through secret detention centres (\"black sites\") utilised by the CIA, some of which could be located in Europe. According to the separate European Parliament report of February 2007, the CIA has conducted 1,245 flights, many of them to destinations where suspects could face torture, in violation of article 3 of the United Nations Convention Against Torture. A large majority of the European Union Parliament endorsed the report's conclusion that many member states tolerated illegal actions by the CIA, and criticised such actions. Within days of his inauguration, President Obama signed an Executive Order opposing rendition torture and established a task force to provide recommendations about processes to prevent rendition torture.", "International: Individuals: Protest:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1946–1967: Early years.", "1967–1975: Championship years.", "1975–1985: Post-championship years.", "1985–2000: The Patrick Ewing era.", "2000–2003: Downfall.", "2003–2008: Isiah Thomas era.", "2008–2010: Rebuilding.", "2010–2013: Arrival of Carmelo Anthony.", "2013–2017: Phil Jackson era.", "2017–present: Struggles and further rebuilding.", "Season-by-season record.", "Logos and uniforms.", "1946–1964: Father Knickerbocker era.", "1964–1992: The Classic roundball era.", "1968–1979; 1983–1997: Championship era uniforms.", "1979–1983: Maroon era uniforms.", "1992–2012: New look era.", "2012–present: Modern era.", "Special uniforms.", "Throwback uniforms.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "All-Star Game selections.", "Staff.", "Management.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Celtics.", "Brooklyn Nets.", "Chicago Bulls.", "Indiana Pacers.", "Miami Heat." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1946, basketball, particularly college basketball, was a growing and increasingly profitable sport in New York City. Hockey was another popular sport at the time and generated considerable profits; however, the arenas were not used often. Max Kase, a New York sportswriter, became the sports editor at the \"Boston American\" in the 1930s, when he met Boston Garden owner Walter A. Brown. Kase developed the idea of an organized professional league to showcase college players upon their graduation and felt it could become profitable if properly assembled. Brown, intrigued by the opportunity to attain additional income when the hockey teams were not playing or on the road, contacted several arena owners. On June 6, 1946, Kase and Brown and a group of seventeen others assembled at the Commodore Hotel in New York City, as the Basketball Association of America (BAA), where charter franchises were granted to major cities throughout the country. Ned Irish, a college basketball promoter, retired sportswriter and then president of Madison Square Garden, was in attendance. Kase originally planned to own and operate the New York franchise himself and approached Irish with a proposal to lease the Garden. Irish explained that the rules of the Arena Managers Association of America stated that Madison Square Garden was required to own any professional teams that played in the arena. On the day of the meeting, Kase made his proposal to", "The Knicks started their 1967-68 season with a 124–122 win over the visiting Warriors. In that game, seven players on the Knicks' roster scored in double figures. However, the Knicks lost their next six games, falling to a 1–6 record. They managed to stop their losing streak on November 1, 1967, when the Knicks won the road game against the Lakers, 129–113. During the game, Willis Reed scored a career-high 53 points on 21-of-29 shooting from the field. On November 3, the Knicks defeated the Seattle Supersonics 134-100 in Seattle. In that game, nine Knicks' player scored at least", "In the 1974–75 season, the Knicks posted a 40–42 record, their first losing record in eight seasons. The team still qualified for a playoff spot, however, but the opportunity was squandered as they lost to the Houston Rockets in the first round. After two more seasons with losing records, Holzman was replaced by Willis Reed, who signed a three-year contract. In Reed's first year, New York finished the year with a 43–39 record and returned to the Eastern Conference semi-finals, where they were swept by the Philadelphia 76ers. The next season, after the team began with a 6–8 record, Holzman was rehired as the team's coach after Reed had angered Madison Square Garden president Sonny Werblin. The team did not fare any better under Holzman's direction, finishing with a 31–51 record, their worst in thirteen years. After improving to a 39–43 record in the 1979–80 season, the Knicks posted a 50–32 record in the", "In the summer of 1985, the Knicks were entered into the first-ever NBA Draft Lottery. The Knicks ended up winning the number one pick in that year's NBA draft. They used the pick to select star center Patrick Ewing of Georgetown University. In Ewing's first season with the Knicks, he led all rookies in scoring (20 points per game) and rebounds (9 rebounds per game), and he won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. The team would not fare as well, though, as they struggled to a 23–59 record in his first season. During Ewing's second season, the team started with a 4–12 record and head coach Hubie Brown was dismissed in favor of assistant Bob Hill. Under Hill, the Knicks had brief successes but went on to lose seventeen of their twenty-one final games of the season to finish 20–46 under Hill and 24–58 on the season. Hill was dismissed at season's end. The team immediately turned around in the 1987–88 season with the hiring of Rick Pitino as head coach, who, only months prior to his hiring, led Providence College to the Final Four, turning around a program that had struggled", "Despite the loss of Ewing, the Knicks remained successful in the regular season, as they posted a 48–34 record under the direction of Houston and Sprewell. In the first round of playoff contention, however, New York fell to the Toronto Raptors in five games, failing to get past the first round of the playoffs for the first time in a decade. After a poor start to the season, the Knicks managed to get above.500 with a 10–9 record. In spite of their recent success, Van Gundy unexpectedly resigned as head coach on December 8, 2001 explaining he had \"lost focus\" and would no longer be able to properly coach the team. The team, which named longtime assistant", "After a 10–18 start to the 2003–04 season, the Knicks underwent a massive overhaul. Isiah Thomas was named the Knicks' president on December 22, 2003 upon the firing of Scott Layden. Thomas continued to restructure the team, firing Chaney after an unproductive tenure and hiring Hall of Famer Lenny Wilkens to coach the team. Additionally, Thomas orchestrated multiple trades, including one that brought point guard Stephon Marbury to the team. The team qualified for the playoffs that year with a 39–43 record, but were swept by the New Jersey Nets in the first round. The series included a highly publicized spat between the Knicks' Tim Thomas and Nets' Kenyon Martin, in which Thomas all but challenged Martin to a fight and called him \"Fugazy\". The following season, the Knicks struggled to a 17–22 record before Wilkens resigned as head", "MSG chairman James Dolan hired former Indiana Pacers President Donnie Walsh on April 2, 2008 to take over Isiah Thomas's role as team president. At the introductory press conference, Walsh, while not proclaiming to be a savior, did set goals, which included getting the team under the salary cap and bringing back a competitive environment. Upon the conclusion of the 2007–2008 regular season, Walsh fired Thomas, and on May 13, 2008, officially named former Phoenix Suns head coach Mike D'Antoni as head coach. D'Antoni signed a four-year, $24 million deal to coach the team. The Knicks, holding the sixth pick in", "The Knicks and former Phoenix Suns forward-center Amar'e Stoudemire came to an agreement on July 5, 2010. The sign and trade deal was made official on July 8 as Stoudemire agreed to an approximately $100 million contract over the span of five years. Team president Donnie Walsh stated the signing of Stoudemire as a turning point for the future of a Knicks team that had struggled in recent years. The Knicks continued to redesign their roster, trading David Lee to the Golden State Warriors for Anthony Randolph, Kelenna Azubuike and Ronny Turiaf. The Knicks also struck deals with former Bobcats point guard Raymond Felton and Russian center Timofey Mozgov. The Knicks regained their title as the most valuable franchise in the NBA following these acquisitions, though this was mainly due to the arrival of Stoudemire, whose star power allowed the team to resurge; the Knicks sold out their full-season ticket inventory for the first time since 2002. D'Antoni along with Stoudemire and the core of young players, including Felton, Danilo Gallinari, Mozgov, Wilson Chandler and rookie Landry Fields, piloted the Knicks to a 28–26 record prior to the All-Star break, marking the first time the team had been above the.500 mark at that point of the season since 2000. In spite of the team's mounting success, New York made a push to acquire Denver Nuggets forward Carmelo Anthony. After months of speculation, on February 22, 2011, Anthony was traded to New York, with teammates Chauncey Billups, Shelden Williams, Anthony Carter, and former Knicks player Renaldo Balkman. Denver acquired Felton, Danilo Gallinari, Wilson Chandler, Mozgov, Kosta Koufos, a 2014 first-round draft pick, the Warriors' second-round draft picks for 2013 and 2014 and $3 million in cash. In addition, the Knicks sent Anthony Randolph and Eddy", "The Knicks also saw changes to business operations in late 2013, replacing general manager Glen Grunwald with former MSG president Steve Mills. The Knicks also purchased an NBA D-League team located White Plains, which began operations at the start of the 2014–15 NBDL season. The Knicks then appointed former coach Phil Jackson as president of basketball operations, with Mills remaining as general manager, with the duo working directly under MSG chairman James Dolan. Following the 2013–14 season, coach Mike Woodson and his entire staff were fired, and was replaced by Derek Fisher. Fisher played under Jackson with the Los Angeles Lakers, winning five NBA championships with the", "Following Jackson's departure, the Knicks appointed Scott Perry as general manager and named Steve Mills president of basketball operations. The Knicks also saw Carmelo Anthony demanding a trade from the team, which posed difficulty for both player and franchise due to a no-trade clause inserted in Anthony's contract given by Jackson in 2013. Originally, the only teams for which he would waive his no trade clause were for the Cleveland Cavaliers and the Houston Rockets, with the former eventually removed from trade discussions due to internal conflicts. Anthony intended to join the Rockets, with a three-way trade with the Portland Trail Blazers set up involving", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Knicks. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The first logo of the New York Knicks is of a character named \"Father Knickerbocker\" dribbling a basketball, in the iconic blue and orange colors. It was designed by New York World-Telegram cartoonist Willard", "The Knicks would introduce an iconic logo that would endure for the next three decades. Designed by Bud Freeman, the word 'Knicks' superimposed over a brown basketball is known as the 'Classic Roundball Logo', with minor changes throughout its lifespan such as maroon wordmark and orange basketball. An alternate logo featuring the full team name inside an orange basketball was used during the late 1960s and into the 1970s. As the 1960s began, the Knicks updated their uniforms again. This time the lettering is in serifed fonts, and the blue lettering and numbers on the home uniforms are now trimmed in orange. The away uniforms maintained the orange lettering but added white trim; it later changed to white letters while adding white trim on the piping. Side stripes were also added to the uniform. The 'NY' monogram is on the left leg of the shorts.", "The Knicks unveiled a uniform that would stay for three decades. This uniform, with an arched 'NEW YORK' in serif lettering and in orange, would be the uniform worn during their 1970 and 1973 championship seasons; however, they were not introduced simultaneously. The home uniforms would debut in 1968, while the away uniforms debuted the following year. One noticeable feature was that the player's name was in a straight block arched lettering (which is also called the \"vertical arch\" style), which was meticulously designed by Gerry Cosby and his sporting goods company. The unusual arrangement on the player's name was", "At the beginning of the 1980s, the Knicks radically changed their uniforms. Royal blue and orange were replaced by navy and maroon. During this period, the home uniforms featured the team name below the number, both in maroon with navy trim and in a stylized, free-flowing font. Navy away uniforms continue to feature the city name but below the white and maroon number. The interlocking 'NY' logo debuted on the shorts, with the addition of player numbers and side stripes during the 1981–82 season. The change to maroon and navy was initiated by then-team president E. Michael Burke, whose alma mater University of Pennsylvania wore those colors. The 'Knicks' script from the 'Maroon Era' uniforms was later reused in the uniforms of the Knicks' NBA Development League affiliate Westchester Knicks, with the same team name below the number format.", "Before the 1992–93 season, the Knicks updated their 'Roundball Logo' to its present form, with the word 'Knicks' in a futuristic font, again superimposed over a basketball, with a silver triangle accentuating the look. The \"New Look\" logo was designed by Tom O'Grady. For the 1995–96 season, the city name in a futuristic script was added atop the logo, while an alternate 'Subway Token' logo featuring the acronym 'NYK' was", "The Knicks updated their \"New Look Logo\", this time eliminating the color black from the scheme. They still used the previous uniform during the 2011–12 season, but for the 2012–13 season, the Knicks unveiled new uniforms inspired from their 'Championship Era' uniforms. A more subtle and bolder 'New York' script was introduced, while the uniform piping stopped until the lettering. The phrase \"Once A Knick, Always A Knick\" is added on the uniform collar. Gray became the accent color. In addition, an updated version of their 1970s secondary logo, this time featuring only the team name, was introduced. On October 25, 2013, the Knicks unveiled an alternate orange uniform, which is essentially a mirror image of the blue away uniforms, but with orange as the primary color and blue and white as trim", "The Knicks have also worn special edition uniforms every March as part of the NBA's Noche Latina events and during St. Patrick's Day. The uniforms during Noche Latina were originally white with blue and orange trim, first using the 2001–12 uniform from 2008 to 2012, and then the current uniforms from 2012 to 2015, the only exception being \"Nueva York\" in front. In the 2015–16 season, the Knicks used a variation of their away blue uniform for Noche Latina. The Saint Patrick's Day uniforms used the road uniform template except for green substituting for the blue base. These uniforms have also been used on Christmas Day from the 2009–10 season, and was worn in particular by Nate Robinson for a \"Kryptonate vs. Superman\" theme against Dwight Howard in the 2009 Slam Dunk Contest. The St. Patrick's uniforms were shelved after the 2011–12 season. On Christmas Day 2012, the Knicks wore monochrome uniforms known as 'Big Color'. The uniforms are", "The Knicks were one of several NBA teams to wear throwback uniforms during the league's 50th anniversary in the 1996–97 season. The throwback set they wore that season represented the franchise's first season in 1946–47. However, both the blue and white throwbacks featured blue letters with orange trim (the originals had only orange letters on the blue uniform and blue letters on the white uniform minus any additional trim). In the 2004–05 season the Knicks wore throwback white uniforms from the \"maroon era\" of the early 1980s. The only difference from the originals was that the letters on the player's name were arranged in a radial arch (the originals were designed in a vertical arch) and were smaller in size. The following season,", "", "The Knicks hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "", "The following Knicks players", "", "Steve Mills served as general manager and president during the 2013–14 season. At the end of the 2013–14", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active, but not with team. Points", "NBA MVP NBA Finals MVP NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Coach of the Year", "", "The New York Knicks and the Boston Celtics are two of the three remaining teams from the original 1946 NBA (the other is the Golden State Warriors). The rivalry stems from the old rivalry between the cities of New York City and Boston, as well as the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry. The fact that Boston and New York City are only 190 miles apart contributes to it, which is also seen in the Jets–Patriots rivalry. The teams have met nine times in the postseason. The last time was in the 2012–13 season, when", "The Brooklyn Nets, formerly the New Jersey Nets, are the Knicks' closest rival geographically. Both teams play in New York City, with the Knicks in Manhattan and the Nets in Brooklyn. Media outlets have noted the Knicks-Nets rivalry's similarity to those of other New York City teams, such as Major League Baseball's Subway Series rivalry between the American League's New York Yankees and the National League's New York Mets, due to both boroughs' proximity through the New York City Subway. Historically, the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn competed via", "The Knicks have a strong rivalry with the Chicago Bulls. The rivalry's most intense period was during the late 1980s and early 90s, when both teams were huge playoff contenders. This intensity was due to a variety of factors: the great frequency in which the teams competed against each other in high-stakes contests and playoff series; well-known players such as Michael Jordan, Scottie Pippen, Patrick Ewing, and John Starks;", "The rivalry between the New York Knicks and the Indiana Pacers started in 1993 and quickly became one of the most bitter in NBA history. They met in the playoffs 6 times from 1993 to 2000, fueling a rivalry epitomized by the enmity between Reggie Miller and prominent Knick fan", "The Miami Heat were one of the New York Knicks' strongest inter-divisional foes. The two teams met in the playoffs each year from 1997 to 2000, with all four of those series being played to the maximum number of games. Pat Riley, the head coach of the Miami Heat at the time," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1946–1963: Syracuse Nationals.", "Relocation to Philadelphia.", "1964–1967: The Wilt Chamberlain era.", "1966–67: First title in Philadelphia.", "1967–1976: Fall of the 76ers.", "1976–1987: The Julius Erving era.", "1987–1992: The Charles Barkley era.", "1992–1996: Dark ages.", "1996–2006: The Allen Iverson era.", "2006–2012: Post-Iverson era.", "2013–present: \"The Process\" era.", "Team logos and uniforms.", "Mascot.", "Franklin the Dog.", "Rivalries.", "Boston Celtics.", "Season-by-season record.", "Facilities.", "Training facility.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise leaders and records.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "eSports ventures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1946, Italian immigrant Danny Biasone sent a $5,000 check to the National Basketball League offices in Chicago, and the Syracuse Nationals became the largely Midwest-based league's easternmost team, based in the Upstate New York city of Syracuse. The Syracuse Nationals began play in the NBL in the same year professional basketball was finally gaining some legitimacy with the rival Basketball Association of America that was based in large cities like New York and Philadelphia. While in the NBL with teams largely consisting of small Midwestern towns, the Nationals put together a 21–23 record, finishing in fourth place. In the playoffs, the Nationals would be beaten by the fellow upstate neighbor Rochester Royals in four games. In their second season, 1947–48, the Nationals struggled, finishing in fifth place with a 24–36 record. Despite their record they made the playoffs, and were swept by the Anderson Duffey Packers in 3 straight games. Several teams began to leave the NBL for the BAA as the foundation for an absorption was laid. The Nationals \"recipe for success\" began by recruiting Leo Ferris. Staying in the NBL, Ferris signed Al Cervi to be player coach and outbid the New York Knicks for the services of Dolph Schayes who made his professional debut, leading the Nationals to a winning record for the first time with a record of 40–23. In the playoffs the Nationals would make quick work of the Hammond Calumet Buccaneers, winning the series in 2 straight games. However, in the semifinals the Nationals would fall to the Anderson Duffey Packers for the second straight season in four games. In", "The playoff overtime loss on March 26, 1963, would prove to be the last game for the Syracuse Nationals, as investors Irv Kosloff and Ike Richman purchased the team from Danny Biasone and moved the team to Philadelphia, filling the void left by the Warriors. Syracuse was the last of the medium-sized cities housing an NBA team, but by then it was apparent that central New York was no longer large enough to support it. The NBA thus returned to Philadelphia one year after the Warriors had left", "In the 1964–65 season, the 76ers acquired the legendary Wilt Chamberlain from the Warriors; Chamberlain had been a high school legend at Overbrook High School in Philadelphia and began his career with the Warriors while they still played in Philadelphia. The 76ers would push the Celtics to seven games in the semifinals, with the 76ers trailing 110–109 in Game 7. After Hal Greer's pass was stolen by John Havlicek, the Celtics went on to beat the Los Angeles Lakers and win the NBA Championship. On December 3, 1965, in the midst of a game at the Boston Garden, co-owner Richman suffered a heart attack and died courtside.", "Led by head coach Alex Hannum, the 76ers had a dream season as they started 46–4, en route to a record of 68–13, the best record in league history at the time. Chamberlain, Billy Cunningham, and Greer, along with all-stars Chet Walker, Lucious Jackson and Wali Jones led the team to the semifinals. This time the 76ers beat the Celtics in five games. In Game Five of that series, as the 76ers went to victory and the NBA Finals, Philadelphia fans chanted \"Boston is dead!\"—a symbol that the Celts' eight-year reign as NBA champion had ended. The Finals were almost anticlimactic, with the Sixers ousting the Warriors in six games to give them their second NBA Championship. The 1966–67 Sixers were voted the best team in league history during the NBA's 35th anniversary celebration.", "In the 1967–68 season, with a new home court in the form of The Spectrum to defend their championship, once again the 76ers made it back to the NBA Playoffs and in the rematch of the previous year's semifinals, the 76ers held a 3–1 series lead over the Celtics, before the Celtics staged a dramatic comeback to beat the Sixers in seven games. At the end of the season, the 76ers dealt Chamberlain to the Los Angeles Lakers for Archie Clark, Darrall Imhoff and Jerry Chambers. At the time, the trade appeared to make some sense from the 76ers' perspective. Chamberlain was making noises about jumping to the American Basketball", "The Sixers finally came all the way back in 1976–77, in large part due to a byproduct of the ABA–NBA merger. The ABA's last champions, the New York Nets, were facing having to pay almost $5 million to the Knicks for \"invading\" the New York area on top of the $3.2 million expansion fee for joining the NBA. When the Sixers offered to buy the contract of the Nets' franchise player, Julius Erving, for $3 million—roughly the cost of NBA membership—the Nets had little choice but to accept. A few months before that trade, Kosloff had sold the Sixers to local philanthropist Fitz Eugene Dixon Jr., grandson of George Dunton Widener and heir to the Widener fortune. Led by Erving, the 76ers began an exciting ride for the fans of Philadelphia, beating their long-time rival from Boston in a seven-game playoff series to advance to the Eastern Conference Finals. There, they defeated the Houston Rockets, led by future 76er Moses Malone, in six games to advance to the NBA Finals. In the Finals, they sprinted to a 2–0 series lead over the Bill Walton-led Portland Trail Blazers—who were coached by former 76ers' coach/general manager Jack Ramsay—only to", "In 1987–88, with the team's record at 20–23, Guokas was fired and replaced by assistant coach Jim Lynam. Lynam finished the season 16–23, to bring Philadelphia's overall mark to 36–46. For the first time since the 1974–75 season, the Sixers failed to reach the playoffs. Philadelphia selected Charles Smith with its first pick (third overall) in the 1988 NBA draft, then traded his rights to the Los Angeles Clippers for their first pick (sixth overall), and Hersey Hawkins. In five seasons with the 76ers, Hawkins would average 19 points per game, and was the team's all-time leader in three-point field goals attempted and made when he", "Lynam relinquished his head coaching position to become general manager following the 1991–92 season, and hired Doug Moe to fill the vacancy. Moe's tenure lasted just 56 games, with the Sixers posting a 19–37 record. Popular former player and longtime assistant coach Fred Carter succeeded Moe as head coach in March 1993, but could only manage a 32–76 record at the helm. Following the 1993–94 season, the 76ers hired John Lucas in the dual role of head coach and general manager. The enthusiastic Lucas had been successful as a head coach for the San Antonio Spurs, and Philadelphia hoped he could breathe new life into the 76ers. It proved disastrous, as the team went 42–122 in its two seasons under Lucas. The acquisition of unproductive free agents such as Scott Williams and Charles Shackleford, players at the end of their careers such as LaSalle Thompson, Orlando Woolridge, and Scott Skiles along with stunningly unwise high draft picks such as Shawn", "With new ownership, Iverson in place, and the 76ers moving into the CoreStates Center, things seemed to finally be heading in a positive direction. Croce fired Lucas as both coach and general manager. Johnny Davis was named head coach, while Brad Greenberg took over as general manager. Iverson was named Rookie of the Year, but Philadelphia's overall improvement was minimal, as they finished with a 22–60 record. Changes had to be made, and after the 1996–97 season, Davis and Greenberg were both fired and the unveiling of a new 76ers team logo and jerseys marked a new era. To replace Davis, Larry Brown was hired as head coach. Known for a defense-first approach and transforming unsuccessful teams into winners by \"playing the right way\", Brown faced perhaps his toughest coaching challenge. He often clashed with Iverson, but the 76ers improved to 31 wins in 1997–98. Early in the 1997–98 season, the Sixers traded Jerry Stackhouse, who had been the third overall pick in the 1995 NBA draft, to the Detroit Pistons. In exchange, Philadelphia received Aaron McKie and", "On December 19, 2006, Allen Iverson, along with Ivan McFarlin, were sent to the Denver Nuggets in exchange for guard Andre Miller, forward Joe Smith, and two first-round draft picks. Then, on January 11, the 76ers' general manager Billy King announced that the Sixers and aging forward Chris Webber had agreed to a buyout of the remainder of his contract. The Sixers would pay Webber $36 million over the next 11⁄2 seasons, which is $7 million less than he would have been paid to play. After the buyout, the Sixers waived Webber, making him a free agent. Webber signed with the Detroit Pistons shortly thereafter. The moves allowed the 76ers to make Iguodala the unquestioned leader of the team, and evaluate whether they saw him as a franchise player. The Sixers had started the year 3–0, then went 5–10 before Iverson left the team. They would stumble out to an eight-game losing streak with Iverson deactivated; however, they were able to finish the season on a high note, going 30–29 for the remainder of the season. They finished the year 35–47. The Sixers drafted Georgia Tech small forward Thaddeus Young with the 12th pick, traded with the Miami Heat for 21st pick Colorado State power forward Jason Smith, traded with the Portland Trail Blazers for 42nd pick Vanderbilt guard-forward Derrick Byars, and then finally traded with the Utah Jazz for Providence power forward Herbert Hill. On December 4, 2007, the Sixers fired King and replaced him with Nets' general manager Ed Stefanski. With Iguodala, the Sixers clinched a playoff berth with a win over the Atlanta Hawks on April 4, 2008. It was their first postseason appearance since 2005, as well as the first in the post-Iverson era. However, they were eliminated by the Pistons in six games, with Detroit winning the series 4–2. Even with this elimination, many fans considered this to be a successful season, considering that the Sixers were 12 games under.500 in early February and went on to", "Following the 2012–13 season, the Sixers, led by Hinkie, chose to shift in the direction of rebuilding the franchise. In an interview, Sixers guard Tony Wroten would refer to the major rebuilding culture surrounding Philadelphia as \"The Process\". The first move of this new plan was executed during the 2013 draft, when the Sixers agreed in principle to trade Jrue Holiday and the 42nd pick in the draft, Pierre Jackson, to the New Orleans Pelicans for Nerlens Noel and the Pelicans' 2014 first-round pick. The trade was later made official on July 12. The trade was seen by some as somewhat surprising, as Holiday had been the team's marquee player and was coming off a season that saw him make his first NBA All-Star Game. Additionally, Noel was recovering from an anterior cruciate ligament injury suffered while in college, strongly indicating that he would not be able to make an immediate impact for the Sixers as he would be inactive to start the season. The Sixers used the 11th pick in the draft to select Michael Carter-Williams as Holiday's replacement as the starting point guard. The Sixers chose Arsalan Kazemi with the 54th overall pick, making Kazemi the first Iranian chosen in the NBA draft. Following the Holiday trade, many of the team's returning players were either waived or left the team in free agency, most notably Andrew Bynum; of the 15 players on the team's roster during their final game of the 2012–13 season, only six remained with the team by", "While team colors have changed somewhat over the years, with emphasis alternating between blue, white, red, and even black and gold, the 76ers have always been closely identified with the logo featuring the number 76 with 13 stars arranged in a circle above the number 7 to represent the original 13 American colonies. The logo portrays the patriotic nature of the United States, prominently featuring the colors red, blue and white, and Philadelphia's reputation as the birthplace of American independence. The logo was used from 1963 to 1977, after which it was slightly modified to feature the full team nickname and a basketball adorning the logo. This iteration was used from 1977 to 1997. The 76ers also had an alternate logo with the '76' wordmark inside the silhouette of the Liberty Bell with 'Philadelphia' on top. Uniforms during this era varied between blue and red. During much of the 1960s, the abbreviated city name 'PHILA' adorned the uniforms, ranging from fancy and contemporary two-tone script to classic block lettering, the latter of which was used during their 1967 title run. Blue was the primary road color for most of the 1960s (except the 1965–66 season), but for the 1968–69 season, red became the primary away color, with the away uniform featuring 'PHILA' and the block numbers in white with blue trim (later switching color designations in the 1970–71 season). Player names were also added as part of the NBA mandate. A uniquely designed home uniform was used in the second half of the 1970–71 season, featuring a script 'Seventy 76ers' wordmark in red with blue trim, the only time the full team name was used on the uniform. From 1971 to 1978 they returned to blue as the primary road color, with the more popular moniker 'SIXERS' written in Art Deco lettering. With various adjustments from block lettering to Bookman Old Style font, this version with stars in side stripes stayed until 1978. The uniforms from 1978 to 1991 were a classic nod to their 1967 uniforms, except that the road color was red and the home lettering was blue with red trim. The name 'SIXERS' was featured in block lettering. This uniform was used in their 1983 title run. From 1991 to 1994, the Sixers followed other teams in designing more graphic-laden uniforms by featuring a streaking blue splash with tricolored stars heading up to the word 'SIXERS' in Helvetica and in either red (home) or white (away). In addition, the word 'PHILADELPHIA' was added atop the team name. From 1994 to 1997, the Sixers return to a more basic uniform design, featuring a more ornate lettering. The team name was in red (home) and white (away), with numbers in blue. In the 1997–98 season, the Sixers drastically changed their logo and colors in an effort to appeal to a more", "", "On February 10, 2015, Franklin the Dog was introduced as the new Philadelphia 76ers mascot to 400 fans and media at The Franklin Institute.", "", "The rivalry between the 76ers and Boston Celtics is the earliest dated rivalry in the NBA. The two teams have the most meetings in the NBA Playoffs, playing each other in nineteen series, of which the Celtics have won twelve. It is considered to be the second-greatest rivalry in the NBA, next to the Celtics–Lakers rivalry. The rivalry first peaked when Wilt Chamberlain and Bill Russell of the Celtics played each other from 1965 to 1968. The 1966–67 Sixers, voted the best team in league history during the NBA's 35th anniversary, set a then-record by winning 68 games in the 81-game season (a record since broken by the Lakers, Bulls and Warriors) and ending Boston's eight-year title reign which led to the infamous \"Boston's Dead!\" chants. The 76ers went through a rebuilding period through the early 1970s, and came back", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the 76ers. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "The 76ers' training facility and headquarters for basketball operations are located at the Philadelphia 76ers Training Complex in Camden, New Jersey. In 2014,", "", "The 76ers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "All of the 76ers' retired numbers are", "", "In September 2016, the 76ers acquired both Team Dignitas and Apex Gaming and merged them under the Dignitas brand, becoming the first North American professional sports team to own an eSports team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Season-by-season record.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Blue and orange.", "Blue, black and orange.", "The \"new\" wine and gold.", "The return to original wine and gold.", "CavFanatic uniforms.", "Nike styles.", "Cleveland Clinic Courts.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Cavs Legends.", "Wall of Honor.", "Hall of Famers.", "Individual records and accomplishments.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend.", "Media.", "Radio.", "TV.", "Mascots.", "Current.", "Past." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Cavaliers began play in the 1970–71 NBA season as an expansion team. They set losing records in each of their first five seasons before winning their first division title in 1976. That team was led by Austin Carr, Bobby \"Bingo\" Smith, Jim Chones, Dick Snyder, Nate Thurmond, and head coach Bill Fitch, and was remembered most for the \"Miracle at Richfield\", in which the Cavaliers defeated the Washington Bullets 4–3 in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. They won Game 7, 87–85, on a shot by Snyder with four seconds to go. The Cavaliers moved on to the Eastern Conference Finals for the first time, but were without Chones after he broke his foot in a practice right before the series opener. As a result, the Cavaliers went on to lose 4–2 to the Boston Celtics. They made playoff appearances in the following two seasons before going on a six-year playoff hiatus. The early 1980s were marked by Ted Stepien's ownership, who had a disastrous run as owner and \"de facto\" general manager between 1980 and 1983. During Stepien's reign, the Cavaliers made a practice of trading future draft picks for marginal veteran players. His most notable deal sent a 1982 first-round pick to the Los Angeles Lakers in exchange for Dan Ford and the 22nd overall pick in 1980. As a result of Stepien's dealings, the NBA introduced the \"Stepien Rule\", which prohibits teams from trading first-round draft picks in successive seasons. The Cavaliers went 66–180, dropped to the bottom of the league in attendance and lost $15 million during Stepien's three years as the owner. The Cavs went through six coaches during that span, including four during the 1981–82 season. The team finished 15–67, and between March and November 1982, the team had a 24-game losing streak, which at the time, was the NBA's longest losing streak. George and Gordon Gund purchased the Cavaliers from Stepien in 1983. The Cavaliers made the playoffs ten times between 1984–85 and 1997–98. In 1988–89, the Cavaliers had their best season to date, finishing the regular season with 57–25 record behind the likes of Brad Daugherty, Mark Price, Ron Harper and Larry Nance, and head coach Lenny Wilkens. They had their second 57-win season in 1991–92 and reached the Eastern Conference Finals that year. However, between 1998–99 and 2004–05, the Cavaliers failed to make a playoff appearance. The 2002–03 season saw the Cavaliers finish 17–65, tied for the worst record in the NBA. The Cavaliers' luck changed as they landed the number 1 pick in the 2003 NBA draft. The team selected heralded forward and future NBA MVP LeBron James, a native of nearby Akron who had already risen to national stardom at St. Vincent-St. Mary High School. In 2005, the team would be sold to businessman Dan Gilbert. That year, the team also hired head coach Mike Brown and general manager Danny Ferry. The Cavaliers built a team around James and Žydrūnas Ilgauskas by adding players including Drew Gooden, Larry Hughes, and Anderson Varajao. Under this new leadership, the Cavaliers made five straight playoffs from 2006 to 2010, advancing to at least the second round each time. The 2006–07 Cavaliers advanced to the franchise's first NBA Finals, but were swept by the more experienced San Antonio Spurs. The 2008–09 Cavaliers won a franchise record 66 games, including a franchise-best 39–2 record at home, but lost the Eastern Conference Finals to the Orlando Magic. Despite the addition of four-time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal, the 2009–10 Cavaliers were unable to return to the Eastern Conference Finals after losing to the Boston Celtics in the second round. With the Cavaliers out of the playoffs, the focus turned to James' impending free agency. On July 8, 2010, James announced in a nationally televised one-hour special titled \"The Decision\" that he would be signing with the Miami Heat. The repercussions of this announcement left many in the city of Cleveland infuriated and feeling betrayed. After a 19–win season in 2010–11 (the 42-win difference being the biggest single-season drop in NBA history), the Cavaliers began a rebuild around Kyrie Irving, who they selected first overall in the 2011 NBA Draft. In 2014, James returned to the Cavaliers after four seasons in Miami. While the Heat had a 224–88 record during James' four-year tenure and won NBA titles in 2012 and 2013, the Cavaliers went 97–215 and missed the playoffs each season. The Cavaliers made several moves to build a championship-contender around James, most notably acquiring power forward Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, which created what many fans and media referred to a \"Big Three\" with James, Love, and Irving. The Lebron-led Cavaliers made four consecutive finals appearances in from 2015 to 2018, all against the Golden State Warriors, winning in 2016. The 2016 NBA Championship marked the Cavaliers' first title in franchise history, as they became the first team to come back from a 3–1 deficit to win the Finals. It was also Cleveland's first championship in major professional sports since the 1964 Browns, signaling the end of the so-called Cleveland sports curse. The Cavaliers' roster went through many changes in the 2017–18 season, most notably the trade of Irving to the Boston Celtics in exchange for Isaiah Thomas and other assets. Thomas was later traded to the Los Angeles Lakers as part of a trade deadline overhaul that saw the Cavaliers add several young players. The following offseason, James declined his player option to rejoin the team, instead signing with the Lakers. In the 2018–19 season the team compiled a record of 19–63, finishing 14th in the Eastern Conference and missed the playoffs.", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Cavaliers. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Cleveland Cavaliers seasons.\" \"Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, % = Winning Percentage\";", "When the Cleveland Cavaliers debuted in the NBA in 1970, the team's original jersey colors were wine and gold. The first jerseys featured the feathered treatment of the letter C in Cavaliers. In 1974, they changed into the classic block lettering and checkerboard pattern that was synonymous to the 'Miracle of Richfield' teams of 1976. In 1980, the gold shade was changed from yellowish to metallic, and the uniforms removed the checkerboard pattern and placed the stripes above Cleveland and below the uniform number, the only time the city name was featured in both home and away jerseys. The original logo was that of swashbuckling cavalier looking right with a sword pointing, surrounded by the team name and a basketball. A modernized swashbuckling cavalier logo was later used by the Cavaliers' NBA Development League affiliates, the Canton Charge. The gold checkerboard uniforms were used as throwbacks in the 2004–05 season to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the 'Miracle of Richfield' team, while the gold 'Feathered C' uniforms were used again in the 2008–09 season, as a buildup to the then-upcoming 40th season of the Cavaliers. The 'Miracle of Richfield' gold uniforms were used again in the 2015–16 season on special \"Hardwood Classic\" nights to commemorate the Miracle of Richfield teams's 40th anniversary celebration.", "In the 1983–84 season, the colors were changed to burnt orange, blue and white. The first Cavaliers uniform under the new scheme featured the Cavaliers logo (with a V in the shape of a hoop and circle above as basketball) in an arched pattern and the player name sewn onto the back shoulder as a patch, with orange being the primary color in both the away and home uniforms. However, in the 1987–88 season, orange was relegated as a secondary color, and blue was used instead as the primary for the away and home uniforms; minor changes in the 1989–90 season include the city name on the blue away uniforms. The drop shadows were also removed. The orange version of the uniform was used again in the 2006–07 and 2016–17 seasons, as part of the respective 20th and 30th anniversaries of the 1986–87 team. The blue versions were worn in the 2009–10 season as part of the franchise's 40th anniversary and as a tribute to the 1988–89 team.", "Coinciding with the move to Gund Arena in the 1994–95 season, the Cavaliers changed logos and uniforms, adding black in addition to the already existing blue, orange and white colors. The uniforms feature a blue splash in the abdomen area in front. From 1994 to 1997 the word 'CAVS' on the home uniforms was orange with black line, while the numbers are in black with white line, while 'CLEVELAND' on the road uniforms was also orange with black lines, while the numbers are in white with a black line. From 1997 to 1999 the numbers and lettering were slightly tweaked. The word 'CAVS' and the numbers on the home uniforms are in black with orange lines, while the word 'CLEVELAND' and the numbers on the road uniforms are in white with orange lines. In the latter iteration, the blue splash was moved from the right leg to the left leg, surrounding 'CLEVELAND' on the home uniforms and 'CAVS' on the road uniforms, with a minor change in striping. In the 1999–2000 season, the Cavaliers opted to go for a cleaner look, eliminating the splash and adding an orange and blue line that runs through the shorts. The home jerseys feature the team nickname and the uniform numbers are in blue with black lines, while on the away jerseys, they feature the city name and the uniform numbers in white with blue lines. They were used until the 2002–03 season. The logo used in this period was of a basketball on its way down the net, surrounded by a black square and the word 'CAVS' in blue with black line below. The 1994–96 black uniforms will be revived for the 2019–20 season as part of the Cavaliers' 50th season as well as the 25th anniversary of the move to Gund Arena (now Rocket Mortgage Fieldhouse).", "The Cavaliers switched to a modified version of the team's classic wine and gold scheme in the 2003–04 season (metallic gold and crimson shade of wine), with navy blue added to the color scheme. The home uniform was white, with the word \"Cavaliers\" in wine lettering with gold trim on the front, the player's name in wine lettering with gold trim on the back, the player's numbers in navy blue, and wine and gold trim on the sides. The team's standard road uniform was wine-colored, with the word \"Cleveland\", the player's name, and the player's numbers all in white lettering with gold trim, as well as white and gold trim on the sides.The team's third/alternate uniform was navy blue with the word \"Cleveland\", the player's name, and the player's numbers all in white lettering with gold trim, as well as a wine, gold, and navy blue checkerboard trim. The checkerboard trim was a tribute to the original Cavaliers uniforms from the 1970s. The logo used was a gold sword piercing to the words 'Cleveland Cavaliers' in white and navy trim, with a wine basketball surrounding it.", "The Cavaliers debuted new uniforms before the start of the 2010–11 NBA season, to coincide with the team returning to the original shades of wine and gold used from 1970 to 1983. The home uniform is white with a wine and gold horizontal stripe trim on the collar, sleeves, waistband, and pant legs, \"Cavaliers\" (in block style lettering) in wine on the front of the jersey, with wine lettering for the name and number, and white shoes and socks. The road uniform is wine colored with the same stripe trim, \"Cleveland\" in gold on the front of the jersey, and gold lettering on the name and number, with black shoes and socks. An alternate third uniform was added for the 2012–13 season, which is gold with \"CAVS\" in wine on the front of the jersey, wine lettering on the name and number, white socks and shoes, and the same stripe trim as the other uniforms. All uniforms have the team motto \"All For One, One for All\" stitched on the inside of the collar, and the secondary \"Sword C\" logo on the side of the pant legs. The logo used is the same piercing sword logo, updated to the classic wine and gold scheme. For the 2014–15 season, a second alternate uniform (and fourth uniform overall) was added, which is navy blue (a callback to the 1987–94 style) with \"CAVS\" and the player's number in wine with gold trim, the player's name on the back of the jersey in gold, and the \"Sword C\" logo on the side of the pant legs. Two alternate jerseys were unveiled prior to the start of the 2015–16 season. The second wine uniform is similar to their regular road threads, except that it features the arched mid-1980s Cavs logo and white numerals in gold trim. A black sleeved uniform features the wine 'C' logo in front, and was famously worn in the title-clinching Game 7 of the 2016 NBA Finals. Their new logos for the 2017–18 season newly include the color black to commemorate the victory.", "From the 2008–09 to the 2011–12 seasons, the Cavaliers wore special \"mash-up\" uniforms (combining the style from one era with the color scheme of another) on select \"Cavs Fanatic\" Nights.", "Beginning in the 2017–18 season, all NBA teams switched to Nike-designed white \"Association\" uniforms and \"Icon\" uniforms in the respective team's primary color. For the Cavs, their Icon uniforms are wine colored with \"Cleveland\" across the front and the player's name in gold lettering with black numerals both in the front and in the back. The white Association uniforms have \"Cavs\" across the front, with wine color letters and numbers both front and back. All teams have the choice of which uniform to wear for any home game. Also included is a small Goodyear wingfoot logo on the Cavs uniforms, as part of a sponsorship deal with the team. Nike also provides a third, alternate uniform called the \"Statement\" uniform. The Cavaliers' Statement uniform is black with dark gray pinstripes, a wine colored \"C\" trimmed in gold on the front, names in gold letters on the back, wine colored/gold trimmed numbers on the front and back, and gold colored Nike and Goodyear logos on the front. The black uniform is a nod to the team's former black sleeved jerseys that they wore when they won Game 7 in the 2016 Finals. Nike also provides a fourth uniform known as the \"City Edition\" which honors the city of Cleveland as well as the state of Ohio: To commemorate the Cavs' 50th anniversary season in 2019–2020, Nike has provided a fifth uniform known as the \"Classic Edition\", which is a modified version of the team's mid 1990s era black, blue, and orange uniforms.", "Cleveland Clinic Courts, the team's practice facility and team headquarters, is located in suburban Independence. The building opened in 2007 and includes two full-size basketball courts, weight room, team room, offices, medical facilities, and kitchen and dining facilities. Naming rights are held by the Cleveland Clinic, which is the team's official healthcare partner. Prior to the opening of Cleveland Clinic Courts, the team used the practice court located on the club level of Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse. In honor of the Cavs winning the NBA Championship, the city of Independence renamed the section of Brecksville Road leading to the team's practice facility \"Cavaliers Way\" in November 2016.", "", "The Cavaliers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed by the team that drafted him, is allowed to sign with any non-NBA teams. In this case, the team retains the player's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player's contract with the non-NBA team ends. This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams.", "The following is a list of past Cavaliers players and other personnel who have been honored as \"Cavs Legends\" either by retiring their number or having commemorative banners placed in the rafters at Rocket Mortgage FieldHouse. Notes:", "In 2019, the Cavaliers introduced the Wall of Honor, which honors former players and other personnel, and is located in the newly added North Atrium of the renovated Rocket Mortage FieldHouse. The inaugural class of Wall of Honor inductees includes all personnel (players, coaches, executives, etc.) who have had their number retired or were honored with similar banners in the rafters, as well as the following:", "The following is a list of players and other personnel who have spent at least part of their careers with the Cavaliers that have been inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Notes:", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team. Points scored (regular season – as of the end of the 2017–18 season) Other statistics (regular season) (as of July 20, 2018)", "NBA Most Valuable Player NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Coach of the Year NBA Executive of the Year NBA Sportsmanship Award J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award NBA Finals Most Valuable Player NBA All-Rookie First Team NBA All-Rookie Second Team All-NBA First Team All-NBA Second Team All-NBA Third Team NBA All-Defensive First Team NBA All-Defensive Second Team", "NBA All-Star Game <nowiki>*</nowiki> Starter NBA All-Star Game head coaches NBA All-Star Game MVP Three-point Shootout Slam Dunk Contest Skills Challenge Rookie/Rising Stars Challenge Rookie/Rising Stars Challenge MVP Two Ball Contest", "", "WTAM (1100 AM) and WMMS (100.7 FM) currently serve as the flagship stations for the Cleveland Cavaliers Radio Network. Tim Alcorn (play by play) and former Cavaliers star Jim Chones (analyst) are the radio team, with WTAM morning co-host/sports director Mike Snyder hosting the pregame/halftime/postgame shows. Either Chones (home games) or former Ohio State standout and NBA player Brad Sellers (road games) will join Snyder for the postgame show. WLFM-LP (87.7 FM) serves as the Spanish-language radio home of the Cavaliers, with the 2014–15 season marking the first time the Cavaliers have been broadcast in a second language. Rafael Hernández Brito serves as the Spanish language play-by-play announcer, as well as hosting pregame and postgame shows.", "The Cavaliers air on Fox Sports Ohio, with select games simulcast on WUAB (TV channel 43). The broadcast team includes play by play announcer John Michael, former Cavalier Austin Carr as analyst, and sideline reporter Angel Gray, with former Cavalier Brad Daugherty serving as a second analyst during select home telecasts. Jeff Phelps and former Cavalier Campy Russell host the pregame, halftime, and postgame shows.", "", "The Cavaliers have two official mascots, Moondog and Sir C.C. The character has a unique connection not just to the team, but to the city and surrounding area. Cleveland is known worldwide as the rock and roll city, due to Cleveland radio disc jockey Alan Freed, who popularized the phrase \"rock and roll\", breaking new ground and sparking a music explosion. Freed called himself the \"Moondog\", and his listeners were \"Moondoggers\". When the Cavaliers looked to create a new mascot which represents the city, Moondog was a natural selection. Moondog was an NBA All-Star selection in 2003 and 2004. His first appearance was on November 5, 2003. Sir C.C., a swashbuckler character, debuted during a game on November 27, 2010.", "During the 1990s and early 2000s, the Cavs had a polar bear mascot named Whammer, who was introduced November 9, 1995. He still makes occasional appearances throughout the season at Cavaliers games." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Musical career.", "1993–95: \"Toby Keith\" and \"Boomtown\".", "1996–98: \"Blue Moon\", \"Dream Walkin\", and \"Greatest Hits Volume One\".", "1999–2002: \"How Do You Like Me Now?!\" and \"Pull My Chain\".", "2002–04: \"Unleashed\" and \"Shock'n Y'all\".", "2005–present: After DreamWorks.", "Acting career.", "Television appearances.", "Acting.", "Business ventures.", "Political beliefs.", "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue.", "Feud with the Dixie Chicks.", "Inauguration of Donald Trump.", "Personal life.", "Philanthropy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Keith was born in Clinton, Oklahoma, to Carolyn Joan (\"née\" Ross) and Hubert K. Covel, Jr. and is of English ancestry. He has a sister and a brother. The family lived in Fort Smith, Arkansas, for a few years when Keith was in grade school, but moved to Moore, Oklahoma (a suburb of Oklahoma City), when he was still young. Before the family moved to Moore, he visited his grandmother in Fort Smith during the summers. His grandmother owned Billie Garner's Supper Club in Fort Smith, where Keith became interested in the musicians who came there to play. He did odd jobs around the supper club and started getting up on the bandstand to play with the band. He got his first guitar at the age of eight. After the family moved to Moore, Keith attended Highland West Junior High and Moore High School, where he played defensive end on the football team. Keith graduated from Moore High School and worked as a derrick hand in the oil fields. He worked his way up to become an operation manager. When Keith was 20, he and his friends Scott Webb, Keith Cory, David \"Yogi\" Vowell and Danny Smith, with a few others, formed the Easy Money Band, which played at local bars as he continued to work in the oil industry. At times, he would have to leave in the middle of a concert if he was paged to work in the oil field. In 1982, the oil industry in Oklahoma began a rapid decline and Keith soon found himself unemployed. He fell back on his football training and played defensive end with the semi-pro Oklahoma City Drillers while continuing to perform with his band. (The Drillers were an unofficial farm club of the United States Football League's Oklahoma Outlaws; Keith tried out for the Outlaws but did not make the team.) He then returned to focus once again on music. His family and friends were doubtful he would succeed, but, in 1984, Easy Money (various other band members included Mike Barnes, T.A. Brauer, and David Saylors) began playing the honky-tonk circuit in Oklahoma and Texas.", "In the early 1990s, Keith went to Nashville, Tennessee, where he hung out and busked on Music Row and at a place called Houndogs. He distributed copies of a demo tape the band had made to the many record companies in the city. There was no interest by any of the record labels, and Keith returned home feeling depressed. He had promised himself and God to have a recording contract by the time he was 30 years old or give up on music as a career. A flight attendant and fan of his gave a copy of Keith's demo tape to Harold Shedd, a Mercury Records executive, while he was traveling on a flight she was working. Shedd enjoyed what he heard, went to see Keith perform live and then signed him to a recording contract with Mercury.", "Keith's debut single, \"Should've Been a Cowboy\", went to number one on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot Country Songs chart in 1993, and it reached number 93 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. This song led off his self-titled debut album. By the end of the decade, \"Should've Been a Cowboy\" received more than three million spins at radio, thus making it the most-played country song of the 1990s. Certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of one million copies, the album produced three more Top 5 hits on the country charts with \"He Ain't Worth Missing\" (at #5), \"A Little Less Talk and a Lot More Action\" (originally the B-side of \"Should've Been a Cowboy\") and \"Wish I Didn't Know Now\" (both at #2). Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic wrote of the album, \"It is given a production that's a bit too big, clean, glossy and cavernous for Keith's good — it fits the outsized sound of early-'90s radio, but not his outsized talent — but beneath that sheen the songs are very strong.\" He also thought that it showed the signs of the style that Keith would develop on subsequent albums The album's success led to Keith touring with then-labelmates Shania Twain and John Brannen. Keith then signed with Polydor Records Nashville and released his second album, \"Boomtown\", in September 1994. Also certified platinum, this album was led off by the number one single \"Who's That Man\". After it, \"Upstairs Downtown\" and \"You Ain't Much Fun\" both made the Top 10, while \"Big Ol' Truck\" peaked at number 15. By late-1995, he released his first Christmas album, \"Christmas to Christmas\", via Mercury. Composed entirely of original songs, the song produced one chart entry in \"Santa I'm Right Here\", which reached as high as number 50 based on Christmas airplay.", "Keith then signed with the short-lived Nashville division of A&M Records to release his third album \"Blue Moon\" in April 1996. That album received a platinum certification and produced three singles. Its first single, \"Does That Blue Moon Ever Shine on You\", which Keith wrote in 1987, peaked at number 2. Following it were \"A Woman's Touch\" at number 6, and \"Me Too\", which became his third number one hit in March 1997. Keith also appeared on The Beach Boys' now out-of-print 1996 album \"Stars and Stripes Vol. 1\" performing a cover of their 1963 hit \"Be True to Your School\" with the Beach Boys themselves providing the harmonies and backing vocals. Following a corporate merger, Keith returned to Mercury in 1997. His fourth studio album, \"Dream Walkin'\", was also his first produced by James Stroud, who would also serve as Keith's co-producer until 2005. It produced two consecutive number 2 hits with \"We Were in Love\" and a cover of Sting's 1996 single \"I'm So Happy I Can't Stop Crying\". Sting also sang duet vocals and played bass guitar on it, and the two also performed the song at the 1997 Country Music Association awards. After this song, the album's title track reached number 5, while \"Double Wide Paradise\" peaked at number 40. Keith's last Mercury release was \"Greatest Hits Volume One\" in October 1998. The album included twelve of his prior singles and two new songs: the country rap \"Getcha Some\" and \"If a Man Answers\". Both were released as singles, with \"Getcha Some\" reaching the Top 20, but \"If a Man Answers\" became his first single to miss the Top 40. According to Keith, these two songs were originally to be put on a studio album, but Mercury executives, dissatisfied with the album that Keith had made, chose to put those two songs on a greatest hits package, and asked him to \"go work on another album\". After he recorded two more songs which the label also rejected, he asked to terminate his contract with the label. After exiting Mercury, Keith co-wrote Shane Minor's debut single \"Slave to the Habit\" with Chuck Cannon and Kostas.", "In 1999, Keith moved to DreamWorks Records' Nashville division, of which Stroud served as president. His first release for the label was \"When Love Fades\", which also failed to make Top 40. Upon seeing the single's poor performance, Keith requested that it be withdrawn and replaced with \"How Do You Like Me Now?!\", a song that he wrote with Chuck Cannon, and which had previously been turned down by Mercury. It also served as the title track to his first DreamWorks album, \"How Do You Like Me Now?!\" The song spent five weeks at number 1 on the country charts, and became his first top 40 pop hit, with a number 31 peak on the Hot 100. It was also the top country song of 2000 according to the Billboard Year-End chart. The album, which was certified platinum, produced a Top 5 hit in \"Country Comes to Town\" and another number 1 in \"You Shouldn't Kiss Me Like This\". It was also his first album to feature songs co-written by Scotty Emerick, who would be a frequent collaborator of Keith's for the next several albums. Steve Huey wrote that this album \"had a rough, brash attitude that helped give Keith a stronger identity as a performer.\" In 2001, Keith won the Academy of Country Music's Top Male Vocalist and Album of the Year awards. Following this album was \"Pull My Chain\", released in August 2001. The album's three singles — \"I'm Just Talkin' About Tonight\", \"I Wanna Talk About Me\", and \"My List\" — all went to number 1 on the country charts, with the latter two both holding that position for five weeks. \"I Wanna Talk About Me\", written by Bobby Braddock, also displayed a country rap influence with its spoken-word lyrics. The Country Music Association named \"My List\" as Single of the Year in 2002. Of \"Pull My Chain\", Erlewine wrote that \"this is a bigger, better record than its predecessor, possessing a richer musicality and a more confident sense of humor\".", "In 2002, he released the \"Unleashed\" album which included four singles. First was \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue (The Angry American)\", which Keith wrote in 20 minutes as a response to the September 11, 2001 attacks. The song references Keith's father, a United States Army veteran who died that March in a car accident. Both this song and \"Who's Your Daddy?\" were number 1 hits, with \"Rock You Baby\" reaching number 13. The last single was \"Beer for My Horses\", a duet with Willie Nelson which six weeks at the top of the country charts. At the time, it was also Keith's highest entry on the Hot 100, at number 22. In July 2003, Keith made a guest appearance on Scotty Emerick's debut single \"I Can't Take You Anywhere\", which was previously recorded by Keith on \"Pull My Chain\". Emerick's version of the song was his only top 40 country hit, at number 27. \"Shock'n Y'all\", his eighth studio album, was released in November 2003. The album's title is a pun on the military term \"shock and awe\". It became his second album from which all singles went to number 1: \"I Love This Bar\", \"American Soldier\", and \"Whiskey Girl\". Also included on the disc were \"The Taliban Song\" and \"Weed with Willie\", two live songs recorded with Emerick. The album was followed in late 2004 by \"Greatest Hits 2\", which included three new songs: \"Stays in Mexico\", \"Go with Her\", and a cover of Inez and Charlie Foxx's \"Mockingbird\", recorded as a duet with his daughter, Krystal Keith. \"Stays in Mexico\" was a number 3 hit on the country charts, while \"Mockingbird\" peaked at number 27. Keith's final DreamWorks album was \"Honkytonk University\" in early 2005. Lead-off single \"Honkytonk U\" peaked at number 8, followed by \"As Good as I Once Was\", which spent six weeks at number 1, and \"Big Blue Note\" at number 5. After the release of the latter, DreamWorks Records ceased operations.", "On August 31, 2005, Keith founded a new label, Show Dog Nashville. Its first release was his 2006 album \"White Trash with Money\", followed by the soundtrack to \"Broken Bridges\". He also abandoned Stroud as co-producer in favor of Cannon's wife, Lari White. The album included three singles: \"Get Drunk and Be Somebody\", \"A Little Too Late\", and \"Crash Here Tonight\". \"Big Dog Daddy\" followed in 2007, with Keith serving as sole producer. Its singles were \"High Maintenance Woman\", \"Love Me If You Can\", and \"Get My Drink On\". \"Love Me If You Can\" became Keith's first number 1 hit since \"As Good as I Once Was\" more than two years prior. A two-disc Christmas album, \"A Classic Christmas\", followed later in 2007. In 2008, Keith completed his Biggest and Baddest Tour. On May 6, 2008, he released \"35 Biggest Hits\", a two-disc compilation featuring most of his singles to date, as well as the new song \"She's a Hottie\", which peaked at number 13. Keith released \"She Never Cried in Front of Me\", which went to number 1 in 2008. Its corresponding album, \"That Don't Make Me a Bad Guy\", followed on October 28, 2008. It was followed by \"God Love Her\", also a number 1 hit, and \"Lost You Anyway\". \"American Ride\", in 2009, produced another number 1 in its title track. It was followed by the Top 10 hit \"Cryin' for Me (Wayman's Song)\", a tribute to basketball player and jazz bassist Wayman Tisdale, a friend of Keith's who died in May 2009. The album's final single was \"Every Dog Has Its Day\". \"Bullets in the Gun\" was released on October 5, 2010. This was Keith's first album not to produce a top 10 hit, with \"Trailerhood\" reaching number 19, followed by the title track and \"Somewhere Else\" both at number 12. Keith produced the album with session guitarist Kenny Greenberg and recording engineer Mills Logan. On October 23, 2011, \"Clancy's Tavern\" was released. The album included the single \"Made in America\", written by Keith along with Bobby Pinson and Scott Reeves, which went to number 1. Following it was \"Red Solo Cup\", which had previously been made into a music video which became popular. Upon release as a single, \"Red Solo Cup\" became Keith's best-peaking crossover, reaching number 15 on the Hot 100. The album's final single was \"Beers Ago\" at number 6 in 2012. In December 2011, Keith was named \"Artist of the Decade\" by the American Country Awards. Keith's sixteenth album, \"Hope on the Rocks\", was released in late 2012. It produced only two singles, both of which are top 20 hits: \"I Like Girls That Drink Beer\" reached at number 17 and the title track peaked at number 18. In mid-2013, he entered the charts with \"Drinks After Work\", the first single from his seventeenth album, also titled \"Drinks After Work\". The album's second single is \"Shut Up and Hold On\". In October 2014, Keith released \"Drunk Americans\", the lead single from his eighteenth studio album, \"35 MPH Town\". In April 2015, Keith released \"35 MPH Town\", the album's title track and second single. In 2015, Keith was also inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. In September 2017, Keith released the compilation album, \"The Bus Songs\". The album contains twelve songs: two new, five re-recorded, and five previously released songs. The new songs on the album are \"Shitty Golfer\" and \"Wacky Tobaccy\". In the U.S. \"The Bus Songs\" topped the \"Billboard\" Comedy Albums chart for 11 weeks. It also reached number 6 on the Top Country Albums chart and 38 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart. On June 25, 2019, \"The New York Times Magazine\" listed Toby Keith among hundreds of artists whose material was reportedly destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire.", "", "Keith performed on a series of television advertisements for Telecom USA for that company's discount long distance telephone service 10-10-220. He also starred in Ford commercials, singing original songs such as \"Ford Truck Man\" and \"Field Trip (Look Again)\" while driving Ford trucks. Keith made an appearance at the first Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (then NWA-TNA) weekly pay-per-view on June 19, 2002, where his playing of \"Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue\" was interrupted by Jeff Jarrett. He would later enter the Gauntlet for the Gold main event, suplexing Jarrett and eliminating him from the match. A short video of the suplex is seen in the clip package when he goes onstage. He appeared the next week, on June 26, and helped Scott Hall defeat Jarrett in singles action. In 2009, Keith participated in the Comedy Central Roast of Larry the Cable Guy, which aired on March 14, 2009. Keith received the \"Colbert Bump\" when he appeared on Comedy Central's \"The Colbert Report\". He holds the distinction of being the only musical artist to have received a five star rating from Stephen Colbert on iTunes. Keith furthered this connection when he appeared in as a hunter. Keith also made an appearance as a musical guest on the October 27, 2011 episode of the Colbert Report. On October 29, 2011, Keith appeared on Fox Channel's \"Huckabee\" with former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee. He played \"Bullets in the Gun\" and he joined with \"Huckabee\"s house band to play a song at the end of the show. In December 2018, Keith will appear as a guest on \"Darci Lynne: My Hometown Christmas\".", "In the Autumn of 2005, he filmed \"Broken Bridges\", written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld, and directed by Steven Goldmann. This feature film from Paramount/CMT Films was released on September 8, 2006. In this contemporary story set in small-town Tennessee, Keith plays Bo Price, a washed-up country musician. The movie also stars Kelly Preston, Burt Reynolds, Tess Harper, and Lindsey Haun. Keith wrote and starred in the 2008 movie \"Beer for My Horses\", which is based on the 2003 hit song of the same name recorded by Keith and Willie Nelson. He was also set to star in the film \"Bloodworth\", but later dropped out.", "In 2005, Keith opened Toby Keith's I Love This Bar & Grill in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, as well as Syracuse, New York and Tulsa, Oklahoma, and now also has restaurants in Thackerville, Oklahoma; Auburn Hills, Michigan; Kansas City; Las Vegas; Mesa, Arizona; Peoria, Arizona; St. Louis Park, Minnesota; Foxborough, Massachusetts; Cincinnati, Ohio; Newport News, Virginia; and Denver, Colorado. Keith does not actually own the new restaurants; the new restaurant is the first in a franchise under Scottsdale, Arizona-based Capri Restaurant Group Enterprises LLC, which purchased the master license agreement to build more Toby Keith restaurants nationwide. Capri Restaurant Group is owned by Frank Capri, who opened the restaurant in Mesa in the shopping center known as Mesa Riverview and is planning on opening multiple locations across the country. In 2009, Capri Restaurant Group announced that it will open another \"I Love this Bar & Grill\" location in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania's South Side Works shopping and entertainment district. In 2009, Keith also established a line of clothing, TK Steelman. February 2010 marked the opening of the Toby Keith's I Love This Bar & Grill in the Winstar World Casino, exit 1 on Interstate 35 in Oklahoma. Other locations opened in 2010 by the Capri Restaurant Group included those in Great Lakes Crossing in Auburn Hills, Michigan and in the Shops at West End in St. Louis Park, Minnesota. Both of which closed in 2015. In 2011, Keith introduced a new drink named “Wild Shot\". At first it was only available in Mexico, but now is sold and served in America. It is a featured drink in his restaurant chain, I Love this Bar and Grill. Keith's music career and his various other business ventures have made him one of the wealthiest celebrities in the United States. The July 15. 2013, edition of Forbes magazine features Keith on the cover with the caption \"Country Music's $500 million man\". The article titled \"Cowboy Capitalist\" by Zack O'Malley Greenburg also contains information regarding Keith's earnings as a musician over the course of his career, such as earning $65 million in the past 12 months, which surpasses the earnings of even more well known musicians such as Jay-Z and Beyoncé and that he hasn't earned less than $48 million a year over the past 5 years. Keith has written at least one #1 country single over the past 20 years and the partnership between his own label, Show Dog-Universal, and Big Machine Records, which Keith also helped found in 2005.", "Since 2002, Keith has made numerous trips to the Middle East to bring entertainment and encouragement to US men and women serving on or near the front lines. “My father was a soldier. He taught his kids to respect veterans,” said Keith. “It's that respect and the thank-you that we have a military that's in place and ready to defend our nation; our freedom.” In 2004, Keith called himself \"a conservative Democrat who is sometimes embarrassed for his party\". He endorsed the re-election of President George W. Bush in the 2004 presidential election and performed at a Dallas, Texas, rally on the night before the election. Keith also endorsed Democrat Dan Boren in his successful run in Oklahoma's 2nd congressional district and is good friends with former Democratic New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson. In a January 2007 interview with \"Newsday\", Keith was asked whether he supported the Iraq War. He responded with \"Never did,\" and said he favors setting a time limit on the campaign. He also said, \"I don't apologize for being patriotic... If there is something socially incorrect about being patriotic and supporting your troops, then they can kiss my ass on that, because I'm not going to budge on that at all. And that has nothing to do with politics. Politics is what's killing America.\" In April 2008, Keith said that Barack Obama \"looks like a great speaker and a great leader. And I think you can learn on your feet in there, so I don't hold people responsible for not having a whole bunch of political background in the House and Senate.\" His remarks continued, \"I think [John] McCain is a great option too.\" In August 2008, he called Obama \"the best Democratic candidate we've had since Bill Clinton\". In October 2008, Keith told CMT that he had left the Democratic Party and has re-registered as an independent. \"My party that I've been affiliated with all these years doesn't stand for anything that I stand for anymore,\" he says. \"They've lost any sensibility that they had, and they've allowed all the kooks in. So I'm going independent.\" He also told CMT that he would likely vote for the Republican ticket, partially because of his admiration for Sarah Palin. In March 2009, Keith received the Johnny \"Mike\" Spann Memorial Semper Fidelis Award during a New York ceremony held by the Marine Corps-Law Enforcement Foundation. The trophy is named for the CIA operative (and former Marine Corps captain) who was the first U.S. casualty in the war in Afghanistan. \"Spending time with our soldiers around the world is something I've always regarded as a privilege and honor,\" he said. \"I'm certainly happy to accept this award, but I won't forget for a second who's really doing the heavy lifting to keep this country safe. And that's why I'll keep going back and spending time with those good folks every chance I get.\" In April 2009, he voiced support for Obama on Afghanistan and other decisions: \"He hired one of my best friends who I think should run for president someday...Gen. James Jones as a national security adviser. He's sending troops into Afghanistan, help is on the way there. And I'm seeing some really good middle range stuff. I'm giving our commander in chief a chance before I start grabbing. So far, I'm cool with it.\"", "On March 24, 2001, Keith's father, H.K. Covel, was killed in a car accident. That event and the September 11 attacks in 2001 prompted Keith to write the song \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue\", a song about his father's patriotism and faith in the United States. At first, Keith refused to record the song and sang it only live at his concerts for military personnel. The reaction to the song, the lyrics of which express clear nationalistic and militaristic sentiments, was strong in many quarters, even to the point that the Commandant of the Marine Corps James L. Jones told Keith it was his \"duty as an American citizen\" to record the song. As the lead single from the album \"Unleashed\" (2002), \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue\" peaked at number one over the Fourth of July weekend. ABC invited Keith to sing \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue\" on a 2002 Fourth of July concert it was producing, then rescinded the invitation after host Peter Jennings heard the song and vetoed it. Jennings said the song \"probably wouldn't set the right tone\". \"I find it interesting that he's not from the U.S.,\" Keith said of Jennings, who was Canadian. \"I bet Dan Rather'd let me do it on his special.\"", "Keith had a public feud with the Dixie Chicks over the song \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue\", in 2002, as well as over comments they made about President George W. Bush on stage during a concert in London, in March 2003. The lead singer of the Dixie Chicks, Natalie Maines, publicly stated that Keith's song was \"ignorant, and it makes country music sound ignorant\". Keith responded by pointing out that Maines did not write her music and he does, and by displaying a backdrop at his concerts showing a doctored photo of Maines with Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. On May 21, 2003, Maines wore a T-shirt with the letters \"FUTK\" on the front at the Academy of Country Music Awards. While a spokesperson for the Dixie Chicks said that the acronym stood for \"Friends United in Truth and Kindness,\" many, including host Vince Gill, took it to be a shot at Keith (\"Fuck You Toby Keith\"). In an October 2004 appearance on \"Real Time with Bill Maher\", Maines finally confessed that it was indeed a shot at Keith, and that she \"thought that nobody would get it\". In August 2003, Keith's representation publicly declared he was done feuding with Maines \"because he's realized there are far more important things to concentrate on\". Keith was referring specifically to the terminal illness of a former bandmate's daughter, Allison Faith Webb. However, he continues to refuse to say Maines' name, and claims that the doctored photo was intended to express his opinion that Maines' criticism was an attempt to squelch Keith's free speech. In April 2008, a commercial spot to promote Al Gore's \"We Campaign\", involving both Keith and the Dixie Chicks, was proposed. However, the idea was eventually abandoned due to scheduling conflicts.", "On January 19, 2017, Toby Keith performed at the pre-Inaugural \"Make America Great Again! Welcome Celebration\" held at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. in celebration of the beginning of the presidency of Donald Trump. Keith thanked outgoing president Barack Obama for his service and thanked president-elect Trump at the start of the celebration. Keith then played several of his patriotic songs, including \"American Soldier\", \"Made in America\", \"Beer For My Horses\", and \"Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue\".", "Keith has an honorary degree from Villanova University, which he attended from 1979 to 1980. He planned to be a petroleum engineer. An avid University of Oklahoma sports fan, Keith is often seen at Oklahoma Sooners games and practices. He is also a fan of professional wrestling, being seen in the front row of numerous WWE shows that take place in Oklahoma, as well as performing \"Courtesy of the Red, White, & Blue (The Angry American)\" live at the first ever TNA Wrestling show on June 19, 2002. He is also a fan of the Pittsburgh Steelers football team. He is a Free Will Baptist. On March 24, 1984, Keith married Tricia Lucus. He is the father of three children—two daughters, Shelley Covel Rowland (born 1980, adopted by Keith in 1984) and Krystal \"Krystal Keith\" LaDawn Covel Sandubrae (born September 30, 1985; signed a contract with Show Dog-Universal in 2013), and one son (Stelen Keith Covel, born 1997). He also has two granddaughters (born 2008; mother is Shelley) and one grandson. On March 24, 2001 (incidentally, Keith's 17th wedding anniversary), Keith's father was killed in a car accident on Interstate 35. On December 25, 2007, the Covel family was awarded $2.8 million for the wrongful death of H.K. Covel. Elias and Pedro Rodriguez, operators of Rodriguez Transportes of Tulsa, and the Republic Western Insurance Co. were found liable as they failed to properly equip the charter bus with properly working air brakes.", "Keith supports Ally's House, a non-profit organization in Oklahoma designed to aid children with cancer. Of the charity, Keith said: Keith filmed a PSA for Little Kids Rock, a national nonprofit that works to restore and revitalize music education in disadvantaged U.S. public schools. As of 2015, Forbes estimated Keith's annual income at $53 million." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1946–1950: Early years.", "1950–1957: Arrival of Bob Cousy and Red Auerbach.", "1957–1969: The Bill Russell era.", "1970–1978: Cowens/Havlicek/White era.", "1979–1992: The Larry Bird era.", "1993–1998: Rebuilding.", "1998–2013: The Paul Pierce era.", "2013–present: Brad Stevens era.", "Rivalries.", "Los Angeles Lakers.", "Atlanta Hawks.", "Brooklyn Nets.", "Detroit Pistons.", "New York Knicks.", "Philadelphia 76ers.", "Washington Wizards.", "Season-by-season record.", "Records, retired numbers and awards.", "FIBA Hall of Fame.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise leaders.", "Coaches.", "Head coaches.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Logos.", "Uniforms.", "Primary uniforms.", "Alternate uniforms.", "Special uniforms.", "Memorial patches.", "Uniform traditions.", "Television and radio.", "Management.", "Ownership history.", "Boston Celtics Communications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Boston Celtics were formed on June 6, 1946, by Boston Garden-Arena Corporation president Walter A. Brown as a team in the Basketball Association of America, and", "The Celtics struggled during their early years, until the hiring of coach Red Auerbach. In the franchise's early days, Auerbach had no assistants, ran all the practices, did all the scouting—both of opposing teams and college draft prospects—and scheduled all road trips. One of the first great players to join the Celtics was Bob Cousy, whom Auerbach initially refused to draft out of nearby Holy Cross because he was \"too flashy.\" Cousy's contract eventually became the property of the Chicago Stags, but when that franchise went bankrupt,", "With Bill Russell, the Celtics advanced to the 1957 NBA Finals and defeated the St. Louis Hawks in seven games, the first of a record 17 championships. Russell went on to win 11 championships, making him the most decorated player in NBA history. In 1958, the Celtics again advanced to the NBA Finals, this time losing to the Hawks in 6 games. However, with the acquisition of K.C. Jones that year, the Celtics began a dynasty that would last for more than a decade. In 1959, the Celtics won the NBA Championship after sweeping the Minneapolis Lakers, the first of their record eight consecutive championships. During that time, the Celtics met the Lakers in the Finals five times, starting an intense and often bitter rivalry that has spanned generations. In 1964, the Celtics became the", "The 1970 season was a rebuilding year, as the Celtics had their first losing record since the 1949–50 season. However, with the acquisition of Paul Silas and future Hall of Famers Dave Cowens and Jo Jo White, the Celtics soon became dominant again. After losing in the Eastern Conference Finals in 1972, the Celtics regrouped and came out determined in 1973 and posted an excellent 68–14 regular season record. But the season ended in disappointment, as they were upset in seven games by the", "The relationship between Brown and Auerbach worsened with Brown's decision to acquire Bob McAdoo in February 1979 in exchange for three first-round draft picks that Auerbach had planned to use to rebuild the franchise. Again, Brown made the trade without consulting Auerbach. Auerbach almost left Boston to take a job with the New York Knicks as a result. With public support strongly behind Auerbach, Brown sold the team to Harry Mangurian in 1979 rather than run the risk of losing his famed general manager. The Celtics would struggle through the season, going 29–53. Newcomers Chris Ford, Rick Robey, Cedric Maxwell and Nate Archibald failed to reverse the team's momentum. Larry Bird debuted for the Celtics during the 1979–80 season. With a new owner in place, Auerbach made a number of moves that would bring the team back to prominence. He almost immediately traded McAdoo, a former NBA scoring champion, to the Detroit Pistons for guard M.", "The loss of Bird and aging of the team's other veteran stars forced coach Chris Ford into rebuilding mode. Hopes centered on 26-year-old Reggie Lewis, a small forward out of Boston's Northeastern University. In the first round of the 1993 playoffs Lewis fainted during Boston's four-game sweep by the Charlotte Hornets. An examination revealed heart problems, but Lewis was able to get doctors to clear him for a comeback. Before he could make it he died of a heart attack while shooting baskets at Brandeis University during the off-season. The Celtics honored his memory by retiring his number", "The following year in the 1998 NBA draft, the Celtics drafted Paul Pierce, a college star who had been expected to be drafted much earlier than the Celtics' 10th overall pick. Pierce had an immediate impact during the lockout-shortened 1998–99 NBA season, averaging 19.5 points and being named Rookie of The Month in February as he led the league in steals. However, the Celtics continued to struggle as Pitino failed to achieve meaningful success. After Boston lost to the Toronto Raptors on March 1, 2000, on a buzzer-beater by Vince Carter, Pitino delivered the memorable \"Larry Bird is not walking through that door, fans\" speech. He resigned in January 2001. Following the resignation of Rick Pitino, the Celtics saw modest improvement under coach Jim O'Brien. Paul Pierce matured into an NBA star and was ably complemented by Antoine Walker and the other players acquired over the years. While the team was 12–21 when Pitino left, O'Brien's record to finish the season was 24–24. Following the 2000–01 season O'Brien was given the job of head coach on a permanent basis. As a result of numerous trades, the Celtics had three picks in the 2001 NBA draft. They selected Joe Johnson, Joe Forte,", "On July 3, 2013, the Celtics announced that Brad Stevens, the head coach of Butler University, would replace Doc Rivers as head coach. Halfway through the season, in January, Rajon Rondo made his return and was named the 15th Team Captain in team history, and the team furthered the youth movement by acquiring two draft picks in a three team trade that sent Jordan Crawford and MarShon Brooks to the Golden State Warriors while the Celtics received the Heat center Joel Anthony. The 2013–14 season marked the Celtics' first missed playoffs since the \"Big Three\". The next off-season, the Celtics drafted Marcus Smart with the 6th overall pick and James Young with the 17th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft, and signed Evan Turner. The 2014–15 season had several roster moves, the most prominent being Rondo and rookie Dwight Powell traded to the Dallas Mavericks for center Brandan Wright, forward Jae Crowder, veteran point guard Jameer Nelson, and future picks. A total of 22 players spent time with the Celtics, leading scorer and rebounder Sullinger suffered a season-ending left metatarsal stress fracture, and the team was only tenth in the East with 28 games remaining. However, midseason acquisition Isaiah Thomas helped the team win 22 of their last 34 games, finishing the season with a 40–42 record, enough for the seventh seed in the Eastern Conference Playoffs. The Celtics were swept by the second seeded Cleveland Cavaliers in the first round. In the 2015 NBA draft Boston selected Terry Rozier, R.J. Hunter, Jordan Mickey, and Marcus Thornton with the 16th, 28th, 33rd, and 45th selections respectively. During the off-season, the Celtics signed forward Amir Johnson and traded Gerald Wallace and Chris Babb in exchange for Warriors forward David Lee. The Celtics finished the 2015–16 NBA season with a 48–34 record, earning the fifth seed in the Eastern Conference. They played the fourth seed Atlanta Hawks in the first round of the playoffs. After leading by 3 points in the fourth quarter of Game 1, guard Avery Bradley went down with a hamstring injury, making him sit out for the rest of the series. The Celtics lost the series 4–2 to the Hawks, ending their season. On July 8, 2016, the Celtics signed four-time All-Star Al Horford. The Celtics finished the 2016–17 season with a 53–29 record and clinched the top", "", "The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers involves the two most storied franchises in NBA history. It has been called the NBA's best rivalry. The two teams have met a record twelve times in the NBA Finals, starting with their first Finals meeting in. They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s, facing each other six times in the 1960s, three times", "The Celtics–Hawks rivalry is a rivalry in the Eastern Conference of the National Basketball Association that has lasted for over five decades, although the two teams have played each other since the 1949–50 season, when the then-Tri-Cities Blackhawks joined the NBA as part of the National Basketball League and the Basketball Association of America merger. However, the Blackhawks could not field a truly competitive team until", "The Boston Celtics were once rivals of the New Jersey Nets during the early 2000s due to their respective locations and their burgeoning stars. The Nets were led by Jason Kidd and Kenyon Martin, while the Celtics were experiencing newfound success behind Paul Pierce and Antoine Walker. The rivalry began to heat up in the 2002 Eastern Conference Finals, which was preceded by trash talking from the Celtics who claimed Martin was a \"fake\" tough guy. Things progressed as the", "The rivalry between the Celtics and the Detroit Pistons peaked in the 1980s, featuring players such as Larry Bird, Kevin McHale, Robert Parish, Isiah Thomas, Bill Laimbeer, Dennis Rodman, and Joe Dumars. These teams met in the NBA playoffs five times in 7 seasons from 1985 to", "The rivalry between the Celtics and the New York Knicks stems from the location of the teams, both of which are in the NBA's Atlantic division. It is one of many rivalries between Boston and New York teams. Boston and", "The Celtics and the Philadelphia 76ers are the two teams who have the most meetings in the NBA playoffs, playing each other in 19 series, of which the Celtics have won 12. The 76ers are considered", "The most recent and unexpected rivalry that has been created between the Celtics is with the Washington Wizards. Although both teams had engaged in a fight in 1984, the rivalry intensified during the 2015–16 season in a January regular season game after Jae Crowder was given a technical foul. Crowder then began to exchange words with then Wizards coach Randy Wittman. It began to escalate that off-season when the Celtics were trying to sign Al Horford. It was publicly reported that", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Celtics. For the full season-by-season", "The Celtics have an NBA record 17 Championships including 8 in a row, and 11 championships in 13 years. They also have 56 playoff appearances. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame have 45 enshrined players who played for the Celtics, and the franchise has retired 22 jersey numbers, more than any other American sports team.", "FIBA, the body which governs international basketball, has selected two", "", "The Celtics hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player is ostensibly either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team.", "", "There have been 17 head coaches in Celtics' history. Red Auerbach is the most successful franchise's head coach having won 9 NBA championships with the team. Celtics' legend Bill Russell took coaching duties from Auerbach and led them to 2", "", "The Boston Celtics logo since 1968 features a leprechaun spinning a basketball, named Lucky, originally depicted with a large basketball for a background. It was originally designed by Zang Auerbach, the brother of Celtics head coach Red Auerbach. Through the 1995–96 season, the logo's only colors were black, white and green. Then for the 1996–97 season, celebrating the club's 50th anniversary, the logo got a full-color treatment. Lucky's face and hands were both painted tan, while", "", "For much of their history, the Celtics wore green uniforms on the road and white uniforms at home. The basic template of the current Celtics' uniforms were formalized in the 1950s, and along the way they made a few adjustments in the lettering and stripes. Among the more notable changes in the uniforms were the switch from serifed to sans-serif block lettering in 1968, the addition of names in 1972, and the incorporation of the three-leaf shamrock logo in 1998. While the white uniforms remained largely intact, the green uniforms have featured either the city name (1950s–1965; 2014–present)", "From 2005 to 2017, the Celtics wore alternate green uniforms with black lettering and trim featuring the word \"Boston\" on the front side. One noticeable difference in the alternate uniforms were the black panels with a green shamrock, reminiscent of the original Celtics uniforms worn in the late 1940s. A gray uniform set was also used from 2014", "Between 2006 and 2017, the Celtics wore special St. Patrick's Day uniforms. The initial uniforms were worn from 2006 to 2013 and it strongly resembled their regular green uniforms save for gold and white trim and the city name in front. For 2014 and 2015, the uniforms were sleeved, replaced the city name in front in favor of the team name, and now resembled their green/black alternates. In 2016 and 2017, the uniforms were again sleeveless and featured the city name in front, but kept the previous striping. During the NBA Europe Live Tour prior to the 2007–08 season, the Celtics used the alternate road jerseys in their game against the Toronto Raptors in Rome, except that the words \"Boston\" on the front side of the jersey and the shamrock on the shorts and on the reverse side of the jersey contained the green, white and red tricolors of the Italian flag. In the second game in London, the regular road jerseys featured a patch containing the Union Jack. At the 2008–09 season opener against the Cleveland Cavaliers, the", "During the 2006–07 season, the Celtics wore a commemorative patch of a black shamrock with the nickname \"Red\" in green letters on the right top of the jersey in remembrance of Red Auerbach, who died shortly prior to the beginning of the season. The team has honored deceased members of the Celtics family with a commemorative black band on the left", "The team also had the tradition of wearing black sneakers through most of their history, except during the early 1980s when they wore green sneakers. According to legend, Celtics patriarch Red Auerbach had a problem with the white sneakers, claiming that the white sneakers can easily get dirty; hence starting a long tradition with the black sneakers. But prior to the 2003–04 season, current Celtics general manager Danny Ainge and captain Paul Pierce suggested wearing white sneakers, in due part to a growing number of teams wearing black sneakers. Auerbach gladly accepted and the white sneakers have remained since on home games. They still wore the black", "NBC Sports Boston is the Boston Celtics' main television outlet, having aired its games since 1981 when the station was known as PRISM New England. In 1983, it rebranded as SportsChannel New England. Like all the other SportsChannel networks, the New England channel was rebranded as Fox Sports New England when former owner Cablevision entered into a partnership with Liberty Media and News Corporation in 1998. Comcast purchased Cablevision's original network stake in 2001, then acquired the remaining stake", "", "<nowiki>*</nowiki>\"Sale not", "Boston Celtics Communications is a broadcasting division of the Celtics. In September 1989, the team through its owners, Don Gaston, Alan N. Cohen and Paul Dupee acquired radio station WEEI (on the 590 frequency now known as WEZE) from CBS Radio, as well as Fox affiliated station WFXT from Fox Television Stations. The sale was completed on May 10, 1990. CBS discontinued its association with WEEI that year, and they instead joined ABC Direction. WEEI, which had already carried Celtics broadcasts since 1987, expanded its sports programming to cover the Boston Bruins and certain \"Sports Byline USA\" and CBS Radio Sports broadcasts. However, WEEI was sold off in 1994, and would later reemerge as the name of an ESPN-radio affiliate, Sportsradio 850 WEEI. WFXT continued to carry the Fox network programming; however, during the team's ownership of the station, they broadcast the team's games and they also had a news share agreement with regional cable news channel New England Cable News in 1993. WFXT meanwhile was reacquired by Fox Television Stations group, and once again was Fox owned-and-operated from 1995." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "Team creation.", "1966–1975: Early success.", "1976–1984: Gilmore and Theus.", "1984–1998: The Michael Jordan era.", "1998–2008: Post-Dynasty struggles.", "2008–2016: Derrick Rose era.", "2008–2010: Derrick Rose appearance.", "2010–2011: Arrival of Tom Thibodeau.", "2011–2014: Injury-plagued seasons for Derrick Rose.", "2014–2015: Derrick Rose return to health.", "2015–2016: Change in approach.", "2016–2017: Derrick Rose departs.", "2017–present: Rebuilding.", "Rivalries.", "Detroit Pistons.", "Miami Heat.", "New York Knicks.", "Traditions.", "Starting lineup introductions.", "Black shoes and socks.", "The circus trip.", "Name, logo and uniforms.", "Name.", "Logo.", "Uniforms.", "1966–73 uniforms.", "1973–85 uniforms.", "1985–present uniforms.", "Alternate black uniforms.", "Other uniforms.", "Mascots.", "Season-by-season record.", "Training facilities.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Franchise leaders.", "Hall of Famers, retired and honored numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Media.", "Radio.", "Television." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "On January 16, 1966, Chicago was granted an NBA franchise to be called the Bulls. The Chicago Bulls became the third NBA franchise in the city, after the Chicago Stags (1946–1950) and the Chicago Packers/Zephyrs (1961–1963, now the Washington Wizards). The Bulls' founder, Dick Klein, was the Bulls' only owner to ever play professional basketball (for the Chicago American Gears). He served as the Bulls' president and", "In their first season, the Bulls played their home games at the International Amphitheatre, before moving to Chicago Stadium. Fan interest was diminishing after four seasons, with one game in the 1968 season having an official attendance of 891 and some games being played in Kansas City. In 1969, Klein dropped out of the general manager job and hired Pat Williams, who as the Philadelphia 76ers' business manager created promotions that helped the team become third in attendance the previous season. Williams revamped the team roster, acquiring Chet Walker from his old team in exchange for Jim Washington and drafting Norm Van Lier", "Klein sold the Bulls to the Wirtz Family, longtime owners of the Chicago Blackhawks. Indifferent to NBA basketball, the new ownership group infamously implemented a shoestring budget, putting little time and investment into improving the team. Artis Gilmore, acquired in the ABA dispersal draft in 1976, led a Bulls squad which included guard Reggie Theus, forward David Greenwood and forward Orlando Woolridge. In 1979, the Bulls lost a coin flip for the right to select first in the NBA draft (Rod Thorn, the Bulls'", "In the summer of 1984, the Bulls had the third pick of the 1984 NBA draft, after Houston and Portland. The Rockets selected Hakeem Olajuwon, the Blazers picked Sam Bowie and the Bulls chose shooting guard Michael Jordan. The team, with new management in owner Jerry Reinsdorf and general manager Jerry Krause, decided to rebuild around Jordan. Jordan set franchise records during his rookie campaign for scoring (third in the league) and steals (fourth), and led the Bulls back to the playoffs, where they lost in four games to the Milwaukee Bucks. For his efforts, he was rewarded with a selection to the All-NBA Second Team and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award. In the following off-season, the team acquired point guard John Paxson and on draft day traded with the Cavaliers for the rights to power forward Charles Oakley. Along with Jordan and center Dave Corzine, they provided much of the Bulls' offense for the next two years. After suffering a broken foot early in the 1985–86 season, Jordan finished second on the team to Woolridge in scoring. Jordan returned for the playoffs, and led the eighth-place Bulls against the 67–15 Boston Celtics, led by Larry Bird. At the time, the Bulls had the fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history. Though the Bulls were swept, Jordan recorded a playoff single-game record 63 points in Game 2 (which still stands to this day), prompting Bird to call him 'God disguised as Michael Jordan.' In the 1986–87 NBA season, Jordan continued his assault on the record books, leading the league in scoring with 37.1 points per game and", "The summer of 1998 brought an abrupt end to the championship era. Krause felt that the Bulls were on the verge of being too old and unable to compete. He decided that the team's only choices were to rebuild or endure a slow decline. His plan was to trade away the aging talent and acquire high draft picks while clearing salary cap space to make a run at several promising free agents in two years' time. After having been vetoed in a previous attempt by owner Jerry Reinsdorf, Krause traded Scottie Pippen for Roy Rogers (who was released in February 1999) and a conditional second round draft pick from the Houston Rockets. He also decided not to re-sign Dennis Rodman, and traded Luc Longley and Steve Kerr for other draft picks. He hired a new coach, Tim Floyd, who had run a successful program at Iowa State University. Upon Phil Jackson's departure, Michael Jordan made his second retirement official. With a new starting lineup of point guard Randy Brown, shooting guard Ron Harper, newcomer Brent Barry at small forward, power forward Toni Kukoč, and center Bill Wennington, the team began the lockout-shortened 1998–99 season. Kukoč led the team in scoring, rebounding, and assists, but the team won only 13 of 50 games. The lowest point of the season came on April 10 in a game against the Miami Heat. In that game, the Bulls scored 49 points to set an NBA record for the fewest points in a game in the shot clock era. The previous year's dismal finish came with one highlight: the team won the draft lottery and the rights to power forward Elton Brand. Since the team lost Harper, Wennington and Barry in the off-season, Brand and fellow rookie Ron Artest led the team throughout the year, especially after Kukoč missed most of the season due to injury and was then dealt for a draft pick at the trading deadline. Brand recorded the first 20–10 average for the Bulls since the days of Artis Gilmore. He led all rookies in scoring, rebounds, blocks, field goal percentage and minutes, while Artest led all rookies in steals and finished second on the team in scoring. For his efforts Brand was named 1999–2000 co-Rookie of the Year with Houston's Steve Francis, and to the all-rookie first team, while Artest was named to the all-rookie second team. However, the team established a franchise low at 17–65, second worst in the league. After a summer in which the Bulls", "", "With a slim 1.7% chance of winning the rights to draft number 1, the Bulls won the 2008 NBA draft lottery and selected first overall. With this, the Bulls became the team with the lowest chance of winning to ever win the lottery since it was modified for the 1994 NBA draft, and second lowest ever. On June 26, 2008, the Bulls drafted Chicago native Derrick Rose from the University of Memphis as the number 1 draft pick. At pick number 39 they selected Sonny", "In early June 2010, Boston Celtics assistant Tom Thibodeau accepted a three-year contract to fill the Bulls' head coaching vacancy. He was officially introduced on June 23. On July 7, it was revealed that Carlos Boozer of the Utah Jazz had verbally agreed to an $80 million, five-year contract. Afterwards, the Bulls traded veteran point guard Kirk Hinrich to the Washington Wizards to create more cap space. The Bulls also signed former 76er and Jazz sharpshooter Kyle Korver to a three-year, $15 million contract. The same day that the Bulls signed Kyle Korver, they signed Turkish All-Star Ömer Aşık. After being matched by the Orlando Magic", "During the off-season, the Bulls drafted Jimmy Butler 30th overall in the 2011 NBA draft. After the NBA lockout ended, the Bulls lost Kurt Thomas to free agency, and released Keith Bogans. The Bulls signed veteran shooting guard Richard \"Rip\" Hamilton to a three-year deal, after he was waived by the Detroit Pistons. The Bulls also gave MVP Derrick Rose a 5-year contract extension worth $94.8 million. Derrick Rose was voted as an NBA All-Star starter for the second consecutive year, and was the third leading voted player overall behind Dwight Howard and Kobe Bryant. Luol Deng was also selected as a reserve for the Eastern Conference. This was the first time that the Bulls had two", "The second return of Derrick Rose gave the Bulls and their fans optimism for the 2014–15 season. With 2-time NBA Champion Pau Gasol and a deep bench consisting of Taj Gibson, Nikola Mirotić, Tony Snell, Aaron Brooks, Doug McDermott, Kirk Hinrich, among others, the Bulls were one of the two favorite teams to come out of the Eastern Conference along with the Cleveland Cavaliers. The Bulls started off the season in style with a blowout win of the New York Knicks, and then winning 7 of their first 9 games (losses coming to the Cleveland Cavaliers and Boston Celtics). The emergence of Jimmy Butler as a primary scorer for the Bulls was a major surprise and he surged into the forefront of the \"Most Improved Player of the Year\" award race. Butler's statistical jump was noted by many as one of the greatest in NBA History, going from scoring just 13 points per game in 2013–14 to scoring 20 points per game in 2014–15. Pau Gasol was considered a huge asset for the Bulls and averaged a double-double throughout the season. Both Butler and Gasol ended up making the Eastern Conference All-Star team. The Bulls' second half", "On May 28, 2015, the Bulls fired Tom Thibodeau to seek a \"change in approach\". The Bulls named Fred Hoiberg as their head coach on June 2, 2015. The Bulls had only 1 draft pick in the 2015 NBA draft, and selected center Bobby Portis from the University of Arkansas. Bulls forward Mike Dunleavy Jr. was ruled out for at least the first four months of the season after completing back surgery. With Dunleavy out indefinitely, the Bulls promoted Doug McDermott to the starting lineup in his place at small forward. Before the season started, coach Fred Hoiberg made an incredibly controversial move by putting Nikola Mirotić as his starting power forward to", "On June 22, 2016, Derrick Rose and Justin Holiday, along with a 2017 second round draft pick, were traded to the New York Knicks for center Robin Lopez, and point guards Jerian Grant and José Calderón, who was soon traded to the Los Angeles Lakers. On July 7, the Bulls announced the signing of Rose's replacement, guard Rajon Rondo. On July 15, the Bulls signed Chicago native Dwyane Wade. On October 17, 2016, the Bulls acquired 2014 Rookie of the Year Michael Carter-Williams in exchange for Tony Snell. On February 23, 2017, Taj Gibson and Doug McDermott, along with a 2018 second round draft pick, were traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder for point guard Cameron Payne, shooting guard Anthony Morrow, and power forward/center Joffrey Lauvergne. The Bulls clinched the eighth seed in 2017 NBA Playoffs after winning seven of their final ten games and finishing the season with a 41–41 record. The team struck an early 2–0 lead against the top-seeded Boston Celtics in the first round of the playoffs, but ultimately lost the series after losing the next four games.", "On June 22, 2017, Jimmy Butler, along with Chicago's 2017 first round pick, was traded to the Minnesota Timberwolves for Zach LaVine, Kris Dunn, and Minnesota's 2017 first round pick, which the Bulls used to select Lauri Markkanen. Additionally, on June 27, the Bulls did not give a qualifying offer to Michael Carter-Williams, allowing him to enter unrestricted free agency. On June 30, Rajon Rondo and Isaiah Canaan were waived by the Bulls. On July 10, 2017, Justin Holiday returned to", "", "The Bulls' main division rivals have been the Detroit Pistons ever since the Jordan-led Bulls met the \"Bad Boy\" Pistons in the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals. The two teams met in the playoffs four consecutive years, with the Pistons winning each time until 1991. The Eastern Conference Finals in 1991 ended with a four-game sweep of the Pistons, who walked off the floor with time still on the game clock.", "The Bulls and the Miami Heat rivalry began once the Heat became contenders during the 1990s, a decade dominated by the Bulls. They were eliminated 3 times by Chicago, who went on to win the title each time. The rivalry has come back due to the return of the Bulls to the playoffs in the post-Michael Jordan era and the emergence of Dwyane Wade and Derrick Rose. The revived rivalry", "Another franchise that the Bulls have competed fiercely with is the New York Knicks. The two teams met in the playoffs in four consecutive years (1991–1994) and again in 1996, with the teams' series twice (1992 and 1994) going the full seven games. Their first playoff confrontation, however, came in 1989 when both teams were called \"teams on", "", "During the Bulls' run of dominance, the player introductions became world-famous. Longtime announcer Tommy Edwards was the first to use \"Sirius\", \"On The Run\" and other songs in game presentation in the NBA. When Edwards moved to Boston for employment with CBS Radio, he was replaced by Ray Clay in 1990, and Clay continued many of the traditional aspects of the Bulls introductions, including the music, The Alan Parsons Project's \"Sirius\", for all six championship runs. The lights are first dimmed during the visiting team introduction, accompanied by \"The Imperial March\" from \"Star Wars\" composed by John Williams or \"On the Run\" by Pink Floyd, or \"Tick of the Clock\" by Chromatics. Virtually all lights in the stadium are then shut off for the Bulls introduction, and a spotlight illuminates each player as he is introduced and runs onto the court; the spotlight is also focused on the Bulls logo prior to the introductions.", "The Bulls have an unofficial tradition of wearing black shoes (regardless of being home or away) during the playoffs, which dates all the way back to 1989 when they debuted the tradition. Then-Bulls backup center Brad Sellers suggested to wear black shoes as a way to show unity within the team. For the 1996 playoffs, they became the first team to wear black socks with the black shoes, similar to the University of Michigan and the Fab Five which started the trend in college earlier in the decade. Since, many teams have this look in both the regular", "The Bulls and their arena mates, the Chicago Blackhawks, shared an odd tradition dating to the opening of Chicago Stadium. Every fall, Feld Entertainment's now-defunct Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus came to Chicago on its nationwide tour. Since it used large indoor venues rather than tents, it took over the United Center for its entire run and the Bulls", "", "Dick Klein wanted a name that evoked Chicago's traditional meat packing industry (similarly to the forerunner Packers franchise) and the Chicago Stadium's proximity to the Union Stock Yards. Klein considered names like Matadors or Toreadors,", "The Bulls are unique in the fact they have used the same logo with very little change since the team's inception. The iconic logo is a red, charging bull's face. The", "", "The Bulls currently wear three different uniforms: a white uniform, a red uniform, and a black alternate uniform. The original uniforms were esthetically close to what the Bulls wear today, featuring the iconic", "For the 1973–74 season, the Bulls drastically changed their look, removing the side stripes and drop shadows while moving the front numbers to the left chest. While the white uniforms saw the \"Bulls\" wordmark go from", "Starting with the 1985–86 season, the Bulls updated their uniform. Among the more notable changes in the look were centered uniform numbers and a vertically arched \"Bulls\" wordmark in both the red and white uniforms. Like the previous set, this uniform saw a few tweaks particularly in the treatment of", "In the 1995–96 season, the Bulls added a black uniform to their set. The initial look featured red pinstripes and lacked the classic diamond on the shorts. This set was revived as throwback uniforms in the 2007–08 and 2012–13 seasons. From the 1997–98 to the 2005–06 seasons, the Bulls wore slightly modified black uniforms without pinstripes. This set, with a few slight changes in the template, also marked the return of the city name in front of the uniform during the 1999–2000 season. The 2006–07 season saw another change in the Bulls' black alternate uniform, now resembling the red and white uniform with the addition of", "During the 2005–06 season, the Bulls honored the defunct Chicago Stags by wearing the team's red and blue throwback uniforms. The set featured red tops and blue shorts. From 2006 to 2017, the Bulls wore a green version of their red uniforms during the week of St. Patrick's Day in March. The only red elements visible were those found on the team logo. For 2015 the Bulls wore sleeved versions of the green uniform that featured white lettering with gold and black trim and the \"Chicago\" wordmark replacing \"Bulls” in front. In 2016 and 2017, they wore the same uniforms minus the sleeves. Between 2009 and 2017, the Bulls wore a variation of their red uniforms as part of the NBA's \"Noche Latina\" festivities every March. The only notable change in this uniform was the \"Los Bulls\" wordmark in front. For 2014, the Bulls briefly retired the look in favor of a black sleeved uniform featuring \"Los Bulls\" in white", "Benny the Bull is the main mascot of the Chicago Bulls. He was first introduced in 1969. Benny is a red bull who wears number 1. Benny is one of the oldest and best known mascots in all of professional sports. The Bulls also had another mascot named Da Bull. Introduced in", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Bulls. For the full season-by-season history,", "Alumni Hall on DePaul University's Lincoln Park campus was the practice facility for the Bulls in the 1960s and 1970s. In 1992, the team began training at the Berto Center, located in Deerfield,", "", "The Bulls hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "Bold denotes still active with the", "", "", "", "The team's games are broadcast on Entercom's WSCR (670) as of February 3, 2018. From October 2015-January 2018, games were carried on Cumulus Media's WLS (890) in a deal that was expected to last until the 2020–21 season, but", "The Bulls' television broadcasts are televised by NBC Sports Chicago, which broadcasts all of the games that are not televised nationally as of the 2019–20 season. For many years, broadcasts were split between NBC Sports" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production history." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The ZiS-30 was one of a few hastily designed armoured fighting vehicles created by Soviet industry shortly after the German invasion during Operation Barbarossa in 1941. In August 1941 Grabin's design bureau at the Gorky plant no. 92 mounted the 57 mm ZiS-2 gun onto the chassis of a Komsomolets artillery tractor. Only around 100 were produced. For its era, the ZiS-2 gun was one of the most powerful dedicated anti-tank guns available. Most weapons of that time were between 20 and 50 mm size, making the ZiS-2 somewhat larger at 57 mm, but it was also much longer, with a larger breech firing far more powerful ammunition. It fired a 3 kg shell at a muzzle velocity of 990 m/s, more typical of late-war weapons than early ones. For comparison, the British Army's contemporary 2-pounder fired a 40 mm shell of just over 1 kg at around 800 m/s, and the 6-pounder that replaced it fired a 2.3 kg shell at 850 m/s. The mounting on the Komsomolets was relatively simple, essentially cutting out the driving area enough to allow the carriage to be placed into the hole, and then cutting off the rear of the carriage so it did not overhang the back of the tractor. The result left the gun with a relatively wide angle of fire, but swinging it to its extremes placed the breech well off the side of the vehicle. Wooden running boards on either side of the rear deck could be folded out to provide working area for the gunner and loader when the gun was swung in this fashion. Although the drivers were protected under light armour, the gunner and loader were protected only by a light gun shield on the front of the breech. They were completely exposed on the sides and rear, and the relatively high profile of the deck made them easy targets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Modernity.", "International Whaling Commission.", "Whaling catches by location.", "Ongoing debate.", "Sustainability.", "By country.", "Australia.", "Canada.", "Denmark.", "Faroe Islands.", "Greenland.", "Germany.", "Iceland.", "Indonesia.", "Japan.", "Norway.", "Philippines.", "Russia.", "Saint Vincent and the Grenadines.", "South Korea.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Whaling began in prehistoric times in coastal waters. The earliest depictions of whaling are the Neolithic Bangudae Petroglyphs in Korea, which may date back to 6000 BC. These images are the earliest evidence for whaling. Although prehistoric hunting and gathering is generally considered to have had little ecological impact, early whaling in the Arctic may have altered freshwater ecology. Early whaling affected the development of widely disparate cultures on different continents. The Basques were the first to catch whales commercially, and dominated the trade for five centuries, spreading to the far corners of the North Atlantic and even reaching the South Atlantic. The development of modern whaling techniques was spurred in the 19th century by the increase in demand for whale oil, sometimes known as \"train oil\", and in the 20th century by a demand for margarine and later whale meat. Many countries once had significant whaling industries, and these are covered in separate articles; for example Whaling in the Netherlands, Whaling in Scotland, and Whaling in Argentina. Canada, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Russia, South Korea, the United States and the Danish dependencies of the Faroe Islands and Greenland continue to hunt in the 21st century, and are described below.", "The primary species hunted are minke whales, belugas, narwhals, and pilot whales, which are some of the smallest species of whales. There are also smaller numbers killed of gray whales, sei whales, fin whales, bowhead whales, Bryde's whales, sperm whales and humpback whales. Recent scientific surveys estimate a population of 103,000 minkes in the northeast Atlantic. With respect to the populations of Antarctic minke whales, as of January 2010, the IWC states that it is \"unable to provide reliable estimates at the present time\" and that a \"major review is underway by the Scientific Committee.\" Whale oil is used little today and modern whaling is primarily done for food: for pets, fur farms, sled dogs and humans, and for making carvings of tusks, teeth and vertebrae. Both meat and blubber (muktuk) are eaten from narwhals, belugas and bowheads. From commercially hunted minkes, meat is eaten by humans or animals, and blubber is rendered down mostly to cheap industrial products such as animal feed or, in Iceland, as a fuel supplement for whaling ships. International cooperation on whaling regulation began in 1931 and culminated in the signing of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW) in 1946. Its aim is to:", "The International Whaling Commission (IWC) was set up under the ICRW to decide hunting quotas and other relevant matters based on the findings of its Scientific Committee. Non-member countries are not bound by its regulations and conduct their own management programs. It regulates hunting of 13 species of great whales, and has not reached consensus on whether it may regulate smaller species. The IWC voted on July 23, 1982, to establish a moratorium on commercial whaling of great whales beginning in the 1985–86 season. Since 1992, the IWC's Scientific Committee has requested that it be allowed to give quota proposals for some whale stocks, but this has so far been refused by the Plenary Committee. At the 2010 meeting of the International Whaling Commission in Morocco, representatives of the 88 member states discussed whether or not to lift the 24-year ban on commercial whaling. Japan, Norway and Iceland have urged the organisation to lift the ban. A coalition of anti-whaling nations has offered a compromise plan that would allow these countries to continue whaling, but with smaller catches and under close supervision. Their plan would also completely ban whaling in the Southern Ocean. More than 200 scientists and experts have opposed the compromise proposal for lifting the ban, and have also opposed allowing whaling in the Southern Ocean, which was declared a whale sanctuary in 1994. Opponents of the compromise plan want to see an end to all commercial whaling, but are willing to allow subsistence-level catches by indigenous peoples.", "These totals include great whales: counts from IWC and WDC and IWC Summary Catch Database version 6.1, July 2016. The IWC database is supplemented by Faroese catches of pilot whales, Greenland's and Canada's catches of narwhals (data 1954-2014), belugas from multiple sources shown in the Beluga whale article, Indonesia's catches of sperm whales, and bycatch in Korea.", "Key elements of the debate over whaling include sustainability, ownership, national sovereignty, cetacean intelligence, suffering during hunting, health risks, the value of 'lethal sampling' to establish catch quotas, the value of controlling whales' impact on fish stocks and the rapidly approaching extinction of a few whale species.", "The World Wide Fund for Nature says that 90% of all northern right whales killed by human activities are from ship collision, calling for restrictions on the movement of shipping in certain areas. Noise pollution threatens the existence of cetaceans. Large ships and boats make a tremendous amount of noise that falls into the same frequency range of many whales. By-catch also kills more animals than hunting. Some scientists believe pollution to be a factor. Moreover, since the IWC moratorium, there have been several instances of illegal whale hunting by IWC nations. In 1994, the IWC reported evidence from genetic testing of whale meat and blubber for sale on the open market in Japan in 1993. In addition to the legally permitted minke whale, the analyses showed that the 10–25% tissues sample came from non minke, baleen whales, neither of which were then allowed under IWC rules. Further research in 1995 and 1996 shows significant drop of non-minke baleen whales sample to 2.5%. In a separate paper, Baker stated that \"many of these animals certainly represent a bycatch (incidental entrapment in fishing gear)\" and stated that DNA monitoring of whale meat is required to adequately track whale products. It was revealed in 1994 that the Soviet Union had been systematically undercounting its catch. For example, from 1948 to 1973, the Soviet Union caught 48,477 humpback whales rather than the 2,710 it officially reported to the IWC. On the basis of this new information, the IWC stated that it would have to rewrite its catch figures for the last forty years. According to Ray Gambell, then Secretary of the IWC, the organization had raised its suspicions with the former Soviet Union, but it did not take further action because it could not interfere with national sovereignty.", "", "Whaling was a major maritime industry in Australia from 1791 until its final cessation in 1978. At least 45 whaling stations operated in Tasmania during the 19th century and bay whaling was conducted out of a number of other mainland centres. Modern whaling using harpoon guns and iron hulled catchers was conducted in the twentieth century from shore-based stations in Western Australia, New South Wales and Queensland, also in Norfolk Island. Overfishing saw the closure of some whaling stations before a government ban on the industry was introduced in 1978.", "Canadians kill about 600 narwhals per year. They kill 100 belugas per year in the Beaufort Sea, 300 in northern Quebec (Nunavik), and an unknown number in Nunavut. The total annual kill in Beaufort and Quebec areas varies between 300 and 400 belugas per year. Numbers are not available for Nunavut since 2003, when the Arviat area, with about half Nunavut's hunters, killed 200-300 belugas, though the authors say hunters resist giving complete numbers. Harvested meat is sold through shops and supermarkets in northern communities where whale meat is a component of the traditional diet. Hunters in Hudson's Bay rarely eat beluga meat. They give a little to dogs, and leave the rest for wild animals. Other areas may dry the meat for later consumption by humans. An average of one or two vertebrae and one or two teeth per beluga or narwhal are carved and sold. One estimate of the annual gross value received from Beluga hunts in Hudson Bay in 2013 was for 190 belugas, or per beluga, and for 81 narwhals, or per narwhal. However the net income, after subtracting costs in time and equipment, was a loss of per person for belugas and per person for narwhals. Hunts receive subsidies, but they continue as a tradition, rather than for the money, and the economic analysis noted that whale watching may be an alternate revenue source. Of the gross income, was for Beluga skin and meat, to replace beef, pork and chickens which would otherwise be bought, was received for carved vertebrae and teeth. was for Narwhal skin and meat, was received for tusks, and carved vertebrae and teeth of males, and was received for carved vertebrae and teeth of female Narwhals. Two Senators, members of First Nations, said in 2018, The Whale and Dolphin Conservation says: Canada left the IWC in 1982, and the only IWC-regulated species currently harvested by the Canadian Inuit is the bowhead whale. As of 2004, the limit on bowhead whale hunting allows for the hunt of one whale every two years from the Hudson Bay-Foxe Basin population, and one whale every 13 years from the Baffin Bay-Davis Strait population. This is roughly one-fiftieth of the bowhead whale harvest limits in Alaska (see below).", "", "The Faroe Islands are legally part of the Kingdom of Denmark, but are geographically isolated and culturally distinct. The hunt, known as the Grindadráp, is regulated by Faroese authorities but not by the IWC, which does not claim jurisdiction over small cetaceans. Around 800 long-finned pilot whales (\"Globicephala melaena\") are caught each year, mainly during the summer. Other species are not hunted, though occasionally Atlantic white-sided dolphin can be found among the pilot whales. Most Faroese consider the hunt an important part of their culture and history and arguments about the topic raise strong emotions. Animal-rights groups criticize the hunt as being cruel and unnecessary and economically insignificant. Hunters claim that most journalists lack knowledge of the catch methods used to capture and kill the whales.", "Greenlandic Inuit whalers catch around 175 large whales per year, mostly minke whales, as well as 360 narwhals, 200 belugas, 190 pilot whales and 2,300 porpoises. IWC sets limits for large whales. The government of Greenland sets limits for narwhals and belugas. There are no limits on pilot whales and porpoises. The IWC treats the west and east coasts of Greenland as two separate population areas and sets separate quotas for each coast. The far more densely populated west coast accounts for over 90 percent of the catch. The average per year from 2012-2016 was around 150 minke and 17 fin whales and humpback whales taken from west coast waters and around 10 minke from east coast waters. In April 2009 Greenland landed its first bowhead whale in nearly forty years. It landed three bowheads each year in 2009 and 2010, one each in 2011 and 2015. The Inuit already caught whales around Greenland since the years 1200–1300. They mastered the art of whaling around the year 1000 in the Bering Strait. The technique consists of spearing a whale with a spear connected to an inflated seal bladder. The bladder would float and exhaust the whale when diving, and when it surfaces; the Inuit hunters would spear it again, further exhausting the animal until they were able to kill it. Vikings on Greenland also ate whale meat, but archaeologists believe they never hunted them on sea.", "Being originally one of the most successful whaling nations, German whaling vessels started from Hamburg and other, smaller cities on the Elbe River, hunting for whales around Greenland and Spitsbergen. While 1770 is recorded to have been the most successful year of German whaling, German whaling went into steep decline with the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars and never really recovered. After the Napoleonic Wars, Germany tried but could never re-establish a successful whaling industry. German whaling boats in the mid to late 1800s would generally not be staffed with experienced sailors but rather with members of more wealthy farming communities, going for short trips to Scandinavia during the end of spring / beginning of summer, when their labor was not required on the fields. This kind of whaling was ineffective. Many journeys would not lead to any whales caught, instead seal- and polar bear skins were brought back to shore. Communities often paid more for equipping the vessels in the first place than making money with the goods brought back to shore. Today, local historians believe that German whaling in the late 1800s was more a rite of passage for the sons of wealthy farmers from northern German islands than an action undertaken for true commercial reason. German whaling was abandoned in 1872. Prior to the first world war, the newly established German Empire attempted to re-establish large scale German whaling. This was undertaken with ships either going from Germany to Iceland or from the newly established German colonies to African waters. These attempts never were commercially successful and quickly given up. Only in the 1930s could Germany - with mainly Norwegian personnel - re-establish a large and successful whaling industry. More than 15,000 whales were caught between 1930 and 1939. With the beginning of the second world war, German whaling was abandoned completely. In the early 1950s, Germany maintained one whaling vessel for testing purpose as it considered re-establishing a German whaling fleet, but abandoned these plans in 1956. The last remaining German whalers worked for Dutch vessels in the 1950s and 1960s.", "Iceland is one of a handful of countries that still maintain a whaling fleet. One company concentrates on hunting fin whales, largely for export to Japan, while the only other one hunts minke whales for domestic consumption, as the meat is popular with tourists. Iceland now has its own whale watching sector, which exists in uneasy tension with the whaling industry. Iceland did not object to the 1986 IWC moratorium. Between 1986 and 1989 around 60 animals per year were taken under a scientific permit. However, under strong pressure from anti-whaling countries, who viewed scientific whaling as a circumvention of the moratorium, Iceland ceased whaling in 1989. Following the IWC's 1991 refusal to accept its Scientific Committee's recommendation to allow sustainable commercial whaling, Iceland left the IWC in 1992. Iceland rejoined the IWC in 2002 with a reservation to the moratorium. Iceland presented a feasibility study to the 2003 IWC meeting for catches in 2003 and 2004. The primary aim of the study was to deepen the understanding of fish–whale interactions. Amid disagreement within the IWC Scientific Committee about the value of the research and its relevance to IWC objectives, no decision on the proposal was reached. However, under the terms of the convention the Icelandic government issued permits for a scientific catch. In 2003 Iceland resumed scientific whaling which continued in 2004 and 2005. Iceland resumed commercial whaling in 2006. Its annual quota was 30 minke whales (out of an estimated 174,000 animals in the central and north-eastern North Atlantic) and nine fin whales (out of an estimated 30,000 animals in the central and north-eastern North Atlantic). For the 2012 commercial whaling season, starting in April and lasting six months, the quota was set to 216 minke whales, of which 52 were caught. Iceland did not hunt any whales in 2019 and it is reported that demand for whale meat decreased in that year.", "Lamalera, on the south coast of the island of Lembata, and Lamakera on neighbouring Solor, are the two remaining Indonesian whaling communities. The hunters obey religious taboos that ensure that they use every part of the animal. About half of the catch is kept in the village; the rest is bartered in local markets. In 1973, the United Nations's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) sent a whaling ship and a Norwegian whaler to modernize their hunt. This effort lasted three years, and was not successful. According to the FAO report, the Lamalerans \"have evolved a method of whaling which suits their natural resources, cultural tenets and style.\" Lamalerans say they returned the ship because they immediately caught five sperm whales, too many to butcher and eat without refrigeration. Since these communities only hunt whales for noncommercial purposes, it is categorized as 'aboriginal subsistence hunters' by International Whaling Commission (IWC). The Lamalerans hunt for several species of whales but catching sperm whales are preferable, while other whales, such as baleen whales, are considered taboo to hunt. They caught five sperm whales in 1973; they averaged about 40 per year from the 1960s through the mid 1990s, 13 total from 2002-2006, 39 in 2007, an average of 20 per year 2008 through 2014, and caught 3 in 2015. Traditional Lamaleran whaling used wooden fishing boats built by a group of local craftsmen clan called \"ata molã\" and the fishermen will mourn the \"death\" of their ships for two months. These days, the Lamalerans use a motor engine to power their boats; however, their tradition dictates that once a whale has been caught, fishermen will have to row their boats and the whale back to the shore. The traditional practices made whaling a dangerous hunt. In one case, a boat was pulled approximately 120 km away towards Timor (see Nantucket sleighride), while in another case, the hunted whale capsized the boat and forced the fishermen to swim for 12 hours back to the shore.", "When the commercial whaling moratorium was introduced by the IWC in 1982, Japan lodged an official objection. However, in response to US threats to cut Japan's fishing quota in US territorial waters under the terms of the Packwood-Magnuson Amendment, Japan withdrew its objection in 1987. According to the BBC, America went back on this promise, effectively destroying the deal. Since Japan could not resume commercial whaling, it began whaling on a purported scientific-research basis. Australia, Greenpeace, the Australian Marine Conservation Society, Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and other groups dispute the Japanese claim of research “as a disguise for commercial whaling, which is banned.” The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society has attempted to disrupt Japanese whaling in the Antarctic since 2003 but eventually ceased this activity in 2017 due to little achievement in creating change. Other NGOs such as the Australian Marine Conservation Society and Humane Society International continued to campaign against Japan's scientific whaling program and block votes at IWC to bring back commercial whaling. The stated purpose of the research program is to establish the size and dynamics of whale populations. The Japanese government wishes to resume whaling in a sustainable manner under the oversight of the IWC, both for whale products (meat, etc.) and to help preserve fishing resources by culling whales. Anti-whaling organizations claim that the research program is a front for commercial whaling, that the sample size is needlessly large and that equivalent information can be obtained by non-lethal means, for example by studying samples of whale tissue (such as skin) or feces. The Japanese government sponsored Institute of Cetacean Research (ICR), which conducts the research, disagrees, stating that the information obtainable from tissue and/or feces samples is insufficient and that the sample size is necessary in order to be representative. Japan's scientific whaling program is controversial in anti-whaling countries. Countries opposed to whaling have passed non-binding resolutions in the IWC urging Japan to stop the program. Japan claims that whale stocks for some species are sufficiently large to sustain commercial hunting and blame filibustering by the anti-whaling side for the continuation of scientific whaling. Deputy whaling commissioner, Joji Morishita, told BBC News: This collusive relationship between the whaling industry and the Japanese government is sometimes criticized by pro-whaling activists who support local, small-scale coastal whaling such as the Taiji dolphin drive hunt. In September 2018, Japan chaired the 67th IWC meeting in Brazil and attempted to pass a motion to lift the moratorium on commercial whaling. Japan did not receive enough votes and the IWC rejected the motion. Subsequently, on 26 December 2018, Japan announced that it would withdraw its membership from the IWC, because in its opinion, the IWC had failed its duty to promote sustainable hunting as the culture within the IWC moved towards an anti-whaling, pro-conservation agenda. Japanese officials also announced they will resume commercial hunting within its territorial waters and its 200-mile exclusive economic zones starting in July 2019, but it will cease whaling activities in the Antarctic Ocean, the northwest Pacific ocean, and the Australian Whale Sanctuary. In 2019, the Australian Marine Conservation Society and International Fund for Animal Welfare commissioned legal opinion, which concluded that Japan's commercial whaling program within its territorial waters breaks international convention and law and that Japan makes itself vulnerable to potential international legal action.", "Norway registered an objection to the International Whaling Commission moratorium and is thus not bound by it. Commercial whaling ceased for a five-year period to allow a small scientific catch for gauging the stock's sustainability; whaling subsequently resumed in 1993. Minke whales are the only legally hunted species. Catches have fluctuated between 487 animals in 2000 to 592 in 2007. For the year 2011 the quota is set at 1,286 minke whales. The catch is made solely from the Northeast Atlantic minke whale population, which is estimated at 102,000.", "Whaling in the Philippines has been illegal since 1997 since the Fisheries Administrative Order 185 of 1991 was amended. The order initially only made illegal the catching, selling, or transporting of dolphins but the 1997 amendment widened the scope of the ban to include all Cetaceans including whales. The calls for ban on whaling and dolphin hunting in the Philippines were raised by both domestic and international groups after local whaling and dolphin hunting traditions of residents of Pamilacan in Bohol were featured in newspapers in the 1990s. As compromise for residents of Pamilacan who were dependent on whaling and dolphin hunting, whale and dolphin watching is being promoted in the island as a source of tourism income. Despite the ban, it is believed that the whaling industry in the Philippines did not cease to exist but went underground.", "Russia had a significant whaling hunt of orcas and dolphins along with Iceland and Japan. The Soviet Union's harvest of over 534,000 whales between the 1930s and the 1980s has been called one of the most senseless environmental crimes of the 20th century. In 1970, a study published by Bigg M.A. following photographic recognition of orcas found a significant difference in the suspected ages of whale populations and their actual ages. Following this evidence, the Soviet Union and then Russia continued a scientific whale hunt, though the verisimilitude of the intentions of the hunt over the last 40 years are questioned. The Soviet Union's intensive illegal whaling program from 1948 to 1973 was controlled and managed by the central government. In Soviet society, whaling was perceived to be a glamorous and well-paid job. Whalers were esteemed as well-traveled adventurers, and their return to land was often celebrated elaborately such as with fanfare and parades. In regard to economics, the Soviet Union transformed from a \"rural economy into an industrial giant\" by disregarding the sustainability of a resource to fill high production targets. The government had controlled all industries, including fisheries, and whaling was not constrained by the need for sustainability through profits. Managers' and workers' production was incentivized with salary bonuses of 25%-60% and various other benefits, awards, and privileges. Many industries, whaling included, became a “manic numbers game”. Currently, Russians in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in the Russian Far East are permitted under IWC regulation to take up to 140 gray whales from the North-East Pacific population each year. About 40 beluga whales are caught in the Sea of Okhotsk each year. There are no recent data on catches in the Arctic Ocean or Bering Sea, where about 60 belugas per year were caught in the early 1980s.", "Natives of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines on the island of Bequia have a quota from the International Whaling Commission of up to four humpback whales per year using traditional hunting methods and equipment.", "In early July 2012, during IWC discussions in Panama, South Korea said it would undertake scientific whaling as allowed despite the global moratorium on whaling. South Korea's envoy to the summit, Kang Joon-Suk, said that consumption of whale meat \"dates back to historical times\" and that there had been an increase in the minke whale population since the ban took place in 1986. \"Legal whaling has been strictly banned and subject to strong punishments, though the 26 years have been painful and frustrating for the people who have been traditionally taking whales for food.\" He said that South Korea would undertake whaling in its own waters. New Zealand's Commissioner Gerard van Bohemen accused South Korea of putting the whale population at risk. He also cited Japan as having not contributed to science for several years despite undertaking scientific whaling. New Zealand's stated position may be seen by its media as less solid than Australia's on the matter given that its indigenous people are pushing forward with plans, unopposed by the government, to recommence whaling there. The people of Ulsan have also traditionally and contemporarily eaten whale meat. South Korea's representative at the IWC said that \"this is not a forum for moral debate. This is a forum for legal debate. As a responsible member of the commission we do not accept any such categorical, absolute proposition that whales should not be killed or caught.\" The sale and purchase of whale meat is allowed if an official certificate is issued for bycatch, where whales die when they are caught in nets used to catch other fish. Bycatch of whales and dolphines reached 2,751 in 2012 and 1,849 in 2014. Ulsan Environmental Education Institute director Oh Yeong-ae argued “The policy of allowing sale of whales caught incidentally may be encouraging illegal whaling,”.", "In the United States, beluga whaling is widely carried out, catching about 300 belugas per year, monitored by the Alaska Beluga Whale Committee. The annual catch ranges between 250-600 per year. Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale is carried out by nine different indigenous Alaskan communities, and is managed by the Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission which reports to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The hunt takes around 50 bowhead whales a year from a population of about 10,500 in Alaskan waters. Conservationists fear this hunt is not sustainable, though the IWC Scientific Committee, the same group that provided the above population estimate, projects a population growth of 3.2% per year. The hunt also took an average of one or two gray whales each year until 1996. The quota was reduced to zero in that year due to sustainability concerns. A future review may result in the gray whale hunt being resumed. Bowhead whales weigh approximately 5–10 times as much as minke whales. The Makah tribe in Washington State also reinstated whaling in 1999, despite protests from animal rights groups. They are currently seeking to resume whaling of the gray whale, a right recognized in the Treaty of Neah Bay, within limits (Article 4 of the Treaty)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General information.", "History.", "Early history.", "Imperial palace of Grona.", "Foundation of the town.", "Expansion.", "Growth and independence.", "Loss of independence to the present day.", "University.", "Railway.", "Third Reich era.", "Contemporary history.", "Cultural relevance.", "Incorporations.", "Demographics.", "Transport.", "Religion.", "Politics.", "Coat of arms.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities.", "Sport.", "Universities and colleges.", "Cultural establishments.", "Theatre.", "Museums, collections, exhibitions.", "Local media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of Göttingen lay in a village called \"Gutingi, \"first mentioned in a document in 953 AD. The city was founded northwest of this village, between 1150 and 1200 AD, and adopted its name. In medieval times the city was a member of the Hanseatic League and hence a wealthy town. Today, Göttingen is famous for its old university (\"Georgia Augusta\", or \"Georg-August-Universität\"), which was founded in 1734 (first classes in 1737) and became the most visited university of Europe. In 1837, seven professors protested against the absolute sovereignty of the kings of Hanover; they lost their offices, but became known as the \"Göttingen Seven\". Its alumni include some well-known historical figures: the Brothers Grimm, Heinrich Ewald, Wilhelm Eduard Weber and Georg Gervinus. Also, German Chancellors Otto von Bismarck and Gerhard Schröder attended law school at the Göttingen University. Karl Barth held his first professorship here. Some of the most famous mathematicians in history, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Bernhard Riemann and David Hilbert, were professors at Göttingen. Like other university towns, Göttingen has developed its own quaint traditions. On the day they are awarded their doctorate degrees, students are drawn in handcarts from the Great Hall to the \"Gänseliesel\"-Fountain in front of the Old Town Hall. There they have to climb the fountain and kiss the statue of the \"Gänseliesel\" (\"goose girl\"). This practice is actually forbidden, but the law is not enforced. The statue is considered the most kissed girl in the world. Nearly untouched by Allied bombing in World War II, the inner city of Göttingen is now an attractive place to live with many shops, cafes and bars. For this reason, many university students live in the inner city and give Göttingen a youthful feel. In 2003, 45% of the inner city population was only between 18 and 30 years of age. Commercially, Göttingen is noted for its production of optical and precision-engineered machinery, being the seat of the light microscopy division of Carl Zeiss, Inc., and a main site for Sartorius AG which specialises in bio-technology and measurement equipment—the region around Göttingen advertises itself as \"Measurement Valley\". Unemployment in Göttingen was 12.6% in 2003 and is now 7% (March 2014). The city's railway station to the west of the city centre is on Germany's main north–south railway. Göttingen has two professional basketball teams; both the men's and women's teams play in the \"Basketball-Bundesliga\". For the 2007–08 season, both teams will play in the 1st division.", "", "The origins of Göttingen can be traced back to a village named \"Gutingi\" to the immediate south-east of the eventual city. The name of the village probably derives from a small stream, called the \"Gote\", that once flowed through it. Since the ending \"-ing\" denoted \"living by\", the name can be understood as \"along the Gote\". Archaeological evidence points towards a settlement as early as the 7th century. It is first historically mentioned in a document by the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I in 953 AD, in which the emperor gives some of his belongings in the village to the Moritz monastery in Magdeburg. Archaeological findings point to extensive commercial relations with other regions and a developed craftsmanship in this early period.", "In its early days, \"Gutingi\" was overshadowed by \"\", historically documented from the year 915 AD as a newly built fortress, lying opposite \"Gutingi\" on a hill west of the River Leine. It was subsequently used as an Ottonian imperial palace, with 18 visits of kings and emperors documented between 941 and 1025 AD. The last Holy Roman Emperor to use the fortress of \"Grona\" (said to have been fond of the location), Heinrich II (1002–1024), also had a church built in the neighbouring \"Gutingi\", dedicated to Saint Alban. The current church building that occupies this site, the St. Albani Church, was built in 1423. The fortress then lost its function as a palace in 1025, after Heinrich II died there, having retreated to it in ill health. It was subsequently used by the lords of Grone. The fortress was destroyed by the citizens of Göttingen between 1323 and 1329, and finally razed to the ground by Duke Otto I during his feuds with the city of Göttingen in 1387.", "With time, a trading settlement started to form at the river crossing of the Leine to the west of the village, from which it took its name. It is this settlement that was eventually given city rights. The original village remained recognisable as a separate entity until about 1360, at which time it was incorporated within the town's fortification. It is likely the present city was founded between 1150 and 1180, although the exact circumstances are not known. It is presumed that Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria, founded the city. The configuration of the streets in the oldest part of the town is in the shape of a pentagon, and it has been proposed that the inception of the town followed a planned design. At this time, the town was known by the name \"Gudingin\" or also \"Gotingen\". Its inhabitants obeyed welfish ownership and ruling rights, and the first Göttingen burghers are mentioned, indicating that Göttingen was already organised as a true city. It was not, however, a Free Imperial City (), but subject to the Welf dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg. Henry the Elder (V) of Brunswick, eldest son of Henry the Lion and brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV, is given as the lord over Göttingen between 1201 and 1208. The original Welf residency in the town consisted of a farm building and the stables of the Welf dukes, which occupied the oldest part of the city's fortifications built prior to 1250. In its early days, Göttingen became involved in the conflicts of the Welfs with their enemies. The initial conflicts in the first decades of the 13th century benefited the burghers of Göttingen, who were able to use the political and military situation to be courted by various parties, and hence forcing the Welf town lords to make certain compromises with the town. In a document from 1232, Duke Otto the Child gave the citizens of Göttingen the same rights which they had held at the time of his uncles Otto IV and Henry the Elder of Brunswick. These included privileges concerning self-governance of the town, protection of traders, and trading facilitation. The document also promises that the town is not to fall into the hands of other powers. It is to be assumed that at this time Göttingen possessed a city council of burghers. The names of council members are first given in a document from 1247.", "The area secured by the initial fortification included the old market place, the old town hall, the two main churches, St. Johannes (\"St John's\") and St. Jacobi (\"St. James's\"), the smaller church St. Nikolai (\"St. Nicholas's\"), as well as the large Weender Straße, Groner Straße and Rote Straße (\"red street\"). Outside of the fortification in front of the \"Geismar\" city gate lay the old village with the Church of St. Alban, which was subsequently known as \"Geismarer altes Dorf\" (old \"Geismar\" village). This village was only to a limited extent under welfish control and thus could not be included in the town's privileges and fortification. The town was initially protected by a rampart, as of the late 13th century then also by walls on top of the mound-like ramparts. Of these, only one tower with a short stretch of the wall survives in the \"Turmstraße\" (tower street). The thus protected area included maximally 600 m by 600 m, or about 25 hectares. This made it smaller than contemporary Hanover, but larger than the neighbouring Welfish towns of Northeim, Duderstadt and Hann. Münden. The \"Gote\" stream that flowed south of the walls of the town was connected to the River Leine via a channel at about this time and the waterway has since been known as the Leine Canal. After the death of Otto the Child in 1257, his sons Albert I of Brunswick (the Great) and Johann inherited their father's territories. Duke Albrecht I governed for his brother, a minor, at first. Subsequently, the brothers agreed to divide the territory between themselves in 1267, effective 1269. The city of Göttingen went to Albert I, and was inherited by his son Duke Albert II \"the Fat\" in 1286. Albert II chose Göttingen as his residence and moved into the Welf residency, which he rebuilt into a fortress known as the \"Ballerhus\", after which the \"Burgstraße\" (fortress street) is named. Albert II attempted to gain further control over the economically and politically rapidly growing town by founding a \"new town\" () west of the original town, across the Leine Canal and outside of the Groner City Gate. This competing settlement consisted of a single street, no more than 80 yards long, with houses on either side of the street. The Duke, however, could not prevent Göttingen's westward expansion nor the success of the Göttingen City Council in effectively checking any hope of economic development in the \"Neustadt\". The St. Marien Church (\"St. Mary's\") was built to the south of the \"Neustadt\" which, together with all adjoining farm buildings, was given to the Teutonic Knights in 1318. After the failure of the \"new town\", the city council bought up the uncomfortable competition to the west in 1319 for three hundred Marks, and obtained the promise from the Duke that he would not erect any fortress within a mile of the town. Two monasteries were also founded on the edge of the town at the end of the 13th century. To the east, in the area of today's \"Wilhelmsplatz\", a Franciscan monastery was built as early as 1268, according to the city chronicler Franciscus Lubecus. Since the Franciscans walked barefoot as part of their vow of poverty, they were known colloquially as \"the barefoot people\", hence the name \"Barfüßerstraße\" (Barefoot People's Street) for the road that led to the monastery. In 1294, Albert the Fat permitted the founding of a Dominican monastery along the Leine Canal opposite the \"Neustadt\", for which the \"Paulinerkirche\" (\"Pauline church\"), completed in 1331, was constructed. Jews settled in Göttingen in the late 13th century. On 1 March 1289, the Duke gave the City Council permission to allow the first Jew, Moses, to settle inside the town limits. The subsequent Jewish population lived predominantly close to St. James's Church on the \"Jüdenstraße\".", "After Albert the Fat's death in 1318, Göttingen passed to Otto the Mild (d. 1344), who ruled over both the \"Principality of Göttingen\" () and the territory of Brunswick. These dukes joined Göttingen and surrounding towns in battles against aristocratic knights in the surroundings of Göttingen, in the course of which the citizens of Göttingen succeeded in destroying the fortress of Grone between 1323 and 1329, as well as the fortress of Rosdorf. Since Otto the Mild died without leaving any children, his brothers Magnus and Ernest divided the land between themselves. Ernest I received Göttingen, the poorest of all the Welf principalities, which was to remain separate from Brunswick for a long time to come. At this time, the territory consisted of the regions formerly owned by Northeim, the towns of Göttingen, Uslar, Dransfeld, Münden, Gieselwerder and half of Moringen. Not much is known about the rule of Duke Ernest I, but it is generally assumed that he continued to fight against aristocratic knights. Ernest I was succeeded after his death in 1367 by his son Otto I of Göttingen (the Evil; German: \"der Quade\") (d. 1394), who initially lived in the city's fortress and attempted to make it a permanent Welf residency. The epithet \"the Evil\" came from Otto I's incessant feuds. Breaking with the policies of his predecessors, he frequently aligned himself with the aristocratic knights of the neighbourhood in battles against the cities, whose growing power disturbed him. Under Otto the Evil, Göttingen gained a large degree of independence. After losing control of the provincial court at the Leineberg to Göttingen in 1375, Otto finally tried to impose his influence on Göttingen in 1387, but with little success. In April 1387, Göttingen's citizens stormed and destroyed the fortress within the city's walls. In retaliation, Otto destroyed villages and farms in the town's surroundings. However, Göttingen's citizens gained a victory over the Duke's army in a battle between the villages of Rosdorf and Grone, under their leader Moritz of Uslar, forcing Otto to acknowledge the independence of the town and its surrounding properties. 1387 thus marks an important turning point in the history of the town. Göttingen's relative autonomy was further strengthened under Otto's successor Otto II \"the One-eyed\" of Göttingen (), not least because the Welf line of Brunswick-Göttingen died out with Otto II, and the resulting questions surrounding his succession after his abdication in 1435 destabilized the regional aristocracy. After Duke Otto I of Göttingen relinquished his jurisdiction over Jews to the town of Göttingen in the years 1369–70, conditions for Jews greatly deteriorated, and several bloody persecutions and evictions from the town followed. Between 1460 and 1599, no Jews lived in Göttingen at all. The trend towards ever diminishing Welf influence over the town continued until the end of the 15th century, although the town officially remains a Welf property. Nevertheless, it is counted in some contemporaneous documents among the Imperial Free Cities. The 14th and 15th centuries thus represent a time of political and economic power expansion, which is also reflected in the contemporary architecture. The expansion of the St. Johannis Church to a Gothic hall church began in the first half of the 14th century. As of 1330, a Gothic structure also replaced the smaller St Nikolai Church (\"St. Nicholas's\"). After completion of the work on St. John's Church, the rebuilding of St James's was begun in the second half of the 14th century. The original, smaller church that preceded this building was probably initiated by Henry the Lion or his successor, and functioned as a fortress chapel to the city fortress that lay immediately behind it. The representative old town hall was built between 1366 and 1444. Around 1360, the town's fortifications were rebuilt to encompass now also the \"new town\" and the \"old village\". In the course of this construction work, the four city gates were moved farther out, and the town's area grew to roughly 75 hectares. The city council forged alliances with surrounding towns, and Göttingen joined the Hanseatic League in 1351 (see below). Göttingen also gained \"Grona\" (currently Grone) and several other surrounding villages in the Leine Valley. The reason for the progressive power increase in the late Middle Ages was the growing economic importance of the town. This depended largely on its good connection to the north–south trade route, particularly the north–south trade route that followed the Leine Valley, which greatly aided the local textile industry in particular. Next to the guild of linen weavers, the guild of wool weavers gained in importance. The wool for the weaving originated in the immediate surroundings of the town, where up to 3000 sheep and 1500 lambs were kept. Woollen cloth was successfully exported all the way to the Netherlands and Lübeck. From 1475, textile production was augmented by the addition of new weavers who brought novel weaving techniques to Göttingen and consolidated the position of the town as a textile exporter for three generations. Only at the end of the 16th century did the decline of the local textile industry occur when Göttingen could not compete anymore with cheap English textiles. Göttingen's traders also profited from the important trade route between Lübeck and Frankfurt am Main. Göttingen's market became important beyond the region. Traders from other regions would come in great numbers four times a year. Göttingen also joined the Hanseatic League, to the first meeting of which it was invited in 1351. Göttingen's relationship with the Hanseatic League remained distant, however. As an inland town, Göttingen enjoyed the economic connections of the League, but it did not want to get involved in the politics of the alliance. Göttingen only became a paying member in 1426, and left as early as 1572.", "After several dynastic splits and shifts in power that followed the death of Otto the One-Eyed, Duke Eric I \"the Elder\", Prince of Calenberg, annexed the principality of Göttingen, which became an integral part of the Principality of Calenberg. The town refused to pay homage to Eric I in 1504, and as a result, Eric I had the Emperor Maximilian I, declare the town of Göttingen outlawed. The subsequent tensions economically weakened Göttingen, leading to the town finally paying its homage to Eric I in 1512. Afterward the relationship between Eric and the town improved, because of Eric's financial dependence on Göttingen. In 1584 the city came into the possession of the dukes of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, also of the Welf dynasty, and in 1635 it passed to the house of Lüneburg, which ruled it thenceforth. In 1692 it was named as part of the indivisible territory Electoral State of Hanover (officially the Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg).", "The University of Göttingen was founded in 1737 by George II Augustus, who was king of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and prince-elector of Hanover. During the Napoleonic period, the city was briefly in the hands of Prussia in 1806, turned over in 1807 to the newly created Napoleonic Kingdom of Westphalia, and returned to the State of Hanover in 1813 after Napoleon's defeat. In 1814 the prince-electors of Hanover were elevated to kings of Hanover and the Kingdom of Hanover was established. During the Austro-Prussian War (1866), the Kingdom of Hanover had attempted to maintain a neutral position. After Hanover voted in favor of mobilizing confederation troops against Prussia on 14 June 1866, Prussia saw this as a just cause for declaring war. In 1868, the Kingdom of Hanover was dissolved and Göttingen became part of the Prussian Province of Hanover. The Province of Hanover was disestablished in 1946.", "In 1854 the city was connected to the new Hanoverian Southern Railway. Today, Göttingen railway station is served by (ICE) high-speed trains on the Hanover–Würzburg high-speed line.", "During the 1930s, Göttingen housed the top math-physics faculty in the world, led by eight men, almost all Jews, who became known as the Göttingen eight. Their members included Leó Szilárd and Edward Teller. This faculty was not tolerable to the Reich, however, and the University of Göttingen suffered greatly as a result. The Göttingen eight were expelled, and these men were forced to emigrate to the West in 1938. Szilárd and Teller went on to become key members of the Manhattan Project team. Ironically, the Nazi insistence on a \"German physics\" prevented German scientists from applying Albert Einstein's breakthrough insights to physics, a policy which stifled the further development of physics in Germany. After the end of World War II, the famous university had to be reorganised almost from scratch, especially in the physics, mathematics and chemistry departments, a process which has continued into the 21st century. The population of Göttingen supported Hitler and Nazism from an early date. As early as 1933 the Theaterplatz (Theater Square) was renamed Adolf-Hitlerplatz, and by the end of World War II 70 streets had been renamed in reference to the Nazi regime or military topics. The absorption of Nazi culture into the everyday life of the citizens of Göttingen has been documented by historian David Imhoof. The synagogue in Göttingen was destroyed during \"Kristallnacht\" on 9 November 1938. Many of the Jews were killed in Nazi German extermination camps. Also, there was a concentration camp for adolescents in Moringen, which was not liberated until 1945. During the widespread British, Canadian and American air raids on Nazi Germany, Göttingen suffered comparatively little damage. Only about 2.1% of the city was destroyed. Beginning in July 1944, the air raids were sometimes heavier, but these mainly hit the area of the main railway station last on 7 April 1945. The historic old town of Göttingen remained practically undamaged. The \"Junkernschänke\", a historic half-timbered house was destroyed in a 1945 air-raid and the exterior was not properly reconstructed until the 1980s. Two of the churches (\"Paulinerkirche\" and \"Johanniskirche\") in the old town, and several buildings of the university, were heavily damaged. The Institute of Anatomy and 57 residential buildings, especially in Untere Masch Street in the centre of the city, were completely destroyed. Overall, only about 107 deaths were caused by the air raids, a comparatively small number. However, the neighbouring cities of Hanover and Brunswick experienced a much greater impact from the bombing raids. Kassel was destroyed several times. Because the city had many hospitals, those hospitals had to take care of up to four thousand wounded Wehrmacht soldiers and airmen during World War II. Göttingen was also fortunate in that before troops of the U.S. Army arrived in Göttingen on 8 April 1945, all of the Wehrmacht's combat units had departed from this area, hence Göttingen experienced no heavy ground fighting, artillery bombardments or other major combat.", "In a reform in 1973 the district of Göttingen was enlarged by incorporating the dissolved districts of Duderstadt and Hannoversch Münden.", "Prior to the period of German romanticism, a group of German poets that had studied at this university between 1772 and 1776, formed the Göttinger Hainbund or \"\"Dichterbund\"\" ('circle of poets'). Being disciples of Klopstock, they revived the folksong and wrote lyric poetry of the Sturm und Drang period. Their impact was essential on romanticism in the German-speaking area and on folklore in general. Since the 1920s, the town has been associated with the revival of interest in the music of George Frideric Handel. The Göttingen International Handel Festival is held each summer with performances in the Stadthalle Göttingen and a number of churches. The city is home to several ensembles such as the Göttinger Sinfonie Orchester or the Göttingen Boys' Choir, which are also performing nationwide. In the mid-1960s, the song named after the city by the French singer Barbara created a considerable popular impetus towards post-war Franco-German reconciliation. A street in the city – Barbarastraße – is named after her. Because of the city's long association with academics and scholarly journals, Göttingen has acquired the motto \"Die Stadt, die Wissen schafft.\" The phrase is a pun: \"Die Stadt der Wissenschaft\" means 'the city of science,' \"Die Stadt, die Wissen schafft\" (identical pronunciation apart from \"der\" ~ \"die\") means 'the city that creates knowledge.'", "The following communities were incorporated in the city of Göttingen:", "The city's population has increased since the Middle Ages. With the arrival of the early modern period, the growth rate greatly accelerated. The population peaked at 132,100 in 1985. In 2004, it stood at 129,466, of which around 24,000 were students.", "The Göttingen bus system is run by the GöVB (Göttinger Verkehrsbetriebe). Buses run throughout the city and to the neighboring villages, as well as intercity bus services from the station Göttingen ZOB, adjacent to the railway station. Göttingen railway station lies west of the medieval town center and provides links to several destinations in Germany. Like most German cities, the town is bicycle-friendly, with bicycle paths throughout the commercial areas (except for in pedestrian-only shopping areas) and beyond. The time to pedal downtown from the outskirts is fifteen to twenty minutes.", "After the Middle Ages, the area of Göttingen was part of the archbishopric of Mainz, and most of the population were Roman Catholic. Starting in 1528, the teachings of church reformer Martin Luther became more and more popular in the city. In 1529 the first Protestant sermon was preached in the Paulinerkirche, a former Dominican monastery church. For many centuries, nearly all the people in the city were Lutherans. As of today, the area of Göttingen is part of the Lutheran Church of Hanover. Apart from this state church, there are several other Protestant churches in Göttingen, known as \"Freikirchen\". In 1746, Catholic services in Göttingen were resumed, at first only for the students of the new university, but a year later for all citizens who wished to attend. However, it was not until 1787 that the first Catholic church since the Reformation, St. Michael's, was built. In 1929 a second Catholic church, St. Paul's, was erected. Today, the major religions are Lutheran and Catholicism. In addition, there has been a Baptist congregation since 1894, a Mennonite congregation since 1946, as well as a congregation of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There is a documented Jewish community dating back to the 16th century. During the Third Reich, the synagogue was destroyed in the \"Reichsprogromnacht\" on 9 November 1938, as were many others throughout Germany. The Jewish community was persecuted, and many of its members met their deaths in the concentration camps. In recent years, the Jewish community has again been flourishing, with the immigration of Jewish people from the states of the former Soviet Union. In 2004, the first Shabbat could be celebrated in the new Jewish community centre. Finally, there are many Islamic congregations. Islam gained a foothold in Göttingen, as it did in other German cities, with the immigration of the Turks during the \"Wirtschaftswunder\" in the 1960s and 1970s. They constitute the majority of Muslims in Göttingen. Other Muslims are of Arab origin or come from West Asia. There are two mosques in the city. There is a secular trend in Germany, especially in Eastern Germany, but also in the West, where a growing number of people are not baptised or leave the church. This trend is especially noticeable since the 1990s, percentagewise between 1990 and 2014 the Protestants in Göttingen dropped from 56.2 to 40.6% and the Catholics dropped from 17.1 to 15.6%.", "A town council with 24 councillors dates from the 12th century. In 1319 this council took control of the new city district (\"Neustadt\") just in front of the wall. The council election took place on the Mondays following Michaelmas (September 29). Starting in 1611 all citizens were able to elect the 24 councillors. Previously this right was restricted and depended on income and profession. Afterwards, the council elected the \"Bürgermeister\" (mayor). In 1669 the number of councillors was reduced to 16, and later to 12. In 1690 the city administration was reorganised again. Then the council consisted of the judge, two mayors, the city lawyer (\"Syndikus\"), the secretary and eight councillors. All of these were appointed by the government. During the Napoleonic era the mayor was called \"Maire\", and there was also a city council. In 1831 there was another reform of the constitution and the administration. The title of the mayor changed to \"Oberbürgermeister\". In the following decades there were more reforms to the city administration, which reflected the constitutional and territorial reorganisations of Germany. During the Third Reich the mayor was appointed by the Nazi Party. In 1946 the authorities of the British Occupation Zone, to which Göttingen then belonged, introduced a communal constitution which reflected the British model.", "The coat of arms of Göttingen shows in the top half three silver towers with red roofs on a field of blue. The lateral towers possess four windows each and are crowned by golden crosses. Around the central tower are four silver balls. The city towers represent the status as a city which has been granted certain rights. In the bottom field is a golden lion on a red field. This lion represents the lion of the Welf dynasty, which in its various branches ruled the area of Göttingen for 850 years. This coat of arms was first documented in 1278. The city has sometimes used a simpler one, consisting of a black capital \"G\" on a golden field, topped with a crown.", "", "Göttingen is twinned with: There has been a solidarity agreement with La Paz Centro in Nicaragua since 1989 which has,, not yet led to a formal twinning agreement. The city is also the namesake of Göttingen Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada", "Göttingen has:", "Göttingen is officially a 'University town' and is known particularly for its University.", "", "Göttingen has two professional theatres, the \"Deutsches Theater\" and the \"Junges Theater\". In addition, there is, which mostly presents student productions.", "The university has a number of significant museums and collections.", "The local radio station Stadtradio Göttingen which is funded indirectly by the state of Lower Saxony broadcasts on FM 107.1 MHz and covers all parts of the city and some surrounding towns and villages. Its hourly news bulletins are the population's main source of local news. Additionally, the radio stations NDR 1, Hitradio Antenne Niedersachsen and Radio ffn provide specific local newscasts on their affiliate local frequencies. The regional newspaper Hessisch-Niedersächsische Allgemeine has editorial offices in Göttingen. Its local news service is available for free on the internet and competes directly with the \"Stadtradio\" news service: The Göttinger Tageblatt, is published by the Hannoversche Allgemeine Zeitung on Mondays through Saturdays." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1967–1976: ABA dynasty.", "1976–1987: Early NBA struggles.", "1987–2005: The Reggie Miller era.", "1994–1997: Larry Brown era.", "1997–2000: Larry Bird era.", "2000–2005: Isiah Thomas era.", "2005–2010: Danny Granger era.", "2010–2017: Paul George era.", "2017–present: Oladipo and Sabonis era.", "Home arenas.", "Indiana State Fairgrounds Coliseum (1967–1974).", "Market Square Arena (1974–1999).", "Bankers Life Fieldhouse (1999–present).", "Logos and uniforms.", "Rivalries.", "Detroit Pistons.", "New York Knicks.", "Miami Heat.", "Season-by-season record.", "Players.", "Retired numbers.", "Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Famers.", "Head coaches.", "Franchise records and individual awards.", "Franchise leaders.", "NBA individual awards.", "ABA individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend.", "Mascot.", "Dance squad." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In early 1967, a group of six investors (attorney Richard Tinkham, John DeVoe, Chuck DeVoe, entrepreneur Lyn Treece, sports agent Chuck Barnes, and Indianapolis Star sports writer Bob Collins) pooled their resources to purchase a franchise in the proposed American Basketball Association. For their first seven years, they played in the Indiana State Fairgrounds Coliseum. In 1974, they moved to the plush new Market Square Arena in downtown", "The Pacers were one of four ABA teams that joined the NBA in the ABA–NBA merger in 1976. For the 1976–77 season the Pacers were joined in the merged league by the Denver Nuggets, New York Nets, and San Antonio Spurs. The league charged a $3.2 million entry fee for each former ABA team. Since the NBA would only agree to accept four ABA teams in the ABA–NBA merger, the Pacers and the three other surviving ABA teams also had to compensate the two remaining ABA franchises which were not a part of the merger, the Spirits of St.", "Reggie Miller from UCLA was drafted by the Pacers in 1987, beginning his career as a backup to John Long. Many fans at the time disagreed with Miller's selection over Indiana Hoosiers' standout Steve Alford. The Pacers missed the playoffs in 1987–88, drafted Rik Smits in the 1988 NBA draft, and suffered through a disastrous 1988–89 season in which coach Jack Ramsay stepped down following an 0–7 start. Mel Daniels and George Irvine filled in on an interim basis before Dick Versace took over the 6–23 team on the way to a 28–54 finish. In February 1989, the team traded veteran center Herb Williams to the Dallas Mavericks for future NBA Sixth Man-of-the Year Detlef Schrempf. From 1989 to 1993, the Pacers would play at or near.500 and qualify for the playoffs, in 1989–90, the Pacers parlayed a", "Larry Brown was brought aboard as Pacers' coach for the 1993–94 season, and Pacers' general manager Donnie Walsh completed a then highly criticized trade as he sent Schrempf to the Seattle SuperSonics in exchange for Derrick McKey and little known Gerald Paddio. But the Pacers won their last eight games of the season to finish with an NBA-era franchise-high 47 wins. They stormed past Shaquille O'Neal and the Orlando Magic in a first-round sweep to earn their first NBA playoff series win, and pulled off an upset by defeating the top-seeded Atlanta Hawks in the Conference semifinals. With the 1994 Eastern Conference Finals tied going into Game 5 in New York, and the Pacers trailing the Knicks by 15 points early in the fourth quarter, Reggie Miller scored 25 points in that quarter, including five 3-point field goals. Miller also flashed the choke sign to the Knicks' number one fan, Spike Lee, while leading the Pacers to the come from behind victory. The Knicks ultimately came back to win the next two games and the series. Miller was a tri-captain and leading scorer of the USA Basketball team that won the gold medal at the 1994 FIBA World", "In the 1997–98 NBA season, Indiana native and former Boston Celtics great Larry Bird was hired as head coach. He led the Pacers to a 19-game improvement over the previous season, finishing 58–24 – at the time, the most the franchise had ever won as an NBA team, and tying the 1970–71 ABA Pacers for the franchise record. Chris Mullin joined the team in the off-season and immediately became a valuable part of the Pacers lineup—and starting small forward. Assistant coaches Rick Carlisle, in charge of the offense, and Dick Harter, who coached the defense, were key in getting the most out of the Pacers' role players such as Dale Davis, Derrick McKey and a young Antonio Davis. Miller and Rik Smits both made the All-Star", "The off-season brought sweeping changes to the Pacers' lineup, as Rik Smits and coach Larry Bird retired, Chris Mullin returned to his old Golden State Warriors team, Mark Jackson signed a long-term contract with Toronto, and Dale Davis was traded to Portland for Jermaine O'Neal, who went on to average 12.9 points per game in his first year as a starter. It was a rebuilding year for the Pacers under new head coach Isiah Thomas, but the team still managed to return to the playoffs, where they lost to the top-seeded Philadelphia 76ers in four games. In the midseason of 2001–02, the Pacers made a blockbuster trade with the Chicago Bulls that sent Jalen Rose and Travis Best to Chicago in exchange for Brad Miller, Ron Artest, Kevin Ollie and Ron Mercer. Miller and Artest would, in the next few years, go on to be All-Stars for the Pacers. The trade bolstered a team that had been floundering, and the Pacers managed to return to the playoffs, where they pushed the top-seeded New Jersey Nets to five games before losing Game 5 in double overtime. Jermaine O'Neal made his first of what would be several All-Star appearances in his Pacers career. The Pacers got off to a 13–2 start in 2002–03, but hit the wall after the All-Star break thanks in no small part to Ron Artest's multiple suspensions and family tragedies befalling Jermaine O'Neal, Jamaal Tinsley and Austin Croshere. O'Neal and Brad Miller both made the All-Star team and the Pacers made a substantial improvement as they finished 48–34, but they suffered a loss to the underdog Boston Celtics in the first round of the playoffs. In the 2003 off-season, the Pacers managed to re-sign O'Neal for the NBA maximum and inked Reggie Miller to a modest two-year deal, but they could not afford to keep their talented center, Brad Miller. He was dealt to the Sacramento Kings in exchange for Scot Pollard, who spent much of the following year watching from the bench and backing up Jeff Foster. The Pacers also signed Larry Bird as team president, and Bird wasted little time in dismissing coach Isiah Thomas and replacing him with Rick Carlisle. The Pacers responded to Carlisle extremely well, and had a breakthrough 2003–04 season in which they finished 61–21, earning the best record in the NBA as well as a franchise record. O'Neal and Artest made the All-Star team, and Artest was named the NBA's Defensive Player of the Year, the Pacers swept the Boston Celtics easily in the first round, and squeezed by a scrappy Miami Heat team in the conference semifinals. But the Detroit Pistons proved an impediment to Indiana's championship aspirations, as they defeated the Pacers", "Despite the loss of Reggie Miller, the Artest saga, and many key injuries the Pacers made the playoffs in 2006 for the 14th time in 15 years. They also were the only road team to win Game 1 of a first-round playoff series. However, New Jersey won game 2 to tie the series at 1–1 heading back to Indiana. In game 3 Jermaine O'Neal scored 37 points, as the Pacers regained a 2–1 series lead. The Nets, however, won games four and five to take a 3–2 series lead. In Game 6 Anthony Johnson scored 40 points but the Pacers' season came to an end as the Nets won 96–90. The Pacers finished the 2006–07 season as one of the worst seasons in team history.", "In the 2010 NBA draft, the Pacers selected forward/guard Paul George with the 10th overall pick. In the second round, they drafted guard Lance Stephenson, as well as forward Ryan Reid. The draft rights to Reid were traded on draft night to the Oklahoma City Thunder in exchange to the rights to forward/center Magnum Rolle. The Pacers signed George to his rookie contract on July 1, 2010. Stephenson signed a multi-year contract with the team on July 22. Just before training camp, Rolle was signed, along with big man Lance Allred. Both were cut before the regular season began. On August 11, 2010, the Pacers acquired guard Darren Collison and swingman James Posey from the New Orleans Hornets in a four-team, five-player deal. Troy Murphy was dealt to the New Jersey Nets in that trade. In the 2010–11 season, the team went 2–3 in the first five games. On November 9 in a home game against Denver, the team scored 54 points in the 3rd quarter alone, shooting 20–21 in the process, on the way to a 144–113 rout of the Nuggets. Led by Mike Dunleavy's 24 points in the period, the team set a franchise record for most points in a quarter and was only four points short of the all-time NBA record for points in a quarter (58) set in the 1970s. On January 30, 2011, the Pacers relieved Jim O'Brien of his coaching duties and named assistant coach Frank Vogel interim head coach. On the NBA's trade deadline on February 24, 2011, numerous sports news outlets, including ESPN, reported that the Pacers had agreed to a three-team trade that would have sent Josh McRoberts to the Memphis Grizzlies and Brandon Rush to the New Orleans Hornets, while the Pacers would have received O. J. Mayo from the Grizzlies in return, and the Hornets would have sent an unidentified player to the Grizzlies. However, the trading period expired at 3:00 pm EST, and the trade paperwork did not reach the NBA's main offices for approval until 3:02 pm. Thus, the trade was canceled and all aforementioned players remained with their original teams. With a victory over the Washington Wizards on April 6, 2011, the Pacers clinched their first playoff berth since 2006. In the first round, they were defeated by the No. 1 seed Chicago Bulls in five games. Despite a lopsided comparison in terms of the two teams' win-loss records, three of the four Pacers losses were close, losing games 1–3 by an average of five points. The Pacers named Vogel their permanent head coach on July 7, 2011. They acquired George Hill from the San Antonio Spurs on draft night. After the lockout, the Pacers signed former two-time All-Star power forward David West to a two-year deal. These new players contributed to the Pacers' record of 21–12 at the All Star break. The Pacers acquired another key piece in Leandro Barbosa from the Toronto Raptors at the trade deadline, mid-season. At the end of the 2011–12 season, the team, led in scoring by Danny Granger, clinched the playoffs as the third seed in the Eastern Conference. They finished with a 42–24 record, their best record since their 2003–04 season. On May 8, 2012, the Pacers defeated the Orlando Magic 105–87 to win their first playoff series since 2005 and would go on to play the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. On May 15, 2012 they defeated Miami to tie the second round series at 1–1. On May 17, they again beat Miami 94–75 to take the series lead 2–1. However, despite a hard-fought series between the two, the Heat won Game 6 to close the series at 4–2. The following season, Granger was sidelined by a knee injury and managed to only play 5 games. Granger made his return during the 2013–14 season, however failed to regain his form of the previous seasons, Granger was then traded to the Philadelphia 76ers for guard Evan Turner and forward Lavoy Allen in a swap that took", "On June 30, 2017, Paul George was traded to the Oklahoma City Thunder for Victor Oladipo and Domantas Sabonis. The Pacers received heavy criticism for this trade, but it would eventually prove to be the best season of Oladipo's career, with him showing an increase in points, steals, assists, rebounds, free throw percentage, field goal percentage, as well as three-point percentage, which resulted to winning the NBA Most Improved Player Award. Sabonis also showed an increase in points, rebounds, and assists while leading the Pacers in rebounding during the 2017–18 season. Oladipo would be selected as a 2018 NBA All-Star reserve, while Sabonis was selected to represent Team World in the Rising Stars Challenge. Oladipo ended the season leading the NBA in steals per game. The Pacers ended the season with a 48–34 record, which earned them the fifth seed in the Eastern Conference. Their record was", "", "The Indiana State Fairgrounds Coliseum was home to the Pacers from 1967 to 1974. The Pacers were very successful in their tenure at the Coliseum, winning three ABA Championships. They captured the ABA titles in 1969–70, defeating the", "Market Square Arena was home of the Indiana Pacers from 1974 to 1999. The first Pacers basketball game ever held in the arena was a preseason game against the Milwaukee Bucks; attendance was 16,929. The first regular-season ABA game in the arena was held on October 18, 1974, against the San Antonio Spurs; the Pacers lost in double overtime, 129–121 in front of 7,473 fans. The first Pacers victory in Market Square Arena came on October 23 with a 122–107 win over the Spirits of St. Louis. The 1974–75 season ended for the Pacers", "The Indiana Pacers play their home games at Bankers Life Fieldhouse, which opened in 1999. Bankers Life Fieldhouse is located in downtown Indianapolis. It is owned and operated by the Capital Improvement Board, City of Indianapolis, Indiana and its groundbreaking was on July 22, 1997 by Ellerbe Becket Architects & Engineers. Originally known as Conseco Fieldhouse, the arena officially opened on November 6, 1999 and adopted its current name on December 22, 2011. It presently", "The Indiana Pacers colors are (navy) blue, yellow (gold), cool gray and white. The original team colors of blue and yellow, using a more medium shade of blue, came from the Flag of Indiana. The Pacers wear the usual white home uniform with blue and yellow trim. Their road uniform is blue with yellow trim. They also have a third uniform which is yellow with blue trim, which is worn occasionally at home or on the road. During the 1983 season, they wore the gold home uniform with blue and white trim at home. From 1997 to 2005 the Pacers sported pinstripe uniforms. One of their", "", "The Pacers and Pistons met for the first time in the 1990 Playoffs, the Pistons swept the Pacers in three straight games on their way to their second straight NBA championship. But the rivalry truly began in the 2003–04 season. The Pacers finished with a league best 61 wins and were led by Jermaine O'Neal, Ron Artest, and Reggie Miller, and coached by Rick Carlisle. Carlisle had been fired by Detroit at the end of the previous season. Detroit was led by Chauncey Billups, Ben Wallace, Rasheed Wallace, Tayshaun Prince, and Richard Hamilton, and coached by Larry Brown. Indiana won the first 3 matchups in the regular season, before being defeated by the Pistons in the final regular-season meeting at the Palace. That was also the first time the two met after Rasheed Wallace was traded to Detroit. They met in the 2004 Eastern Conference Finals. Indiana narrowly won Game 1, thanks to some late heroics", "During the 1990s, the Knicks and Pacers were perennial playoff teams. They met in the playoffs 6 times from 1993 to 2000, fueling a rivalry epitomized by the enmity between Miller and prominent", "A recent rivalry with the Miami Heat was triggered with the team in the Eastern Conference Semifinals of the 2012 NBA Playoffs. The two previously met in the 2004 NBA Playoffs (when Indiana won 4–2)., the only players still left from either team are Udonis Haslem of the Heat and Lance Stephenson of the Pacers (now in his second stint). Both head coaches were fined for statements made relating to the officiating: Frank Vogel accused the Heat of flopping before the series started, while Erik Spoelstra took offense to what he perceived to be deliberate head-hunting of his players on the", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Pacers. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "", "", "There have been 13 head coaches for the Pacers franchise. Larry Staverman was the first coach of the team in 1967, when the team was in the ABA. Coach Bobby Leonard has the most wins in franchise history, with 529 in his 12 seasons with the team. After Leonard, Jack McKinney, George Irvine, and Dr. Jack Ramsay. When Ramsay abruptly resigned in 1988 after the team got off to a horrid start, Pacers legend Mel Daniels took over on an interim basis for two games, before Irvine returned for 20 more. Dick Versace then led the Pacers", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team.", "NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Most Improved Player of the Year NBA", "ABA Most Valuable Player Award ABA Playoffs Most Valuable Player ABA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player", "NBA All-Star selections NBA All-Star", "Boomer, the Pacers panther, has been", "Founded in 1967, same year as the Pacers franchise, the Indiana Pacemates were one of the original professional sports dance squads and the first such entity in the NBA. Originally known in the ABA era as the \"Marathon Scoreboard Girls\", then later as the \"Paul Harris Pacesetters\", the Pacemates name has been used since the 1972–1973 season." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Industrial types.", "Materials and firing.", "History and notable examples.", "Asia.", "Europe." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In industrial ceramics, five basic categories of stoneware have been suggested:", "The key raw material in stoneware is either naturally occurring stoneware clay or non-refractory fire clay. The mineral kaolinite is present but disordered, and although mica and quartz are present their particle size is very small. Stoneware clay is often accompanied by impurities such as iron or carbon, giving it a \"dirty\" look, and its plasticity can vary widely. Non-refractory fire clay may be another key raw material. Fire clays are generally considered refractory, because they withstand very high temperatures before melting or crumbling. Refractory fire clays have a high concentration of kaolinite, with lesser amounts of mica and quartz. Non-refractory fire clays, however, have larger amounts of mica and feldspar. Formulations for stoneware vary considerably, although the vast majority will conform to: plastic fire clays, 0 to 100 percent; ball clays, 0 to 15 percent; quartz, 0 to 30 percent; feldspar and chamotte, 0 to 15 percent. Stoneware can be once-fired or twice-fired. Maximum firing temperatures can vary significantly, from 1100 °C to 1300 °C depending on the flux content. Typically, temperatures will be between 1180 °C and 1280 °C, the higher end of which equate to Bullers Rings 38 to 40 or Seger cones 4 to 8. To produce a better quality fired glaze finish, twice-firing can be used. This can be especially important for formulations composed of highly carbonaceous clays. For these, biscuit firing is around 900 °C, and glost firing (the firing used to form the glaze over the ware) 1180–1280 °C. Water absorption of stoneware products is less than 1 percent. Another type, Flintless Stoneware, has also been identified. It is defined in the UK Pottery (Health and Welfare) Special Regulations of 1950 as: \"Stoneware, the body of which consists of natural clay to which no flint or quartz or other form of free silica has been added.\" Traditional East Asian thinking classifies pottery only into \"low-fired\" and \"high-fired\" wares, equating to earthenware and porcelain, without the intermediate European class of stoneware, and the many local types of stoneware were mostly classed as porcelain, though often not white and translucent. Methods of forming stoneware bodies include moulding, slipcasting and wheel throwing. Underglaze and overglaze decoration of many types can be used. Much tableware in stoneware is white-glazed and decorated, and it is then visually highly similar to porcelain or faience earthenware.", "", "The Indus Valley Civilization produced stoneware, with an industry of a nearly industrial-scale mass-production of stoneware bangles throughout the civilization's Mature Period (2600–1900 BC). Early examples of stoneware have been found in China, naturally as an extension of higher temperatures achieved from early development of reduction firing, with large quantities produced from the Han dynasty onwards. In both medieval China and Japan, stoneware was very common, and several types became admired for their simple forms and subtle glaze effects. Japan did not make porcelain until about 1600, and north China (in contrast to the south) lacks the appropriate kaolin-rich clays for porcelain on a strict Western definition. Jian ware in the Song dynasty was mostly used for tea wares, and appealed to Buddhist monks. Most Longquan celadon, a very important ware in medieval China, was stoneware. Ding ware comes very close to porcelain, and even modern Western sources are notably divided as to how to describe it, although it is not translucent and the body often grey rather than white. In China, fine pottery was very largely porcelain by the Ming dynasty, and stoneware mostly restricted to utilitarian wares, and those for the poor. Exceptions to this include the unglazed Yixing clay teapot, made from a clay believed to suit tea especially well, and Shiwan ware, used for popular figures and architectural sculpture. But in Japan many traditional types of stoneware, for example Oribe ware and Shino ware, were preferred for chawan cups for the Japanese tea ceremony, and have been valued up to the present for this and other uses. From a combination of philosophical and nationalist reasons, the primitive or folk art aesthetic qualities of many Japanese village traditions, originally mostly made by farmers in slack periods in the agricultural calendar, have retained considerable prestige. Influential tea masters praised the rough, spontaneous, \"wabi-sabi\", appearance of Japanese rural wares, mostly stoneware, over the perfection of Chinese-inspired porcelain made by highly-skilled specialists. Stoneware was also produced in Korean pottery, from at least the 5th century, and much of the finest Korean pottery might be so classified; as in China, the border with porcelain is rather fuzzy. Not only celadons but much underglaze blue and white pottery can be called stoneware. Thailand manufactured stoneware in two principal kiln centres, Si Satchanalai and Sukhothai. The firing technology used in Thailand seems to have come from China.", "In contrast to Asia, stoneware could be produced in Europe only from the late Middle Ages, as European kilns were less efficient, and the right sorts of clay less common. Some ancient Roman pottery had approached being stoneware, but not as a consistent type of ware. Medieval stoneware remained a much-exported speciality of Germany, especially along the Rhine, until the Renaissance or later, typically used for large jugs, jars and beer-mugs. \"Proto-stoneware\", such as Pingsdorf ware, and then \"near-stoneware\" was developed there by 1250, and fully vitrified wares were being produced on a large scale by 1325. The salt-glazed style that became typical was not perfected until the late 15th century. England was to become the most inventive and important European maker of fancy stoneware in the 18th and 19th centuries, but there is no clear evidence for native production before the mid-17th century. German imports were common from the early 16th century at least, and known as \"Cologne ware\" after the centre of shipping it, rather than making it. Some German potters were probably making it in London in the 1640s, and a father and son Wooltus (or Woolters) were doing so in Southampton in the 1660s. Many modern commercial glazed tablewares and kitchenwares use stoneware rather than porcelain or bone china, and it is common in craft and studio pottery. The popular Japanese-inspired raku ware is normally stoneware. Notable historical European types include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Franchise history.", "1941–1957: Fort Wayne (Zollner) Pistons.", "1957–1979: Decades of struggles.", "1980–1991: The \"Bad Boys\" era.", "1992–2000: Dormancy.", "1994–2000: The Grant Hill era.", "2000–2008: \"Goin' to Work\" era.", "2000–2002: Building a contender.", "2003–2008: Six consecutive Eastern Conference Finals.", "2008–present: Rebuilding.", "2008–2011: Failed rebuilding.", "2011–2015: New ownership; more struggling.", "2016: Return to the playoffs.", "2017–present: Returning to downtown Detroit.", "Media coverage.", "Radio.", "TV.", "Team identity.", "Logos and uniforms.", "Season-by-season record.", "Home arenas.", "Players.", "Retained draft rights.", "Retired numbers.", "Basketball Hall of Fame members.", "Individual records and awards.", "Franchise leaders.", "Individual awards.", "NBA All-Star Weekend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Detroit Pistons franchise was founded as the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons, a National Basketball League (NBL) team, in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Owner Fred Zollner's Zollner Corporation was a foundry that manufactured pistons, primarily for car, truck, and locomotive engines. The Zollner Pistons were NBL champions in 1944 and 1945. They also won the World Professional Basketball Tournament in 1944, 1945 and 1946. In 1948, the team became the Fort Wayne Pistons, competing in the Basketball Association of America (BAA). In 1949, Fred Zollner brokered the formation of the National Basketball Association from the BAA and the NBL at his kitchen table. There are", "Though the Pistons enjoyed a solid local following, Fort Wayne's small size made it difficult for them to be profitable, especially as other early NBA teams based in smaller cities started folding or relocating to larger markets. After the 1956–57 season, Zollner decided that Fort Wayne was too small to support an NBA team and announced the team would be playing elsewhere in the coming season. He ultimately settled on Detroit. Although it was the fifth largest city in the United States at the time, Detroit had not seen professional basketball in a decade. They lost the Detroit Eagles due to World War II, both the Detroit Gems of the NBL (whose remnants became the Minneapolis Lakers) and the Detroit Falcons of the BAA in 1947, and the Detroit Vagabond Kings in 1949. Zollner decided to keep the Pistons name, believing it made sense given Detroit's status as the center of the automobile industry. George Yardley set the NBA single-season scoring record in", "The Pistons stumbled their way out of the 1970s and into the 1980s, beginning with a 16–66 record in 1979–80 and following up with a 21–61 record in 1980–81. The 1979–80 team lost its last 14 games of the season which, when coupled with the seven losses at the start of the 1980–81 season, comprised a then-NBA record losing streak of 21 games. The franchise's fortunes finally began to turn in 1981, when they drafted point guard Isiah Thomas from Indiana University. In November 1981, the Pistons acquired Vinnie Johnson in a trade with the Seattle SuperSonics. They would later acquire center Bill Laimbeer in a trade with the Cleveland Cavaliers in February 1982. Another key move by the Pistons was the hiring of head coach Chuck Daly in 1983. Initially, the Pistons had a tough time moving up the NBA ladder. In 1984, the Pistons lost a tough five-game series to the underdog New York Knicks, 3–2. In the 1985 playoffs, Detroit won its first-round series and faced the defending champion Boston Celtics in", "After getting swept by the Bulls, the Pistons would trade James Edwards and waive Vinnie Johnson during the off-season. In the 1991–92 season, the Pistons finished with a 48–34 record. In the first round of the 1992 NBA playoffs, the Pistons were defeated by the New York Knicks in five games. Chuck Daly would resign as head coach after the season. Following Daly's departure, the Pistons went through a transitional period, as key players were either traded (Salley and Rodman), or retired (Laimbeer in 1993 and Thomas in 1994). They would bottom out in the 1993–94 season, finishing with a 20–62 record.", "Following the 1993–94 season, they were able to draft Grant Hill, a promising small forward, with the third overall pick. However, this period also saw the team make numerous questionable personnel decisions, such as the loss of free agent Allan Houston to the New York Knicks, the signing of free agent wash-outs Loy Vaught and Bison Dele; and head coaching changes from Ron Rothstein to Don Chaney to Doug Collins to Alvin Gentry to George Irvine in an eight-year span. Of these coaches, only Collins had any sort of success with the Pistons, winning 54 games in the 1996–97 season. The franchise even changed its team colors in 1996 from its traditional red and blue to teal, burgundy, gold and black in what proved to be a highly unpopular move with fans. The only color that did not change was white. This period has become known, often derisively, as the \"teal era\".", "", "After being swept by the Miami Heat in the 2000 playoffs, Joe Dumars, who had retired following the 1998–99 season, was hired as the team's president of basketball operations. He quickly faced what appeared to be a setback for the franchise, as Grant Hill elected to leave for the Orlando Magic. However, Dumars worked a sign and trade with Orlando that brought the Pistons Ben Wallace and Chucky Atkins in exchange for Hill. Both quickly entered the Pistons' starting lineup. Wallace in particular would develop", "In the 2002 off-season, Joe Dumars revamped the Pistons' roster by signing free agent Chauncey Billups, acquiring Richard \"Rip\" Hamilton from the Washington Wizards, and by drafting Tayshaun Prince from Kentucky. The Pistons posted consecutive 50-win seasons and advanced to the 2003 Eastern Conference Finals, for the first time since 1991. There, however, they were swept in four games by the New Jersey Nets. Despite the team's improvement, Rick Carlisle was fired in the 2003 off-season. There were believed to be five reasons for the firing: first, that Carlisle had appeared reluctant to play some of the team's younger players, such as Prince and Mehmet Okur, during the regular season; second, that some of the players had not gotten along with Carlisle; third, that Carlisle's offense was thought to be conservative; fourth, that Hall of Famer Larry Brown had become available; and finally fifth, that Carlisle was rumored to have alienated owner Bill Davidson with his personality. Brown accepted the job that summer. The Pistons' transformation into a championship team was completed with the February 2004 acquisition of Rasheed Wallace. The Pistons now had another big man to pose a threat from all parts of the court. The Pistons finished the season 54–28, recording their best record since 1997. In the 2004 playoffs, after defeating the Milwaukee Bucks in five games, they defeated the defending Eastern Conference champion New Jersey Nets in seven games after coming back from a 3–2 deficit. The Pistons then defeated the Pacers, coached by Carlisle, in six tough games to advance to the NBA Finals for the first time since 1990. Many analysts gave the Pistons little chance to win against their opponent, the Los Angeles Lakers, who had won three out of the previous four NBA championships, and who fielded a star-studded lineup that included Shaquille O'Neal, Kobe Bryant, Gary Payton and Karl Malone. However, the Pistons won the series in dominating fashion, defeating Los Angeles in five games for the team's third NBA championship. The Pistons posted double-digit wins in three of their four victories, and held the Lakers to a franchise-low 68 points in Game 3. Chauncey Billups was named NBA Finals MVP. With the win, Bill Davidson became the first owner to win both an NBA and NHL championship in the same year, as he had also won the Stanley Cup as owner of the Tampa Bay Lightning. Despite losing key members of their bench during the off-season (including Okur, Mike James and Corliss Williamson), the Pistons were considered a strong contender to win a second consecutive title in 2005. They won 54 games during the regular season, their fourth consecutive season of 50 or more wins. During the 2005 playoffs, they easily defeated the Philadelphia 76ers 4–1 and then rallied from a 2–1 deficit to finish off the Indiana Pacers, 4–2. In the Eastern Conference Finals, the Pistons faced the Miami Heat. Once again, the Pistons fell behind. However, they would ultimately win the series in seven games. In the NBA Finals, the Pistons faced the San Antonio Spurs. After both teams split the first four games of the series, the turning point came at the end of Game 5 in Detroit, which went into overtime. The Pistons were ahead 95–93 when Robert Horry sank the game-winning three-point basket for the Spurs with 5.8 seconds left in the extra session. The Pistons fought back to win Game 6 in San Antonio, setting up the first NBA Finals Game 7 since 1994. The Pistons then lost a hard-fought, low-scoring game to the Spurs, who won their third NBA championship since 1999. The Pistons' 2004–05 season was marked by a major controversy, as well as distracting issues involving Larry Brown. In the first month of the season, a Pacers–Pistons brawl erupted, one of the largest fan-player incidents in the history of American sports. It resulted in heavy fines and suspensions for several players, and a great deal of NBA and media scrutiny. Meanwhile, Brown was forced to leave the team on two occasions due to health concerns. During this time, he became involved in a series of rumors linking him to other job openings. Concerned about Brown's health, and angered over his alleged pursuit of other jobs during the season, the Pistons bought out", "", "On June 10, 2008, the Pistons hired Michael Curry to be their new head coach. In November 2008, the Pistons traded key members Chauncey Billups and Antonio McDyess to the Denver Nuggets for Allen Iverson. McDyess was later waived on November 10 and rejoined the Pistons on December 9. The trade was marked as a start of a new rebuilding process due to Iverson's free agent status at the end of the season. The season was marked with many controversies and injuries. As a result of this, and poor play, the Pistons dropped down the standings, only clinching a playoff berth on April 10, 2009. The Pistons finished the season at 39–43, securing their first losing season in eight years. The Pistons were then swept by the Cleveland Cavaliers", "On April 7, 2011, Karen Davidson, the widow of the late Bill Davidson, reached a long-awaited agreement to sell the franchise to billionaire Tom Gores, which was approved by the NBA Board of Governors in May. The deal also included The Palace of Auburn Hills and DTE Energy Music Theatre. According to \"Crain's Detroit Business\", the final sale price was $325 million, far lower than expected. In the 2011 NBA draft, the Pistons selected Brandon Knight, Kyle Singler and Vernon Macklin. Prior to the start of the 2011–12 season, the Pistons made several leadership changes, including appointing Dennis Mannion as president of the franchise and Palace Sports & Entertainment. The team decided to hire Lawrence Frank as the head coach. The 2011–12 season was an improvement from previous years for the Pistons, although they", "In the 2015 off-season, Pistons head coach Stan Van Gundy began to change the roster to his liking by making such acquisitions as Ersan İlyasova, Marcus Morris, Aron Baynes, and Steve Blake. They also drafted rookie Stanley Johnson with the eighth pick in the 2015 NBA draft and re-signed point guard Reggie Jackson. The Pistons entered the 2015–16 season with a stronger roster than the previous season, although they lost starter Greg Monroe to the Milwaukee Bucks in free agency. Andre Drummond started the season strong, earning himself", "Beginning with the 1978–79 season, the Pistons played their home games in suburban Oakland County, directly north of Detroit/Wayne County, first playing ten seasons at the Pontiac Silverdome, and then began play at The Palace of Auburn Hills starting in the 1988–89 season. Pistons owner Tom Gores, Palace Sports & Entertainment vice chairman Arn Tellum, and Olympia Entertainment, the Ilitch family's holding company that controls the Red Wings and Tigers, had been in negotiations over a partnership since the summer of 2015, with the Pistons possibly relocating to the new Little Caesars Arena as soon as the 2017–18 season. Talks intensified just as the Pistons were set to open their 2016–17 season, and as part of the terms of the agreement, there was discussion of a possible merger between Olympia and PS&E. Also contingent on a finalized agreement, the Pistons were looking for a parcel of land in the arena's vicinity, to build a new practice facility and team headquarters. The leasing agreement/partnership needed both city and league approval to be finalized. On November 22, 2016, the Pistons officially announced their intention to move to Little Caesars Arena, and the site of The Palace of Auburn Hills would be redeveloped and sold, with the arena likely to be demolished as part of the redevelopment. The Pistons remained the only NBA franchise to play in a", "", "The Pistons flagship radio station is WXYT-FM. There are several affiliate stations throughout", "The Pistons' current exclusive local television rights holder is Fox Sports Detroit. The regular TV announcers are George", "", "After moving from Fort Wayne, Indiana to Detroit in 1957, the Pistons' uniforms remained largely unchanged for two decades, featuring the word \"Pistons\" in blue block lettering. In the 1978–79 season, the team featured a uniform with lightning bolts on the sides and in the wordmark on the front of the jerseys. The team ditched the lightning bolt theme and returned to its classic block lettering and simple side panel pattern in 1981, staying with this look until 1996. That year, the Pistons changed its colors to teal, black, yellow and red, and unveiled a new logo with a horse's head and flaming mane. This color scheme lasted until 2001, when the team returned to the traditional red, white and blue colors, and a uniform pattern taking cues from the 1981–96 threads. The horse's head and flaming mane logo lasted until 2005, when the team switched to a more classic logo design. On August 14, 2013, the Pistons unveiled a new alternate uniform, with navy blue and red colors. It featured the words \"Motor City\" across the front and mark the club's first alternative look since they wore a", "\"List of the last five seasons completed by the Pistons. For the full season-by-season history,", "", "", "The Pistons hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA. A drafted player, either an international draftee or a college draftee who is not signed", "", "", "", "Bold denotes still active with team. \"Italic\" denotes still active but not with team. Points", "NBA Finals MVP NBA Defensive Player of the Year NBA Rookie of the Year NBA Sixth Man of the Year NBA Coach of the Year", "NBA Eastern All-Star Game" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "1967–69: The first three albums.", "Developing British folk rock.", "1970s: A time of change.", "1979–1985: The Cropredy era.", "1986–1997: Stability.", "1998–present.", "Public recognition.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Bassist Ashley Hutchings met guitarist Simon Nicol in North London in 1966 when they both played in the Ethnic Shuffle Orchestra. They rehearsed on the floor above Nicol's father's medical practice in a house called \"Fairport\" on Fortis Green in Muswell Hill – the same street on which Ray and Dave Davies of the Kinks grew up. The house name lent its name to the group they formed together as Fairport Convention in 1967 with Richard Thompson on guitar and Shaun Frater on drums. After their initial performance at St Michael's Church Hall in Golders Green on 27 May 1967, they had their first of many line-up changes as one member of the audience, drummer Martin Lamble, convinced the band that he could do a better job than Frater and replaced him. They soon added a female singer, Judy Dyble, which gave them a distinctive sound among the many London bands of the period.", "Fairport Convention were soon playing regularly at underground venues such as UFO and The Electric Garden, which later became the Middle Earth club. After only a few months, they caught the attention of manager Joe Boyd who secured them a contract with Polydor Records. Boyd suggested they augment the line-up with another male vocalist. Singer Iain Matthews (then known as Ian MacDonald) joined the band, and their first album, \"Fairport Convention\", was recorded in late 1967 and released in June 1968. At this early stage Fairport looked to North American folk and folk rock acts such as Joni Mitchell, Bob Dylan, and The Byrds for material and inspiration. The name \"Fairport Convention\" and the use of two lead vocalists led many new listeners to believe that they were an American act, earning them the nickname 'the British Jefferson Airplane' during this period. Fairport Convention played alongside Jefferson Airplane at the First Isle of Wight Festival, 1968. After disappointing album sales they signed a new contract with Island Records. Before their next recording Judy Dyble left and was replaced by the band with Sandy Denny, a folk singer who had previously recorded as a soloist and with Strawbs. Denny's distinctive voice, described by Clive James as ‘open space, low-volume, high-intensity’, is one of the characteristics of two albums released in 1969: \"What We Did on Our Holidays\" and \"Unhalfbricking\". These recordings marked the growth of much greater musicality and song-writing ability among the band. The first of these featured the Thompson-penned \"Meet on the Ledge\", which became their second single and eventually the band's unofficial anthem. During the recording of \"Unhalfbricking\", Matthews left after having sung on only one song, eventually to form Matthews Southern Comfort. He was not replaced; the other male members covered his vocal parts. The album featured a guest appearance by Birmingham folk fiddler Dave Swarbrick on a recording of \"A Sailor's Life\", a traditional song brought to the band by Denny from her folk club days. The recording of this track marked an important turning point for the band, sparking an interest in traditional music in Ashley Hutchings that led him to detailed research in the English Folk Dance and Song Society Library at Cecil Sharp House; this theme would become the basis for their next, much more ambitious, recording project. These two albums began to gain the band wider recognition. Radio DJ John Peel championed their music, playing their albums on his influential BBC shows. Peel also recorded a number of sessions which were later released as the album \"Heyday\" (1987). They enjoyed some mainstream success when they entered the singles charts with \"Si Tu Dois Partir\", a French-language version of Bob Dylan's \"If You Gotta Go, Go Now\". The record just missed the top twenty, but secured the band a slot on \"Top of the Pops\", Britain's most popular television pop music programme at the time. In 1969 four members of the band, one uncredited and three with pseudonyms, featured as backing musicians on the album \"Love Chronicles\" by Scottish folk artist Al Stewart.", "On 12 May 1969, on the way home from a gig at Birmingham venue Mothers, a club in Birmingham, Fairport's van crashed on the M1 motorway. Martin Lamble, aged only nineteen, and Jeannie Franklyn, Richard Thompson's girlfriend, were killed. The rest of the band suffered injuries of varying severity. They nearly decided to disband. However, they reconvened with Dave Mattacks taking over drumming duties and Dave Swarbrick, having made contribution to \"Unhalfbricking\", now joined as a full member. Boyd set the band up in a rented house in Farley Chamberlayne near Winchester in Hampshire, where they recuperated and worked on the integration of British folk music into rock and roll, which would result in the fourth album \"Liege & Lief\". Usually considered the highpoint of the band's long career, \"Liege & Lief\" was a huge leap forward in concept and musicality. The album consisted of six traditional tracks and three original compositions in a similar style. The traditional tracks included two sustained epics: \"Tam Lin\", which was over seven minutes in length, and \"Matty Groves\", at over eight. There was a medley of four traditional tunes, arranged, and, like many of the tracks, enlivened, by Swarbrick's energetic fiddle playing. The first side was bracketed by original compositions \"Come all ye\" and \"Farewell, Farewell\", which, in addition to information on the inside of the gatefold cover on Hutchings’ research, explaining English folk traditions, helped give the record the feel of a concept album. \"Farewell, Farewell\" and the final track \"Crazy Man Michael\", also saw the full emergence of the distinctive song writing talent of Thompson that was to characterize his contributions to the band and later solo career. The distinctive sound of the album came from the use of electric instruments and Mattacks’ disciplined drumming with Swarbrick's fiddle accompaniment in a surprising and powerful combination of rock with the traditional. The entire band had reached new levels of musicality, with the fluid guitar playing of Thompson and the ‘ethereal’ vocal of Denny particularly characteristic of the sound of the album. As the reviewer from AllMusic put it, the album was characterised by the ‘fusing [of] time-worn folk with electric instruments while honoring both’. A few British bands had earlier experimented with playing traditional English songs on electric instruments, (including Strawbs and Pentangle), but Fairport Convention was the first English band to do this in a concerted and focused way. Fairport Convention's achievement was not to invent folk rock, but to create a distinctly English branch of the genre, which would develop alongside, and interact with, American inspired music, but which can also be seen as a distinctively national reaction in opposition to it. \"Liege & Lief\" was launched with a sell-out concert in London's Royal Festival Hall late in 1969. It reached number 17 in the UK album chart, where it spent fifteen weeks.", "Disagreements arose about the direction of the band in the wake of this success. Ashley Hutchings wanted to explore more traditional material and left to form two groups that would rival Fairport for significance in English folk rock: Steeleye Span and the Albion Band. Sandy Denny also left to found her own group Fotheringay. Dave Pegg took over on bass guitar and has been the group's one constant ever since, in an unbroken membership of over four decades. The band made no serious attempt to replace Denny, and, although she would briefly return, the sound of the band would now be characterized by male vocals. Despite these changes the band produced another album, \"Full House\" (1970), which was remarkably successful as a project. Like its predecessor, it combined traditional songs, including a powerful rendition of \"Sir Patrick Spens\", with original compositions. The latter benefited from the writing partnership of Thompson and Swarbrick, most obviously on ‘Walk Awhile’ which would become a concert favourite. Despite the loss of Denny the band still possessed four vocalists, including the emerging voices of Nicol and Swarbrick, whose tones would dominate the sound of this period. It was favourably reviewed in Britain and America, drawing comparisons with the Band from \"Rolling Stone\" magazine who declared that ‘Fairport Convention is better than ever’. The album reached number 13 in the UK Chart and stayed in the chart for eleven weeks. The same year the band released a single 'Now Be Thankful' and made its American debut, touring with Traffic and Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young. In the recurring pattern, soon after the album's release Thompson left the band to pursue other projects and eventually his solo career. This left Simon Nicol as the only original member and Dave Swarbrick emerged as the leading force in the band. In 1970 the members and their families had moved into The Angel, a former pub in Hertfordshire and this inspired the next album \"Angel Delight\" (1971) the band's first to chart in the US, peaking at number 200 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and their only top ten album in the UK. The next project was an ambitious folk-rock opera developed by Swarbrick, based on the life of John 'Babbacombe' Lee, ‘the man they couldn't hang’ and released with the title \"Babbacombe Lee\" (1971). The concept format, originally without clear tracks, excited considerable press interest and it received good air play in the United States where it reached number 195. A version was produced by the BBC for TV in 1975 with narration by Melvyn Bragg. These two albums were also notable as the first time that Fairport had recorded consecutively with the same line-up, but inevitably stability did not last: Simon Nicol left early in late 1971 to join Ashley Hutchings' Albion Band and he was soon followed by Mattacks. Only Pegg and Swarbrick remained and the following few years have been dubbed 'Fairport confusion' as a bewildering sequence of band members came and went, but by 1973 Mattacks had returned and two former members of Sandy Denny's Fotheringay had joined the band, Denny's Australian husband Trevor Lucas on vocals and guitar and American Jerry Donahue on lead guitar. From these line-ups the band produced two studio albums: \"Rosie\", notable for the Swarbrick penned title track (1973) and \"Nine\" (1974), the ninth studio album by the band. The last of these contained writing contributions by Lucas to five of the nine tracks, which together with Donahue's country influences and outstanding guitar pyrotechnics gave the album a very distinctive feel. Denny rejoined the band in 1974 and there were considerable expectations, both artistic and commercial, placed on this line-up. Denny was featured on the album \"Rising for the Moon\" (1975), which became the band's highest US chart album when it reached number 143 on the \"Billboard\" 200 and the first album to reach the top one-hundred in the UK since Angel Delight, reaching no 52. During the \"Rising\" sessions, Mattacks fell out with producer Glyn Johns and was replaced by former Grease Band drummer Bruce Rowland. Poor UK sales for \"Rising\" did not aid morale and, despite the relative success of the line-up, Lucas and Donahue left the band, as did Denny in 1976. She died aged 31, in 1978, of a cerebral haemorrhage after falling down a flight of stairs. Rowland, Pegg, and Swarbrick fulfilled their remaining contractual obligations to Island Records by turning what had originally been a Swarbrick solo effort into the album \"Gottle O'Geer\" (1976) under the name 'Fairport' (as opposed to Fairport Convention) in the UK, and as 'Fairport featuring Dave Swarbrick' in the US, and with various session players and production by Simon Nicol, who subsequently rejoined the band. They then signed with Vertigo, but record sales continued to decline and after producing two of four contracted albums, \"The Bonny Bunch of Roses\" (1977) and \"Tipplers Tales\" (1978), Vertigo bought them out of their contract. It is claimed by members of the band that this was the only recording money they had seen up to that point.", "By 1979 the mainstream market for folk rock had largely disappeared, the band had no record deal, and Dave Swarbrick had been diagnosed with tinnitus, which made loud electric gigs increasingly difficult. Fairport decided to disband. They played a farewell tour and a final outdoor concert on 4 August in Cropredy, the Oxfordshire village where Dave and Christine Pegg lived. The finality of this occasion was mitigated by the announcement that the band would meet for a reunion. No record company wanted to release the live recordings of the tour and concert, so the Peggs founded Woodworm Records, which would be the major outlet for the band in the future. Members continued to take part in occasional gigs, particularly in festivals in continental Europe, and after a year they staged a reunion concert in Cropredy which became the annual Cropredy Festival. Over the next few years, it grew rapidly and emerged as the major mechanism for sustaining the band. In August 1981, the band held their annual reunion concert at Broughton Castle, rather than the usual Cropredy location. The concert was recorded, and released on the 1982 album \"Moat on the Ledge\". The Peggs continued to record and release the Cropredy concerts as 'official bootlegs'. These were supplemented by New Year's gigs in minor locations including the Half Moon at Putney and the Gloucester Leisure Centre. In 1983 the magazine \"Fairport Fanatics\" (later \"Dirty Linen\"), was created: a testament to the continued existence of a dedicated fan base. The remaining members pursued their own lives and careers outside of the band. Nicol, Pegg, and Mattacks had recorded and toured with Richard and Linda Thompson at times in the 1970s, and did so again during this period, culminating in their appearance on the \"Shoot Out the Lights\" album and tour in 1982. Bruce Rowlands gave up the music business and moved to Denmark and as a result Dave Mattacks returned as drummer for Fairport's occasional gigs. Dave Pegg was the first of several Fairporters to join Jethro Tull which gave him well-paying steady employment. Simon Nicol had teamed up with Dave Swarbrick in a highly regarded acoustic duo, but this partnership was made difficult by Swarbrick's sudden decision to move to Scotland, where, from 1984 he began to focus on his new project Whippersnapper. In 1985, Pegg, Nicol and Mattacks found that they all had some free time and an available studio belonging to Pegg. They decided that they needed some new material to add to the catalogue that had been suspended in 1978. As Swarbrick was unavailable, the selection of traditional tunes was more difficult than for past albums and there was a need for a replacement fiddle player and some vocals. Pegg and Nicol took over arranging duties on an instrumental medley and the band turned to sometime Albion Band members: jazz and folk violinist Ric Sanders and singer-songwriter Cathy Lesurf. They also had the help of ex-member Richard Thompson. Thompson and Lesurf contributed songs and took part in the recordings. Also important to the album was Ralph McTell who contributed one song and co-wrote one track each with Nicol and Mattacks. The former, ‘The Hiring Fair’, would become a stage fixture of the future Fairport. The resulting album \"Gladys' Leap\" (1985) was generally well received in the music and national press, but caused some tension with Swarbrick who refused to play any of the new material at the 1985 Cropredy Festival. Nevertheless, the decision to reform the band, without Swarbrick, was taken by the other three remaining members. Ric Sanders was invited to join, along with guitarist, composer, arranger and multi-instrumentalist Maartin Allcock. Nicol, with his developing baritone voice, took over the main share of the vocal duties. This line-up was to last eleven years, the longest period of membership stability in the band's history so far.", "The new band began a hectic schedule of performing in Britain and the World and prepared material for a new album. The result was the all-instrumental \"Expletive Delighted!\" (1986). This showcased the virtuosity of Sanders and Allcock, but perhaps inevitably was not popular with all fans. This was followed by the recording \"\" which managed to capture the energy and power of the new Fairport on stage, despite the fact that it was recorded in the studio with audience reactions dubbed on. In this period the band were playing to larger and larger audiences, both on tour and at Cropredy, and it was very productive in terms of recording. Fairport had the considerable composing and arranging skills of Allcock and, to fill the gap created by a lack of a songwriter in the band, they turned to some of the most talented available in the contemporary folk scene. The results were \"Red & Gold\" (1989) \"The Five Seasons\" (1990) and \"Jewel in the Crown\" (1995), the last of which was judged ‘their bestselling and undoubtedly finest album in years.’ At this point, with Mattacks busy with other projects, the band shifted to an acoustic format for touring and released the unplugged \"Old New Borrowed Blue\" as ‘Fairport Acoustic Convention’ in 1996. For a while the four-piece acoustic line-up ran in parallel with the electric format. When Allcock left the band, he was replaced by Chris Leslie on vocals, mandolin and fiddle, who formerly worked with Swarbrick in Whippersnapper, and had a one-off stint with the band replacing Ric Sanders for 1992 Cropredy Festival. This meant that for the first time since reforming, the band had a recognized songwriter who contributed significantly to the band's output on the next album \"Who Knows Where the Time Goes?\" (1997), particularly the rousing ‘John Gaudie’. By the time of the 1997 thirty-year anniversary Festival at Cropredy, the new Fairport had been in existence for over a decade and contributed a significant chapter to the history of the band.", "Dave Mattacks moved to the US in 1998, and Gerry Conway took over on drums and percussion. Fairport produced two more studio albums for Woodworm Records: \"The Wood and the Wire\" (2000) and \"XXXV\" (2002). Then, for \"Over the Next Hill\" (2004) they established a new label: Matty Grooves Records. In this period the band toured extensively in the UK, Europe, Australasia, Europe, the US and Canada, and staged a major fund raiser for Dave Swarbrick at the Birmingham Symphony Hall. In 1998, members of the band began their association with the Breton musician Alan Simon. Working in collaboration with numerous others, members of Fairport (predominantly Nicol and Leslie) have performed in and participated in the recordings of all Simon's rock operas, including the \"Excalibur trilogy\" (1998, 2007, 2010) and \"Anne de Bretagne\" (2008). 2007 was their fortieth anniversary year and they celebrated by releasing a new album, \"Sense of Occasion\". They performed the whole of the \"Liege & Lief\" album live at Cropredy, since 2004 renamed Fairport's Cropredy Convention, featuring the 1969 line-up of Dave Swarbrick, Ashley Hutchings, Dave Mattacks, Simon Nicol and Richard Thompson, with singer-songwriter Chris While taking the place of Sandy Denny. Footage of the festival, although not the \"Liege and Lief\" performance, was released as part of a celebratory DVD. The band's first official YouTube video appeared in April 2008. Edited from footage shot for the DVD, the nine-minute mini-documentary includes interviews with Lulu, Jools Holland, Seth Lakeman, Mike Harding, Geoff Hughes and Frank Skinner. In 2011, the band released a new studio album Festival Bell, the first new album in four years. This was followed in 2012 by \"Babbacombe Lee Live Again\" recorded live during the 2011 tour revisiting the \"Babbacombe Lee\" album first issued in 1971. In 2012, the band also released By Popular Request, a reworking in the studio of a number of the most popular songs in the band's repertoire (as determined by a mysterious consultation and voting process conducted by the band with its fans). As of 2020 the band still continue to write and record music, regularly producing new studio albums, the most recent releases being 2015's Myths and Heroes, 2017's and 2020's Shuffle and Go.", "The mainstream media has increasingly recognized Fairport Convention's historical importance. They received a \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" at the 2002 BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards. In the same year Free Reed Records, an independent label, released \"Fairport Unconventional\", a four-CD boxed set of rare and unreleased recordings from the band's 35-year career. At the 2006 BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards they received an award when their seminal album \"Liege & Lief\" was voted 'Most Influential Folk Album of All Time' by Radio 2 listeners. At the 2007 BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards Fairport Convention received an award recognising the late Sandy Denny and the band for ‘Favourite Folk Track Of All Time’ for \"Who Knows Where the Time Goes?\". Originally released as a VHS video by MusicFolk/Weintraub, re-released on DVD by Voiceprint Records in 2007, soundtrack CD issued by Voiceprint as ‘Live in Maidstone 1970’ in 2009.", "Sources:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Individual.", "Individuation principle.", "Individualism and society.", "Methodological individualism.", "Competitive individualism.", "Political individualism.", "Liberalism.", "Autarchism.", "Individualist anarchism.", "Philosophical individualism.", "Ethical egoism.", "Existentialism.", "Freethought.", "Humanism.", "Hedonism.", "Libertinism.", "Objectivism.", "Philosophical anarchism.", "Subjectivism.", "Solipsism.", "Economic individualism.", "Liberalism.", "Individualist anarchism and economics.", "Mutualism.", "Libertarian socialism.", "Left-libertarianism.", "Right-libertarianism.", "As creative independent lifestyle.", "Religion and individualism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the English language, the word \"individualism\" was first introduced, as a pejorative, by the Owenites in the late 1830s, although it is unclear if they were influenced by Saint-Simonianism or came up with it independently. A more positive use of the term in Britain came to be used with the writings of James Elishama Smith,", "An individual is a person or any specific object in a collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of statistics and metaphysics, individual means \"indivisible\", typically describing any numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning \"a person.\" (q.v. \"The problem of proper names\"). From the 17th century on, individual indicates separateness, as in individualism. Individuality is the state or quality of being an individuated being; a person separated from everything with unique character by possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires in comparison to other persons.", "The principle of individuation, or \"\", describes the manner in which a thing is identified as distinguished from other things. For Carl Jung, individuation is a process of transformation, whereby the personal and collective unconscious is brought into consciousness (by means of dreams, active imagination or free association to take examples) to be assimilated into the whole personality. It is a completely natural process necessary for the integration of the psyche to take place. Jung considered individuation to be the central process of human development. In \"L'individuation", "Individualism holds that a person taking part in society attempts to learn and discover what his or her own interests are on a personal basis, without a presumed following of the interests of a societal structure (an individualist need not be an egoist). The individualist does not follow one particular philosophy, rather creates an amalgamation of elements of many, based on personal interests in particular aspects that he/she finds of use. On a societal level, the individualist participates on a personally structured political and moral ground. Independent thinking and opinion is a common trait of an individualist. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, claims that his concept of \"general will\" in the \"social contract\" is not the simple collection of individual wills and that it furthers the interests of the individual (the constraint of law itself would be beneficial for the individual, as the lack of respect for the law necessarily entails, in Rousseau's eyes, a form of ignorance and submission to one's passions instead of the preferred autonomy of reason). Societies and groups can differ in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly \"self-regarding\" (individualistic, and/or self-interested) behaviors, rather than \"other-regarding\" (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviors. Ruth Benedict made a distinction, relevant in this context, between \"guilt\" societies (e.g., medieval Europe) with an \"internal reference standard\", and \"shame\" societies (e.g., Japan, \"bringing shame upon one's ancestors\") with an \"external reference standard\", where people look to their peers for feedback on whether an action is \"acceptable\" or not. Individualism is often contrasted either with totalitarianism or with collectivism, but in fact, there is a spectrum of behaviors at the societal level ranging from highly individualistic societies through mixed societies to collectivist.", "Methodological individualism is the view that phenomena can only be understood by examining how they result from the motivations and actions of individual agents. In economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices, as constrained by prices and incomes. The economist accepts individuals' preferences as givens. Becker and Stigler", "According to an Oxford Dictionary, \"competitive individualism\" in sociology is: Competitive individualism is a form of individualism that arises from competitive systems. The function of the system is to maintain an inequality in the society and fields of human engagement. This", "Individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy against obligations imposed by social institutions (such as the state or religious morality). For L. Susan Brown, \"Liberalism and anarchism are two political philosophies that are fundamentally concerned with individual freedom yet differ from one another in very distinct ways. Anarchism shares with liberalism a radical commitment to individual freedom while rejecting liberalism's competitive property relations.\" Civil libertarianism is a strain of political thought that supports civil liberties, or which emphasizes the supremacy of individual rights and personal freedoms over and against any kind of authority (such as a state, a corporation, social norms imposed through peer pressure, etc.). Civil libertarianism is not a complete ideology; rather, it is a collection of views on the specific issues of civil liberties and civil rights. Because of this, a civil libertarian outlook is compatible with many other political philosophies, and civil libertarianism is found on both the right and left in modern politics. For scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood, \"there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism... and non-lockean individualism may encompass socialism\". British Historians Emily Robinson, Camilla Schofield, Florence Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, and Natalie Thomlinson have argued that by the 1970s Britons were keen about defining and claiming their individual rights, identities and perspectives. They demanded greater personal autonomy and self-determination and less outside control. They angrily complained that the 'establishment' was withholding it. They argue this shift in concerns helped cause Thatcherism, and was incorporated into Thatcherism's appeal.", "Liberalism (from the Latin \"liberalis\", \"of freedom; worthy of a free man, gentlemanlike, courteous, generous\") is the belief in the importance of individual freedom. This belief is widely accepted in the United States, Europe, Australia and other Western nations, and was recognized as an important value by many Western philosophers throughout history, in particular since the Enlightenment. It is often rejected by collectivist, Abrahamic or Confucian in civilized societies (though Taoists were and are known to be individualists). The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote praising \"the idea of a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed\". Liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment and rejects many foundational", "Autarchism is a political philosophy that promotes the principles of individualism, the moral ideology of individual", "Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the individual and their will over any kinds of external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individualist anarchism is not a single philosophy but refers to a group of individualistic philosophies that sometimes are in conflict. In 1793, William Godwin, who has often been cited as the first anarchist, wrote \"Political Justice\", which some consider to be the first expression of anarchism. Godwin, a philosophical anarchist, from a rationalist and utilitarian basis opposed revolutionary action and saw a minimal state as a present \"necessary evil\" that would become increasingly irrelevant and powerless by the gradual spread of knowledge. Godwin advocated", "", "Ethical egoism, also called simply egoism, is the normative ethical position that moral agents ought to do what is in their own self-interest. It differs from psychological egoism, which claims that people \"do\" only act in their self-interest. Ethical egoism also differs from rational egoism, which holds merely that it is rational to act in one's self-interest. However, these doctrines may occasionally be combined with ethical egoism. Ethical egoism contrasts with ethical altruism, which holds that moral agents have an obligation to help and serve others. Egoism and altruism both contrast with ethical utilitarianism, which holds that a moral agent should treat one's self (also known as the subject) with no higher regard than one has for others (as egoism does, by elevating self-interests and \"the self\" to a status not granted to others), but that one also should not (as altruism does) sacrifice one's own interests to help others' interests, so long as one's own interests (i.e. one's own desires or well-being) are substantially-equivalent to the others'", "Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences, generally held that the focus of philosophical thought should be to deal with the conditions of existence of the individual person and his or her emotions, actions, responsibilities, and thoughts. The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism, maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own", "Freethought holds that individuals should not accept ideas proposed as truth without recourse to knowledge and reason. Thus, freethinkers strive to build their opinions on the basis of facts, scientific inquiry, and", "Humanism is a perspective common to a wide range of ethical stances that attaches importance to human dignity, concerns, and capabilities, particularly rationality. Although the word has many senses, its meaning comes into focus when contrasted to the supernatural", "Philosophical hedonism is a meta-ethical theory of value which argues that pleasure is the only intrinsic good and pain is the only intrinsic bad. The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that", "A libertine is one devoid of most moral restraints, which are seen as unnecessary or undesirable, especially one who ignores or even spurns accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctified by the larger society. Libertines place value on physical pleasures, meaning those experienced through the senses. As a philosophy, libertinism gained new-found adherents in", "Objectivism is a system of philosophy created by philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand (1905–1982) that holds: reality exists independent of consciousness; human beings gain knowledge rationally from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive and deductive logic; the moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness or rational self-interest. Rand thinks the", "Philosophical anarchism is an anarchist school of thought which contends that the State lacks moral legitimacy and – in contrast to revolutionary anarchism – does not advocate violent revolution to eliminate it but advocates peaceful evolution to superate it. Though philosophical anarchism does not necessarily imply any action or", "Subjectivism is a philosophical tenet that accords primacy to subjective experience as fundamental of all measure and law. In extreme forms like Solipsism, it may hold that the nature and existence of every object depends solely on someone's subjective awareness of it. For example, Wittgenstein wrote in Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus: \"The subject doesn't belong to the world, but it is a limit of the world\" (proposition 5.632). Metaphysical subjectivism is the theory that reality is what we perceive to be real, and that there is no underlying true reality that exists independently of perception. One can also hold that it is consciousness rather than perception that is reality (subjective idealism). In probability, a subjectivism stands for the belief that probabilities are simply degrees-of-belief by rational agents in a", "Solipsism is the philosophical idea that only one's own mind is sure to exist. The term comes from Latin \"solus\" (alone) and \"ipse\" (self). Solipsism as an epistemological position holds that knowledge of anything outside one's own mind is unsure. The external world and other minds cannot be known, and might not exist outside the mind. As a metaphysical position, solipsism goes further to the conclusion that the world and other minds do not exist. As such it is the only epistemological position that, by its own postulate, is both irrefutable and yet indefensible in the same manner. Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in a kind of reductio ad absurdum. In the history of philosophy, solipsism has served as a skeptical hypothesis.", "The doctrine of economic individualism holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his or her own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, the community, the corporation etc. for him or her.", "Liberalism is a political ideology that developed in the 19th century in England, Western Europe, and the Americas. It followed earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to personal freedom and popular government, but differed from earlier forms of liberalism in its commitment to", "In regards to economic questions within individualist anarchism there are adherents to mutualism (Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Emile Armand, early Benjamin Tucker); natural rights positions (early Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, Josiah Warren); and egoistic disrespect for \"ghosts\" such as private property and markets (Max Stirner, John Henry Mackay, Lev Chernyi, later Benjamin Tucker, Renzo Novatore, illegalism). Contemporary individualist anarchist Kevin Carson characterizes American individualist anarchism saying that \"Unlike the rest of the socialist movement, the individualist anarchists believed that the natural wage of labor in a free market was its product, and that economic exploitation could only take place when capitalists and landlords harnessed the power of the state in their interests. Thus, individualist anarchism was an alternative both to the increasing statism of the mainstream socialist movement, and to a classical liberal movement that was moving toward a mere apologetic for the power of big business.\"", "Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought which can be traced to the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank which would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate only high enough to cover the costs of administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value which holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying \"the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility\". Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.", "Libertarian socialism, sometimes dubbed socialist libertarianism, or left-libertarianism, is a group of anti-authoritarian political philosophies inside the socialist movement that rejects socialism as centralized state ownership and control of the economy, as well as the state itself. It criticizes wage labour relationships within the workplace. Instead, it emphasizes workers' self-management of the workplace and decentralized structures of political organization. It asserts that a society based on freedom and justice can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or", "Left-libertarianism, or left-wing libertarianism, names several related but distinct approaches to politics, society, culture, and political and social theory, which stress both individual freedom and social justice. Unlike right-libertarians, they believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources", "Right-libertarianism, or right-wing libertarianism, is a phrase used by some to describe either non-collectivist forms of libertarianism or a variety of different libertarian views some label \"right\" of mainstream libertarianism including \"libertarian conservatism\". The \"Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy\" calls it \"right libertarianism\", but states: \"Libertarianism is often thought of as 'right-wing' doctrine. This, however, is mistaken for at least", "The anarchist writer and bohemian Oscar Wilde wrote in his famous essay \"The Soul of Man under Socialism\" that \"Art is individualism, and individualism is a disturbing and disintegrating force. There lies its immense value. For what it seeks is to disturb monotony of type, slavery of custom, tyranny of habit, and the reduction of man to the level of a machine.\" For anarchist historian George Woodcock \"Wilde's aim in \"The Soul of Man under Socialism\" is to seek the society most favorable to the artist...for Wilde art is the supreme end, containing within itself enlightenment and regeneration, to which all else in society must be subordinated...Wilde represents the anarchist as aesthete.\" The word individualism in this way has been used to denote a personality with a strong tendency towards self-creation and experimentation as opposed to tradition or popular mass opinions and behaviors. Anarchist writer Murray Bookchin describes a lot of individualist anarchists as people who \"expressed their opposition in uniquely personal forms, especially in fiery tracts, outrageous behavior, and aberrant lifestyles in the cultural ghettos of fin de siècle New York, Paris, and London. As a credo, individualist anarchism remained largely a bohemian lifestyle, most conspicuous in its demands for sexual freedom ('free love') and enamored of innovations in art, behavior, and clothing.\" In relation to this view of individuality, French individualist anarchist Emile Armand advocates egoistical denial of social conventions and dogmas to live in accord to one's own ways", "People in Western countries tend to be more individualistic than communitarian. The authors of one study proposed that this difference is due in part to the influence of the Catholic Church in the Middle Ages. They pointed specifically to its bans on incest, cousin marriage, adoption, and remarriage, and its promotion of the nuclear family over the extended family. The Catholic Church teaches that the Lord's Prayer opposes individualism because God loves everyone and everyone must be loved in turn." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early and medieval history.", "Modern history.", "Geography.", "City structure.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Military.", "Arts and culture.", "Sports.", "Governance.", "Mayor.", "Town twinning.", "Education and research.", "University.", "University of Applied Science.", "Conservatory.", "Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research.", "Media.", "Transport.", "Roads.", "Rail.", "Trams/Trains.", "Buses.", "Port.", "Bicycle.", "Infrastructure.", "Utilities.", "Health care." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "A Bronze Age (Urnfield culture) refuge castle stood on the site of the present Fortress Marienberg. The former Celtic territory was settled by the Alamanni in the 4th or 5th century, and by the Franks in the 6th to 7th. Würzburg was the seat of a Merovingian duke from about 650. It was Christianized in 686 by Irish missionaries Kilian, Kolonat and Totnan. The city is mentioned in a donation by Duke Hedan II to bishop Willibrord, dated 1 May 704, \"in castellum Virteburch\". The Ravenna Cosmography lists the city as \"Uburzis\" at about the same time. The name is presumably of Celtic origin, but based on a folk etymological connection to the German word \"Würze\" \"herb, spice\", the name was Latinized as \"Herbipolis\" in the medieval period. Beginning in 1237, the city seal depicted the cathedral and a portrait of Saint Kilian, with the inscription \"SIGILLVM CIVITATIS HERBIPOLENSIS\". It shows a banner on a tilted lance, formerly in a blue field, with the banner quarterly argent and gules (1532), later or and gules (1550). This coat of arms replaced the older seal of the city, showing Saint Kilian, from 1570. The first diocese was founded by Saint Boniface in 742 when he appointed the first bishop of Würzburg, Saint Burkhard. The bishops eventually created a secular fiefdom, which extended in the 12th century to Eastern Franconia. The city was the site of several Imperial Diets, including the one of 1180, at which Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony and Bavaria, was banned for three years from the Empire and his duchy Bavaria was handed over to Otto of Wittelsbach. Massacres of Jews took place in 1147 and 1298. The first church on the site of the present Würzburg Cathedral was built as early as 788 and consecrated that same year by Charlemagne; the current building was constructed from 1040 to 1225 in Romanesque style. The University of Würzburg was founded in 1402 and re-founded in 1582. The citizens of the city revolted several times against the prince-bishop. In 1397, King Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia had visited the city and promised its people the status of a free Imperial City. However, the German ruling princes forced him to withdraw these promises. In 1400, the citizenry was decisively defeated by the troops of the bishop in the, and the city fell under his control permanently until the dissolution of the fiefdom.", "The Würzburg witch trials, which occurred between 1626 and 1631, are one of the largest peace-time mass trials. In Würzburg, under Bishop Philip Adolf an estimated number between 600 and 900 alleged witches were burnt. In 1631, Swedish King Gustaf Adolf invaded the town and plundered the castle. In 1720, the foundations of the Würzburg Residence were laid. In 1796, the Battle of Würzburg between Habsburg Austria and the First French Republic took place. The city passed to the Electorate of Bavaria in 1803, but two years later, in the course of the Napoleonic Wars, it became the seat of the Electorate of Würzburg (until September 1806), the later Grand Duchy of Würzburg. In 1814, the town became part of the Kingdom of Bavaria and a new bishopric was created seven years later, as the former one had been secularized in 1803 (see also Reichsdeputationshauptschluss). In 1817, Friedrich Koenig and Andreas Bauer founded \"Schnellpressenfabrik Koenig & Bauer\" (the world's first steam-driven printing press manufacturer). The Hep-Hep riots from August to October 1819 were pogroms against Ashkenazi Jews, beginning in the Kingdom of Bavaria, during the period of Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation. The antisemitic communal violence began on August 2, 1819 in Würzburg and soon reached the outer regions of the German Confederation. Many Jews were killed and much Jewish property was destroyed. In the early 1930s, around 2,000 Jews had lived in Würzburg, which was also a rabbinic center. During the \"Kristallnacht\", in 1938, many Jewish houses and shops were raided, looted or destroyed. The contents of two synagogues were stolen or destroyed. Many Jews were imprisoned and tortured by the Gestapo. Between November 1941 and June 1943 Jews from the city were sent to the Nazi concentration camps in Eastern Europe. From April 1943 to March 1945 a subcamp of the Flossenbürg concentration camp was located in the city, with dozens of prisoners, mostly from Poland and the Soviet Union. On 16 March 1945, about 90% of the city was destroyed in 17 minutes by fire bombing from 225 British Lancaster bombers during a World War II air raid. Würzburg became a target for its role as a traffic hub and to break the spirit of the population. All of the city's churches, cathedrals, and other monuments were heavily damaged or destroyed. The city center, which mostly dated from medieval times, was totally destroyed in a firestorm in which 5,000 people perished. Over the next 20 years, the buildings of historical importance were painstakingly and accurately reconstructed. The citizens who rebuilt the city immediately after the end of the war were mostly women – \"Trümmerfrauen\" (\"rubble women\") – because the men were either dead or still prisoners of war. On a relative scale, Würzburg was destroyed to a larger extent than was Dresden in a firebombing the previous month. On 3 April 1945, Würzburg was occupied by the U.S. 12th Armored Division and U.S. 42nd Infantry Division in a series of frontal assaults masked by smokescreens. The battle continued until the final Wehrmacht resistance was defeated on 5 April 1945. The 2016 Würzburg train attack took place at the Würzburg-Heidingsfeld railway station on 18 July.", "Würzburg is located on both banks of the river Main in the region of Lower Franconia in Bavaria, Germany. The main body of the town is on the eastern (right) bank of the river. The town is completely enclosed by the \"Landkreis Würzburg\", but is not a part of it. Würzburg covers an area of 87.6 square-kilometres and lies at an altitude of around 177 metres. Of the total municipal area, in 2007, building area accounted for 30%, followed by agricultural land (27.9%), forestry/wood (15.5%), green spaces (12.7%), traffic (5.4%), water (1.2%) and others (7.3%). The centre of Würzburg is surrounded by hills. To the west lies the 266 metre Marienberg and the Nikolausberg (359 m) to the south of it. The Main flows through Würzburg from the south-east to the north-west.", "Würzburg is divided into 13 \"Stadtbezirke\" which are additionally structured into 25 boroughs. In the following overview, the boroughs and their numbers are allocated to the 13 municipals.", "Würzburg had 128,538 inhabitants as of 31 December 2016.", "Würzburg is mainly known as an administrative center. Its largest employers are the Julius-Maximilians-University and the municipality. The largest private employers are Brose Fahrzeugteile followed by Koenig & Bauer, a maker of printing machines. Würzburg is also the capital of the German wine region Franconia which is famous for its mineralic dry white wines especially from the Silvaner grape. Würzburger Hofbräu brewery also locally produces a well-known pilsner beer. Würzburg is home of the oldest Pizzeria in Germany. Nick di Camillo opened his restaurant named \"Bier- und Speisewirtschaft Capri\" on 24 March 1952. Mr Camillo received the honor of the Italian Order of Merit. In 2017, the GDP per inhabitant was €62,229. This places the district 13th out of 96 districts (rural and urban) in Bavaria (overall average: €46,698).", "Following World War II, Würzburg was host to the U.S. Army's 1st and 3rd Infantry Divisions as well as an army hospital and various other U.S. military units that maintained a presence in Germany. The last troops were withdrawn from Würzburg in 2008, thus concluding more than 60 years of U.S. presence there.", "Notable artists who lived in Würzburg include poet Walther von der Vogelweide (12th and 13th centuries), philosopher Albertus Magnus and painter Mathias Grünewald. Sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (1460–1531) served as mayor and participated in the German Peasants' War. Some of the city's \"100 churches\" survived intact. In style they range from Romanesque (Würzburg Cathedral), Gothic (\"Marienkapelle\"), Renaissance ('), Baroque (') to modern (St. Andreas). Major festivals include the \"Africa Festival\" in May, the \"Mozart Festival\" in June/July and the \"Kiliani Volksfest\" in mid-July.", "Former NBA basketball player Dirk Nowitzki was born and grew up in Würzburg. Nowitzki and numerous other German national team players started their careers at the local Baskets Würzburg club that plays in the Basketball Bundesliga. In the past, the club played at international competitions such as the Eurocup. Würzburg is also home to the football teams \"Würzburger Kickers\" playing in the \"3. Liga\" and \"Würzburger FV\" playing in the \"Fußball-Bayernliga\". \"SV Würzburg 05\" is a swimming and water polo club, active in the German Water Polo League.", "Würzburg is the administrative seat of the \"Regierungsbezirk\" Lower Franconia. The administration of the \"Landkreis Würzburg\" (district) is also located in the town.", "Since April 2014, the mayor of Würzburg has been (CDU).", "Würzburg is twinned with: Associated:", "Würzburg has several internationally recognized institutions in science and research:", "The University of Würzburg (official name \"Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg\") was founded in 1402 and is one of the oldest universities in Germany. Academic disciplines are astronomy, biology, Catholic theology, chemistry, computer science, culture, economics, educational and social sciences, geography, history, languages and linguistics, law, literature, mathematics, medicine (human medicine, dentistry and biomedicine), pharmacy, philosophy, physics, political science, psychology and sociology. Today, the ten faculties are spread throughout the city. The university currently enrolls approximately 29,000 students, out of which more than 1,000 come from other countries.", "The University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt was founded in 1971 as an institute of technology with departments in Würzburg and Schweinfurt. Academic disciplines are architecture, business economics, business informatics, civil engineering, computational engineering, computer science, electrical engineering, engineering management, geodesy, graphic design, logistics, mechanical engineering, media, nursing theory, plastics engineering, social work. With nearly 8,000 students it is the second largest university of applied science in Franconia.", "The Conservatory of Würzburg is an institution with a long tradition as well as an impressive success story of more than 200 years. It was founded in 1797 as \"Collegium musicum academicum\" and is Germany's oldest conservatory. Nowadays it is known as University of Music Würzburg. After the commutation from conservatory to university of music in the early 1970s, science and research were added to complement music education.", "The \"Fraunhofer ISC\" in Würzburg is part of the Fraunhofer Society, Europe's largest application-oriented research organization. It develops materials for tomorrow's products, offering cooperation to small and medium-sized enterprises and to large-scale industrial companies.", "Würzburg is home to the daily newspaper. Radio stations like'and state broadcaster \"Bayerischer Rundfunk\" have local studios. The latter also maintains a large broadcasting station at'on the Nikolausberg. The private stations'and'are based in Würzburg. The TV branch of Bayerischer Rundfunk has its \"Studio Mainfranken\" in the town. is a local private TV station.", "", "Due to its central position Würzburg is an important traffic hub. Here is the interchange of Autobahn highways A3 (Cologne – Frankfurt – \"Würzburg\" – Nuremberg) and A7 (Hamburg – Hanover – Kassel – \"Würzburg\" – Ulm) as well as the start of A81 (\"Würzburg\" – Heilbronn – Stuttgart). Furthermore, Bundesstraße highways B8, B13, B19 and B27 pass through the city.", "The city's main station is a central hub for long-distance and regional services. Würzburg lies at the southern end of the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line and offers with InterCityExpress and InterCity frequent connections to cities such as Cologne, Frankfurt, Hanover, Hamburg, Munich, Nuremberg and Vienna. In addition to main station there are the two regional stations Würzburg-South and Würzburg Zell.", "Würzburg has a tram network of five lines with a length of. The proposed Line 6 from Hauptbahnhof (Main Station) to Hubland university campus via Residenz is scheduled to be completed after 2018.", "27 bus lines connect several parts of the city and the inner suburbs. 25 bus lines connect the \"Landkreis Würzburg\" to the city.", "The Main river flows into the Rhine and is connected to the Danube via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. This makes it part of a trans-European waterway connecting the North Sea to the Black Sea.", "Designated bicycle paths are located throughout the city and the Main-Radweg long-distance bicycle trail passes through the old town.", "", "The local public utility is'supplying power, natural gas and water as well as public transportation and parking services. It also owns a majority stake in the port and runs local garbage collection/recycling.'is owned by the utility.", "\"\" provides health care services, with over 5,300 employees and over 1,400 hospital beds. \"Juliusspital\" also offers hospital services with 342 beds." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of feeders.", "Seed feeders.", "Hummingbird feeders.", "Oriole feeders.", "Suet feeders.", "Other.", "Squirrels.", "Negative impacts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Seed feeders are the most common type of feeders. They can vary in design from tubes to hoppers and trays. Sunflower seeds or mixed seeds are popular for use in these feeders and will attract many songbirds such as cardinals, finches, and chickadees. Black oil sunflower seeds are especially popular with bird enthusiasts. The outer shell of the black oil sunflower seeds are thinner and easier to crack than other types of sunflower seeds. In addition, the kernel is larger than the striped or white sunflower seeds. Black Oil Sunflower seeds also contain a large amount of fat; therefore they are especially good to use in the winter. Most bird feeders are designed to dispense sunflower-sized foods, but there are specialty \"finch feeders\" with smaller openings to dispense the tiny Guizotia abyssinica (Niger seed), which is a favorite of smaller finches. Seed feeders are mainly squirrel proof, tube-like or hopper. Due to the need of keeping squirrels away from the bird food, manufacturers have created different defense mechanisms that may deter squirrels from getting close to the seed. Some seed feeders come with weight sensitive technology which shuts off the access to the seed ports whenever a heavy weight is detected (as most squirrels are heavier than birds). Birds can still feed as they weigh less and the ports remain open under their weight. Other seed feeders are designed to be mounted on poles as it is believed that squirrels reach seed feeders more easily from trees than from poles. The simplest type of squirrel proof feeder is a tube-like feeder surrounded by a metal cage. These feeders also offer protection from larger and more aggressive birds. Tube seed feeders are primarily made of clear plastic tubes with plastic or metal caps, bases and perches. Hopper bird feeders look like a house and attract a wide range of birds such as finches, cardinals, blue jays, sparrows and titmice.", "Hummingbird feeders, rather than dispensing seed, supply liquid nourishment to hummingbirds in the form of a sugar solution. The solution is normally 4 parts water to 1 part white sugar. Only pure refined white cane or beet sugar should be used, according to experts: Hummingbird feeders usually have red accents or red glass to help attract hummingbirds. The sugar mixture is sometimes colored with red food coloring to attract birds, though this is not necessary if the feeder itself is red, and may actually be harmful to the birds. Yeasts tend to grow in hummingbird feeders and spoil the solution, so they must be refreshed frequently and kept very clean to avoid harm to the birds. See the article on hummingbirds for more details. Ants and other insects are also attracted to hummingbird nectar. Smearing petroleum jelly on the stem or cap of the feeder (away from the perch or flower part where the bird may come into contact with it) may prevent the ants from crawling to the feeder. When placing a hummingbird feeder, the feeder is best suited 15 to 20 feet from windows; 10 to 15 feet from the nearest cover, like shrubs or bushes; and in an open area that receives partial sun, so that hummingbirds can move from nectar source to nectar source. Hummingbird top-fill feeders are popular among bird lovers because they are easy to fill and clean and also because they do not need to be turned upright which means that there are less chances that the nectar is spilled. The sports bottle top-fill hummingbird feeders have the design of a sports bottle, with a mechanism that works similarly to such a bottle. With this type of feeder, one has to push down the plastic container in order to close the nectar reservoir and then to unscrew the cap and pour the nectar. After the cap is replaced, the body of the nectar reservoir can be pulled up. This type of bird feeder has the advantage that the feeder does not need to be turned upside down to be refilled and which results in less nectar wasted by spilling. The traditional top-fill hummingbird feeders are one of the most popular types. There is also a plunger type of top-filling hummingbird feeder which comes with a small plunger in the container that creates the vacuum seal when the lid is tightened and the nectar will start flowing only when the lid is sealed correctly to the feeding ports. The bottom-fill hummingbird feeders include a traditional bottom-fill feeder and several variations of it. The traditional ones are filled from an opening at the bottom of the nectar container but many manufacturers have come up with improved variations of the traditional style of feeder, to make feeding birds easier and with less nectar wasted. Some bottom-fill feeders come with a funnel-like opening at the bottom of the container, through which the feeder is filled. Other bottom-filled hummingbird feeders can be attached to one's window to provide a close-up of the birds.", "Oriole feeders, which are traditionally colored orange, also supply such artificial nectar and are designed to serve New World orioles, which have an unusually shaped beak and tongue. These orioles and some other birds also will come to fruit foods, such as grape jelly, or half an orange on a peg. Hummingbirds will also feed from Oriole feeders. Oriole feeders usually have nectar containers made of glass or plastic, which are designed to attract the orioles. Oriole feeders should be cleaned at least once a week and even more often when the temperatures are higher. Oriole feeders also come in top fill, bottom fill and dish-like designs.", "A suet feeder is typically a metal cage-like construction with a plastic coating that contains a cake or block of suet to feed woodpeckers, flickers, nuthatches, and many other species of insect eaters. Suet logs are also very common. These wooden logs have holes drilled out for suet to be inserted. Suet is high in fat which helps to keep birds warm and nourished during the cold winter. Suet cakes consist of sunflower seeds and wheat or oat flakes mixed with suet, pork fat, or coconut oil.", "Birds housed in wired or glass cages can be fed with electronic bird feeders. The electronic bird feeders are capable of storing bird food for days and even weeks, depending on the feeder type and automatically replenish the dish once it is empty. Providing a varied array of tastes and feeding venues will result in less competition for food and dining spots for birds, just as well-planned and maintained gardens provide many plants which supply different types of seeds and nectars. A shallow bird bath can attract as many birds as a feeder but it must be safe from cats, kept clean, and refreshed frequently with clean water to avoid mosquitoes. The birdbath should be placed where a frightened bird can fly up easily to an overhanging limb or resting place if disturbed or attacked.", "Squirrels may also help themselves to the contents of bird feeders, often not merely feeding, but carrying away the food to their hoard. There are various anti-squirrel techniques and devices available to thwart attempts by squirrels to raid bird feeders. Several manufacturers produce feeders with perches that collapse under the weight of anything heavier than a bird, or that use battery power to shock an intruder lightly or spin the perching area to fling it off. Caged feeders are often designed so that squirrels cannot reach the seed inside, but birds can easily fly through the cage's holes. A UK company, The Nuttery, held the original patent on this cage-within-a-cage design. Caged feeders are best to keep out gray squirrels. Chipmunks and red squirrels can usually enter caged feeders. Hot pepper in bird seed and suet has also been shown to be effective against squirrels without harming birds, as birds are not sensitive to capsaicin oleoresin, but mammals experience a strong burning sensation when exposed to it. The placement of a bird feeder can also prevent squirrels from accessing the seed. In addition, baffles can be used that prevent squirrels from gaining their footing above feeders. Below feeders, baffles can prevent squirrels from climbing any further, however squirrels are very agile and acrobatic and often find a way to overcome devices of any nature.", "Feeding wild birds does carry potential risks. Birds may contract and spread disease by gathering at feeders; poorly maintained feeding and watering stations may also cause illness. Birds at feeders risk predation by cats and other animals, or may incur injury by flying into windows. Steps should be taken to reduce the risks to birds, such as: regular disinfecting of feeders and watering stations, ensuring feed has not become moldy or rancid, and proper positioning of feeders to reduce crowding and window collisions. Birds are less likely to fly into windows that have a wooden lattice. Collisions with windows can also be reduced by using window decals. Depending on the feeder design and the type of feed used, species such as the house sparrow can dominate the use of the feeder. As a result, the house sparrow population can become inflated locally where feeders are used. In North America, where the house sparrow is an invasive species, competition from house sparrows can exclude the indigenous bluebirds from available nest sites as well as attack indigenous birds. The use of bird feeders has been claimed to cause many other environmental problems; some of these were highlighted in a 2002 front-page article in \"The Wall Street Journal\", an article that provoked responses nationwide from bird enthusiasts and scientists who refuted the article's points and complained about the unbalanced coverage. Prior to the publication of the \"Wall Street Journal\" article, Canadian ornithologist Jason Rogers also wrote about the environmental problems associated with the use of bird feeders in the journal \"Alberta Naturalist\". In this article, Rogers explains how the use of bird feeders is inherently fraught with negative impacts and risks such as fostering dependency, altering natural distribution, density, and migration patterns, interfering with ecological processes, causing malnutrition, facilitating the spread of disease, and increasing the risk of death from cats, pesticides, hitting windows, and other causes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "1948–1966: Early life.", "1967–1969: Cambridge.", "Career.", "\"Five Leaves Left\" (1969).", "\"Bryter Layter\" (1971).", "\"Pink Moon\" (1972).", "1972–1974.", "Death.", "Posthumous popularity.", "Musical and lyrical style.", "Appraisal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Drake's father, Rodney Shuttleworth Drake (1908–1988), moved to Rangoon, Burma, in the early 1930s to work as an engineer with the Bombay Burmah Trading Corporation. In 1934, Rodney met Nick's mother, Molly Lloyd (1916–1993), the daughter of a senior member of the Indian Civil Service. Rodney proposed in 1936, though they had to wait a year until she turned 21 before her family allowed them to marry. Nick was born in 1948. In 1950, the family returned to England to live in Warwickshire at their home, Far Leys, in Tanworth-in-Arden, south of Birmingham, where Rodney worked from 1952 as the chairman and managing director of Wolseley Engineering. Nick's older sister, Gabrielle, became a successful screen actress. Both parents wrote music. Recordings of Molly's songs, which have come to light since her death, are similar in tone and outlook to the later work of her son; they shared a similar fragile vocal delivery, and Gabrielle and biographer Trevor Dann noted a parallel foreboding and fatalism in their music. Encouraged by his mother, Drake learned to play piano at an early age and began to compose songs which he recorded on a reel-to-reel tape recorder she kept in the family drawing room. In 1957, Drake was sent to Eagle House School, a preparatory boarding school near Sandhurst, Berkshire. Five years later, he went to Marlborough College, a public school in Wiltshire", "Drake returned to England in 1967 and moved into his sister's flat in Hampstead, London. That October, he enrolled at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge University to study English Literature. His tutors found him bright but unenthusiastic and unwilling to apply himself. His biographer, Trevor Dann, notes that he had difficulty connecting with staff and fellow students, and that matriculation photographs from this time portray a sullen young man. Cambridge placed emphasis on its rugby and cricket teams, but by this time Drake had lost interest in sport, preferring to stay in his college room smoking cannabis and playing music. According to fellow student Brian Wells, \"they were the rugger buggers and we were the cool people smoking dope\". In September 1967, Drake met Robert Kirby, a music student who went on to orchestrate many of the string and woodwind arrangements for Drake's first two albums. By this time, Drake had discovered the British and American folk music scenes, and was influenced by performers such as Bob Dylan, Donovan, Van Morrison, Josh White and Phil Ochs.", "", "Drake recorded his debut album \"Five Leaves Left\" later in 1968, with Boyd as producer. He had to skip lectures to travel by train to the sessions in Sound Techniques studio, London. Inspired by John Simon's production of Leonard Cohen's album \"Songs of Leonard Cohen\", Boyd was keen that Drake's voice would be recorded in a similar close and intimate style, \"with no shiny pop reverb\". He sought to include a string arrangement similar to Simon's, \"without overwhelming... or sounding cheesy\". To provide backing, Boyd enlisted various contacts from the London folk rock scene, including Fairport Convention guitarist Richard Thompson and Pentangle bassist Danny Thompson (no relation). Initial recordings did not go well: the sessions were irregular and rushed, taking place during studio downtime borrowed from Fairport Convention's production of their \"Unhalfbricking\" album. Tension arose as to the direction of the album: Boyd was an advocate of George Martin's approach of using the studio as an instrument, while Drake preferred a more organic sound.", "Drake ended his studies at Cambridge nine months before graduation and in late 1969 moved to London. His father remembered \"writing him long letters, pointing out the disadvantages of going away from Cambridge... a degree was a safety net, if you manage to get a degree, at least you have something to fall back on; his reply to that was that a safety net was the one thing he did not want.\" Drake spent his first few months in London drifting from place to place, occasionally staying at his sister's Kensington flat but usually sleeping on friends' sofas and floors. Eventually, in an attempt to bring some stability and a telephone into Drake's life, Boyd organised and paid for a ground floor bedsit in Belsize Park,", "Although Island neither expected nor wanted a third album, Drake approached Wood in October 1971 to begin work on what would be his final release. Sessions took place over two nights, with only Drake and Wood present in the studio. The bleak songs of \"Pink Moon\" are short, and the eleven-track album lasts only 28 minutes, a length described by Wood as \"just about right. You really wouldn't want it to be any longer.\" Drake had expressed dissatisfaction with the sound of \"Bryter Layter\", and believed that the string, brass and saxophone arrangements resulted in a sound that was \"too full, too elaborate\". Drake appears on \"Pink Moon\" accompanied only by his own carefully recorded guitar save for a piano overdub on the title track. Wood later said: \"He was very determined to make this very stark, bare record. He definitely wanted it to be him more than anything. And I think, in some ways, \"Pink Moon\" is probably more like Nick is than the other two records.\" Drake", "In the months following \"Pink Moon\"'s release, Drake became increasingly asocial and distant. He returned to live at his parents' home in Tanworth-in-Arden, and while he resented the regression, he accepted that his illness made it necessary. \"I don't like it at home,\" he told his mother, \"but I can't bear it anywhere else.\" His return was often difficult for his family, as Gabrielle said: \"Good days in my parents' home were good days for Nick, and bad days were bad days for Nick. And that was what their life revolved around, really.\" Drake lived a frugal", "During the early hours of 25 November 1974, Drake died at his home from an overdose of amitriptyline, an antidepressant. He had gone to bed early after spending the afternoon visiting a friend. His mother said that around dawn he left his room for the kitchen. His family had heard him do this many times before, and presumed he was eating cereal. He returned to his room a short while later, and took some pills \"to help him sleep\". Drake had been accustomed to keeping his own hours; he frequently had difficulty sleeping and often stayed up through the night playing and listening to music, then slept late into the following morning. His mother later said: \"I never used to disturb him at all. But it was about 12 o'clock, and I went in, because really it seemed it was time he got up. And he was lying across the bed. The first thing I saw was his long, long legs.\" There was no suicide note, although a letter addressed to Ryde was found close to his bed. At the inquest in December, the coroner stated that the cause of death was \"Acute amitriptyline poisoning—self-administered when suffering from a depressive illness\", and concluded a verdict of suicide. Although the verdict has been disputed by some of his friends and members", "There were no documentaries or compilation albums in the wake of Drake's death. His public profile remained low throughout the 1970s, although his name appeared occasionally in the music press. By this time, his parents were receiving an increasing number of fans at the family home. Island Records, following a 1975 \"NME\" article written by Nick Kent, stated they had no plans of repackaging Drake's albums, but in 1979 Rob Partridge joined Island Records as press officer and commissioned the release of the \"Fruit Tree\" box set. The release compiled the three studio albums, the four tracks recorded with Wood in 1974, and an extensive biography written by the American journalist Arthur Lubow. Although sales were poor, Island Records did not delete the albums from its catalogue. By the mid-1980s, Drake was being cited as an influence by musicians such as Kate Bush, Paul Weller, the Black Crowes, Peter Buck of R.E.M., and Robert Smith of the Cure. The Cure's name derives from a lyric from Drake's song \"Time Has Told Me\" (\"a troubled cure for a troubled mind\"). Drake gained further exposure in 1985 with the release of the Dream Academy's hit single \"Life in a Northern Town\", which included a dedication to Drake on its sleeve. In 1986, a biography of", "Drake was obsessive about practising his guitar technique, and would stay up through the night writing and experimenting with alternative tunings. His mother remembered hearing him \"bumping around at all hours. I think he wrote his nicest melodies in the early morning hours.\" Self-taught, he achieved his guitar style through the use of alternative tunings to create cluster chords, which are difficult to achieve on a guitar using standard tuning. In many songs he accents the dissonant effect of such non-standard tunings through his vocal melodies. He sang in the baritone range, often quietly and with little projection. Drake, who studied English Literature at Cambridge, was drawn to the works of William Blake, William Butler Yeats, and Henry Vaughan, influences reflected in his lyrics. He also employed", "Drake received little critical success during his lifetime, but has since been widely acclaimed. According to Acclaimed Music, he is the 101st most acclaimed recording artist of all time. \"Rolling Stone\" included all three of his albums on its 2003 list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. On 4 April 2018, he was inducted him into the Folk Hall of Fame at the BBC Radio 2 Folk Awards. In 1994, \"Rolling Stone\" journalist Paul Evans said Drake's music \"throbs with [an] aching beauty\" similar to the 1968 Van Morrison album \"Astral Weeks\". According to AllMusic critic Richie Unterberger, Drake was a \"singular talent\" who \"produced several albums of chilling, somber beauty\", now \"recognized as peak achievements of both the British folk-rock scene and the entire rock singer/songwriter genre\". Unterberger felt that Drake's following spanned generations \"in the manner of the young Romantic poets of the 19th century who died before their time... Baby boomers who missed him the first time around found much to revisit once they discovered him, and his pensive loneliness speaks directly to contemporary alternative rockers who share his sense of morose alienation.\" Robert Christgau wrote in \"\" (1981): \"I'm not inclined to revere suicides. But Drake's jazzy folk-pop is admired by a lot of people who have no use for Kenny Rankin, and I prefer to leave open the possibility that he's yet another English mystic (romantic?) I'm too set in my ways to hear.\" In 2019, Christgau conceded this was a \"fairly audacious\" appraisal and wrote: \"Drake is admired and beloved by many, so many that I'm sure he was an artist of real originality and, for many, appeal... Although there've been a few exceptions, I've never been attracted to hypersensitives or depressives, and Drake is both.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General information.", "Name.", "Coat of arms.", "Churches.", "History.", "Government.", "Municipal council.", "Mayors.", "Geography.", "Wildlife.", "Birdlife.", "Commerce.", "River fishing.", "Transportation.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The village of Vadsø was granted town status in 1833. In 1838, the town of Vadsø and the entire rural district surrounding the Varangerfjorden were established as the new municipality of Vadsø (see formannskapsdistrikt). The law required that all towns should be separated from their rural districts, but because of a low population and very few voters, this was impossible to carry out for the municipality of Vadsø in 1838. (This was also true in the towns of Hammerfest and Vardø.) In 1839, the western district (population: 598) was separated to become the new municipality of Nesseby. This left Vadsø with 388 residents. In 1858, Vadsø municipality changed again: Nesseby Municipality (population: 706) was merged back into Vadsø and the district of Vadsø located south of the Varangerfjorden (population: 1,171) was separated to form the new municipality of Sør-Varanger. This change resulted in a population of 2,050 in Vadsø municipality. In 1864, the western district of Nesseby (population: 866) was separated into a separate municipality once again, leaving Vadsø with 1,367 residents. On 1 January 1894, the rest of the rural district (population: 1,296) surrounding the town of Vadsø was separated to form the new municipality of Nord-Varanger. This left just the town of Vadsø remaining in the municipality of Vadsø which now had 1,114 residents. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the municipality of Nord-Varanger (population: 1,587) was merged with the town of Vadsø (population: 3,353) to form the present-day Vadsø Municipality. On 1 January 2020, the municipality became part of the newly formed Troms og Finnmark county. Previously, it had been part of the old Finnmark county.", "The municipality is named after the town of Vadsø. The name of the town comes from the island Vadsøya, since that was the original townsite. The Old Norse form of the name would be \"*Vazøy\", \"*Vatsøy\", \"*Vassøy\"; the eldest references to the town show the forms \"Vasthøen\" (1520) and \"Vaadsøenn\" (1567). The first element is the genitive case of \"vatn\" which means \"water\" and the last element is \"øy\" which means \"island\". Therefore, the meaning of the name is \"the island with drinking water\".", "The coat of arms is from modern times; they were granted on 20 February 1976. The arms show the head of a reindeer stag in silver on a red background. The reindeer is the main domestic animal in the municipality and thus of great economic importance.", "The Church of Norway has one parish (\"sokn\") within the municipality of Vadsø. It is part of the Varanger prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Nord-Hålogaland.", "In the 16th century, the settlement of Vadsø consisted of a fishing village and the old Vadsø Church, located on the island of Vadsøya. The settlement later moved to the mainland. Pomor trade led Vadsø to be a major trading centre in this part of Norway. Township privilege was granted in 1833, and soon settlers came from Finland and the northern part of Sweden, which suffered from famine. Finnish was rapidly becoming the language of the majority, and this continued for decades. As of 2016, Finnish is still spoken in some households. During the occupation of Norway by Nazi Germany, Vadsø suffered several air raids from the Soviet Union, which bombed German troops. However, there are, unlike most places in Finnmark, a number of 19th century wooden houses preserved close to the city centre, notably the house of Esbensen, built by a Norwegian, and the house of Tuomainen, built by a Finn. On the island of Vadsøya is the airship mast used by Umberto Nobile and Roald Amundsen for their expedition over the North Pole with the airship \"Norge\" in 1926, and used again on Nobile's flight with the airship \"Italia\" in 1928.", "All municipalities in Norway, including Vadsø, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Øst-Finnmark District Court and the Hålogaland Court of Appeal.", "The municipal council of Vadsø is made up of 21 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:", "The mayors of Vadsø (incomplete list):", "The municipality of Vadsø forms the southern coast of the Varanger Peninsula, which is largely covered by birch forests on this more sheltered side (as opposed to the northern side). The Varangerfjorden flows along the southern coast of the municipality and the river Jakobselva runs along the western border of Vadsø. The small islands of Lille Ekkerøy and Vadsøya lie in the Varangerfjorden. The Varangerhalvøya National Park lies in a large part of the interior parts of the municipality. The \"midnight sun\" is above the horizon from 17 May to 28 July (73 days), and the period with continuous daylight lasts a bit longer, polar night from 25 November to 17 January (54 days).", "", "Situated on the shores of the Varangerfjorden the municipality of Vadsø is known for its interesting birdlife. Many of its coastal localities like Store Ekkerøy are internationally known for its rich and interesting birdlife. The harbor at Vadsø can produce all three species of eider, including the small and stunning Steller's eider.", "", "Fishing permits (for salmon fishing) are sold for use on specific rivers, including Komag-elva.", "Vadsø Airport is located in Kiby, just to the east of the town. The town is also a port of call for the Hurtigruten coastal express boats. Vadsø is located along the European route E75 highway.", "", "Vadsø is twinned with the following cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Limits.", "Alternative names.", "Trade routes.", "Major ports.", "Islands.", "Dead zone." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Arabian Sea's surface area is about. The maximum width of the Sea is approximately, and its maximum depth is. The biggest river flowing into the Sea is the Indus River. The Arabian Sea has two important branches — the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb; and the Gulf of Oman to the northwest, connecting with the Persian Gulf. There are also the gulfs of Khambhat and Kutch on the Indian Coast. The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are Yemen, Oman, Pakistan, Iran, India and the Maldives.", "The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Arabian Sea as follows:", "The Arabian sea was called Erythraean Sea in Roman times. The Arabian Sea historically and geographically has been referred to with many different names by Arabian and European geographers and travelers, including Sindhu Sagar, Arabbi Samudra, and the Erythraean Sea, there are many official maps showing the different names of arabian sea :Imperia Persarum et Macedonum,", "The Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the \"coastal sailing vessels\" from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BCE, certainly the late 2nd millennium BCE through the later days known as the Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well-established combined land-sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. These routes usually began in the Far East or down river from Madhya Pradesh with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today's Iran then split around Hadhramaut into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravan, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentates. This southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian Peninsula was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today's Suez canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity. Later the kingdom of Axum arose in Ethiopia to rule a mercantile empire rooted in the trade with Europe via Alexandria.", "The Port of Karachi is Pakistan's largest and busiest seaport. It is located between the Karachi towns of Kiamari and Saddar. The Gwadar Port is a warm-water, deep-sea port situated at Gwadar in Balochistan, Pakistan at the apex of the Arabian Sea and at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, about 460 km west of Karachi and approximately 75 km (47 mi) east of Pakistan's border with Iran. The port is located on the eastern bay of a natural hammerhead-shaped peninsula jutting out into the Arabian Sea from the coastline. Port of Salalah in Salalah, Oman is also a major port in the area. The International Task Force often uses the port as a base. There is a significant number of warships of all nations coming in and out of the port, which makes it a very safe bubble. The port handled just under 3.5m teu (twenty-foot equivalent unit, a measure used for capacity in container transportation) in 2009. Jawaharlal Nehru Port in Mumbai is the largest port in the Arabian Sea, and the largest container port in India. Major Indian ports in the Arabian Sea are Mundra Port, Kandla Port, Nava Sheva, Kochi Port, Mumbai Port, and Mormugão.", "There are several islands in the Arabian Sea, with the most important ones being Lakshadweep Islands (India), Socotra (Yemen), Masirah (Oman) and Astola Island (Pakistan). The Lakshadweep Islands (formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy, and Aminidivi Islands) is a group of islands in the Laccadive Sea region of Arabian Sea, 200 to 440 km (120 to 270 mi) off the southwestern coast of India. The archipelago is a Union Territory and is governed by the Union Government of India. The islands form the smallest Union Territory of India: their total surface area is just. The lagoon area covers about, the territorial waters area and the exclusive economic zone area. The islands are the northernmost of the Lakshadweep-Maldives-Chagos group of islands. Astola Island, also known as \"Jezira Haft Talar\" in Balochi, or 'Island of the Seven Hills', is a small, uninhabited island in the northern tip of the Arabian Sea in Pakistan's territorial waters. Socotra, also spelled \"Soqotra\", is the largest island, being part of a small archipelago of four islands. It lies some east of the Horn of Africa and south of the Arabian Peninsula. Masirah is an island off the east coast of Oman.", "The dead zone is an area in the Gulf of Oman that is completely depleted of oxygen, as a result of which it does not support marine life. It is the world's largest-known dead zone with an area larger than that of Scotland." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Lustenau, Austria, Girardelli started skiing at the age of five and was racing at seven. He enjoyed significant success at junior level, winning local competitions in not only alpine skiing but also ski jumping. He competed for Austria until 1976, then switched to Luxembourg due to disagreements about coaching – the Austrian skiing federation wanted Girardelli to attend a ski boarding school in Schruns, from Lustenau, while his parents preferred for him to stay in his hometown. In 1981, he started to make significant progress with his first podium (top-three finish) in Wengen, Switzerland, and from that moment was in contention for slalom and giant slalom podiums on a regular basis. He achieved his first World Cup victory in Sweden in February 1983, but incurred his first major injury two weeks later, tearing all the ligaments, cartilage, and a tendon in his left knee in a crash during a downhill at Lake Louise. In the following season, he won five slalom races and was third in the overall standings. In 1985, Girardelli won 11 races and the World Cup overall title, followed by another overall title in 1986 and a third in 1989. After another major accident in 1990, in which he narrowly avoided paraplegia, he recovered to win the overall again in 1991 and in 1993 for a record fifth time – a record until Marcel Hirscher won a sixth title in 2017 (Annemarie Moser-Pröll won six women's World Cups). In total, Girardelli won 46 World Cup races (fifth-most of all time among men) and recorded 100 podiums. Because Girardelli retained Austrian citizenship while skiing for Luxembourg, he was ineligible to compete in the 1980 or 1984 Winter Olympics - but also to compete in the 1982 World Championships. (In contrast, regulations did allow to start for Luxembourg in the World Cup). For a while, his appearance at the 1985 World Championships was in doubt, but he was able to show evidence that he was in the process of claiming Luxembourg citizenship. The FIS gave special permission, and he won a silver medal in the slalom and bronze in the giant slalom. Girardelli received Luxembourg citizenship in time to compete in the 1987 World Championships. His first Olympics were in 1988 at Calgary, but he did not medal. In 1992 at Albertville, he won silver medals in Super G and giant slalom – the first medals for the Grand Duchy at the Winter Olympics, and Luxembourg's first Olympic medal since Josy Barthel's gold in the 1500 metres in 1952. Girardelli won eleven World Championship medals, including four golds: (slalom at Saalbach in 1991 and combined at Crans-Montana in 1987, Vail in 1989, and Sierra Nevada in 1996). His final World Cup race was in the downhill race at Val Gardena on December 20, 1996; he had announced his intention to start the next day in another downhill, but suffered a new knee injury. After failing to start in the following races, he announced his retirement from international competition in January 1997 at age 33. Girardelli is a honorary citizen of Bulgarian ski resort Bansko. Since 2015, he has been serving as an advisor to the Minister of Tourism of Bulgaria, Nikolina Angelkova, on the matters of winter tourism. On 17 December 2018 Girardelli disclosed that he holds the majoritary share of Yulen AD, the controversial operator of the ski zone of Bansko. He is an organiser of skiing events in several European winter sports resorts, and also in Portillo, Chile. Since 2005, he is an IBO for kids fashion in sports, called »Marc Girardelli Skiwear«. Since 2005 too, he is married to Andrea Palenov - the former couple and its two children are living in separation (cit. German Wikipedia)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Original usage.", "Etymology.", "Location.", "Modern usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The original use of the name, by Tacitus, Ptolemy, Lucan and Pliny the Elder, referred to the area later known as \"Pictavia\" or Pictland, mostly in what is now Scotland, to the north of Hadrian's Wall (though the wall is all in today's Northern England). The name may be related to that of a large central Brythonic tribe, the \"Caledonii\", one amongst several in the area and perhaps the dominant tribe, which would explain the binomial Caledonia/Caledonii. The name of the Caledonians may be found in toponymy, such as \"Dùn Chailleann\", the Scottish Gaelic word for the town of Dunkeld meaning \"fort of the Caledonii\", and possibly in that of the mountain \"Sìdh Chailleann\", the \"fairy hill of the Caledonians\". According to \"Historia Brittonum\" the site of the seventh battle of the mythical Arthur was a forest in what is now Scotland, called \"Coit Celidon\" in early Welsh.", "According to Zimmer (2006), Caledonia is derived from the tribal name \"Caledones\" (or \"Calīdones\"), which he etymologises as possessing hard feet', alluding to standfastness or endurance\", from the Proto-Celtic roots \"*kal-\" \"hard\" and \"*φēdo-\" \"foot\". Similarly, Moffat (2005) suggests the name is related to the Welsh word \"caled\", \"hard\", which could refer to the rocky land or the hardiness of the people. Keay and Keay (1994) state that the word is \"apparently pre-Celtic\".", "The exact location of what the Romans called Caledonia in the early stages of Britannia is uncertain, and the boundaries are unlikely to have been fixed until the building of Hadrian's Wall. From then onwards, Caledonia stood to the north of the wall, and to the south was the Roman province of Britannia (consisting of most of what is now England and Wales). During the brief Roman military incursions into central and northern Scotland, the Scottish Lowlands were indeed absorbed into the province of Britannia, and the name was also used by the Romans, prior to their conquest of the southern and central parts of the island, to refer to the whole island of Great Britain. Once the Romans had built a second wall further to the north (the Antonine Wall) and their garrisons advanced north likewise, the developing Roman-Britons south of the wall had trade relations with the Picts north of the wall, as testified by archaeological evidence, much of it available at the National Museum of Scotland in Edinburgh.", "The modern use of \"Caledonia\" in English and Scots is either as a historical description of northern Britain during the Roman era or as a romantic or poetic name for Scotland as a whole. The name has been widely used by organisations and commercial entities. Notable examples include Glasgow Caledonian University, ferry operator Caledonian MacBrayne, and the now-defunct British Caledonian airline and Caledonian Railway. The Caledonian Sleeper is an overnight train service from London to Scottish destinations. The Inverness Caledonian Thistle F.C. is a professional football club. In music, \"Caledonia\" is a popular Scottish patriotic song and folk ballad written by Dougie MacLean in 1977 and published in 1979 on an album of the same name; it has since been covered by various other artists, most notably Frankie Miller. The web series \"Caledonia\" and associated novel is a supernatural police drama that takes place in Glasgow, Scotland. Ptolemy's account also referred to the \"Caledonia Silva\", an idea still recalled in the modern expression \"Caledonian Forest\", although the woods are much reduced in size since Roman times. Some scholars point out that the name \"Scotland\" is ultimately derived from Scotia, a Latin term first used for Ireland (also called Hibernia by the Romans) and later for Scotland, the Scoti peoples having originated in Ireland and resettled in Scotland. Another, post-conquest, Roman name for the island of Great Britain was Albion, which is cognate with the Scottish Gaelic name for Scotland: \"Alba\". There is an emerging trend to use the term Caledonia to describe New Caledonia in English, which reflects the usage in French of Calédonie (where the full name is La Nouvelle-Calédonie). The New Caledonian trade and investment department promotes inward investment with the slogan “Choose Caledonia”." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origins.", "The biblical narrative.", "In the Book of Exodus.", "The passover in other biblical passages.", "In extra-biblical sources.", "Date and duration.", "Passover sacrifice.", "Removing all leaven (\"chametz\").", "Interpretations for abstinence from leaven or yeast.", "Sale of leaven.", "Search for leaven.", "Blessing for search of chametz and nullification of chametz.", "Morning of 14th of Nissan.", "Fast of the Firstborn.", "Burning and nullification of leaven.", "Separate kosher for Passover utensils and dishes.", "Matzah.", "Passover seder.", "Maror.", "Four cups of wine.", "The four questions and participation of children.", "Afikoman.", "Concluding songs.", "Counting of the Omer.", "Chol HaMoed: The intermediate days of Passover.", "Seventh day of Passover.", "Second Passover.", "Traditional foods.", "Sermons, liturgy, and song.", "Celebrations in other religions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Hebrew is rendered as Tiberian, and Modern Hebrew: \"Pesah, Pesakh\". The etymology is disputed, and hypotheses are divided whether to connect it to \"psh\" (to protect, save) or to a word meaning \"limp, dance with limping motions\". Cognate languages yield similar terms with distinct meanings, such as \"make soft, soothe, placate\" (Akkadian \"passahu\"), \"harvest, commemoration, blow\" (Egyptian), or \"separate\" (Arabic \"fsh\"). The verb \"pasàch\" () is first mentioned in the Torah's account of the Exodus from Egypt (), and there is some debate about its exact meaning. The commonly held assumption that it means \"He passed over\" (פסח), in reference to God \"passing over\" (or \"skipping\") the houses of the Hebrews during the final of the Ten Plagues of Egypt, stems from the translation provided in the Septuagint (παρελευσεται [Greek: \"pareleusetai\"] in, and εσκεπασεν", "The Passover ritual is widely thought to have its origins in an apotropaic rite, unrelated to the Exodus, to ensure the protection of a family home, a rite conducted wholly within a clan. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a slaughtered sheep on the lintels and door posts to ensure that demonic forces could not enter the", "", "In the Book of Exodus, the Israelites are enslaved in ancient Egypt. Yahweh, the god of the Israelites, appears to Moses in a burning bush and commands Moses to confront Pharaoh. To show his power, Yahweh inflicts a series of 10 plagues on the Egyptians, culminating in the 10th plague, the death of the first-born. Before this final plague Yahweh commands Moses to tell the Israelites to mark a lamb's blood above their doors in order that Yahweh will pass over them (i.e., that they will not be touched by the death of the firstborn). The biblical regulations for the observance of the festival require that all leavening be disposed of before the beginning of the 15th of Nisan An unblemished lamb or goat, known as the \"Korban Pesach\" or \"Paschal Lamb\", is to be set apart on 10th Nisan, and slaughtered at dusk", "Called the \"festival [of] the matzot\" (Hebrew: חג המצות \"ḥag ha-matzôth\") in the Hebrew Bible, the commandment to keep Passover is recorded in the Book of Leviticus: The sacrifices may be performed only in a specific place prescribed", "Some of these details can be corroborated, and to some extent amplified, in extrabiblical sources. The removal (or \"sealing up\") of the leaven is referred to in the Elephantine papyri, an Aramaic papyrus from 5th century BCE Elephantine in Egypt. The slaughter of the lambs on the", "The Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. The 15th day begins in the evening, after the 14th day, and the seder meal is eaten that evening. Passover is a spring festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox, as in 2016. To ensure that Passover did not start before spring, the tradition in ancient Israel held that the first day of Nisan would not start until the barley was ripe, being the test for the onset of spring. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated", "The main entity in Passover according to Judaism is the sacrificial lamb. During the existence of the Tabernacle and later the Temple in Jerusalem, the focus of the Passover festival was the Passover sacrifice (Hebrew: \"korban Pesach\"), also known as the Paschal lamb, eaten during the Passover Seder on the 15th of Nisan. Every family large enough to completely consume a young lamb or wild goat was required to offer one for sacrifice at the Jewish Temple on the afternoon of the 14th day of Nisan (), and eat it that night, which was the 15th of Nisan (). If the family was too small to finish eating the entire offering in one sitting, an offering was made for a group of families. The sacrifice could not be offered with anything leavened (), and had to be roasted, without its head, feet, or inner organs being removed () and eaten together with unleavened bread (\"matzo\") and bitter herbs (\"maror\"). One had to be careful not to break any bones from", "Leaven, in Hebrew \"chametz\" (Hebrew: חמץ \"ḥamets\", \"leavening\") is made from one of five types of grains combined with water and left to stand for more than eighteen minutes. The consumption, keeping, and owning of \"chametz\" is forbidden during Passover. Yeast and fermentation are not themselves forbidden as seen for example by wine, which is required, rather than merely permitted. According to Halakha, the ownership of such \"chametz\" is also proscribed. \"Chametz\" does not include baking soda, baking powder or like products. Although these are defined in English as leavening agents, they leaven by chemical reaction, not by biological fermentation. Thus, bagels, waffles and pancakes made with baking soda and matzo meal are considered permissible, while bagels made with sourdough and pancakes and waffles made with yeast are prohibited. The Torah commandments regarding \"chametz\" are: Observant Jews spend the weeks before Passover in a flurry of thorough housecleaning, to remove every morsel of \"chametz\" from every part of the home. Jewish law requires the elimination of olive-sized or larger quantities of leavening from one's possession, but most housekeeping goes beyond this. Even the cracks of kitchen counters are thoroughly scrubbed, for example, to remove any traces of flour and yeast, however small. Any item or implement that has handled \"chametz\" is generally put away and not used during Passover. Some hotels, resorts, and even cruise ships across America, Europe and Israel also undergo a thorough housecleaning to make their premises \"kosher for Pesach\" to cater to observant Jews.", "Some scholars suggest that the command to abstain from leavened food or yeast suggests that sacrifices offered to God involve the offering of objects in \"their least altered state\", that would be nearest to the way in which they were initially made by God. According to other scholars the absence of leaven or yeast means", "Leaven or \"chametz\" may be sold rather than discarded, especially in the case of relatively valuable forms such as liquor distilled from wheat, with the products being repurchased afterward. In some cases, they may never leave the house, instead being formally sold while remaining in the original owner's possession in a locked cabinet until they can be repurchased after the holiday. Modern observance may also include sealing cabinets and drawers which contain \"Chametz\" shut by using adhesive tape, which serves a similar purpose to a lock but also shows evidence of tampering. Although the practice of selling \"Chametz\" dates back many years,", "On the night of the fourteenth of Nisan, the night before the Passover Seder (after nightfall on the evening before Passover eve), Jews do a formal search in their homes known as \"bedikat chametz\" for any possible remaining leaven (\"chametz\"). The Talmudic sages instructed that a search for \"chametz\" be made in every home, place of work, or any place where \"chametz\" may have been brought during the year. When the first Seder is on a Saturday night, the search is conducted on the preceding Thursday night (thirteenth of Nisan) as \"chametz\" cannot be burned during Shabbat. The Talmud in Pesahim (p. 2a) derives from the Torah that the search for \"chametz\" be conducted by the light of a candle and therefore is done at night, and although the final destruction of the \"chametz\" (usually by burning it in a small bonfire) is done on the next morning, the blessing is made at night because the search is both in preparation for and part of the commandments to remove and destroy all \"chametz\" from one's possession.", "Before the search is begun there is a special blessing. If several people or family members assist in the search then only one person, usually the head of that family recites the blessing having in mind to include everyone present: In Hebrew: ברוך אתה י-הוה א-להינו מלך העולם אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על בעור חמץ The search is then usually conducted by the head of the household joined by his family including children under the supervision of their parents. It is customary to turn off the lights and conduct the search by candlelight, using a feather and a wooden spoon: candlelight effectively illuminates corners without casting shadows; the feather can", "Note that if the 14th of Nissan is Shabbat, many of the below will be celebrated on the 13th instead due to restrictions in place during Shabbat.", "On the day preceding the first Passover seder (or on Thursday morning preceding the seder, when the first seder falls on Motza'ei Shabbat), firstborn sons are commanded to celebrate the Fast of the Firstborn which commemorates the", "On the morning of the 14th of Nisan, any leavened products that remain in the householder's possession, along with the 10 morsels of bread from the previous night's search, are burned (\"s'rayfat chametz\"). The head of the household repeats the declaration of \"biyur chametz\", declaring any \"chametz\" that may not have been found to be null and void \"as the dust of the earth\": Original declaration as recited in Aramaic: כל חמירא וחמיעא דאכא ברשותי דלא חמתה ודלא בערתה ודלא ידענא לה לבטל ולהוי", "Due to the Torah injunction not to eat \"chametz\" (leaven) during Passover (), observant families typically own complete sets of serving dishes, glassware and silverware (and in some cases, even separate dishwashers and sinks) which have never come into contact with \"chametz\", for use only during Passover. Under certain circumstances, some \"chametz\" utensils can be immersed in boiling water (\"hagalat", "A symbol of the Passover holiday is matzo, an unleavened flatbread made solely from flour and water which is continually worked from mixing through baking, so that it is not allowed to rise. Matzo may be made by machine or by hand. The Torah contains an instruction to eat matzo, specifically, on the first night of Passover and to eat only unleavened bread (in practice, matzo) during the entire week of Passover. Consequently, the eating of matzo figures prominently in the Passover Seder. There are several explanations for this. The Torah says that it is because the Hebrews left Egypt with such haste that there was no time to allow baked bread to rise; thus flat, unleavened bread, matzo, is a reminder of the rapid departure of the Exodus. Other scholars teach that in the time of the Exodus, matzo was commonly baked for the purpose of traveling because it preserved well and was light to carry (making it similar to hardtack), suggesting that matzo was baked intentionally for the long journey ahead. Matzo has also been called \"Lechem Oni\" (Hebrew: \"bread of poverty\"). There is an attendant explanation that matzo serves as a symbol", "It is traditional for Jewish families to gather on the first night of Passover (first two nights in Orthodox and Conservative communities outside Israel) for a special dinner called a seder (Hebrew: סדר \"seder\" – derived from the Hebrew word for \"order\" or \"arrangement\", referring to the very specific order of the ritual). The table is set with the finest china and silverware to reflect the importance of the meal. During this meal, the story of the Exodus from Egypt is retold using a special text called the Haggadah. Four cups of wine are consumed at various stages in the narrative. The Haggadah divides the night's procedure into 15 parts: These 15 parts parallel the 15 steps in the Temple in Jerusalem on which the Levites stood during Temple services, and which were memorialized in the 15 Psalms (#120–134) known as \"Shir HaMa'a lot\" (Hebrew: \"shiyr ha-ma‘alôth\", \"Songs of Ascent\"). The seder is replete with questions, answers, and unusual practices (e.g. the recital of Kiddush which is not immediately followed by the blessing over bread, which is the traditional procedure for all other holiday meals) to arouse the interest and curiosity of the children at the table. The children are also rewarded with nuts and candies when they ask questions and participate in the discussion of the Exodus and its aftermath. Likewise, they are encouraged to search for the \"afikoman\", the piece of matzo which is the last thing eaten at the seder. Audience participation and interaction is the rule, and many families' seders last long into the night with animated discussions and much singing. The seder concludes with additional songs of praise and faith printed in the Haggadah, including \"Chad Gadya\" (\"One Little Kid\" or \"One Little Goat\").", "Maror (bitter herbs) symbolizes the bitterness of slavery in Egypt. The following verse from the Torah underscores that symbolism: \"And they embittered (Hebrew:", "There is a Rabbinic requirement that four cups of wine are to be drunk during the seder meal. This applies to both men and women. The Mishnah says (Pes. 10:1) that even the poorest man", "Children have a very important role in the Passover seder. Traditionally the youngest child is prompted to ask questions about the Passover seder, beginning with the words, \"Mah Nishtana HaLeila HaZeh\" (Why is this night different from all other nights?). The questions encourage the gathering to discuss the significance of the symbols in the meal. The", "The \"afikoman\" – an integral part of the Seder itself – is used to engage the interest and excitement of the children at the table. During the fourth part of the Seder, called \"Yachatz\", the leader breaks the middle piece of matzo into two. He sets", "After the Hallel, the fourth glass of wine is drunk, and participants recite a prayer that ends in \"Next year in Jerusalem!\". This is followed by several lyric prayers that expound upon God's", "Beginning on the second night of Passover, the 16th day of Nisan, Jews begin the practice of the Counting of the Omer, a nightly reminder of the approach of the holiday of Shavuot 50 days hence. Each night after the evening prayer service, men and women recite a special blessing and then enumerate the day of the Omer. On the first night, for example, they say, \"Today is the first day in (or, to) the Omer\"; on the second night, \"Today is the second day in the Omer.\" The counting also involves weeks; thus, the seventh day is commemorated, \"Today is the seventh day, which is one week in the Omer.\" The eighth day is marked, \"Today is the eighth day, which is one week and one day in the Omer,\" etc. When the Temple stood in Jerusalem, a sheaf of new-cut barley was presented before the altar on the second day of Unleavened Bread. Josephus writes: On the second", "In Israel, Passover lasts for seven days with the first and last days being major Jewish holidays. In Orthodox and Conservative communities, no work is performed on those days, with most of the rules relating to the observances of Shabbat being applied. Outside Israel, in Orthodox and Conservative communities, the holiday lasts for eight days with the first two days and last two days being major holidays. In the intermediate days necessary work can be performed. Reform Judaism observes Passover over seven days, with the first and last days being major holidays. Like the holiday of Sukkot, the intermediary days of Passover are known as Chol HaMoed (festival weekdays) and are imbued with a semi-festive status.", "\"Shvi'i shel Pesach\" (שביעי של פסח) (\"seventh [day] of Passover\") is another full Jewish holiday, with special prayer services and festive meals. Outside the Land of Israel, in the Jewish diaspora, \"Shvi'i shel Pesach\" is celebrated on both the seventh and eighth days of Passover. This holiday commemorates the day the Children of Israel reached the Red Sea and witnessed", "The \"Second Passover\" (Pesach Sheni) on the 14th of Iyar in the Hebrew Calendar is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Numbers () as a make-up day for people who were unable to offer the pesach sacrifice at the appropriate time due to ritual impurity or distance from Jerusalem. Just as on the first Pesach night, breaking bones from the second Paschal offering or leaving meat over", "Because the house is free of leaven (\"chametz\") for eight days, the", "The story of Passover, with its message that slaves can go free, and that the future can be better than the present, has inspired a number of religious sermons, prayers, and songs – including spirituals (what used to be called \"Negro Spirituals\"), within the African-American community. Rabbi Philip R. Alstat, an early leader of Conservative Judaism, known for his fiery rhetoric and powerful oratory skills, wrote and spoke in 1939 about the power of the Passover story during the rise of Nazi persecution and terror: Perhaps in our generation the counsel of our Talmudic sages may seem superfluous, for today the story of our enslavement in Egypt is kept alive not only by ritualistic symbolism, but even more so by tragic realism. We are the contemporaries and witnesses of its daily re-enactment. Are not", "The Samaritan religion celebrates its own, similar Passover holiday, based on the Samaritan Pentateuch. Samaritanism holds that the Jews and Samaritans share a common history, but split into distinct communities after the time of Moses. Passover is also celebrated in Karaite Judaism, which rejects the Oral Torah that characterizes mainstream Rabbinic Judaism, as well as other groups claiming affiliation with Israelites. In Christianity, the celebration of Good Friday finds its roots in the Jewish feast of Passover, the evening on which Jesus was crucified as the Passover Lamb. Some Christians, including Messianic Jews, also celebrate Passover itself as a Christian holiday. In the Sunni sect of Islam, it is recommended to fast on the day of Ashurah (10th of Muharram) based on narrations attributed to Muhammad. The fast is celebrated in order to commemorate the day when Moses and his followers were saved from Pharaoh by God by creating a path in the Red Sea (The Exodus). According to Muslim tradition, the Jews of Madinah used to fast on the tenth of Muharram in observance of Passover. In narrations recorded in the al-Hadith (sayings of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad) of Sahih al-Bukhari, it is recommended that Muslims fast on this day. It is also stipulated that its observance should differ from the feast of Passover which is celebrated by the Jews, and he stated that Muslims should fast for two days instead of one, either on the 9th and 10th day or on the 10th and 11th day of Muharram." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Demographics.", "Administration.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Noisy comes from Medieval Latin \"nucetum\", meaning \"walnut grove\", after the walnut trees () covering the territory of Noisy-le-Grand in ancient times. The epithet \"le-Grand\" (Medieval Latin: \"Magnum\"), meaning \"the Great\", was added in the Middle Ages, probably to distinguish Noisy-le-Grand from the smaller settlement of Noisy-le-Sec, which was sometimes referred to as \"Nucenum Minus\" (\"Noisy the Small\").", "Like a lot of other Seine-Saint-Denis cities, the commune is very cosmopolitan, home of many communities, with a lot of its locals coming from various continents and countries. It has a large African population, mostly from sub-Saharan countries (Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast and many others) and East Asian countries, such as China, Vietnam and Cambodia. The city also includes significant, but less numerous, communities from Portugal and North African countries like Morocco and Algeria. Recently, the department, and the Parisian suburbs in general, has seen a new wave of immigration coming from Eastern Europe. Noisy-le-Grand now has communities from former Eastern Bloc countries like Romania, Bulgaria and Russia. As of 1998 there were 2,700 East Asians in Noisy le Grand, making up about 5-6% of the city; many of them lived in the same complexes occupied by Africans and other foreigners, and Asians were widely distributed around the commune.", "The canton of Noisy-le-Grand comprises two communes: Noisy-le-Grand and Gournay-sur-Marne.", "Previously Star Airlines (now XL Airways France) had its headquarters in the Immeuble Horizon building in the commune. Cédric Pastrour, the founder of the airline, said that the company chose the Noisy site because the airline did not yet know which airport, Charles de Gaulle Airport or Orly Airport, would serve as the airline's base, and that the Noisy site was equidistant to both airports. Pastour added that the Noisy site had access to the A4 and the A86 autoroutes and was close to the Francilienne, and that the costs in the Noisy area were lower than the costs in the airport area.", "The commune has municipal preschools and elementary schools. Junior high schools: Senior high schools/sixth form colleges:", "Noisy-le-Grand is served by two stations on Paris RER line A: Noisy-le-Grand–Mont d'Est station and Noisy–Champs station. Noisy-le-Grand is also served by Les Yvris–Noisy-le-Grand station on Paris RER line E." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Organization.", "Achaea.", "Epirus Vetus.", "Epirus Nova.", "Macedonia Prima.", "Macedonia Secunda or Salutaris.", "Thessalia.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "After the reforms of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, \"Epirus Vetus\" was split off, and sometime in the 4th century, the province of Macedonia itself was divided into \"Macedonia Prima\" in the south and \"Macedonia Secunda\" or \"Salutaris\" in the north. These provinces were all subordinate to the Diocese of Macedonia, one of three dioceses comprising the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. When the Prefecture was divided between the Western and Eastern Empires in 379, the Macedonian provinces were included in Eastern Illyricum. With the permanent division of the Empire in 395, Macedonia passed to the East, which would evolve into the Byzantine Empire. The Dardanians, to the north of the Paeonians, were not included in the Roman province of Macedonia, and they initially had supported the Romans in their conquest of Macedonia, but later felt into confrontation with Rome.", "\"Achaea\" or \"Achaia\" was initially part of the Roman Province of Macedonia (from 146 to 27 BC). It later became a separate Province by the Augustan Settlement of 27 BC, which established the Roman Empire.", "\"Epirus\", later \"Epirus Vetus\" (\"Old Epirus\"; ), was a province in the Roman Empire that corresponded to the region of Epirus. Between 146 BC and 27 BC, it was part of the province of Macedonia, after which it became part of Achaea, before becoming a separate province under Emperor Trajan.", "\"Epirus Nova\" (\"New Epirus\", ) or \"Illyria Graeca\" or \"Illyris proper\" was a province of the Roman Empire established by Diocletian during his restructuring of provincial boundaries. Until then, the province belonged to the province of Macedonia. Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus) was established as the capital of \"Epirus Nova\". The region of \"Epirus Nova\" corresponded to a portion of Illyria that was then \"partly Hellenic and partly Hellenized\".", "\"Macedonia Prima\" (\"First Macedonia\") was a province encompassing most of the kingdom of Macedonia, coinciding with most of the modern Greek region of Macedonia, and had Thessalonica as its capital.", "\"Macedonia Salutaris\" (\"Wholesome Macedonia\"), also known as \"Macedonia Secunda\" (\"Second Macedonia\") was a province partially encompassing both Pelagonia and Dardania and containing the whole of Paeonia. The province mostly coincides with the present-day North Macedonia. The town of Stobi located to the junction of the Crna Reka and Vardar (called in Greek Axios) rivers, which was the former capital of Paeonia, arose later in the capital city of \"Macedonia Salutaris\".", "This province was encompassing the area of ancient Thessaly, which was right in the south of ancient Macedonia. Also herein are being mentioned the subdivisions of Thessalia Prima and Thessalia Secunda.", "The reign of Augustus ( 27 BC14 AD ) began a long period of peace, prosperity and wealth for Macedonia, although its importance in the economic standing of the Roman world diminished when compared to its neighbor, Asia Minor. The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia during 130s and 120s BC, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor. The improvement of the living conditions of the productive classes brought about an increase in the number artisans and craftspeople to the region. Stonemasons, miners, blacksmiths, etc. were employed in every kind of commercial activity and craft. Greek people were also widely employed as tutors, educators and doctors throughout the Roman world. The export economy was based essentially on agriculture and livestock, while iron, copper, and gold along with such products as timber, resin, pitch, hemp, flax, and fish were also exported. Another source of wealth was the kingdom's ports, such as Dion, Pella, Thessalonica, Cassandreia." ] }