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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origin of Ingushetia's population.", "Genetics of Ingushetia's population.", "History.", "Caucasian wars.", "Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus.", "Soviet period.", "Genocide of 1944.", "After the return from Central Asia.", "Part of the Russian Federation, post-Soviet period.", "Ethnic cleansing of 1992.", "First and Second Chechen Wars.", "Military history.", "Demographics.", "Vital statistics.", "Ethnic groups.", "Religion.", "Geography.", "Rivers.", "Natural resources.", "Climate.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Ingushetia\" is derived from the ancient village \"Angusht\", which was renamed as \"Tarskoye\" and transferred to North Ossetia in 1944. The Soviets had conducted the deportation of ethnic Chechen and Ingush peoples from here to Siberia on 23 February 1944, a.k.a. operation \"Lentil\". The Ingush, a nationality group indigenous to the Caucasus, inhabit mostly Ingushetia. They refer to themselves as Ghalghai (from Ingush: \"Ghala\" (\"fortress\" or \"town\") and \"ghai\" (\"inhabitants\" or \"citizens\"). The Ingush speak the Ingush language, which has a very high degree of mutual intelligibility with neighboring Chechen. The Ingush are traditionally a classless society based on a clan system and unwritten law (approximately 350 clans live in Ingushetia today). Every clan, and each clan member, are viewed as equal. Unlike the neighboring nations in the Caucasus (including Chechen), the Ingush did not develop a social system of superiors or inferiors. The Ingush/Ingushetia were also known by the following names: Gelia (American cartographer J. H. Colton), Tschetschna (German geographers Joseph Grassl and Joseph Meyer), Ghalghai/Gelgai (Self), Nakh (self, meaning \"people\"), Vainakh (self, meaning \"our people\"), Kist (Georgian), Gargar (Self), Dzurdzuk (Georgian), Ghlighvi (Georgian), Angushtini (Russian), and Mack-aloni (Ossetian). In their own language, they have identified as Orstkhoi (self), Nart-Orstkhoi (self), Galash (self), Tsori (self), Dzheirakhoi (self), Khamhoi (self), Metshal (self), Fyappi (self), and Nyasareth (self). The self-namings refer to different Vainakh tribes which make up the Ingush population today. The history of the Ingush is closely related to that of the Chechen. Byzantine and Georgian missionaries partially Christianised the Ingush, although Christianity was weakened by the Mongol invasions. The remains of several churches, notably the Tkhabya-Yerd and the Albe-Yerd, can be found in Ingushetia. Most of Ingush converted to Islam at the end of the 19th century, nearly three centuries after the beginning of Islamization in Chechnya.", "According to Leonti Mroveli, the 11th-century Georgian chronicler, the word Caucasian is derived from the Vainakh ancestor Kavkas. According to Professor George Anchabadze of Ilia State University, \"The Vainakhs are the ancient natives of the Caucasus. It is noteworthy, that according to the genealogical table drawn up by Leonti Mroveli, the legendary forefather of the Vainakhs was \"Kavkas\", hence the name Kavkasians, one of the ethnicons met in the ancient Georgian written sources, signifying the ancestors of the Chechens and Ingush. As appears from the above, the Vainakhs, at least by name, are presented as the most \"Caucasian\" people of all the Caucasians (Caucasus – Kavkas – Kavkasians) in the Georgian historical tradition.\" The Soviet-Russian anthropologists and scientists N.Ya. Marr, V.V. Bounak, R.M. Munchaev, I.M Dyakonov, E.I. Krupnov and G.A. Melikashvilli wrote in 1935: \"Among Ingush the Caucasian type is preserved better than among any other North Caucasian nation\", Professor of anthropology V.V. Bounak \"Groznenski Rabochi\" 5, VII, 1935. G.F. Debets recognized that Ingush Caucasian anthropologic type is the most Caucasian among Caucasians. Such theories of physical types are no longer considered valid. In a 2000 article in \"Science Magazine\", Bernice Wuethrich states that American linguist Johanna Nichols \"has used language to connect modern people of the Caucasus region to the ancient farmers of the Fertile Crescent,\" and that her research suggests that \"farmers of the region were proto-Nakh-Daghestanians\". Nichols is quoted as stating that \"The Nakh–Dagestanian languages are the closest thing we have to a direct continuation of the cultural and linguistic community that gave rise to Western civilization.\"", "The Ingush have 89% of J2 Y-DNA, which is the highest known frequency in the world, and J2, closely associated with populations of the Fertile Crescent. Balanovsky's analysis included only tested 143 Ingush people The mitochondrial DNA of the Ingush differs from that of other Caucasian populations. \"The Caucasus populations exhibit, on average, less variability than other [World] populations for the eight Alu insertion polymorphisms analyzed here. The average heterozygosity is less than that of any other region of the world, with the exception of Sahul. Within the Caucasus, the Ingush have much lower levels of variability than any of the other populations. The Ingush also showed unusual patterns of mtDNA variation when compared with other Caucasus populations (Nasidze and Stoneking, submitted), which indicates that some feature of the Ingush population history, or of this particular sample of the Ingush, must be responsible for their different patterns of genetic variation at both mtDNA and the Alu insertion loci.\" These findings suggested that the population had long been isolated.", "", "Russian historians claim that the Ingush volunteered to become a part of Russia. This conclusion is based mostly on the document signed on 13 June 1810, by General-Major Delpotso and representatives of 2 Ingush clans. Other clans resisted the Russian conquest. On June 29, 1832, Russian baron Rozen reported in letter No.42 to count Chernishev that \"on the 23rd of this month I exterminated eight Ghalghai (Ingush) villages. On the 24th I exterminated nine more villages near Targim.\" By November 12, 1836 (letter no.560, he was claiming that highlanders of Dzheirkah, Kist, and Ghalghai had been temporarily conquered. The Russian conquest was extremely difficult and the Russian forces began to rely on the method of colonization: extermination of the local population and repopulation of the area with Cossack and Ossetian loyalists. Colonization of Ingush land by Russians and Ossetians started in the middle of the 19th century. Russian General Evdokimov and Ossetian colonel Kundukhov in 'Opis no. 436' \"gladly reported\" that \"the result of colonization of Ingush land was successful\": After the losses, the remaining Ingush clans resorted mostly to underground resistance. The Russians built the fortress Vladikavkaz (\"ruler of the Caucasus\") on the place of Ingush village of Zaur. Russian General Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov wrote in a letter to the Tsar of Russia, \"It would be a grave mistake for Russia to alienate such a militaristic nation as the Ingush.\" He suggested the separation of the Ingush and Chechens in order for Russia to win the war in the Caucasus. In another letter from General Ermolov to Lanski (dated 12 January 1827) on the impossibility of forceful Christianization of the Ingush, Yermolov wrote: \"This nation, the most courageous and militaristic among all the highlanders, cannot be allowed to be alienated...\" The last organized rebellion (the so-called \"Nazran insurrection\") in Ingushetia occurred in 1858 when 5,000 Ingush started a fight but lost to superior Russian forces. The rebellion signaled the end of the First Russo-Caucasian War. In the same year, the Russian Tsar encouraged the emigration of Ingush and Chechens to Turkey and the Middle East by claiming that \"Muslims need to live under Muslim rulers\". It seems that he wanted to liberate the land for Ossetians and Cossacks. Some Ingush became exiled to deserted territory in the Middle East where many of them died. The remainder were assimilated. It was estimated that 80% of the Ingush left Ingushetia for the Middle East in 1865. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviets promised the Ingush that the villages and towns annexed during the colonization would be returned to the Ingush. Ingushetia becomes a major battleground between the old archenemies: general Denikin and Ingush resistance fighters. In his memoirs, general Denikin writes: \"Ingush people are the least numerous, most welded, and strongly martial organization. They were, in essence, the supreme arbiter of the North Caucasus. The moral of the appearance was defined long ago in Russian text-books of geography, \"the chief occupation – animal husbandry and robbery...\" The last one of the two reached special art in the society. Political aspirations came from the same trend. The Ingush are mercenaries of the Soviet regime, they support it but don't let the spread of it in their province. At the same time, they tried to strike up relations with Turkey and sought the assistance from the Turks from Elisavetpol, and Germany – from Tiflis. In August, when the Cossacks and Ossetians captured Vladikavkaz, the Ingush intervened and saved the Soviet Board of Commissioners of Terek, but sacked the city and captured the state bank and mint. They robbed all the neighbors: the Cossacks and Ossetians in the name of “correcting historical errors” for a shortage of land, the Bolsheviks – in return for their services, Vladikavkaz citizens – for their helplessness, and the Kabardins – just out of habit. They were hated by everyone, and they did their “craft” in unison, well organized, in a big way, becoming the richest tribe in the Caucasus.”", "On December 21, 1917 Ingushetia, Chechnya, and Dagestan declared independence from Russia and formed a single state called the \"United Mountain Dwellers of the North Caucasus\" (also known as Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus), which was recognized by Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary and Turkey), Georgia, and Azerbaijan (which declared their independence from Russia in 1918) as an independent state. For example, Anna Zelkina writes that in May 1918 the first country to recognize independence was Turkey: Later Germany and others followed the recognition. According to P. Kosok: The capital of the new state was moved to Temir-Khan-Shura (Dagestan). The first prime minister of the state was elected Tapa Chermoyev, a Chechen prominent statesman; the second prime minister was Ingush statesman Vassan-Girey Dzhabagiev who also was the author of the Constitution of the land in 1917. In 1920 he was reelected for a third term. In 1921 Russians attacked and occupied the country and forcefully merged it with the Soviet state. The Caucasian war for independence continued and the government went into exile.", "The Soviets confiscated the remaining Ingush properties by collectivization and dekulakization and unified Chechnya and Ingushetia into Chechen-Ingush ASSR. During World War II Ingush youth were drafted into the Russian army. In August 1942, for three weeks, Nazi German forces captured half of the North Caucasus and were stopped only at two Ingush towns: Ordzhonikidze (modern-day Vladikavkaz) and Malgobek. The battle between Ingush and Germans intensified at Malgobek and the small town was captured and recaptured four times for another month until the Germans finally retreated. Stalin planned the expansion of the USSR in the south through Turkey. Muslim Chechens and Ingush could become a threat to the expansion. In February 1944 near the end of World War II, Russian Army and NKVD units flooded the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. The maneuvers were disguised as military exercises of the southern district.", "During the World War II, in 1942 German forces entered the North Caucasus. For three weeks Germans captured over half of the North Caucasus. They were only stopped at two Chechen-Ingush cities: Malgobek and Ordzhonikidze (a.k.a. \"Vladikavkaz\") by resistance of natives of Chechen-Ingush ASSR. Russian propaganda portrayed Chechens and Ingush as \"traitors\". On 23 February 1944 Ingush and Chechens were falsely accused of collaborating with the Nazis operation code name Lentil starts and the entire Ingush and Chechen populations were deported to Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and Siberia on the orders of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin while the majority of their men were fighting on the front. The initial phase of the deportation was carried out on United States-supplied Studebaker trucks specifically modified with three submachine gun nest compartments above the deported to prevent escapes. American historian Norman Naimark writes: The deportees were gathered on the railroad stations and during the second phase transferred to the cattle railroad carts. Up to 30% of the population perished during the journey or in the first year of the exile. The Prague Watchdog claims that \"in the early years of their exile about half of the Chechens and Ingush died from hunger, cold and disease\". The deportation was classified by the European Parliament in 2004 as genocide. After the deportation Ingush resistance against Russia rises again. Those who escaped the deportation, shepherds who were high in the mountains during the deportation combine forces and form rebel groups which constantly attack Russian forces in Ingushetia. Major rebel groups were led by Akhmed Khuchbarov, Tsitskiev brothers, and Ingush woman-sniper Laisat Baisarova. The last one of the male Ingush rebels was killed in 1977 by the KGB officers, while the female sniper Laisat Baisarova was never captured or killed. American professor Johanna Nichols, who specializes in Chechen and Ingush philology, provided the theory behind the deportation:", "After 13 years of exile, the Ingush were allowed to return to Chechen-Ingushetia (but not to Ordzhonikidze a.k.a. \"Vladikavkaz\" or the Prigorodny District). Most of Ingushetia's territory had been settled by Ossetians and part of the region had been transferred to North Ossetia. The returning Ingush faced considerable animosity from the Ossetians. The Ingush were forced to buy their homes back from the Ossetians and Russians. These hardships and injustices led to a peaceful Ingush protest in Grozny on 16 January 1973, which was crushed by the Soviet troops In 1989, the Ingush were officially rehabilitated along with other peoples that had been subjected to repressions.", "In 1991, when the Chechens declared independence from the Soviet Union to form the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, the Ingush chose to secede from the Chechen-Ingush Republic. Thus, in 1992 the Ingush joined the newly created Russian Federation to try to resolve the conflict with Ossetia peacefully, also in the hope that the Russians would return their land as a token of their loyalty.", "However, ethnic tensions in North Ossetia which were orchestrated by Ossetian nationalists (per Helsinki Human Right Watch), led to an outbreak of violence in the Ossetian–Ingush conflict in October–November 1992, when another ethnic cleansing of the Ingush population started. According to media reports, Ingush hostages were held in 1992 in Beslan high school gymnasium. The hostages were all kept in the same gymnasium, and deprived of food and water; at least one newborn, and several dozen male Ingush hostages were executed. (In a possible retaliation in 2004, Chechen and Ingush militants took over 500 Osset hostages in Beslan high-school. It was the same building where ossetian militants had held hundreds of Ingush hostages in 1992). Over 60,000 Ingush civilians were forced from their homes in the Prigorodny District of North Ossetia. As a result of the conflict, pro-Russian general Ruslan Aushev, a decorated war hero from the War in Afghanistan, was appointed by the Russian government as the first president of Ingushetia to stop the spread of the conflict. Partial stability returned under his rule.", "In 1994, when the First Chechen War started, the number of refugees in Ingushetia from both conflicts doubled. According to the UN, for every citizen of Ingushetia, one refugee arrived from Ossetia or Chechnya. This influx was very problematic for the economy, which collapsed after Aushev's success. The second Russo-Chechen war which started in 1999 brought more refugees (at some point there was one refugee for every Ingush citizen: 240,000 from Chechnya plus 60,000 from North Ossetia at the peak in 2000) and misery to Ingushetia. In 2001, Aushev was forced to leave his presidency and was succeeded by Murat Zyazikov, a former KGB general. The situation worsened under his rule. Many young Ingush men were abducted by Russian and Ossetian death squads. according to Human rights watchdogs Memorial and Mashr. The Ingush mountains are closed for Ingush nationals. The number of rebel attacks in Ingushetia rose, especially after the number of Russian security forces was tripled. For example, according to a Russian news agency a murder of an ethnic-Russian school teacher in Ingushetia was committed by two ethnic-Russian and ethnic-Ossetian soldiers; Issa Merzhoev the Ingush Police detective who solved the crime was shot at and killed by \"unknown\" assailants shortly after he had identified the murderer. At least four people were injured when a vehicle exploded on 24 March 2008. An upsurge in violence in these months targeted local police officers and security forces. In January 2008, the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation launched a \"counter-terrorism\" operation in Ingushetia after receiving information that insurgents had been preparing a series of attacks. In the beginning of August 2008, the war between Georgia and South Ossetia broke out, in which the Russian Federation subsequently became involved. After the outbreak of the war, there were virtually no more attacks or abductions of Ingush civilians by \"unknown\" forces. Most of the Russian forces were transferred to North and South Ossetia 31 August 2008 Magomed Yevloyev, the head of Ingush opposition and the owner of the website ingushetiya.ru, was killed by Russian security forces Shortly before the unrecognised opposition group People's Parliament of Ingushetia Mekhk-Kkhel called for the recognition of the Russian semi-autonomous republic's independence, opposition activist Magomed Khazbiyev proclaimed, \"We must ask Europe or America to separate us from Russia.\" On October 18, 2008, a Russian military convoy came under grenade attack and machine gun fire near Nazran. Official Russian reports of the ambush, which has been blamed on local Muslim separatists, said two soldiers were killed and at least seven injured. Reports from Ingush opposition sources suggested as many as forty to fifty Russian soldiers were killed. On October 30, 2008, Zyazikov was dismissed from his office (he himself claimed he resigned voluntarily). On the next day, Yunus-Bek Yevkurov was nominated by Dmitry Medvedev and approved as President by the People's Assembly of Ingushetia (later the title \"President\" was renamed to \"Head\"). This move was endorsed by major Russian political parties and by the Ingush opposition. Under the current rule of Yevkurov, Ingushetia seems much calmer, showing some semblance of the Russian government. Attacks on policemen have fallen by 40% and abductions by 80%.", "According to professor Johanna Nichols, in all the recorded history and reconstructable prehistory, the Ingush people have never undertaken battle except in defense. In the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC Pharnavaz, his son Saurmag the Iberian kings, and the relatives of Ingush people per Leonti Mroveli, received military assistance from Ingush people in defense of Iberia against the Kartli occupation. During World War I, 500 cavalrymen from an Ingush regiment of the Wild Division attacked the German Iron Division. The Russian Emperor Nicholas II, assessing the performance of the Ingush and Chechen regiments during the Brusilov breakthrough on the Russian-German front in 1915 wrote in a telegram to the Governor-General of the Tersky region Fleisher: In 1941, when Germans attacked the USSR, the whole Russian front was retreating 40 km a day. Out of 6,500 defenders of Brest Fortress, 6,000 Soviet troops capitulated. 500 troops were fresh conscripts of Ingush and Chechen origin. Defenders held the fortress for over a month against the Germans and even managed to stage several attacks from the Fortress. The last defender's name has been unknown for a long time; his documents identified him as a man called Barkhanoyev. Decades later, official records revealed it was Umatgirei Barkhanoyev from the Ingush village of Yandare. Recently, the memoirs of Stankus Antanas, a Lithuanian national and former Waffen SS officer, were published in Ingushetia. He recalls that in July 1941, his regiment was ordered to \"finish off\" the remaining Soviet soldiers in the fortress. When the Nazis decided that no defenders had been left alive, an SS general lined up his soldiers on the parade ground to award them with decorations for capturing the fortress. Then, a Red Army officer came out from the fortress's underground bunker: In 1994–96 Ingush volunteers fought alongside Chechens in the First Chechen War. Aside from a few incidents (including the killings of Ingush civilians by Russian soldiers), Ingushetia was largely kept out of the war by a determined policy of non-violence pursued by President Ruslan Aushev. This changed after the beginning of the Second Chechen War, and especially since Murat Zyazikov became the second Russian appointed president of Ingushetia in 2002. The first major rebel attack of the conflict, in which a military convoy was destroyed occurred in May 2000 and caused the deaths of 19 soldiers. In the June 2004 Nazran raid, Chechen and Ingush rebels attacked government buildings and military bases across Ingushetia, resulting in the deaths of at least 90 Ingush people and an unknown number of Russian troops. Among them the Republic's acting interior minister Abukar Kostoyev, his deputy Zyaudin Kotiyev. In response to a sharp escalation in attacks by insurgents since the summer of 2007, Moscow sent in an additional 25,000 MVD and FSB troops, tripling the number of special forces in Ingushetia.", "Population: The Ingush, a nationality group indigenous to the Caucasus, mostly inhabit Ingushetia. They refer to themselves as Ghalghai (from Ingush: \"Ghala\" (\"fortress\" or \"town\") and \"ghai\" (\"inhabitants\" or \"citizens\"). The Ingush speak the Ingush language, which has a very high degree of mutual intelligibility with neighboring Chechen.", "Note: Total fertility rate 2009, 2010, 2011 source:", "According to the 2010 Russian Census (2010), ethnic Ingush make up 94.1% of the republic's population. Other groups include Chechens (4.6%), Russians (0.8%), and a host of smaller groups, each accounting for less than 0.5% of the total population. Ingushetia has the lowest proportion of ethnic Russians of all federal subjects in Russia.", "The Ingush are predominantly Shafi'i Madhhab of Sunni Islam with a Sufi minority, which is often associated with one of two traditional Sufi orders: the Sufi tariqa Naqshbandi, represented in Ingushetia by the brotherhood of Deni Arsanov, and the tariqa Qadiriyyah, associated with Kunta-Haji Kishiev.", "Ingushetia is situated on the northern slopes of the Caucasus. Its area is reported by various sources as either or ; the difference in reporting is mainly due to the inclusion or exclusion of parts of Sunzhensky Districts. The republic borders North Ossetia–Alania (SW/W/NW/N), the Chechnya (NE/E/SE), and the country of Georgia (Mtskheta-Mtianeti) (southwards). The highest point is the Gora Shan (4451 m). A stretch of the Caucasus Mountains runs through the territory of the republic.", "Major rivers include:", "Ingushetia is rich in marble, timber, dolomite, plaster, limestone, gravel, granite, clay, thermal medical water, rare metals, mineral water, oil (over 60 billion tons), and natural gas reserves.", "Ingushetia's climate is mostly continental.", "Up until the dissolution of the Soviet state, Ingushetia was part of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic. In the late 1920s – early 1930s the Soviet officials were eager to enforce the Chechen-Ingush merger as an “objective” and “natural” process. The Soviet linguist Nikolay Yakovlev, who was a supporter of the merger, suggested that an inclusive name of \"Veinakh\" (“our people”) had to be used for both the Chechens and Ingush. According to his views, the rapid urbanization and rapprochement of the Chechens and Ingush within one and the same republic might encourage the formation of a common culture and language and the establishment of a unified “Veinakh” people. During the late 80s, together with the separatist tendencies across the Soviet Union, the Second Congress of the Ingush People was held in Grozny on September 9–10, 1989. The gathering was directed at the top leadership of the Soviet Union, and included a request to \"restore the Ingush people’s autonomy within their historical borders, the Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic with a capital in the right-bank part of the city of Ordzhonikidze\".The Ingush Republic was to be organized out of six traditional Ingush districts (including the contested Prigorodny District). The rise of the Russian Federation gave the Ingushetians the independence they vowed for. During the 1990s, Ingushetia was ruled by its elected president Ruslan Aushev, a former Soviet general and hero of the war in Afghanistan. The head of government and the highest executive post in Ingushetia is the Head. Recent heads: Recent Chairmen of the Government: The parliament of the Republic is the People's Assembly, composed of 34 deputies elected for a four-year term. The People's Assembly is headed by the Chairman. As of 2006, the Chairman of the People's Assembly is Makhmud Sultanovich Sakalov. The Constitution of Ingushetia was adopted on February 27, 1994. Ingushetia is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. The capital was moved from Nazran to Magas in December 2002. The most recent election was held in 2013.", "There are some natural resources in Ingushetia: mineral water in Achaluki, oil and natural gas in Malgobek, forests in Dzheirakh, metals in Galashki. The local government is considering the development of tourism; however, this is problematic due to the uneasy situation in the republic itself and the proximity of some conflict zones. However, Ingushetia continues to remain as one of Russia's poorest republics, largely due to the ongoing conflict, corruption and civil disorders. Unemployment is estimated to be around 53%, and growing poverty is a major issue.", "Ingush State University, the first institute of higher education in the history of Ingushetia, was founded in 1994 in Ordzhonikidzevskaya." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Physical properties.", "Molecular geometry.", "Electrical conductivity.", "Chemical properties.", "Reactions with electrophiles.", "Lithiation.", "Reduction and oxidation.", "Production.", "Other sources and occurrences.", "Naphthalene in the interstellar medium.", "Uses.", "Naphthalenesulfonic acids and sulfonates.", "Laboratory uses.", "Wetting agent and surfactant.", "As a fumigant.", "Other uses.", "Health effects.", "Regulation.", "Naphthalene derivatives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early 1820s, two separate reports described a white solid with a pungent odor derived from the distillation of coal tar. In 1821, John Kidd cited these two disclosures and then described many of this substance's properties and the means of its production. He proposed the name \"naphthaline\", as it had been derived from a kind of naphtha (a broad term encompassing any volatile, flammable liquid hydrocarbon mixture, including coal tar). Naphthalene's chemical formula was determined by Michael Faraday in 1826. The structure of two fused benzene rings was proposed by Emil Erlenmeyer in 1866, and confirmed by Carl Gräbe three years later.", "A naphthalene molecule can be viewed as the fusion of a pair of benzene rings. (In organic chemistry, rings are \"fused\" if they share two or more atoms.) As such, naphthalene is classified as a benzenoid polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). The eight carbons that are not shared by the two rings carry one hydrogen atom each. For purpose of the standard IUPAC nomenclature of derived compounds, those eight atoms are numbered 1 through 8 in sequence around the perimeter of the molecule, starting with a carbon adjacent to a shared one. The shared carbons are labeled 4a (between 4 and 5) and 8a (between 8 and 1).", "The molecule is planar, like benzene. Unlike benzene, the carbon–carbon bonds in naphthalene are not of the same length. The bonds C1−C2, C3−C4, C5−C6 and C7−C8 are about 1.37 Å (137 pm) in length, whereas the other carbon–carbon bonds are about 1.42 Å (142 pm) long. This difference, established by X-ray diffraction, is consistent with the valence bond model in naphthalene and in particular, with the theorem of cross-conjugation. This theorem would describe naphthalene as an aromatic benzene unit bonded to a diene but not extensively conjugated to it (at least in the ground state), which is consistent with two of its three resonance structures. Because of this resonance, the molecule has bilateral symmetry across the plane of the shared carbon pair, as well as across the plane that bisects bonds C2-C3 and C6-C7, and across the plane of the carbon atoms. Thus there are two sets of equivalent hydrogen atoms: the \"alpha\" positions, numbered 1, 4, 5, and 8, and the \"beta\" positions, 2, 3, 6, and 7. Two isomers are then possible for mono-substituted naphthalenes, corresponding to substitution at an alpha or beta position. Bicyclo[6.2.0]decapentaene is a structural isomer with a fused 4–8 ring system and azulene is another, with a fused 5-7 ring system. The point group symmetry of naphthalene is \"D\".", "Pure crystalline naphthalene is a moderate insulator at room temperature, with resistivity of about 10 Ω m. The resistivity drops more than a thousandfold on melting, to about 4 × 10 Ω m. Both in the liquid and in the solid, the resistivity depends on temperature as \"ρ\" = \"ρ\" exp(\"E\"/(\"k\" \"T\")), where \"ρ\" (Ω m) and \"E\" (eV) are constant parameters, \"k\" is Boltzmann's constant (8.617×10 eV/K), and \"T\" is absolute temperature (K). The parameter \"E\" is 0.73 in the solid. However, the solid shows semiconducting character below 100 K.", "", "In electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, naphthalene reacts more readily than benzene. For example, chlorination and bromination of naphthalene proceeds without a catalyst to give 1-chloronaphthalene and 1-bromonaphthalene, respectively. Likewise, whereas both benzene and naphthalene can be alkylated using Friedel–Crafts reactions, naphthalene can also be easily alkylated by reaction with alkenes or alcohols, using sulfuric or phosphoric acid catalysts. In terms of regiochemistry, electrophiles attack at the alpha position. The selectivity for alpha over beta substitution can be rationalized in terms of the resonance structures of the intermediate: for the alpha substitution intermediate, seven resonance structures can be drawn, of which four preserve an aromatic ring. For beta substitution, the intermediate has only six resonance structures, and only two of these are aromatic. Sulfonation gives the \"alpha\" product naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid as the kinetic product but naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid as the thermodynamic product. The 1-isomer forms predominantly at 25 °C, and the 2-isomer at 160 °C. Sulfonation to give the 1- and 2-sulfonic acid occurs readily: Further sulfonation give di-, tri-, and tetrasulfonic acids.", "Analogous to the synthesis of phenyllithium is the conversion of 1-bromonaphthalene to 1-lithionaphthalene, a lithium-halogen exchange: The resulting lithionaphthalene undergoes a second lithiation, in contrast to the behavior of phenyllithium. These 1,8-dilithio derivatives are precursors to a host of peri-naphthalene derivatives.", "With alkali metals, naphthalene forms the dark blue-green radical anion salts such as sodium naphthalenide, NaCH. The naphthalenide salts are strong reducing agents. Naphthalene can be hydrogenated under high pressure in the presence of metal catalysts to give 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene(), also known as tetralin. Further hydrogenation yields decahydronaphthalene or decalin (). Oxidation with in the presence of vanadium pentoxide as catalyst gives phthalic anhydride: This reaction is the basis of the main use of naphthalene. Oxidation can also be effected using conventional stoichiometric chromate or permanganate reagents.", "Most naphthalene is derived from coal tar. From the 1960s until the 1990s, significant amounts of naphthalene were also produced from heavy petroleum fractions during petroleum refining, but today petroleum-derived naphthalene represents only a minor component of naphthalene production. Naphthalene is the most abundant single component of coal tar. Although the composition of coal tar varies with the coal from which it is produced, typical coal tar is about 10% naphthalene by weight. In industrial practice, distillation of coal tar yields an oil containing about 50% naphthalene, along with twelve other aromatic compounds. This oil, after being washed with aqueous sodium hydroxide to remove acidic components (chiefly various phenols), and with sulfuric acid to remove basic components, undergoes fractional distillation to isolate naphthalene. The crude naphthalene resulting from this process is about 95% naphthalene by weight. The chief impurities are the sulfur-containing aromatic compound benzothiophene (< 2%), indane (0.2%), indene (< 2%), and methylnaphthalene (< 2%). Petroleum-derived naphthalene is usually purer than that derived from coal tar. Where required, crude naphthalene can be further purified by recrystallization from any of a variety of solvents, resulting in 99% naphthalene by weight, referred to as 80 °C (melting point). Approximately 1.3M tons are produced annually. In North America, the coal tar producers are Koppers Inc., Ruetgers Canada Inc. and Recochem Inc., and the primary petroleum producer is Monument Chemical Inc. In Western Europe the well-known producers are Koppers, Ruetgers, and Deza. In Eastern Europe, naphthalene is produced by a variety of integrated metallurgy complexes (Severstal, Evraz, Mechel, MMK) in Russia, dedicated naphthalene and phenol makers INKOR, Yenakievsky Metallurgy plant in Ukraine and ArcelorMittal Temirtau in Kazakhstan.", "Aside from coal tar, trace amounts of naphthalene are produced by magnolias and some species of deer, as well as the Formosan subterranean termite, possibly produced by the termite as a repellant against \"ants, poisonous fungi and nematode worms.\" Some strains of the endophytic fungus \"Muscodor albus\" produce naphthalene among a range of volatile organic compounds, while \"Muscodor vitigenus\" produces naphthalene almost exclusively.", "Naphthalene has been tentatively detected in the interstellar medium in the direction of the star Cernis 52 in the constellation Perseus. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with polyaromatic hydrocarbons, including naphthalene. Protonated cations of naphthalene () are the source of part of the spectrum of the Unidentified Infrared Emissions (UIRs). Protonated naphthalene differs from neutral naphthalene (e.g. that used in mothballs) in that it has an additional hydrogen atom. The UIRs from \"naphthalene cation\" () have been observed by astronomers. This research has been publicized as \"mothballs in space.\"", "Naphthalene is used mainly as a precursor to other chemicals. The single largest use of naphthalene is the industrial production of phthalic anhydride, although more phthalic anhydride is made from \"o\"-xylene. Many azo dyes are produced from naphthalene, and so is the insecticide 1-naphthyl-\"N\"-methylcarbamate (\"carbaryl\"). Other useful agrichemicals include naphthoxyacetic acids.", "Many naphthalenesulfonic acids and sulfonates are useful. Alkyl naphthalene sulfonate are surfactants, The aminonaphthalenesulfonic acids, naphthalenes substituted with amines and sulfonic acids, are intermediates in the preparation of many synthetic dyes. The hydrogenated naphthalenes tetrahydronaphthalene (tetralin) and decahydronaphthalene (decalin) are used as low-volatility solvents. Naphthalene sulfonic acids are also used in the synthesis of 1-naphthol and 2-naphthol, precursors for various dyestuffs, pigments, rubber processing chemicals and other chemicals and pharmaceuticals. Naphthalene sulfonic acids are used in the manufacture of naphthalene sulfonate polymer plasticizers (dispersants), which are used to produce concrete and plasterboard (wallboard or drywall). They are also used as dispersants in synthetic and natural rubbers, and as tanning agents (syntans) in leather industries, agricultural formulations (dispersants for pesticides), dyes and as a dispersant in lead–acid battery plates. Naphthalene sulfonate polymers are produced by treating naphthalenesulfonic acid with formaldehyde, followed by neutralization with sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide. These products are commercially sold as superplasticizers for the production of high strength concrete.", "Molten naphthalene provides an excellent solubilizing medium for poorly soluble aromatic compounds. In many cases it is more efficient than other high-boiling solvents, such as dichlorobenzene, benzonitrile, nitrobenzene and durene. The reaction of C with anthracene is conveniently conducted in refluxing naphthalene to give the 1:1 Diels–Alder adduct. The aromatization of hydroporphyrins has been achieved using a solution of DDQ in naphthalene.", "Alkyl naphthalene sulfonates (ANS) are used in many industrial applications as nondetergent wetting agents that effectively disperse colloidal systems in aqueous media. The major commercial applications are in the agricultural chemical industry, which uses ANS for wettable powder and wettable granular (dry-flowable) formulations, and the textile and fabric industry, which utilizes the wetting and defoaming properties of ANS for bleaching and dyeing operations.", "Naphthalene has been used as a household fumigant. It was once the primary ingredient in mothballs, although its use has largely been replaced in favor of alternatives such as 1,4-dichlorobenzene. In a sealed container containing naphthalene pellets, naphthalene vapors build up to levels toxic to both the adult and larval forms of many moths that attack textiles. Other fumigant uses of naphthalene include use in soil as a fumigant pesticide, in attic spaces to repel animals and insects, and in museum storage-drawers and cupboards to protect the contents from attack by insect pests. Naphthalene is a repellent to opossums.", "It is used in pyrotechnic special effects such as the generation of black smoke and simulated explosions. It is used to create artificial pores in the manufacture of high-porosity grinding wheels. In the past, naphthalene was administered orally to kill parasitic worms in livestock. Naphthalene and its alkyl homologs are the major constituents of creosote. Naphthalene is used in engineering to study heat transfer using mass sublimation.", "Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may damage or destroy red blood cells, most commonly in people with the inherited condition known as glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency, which over 400 million people suffer from. Humans, in particular children, have developed the condition known as hemolytic anemia, after ingesting mothballs or deodorant blocks containing naphthalene. Symptoms include fatigue, lack of appetite, restlessness, and pale skin. Exposure to large amounts of naphthalene may cause confusion, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, blood in the urine, and jaundice (yellow coloration of the skin due to dysfunction of the liver). The US National Toxicology Program (NTP) held an experiment where male and female rats and mice were exposed to naphthalene vapors on weekdays for two years. Both male and female rats exhibited evidence of carcinogenesis with increased incidences of adenoma and neuroblastoma of the nose. Female mice exhibited some evidence of carcinogenesis based on increased incidences of alveolar and bronchiolar adenomas of the lung, while male mice exhibited no evidence of carcinogenesis. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies naphthalene as possibly carcinogenic to humans and animals (Group 2B). The IARC also points out that acute exposure causes cataracts in humans, rats, rabbits, and mice; and that hemolytic anemia (described above) can occur in children and infants after oral or inhalation exposure or after maternal exposure during pregnancy. Under California's Proposition 65, naphthalene is listed as \"known to the State to cause cancer\". A probable mechanism for the carcinogenic effects of mothballs and some types of air fresheners containing naphthalene has been identified.", "US government agencies have set occupational exposure limits to naphthalene exposure. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit at 10 ppm (50 mg/m) over an eight-hour time-weighted average. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has set a recommended exposure limit at 10 ppm (50 mg/m) over an eight-hour time-weighted average, as well as a short-term exposure limit at 15 ppm (75 mg/m).. Napthelene's minimum odor threshold is 0.084 ppm for humans. Mothballs and other products containing naphthalene have been banned within the EU since 2008. In China, the use of naphthalene in mothballs is forbidden. Danger to human health and the common use of natural camphor are cited as reasons for the ban.", "The partial list of naphthalene derivatives includes the following compounds:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Military service in World War II.", "Service in Yugoslavia and Greece.", "Surrender.", "Diplomatic career.", "United Nations Secretary-General.", "Presidency of Austria.", "Election and Waldheim Affair.", "Allegations of Nazi war crimes.", "Foreign visits.", "Later years and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Waldheim was born in Sankt Andrä-Wördern, near Vienna, on 21 December 1918. His father was a Roman Catholic school inspector of Czech origin named Watzlawick (original Czech spelling Václavík) who changed his name that year as the Habsburg monarchy collapsed. Waldheim served in the Austrian Army (1936–37) and attended the Vienna Consular Academy, where he graduated in 1939. Waldheim's father was active in the Christian Social Party. Waldheim himself was politically unaffiliated during these years at the Academy. Three weeks after the German annexation of Austria in 1938, Waldheim applied for membership in the National Socialist German Students' League (NSDStB), a division of the Nazi Party. Shortly thereafter he became a registered member of the mounted corps of the SA. On 19 August 1944, he married Elisabeth Ritschel in Vienna; their first daughter, Lieselotte, was born the following year. A son, Gerhard, and another daughter, Christa, followed.", "In early 1941, Waldheim was drafted into the \"Wehrmacht\" and posted to the Eastern Front where he served as a squad leader. In December, he was wounded but returned to service in 1942. His service in the \"Wehrmacht\" from 1942 to 1945 was the subject of international review in 1985 and 1986. In his 1985 autobiography, he stated that he was discharged from further service at the front and, for the remainder of the war, finished his law degree at the University of Vienna, in addition to marrying in 1944. After publication, documents and witnesses came to light that revealed Waldheim’s military service continued until 1945, during which time he rose to the rank of \"Oberleutnant\".", "Waldheim's functions within the staff of German Army Group E from 1942 until 1945, as determined by the International Commission of Historians, were: (Italy) in Pljevlja from 22 March 1942 to July 1942. By 1943, Waldheim was serving in the capacity of an aide-de-camp in Army Group E which was headed by General Alexander Löhr. In 1986, Waldheim said that he had served only as an interpreter and a clerk and had no knowledge either of reprisals against local Serb civilians or of massacres in neighboring provinces of Yugoslavia. He said that he had known about some of the things that had happened, and had been horrified, but could not see what else he could have done. Much historical interest has centred on Waldheim's role in Operation Kozara in 1942. According to one post-war investigator, prisoners were routinely shot within only a few hundred metres (yards) of Waldheim's office, and away at the Jasenovac concentration camp. Waldheim later stated that \"he did not know about the murder of civilians there\". Waldheim's name appears on the \"Wehrmacht\"s \"honour list\" of those responsible for the militarily successful operation. The Nazi puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia, awarded Waldheim the Medal of the Crown of King Zvonimir in silver with an oak branches cluster. Decades later, during the lobbying for his election as U.N. Secretary General, Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito, who had led anti-German forces during the war, awarded Waldheim one of the highest Yugoslav orders, not knowing of his prior military service. Waldheim denied that he knew war crimes were taking place in Bosnia at the height of the battles between the Nazis and Tito's partisans in 1943. According to Eli Rosenbaum, in 1944, Waldheim reviewed and approved a packet of anti-Semitic propaganda leaflets to be dropped behind Soviet lines, one of which ended: \"Enough of the Jewish war, kill the Jews, come over.\"", "In 1945, Waldheim surrendered to British forces in Carinthia, at which point he said he had fled his command post within Army Group E, where he was serving with General Löhr, who was seeking a special deal with the British.", "Waldheim joined the Austrian diplomatic service in 1945, after finishing his studies in law at the University of Vienna. He served as First Secretary of the Legation in Paris from 1948, and in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs in Vienna from 1951 to 1956. In 1956 he was made Ambassador to Canada, returning to the Ministry in 1960, after which he became the Permanent Representative of Austria to the United Nations in 1964. For two years beginning in 1968, he was the Federal Minister for Foreign Affairs for the Austrian People's Party, before going back as Permanent Representative to the U.N. in 1970. Shortly afterwards, he ran and was defeated in the 1971 Austrian presidential elections.", "After losing the presidential election, Waldheim ran for Secretary-General of the United Nations in the 1971 selection. Waldheim was supported by the Soviet Union and led the first two rounds of voting. However, he was opposed by China, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Waldheim won an accidental victory in the third round of voting when those three permanent members failed to coordinate their vetoes and all abstained. Waldheim succeeded U Thant as United Nations Secretary-General in 1972. As Secretary-General, Waldheim opened and addressed a number of major international conferences convened under United Nations auspices. These included the third session of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (Santiago, April 1972), the U.N. Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, June 1972), the third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea (Caracas, June 1974), the Third World Population Conference (Bucharest, August 1974) and the World Food Conference (Rome, November 1974). However, his diplomatic efforts particularly in the Middle East were overshadowed by the diplomacy of then U.S. Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger. On 11 September 1972, Ugandan dictator Idi Amin sent a telegram to Waldheim, copies of which went to Yasser Arafat and Golda Meir. In the telegram, Amin \"applauded the massacre of the Israeli Olympic athletes in Munich and said Germany was the most appropriate locale for this because it was where Hitler burned more than six million Jews.\" Amin also called \"to expel Israel from the United Nations and to send all the Israelis to Britain, which bore the guilt for creating the Jewish state.\" Amidst international protest, \"the UN spokesman said [in his daily press conference] it was not the secretary-general's practice to comment on telegrams sent him by heads of government. He added that the secretary-general condemned any form of racial discrimination and genocide.\" After Operation Entebbe on 7 July 1976 — in which Israeli commandos freed more than 100 Israeli and Jewish passengers held captive in Entebbe Airport (Uganda's main airport) by Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and German Revolutionary Cells fighters protected by forces of dictator Idi Amin, and where all the hijackers, three hostages, and 45 Ugandan soldiers were killed — Waldheim described the raid as a \"serious violation of the national sovereignty of a United Nations member state\". Waldheim ran for a second term in the 1976 UN Secretary-General selection. However, China was still opposed to Waldheim and approached several Third World countries seeking challengers. Outgoing Mexican President Luis Echeverría finally entered the race in October 1976, making Waldheim the only Secretary-General to face a contested re-selection campaign. Waldheim resoundingly defeated Echeverría in the first round of voting. China cast a single symbolic veto against Waldheim in the first round and voted for him in the second round, handing him an easy victory with 14 of 15 votes on the Security Council. Waldheim and then-U.S. President Jimmy Carter both recorded statements for the Voyager Golden Records, which were launched into deep space on the Voyager spacecraft in 1977. He was the first Secretary-General to visit North Korea, in 1979. In 1980, Waldheim flew to Iran in an attempt to negotiate the release of the American hostages held in Tehran, but Ayatollah Khomeini refused to see him. While in Tehran, it was announced that an attempt on Waldheim's life had been foiled. Near the end of his tenure as Secretary-General, Waldheim and British popular musician Paul McCartney organized a series of concerts for the People of Kampuchea to help Cambodia recover from the damage done by Pol Pot. Waldheim ran for an unprecedented third full term as Secretary-General in the 1981 selection. China was determined to unseat him this time and lined up a strong candidate in Salim Ahmed Salim of Tanzania. In the first round of voting, Waldheim lost to Salim by one vote. However, Salim was vetoed by the United States, while Waldheim was vetoed by China. The veto duel between China and the United States lasted a record 16 rounds. After six weeks of deadlock, Waldheim and Salim both withdrew from the race. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar of Peru won the selection and succeeded Waldheim as Secretary-General of the United Nations. The events of 1981 established a two-term limit on the office, and no Secretary-General since Waldheim has run for a third term.", "", "Waldheim had unsuccessfully sought election as President of Austria in 1971, but his second attempt on 8 June 1986 proved successful. During his campaign for the presidency in 1985, what became known internationally as the \"Waldheim affair\" began. Before the presidential elections, investigative journalist Alfred Worm revealed in the Austrian weekly news magazine \"Profil\" that there had been several omissions about Waldheim's life between 1938 and 1945 in his recently published autobiography. Waldheim had previously claimed to have received a medical discharge after being wounded in winter 1942. His aides at the United Nations even accused the Israeli mission of spreading rumors that he supported the Nazis. Israeli ambassador Yehuda Zvi Blum denied the charges, saying, \"We don't believe Waldheim ever supported the Nazis and we never said he did. We have many differences with him, but that isn't one of them.\" A short time later, beginning on 4 March 1986, the World Jewish Congress alleged that Waldheim had lied about his service in the mounted corps of the SA and had concealed his service as a special missions staff officer (Ordonnanzoffizier) for Germany's Army Group E in Yugoslavia and Greece, from 1942 to 1944, based primarily on captured German wartime records held at the United States National Archives in Washington, DC, and in other archives. The 23 March 1986 public disclosure by the World Jewish Congress that the organization had unearthed the fact that the United Nations War Crimes Commission concluded after the war that Waldheim was implicated in Nazi mass murder and should be arrested arguably transformed the Waldheim affair into the most sensational of all post-war Nazi scandals. Waldheim called the allegations, which grew in magnitude in the ensuing months, \"pure lies and malicious acts\". Nevertheless, he admitted that he had known about German reprisals against partisans: \"Yes, I knew. I was horrified. But what could I do? I had either to continue to serve or be executed.\" He said that he had never fired a shot or even seen a partisan. His former immediate superior at the time stated that Waldheim had \"remained confined to a desk\". Former Austrian chancellor Bruno Kreisky, of Jewish origin, denounced the actions of the World Jewish Congress as an \"extraordinary infamy\", adding that Austrians would not \"allow the Jews abroad to... tell us who should be our President.\" Part of the reason for the controversy was Austria's refusal to address its national role in the Holocaust (many leading Nazis, including Adolf Hitler, were Austrians, and Austria became part of the Third Reich). Austria refused to pay compensation to Nazi victims, and from 1970 onwards refused to investigate Austrian citizens who were senior Nazis. Stolen Jewish art remained public property a generation after the Waldheim affair. Because the revelations leading to the Waldheim affair came shortly before the presidential election, there has been speculation about the background of the affair. Declassified documents from the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency show that the CIA had been aware of some details of his wartime past since 1945. Information about Waldheim's wartime past was also previously published by a pro-German Austrian newspaper, \"Salzburger Volksblatt\", during the 1971 presidential election campaign, including the claim of an SS membership, but the matter was supposedly regarded as unimportant or even advantageous for the candidate at that time. According to several of Waldheim's obituarists, his wartime past and the discrepancies in his autobiography, \"In the Eye of the Storm\", must have been known to both superpowers before he was elected UN Secretary-General, and there were rumors that the KGB had blackmailed him during his UN time (for example here and here). In 1994, former Mossad officer Victor Ostrovsky claimed in his book \"The Other Side of Deception\" that Mossad doctored Waldheim's file while he was serving as Secretary-General to implicate him in Nazi crimes. These allegedly false documents were subsequently \"discovered\" by Benjamin Netanyahu in the UN file and triggered the \"Waldheim Affair\". Ostrovsky says that this was motivated by Waldheim's criticism of Israel's war in Lebanon. Controversy surrounds Ostrovsky because many of his revelations have not been sourced or otherwise confirmed, leading several critics to say that most of his work (including \"The Other Side of Deception\") is fictional. Ostrovsky's service in Mossad was confirmed when the Israeli government unsuccessfully attempted to stop publication of the book.", "In view of the ongoing international controversy, the Austrian government decided to appoint an international committee of historians to examine Waldheim's life between 1938 and 1945. Their report found no evidence of any personal involvement in those crimes. Although Waldheim had stated that he was unaware of any crimes taking place, the committee cited evidence that Waldheim must have known about war crimes. In response to Waldheim's denial that he knew about war crimes, Simon Wiesenthal stated that Waldheim was stationed from Thessaloniki while, over the course of several weeks, the Jewish community, which formed one-third of the population there, was sent to Auschwitz: I could only reply what the committee of historians likewise made clear in its report: \"I cannot believe you.\" Wiesenthal, whose conduct in the Waldheim affair was sharply criticized by the World Jewish Congress and others, and whose \"adamant defense of Waldheim\" and \"public, personal attacks against the WJC investigators\" \"ultimately tarnished his prominent global reputation,\" stated the committee found no evidence that Waldheim took part in any war crimes but was guilty of lying about his military record. The International Committee in February 1988 concluded that he could not stop what was going on in Yugoslavia and Greece even if he knew: In favour of Waldheim is, that he only had very minor possibilities to act against the injustices happening. Actions against these, depending on which level the resistance occurred, were of very different importance. For a young member of the staff, who did not have any military authority on the army group level, the practical possibilities for resistance were very limited and with a high probability would not have led to any actual results. Resistance would have been limited to a formal protest or on the refusal to serve any longer in the army, which would have seemed to be a courageous act, however would have not led to any practical achievement. On 27 April 1987, the United States Department of Justice and the United States Department of State announced that evidence amassed in an investigation conducted by the Justice Department's Office of Special Investigations (OSI) had established a prima facie case that Waldheim participated in Nazi-sponsored persecution during World War II and therefore that his entry into the United States was prohibited by federal statute. This marked the first time that a head of state had been put on an immigration watchlist. The 232-page internal Department of Justice 9 April 1987 investigative report was released in 1994 by that agency, and it is available at the agency's website. The report catalogues evidence that, the U.S. government concluded, proved that Waldheim had taken part in, among other actions: the transfer of civilian prisoners to the SS for exploitation as slave labor; the mass deportation of civilians—including Jews from Greek islands and the town of Banja Luka, Yugoslavia—to concentration and death camps; the utilization of anti-Semitic propaganda; the mistreatment and execution of Allied prisoners; and reprisal executions of hostages and other civilians. Additional allegations of participation in Nazi crimes, with citations to captured Nazi documents and other records, were leveled in a 1993 book by Eli Rosenbaum, the former U.S. federal prosecutor who had directed the World Jewish Congress investigation that led to the New York Times' initial exposure of Waldheim's hidden Nazi-era past in 1986. The authors also cited evidence that the governments of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia had covered up Waldheim's wartime past and used it to blackmail him before and during his tenure as United Nations Secretary General, and that the U.S. intelligence community had committed a major error in failing to detect the Cold War weaponization of that information by the two communist governments. Harold H. Tittmann III, an American lawyer and author based in Europe, harshly criticized the Justice Department's OSI investigation and its report in his 2000 book, \"The Waldheim Affair: Democracy Subverted\". According to this author, the report was only released because of legal pressure brought by John Mapother, a retired CIA officer who had served in Austria and \"had been skeptical about the existence of evidence the OSI claimed to have uncovered.\" Tittmann argued that OSI exceeded its statutory authority in producing the report and that it relied too heavily on material from the World Jewish Congress. Throughout, the book also strongly criticized U.S. media treatment of Waldheim. It concluded that \"American reporting... was often biased, inaccurate, or incomplete. True, the Waldheim story was unusually complex and required much research for a proper understanding, but this complexity cannot excuse the one-sided opinions that emanated from editorial desks.\"", "Throughout his term as President (1986–1992), Kurt Waldheim was officially deemed \"persona non grata\" by the United States and, officially or informally, by nearly every other nation in the world outside the Arab world.", "After his term ended in 1992, Waldheim did not seek re-election. The same year, he was made an honorary member of \"K.H.V. Welfia Klosterneuburg\", a Roman Catholic student fraternity part of the Austrian \"Cartellverband\". In 1994, Pope John Paul II awarded Waldheim a knighthood in the Order of Pius IX and his wife a papal honor. He died on 14 June 2007, at the age of 88 from heart failure. On 23 June, his funeral was held at St. Stephen's Cathedral, Vienna, and he was buried at the Presidential Vault in the \"Zentralfriedhof\" (\"central cemetery\"). In his speech at the Cathedral, Federal President Heinz Fischer called Waldheim \"a great Austrian\" who had been wrongfully accused of having committed war crimes. Fischer also praised Waldheim for his efforts to solve international crises and for his contributions to world peace. At Waldheim's own request, no foreign heads of states or governments were invited to attend his funeral except Hans-Adam II, the Prince of Liechtenstein. Also present was Luis Durnwalder, governor of the Italian province of South Tyrol. Japan and Syria were the only two countries that laid wreaths on his grave. Ban Ki-moon, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, issued a message 'voicing sadness'. In a two-page letter, published posthumously by the Austrian Press Agency the day after he died, Waldheim admitted making \"mistakes\" (\"but these were certainly not those of a follower let alone an accomplice of a criminal regime\") and asked his critics for forgiveness." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Creation and BAA–NBL merger (1946–1956).", "Celtics' dominance, league expansion and competition (1956–1979).", "Surging popularity (1979–1998).", "Lakers' and Spurs' dynasties (1998–2014).", "Modern era (2014–present).", "International influence.", "Other developments.", "Teams.", "Regular season.", "Playoffs.", "Championships.", "Media coverage.", "International competitions.", "Ticket prices and viewership demographics.", "Viewership demographics.", "Controversies and criticism.", "Notable people.", "Foreign players.", "International influence.", "NBA Cares." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Basketball Association of America was founded in 1946 by owners of the major ice hockey arenas in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States and Canada. On November 1, 1946, in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, the Toronto Huskies hosted the New York Knickerbockers at Maple Leaf Gardens, in a game the NBA now refers to as the first game played in NBA history. The first basket was made by Ossie Schectman of the Knickerbockers. Although there had been earlier attempts at professional basketball leagues, including the American Basketball League and the NBL, the BAA", "In 1957, rookie center Bill Russell joined the Boston Celtics, which already featured guard Bob Cousy and coach Red Auerbach, and went on to lead the franchise to eleven NBA titles in thirteen seasons. Center Wilt Chamberlain entered the league with the Warriors in 1959 and became a dominant individual star of the 1960s, setting new single game records in scoring (100) and rebounding (55). Russell's rivalry with Chamberlain became one of the greatest rivalries in the history of American team sports. The 1960s were dominated by the Celtics. Led by Russell, Cousy, and Auerbach, Boston won eight straight championships in the NBA", "The league added the ABA's three-point field goal beginning in 1979. That same year, rookies Larry Bird and Magic Johnson joined the Boston Celtics and Los Angeles Lakers respectively, initiating a period of significant growth in fan interest in the NBA. The two had faced each other in the 1979 NCAA Division I Basketball Championship Game, and they later played against each other in three NBA Finals (1984, 1985, and 1987). In the 10 seasons of the 1980s, Johnson led the Lakers to five titles while Bird led the Celtics to three titles. Also in the early 1980s, the NBA added one more expansion franchise, the Dallas Mavericks, bringing the total to 23 teams. Later on, Larry Bird won the first three three-point shooting contests. On February 1, 1984 David Stern became commissioner of the NBA. Stern has been recognized as playing a major role in the growth of the league during his career. Michael Jordan entered the", "In 1999, the San Antonio Spurs became the first former ABA team to win the NBA championship. It was the team's first championship win. Since the breakup of the Chicago Bulls championship roster in the summer of 1998, the Western Conference has dominated. The Los Angeles Lakers of coach Phil Jackson and the San Antonio Spurs of Gregg Popovich combined to make 13 Finals in 16 seasons, with 10 titles. Tim Duncan and David Robinson won the 1999 championship with the Spurs, and Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant started the 2000s with three consecutive championships for the Lakers. The Spurs reclaimed the title in 2003 against the Nets. In 2004, the Lakers", "After four seasons with the Miami Heat, LeBron James returned to Ohio upon the 2014–15 season to once again play for the Cleveland Cavaliers. He became the head of the team and led them to their second Finals appearance with the help of Kyrie Irving and Kevin Love. The Golden State Warriors defeated the Cavaliers in six games, led by Stephen Curry and Klay Thompson, also known as the Splash Brothers. The following year, the Warriors obtained the best season record in NBA history by win percentage, further establishing their dominance within the league. The 2016 NBA Finals became a rematch between the two teams. It showed the Cavaliers win their first NBA Championship as well as become the first team to return from a 3–1 series deficit in the Finals. In the 2016–17 season, the Warriors benefited from the recruitment of Kevin Durant, who had joined the team as a free agent in 2016. He became the Most Valuable Player of the 2017 NBA Finals and led the team to", "Following pioneers like Vlade Divac (Serbia) and Dražen Petrović (Croatia) who joined the NBA in the late 1980s, an increasing number of international players have moved directly from playing elsewhere in the world to starring in the NBA. Since 2006, the NBA has faced EuroLeague teams in exhibition matches in the NBA Europe Live Tour, and since 2009, in the EuroLeague American Tour. The", "In 2001, an affiliated minor league, the National Basketball Development League, now called the NBA G League, was created. Before the league was started. Two years after the Hornets' move to New Orleans, the NBA returned to North Carolina, as the Charlotte Bobcats were formed as an expansion team in 2004. The Hornets temporarily moved to Oklahoma City in 2005 for two seasons because of damage caused by Hurricane Katrina. The team returned to New Orleans in 2007. A new official game ball was introduced on June 28, 2006, for the 2006–07 season, marking the first change to the ball in over 35 years and only the second ball in 60 seasons. Manufactured by Spalding, the new ball featured a new design and new synthetic material that Spalding claimed offered a better grip, feel, and consistency than the original ball. However, many players were vocal in their disdain for the new ball, saying that it was too sticky when dry, and too slippery when wet. Commissioner Stern announced on December 11, 2006, that beginning January 1, 2007, the NBA would return to the traditional leather basketball in use prior to the 2006–07 season. The change was influenced by frequent", "The NBA originated in 1946 with 11 teams, and through a sequence of team expansions, reductions, and relocations, currently consists of 30 teams. The United States is home to 29 teams; another is in Canada. The current league organization divides 30 teams", "Following the summer break, teams begin training camps in late September. Training camps allow the coaching staff to evaluate players (especially rookies), scout the team's strengths and weaknesses, prepare the players for the rigorous regular season, and determine the 12-man active roster (and a 3-man inactive list) with which they will begin the regular season. Teams have the ability to assign players with less than two years of experience to the NBA G League. After training camp, a series of preseason exhibition games are held. Preseason matches are sometimes held in non-NBA cities, both in the United States and overseas. The NBA regular season begins in the last week of October. During the regular season, each team plays 82 games, 41 each home and away. A team faces opponents in its own division four times a year (16 games). Each team plays six of the teams from the other two divisions in its conference four times (24 games), and the remaining four teams three times (12 games). Finally, each team plays all the teams in the other conference twice apiece (30 games). This asymmetrical structure means the strength of schedule will vary between teams (but not as significantly as the NFL or MLB). Over five seasons, each team will have played 80 games against their division (20 games against each opponent, 10 at home, 10 on the road), 180 games against the rest of their conference (18 games against each opponent, 9 at home, 9 on the road), and 150 games against the other conference (10 games against each team, 5 at home, 5 on the road). The NBA is one of only two of the four major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada in which teams play every other team during the regular season (the other being the National Hockey League). Each team hosts and visits every other team at least once every season. From 2005 to 2008, the NBA had the distinction of being the only one of the four major leagues in which all teams play every other team. The NBA is also the only league that regularly schedules games on Christmas Day. The league has been playing games regularly on the holiday since 1947, though the first Christmas Day games were not televised until. Games played on this day have featured some of the best", "The NBA playoffs begin in April after the conclusion of the regular season with the top eight teams in each conference, regardless of divisional alignment, competing for the league's championship title, the Larry O'Brien Championship Trophy. Seeds are awarded in strict order of regular season record (with a tiebreaker system used as needed). Having a higher seed offers several advantages. Since the first seed begins the playoffs playing against the eighth seed, the second seed plays the seventh seed, the third seed plays the sixth seed, and the fourth seed plays the fifth seed, having a higher seed means a team faces a weaker team in the first round. The team in each series with the better record has home court advantage, including the First Round. Before the league changed its playoff determination format for the 2006–07 season, this meant that, for example, if the team that received the sixth seed had a better record than the team with the third seed (by virtue of a divisional championship), the sixth seed would have home court advantage, even though the other team had a higher seed. Therefore, the team with the best regular season record in the league is guaranteed home court advantage in every series it plays. For example, in 2006, the Denver Nuggets won 44 games and captured the Northwest Division and the third seed. Their opponent was the sixth-seeded Los", "The Boston Celtics have won the most championships with 17 NBA Finals wins. The second most successful franchise is the Los Angeles Lakers, who have 16 overall championships (11 in", "As one of the major sports leagues in North America, the NBA has a long history of partnerships with television networks in the United States. The NBA signed a contract with DuMont Television Network in its eighth season, the 1953–54 season, marking the first year the NBA had a", "The National Basketball Association has sporadically participated in international club competitions. From 1987 to 1999 the NBA champions played", "In 2012, a ticket cost from $10 to $3,000 apiece, depending on the location of the seat and the success of the teams that were playing. In 2020, ticket prices for the NBA All Star Game became more expensive than ever before, averaging around $2,600, and even more on the secondary market.", "According to Nielsen's survey, in 2013 the NBA had the youngest audience, with 45 percent of its viewers under 35, but the least likely, along with Major League Baseball, to be watched by women, who make up only 30% of the viewership. It also has the highest share of black viewers with 45 percent of its viewers being black", "The NBA has been involved in a number", "", "", "Following pioneers like Vlade Divac (Serbia) and Dražen Petrović (Croatia) who joined the NBA in the late 1980s, an increasing number of international players have moved directly from playing elsewhere in the world to starring in the NBA. Below is a short list of foreign players who have won NBA awards or have been otherwise recognized for their contributions to basketball, either currently or formerly active in the league: On some occasions, young players, most but not all from the English-speaking world, have attended U.S. colleges before playing in the NBA. Notable examples are: Since 2006, the NBA has faced EuroLeague teams in exhibition matches in the NBA Europe Live Tour, and since 2009 in the EuroLeague American Tour. The 2013–14 season opened with a record 92 international players on the opening night rosters, representing 39 countries and comprising over 20% of the league. The NBA defines \"international\" players as those born outside the 50 United States and Washington, D.C. This means that:", "The league has a global social responsibility program, NBA Cares, that is responsible for the league's stated mission of addressing important social issues worldwide." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Standards and practices.", "Staffing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center can be traced back to June 1945, when the Fleet Weather Center/Typhoon Tracking Center was established on the island of Guam, after multiple typhoons, including Typhoon Cobra of December 1944 and another typhoon in June 1945, had caused a significant loss of men and ships. At this time the centre was one of three Navy and two Air Force units responsible for tropical cyclone reconnaissance and warnings in the Pacific. Over the next few years the coordination of tropical warnings between the centres was at times difficult or impossible due to various communication problems. During 1958, the United States Department of Defense weather services and the Weather Bureau formed the Joint Meteorology Committee to the Pacific Command and proposed the formation of a joint Navy and Air Force center for typhoon analysis and forecasting. A committee was subsequently set up to study the issue which issued a report during January 1959, which gave recommendation that the center be set up. Based on the report and the conclusions reached at the March 1959 Annual Tropical Cyclone Conference, the Joint Meteorology Committee formally urged, The Commander in Chief, US Pacific Command (CINCPAC) to establish a Joint Typhoon Warning Center. The CINCPAC subsequently petitioned the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who gave permission for the centre to be set up effective May 1, 1959, under the command of the Fleet Weather Center's commander. The JTWC initially consisted of ten people with two officers and three enlisted personnel provided by each service. It was required to provide warnings on all tropical cyclones between the Malay Peninsula and the International Dateline for US government agencies. They also had to determine reconnaissance requirements, prepare annual typhoon summaries, and conduct research into tropical cyclone forecasting and detection. In November 1962, Typhoon Karen destroyed the building housing the Fleet Weather Center/Joint Typhoon Warning Center. It relocated in a more typhoon-proof building in 1965. Between 1971 and 1976, CINCPAC gradually expanded out the JTWC's area of responsibility, to include the area between the International Dateline and the African coasts. In October 1978, the Fleet Weather Center/JTWC became the Navy Oceanographic Command Center/Joint Typhoon Warning Center and responsible for the whole oceanic environment, from the bottom of the ocean to the top of the atmosphere. The JTWC subsequently started issuing warnings for the Southern Hemisphere between the African coast and the International Dateline during October 1980. It was relocated to Pearl Harbor on January 1, 1999 due to the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure Commission round. During October 2011, the JTWC's name changed from the “Naval Maritime Forecast Center/Joint Typhoon Warning Center” to just the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, as it became a stand-alone command for the first time in its 52-year history.", "A more modernized method for forecasting tropical cyclones had become apparent by the 1980s. Prior to the development of ATCF, the tools used by the Department of Defense to forecast tropical cyclone track were acetate, grease pencils, and disparate computer programs. The ATCF software was developed by the Naval Research Laboratory for the JTWC beginning in 1986, and used since 1988. It was adapted for use at the National Hurricane Center (NHC) in 1990. JTWC adheres to the World Meteorological Organization's (WMO) rules for storm names and adheres to acknowledged guidelines for intensity of tropical cyclones and tropical storms, with the exception of using the U.S. standard of measuring sustained winds for 1-min instead of the 10-min span recommended by the WMO (see Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale). The JTWC is not one of the WMO designated Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres, nor one of its Tropical cyclone warning centres, as its main mission is to support the United States government agencies. JTWC monitors, analyzes, and forecasts tropical cyclone formation, development, and movement year round. Its area of responsibility covers 89% of the world's tropical cyclone activity.", "The Center is manned by about 37 U.S. Air Force and Navy personnel. The JTWC uses several satellite systems and sensors, radar, surface and upper level synoptic data as well as atmospheric models to complete its mission." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Ernst Ruska was born in Heidelberg, Germany. He was educated at the Technical University of Munich from 1925 to 1927 and then entered the Technical University of Berlin, where he posited that microscopes using electrons, with wavelengths 1000 times shorter than those of light, could provide a more detailed picture of an object than a microscope utilizing light, in which magnification is limited by the size of the wavelengths. In 1931, he demonstrated that a magnetic coil could act as an electron lens, and used several coils in a series to build the first electron microscope in 1933. After completing his PhD in 1933, Ruska continued to work in the field of electron optics, first at Fernseh AG in Berlin-Zehlendorf, and then from 1937 at Siemens-Reiniger-Werke AG. At Siemens, he was involved in developing the first commercially produced electron microscope in 1939. As well as developing the technology of electron microscopy while at Siemens, Ruska also worked at other scientific institutions, and encouraged Siemens to set up a laboratory for visiting researchers, which was initially headed by Ruska's brother Helmut, a medical doctor who developed the use of the electron microscope for medical and biological applications. After leaving Siemens in 1955, Ruska served as director of the Institute for Electron Microscopy of the Fritz Haber Institute until 1974. Concurrently, he served at the institute and as professor at the Technical University of Berlin from 1957 until his retirement in 1974. In 1960 he won the Lasker Award. In 1986, he was awarded half of the Nobel Prize in Physics for his many achievements in electron optics; Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer won a quarter each for their design of the scanning tunneling microscope. He died in West Berlin in 1988. Asteroid 1178 Irmela discovered by Max Wolf is named after his wife Irmela, who was the niece of Max Wolf." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and early life.", "Career and research.", "Personality.", "War, peace and energy.", "Honours and awards.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Martin Ryle was born in Brighton, the son of Professor John Alfred Ryle and Miriam (née Scully) Ryle. He was the nephew of Oxford University Professor of Philosophy Gilbert Ryle. After studying at Bradfield College, Ryle studied physics at Christ Church, Oxford. In 1939, Ryle worked with the Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) on the design of antennas for airborne radar equipment during World War II. After the war, he received a fellowship at the Cavendish Laboratory.", "The focus of Ryle's early work in Cambridge was on radio waves from the Sun. His interest quickly shifted to other areas, however, and he decided early on that the Cambridge group should develop new observing techniques. As a result, Ryle was the driving force in the creation and improvement of astronomical interferometry and aperture synthesis, which paved the way for massive upgrades in the quality of radio astronomical data. In 1946 Ryle built the first multi-element astronomical radio interferometer. Ryle guided the Cambridge radio astronomy group in the production of several important radio source catalogues. One such catalogue, the Third Cambridge Catalogue of Radio Sources (3C) in 1959 helped lead to the discovery of the first quasi-stellar object (quasar). While serving as university lecturer in physics at Cambridge from 1948 to 1959, Ryle became director of the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory in 1957 and professor of radio astronomy in 1959. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1952, was knighted in 1966 (p 519 of) and succeeded Sir Richard Woolley as Astronomer Royal from 1972–1982. Ryle and Antony Hewish shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1974, the first Nobel prize awarded in recognition of astronomical research. In 1968 Ryle served as professor of astronomy at Gresham College, London.", "According to numerous reports Ryle was quick-thinking, impatient with those slower than himself and charismatic (pp 502, 508, 510 of). He was also idealistic (p 519 of), a characteristic he shared with his father (p 499 of,). In an interview (p271 of) in 1982 he said \"At times one feels that one should almost have a car sticker saying 'Stop Science Now' because we're getting cleverer and cleverer, but we do not increase the wisdom to go with it.\" He was also intense and volatile (p 327 of), the latter characteristic being associated with his mother (p 499 of, Folder A.20 of). The historian Owen Chadwick described him as \"a \"rare\" personality, of exceptional sensitivity of mind, fears and anxieties, care and compassion, humour and anger.\" (Folder A.28 of) Ryle was sometimes considered difficult to work with – he often worked in an office at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory to avoid disturbances from other members of the Cavendish Laboratory and to avoid getting into heated arguments, as Ryle had a hot temper. Ryle worried that Cambridge would lose its standing in the radio astronomy community as other radio astronomy groups had much better funding, so he encouraged a certain amount of secrecy about his aperture synthesis methods in order to keep an advantage for the Cambridge group. Ryle had heated arguments with Fred Hoyle of the Institute of Astronomy about Hoyle's steady state universe, which restricted collaboration between the Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group and the Institute of Astronomy during the 1960s.", "Ryle was a new physics graduate and an experienced radio ham in 1939, when the Second World War started. He played an important part in the Allied war effort, working mainly in radar countermeasures. After the war, \"He returned to Cambridge with a determination to devote himself to pure science, unalloyed by the taint of war.\" In the 1970s, Ryle turned the greater part of his attention from astronomy to social and political issues which he considered to be more urgent. With publications from 1976 and continuing, despite illness until he died in 1984, he pursued a passionate and intensive program on the socially responsible use of science and technology. His main themes were: In 1983 Ryle responded to a request from the President of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences for suggestions of topics to be discussed at a meeting on \"Science and Peace\". Ryle's reply was published posthumously in \"Martin Ryle's Letter\". An abridged version appears in \"New Scientist\" with the title \"Martin Ryle's Last Testament\". The letter ends with \"Our cleverness has grown prodigiously – but not our wisdom.\"", "Ryle was awarded numerous prizes and honours including:", "In their early years Martin and his elder brother received lessons at home in carpentry (p 498 of ) and manual skills became important for him throughout his life. This was for relaxation – he built boats to his own designs (p 498 of ) – and professionally. In his wartime radar work (), his post-war radio-telescope building (p 510 of ) and his late researches into wind energy (p 517 of ) he was a hands-on practical engineer as well as a scientist. Ryle also had a lifelong interest in sailing (p 498 of) and this matched his choice when in the 1970s he turned his research subject from astronomy to wind energy (pp 420–422 of) Another practical skill acquired by Martin in youth that later served him well in his professional career was as a radio 'ham'. While still at School (Bradfield College) he built his own transmitter and obtained a Post Office licence to operate it (pp 498–499 of), with the GB-Callsign G3CY. In 1936 the family moved to a house in Cambridge which became Martin's home after the war. In 1947 he and Rowena Palmer married and they lived in this house for rest of Martin's life. They had three children, born in 1949, 1951 and 1952. Ryle died on 14 October 1984, in Cambridge. He was celebrated on a first class stamp issued in 2009 as part of an Eminent Britons set. Lady Ryle died in 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education: 1882–1904.", "International success: 1905–1938.", "Career as teacher: 1939–1970.", "Documents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born Pavel Vyskočil in Prague, his father was a conductor at the Prague Opera and his mother, Františka Ludikarová-Vyskočilová, was an operatic contralto. He first studied law and philosophy at the University of Prague and then trained as a concert pianist. In 1901, at the age of 19, he traveled throughout North America giving piano concerts. Upon his return home he decided he wanted to pursue a singing career and began opera studies with first his mother and then Jean Lassalle in Paris. He made his professional opera debut at the National Theatre in his native city in 1904 as Sarastro in \"The Magic Flute\".", "After several more initial successes in Prague, he made a number of highly lauded guest appearances at the Vienna Volksoper and the Semperoper in Dresden. He reached La Scala in Milan in 1911 where he sang in the Italian premières of Richard Strauss's \"Der Rosenkavalier\" (as Ochs) and Engelbert Humperdinck's \"Königskinder\" (as the Fiddler). Other roles he appeared in at La Scala included Bluebeard in \"Ariane et Barbe-bleue\", Falstaff in Otto Nicolai's \"The Merry Wives of Windsor\", Geronimo in Domenico Cimarosa's \"Il matrimonio segreto\", and both Pagner and Hans Sachs in \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\". In the years before World War II, Ludikar performed at the opera houses in Rome, Trieste, Turin, Paris, Budapest and Havana. In 1911, 1913, and 1920 he was committed to the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires, where he was an admired Wotan in \"The Ring Cycle\" and King Marke in \"Tristan und Isolde\". In 1913-1914 he worked with the Boston Opera Company, having a great success there as Archibaldo in Italo Montemezzi's \"L'amore dei tre re\" and in the role of Hans Sachs. In 1917 he was committed to the Zurich Opera where he portrayed such roles as Leporello in \"Don Giovanni\", the Speaker in \"The Magic Flute\", and Oreste in Strauss's \"Elektra\". From 1926 to 1932 Ludikar was a member of the Metropolitan Opera in New York City. He made his debut at the house on November 16, 1926 as Timur in the United States premiere of Giacomo Puccini's \"Turandot\" with Maria Jeritza in the title role, Giacomo Lauri-Volpi as Calàf, Martha Attwood as Liù, and Tullio Serafin conducting. He sang in several more United States premieres with the company including Puccini's \"La Rondine\" (March 10, 1928, Rambaldo), Ildebrando Pizzetti's \"Fra Gherardo\" (March 21, 1929, Guido), Giuseppe Verdi's \"Luisa Miller\" (December 21, 1929, Wurm), Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Sadko\" (January 25, 1930, the Sea King), and Felice Lattuada's \"Le Preziose Ridicole\" (December 10, 1930, Gorgibus). Although he was most often seen in operas by Puccini, Mozart, and Wagner, Ludikar sang an incredibly diverse repertoire at the Met; pulling from the leading bass, basso buffo, and comprimario repertoires. His repertoire there included Alvise in \"La Gioconda\", Archibaldo, Capulet in \"Roméo et Juliette\", Ashby in \"La Fanciulla del West\", Colline in \"La Bohème\", Daland in \"The Flying Dutchman\", Don Alfonso in \"Così Fan Tutte\", Ferrando in \"Il trovatore\", Geronte in \"Manon Lescaut\", Gesler in \"William Tell\", Golaud in \"Pelléas et Mélisande\", Hermann in \"Tannhäuser\", Hunding in \"Die Walküre\", Leporello, Kecal in \"The Bartered Bride\", King Heinrich in \"Lohengrin\", King Marke, Mathieu in \"Andrea Chénier\", Pedro in \"L'Africaine\", Peter in \"Hänsel und Gretel\", Pogner, Ramfis in \"Aida\", Rocco in \"Fidelio\", Sarastro, Simone in \"Gianni Schicchi\", and Sparafucile in \"Rigoletto\". His final and 220th performance with the Met was as Coppélius in \"Les Contes d'Hoffmann\" for an out of town engagement in Cleveland, Ohio on April 23, 1932. After leaving the Met, Ludikar toured the United States for a few years with the Hinshaw Grand Opera Company. He returned to Europe in 1935 when he became director of the Neues deutsches Theatre in Prague. In the 1930s, with the growing Nazi threat, the Neues deutsches Theatre was among the bastions of democracy, serving as a refuge for artists from Germany. Political developments shortly before signature of the Munich Agreement coupled with financial problems led to the theatre's closing in September 1938, effectively ending Ludikar's opera career. The great achievement of his later years in Prague was his portrayal of the title role in the world premiere of Ernst Krenek's \"Karl V\" on 22 June 1938.", "During the years of World War II, Ludikar continued to perform in concerts in Germany and Austria. He taught singing in Prague from 1941 to 1943. In 1944 he taught master classes at the Mozarteum University of Salzburg and gave his final public concerts in that city in that year. He then returned to Prague. After the end of World War II, Ludikar wanted to move to Austria but was forbidden to leave by the now Soviet controlled government in his country. He spent the next couple years living in seclusion in the vicinity of Prague. He managed to leave the country in late 1947 upon which time he joined the faculty of the Vienna Music Academy. He taught there and gave annual masterclasses at the Salzburg Mozarteum up until his death in Vienna in 1970. He also served for a few years as the director of the opera house in Graz.", "Documents by Pavel Ludikar in the Saechsisches Staatsarchiv Leipzig." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Wild-type GFP (wtGFP).", "GFP derivatives.", "Nomenclature.", "In nature.", "Other fluorescent proteins.", "Structure.", "Applications.", "Reporter assays.", "Advantages.", "Fluorescence microscopy.", "Split GFP.", "Macro-photography.", "Transgenic pets.", "Art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In the 1960s and 1970s, GFP, along with the separate luminescent protein aequorin (an enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of luciferin, releasing light), was first purified from \"Aequorea victoria\" and its properties studied by Osamu Shimomura. In \"A. victoria\", GFP fluorescence occurs when aequorin interacts with Ca ions, inducing a blue glow. Some of this luminescent energy is transferred to the GFP, shifting the overall color towards green. However, its utility as a tool for molecular biologists did not begin to be realized until 1992 when Douglas Prasher reported the cloning and nucleotide sequence of wtGFP in \"Gene\". The funding for this project had run out, so Prasher sent cDNA samples to several labs. The lab of Martin Chalfie expressed the coding sequence of wtGFP, with the first few amino acids deleted, in heterologous cells of \"E. coli\" and \"C. elegans\", publishing the results in \"Science\" in 1994. Frederick Tsuji's lab independently reported the expression of the recombinant protein one month later. Remarkably, the GFP molecule folded and was fluorescent at room temperature, without the need for exogenous cofactors specific to the jellyfish. Although this near-wtGFP was fluorescent, it had several drawbacks, including dual peaked excitation spectra, pH sensitivity, chloride sensitivity, poor fluorescence quantum yield, poor photostability and poor folding at 37 °C. The first reported crystal structure of a GFP was that of the S65T mutant by the Remington group in \"Science\" in 1996. One month later, the Phillips group independently reported the wild-type GFP structure in \"Nature Biotechnology\". These crystal structures provided vital background on chromophore formation and neighboring residue interactions. Researchers have modified these residues by directed and random mutagenesis to produce the wide variety of GFP derivatives in use today. Further research into GFP has shown that it is resistant to detergents, proteases, guanidinium chloride (GdmCl) treatments, and drastic temperature changes.", "Due to the potential for widespread usage and the evolving needs of researchers, many different mutants of GFP have been engineered. The first major improvement was a single point mutation (S65T) reported in 1995 in \"Nature\" by Roger Tsien. This mutation dramatically improved the spectral characteristics of GFP, resulting in increased fluorescence, photostability, and a shift of the major excitation peak to 488 nm, with the peak emission kept at 509 nm. This matched the spectral characteristics of commonly available FITC filter sets, increasing the practicality of use by the general researcher. A 37 °C folding efficiency (F64L) point mutant to this scaffold, yielding enhanced GFP (EGFP), was discovered in 1995 by the laboratories of Thastrup and Falkow. EGFP allowed the practical use of GFPs in mammalian cells. EGFP has an extinction coefficient (denoted ε) of 55,000 Mcm. The fluorescence quantum yield (QY) of EGFP is 0.60. The relative brightness, expressed as ε•QY, is 33,000 Mcm. Superfolder GFP (sfGFP), a series of mutations that allow GFP to rapidly fold and mature even when fused to poorly folding peptides, was reported in 2006. Many other mutations have been made, including color mutants; in particular, blue fluorescent protein (EBFP, EBFP2, Azurite, mKalama1), cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP, Cerulean, CyPet, mTurquoise2), and yellow fluorescent protein derivatives (YFP, Citrine, Venus, YPet). BFP derivatives (except mKalama1) contain the Y66H substitution.They exhibit a broad absorption band in the ultraviolet centered close to 380 nanometers and an emission maximum at 448 nanometers. A green fluorescent protein mutant (BFPms1) that preferentially binds Zn(II) and Cu(II) has been developed. BFPms1 have several important mutations including and the BFP chromophore (Y66H),Y145F for higher quantum yield, H148G for creating a hole into the beta-barrel and several other mutations that increase solubility. Zn(II) binding increases fluorescence intensity, while Cu(II) binding quenches fluorescence and shifts the absorbance maximum from 379 to 444 nm. Therefore, they can be used as Zn biosensor. Chromophore binding. The critical mutation in cyan derivatives is the Y66W substitution, which causes the chromophore to form with an indole rather than phenol component. Several additional compensatory mutations in the surrounding barrel are required to restore brightness to this modified chromophore due to the increased bulk of the indole group. In ECFP and Cerulean, the N-terminal half of the seventh strand exhibits two conformations. These conformations both have a complex set of van der Waals interactions with the chromophore. The Y145A and H148D mutations in Cerulean stabilize these interactions and allow the chromophore to be more planar, better packed, and less prone to collisional quenching. Additional site-directed random mutagenesis in combination with fluorescence lifetime based screening has further stabilized the seventh β-strand resulting in a bright variant, mTurquoise2, with a quantum yield (QY) of 0.93. The red-shifted wavelength of the YFP derivatives is accomplished by the T203Y mutation and is due to π-electron stacking interactions between the substituted tyrosine residue and the chromophore. These two classes of spectral variants are often employed for Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) experiments. Genetically encoded FRET reporters sensitive to cell signaling molecules, such as calcium or glutamate, protein phosphorylation state, protein complementation, receptor dimerization, and other processes provide highly specific optical readouts of cell activity in real time. Semirational mutagenesis of a number of residues led to pH-sensitive mutants known as pHluorins, and later super-ecliptic pHluorins. By exploiting the rapid change in pH upon synaptic vesicle fusion, pHluorins tagged to synaptobrevin have been used to visualize synaptic activity in neurons. Redox sensitive GFP (roGFP) was engineered by introduction of cysteines into the beta barrel structure. The redox state of the cysteines determines the fluorescent properties of roGFP.", "The nomenclature of modified GFPs is often confusing due to overlapping mapping of several GFP versions onto a single name. For example, mGFP often refers to a GFP with an N-terminal palmitoylation that causes the GFP to bind to cell membranes. However, the same term is also used to refer to monomeric GFP, which is often achieved by the dimer interface breaking A206K mutation. Wild-type GFP has a weak dimerization tendency at concentrations above 5 mg/mL. mGFP also stands for \"modified GFP,\" which has been optimized through amino acid exchange for stable expression in plant cells.", "The purpose of both the (primary) bioluminescence (from aequorin's action on luciferin) and the (secondary) fluorescence of GFP in jellyfish is unknown. GFP is co-expressed with aequorin in small granules around the rim of the jellyfish bell. The secondary excitation peak (480 nm) of GFP does absorb some of the blue emission of aequorin, giving the bioluminescence a more green hue. The serine 65 residue of the GFP chromophore is responsible for the dual-peaked excitation spectra of wild-type GFP. It is conserved in all three GFP isoforms originally cloned by Prasher. Nearly all mutations of this residue consolidate the excitation spectra to a single peak at either 395 nm or 480 nm. The precise mechanism of this sensitivity is complex, but, it seems, involves donation of a hydrogen from serine 65 to glutamate 222, which influences chromophore ionization. Since a single mutation can dramatically enhance the 480 nm excitation peak, making GFP a much more efficient partner of aequorin, \"A. victoria\" appears to evolutionarily prefer the less-efficient, dual-peaked excitation spectrum. Roger Tsien has speculated that varying hydrostatic pressure with depth may affect serine 65's ability to donate a hydrogen to the chromophore and shift the ratio of the two excitation peaks. Thus, the jellyfish may change the color of its bioluminescence with depth. However, a collapse in the population of jellyfish in Friday Harbor, where GFP was originally discovered, has hampered further study of the role of GFP in the jellyfish's natural environment.", "There are many GFP-like proteins that, despite being in the same protein family as GFP, are not directly derived from \"Aequorea victoria\". These include dsRed, eqFP611, Dronpa, TagRFPs, KFP, EosFP/IrisFP, Dendra, and so on. Having been developed from proteins in different organisms, these proteins can sometimes display unantipated approaches to chromophore formation. Some of these, such as KFP, are developed from naturally non- or weakly-fluorescent proteins to be greatly improved upon by mutagenesis. When GFP-like barrels of different spectra characteristics are used, the excitation spectra of one chromophore can be used to power another chromophore (FRET), allowing for conversion between wavelengths of light. FMN-binding fluorescent proteins (FbFPs) were developed in 2007 and are a class of small (11-16 kDa), oxygen-independent fluorescent proteins that are derived from blue-light receptors. They are intended especially for the use under anaerobic or hypoxic conditions, since the formation and binding of the Flavin chromophore does not require molecular oxygen, as it is the case with the synthesis of the GFP chromophore. Fluorescent proteins with other chromophores, such as UnaG with bilirubin, can display unique properties like red-shifted emission above 600 nm or photoconversion from a green-emitting state to a red-emitting state. They can have excitation and emission wavelengths far enough apart to achieve conversion between red and green light. A new class of fluorescent protein was evolved from a cyanobacterial (\"Trichodesmium erythraeum\") phycobiliprotein, α-allophycocyanin, and named small ultra red fluorescent protein (smURFP) in 2016. smURFP autocatalytically self-incorporates the chromophore biliverdin without the need of an external protein, known as a lyase. Jellyfish- and coral-derived GFP-like proteins require oxygen and produce a stoichiometric amount of hydrogen peroxide upon chromophore formation. smURFP does not require oxygen or produce hydrogen peroxide and uses the chromophore, biliverdin. smURFP has a large extinction coefficient (180,000 M cm) and has a modest quantum yield (0.20), which makes it comparable biophysical brightness to eGFP and ~2-fold brighter than most red or far-red fluorescent proteins derived from coral. smURFP spectral properties are similar to the organic dye Cy5. A review of new classes of fluorescent proteins and applications can be found in Trends in Biochemical Sciences.", "GFP has a beta barrel structure consisting of eleven β-strands with a pleated sheet arrangement, with an alpha helix containing the covalently bonded chromophore 4-(\"p\"-hydroxybenzylidene)imidazolidin-5-one (HBI) running through the center. Five shorter alpha helices form caps on the ends of the structure. The beta barrel structure is a nearly perfect cylinder, 42Å long and 24Å in diameter (some studies have reported a diameter of 30Å), creating what is referred to as a \"β-can\" formation, which is unique to the GFP-like family. HBI, the spontaneously modified form of the tripeptide Ser65–Tyr66–Gly67, is nonfluorescent in the absence of the properly folded GFP scaffold and exists mainly in the un-ionized phenol form in wtGFP. Inward-facing sidechains of the barrel induce specific cyclization reactions in Ser65–Tyr66–Gly67 that induce ionization of HBI to the phenolate form and chromophore formation. This process of post-translational modification is referred to as \"maturation\". The hydrogen-bonding network and electron-stacking interactions with these sidechains influence the color, intensity and photostability of GFP and its numerous derivatives. The tightly packed nature of the barrel excludes solvent molecules, protecting the chromophore fluorescence from quenching by water. In addition to the auto-cyclization of the Ser65-Tyr66-Gly67, a 1,2-dehydrogenation reaction occurs at the Tyr66 residue. Besides the three residues that form the chromophore, residues such as Gln94, Arg96, His148, Thr203, and Glu222 all act as stabilizers. The residues of Gln94, Arg96, and His148 are able to stabilize by delocalizing the chromophore charge. Arg96 is the most important stabilizing residue due to the fact that it prompts the necessary structural realignments that are necessary from the HBI ring to occur. Any mutation to the Arg96 residue would result in a decrease in the development rate of the chromophore because proper electrostatic and steric interactions would be lost. Tyr66 is the recipient of hydrogen bonds and does not ionize in order to produce favorable electrostatics.", "", "Green fluorescent protein may be used as a reporter gene. For example, GFP can be used as a reporter for environmental toxicity levels. This protein has been shown to be an effective way to measure the toxicity levels of various chemicals including ethanol, \"p\"-formaldehyde, phenol, triclosan, and paraben. GFP is great as a reporter protein because it has no effect on the host when introduced to the host's cellular environment. Due to this ability, no external visualization stain, ATP, or cofactors are needed. With regards to pollutant levels, the fluorescence was measured in order to gauge the effect that the pollutants were have on the host cell. The cellular density of the host cell was also measured. Results from the study conducted by Song, Kim, & Seo (2016) showed that there was a decrease in both fluorescence and cellular density as pollutant levels increased. This was indicative of the fact that cellular activity had decreased. More research into this specific application in order to determine the mechanism by which GFP acts as a pollutant marker. Similar results have been observed in zebrafish because zebrafish that were injected with GFP were approximately twenty times more susceptible to recognize cellular stresses than zebrafish that were not injected with GFP.", "The biggest advantage of GFP is that it can be heritable, depending on how it was introduced, allowing for continued study of cells and tissues it is expressed in. Visualizing GFP is noninvasive, requiring only illumination with blue light. GFP alone does not interfere with biological processes, but when fused to proteins of interest, careful design of linkers is required to maintain the function of the protein of interest. Moreover, if used with a monomer it is able to diffuse readily throughout cells.", "The availability of GFP and its derivatives has thoroughly redefined fluorescence microscopy and the way it is used in cell biology and other biological disciplines. While most small fluorescent molecules such as FITC (fluorescein isothiocyanate) are strongly phototoxic when used in live cells, fluorescent proteins such as GFP are usually much less harmful when illuminated in living cells. This has triggered the development of highly automated live-cell fluorescence microscopy systems, which can be used to observe cells over time expressing one or more proteins tagged with fluorescent proteins. For example, GFP had been widely used in labelling the spermatozoa of various organisms for identification purposes as in \"Drosophila melanogaster\", where expression of GFP can be used as a marker for a particular characteristic. GFP can also be expressed in different structures enabling morphological distinction. In such cases, the gene for the production of GFP is incorporated into the genome of the organism in the region of the DNA that codes for the target proteins and that is controlled by the same regulatory sequence; that is, the gene's regulatory sequence now controls the production of GFP, in addition to the tagged protein(s). In cells where the gene is expressed, and the tagged proteins are produced, GFP is produced at the same time. Thus, only those cells in which the tagged gene is expressed, or the target proteins are produced, will fluoresce when observed under fluorescence microscopy. Analysis of such time lapse movies has redefined the understanding of many biological processes including protein folding, protein transport, and RNA dynamics, which in the past had been studied using fixed (i.e., dead) material. Obtained data are also used to calibrate mathematical models of intracellular systems and to estimate rates of gene expression. Similarly, GFP can be used as an indicator of protein expression in heterologous systems. In this scenario, fusion proteins containing GFP are introduced indirectly, using RNA of the construct, or directly, with the tagged protein itself. This method is useful for studying structural and functional characteristics of the tagged protein on a macromolecular or single-molecule scale with fluorescence microscopy. The Vertico SMI microscope using the SPDM Phymod technology uses the so-called \"reversible photobleaching\" effect of fluorescent dyes like GFP and its derivatives to localize them as single molecules in an optical resolution of 10 nm. This can also be performed as a co-localization of two GFP derivatives (2CLM). Another powerful use of GFP is to express the protein in small sets of specific cells. This allows researchers to optically detect specific types of cells \"in vitro\" (in a dish), or even \"in vivo\" (in the living organism). Genetically combining several spectral variants of GFP is a useful trick for the analysis of brain circuitry (Brainbow). Other interesting uses of fluorescent proteins in the literature include using FPs as sensors of neuron membrane potential, tracking of AMPA receptors on cell membranes, viral entry and the infection of individual influenza viruses and lentiviral viruses, etc. It has also been found that new lines of transgenic GFP rats can be relevant for gene therapy as well as regenerative medicine. By using \"high-expresser\" GFP, transgenic rats display high expression in most tissues, and many cells that have not been characterized or have been only poorly characterized in previous GFP-transgenic rats. GFP has been shown to be useful in cryobiology as a viability assay. Correlation of viability as measured by trypan blue assays were 0.97. Another application is the use of GFP co-transfection as internal control for transfection efficiency in mammalian cells. A novel possible use of GFP includes using it as a sensitive monitor of intracellular processes via an eGFP laser system made out of a human embryonic kidney cell line. The first engineered living laser is made by an eGFP expressing cell inside a reflective optical cavity and hitting it with pulses of blue light. At a certain pulse threshold, the eGFP's optical output becomes brighter and completely uniform in color of pure green with a wavelength of 516 nm. Before being emitted as laser light, the light bounces back and forth within the resonator cavity and passes the cell numerous times. By studying the changes in optical activity, researchers may better understand cellular processes. GFP is used widely in cancer research to label and track cancer cells. GFP-labelled cancer cells have been used to model metastasis, the process by which cancer cells spread to distant organs.", "GFP can be used to analyse the colocalization of proteins. This is achieved by \"splitting\" the protein into two fragments which are able to self-assemble, and then fusing each of these to the two proteins of interest. Alone, these incomplete GFP fragments are unable to fluoresce. However, if the two proteins of interest colocalize, then the two GFP fragments assemble together to form a GFP-like structure which is able to fluoresce. Therefore, by measuring the level of fluorescence it is possible to determine whether the two proteins of interest colocalize.", "Macro-scale biological processes, such as the spread of virus infections, can be followed using GFP labeling. In the past, mutagenic ultra violet light (UV) has been used to illuminate living organisms (e.g., see) to detect and photograph the GFP expression. Recently, a technique using non-mutagenic LED lights have been developed for macro-photography. The technique uses an epifluorescence camera attachment based on the same principle used in the construction of epifluorescence microscopes.", "Alba, a green-fluorescent rabbit, was created by a French laboratory commissioned by Eduardo Kac using GFP for purposes of art and social commentary. The US company Yorktown Technologies markets to aquarium shops green fluorescent zebrafish (GloFish) that were initially developed to detect pollution in waterways. NeonPets, a US-based company has marketed green fluorescent mice to the pet industry as NeonMice. Green fluorescent pigs, known as Noels, were bred by a group of researchers led by Wu Shinn-Chih at the Department of Animal Science and Technology at National Taiwan University. A Japanese-American Team created green-fluorescent cats as proof of concept to use them potentially as model organisms for diseases, particularly HIV. In 2009 a South Korean team from Seoul National University bred the first transgenic beagles with fibroblast cells from sea anemones. The dogs give off a red fluorescent light, and they are meant to allow scientists to study the genes that cause human diseases like narcolepsy and blindness.", "Julian Voss-Andreae, a German-born artist specializing in \"protein sculptures,\" created sculptures based on the structure of GFP, including the 1.70 m (5'6\") tall \"Green Fluorescent Protein\" (2004) and the 1.40 m (4'7\") tall \"Steel Jellyfish\" (2006). The latter sculpture is located at the place of GFP's discovery by Shimomura in 1962, the University of Washington's Friday Harbor Laboratories." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and early life.", "Researcher.", "Cambridge.", "Liverpool.", "Second World War.", "Tube Alloys and the MAUD Report.", "Manhattan Project.", "Later life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "James Chadwick was born in Bollington, Cheshire, on 20 October 1891, the first child of John Joseph Chadwick, a cotton spinner, and Anne Mary Knowles, a domestic servant. He was named James after his paternal grandfather. In 1895, his parents moved to Manchester, leaving him in the care of his maternal grandparents. He went to Bollington Cross Primary School, and was offered a scholarship to Manchester Grammar School, which his family had to turn down as they could not afford the small fees that still had to be paid. Instead he attended the Central Grammar School for Boys in Manchester, rejoining his parents there. He now had two younger brothers, Harry and Hubert; a sister had died in infancy. At the age of 16, he sat two examinations for university scholarships, and won both of them. Chadwick chose to attend Victoria University of Manchester, which he entered in 1908. He meant to study mathematics, but enrolled in physics by mistake. Like most students, he lived at home, walking the to the university and back each day. At the end of his first year, he was awarded a Heginbottom Scholarship to study physics. The physics department was headed by Ernest Rutherford, who assigned research projects to final-year students, and he instructed Chadwick to devise a means of comparing the amount of radioactive energy of two different sources. The idea was that they could be measured in terms of the activity of of radium, a unit of measurement which would become known as the curie. Rutherford's suggested approach was unworkable—something Chadwick knew but was afraid to tell Rutherford—so Chadwick pressed on, and eventually devised the required method. The results became Chadwick's first paper, which, co-authored with Rutherford, was published in 1912. He graduated with first class honours in 1911. Having devised a means of measuring gamma radiation, Chadwick proceeded to measure the absorption of gamma rays by various gases and liquids. This time the resulting paper was published under his name alone. He was awarded his Master of Science (MSc) degree in 1912, and was appointed a Beyer Fellow. The following year he was awarded an 1851 Exhibition Scholarship, which allowed him to study and research at a university in continental Europe. He elected to go to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt in Berlin in 1913, to study beta radiation under Hans Geiger. Using Geiger's recently developed Geiger counter, which provided more accuracy than the earlier photographic techniques, he was able to demonstrate that beta radiation did not produce discrete lines, as has been previously thought, but rather a continuous spectrum with peaks in certain regions. On a visit to Geiger's laboratory, Albert Einstein told Chadwick that: \"I can explain either of these things, but I can't explain them both at the same time.\" The continuous spectrum would remain an unexplained phenomenon for many years. Chadwick was still in Germany at the start of the First World War, and was interned in the Ruhleben internment camp near Berlin, where he was allowed to set up a laboratory in the stables and conduct scientific experiments using improvised materials such as radioactive toothpaste. With the help of Charles Drummond Ellis, he worked on the ionisation of phosphorus, and the photochemical reaction of carbon monoxide and chlorine. He was released after the Armistice with Germany came into effect in November 1918, and returned to his parents' home in Manchester, where he wrote up his findings over the previous four years for the 1851 Exhibition commissioners. Rutherford gave Chadwick a part-time teaching position at Manchester, allowing him to continue research. He looked at the nuclear charge of platinum, silver, and copper, and experimentally found that this was the same as the atomic number within an error of less than 1.5 per cent. In April 1919, Rutherford became director of the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, and Chadwick joined him there a few months later. Chadwick was awarded a Clerk-Maxwell studentship in 1920, and enrolled as a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) student at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. The first half of his thesis was his work with atomic numbers. In the second, he looked at the forces inside the nucleus. His degree was awarded in June 1921. In November, he became a Fellow of Gonville and Caius College.", "", "Chadwick's Clerk-Maxwell studentship expired in 1923, and he was succeeded by the Russian physicist Pyotr Kapitza. The Chairman of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Sir William McCormick arranged for Chadwick to become Rutherford's assistant director of research. In this role, Chadwick helped Rutherford select PhD students. Over the next few years these would include John Cockcroft, Norman Feather and Mark Oliphant, who would become firm friends with Chadwick. As many students had no idea what they wanted to research, Rutherford and Chadwick would suggest topics. Chadwick edited all the papers produced by the laboratory. In 1925, Chadwick met Aileen Stewart-Brown, the daughter of a Liverpool stockbroker. The two were married in August 1925, with Kapitza as Best Man. The couple had twin daughters, Joanna and Judith, who were born in February 1927. In his research, Chadwick continued to probe the nucleus. In 1925, the concept of spin had allowed physicists to explain the Zeeman effect, but it also created unexplained anomalies. At the time it was believed that the nucleus consisted of protons and electrons, so nitrogen's nucleus, for example, with a mass number of 14, was assumed to contain 14 protons and 7 electrons. This gave it the right mass and charge, but the wrong spin. At a conference at Cambridge on beta particles and gamma rays in 1928, Chadwick met Geiger again. Geiger had brought with him a new model of his Geiger counter, which had been improved by his post-doctoral student Walther Müller. Chadwick had not used one since the war, and the new Geiger–Müller counter was potentially a major improvement over the scintillation techniques then in use at Cambridge, which relied on the human eye for observation. The major drawback with it was that it detected alpha, beta and gamma radiation, and radium, which the Cavendish laboratory normally used in its experiments, emitted all three, and was therefore unsuitable for what Chadwick had in mind. However, polonium is an alpha emitter, and Lise Meitner sent Chadwick about 2 millicuries (about ) from Germany. In Germany, Walther Bothe and his student Herbert Becker had used polonium to bombard beryllium with alpha particles, producing an unusual form of radiation. Chadwick had his Australian 1851 Exhibition scholar, Hugh Webster, duplicate their results. To Chadwick, this was evidence of something that he and Rutherford had been hypothesising for years: the neutron, a theoretical nuclear particle with no electric charge. Then in January 1932, Feather drew Chadwick's attention to another surprising result. Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie had succeeded in knocking protons from paraffin wax using polonium and beryllium as a source for what they thought was gamma radiation. Rutherford and Chadwick disagreed; protons were too heavy for that. But neutrons would need only a small amount of energy to achieve the same effect. In Rome, Ettore Majorana came to the same conclusion: the Joliot-Curies had discovered the neutron but did not know it. Chadwick dropped all his other responsibilities to concentrate on proving the existence of the neutron, assisted by Feather and frequently working late at night. He devised a simple apparatus that consisted of a cylinder containing a polonium source and beryllium target. The resulting radiation could then be directed at a material such as paraffin wax; the displaced particles, which were protons, would go into a small ionisation chamber where they could be detected with an oscilloscope. In February 1932, after only about two weeks of experimentation with neutrons, Chadwick sent a letter to \"Nature\" titled \"Possible Existence of a Neutron\". He communicated his findings in detail in an article sent to \"Proceedings of the Royal Society A\" titled \"The Existence of a Neutron\" in May. His discovery of the neutron was a milestone in understanding the nucleus. Reading Chadwick's paper, Robert Bacher and Edward Condon realised that anomalies in the then-current theory, like the spin of nitrogen, would be resolved if the neutron has a spin of 1/2 and that a nitrogen nucleus consisted of seven protons and seven neutrons. The theoretical physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg considered whether the neutron could be a fundamental nuclear particle like the proton and electron, rather than a proton–electron pair. Heisenberg showed that the neutron was best described as a new nuclear particle, but its exact nature remained unclear. In his 1933 Bakerian Lecture, Chadwick estimated that a neutron had a mass of about. Since a proton and an electron had a combined mass of, this implied the neutron as a proton–electron composite had a binding energy of about, which sounded reasonable, although it was hard to understand how a particle with so little binding energy could be stable. Estimating such a small mass difference required challenging precise measurements, however, and several conflicting results were obtained in 1933–4. By bombarding boron with alpha particles, Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie obtained a large value for the mass of a neutron, but Ernest Lawrence's team at the University of California produced a small one. Then Maurice Goldhaber, a refugee from Nazi Germany and a graduate student at the Cavendish Laboratory, suggested to Chadwick that deuterons could be photodisintegrated by the 2.6 MeV gamma rays of Tl (then known as thorium C\"): An accurate value for the mass of the neutron could be determined from this process. Chadwick and Goldhaber tried this and found that it worked. They measured the kinetic energy of the proton produced as 1.05 MeV, leaving the mass of the neutron as the unknown in the equation. Chadwick and Goldhaber calculated that it was either 1.0084 or 1.0090 atomic units, depending on the values used for the masses of the proton and deuteron. (The modern accepted value for the mass of the neutron is.) The mass of the neutron was too large to be a proton–electron pair. For his discovery of the neutron, Chadwick was awarded the Hughes Medal by the Royal Society in 1932, the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1935, the Copley Medal in 1950 and the Franklin Medal in 1951. His discovery of the neutron made it possible to produce elements heavier than uranium in the laboratory by the capture of slow neutrons followed by beta decay. Unlike the positively charged alpha particles, which are repelled by the electrical forces present in the nuclei of other atoms, neutrons do not need to overcome any Coulomb barrier, and can therefore penetrate and enter the nuclei of even the heaviest elements such as uranium. This inspired Enrico Fermi to investigate the nuclear reactions brought about by collisions of nuclei with slow neutrons, work for which Fermi would receive the Nobel Prize in 1938. Wolfgang Pauli proposed another kind of particle on 4 December 1930 in order to explain the continuous spectrum of beta radiation that Chadwick had reported in 1914. Since not all of the energy of beta radiation could be accounted for, the law of conservation of energy appeared to be violated, but Pauli argued that this could be redressed if another, undiscovered, particle was involved. Pauli also called this particle a neutron, but it was clearly not the same particle as Chadwick's neutron. Fermi renamed it the neutrino, Italian for \"little neutron\". In 1934, Fermi proposed his theory of beta decay which explained that the electrons emitted from the nucleus were created by the decay of a neutron into a proton, an electron, and a neutrino. The neutrino could account for the missing energy, but a particle with little mass and no electric charge was difficult to observe. Rudolf Peierls and Hans Bethe calculated that neutrinos could easily pass through the Earth, so the chances of detecting them were slim. Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan would confirm the neutrino on 14 June 1956 by placing a detector within a large antineutrino flux from a nearby nuclear reactor.", "With the onset of the Great Depression in the United Kingdom, the government became more parsimonious with funding for science. At the same time, Lawrence's recent invention, the cyclotron, promised to revolutionise experimental nuclear physics, and Chadwick felt that the Cavendish laboratory would fall behind unless it also acquired one. He therefore chafed under Rutherford, who clung to the belief that good nuclear physics could still be done without large, expensive equipment, and turned down the request for a cyclotron. Chadwick was himself a critic of Big Science in general, and Lawrence in particular, whose approach he considered careless and focused on technology at the expense of science. When Lawrence postulated the existence of a new and hitherto unknown particle that he claimed was a possible source of limitless energy at the Solvay Conference in 1933, Chadwick responded that the results were more likely attributable to contamination of the equipment. While Lawrence rechecked his results at Berkeley only to find that Chadwick was correct, Rutherford and Oliphant conducted an investigation at the Cavendish that found that deuterium fuses to form helium-3, thereby causing the effect that the Lawrence had observed. This was another major discovery, but the Oliphant-Rutherford particle accelerator was an expensive state-of-the-art piece of equipment. In March 1935, Chadwick received an offer of the Lyon Jones Chair of physics at the University of Liverpool, in his wife's home town, to succeed Lionel Wilberforce. The laboratory was so antiquated that it still ran on direct current electricity, but Chadwick seized the opportunity, assuming the chair on 1 October 1935. The university's prestige was soon bolstered by Chadwick's Nobel Prize, which was announced in November 1935. His medal was sold at auction in 2014 for $329,000. Chadwick set about acquiring a cyclotron for Liverpool. He started by spending £700 to refurbish the antiquated laboratories at Liverpool, so some components could be made in-house. He was able to persuade the university to provide £2,000 and obtained a grant for another £2,000 from the Royal Society. To build his cyclotron, Chadwick brought in two young experts, Bernard Kinsey and Harold Walke, who had worked with Lawrence at the University of California. A local cable manufacturer donated the copper conductor for the coils. The cyclotron's 50-ton magnet was manufactured in Trafford Park by Metropolitan-Vickers, which also made the vacuum chamber. The cyclotron was completely installed and running in July 1939. The total cost of £5,184 was more than Chadwick had received from the University and the Royal Society, so Chadwick paid the rest from his (£8,243) Nobel Prize money. At Liverpool the Medicine and Science faculties worked together closely. Chadwick was automatically a committee member of both faculties, and in 1938 he was appointed to a commission headed by Lord Derby to investigate the arrangements for cancer treatment in Liverpool. Chadwick anticipated that neutrons and radioactive isotopes produced with the 37-inch cyclotron could be used to study biochemical processes, and might become a weapon in the fight against cancer.", "", "In Germany, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, and noted that barium, a lighter element, was among the products produced. Hitherto, only the same or heavier elements had been produced by the process. In January 1939, Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch astounded the physics community with a paper that explained this result. They theorised that uranium atoms bombarded with neutrons can break into two roughly equal fragments, a process they called fission. They calculated that this would result in the release of about 200 MeV, implying an energy release orders of magnitude greater than chemical reactions, and Frisch confirmed their theory experimentally. It was soon noted by Hahn that if neutrons were released during fission, then a chain reaction was possible. French scientists, Pierre Joliot, Hans von Halban and Lew Kowarski, soon verified that more than one neutron was indeed emitted per fission. In a paper co-authored with the American physicist John Wheeler, Bohr theorised that fission was more likely to occur in the uranium-235 isotope, which made up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Chadwick did not believe that there was any likelihood of another war with Germany in 1939, and took his family for a holiday on a remote lake in northern Sweden. The news of the outbreak of the Second World War therefore came as a shock. Determined not to spend another war in an internment camp, Chadwick made his way to Stockholm as fast as he could, but when he arrived there with his family, he found that all air traffic between Stockholm and London had been suspended. They made their way back to England on a tramp steamer. When he reached Liverpool, Chadwick found Joseph Rotblat, a Polish post-doctoral fellow who had come to work with the cyclotron, was now destitute, as he was cut off from funds from Poland. Chadwick promptly hired Rotblat as a lecturer, despite his poor grasp of English. In October 1939, Chadwick received a letter from Sir Edward Appleton, the Secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, asking for his opinion on the feasibility of an atomic bomb. Chadwick responded cautiously. He did not dismiss the possibility, but carefully went over the many theoretical and practical difficulties involved. Chadwick decided to investigate the properties of uranium oxide further with Rotblat. In March 1940, Otto Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham re-examined the theoretical issues involved in a paper that became known as the Frisch–Peierls memorandum. Instead of looking at uranium metal, they considered what would happen to a sphere of pure uranium-235, and found that not only could a chain reaction occur, but that it might require as little as of uranium-235, and unleash the energy of tons of dynamite. A special subcommittee of the Committee for the Scientific Survey of Air Warfare (CSSAW), known as the MAUD Committee, was created to investigate the matter further. It was chaired by Sir George Thomson and its original membership included Chadwick, along with Mark Oliphant, John Cockcroft and Philip Moon. While other teams investigated uranium enrichment techniques, Chadwick's team at Liverpool concentrated on determining the nuclear cross section of uranium-235. By April 1941, it had been experimentally confirmed that the critical mass of uranium-235 might be or less. His research into such matters was complicated by all-but-incessant Luftwaffe bombings of the environs of his Liverpool lab; the windows were blown out so often that they were replaced by cardboard. In July 1941, Chadwick was chosen to write the final draft of the MAUD Report, which, when presented by Vannevar Bush to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in October 1941, inspired the U.S. government to pour millions of dollars into the pursuit of an atomic bomb. When George B. Pegram and Harold Urey visited Britain to see how the project, now known as Tube Alloys, was going, Chadwick was able to tell them: \"I wish I could tell you that the bomb is not going to work, but I am 90 per cent sure that it will.\" In a recent book about the Bomb project, Graham Farmelo wrote that \"Chadwick did more than any other scientist to give Churchill the Bomb.... Chadwick was tested almost to the breaking point.\" So worried that he could not sleep, Chadwick resorted to sleeping pills, which he continued to take for most of his remaining years. Chadwick later said that he realised that \"a nuclear bomb was not only possible—it was inevitable. Sooner or later these ideas could not be peculiar to us. Everybody would think about them before long, and some country would put them into action\". Sir Hermann Bondi suggested that it was fortunate that Chadwick, not Rutherford, was the doyen of UK physics at the time, as the latter's prestige might otherwise have overpowered Chadwick's interest in \"looking forward\" to the Bomb's prospects.", "Owing to the danger from aerial bombardment, the Chadwicks sent their twins to Canada as part of a government evacuation scheme. Chadwick was reluctant to move Tube Alloys there, believing that the United Kingdom was a better location for the isotope separation plant. The enormous scope of the effort became more apparent in 1942: even a pilot separation plant would cost over £1 million and strain Britain's resources, to say nothing of a full-scale plant, which was estimated to cost somewhere in the vicinity of £25 million. It would have to be built in America. At the same time that the British became convinced that a joint project was necessary, the progress of the American Manhattan Project was such that British cooperation seemed less essential, although the Americans were still eager to utilise Chadwick's talents. The matter of cooperation had to be taken up at the highest level. In September 1943, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, and President Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which reinstated cooperation between Britain, the United States and Canada. Chadwick, Oliphant, Peierls and Simon were summoned to the United States by the director of Tube Alloys, Sir Wallace Akers, to work with the Manhattan Project. The Quebec Agreement established a new Combined Policy Committee to direct the joint project. The Americans disliked Akers, so Chadwick was appointed technical advisor to the Combined Policy Committee, and the head of the British Mission. Leaving Rotblat in charge in Liverpool, Chadwick began a tour of the Manhattan Project facilities in November 1943, except for the Hanford Site where plutonium was produced, which he was not allowed to see. He became the only man apart from Groves and his second in command to have access to all the American research and production facilities for the uranium bomb. Observing the work on the K-25 gaseous diffusion facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chadwick realised how wrong he had been about building the plant in wartime Britain. The enormous structure could never have been concealed from the Luftwaffe. In early 1944, he moved to Los Alamos, New Mexico, with his wife and their twins, who now spoke with Canadian accents. For security reasons, he was given the cover name of James Chaffee. Chadwick accepted that the Americans did not need British help, but that it could still be useful in bringing the project to an early and successful conclusion. Working closely with the director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., he attempted to do everything he could to support the effort. He also endeavoured to place British scientists in as many parts of the project as possible in order to facilitate a post-war British nuclear weapons project to which Chadwick was committed. Requests from Groves via Chadwick for particular scientists tended to be met with an immediate rejection by the company, ministry or university currently employing them, only to be overcome by the overriding priority accorded to Tube Alloys. As a result, the British team was critical to the Project's success. Although he had more knowledge of the project than anyone else from Britain, Chadwick had no access to the Hanford site. Lord Portal was offered a tour of Hanford in 1946. \"This was the only plant to which Chadwick had been denied access in wartime, and now he asked Groves if he could accompany Portal. Groves replied that he could, but if he did then 'Portal will not see very much'.\" For his efforts, Chadwick received a knighthood in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1945. He considered this to be a recognition of the work of the whole Tube Alloys project. By early 1945, Chadwick was spending most of his time in Washington, D.C., and his family relocated from Los Alamos to a house on Washington's Dupont Circle in April 1945. He was present at the meeting of the Combined Policy Committee on 4 July when Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson gave Britain's agreement to use the atomic bomb against Japan, and at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July, when the first atomic bomb was detonated. Inside its pit was a polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, a development of the technique that Chadwick had used to discover the neutron over a decade before. William L. Laurence, the \"New York Times\" reporter attached to the Manhattan Project, wrote that \"never before in history had any man lived to see his own discovery materialize itself with such telling effect on the destiny of man.\"", "Shortly after the war ended, Chadwick was appointed to the Advisory Committee on Atomic Energy (ACAE). He was also appointed as the British scientific advisor to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. He clashed with fellow ACAE member Patrick Blackett, who disagreed with Chadwick's conviction that Britain needed to acquire its own nuclear weapons; but it was Chadwick's position that was ultimately adopted. He returned to Britain in 1946, to find a country still beset by wartime rationing and shortages. At this time, Sir James Mountford, the Vice Chancellor of the University of Liverpool, wrote in his diary \"he had never seen a man'so physically, mentally and spiritually tired\" as Chadwick, for he \"had plumbed such depths of moral decision as more fortunate men are never called upon even to peer into... [and suffered]... almost insupportable agonies of responsibility arising from his scientific work'.\" In 1948, Chadwick accepted an offer to become the Master of Gonville and Caius College. The job was prestigious but ill-defined; the Master was the titular head of the College, but authority actually resided in a council of 13 fellows, of whom one was the Master. As Master, Chadwick strove to improve the academic reputation of the college. He increased the number of research fellowships from 31 to 49, and sought to bring talent into the college. This involved controversial decisions, such as hiring in 1951 the Chinese biochemist Tien-chin Tsao and the Hungarian-born economist Peter Bauer. In what became known as the Peasants' Revolt, fellows led by Patrick Hadley voted an old friend of Chadwick's off the council and replaced him with Bauer. More friends of Chadwick's were removed over the following years, and he retired in November 1958. It was during his mastership that Francis Crick, a PhD student at Gonville and Caius College, and James Watson discovered the structure of DNA. Over the years, Chadwick received many honours, including the Medal for Merit from the United States, and the \"Pour le Mérite\" from Germany. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1927, and in 1946 he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was made a Companion of Honour in the New Year Honours on 1 January 1970 for \"services to science\", and went to Buckingham Palace for the investiture ceremony. He became more frail, and seldom left his flat, although he travelled to Liverpool for celebrations of his eightieth birthday. A lifelong atheist, he saw no reason to adopt religious faith in later life. He died in his sleep on 24 July 1974. His papers are held at the Churchill Archives Centre in Cambridge, and are accessible to the public. The Chadwick Laboratory at the University of Liverpool is named after him, as is its Sir James Chadwick Chair of Experimental Physics, which was named after him in 1991 as part of celebrations of the centenary of his birth. A crater on the moon is also named after him. The James Chadwick Building, which houses part of the School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences, University of Manchester is named in his honour. He was described by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority official historian Lorna Arnold as \"a physicist, a scientist-diplomat, and a good, wise, and humane man.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Hostilities commence.", "Effects of the sinking.", "The ships today.", "Memorial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In meetings on 17 and 20 October, the British Defence Committee formally discussed Far East naval reinforcement in response to the fall of the moderate Konoe government on 16 October. In agreement with August-September assessment of Japanese intentions, Churchill and his cabinet favoured the deployment of a modern battleship for deterrent effect. The Royal Navy, as part of its offensive strategy, planned to send the \"Nelson\" and \"Revenge\"-class battleships to Singapore, but the \"Nelson\"s could not deploy. was damaged in the Mediterranean Sea in late-September. Crew leave prevented from deploying until mid-December, and a gun refit scheduled from February to May 1942 was required before she could conduct further operations. With working up, the earliest either could reach the Far East was August 1942. The \"King George V\"-class was, aside from the \"Revenge\"s, the only worked-up battleship that could sail east before Spring 1942. On 20 October, the Committee decided to send \"Prince of Wales\" to Cape Town, South Africa. Once at Cape Town, a review would decide whether to send the ship onward to Singapore; this would keep \"Prince of Wales\" available to respond to an emergency in home waters. In December 1941, as a deterrent to Japanese territorial expansion which was recently demonstrated by the invasion of French Indochina, it was proposed that a force of Royal Navy warships be dispatched to the Far East with a view to providing reinforcement for Britain's possessions there, most notably Singapore. First Sea Lord Sir Dudley Pound represented that Singapore could only be adequately defended if the Royal Navy sent the majority of its capital ships there, to achieve parity with an estimated force of nine Japanese battleships. However, dispatching such a large British force was impractical as the British were at war with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Nevertheless, Prime Minister Winston Churchill appeared optimistic about the improving situation in the North Atlantic and Mediterranean; he advocated sending two capital ships along with an aircraft carrier to defend Malaya, Borneo and the Straits Settlements. Churchill has been criticised for showing \"considerable ignorance\" and holding an \"exaggerated belief in the power of the battleship,\" along with \"a tendency to interfere in naval matters.\" This may have led him to propose a squadron of three modern ships: one battleship, one battlecruiser, and one carrier. His view was that using the Ultra decrypts that would give Japanese ship locations to the British, they could then use their own ships to form a \"fleet in being\" to deter Japanese action, as the German battleship \"Tirpitz\", sister to the lost \"Bismarck\", was in the North Sea. However, there was no firm plan for such a task. The revised British proposal allocated the new \"King George V\"-class battleship, the veteran, and the for air cover, though the plan had to be revised when \"Indomitable\" ran aground in the Caribbean Sea. The dispatch of capital ships to Singapore had been part of the Admiralty's strategic planning since the naval base had been expanded and fortified beginning in the early 1920s. The scale of this planned deployment had been reduced during the 1930s, since Germany and Italy presented new threats to British interests in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Nevertheless, it was still assumed that a significant force of capital ships would deter Japanese expansion. Churchill's plan presumed that the United States would agree to send its Pacific Fleet, including eight battleships, to Singapore in the event of hostilities with Japan, or that the British force would add to the deterrent value of the US fleet, should it stay at Pearl Harbor. Admiral of the Home Fleet Sir John Tovey was opposed to sending any of the new \"King George V\" battleships as he believed that they were not suited to operating in tropical waters. Indeed the humid climate of Malaya would negatively affect the capabilities of the \"Prince of Wales\", such as the breakdown of her surface search radars, deterioration of her anti-aircraft ammunition, and increased crew fatigue due to the lack of air conditioning.", "On 8 December 1941, early in the morning, bombers of Mihoro Air Group attacked Singapore. \"Prince of Wales\" and \"Repulse\" responded with anti-aircraft fire; no planes were shot down, and the ships sustained no damage. The Japanese made landings on Kota Bharu, Malaya, on 8 December (local time), starting the Japanese invasion of Malaya. News arrived that Pearl Harbor had been attacked and eight US battleships had been sunk or disabled. Pre-war planning had explored the possibility of the United States Pacific Fleet sending major units to Singapore to reinforce the British when war broke out. That was now impossible. Philips had concluded in an earlier discussion with US General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Thomas C. Hart that his two capital ships were insufficient to confront the Japanese. However, with the Japanese threatening to overrun Malaya, Philips was pressed to use his ships in an offensive role; he assembled his flotilla to try to intercept and destroy Japanese invasion convoys in the South China Sea. Admiral Philips believed the Royal Air Force could not guarantee air cover for his ships, as they were equipped with limited numbers of aging fighters. One squadron, No. 453 Squadron RAAF with ten Brewster F2A Buffalos standing by at RAF Sembawang, was available to provide close cover. They were designated the Fleet Defence Squadron for this task, with Flight Lieutenant Tim Vigors given the radio procedures used by Force Z. Regardless, Phillips elected to proceed. It is believed that four factors entered into his decision: He thought that Japanese planes could not operate so far from land, he believed that his ships were relatively immune from fatal damage via air attack, he was unaware of the quality of Japanese aircraft and torpedoes, and like many Royal Navy officers, Phillips underestimated the fighting abilities of the Japanese. Up to that point, no capital ship at sea had been sunk by air attack. The Italian heavy cruiser \"Pola\" had been disabled by a torpedo from a Fleet Air Arm Fairey Swordfish at the Battle of Cape Matapan on 29 March 1941, and was later sunk by a torpedo from the destroyer HMS \"Jervis\". These and other Royal Navy operations in the Mediterranean theater (September 1939 - December 1941) showed that it was risky but possible to operate in waters covered by enemy land-based air, as German and Italian aircraft damaged but could not stop Malta convoys, while no British battleships had been lost. Phillips grossly underestimated the scale of attack, and believed that the majority of enemy attack aircraft would be level bombers rather than land-based naval torpedo bombers. However the Japanese bombers that would be deployed against his ships were specially trained and equipped for “ship killing”, which the British did not realize due to intelligence failures. His flagship, \"Prince of Wales\", had one of the most advanced naval anti-aircraft systems of the time, the High Angle Control System (HACS), which demonstrated accurate long-range radar-directed anti-aircraft fire during Operation Halberd in August and September 1941. However, the extreme heat and humidity in Malayan waters rendered her anti-aircraft fire control radars unserviceable and her 2 pounder ammunition had deteriorated as well. Royal Air Force technicians were called in to examine the \"Prince's\" radars but needed a week to effect repairs, and Force Z would be underway in a few days. No. 453 Squadron RAAF, which was to provide air cover for Force Z, was not kept informed of the ships' position. No radio request for air cover was sent until one was sent by the commander of \"Repulse\" an hour after the Japanese attack began. Flight Lieutenant Tim Vigors proposed a plan to keep six aircraft over Force Z during daylight, but this was declined by Phillips. After the war, Vigors remained bitter towards him for his failure to call for air support on time. He later commented, \"I reckon this must have been the last battle in which the Navy reckoned they could get along without the RAF. A pretty damned costly way of learning. Phillips had known that he was being shadowed the night before, and also at dawn that day. He did not call for air support. He was attacked and still did not call for help.\" Daytime air cover off the coast was also offered by Wing Commander Wilfred Clouston of No. 488 Squadron RNZAF, but his plan, \"Operation Mobile\", was also rejected. Regarding Phillips' decision to proceed without air cover, naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote: Those who make the decisions in war are constantly weighing certain risks against possible gains. At the outset of hostilities [U.S.] Admiral Hart thought of sending his small striking force north of Luzon to challenge Japanese communications, but decided that the risk to his ships outweighed the possible gain because the enemy had won control of the air. Admiral Phillips had precisely the same problem in Malaya. Should he steam into the Gulf of Siam and expose his ships to air attack from Indochina in the hope of breaking enemy communications with their landing force? He decided to take the chance. With the Royal Air Force and the British Army fighting for their lives, the Royal Navy could not be true to its tradition by remaining idly at anchor.", "The morning after the battle, Prime Minister Winston Churchill received a phone call at his bedside from Sir Dudley Pound, the First Sea Lord. Churchill delivered news of the sinking to the House of Commons before noon on 11 December, which was followed by a full review of the situation in Malaya the next day. Singapore had essentially been reduced to a land base after both capital ships were lost, being turned into a land fortress, something it had never been intended to be, rather than a base from which to project naval power. The Eastern Fleet would spend the remainder of the invasion withdrawing their vessels to Ceylon and the Dutch East Indies. They were not reinforced", "The wrecks of the two ships were found after the war, \"Repulse\" in 183 feet (56 m) of water, and \"Prince of Wales\" in 223 feet (68 m). Both are in a nearly upside-down position. Buoys were attached to the propeller shafts, and flags of the Royal Navy are attached to the lines and are regularly changed by divers. These Royal Navy wrecks are Crown property. \"Prince of Wales\"' bell was removed from the wreck in 2002 by an authorised team of Royal Navy and British civilian divers in response to fears it would be stolen by unauthorised divers. The bell is now on display at the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool. It is currently traditional for every passing Royal", "A memorial was dedicated on 10 December 2011 at The National Memorial Arboretum the UK's national site of remembrance at Alrewas, near Lichfield, Staffordshire, United Kingdom. The memorial was dedicated in the presence of the few surviving former crew members of the ships." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Physics.", "Geometry.", "Materials.", "Non-metals.", "Metals.", "Combined materials and heat-treatments.", "Dulling.", "Nail Pulls.", "Knife patterns.", "Sword patterns.", "Marks and decoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During food preparation, knives are mainly used for slicing, chopping, and piercing. In combat, a blade may be used to slash or puncture, and may also be thrown or otherwise propelled. The function is to sever a nerve, muscle or tendon fibers, or blood vessel to disable or kill the adversary. Severing a major blood vessel typically leads to death due to exsanguination. Shrapnel causes wounds via the fragments' blade-like nature. Blades may be used to scrape, moving the blade \"sideways\" across a surface, as in an ink eraser, rather than along or through a surface. For construction equipment such as a grader, the ground-working implement is also referred to as the blade, typically with a replaceable cutting edge.", "A simple blade intended for cutting has two faces that meet at an edge. Ideally this edge would have no roundness but in practice all edges can be seen to be rounded to some degree under magnification either optically or with an electron microscope. Force is applied to the blade, either from the handle or pressing on the back of the blade. The handle or back of the blade has a large area compared to the fine edge. This concentration of applied force onto the small edge area increases the pressure exerted by the edge. It is this high pressure that allows a blade to cut through a material by breaking the bonds between the molecules/crystals/fibres/etc. in the material. This necessitates the blade being strong enough to resist breaking before the other material gives way.", "The angle at which the faces meet is important as a larger angle will make for a duller blade while making the edge stronger. A stronger edge is less likely to dull from fracture or from having the edge roll out of shape. The shape of the blade is also important. A thicker blade will be heavier and stronger and stiffer than a thinner one of similar design while also making it experience more drag while slicing or piercing. A filleting knife will be thin enough to be very flexible while a carving knife will be thicker and stiffer; a dagger will be thin so it can pierce while a camping knife will be thicker to it can be stronger and more durable. A strongly curved edge, like a talwar will allow the user to draw the edge of the blade against an opponent even while close to the opponent where a straight sword would be more difficult to pull in the same fashion. The curved edge of an axe means that only a small length of the edge will initially strike the tree, concentrating force as does a thinner edge whereas a straight edge could potentially land with the full length of its edge against a flat section of tree. A splitting maul has a convex section to avoid getting stuck in wood where chopping axes can be flat or even concave. A khopesh or falchion or kukri is angled and/or weighted at the distal end so that force is concentrated at the faster moving, heavier part of the blade maximising cutting power and making it largely unsuitable for thrusting where a rapier is thin and tapered allowing it to pierce and be moved with more agility while reducing its chopping power compared to a similarly sized sword. A serrated edge, such as on a saw or a bread knife, concentrates force onto the tips of the serrations which increases pressure as well as allowing soft or fibrous material (like wood, rope, bread, vegetables) to be expand into the spaces between serrations. Whereas pushing any knife, even a bread knife, down onto a bread loaf will just squash the loaf as bread has a low elastic modulus (is soft) but high yield strain (loosely, can be stretched or squashed by a large proportion without breaking), drawing serrations across the loaf with little downward force will allow each serration to simultaneously cut the bread with much less deformation of the loaf. Similarly, pushing on a rope tends to squash the rope while drawing serrations across it sheers the rope fibres. Drawing a smooth blade is less effective as the blade is parallel to the direction draw but the serrations of a serrated blade are at an angle to the fibres. Serrations on knives are often symmetric allowing the blade to cut on both the forward and reverse strokes of a cut, a notable exception being Veff serrations which are designed to maximise cutting power while moving the blade away from the user. Saw blade serrations, for both wood and metal, are typically asymmetrical so that they cut while moving in only one direction. (Saws act by abrading a material into dust along a narrow channel, the kerf, whereas knives and similar act by forcing the material apart. This means that saws result in a loss of material and the serrations of a saw also serve to carry metal swarf and sawdust out of the cut channel.) Fullers are longitudinal channels either forged into the blade or later machined/milled out of the blade though the later process is less desirable. This loss of material necessarily weakens the blade but serves to make the blade lighter without sacrificing stiffness. The same principle is applied in the manufacture of beams such as I-beams. Fullers are only of significant utility in swords. In most knives there is so little material removed by the fuller than it makes little difference to the weight of the blade and they are largely cosmetic.", "Typically blades are made from a material that is about as hard, though usually harder, than the material to be cut. Insufficiently hard blades will be unable to cut a material or will wear away quickly as hardness is related to a material's ability to resist abrasion. However, blades must also be tough enough to resist the dynamic load of impact and as a general rule the harder a blade the less tough (the more brittle) a material. For example, a steel axehead is much harder than the wood it is intended to cut and is sufficiently tough to resist the impact resulting when swung against a tree while a ceramic kitchen knife, harder than steel, is very brittle (has low toughness) and can easily shatter if dropped onto the floor or twisted while inside the food it is cutting or carelessly stored under other kitchen utensils. This creates a tension between the intended use of the blade, the material it is to be made from, and any manufacturing processes (such as heat treatment in the case of steel blades that will affect a blade's hardness and toughness). A balance must be found between the sharpness and how well it can last. Methods that can circumvent this include differential hardening. This method yields an edge that can hold its sharpness as well as a body that is tough.", "Prehistorically, and in less technologically advanced cultures even into modern times, tool and weapon blades have been made from wood, bone and stone. Most woods are exceptionally poor at holding edges and bone and stone suffer from brittleness making them suffer from fracture when striking or struck. In modern times stone, in the form of obsidian, is used in some medical scalpels as it is capable of being formed into an exceedingly fine edge. Ceramic knives are non-metallic and non-magnetic. As non-metals do not corrode they remain rust and corrosion free but they suffer from similar faults as stone and bone, being rather brittle and almost entirely inflexible. They are harder than metal knives and so more difficult to sharpen, and some ceramic knives may be as hard or harder than some sharpening stones. For example, synthetic sapphire is harder than natural sharpening stones and is as hard as alumina sharpening stones. Zirconium dioxide is also harder than garnet sharpening stones and is nearly as hard as alumina. Both require diamond stones or silicon carbide stones to sharpen and care has to be taken to avoid chipping the blade. As such ceramic knives are seldom used outside of a kitchen and they are still quite uncommon. Plastic knives are difficult to make sharp and poorly retain an edge. They are largely used as low cost, disposable utensils or as children's utensils or in environments such as air travel where metal blades are prohibited. They are often serrated to compensate for their general lack of sharpness but, as evidenced by the fact they can cut food, they are still capable of inflicting injury. Plastic blades of designs other than disposable cutlery are prohibited or restricted in some jurisdictions as they are undetectable by metal detectors.", "Native copper was used to make blades by ancient civilizations due to its availability. Copper's comparative softness causes it to deform easily; it does not hold an edge well, and is poorly suited for working stone. Bronze is superior in this regard, and was taken up by later civilizations. Both bronze and copper can be work hardened by hitting the metal with a hammer. With technological advancement in smelting, iron came to be used in the manufacturing of blades. Steel, a range of alloys made from iron, has become the metal of choice for the modern age. Various alloys of steel can be made which offer a wide range of physical and chemical properties desirable for blades. For example, surgical scalpels are often made of stainless steel so that they remain free of rust and largely chemically inert; tool steels are hard and impact resistant (and often expensive as retaining toughness and hardness requires expensive alloying materials, and, being hard, they are difficult to make into their finished shape) and some are designed to resist changes to their physical properties at high temperatures. Steels can be further heat treated to optimise their toughness, which is important for impact blades, or their hardness, which allows them to retain an edge well with use (although harder metals require more effort to sharpen).", "It is possible to combine different materials, or different heat treatments, to produce desirable qualities in a blade. For example, the finest Japanese swords were routinely made of up to seven sections of metals and even poorer quality swords were often made of two. These would include soft irons that could absorb the energy of impact without fracturing but which would bend and poorly retain an edge, and hard steels more liable to shatter on impact but which retained an edge well. The combination provided a sword that would resist impact while remaining sharp, even though the edge could chip if abused. Pattern welding involved forging together twisted bars of soft (bendable) low carbon and hard (brittle) higher carbon iron. This was done because furnaces of the time were typically able to produce only one grade or the other, and neither was well suited for more than a very limited use blade. The ability of modern steel makers to produce very high quality steels of various compositions has largely relegated this technique to either historical recreations or to artistic works. Acid etching and polishing blades made of different grades of steel can be used to produce decorative or artistic effects. Japanese sword makers developed the technique of differential hardening by covering their sword blades in different thicknesses of clay before quenching. Thinner clay allowed the heated metal to cool faster, particularly along the edge. Faster cooling resulted in a finer crystal structure, resulting in a blade with a hard edge but a more flexible body. European sword makers produced similar results using differential tempering.", "Blades dull with use and abuse. This is particularly true of acute blades and those made of soft materials. Dulling usually occurs due to contact between the blade and a hard substance such as a ceramic, stone, bone, glass or metal. The more acute the blade, the more easily it will dull. As the blade near the edge is thinner, there is little material to remove before the edge is worn away to a thicker section. Thin edges can also roll over when force is applied it them, forming a section like the bottom part of a letter \"J\". For this reason, straight edge razors are frequently stropped to straighten the edge. Drawing a blade across any material tends to abrade both the blade, usually making it duller, and the cut material. Though softer than glass or many types of stone used in the kitchen, steel edges can still scratch these surfaces. The resulting scratch is full of very fine particles of ground glass or stone which will very quickly abrade the blade's edge and so dull it. In times when swords were regularly used in warfare, they required frequent sharpening because of dulling from contact with rigid armor, mail, metal rimmed shields, or other swords, for example. Particularly, hitting the edge of another sword by accident or in emergency could chip away metal and even cause cracks through the blade. Soft-cored blades are more resistant to fracturing on impact.", "On pocket knives there will often be a groove cut in the side of the blade near the spine. This is called a nail pull, and allows the fingernail to be inserted to swing the blade out of the holder.", "Some of the most common shapes are listed below. (S1) A \"normal\" blade has a curving edge, and straight back. A dull back lets the wielder use fingers to concentrate force; it also makes the knife heavy and strong for its size. The curve concentrates force on a smaller area, making cutting easier. This knife can chop as well as pick and slice. This is also the best single-edged blade shape for thrusting, as the edge cuts a swath that the entire width of the knife can pass through without the spine having to push aside any material on its path, as a sheepsfoot or drop-point knife would. (S2) A \"trailing-point\" knife has a back edge that curves upward to end above the spine. This lets a lightweight knife have a larger curve on its edge and indeed the whole of the knife may be curved. Such a knife is optimized for slicing or slashing. Trailing point blades provide a larger cutting area, or belly, and are common on skinning knives. (S3) A \"drop point\" blade has a convex curve of the back towards the point. It handles much like the \"clip-point\", though with a stronger point typically less suitable for piercing. Swiss army pocket knives often have drop-points on their larger blades. (S4) A \"clip-point\" blade is like a normal blade with the back \"clipped\". This clip can be either straight or concave. The back edge of the clip may have a false edge that could be sharpened to make a second edge. The sharp tip is useful as a pick, or for cutting in tight places. If the false edge is sharpened it increases the knife's effectiveness in piercing. As well, having the tip closer to the centre of the blade allows greater control in piercing. The Bowie knife has a clip point blade and clip-points are common on pocket knives and other folding knives. (S5) A \"\" blade has a straight edge and a straight dull back that curves towards the edge at the end. It gives the most control, because the dull back edge is made to be held by fingers. Sheepsfoot blades were originally made to trim the hooves of sheep. Their shape bears no similarity to the foot of a sheep. (S6) A \"Wharncliffe\" blade is similar in profile to a sheep's foot but the curve of the back edge starts closer to the handle and is more gradual. Its blade is much thicker than a knife of comparable size. Wharncliffes were used by sailors, as the shape of the tip prevented accidental penetration of the work or the user's hand with the sudden motion of a ship. (S7) A \"spey point\" blade (once used for neutering livestock) has a single, sharp, straight edge that curves strongly upwards at the end to meet a short, dull, straight point from the dull back. With the curved end of the blade being closer to perpendicular to the blade's axis than other knives and lacking a point, making penetration unlikely, spey blades are common on Trapper style pocketknives for skinning fur-bearing animals. (C1) \"Leaf blade\" with a distinctive recurved \"waist\" adding some curved \"belly\" to the knife facilitating slicing as well as shifting weight towards the tip meaning that it is commonly used for throwing knives as well as improving chopping ability. (C2) A \"spear point\" blade is a symmetrically-shaped blade with a point aligned with the centerline of the blade's long axis. True spear-point blades are double-edged with a central spine, like a dagger or spear head. The spear point is one of the stronger blade point designs in terms of penetration stress, and is found on many thrusting knives such as the dagger. The term spear point is occasionally and confusingly used to describe small single-edged blades without a central spine, such as that of the \"pen knife\", a small folding-blade pocket knife formerly used in sharpening quills for writing. Pen-knife may also nowadays refer to a knifelike weapon blade pattern of some of larger pocket knife blades that would otherwise be termed drop-point designs. (C3) A \"needle point\" blade has a sharply-tapered acuminated point. It is frequently found on daggers such as the stiletto (which had no sharpened edges) and the Fairbairn-Sykes fighting knife. Its long, narrow point reduces friction and increases the blade's penetrative capabilities, but is liable to stick in bone and can break if abused. When the needle point is combined with a reinforced 'T' section running the length of the blade's spine, it is called a \"reinforced tip\". One example of a knife with a reinforced tip is the \"pesh-kabz\". (C4) Kris or flame-bladed sword. These blades have a distinct recurved blade form and are sharpened on both sides, typically tapering to (or approximating) a symmetrical point. (C5) Referred to in English speaking countries as a \"tanto\" or \"tanto point\" (a corruption of the Japanese word \"tantō\" though the tip bears no resemblance to a tantō) or a \"chisel point\". (\"Chisel point\" refers to the straightness of the edge that comprises the end of the blade, whereas \"chisel grind\" usually refers to a blade ground on only one side even though chisels can be ground on one or both sides.) It is similar to, but not the same as, some early Japanese swords that had \"kamasu kissaki\" (\"barracuda tip\"), a \"nearly\" straight edge at the tip whereas the typical \"tanto point\" as found in the west has a straight edge. The barracuda tip sword was sharp but also fragile whereas modern tanto point are often advertised as being stronger at the tip for having nearly the whole thickness of the blade present until quite close to the end of the knife. Knife tests have shown that penetration ability of this style of blade is comparatively poor but it is possible, if the tip is strong, that more force can be applied allowing greater penetration without damaging the tip. The lower illustration is a \"modified tanto\" where the end is clipped and often sharpened. This brings the tip closer to the centre of the blade increasing control of the blade and improves penetration potential by having a finer point and a sharpened back edge. (C6) A \"hawkbill\" blade is sharpened on the inside edge and is similar to carpet and linoleum knives. The point will tear even if the rest of the knife is comparatively dull. The karambit from Far South-East Asia is a hawkbill knife which is held with the blade extending from the bottom of the fist and the tip facing forward. The outside edge of a karambit may be sharp and if so may also feature a backwards facing point. (C7) An \"ulu\" (Inuit woman's knife) knife is a sharpened segment of a circle. This blade type has no point, and has a handle in the middle. It is good for scraping, and sometimes chopping. The semi-circular version appears elsewhere in the world and is called a \"head knife\". It is used in leatherworking both to scrape down leather (reducing thickness, i.e. skiving), and to make precise, rolling cuts for shapes other than straight lines. The circular version is a popular tool for slicing pizzas. One corner is placed at the edge of the pizza and the blade is rolled across in a diameter cut.", "The sharp edges of a sword may be either curved or straight. Curved blades tend to glide more easily through soft materials, making these weapons more ideal for slicing. Techniques for such weapons feature drawing the blade across the opponent's body and back. For straight-edged weapons, many recorded techniques feature cleaving cuts, which deliver the power out to a point, striking directly in at the target's body, done to split flesh and bone rather than slice it. That being said, there also exist many historical slicing techniques for straight-edged weapons. Hacking cuts can be followed with a drawing action to maximize the cut's effectiveness. For more information see Western Martial Arts or kenjutsu. Some weapons are made with only a single leading edge, such as the sabre or dusack. The dusack has a \"false edge\" near the tip, which only extends down a portion of the blade's backside. Other weapons have a blade that's entirely dull except for a sharpened point, like the épée or foil, which prefer thrusts over cuts. A blade cannot perform a proper cut without an edge, and so in competitive fencing such attacks reward no points. Some variations include:", "Blades are sometimes marked or inscribed, for decorative purposes, or with the mark of either the maker or the owner. Blade decorations are often realized in inlay in some precious metal (gold or silver). Early blade inscriptions are known from the Bronze Age, a Hittite sword found at Hattusa bears an inscription chiseled into the bronze, stating that the blade was deposited as an offering to the storm-god by king Tuthaliya. Blade inscriptions become particularly popular in the 12th century knightly sword, based on the earlier, 9th to 11th century, tradition of the so-called Ulfberht swords." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Use.", "Overview.", "Client/server.", "Data replication.", "Security.", "Database security.", "Programming.", "Database.", "Configuration.", "Use as an email client.", "Comparison with other email clients.", "Reception.", "Related software.", "Related IBM Lotus products.", "Related software from other vendors.", "History.", "Branding.", "Release history.", "21st century." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "HCL Notes is a client-server cross-platform application runtime environment that provides an interface to the HCL Notes and Domino software. It can be used as an email client without an HCL Domino server, for example, as an IMAP client. HCL Notes and Domino provide email, calendars, instant messaging (with additional HCL software voice- and video-conferencing and web-collaboration), discussions/forums, blogs, and an inbuilt personnel/user directory. In addition to these standard applications, an organization may use the Domino Designer development environment and other tools to develop additional integrated applications such as request approval / workflow and document management. The HCL Notes and Domino product consists of several components: HCL Notes and Domino compete with products from other companies such as Microsoft, Google, Zimbra and others. Because of the application development abilities, HCL Notes and Domino is often compared to products like Microsoft Sharepoint. The database in IBM Notes and Domino can be replicated between servers and between server and client, thereby allowing clients offline capabilities.", "HCL Notes can be used for email, as a calendar, PIM, instant messaging, Web browsing, and other applications. Notes can access both local- and server-based applications and data. HCL Notes can function as an IMAP and POP email client with non-Domino mail servers. The system can retrieve recipient addresses from any LDAP server, including Active Directory, and includes a web browser, although it can be configured by a Domino Developer to launch a different web browser instead. Features include group calendars and schedules, SMTP/MIME-based email, NNTP-based news support, and automatic HTML conversion of all documents by the Domino HTTP task. HCL Notes can be used with HCL Sametime instant-messaging to allow to see other users online and chat with one or more of them at the same time. Beginning with Release 6.5, this", "", "HCL Notes and Domino is a NoSQL client/server database environment. The server software is called HCL Domino and the client software is HCL Notes. HCL Domino software can run on Windows, Unix, Linux, AIX, and HCL mid-range systems and can scale to tens of thousands of users per server. There are different supported versions of the HCL Domino server that are supported on the various levels of server operating systems. Usually the latest server operating system is only officially supported by a", "The first release of IBM Notes included a generalized replication facility. The generalized nature of this feature set it apart from predecessors like Usenet and continued to differentiate IBM Notes. IBM Domino servers and Notes clients identify NSF files by their Replica IDs, and keep replicate files synchronized by bi-directionally exchanging data, metadata, and application logic and design. There are options available to define what meta-data replicate, or specifically exclude certain meta data from replicating. Replication between two servers, or between a client and a server, can occur over a network or a point-to-point modem connection. Replication between servers may occur at intervals according to a defined schedule, in near-real-time when triggered by", "IBM Notes was the first widely adopted software product to use public key cryptography for client–server and server–server authentication and for encryption of data. Until US laws regulating encryption were changed in 2000, IBM and Lotus were prohibited from exporting versions of Notes that supported symmetric encryption keys that were longer than 40 bits. In 1997, Lotus negotiated an agreement with the NSA that allowed export of a version that supported stronger keys with 64 bits, but 24 of the bits were encrypted with a special key and included in the message to provide a \"workload reduction factor\" for the NSA. This strengthened the protection for users of Notes outside the US against private-sector industrial espionage, but not against spying by the US government. This implementation was widely announced, but with some justification many people did consider it to be a backdoor.", "Access control lists (ACLs) control a user of server's level of access to that database. Only a user with Manager", "IBM Notes and Domino is a cross-platform, distributed document-oriented NoSQL database and messaging framework and rapid application development environment that includes pre-built applications like email, calendar, etc. This sets it apart from its major commercial competitors, such as Microsoft Exchange or Novell GroupWise, which are purpose-built applications for mail and calendaring that offer APIs for extensibility. IBM Domino databases are built using the IBM Domino Designer client, available only for Microsoft Windows; standard user clients are available for Windows, Linux, and macOS. A key feature of IBM Notes is that many replicas of the same database can exist at the same time on different servers and clients, across dissimilar platforms; the same storage architecture is used for both client and server replicas. Originally, replication in Notes happened at document (i.e., record) level. With release of Notes 4 in 1996, replication was changed so that it now occurs at field level.", "IBM Notes includes a database management system but IBM Notes files are different from relational or object databases because they are document-centric. Document-oriented databases such as IBM Notes allow multiple values in items (fields), do not require a schema, come with built-in document-level access control, and store rich text data. IBM Domino 7 to 8.5.x supports the use of IBM DB2 database as an alternative store for IBM Notes databases. This NSFDB2 feature, however, is now in maintenance mode with no further development planned. An IBM Notes database can be mapped to a relational", "The IBM Domino server or the IBM Notes client store their configuration in their own databases / application files (*.nsf). No relevant configuration", "IBM Notes is commonly deployed as an end-user email client in larger organizations, with IBM claiming a cumulative 145 million licenses sold to date. When an organization employs an IBM Domino server, it usually also deploys the supplied IBM Notes client for accessing the IBM Notes application for email and calendaring but also to use document management and workflow applications. As IBM Notes is a runtime environment, and the email and calendaring functions in IBM Notes are simply an application provided by IBM, the administrators are free to develop alternate email and calendaring applications. It is also possible to alter, amend or extend the IBM supplied email and calendaring application. The IBM Domino server also supports POP3 and IMAP mail clients, and through an extension product (IBM mail support for Microsoft Outlook) supports native access for Microsoft Outlook clients. IBM also provides IBM iNotes (in Notes 6.5 renamed to \"Domino Web Access\" but in version 8.0 reverted to iNotes), to allow the use of email and calendaring features through web browsers on Windows, Mac and Linux, such as Internet Explorer and Firefox. There are several spam filtering programs available (including IBM Lotus Protector), and a rules engine allowing user-defined mail processing to be performed by the server.", "IBM Notes was designed as a collaborative application platform where email was just one of numerous applications that ran in the Notes client software. The Notes client was also designed to run on multiple platforms including Windows, OS/2, classic Mac OS, SCO Open Desktop UNIX, and Linux. These two factors have resulted in the user interface containing some differences from applications that only run on Windows. Furthermore, these differences have often remained in the product to retain backward compatibility with earlier releases, instead of conforming to updated Windows UI standards. The following are some of these differences. Lotus Notes 7 and older versions had more differences, which were removed from subsequent releases: Lotus Notes 8.0 (released in 2007) became the first version to employ a dedicated user-experience team, resulting in changes in the IBM Notes client experience in the primary and new notes user interface. This new interface runs in the open source Eclipse Framework, which is a project started by IBM, opening", "Publications such as \"The Guardian\" in 2006 have criticized earlier versions of Lotus Notes for having an \"unintuitive [user] interface\" and cite widespread dissatisfaction with the usability of the client software. \"The Guardian\" indicated that Notes has not necessarily suffered as a result of this dissatisfaction due to the fact that \"the people who choose [enterprise software] tend not to be the ones who use it.\" Earlier versions of Lotus Notes have also been criticized for violating an important usability best practice that suggests a consistent UI is often better than custom alternative. Software written for a particular operating system should follow that particular OS's user interface style guide. Not following those style guides can confuse users. A notable example is F5 keyboard shortcut, which is used to refresh window contents in Microsoft Windows. Pressing F5 in Lotus Notes before release 8.0 caused it to lock screen. Since this was a major point of criticism this was changed in release 8.0. Old versions did not support proportional scrollbars (which give", "", "Over the 30-year history of IBM Notes, Lotus Development Corporation and later IBM have developed many other software products that are based on or integrated with IBM Notes. The most prominent of these is the IBM Lotus Domino server software, which was originally known as the Lotus Notes Server and gained a separate name with the release of version 4.5. The server platform also became the foundation for products such as IBM Lotus Quickr for Domino, for document management, and IBM Sametime for instant messaging, audio and video communication, and web conferencing, and with Release 8.5, IBM Connections.", "With a long market history and large installed base, IBM Notes and Domino", "IBM Notes has a history spanning more than 30 years. Its chief inspiration was \"PLATO Notes\", created by David R. Woolley at the University of Illinois in 1973. In today's terminology, PLATO Notes supported user-created discussion groups, and it was part of the foundation for an online community which thrived for more than 20 years on the PLATO system. Ray Ozzie worked with PLATO while attending the University of Illinois in the 1970s. When PC network technology began to emerge, Ozzie made a deal with Mitch Kapor, the founder of Lotus Development Corporation, that resulted in the formation of Iris Associates in 1984 to develop products that would combine the capabilities of PCs with the collaborative tools pioneered in PLATO. The agreement put control of product development under Ozzie and Iris, and sales and marketing under Lotus. In 1994, after the release and marketplace success of Notes R3, Lotus purchased Iris. In 1995 IBM purchased Lotus. In 2008, IBM released XPages technology, based on JavaServer Faces. This allows IBM Domino applications to be better surfaced to browser clients, though the UX and business logic must be completely rewritten. Previously, IBM Domino applications could be accessed through browsers, but required extensive web specific modifications to get full functionality in browsers. XPages also give the application new capabilities that are not possible with the classic IBM Notes client. The IBM Domino 9 Social Edition included the IBM Notes Browser Plugin, which would surface Notes applications through a minified version of the rich desktop client contained in a browser tab.", "Prior to release 4.5, the \"Lotus Notes\" branding encompassed both the client and server applications. In 1996, Lotus released an HTTP server add-on for the Notes 4 server called \"Domino\". This add-on allowed Notes documents to be rendered as web pages in real time. Later that year, the Domino web server was", "IBM donated parts of the IBM Notes and Domino code to OpenOffice.org on September 12, 2007 and since 2008 has been regularly donating code to OpenNTF.org.", "Despite repeated predictions of the decline or impending demise of IBM Notes and Domino, such as \"Forbes\" magazine's 1998 \"The decline and fall of Lotus\", the installed base of Lotus Notes has increased from an estimated 42 million seats in September 1998 to approximately 140 million cumulative licenses sold through 2008. Once IBM Workplace was discontinued in 2006, speculation about dropping Notes was rendered moot. Moreover, IBM introduced \"iNotes\" for iPhone two years later. IBM contributed some of the code it had developed for the integration of the OpenOffice.org suite into Notes 8 to the project. IBM also packaged its version of OpenOffice.org for free distribution as IBM Lotus Symphony. IBM Notes and Domino 9 Social Edition shipped on March 21, 2013. Changes include significantly updated user interface, near-parity of IBM Notes and IBM iNotes functionality, the IBM Notes Browser" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "2001–2004: Making name and breaking neck.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "2004.", "2005–2008: Rising to the elite and Top 10 years.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009–2013: Later years.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012-13.", "Playing style.", "Equipment and endorsements.", "Personal life.", "2015 NYPD incident.", "Philanthropy.", "Singles performance timeline.", "Doubles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Blake was born in Yonkers, New York, to an African American father, Thomas Reynolds Blake, and a British mother, Betty. He has a brother Thomas, who has also been a professional tennis player, and three older half-brothers: Jason, Christopher, and Howard, and a half-sister Michelle. Blake started playing tennis at age 5 alongside his brother Thomas. When he was 13, he was diagnosed with severe scoliosis, and for five years as a teenager he was forced to wear a full-length back brace for 18 hours a day, though not while playing tennis. The Blake family moved to Fairfield, Connecticut when Blake's father's job selling surgical supplies took him from New York to Hartford, Connecticut. Blake attended Fairfield High School, where a schoolmate and childhood friend was future musician John Mayer. Blake was inspired to pursue tennis after hearing his role model Arthur Ashe speak to the Harlem Junior Tennis Program. Brian Barker was his first (and longtime) coach. Blake left Harvard University, where he was a member of the A.D. Club, after his sophomore year to pursue a career in professional tennis.", "", "", "At the age of 21, Blake saw his first Davis Cup action in 2001 against India and became the third person of African-American heritage to play for the Davis Cup for the United States (after Arthur Ashe and MaliVai Washington). Ranked no. 120 in the world, Blake accepted a wild card into Cincinnati Masters. He beat a qualifier and Arnaud Clément to reach the round of 16, where he met Patrick Rafter. Blake came close to winning the first set (falling in a tiebreak), and after dropping the second set, Rafter, according to Blake's autobiography, complimented him at the net and boosted his confidence immeasurably by saying, \"Now do you believe you can beat someone like me, or even me?\" Blake's name became more recognizable worldwide after he pushed the eventual champion Lleyton Hewitt to five sets at the US Open.", "In January 2002, Blake won the 2002 USTA Waikoloa Challenger in Hawaii. A month later in Memphis he posted his first win over a top-10 ranked opponent, Tommy Haas, who was then ranked no. 5, and reached the final, losing to Andy Roddick. He reached the quarterfinals at the ATP Masters Series (AMS) event in Rome in May and the final at Newport in July. In August, in Cincinnati, he won his first career ATP Tour title and his first ATP Masters Series title: it came in doubles with Todd Martin, making Blake the first African-American male to win a title of any kind in Cincinnati's 101-year history. He was also the first African-American to reach a final in Cincinnati since 1969, when Arthur Ashe reached the doubles finals with Charlie Pasarell. The next week in Washington, he won his first ATP Tour singles title, beating Andre Agassi in the semifinals and Paradorn Srichaphan in the final. At the US Open, he reached the third round, where he again faced the top-ranked and world number one Lleyton Hewitt for the rematch of the previous year. In an entertaining match Blake was again defeated in five sets.", "In 2003, his best results were a quarterfinals appearance at Indian Wells; a round of 16 finish at the Australian Open, Cincinnati, and Miami; a semifinal appearance at San Jose, and a finals appearance at Long Island, where he lost to Srichaphan. Blake was eliminated from the US Open in the 3rd round by Roger Federer.", "2004 was a difficult year for Blake. In May, while practicing with Robby Ginepri for the Masters event in Rome, he broke his neck when he slipped on the clay and collided with the net post. Blake fractured his seventh vertebra however did not sustain any nerve damage and was ultimately able to make a full recovery from the injury. In July, his father died of stomach cancer. At the same time, Blake developed shingles, which temporarily paralyzed half his face and blurred his vision.", "", "Blake's injuries and personal issues caused him to post relatively poor results for the first half of 2005. By April his ranking was 210. He decided to play the Challenger circuit, the \"minor leagues\" of tennis, in order to regain confidence and get more matches. In May he entered events in Tunica, Mississippi and Forest Hills, New York, and won both. He rejoined the ATP circuit and by August reached the final at the International Series event in Washington, D.C., where he fell to Roddick. He was given a wild card into AMS Cincinnati, drawing Federer in the first round. He then won the Pilot Pen Tennis tournament in New Haven, Connecticut, defeating Feliciano López in the final. After New Haven he was ranked 49. Blake accepted a wildcard into the US Open where he had a memorable run. After defeating No. 2 Rafael Nadal in the round of 32, Blake beat Tommy Robredo in four sets to reach the quarterfinals where he faced Andre Agassi. The late-evening match is considered one of the greatest classics in the tournament's history. Blake was up two sets and a break in the third when Agassi made a comeback to eventually win in a fifth-set tiebreak. After the match Agassi said, \"I wasn't the winner, tennis was\". Later in October at the Stockholm Open, Blake won his third ATP tour title, defeating Srichaphan in the final. Blake finished 2005 ranked 22 in the world.", "At the beginning of 2006, Blake won the title at Sydney, taking his fourth ATP tour title defeating Russian Igor Andreev in the final. At the Australian Open he was seeded 20th, and despite losing in the third round to Spaniard Tommy Robredo he broke into the Top 20 for the first time in his career. In March he beat Hewitt in the final at Las Vegas for his fifth ATP tour title. At the first AMS event of the year Indian Wells, Blake defeated Robredo in the third round and world No. 2 Nadal in the semifinals, reaching his first career ATP Masters Series singles final, losing in the final to Federer. By reaching the final, Blake became the first African-American man since Arthur Ashe to reach the world's top 10. At the French Open he defeated Spaniard Nicolás Almagro in four sets in the second round, to become the last remaining American, and then was beaten by Frenchman Gaël Monfils in five sets. Beginning the grass court season at the Stella Artois Championships, he defeated Andy Roddick in the semifinals, losing to Lleyton Hewitt in the final. Ranked No. 5, Blake took part in the International Series at Indianapolis. He won the singles title, defeating Roddick (for the second time in 2006). At the US Open he reached the quarterfinals, losing to top seed and defending champion Roger Federer. In that match Blake won his first ever set against Federer, winning the third set in a tiebreaker 11–9. In his debut appearance at the Thailand Open in Bangkok, Blake won his seventh singles title, defeating Jarkko Nieminen in the quarterfinals, Marat Safin in the semifinals, and Ivan Ljubičić (for the first time) in the final. Two weeks later Blake won his fifth title of 2006, defending his 2005 title in Stockholm, defeating Jarkko Nieminen. For the first time, Blake qualified for the Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai. He went 2–1 in the Gold Group, defeating No. 2 Nadal and No. 3 Nikolay Davydenko, while losing to No. 6 Tommy Robredo. He qualified for the semifinals, beating defending champion David Nalbandian, losing the final to Federer. Blake finished 2006 at a career-high World Number 4 and as the highest-ranked American tennis player.", "In 2007 Blake won at the Sydney International for the second consecutive year. However, he then suffered a disappointing loss in the Round of 16 at the Australian Open, losing to tenth seed and eventual finalist Fernando González. In February, Blake made it to the final of the Delray Beach tournament, but lost it to the Belgian Xavier Malisse in three tight sets. At the 2007 Tennis Channel Open in Las Vegas, as the defending champion, he was involved with a deep controversy. It was one of the several tournaments experimenting with the new round robin format, and Blake had lost his first match to Evgeny Korolev. Korolev lost his other match to Juan Martín del Potro. In order to advance to the quarterfinals, Blake had to defeat Del Potro in straight sets while losing five games or less. This would result in a three-way tie, with Blake losing the fewest games. With Blake leading 6–1, 3–1, Del Potro retired. This eliminated Del Potro from the three-way tie as he failed to complete one of his matches. Korolev then moved on to the next round, breaking the tie as he had defeated Blake in their direct match. Soon after, the organizers overruled the tournament guidelines, giving Blake a place in the quarterfinals. The following morning however, they changed the decision once again and as a result, Korolev re-advanced to the quarterfinals, while Blake was sent away from the tournament. Shortly after this incident, the ATP decided to cancel the round robin format, reverting any tournaments planning a round robin draw to the standard single-elimination draw. During the summer hardcourt season, he advanced to his second career ATP Masters Series final. At AMS Cincinnati, he beat Alejandro Falla, Nicolas Kiefer, Juan Carlos Ferrero, Sam Querrey and Nikolay Davydenko en route to the final before falling to Roger Federer. He won the singles title at Penn Pilot in New Haven, Connecticut, and reached the final at Los Angeles, losing to Radek Štěpánek in three sets after having three set points in the first set. In the second round of the 2007 US Open, he won his first career five-set match against Fabrice Santoro. Blake made it to the fourth round, where he lost to No. 10 Tommy Haas in five sets, despite having match points in the fifth set. In September Blake and the rest of the US Davis Cup team defeated Sweden to reach the finals against Russia. Blake lost in the third round of Paris to Richard Gasquet and thus finished outside the top eight players, losing his chance to defend the points he gained as finalist in the 2006 Tennis Masters Cup. In the 2007 Davis Cup finals Blake won his match against Mikhail Youzhny after Andy Roddick had beaten Dmitry Tursunov in the first rubber. The next day Bob and Mike Bryan won the doubles rubber over Igor Andreev and Nikolay Davydenko, sealing the Davis Cup win for the United States. Blake also defeated Tursunov in the last match of the finals to give Team USA 4–1 win.", "At the Australian Open, Blake defeated his first round opponent, Chilean Nicolás Massú. He then defeated compatriot Michael Russell. In the third round, he fought back from two sets down to beat French veteran Sébastien Grosjean who had beaten him in each of their three previous meetings. In the fourth round, Blake beat Marin Čilić in three sets to advance to the quarterfinals, his best showing yet down under. In the quarterfinal, Blake faced world No. 1 Roger Federer, and fell in straight sets. Although out of the Australian Open, Blake's ranking jumped back into the Top 10 to No. 9 following his best performance in the tournament yet. In Delray Beach, Blake made it to the final for the second consecutive year, but fell to No. 244 Kei Nishikori of Japan in three sets in the final. At the 2008 Pacific Life Open, Blake reached the quarter-finals before losing to Rafael Nadal in three sets. They met again in the next tournament at the 2008 Miami Masters also in the quarter-finals, and again Blake lost to Nadal in three sets. Blake then started the clay court season at the River Oaks International tournament in Houston, Texas. In his second ATP final of the year and his first career clay-court final, Blake fell to Spaniard Marcel Granollers Pujol. In August 2008, Blake represented the United States as one of its three men's singles tennis players in the Beijing Olympics. In the quarterfinals, he gained one of the biggest wins of his career with his first ever win over Roger Federer 6–4, 7–6. At the time, Federer was ranked as the world's No. 1 men's player. His semifinal match was against Fernando González, the Men's Singles bronze medalist at the 2004 Olympics in Athens. Blake had a triple match point in the final set, but would go on to lose 11–9. He then lost the bronze medal match to Serbian Novak Djokovic. In the US Open, Blake was stretched to a 5 set thriller against American teenager Donald Young in the first round. Blake easily won his second round match after Steve Darcis retired and then lost to friend and fellow American Mardy Fish in the third round in straight sets.", "", "Blake defeated Frank Dancevic in the first round of the Australian Open. His success continued in the second round after deposing of Frenchman Sébastien de Chaunac in a match laden with spectator noise and bad line calls. Blake went on to face the 18th seed, Igor Andreev, in the third round and beat him. He lost in the fourth round in straight sets to the 2008 runner-up Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. At the 2009 Estoril Open Blake advanced to his first clay-court final on European soil, after beating second seed and former Estoril Open champion Nikolay Davydenko in a rain-interrupted semi-final that was carried over due to bad light. Blake was defeated by Spain's Albert Montañés later that day in the finals. The 28-year-old Montanes saved two match points at 4–5 in the second set and fought back to beat fourth-seeded Blake in two hours and 14 minutes. At the Aegon Championships at Queen's Club, Blake defeated Ivan Ljubičić, Sam Querrey, and Mikhail Youzhny to reach the semi-finals. He then reached the final after Andy Roddick retired with an ankle injury in the first set when the score was tied at 4 games all. He then went on to lose in the final to Andy Murray. After being eliminated in the first round of the singles, Blake partnered with compatriot Mardy Fish at the Wimbledon Men's Doubles. The Americans advanced to the semi-finals where they lost to defending champions Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić despite winning the first two sets. Following a 3rd round loss at the 2009 US Open to Spain's Tommy Robredo, Blake split with longtime coach Brian Barker. He was replaced by Kelly Jones.", "Blake started his 2010 campaign at the Brisbane International in Australia where Blake lost to Gaël Monfils in the quarterfinals. At the 2010 Australian Open Blake defeated French veteran Arnaud Clément in the first round. He then faced fourth seed and US Open champion Juan Martín del Potro in the second round, losing a classic in five grueling sets, 8–10 in the last one. On April 14, Blake announced that he would be taking the clay court season off with a serious knee injury. As a result of this injury Blake missed the French Open for the first time since 2004. Blake returned to action at Wimbledon, where he lost to Dutchman Robin Haase. The result was surprising considering that Haase lost badly to Blake earlier in the season at Delray Beach. During this match, Blake harshly accused ESPN commentator and former WTA player Pam Shriver of disrupting play due to her overly loud commentary from the box situated above the court behind him. This led to a verbal exchange between the two during the match. After the match, an emotional Blake declared that if his knee problems did not subside he might consider retirement. Blake, who refused to take any anti-inflammatories for his knee, called his performance \"embarrassing\" and said \"I can't beat these guys at 80 percent.\" Despite these comments, Blake chose to continue rehabilitation to prepare for the US hardcourt season. At the Los Angeles Open, Blake's singles fate took a turn for the better. Prior to the tournament, Blake told the \"LA Times\" that retirement was \"no longer a thought\" and that he was \"not done yet\". In New Haven, his hometown tournament where he had claimed titles in 2005 and 2007, Blake made an impressive display and ousted World No.76 Pere Riba in the first round, converting five of eleven break point opportunities. Blake won the lightning quick match in 35 minutes, making it the shortest match win of 2010. At the 2010 US Open, Blake advanced to the third round losing to eventual finalist Novak Djokovic. Blake finished the year ranked outside the Top 100 for the first time since 2000.", "Before the beginning of the 2011 tennis tour Blake ended his partnership with coach Kelly Jones, choosing to travel alone. In a preseason interview, Blake stated he was healthy and carrying a positive attitude and would skip the Australian Open. In his first match of the year, on February 8 at the SAP Open in San Jose, Blake defeated American qualifier Jesse Levine after Levine succumbed to an injury late in the second set. The American ran into red-hot Canadian youngster Milos Raonic in the second round and fell after battling back from a late break down in the second set to force a tiebreaker. Raonic would go on to win the tournament, his first as a pro.", "After having an unspectacular year in 2012, ranked no. 123 in the world, Blake started the 2013 season by playing the qualifying rounds of Australian Open, where he lost to fellow American Donald Young in the 2nd qualifying round. Blake signed up for BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, California. He claimed an emotional win over Robin Haase but lost to World no.8 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the 2nd round. He also played in the Miami Masters and reached the third round losing to Albert Ramos. He skipped the whole clay court season except his first round exit to Gaël Monfils in the US Men's Clay Court Championships and his first round loss to Victor Troicki in the French Open. At Wimbledon Blake convincingly beat Thiemo de Bakker 6–1, 6–3, 6–2 in just 71 minutes. Unfortunately, for fans of the American, he lost to Bernard Tomic 6–3, 6–4, 7–5 in the next round. Prior to the 2013 US Open Blake announced that the tournament would be his last and that he would retire from tennis. In the singles he lost in the fifth set tie-break to Ivo Karlovic, despite leading 2–0 after the first two sets. His last professional match was a first round defeat in the doubles where partnered with Jack Sock, they were beaten by Alexander Peya and Bruno Soares.", "Blake was primarily an offensive baseliner. Blake was known for possessing one of the most powerful forehands in the game, with a solid transition game, and an effective serve and volley. Blake also possessed extremely quick footwork, although many claimed that he needed to work on changing direction. Blake's reputation as a \"shotmaker,\" combined with potentially high-error flat groundstrokes made his style of play notably flashy, characterized by both a high number of winners and unforced errors. In turn, this made Blake's game somewhat streaky, as evidenced by his playing history.", "Blake worked with Prince to create a new racquet with Prince's O3 technology. However, he did not feel comfortable with this racquet. So, he switched back to the Dunlop Sport Aerogel 200, then the 4D 200, for the 2009 season. He changed to Wilson at the start of the 2010 season, using the new Six.One Tour strung with Luxilon Big Banger Alu Power 16L strings at high tension (60+ pounds). He did not feel comfortable with this racquet either. Therefore, he switched back to Dunlop again. After the US Open of 2010, he began to test out rackets for Head. As August 26, 2011, he announced he will use Donnay rackets as his choice and using a customized Donnay X-Dual Pro. His clothing sponsor is Fila, with whom he started working in 2009 after using Nike for most his career. He has his own clothing line named Thomas Reynolds Collection after his father. Blake signed an endorsement deal with Evian in 2005 and his contract was extended in 2008.", "Blake married publicist Emily Snider in Del Mar, California, in 2012. The couple has two daughters. Blake enjoys golf and basketball, and is a fan of the New York Mets. He was featured on Bravo's second edition of \"Celebrity Poker Showdown\" but placed 2nd after losing to Maura Tierney. Blake was also a red pro on \"Full Tilt Poker\", though he has not been active there since shortly before Black Friday. He appeared in \"People\" magazine's \"Sexiest Man Alive\" issue. He is good friends with singer/songwriter John Mayer, who also attended Fairfield High School. When Blake was invited by Virginia's Anthem to do a cancer charity game honoring his late father, he invited Mayer, Andy Roddick, and Gavin DeGraw to perform. On May 7, 2014, four dead bodies were discovered after a fire in a Tampa mansion that Blake owned and was leasing out. A neighbor, who was walking her dog(s), heard a loud explosion, saw a house engulfed in flames around 5:40 a.m., and called 911. Police later found that tenant Darrin Campbell had purchased fireworks and gasoline cans three days before the fire, and that all four victims – Campbell, his wife Kim, and their children, Colin, 19, and Megan, 16 – had been shot with a gun registered to him. Blake was cleared of any involvement.", "On September 9, 2015, Blake was thrown down to the sidewalk, handcuffed, and arrested by a plainclothes New York City Police Department officer in front of the Grand Hyatt New York after being mistaken for a suspect of interest. The officers were relying on a witness and photo of a suspect that looked similar to Blake: they mistook him for a credit-card fraud suspect staying in the same hotel. Commissioner William Bratton apologized for the mistake and stated the \"arrest raised serious questions about [the officer's] actions\" but denied allegations of racism. Blake sued, but withdrew his claim, saying he wasn't looking for financial compensation, \"on the condition that the city establish a legal fellowship to investigate police misconduct and advocate for victims of brutality\". The violence of the arrest has prompted Blake to take a more active stand on police brutality against minorities. He has requested a meeting with Bratton and New York Mayor Bill DeBlasio. He has also written a book, \"Ways of Grace: Stories of Activism, Adversity, and How Sports Can Bring Us Together\", published in June 2017 that details the incident and his shift to activism as a result. Blake was subsequently sued for defamation by the officer that had mistakenly arrested Blake as the book portrayed the officer \"as a racist and a goon\". The lawsuit was dismissed by a judge in September 2018.", "Blake has a foundation called The James Blake Foundation, which \"invests vital seed money at the leading-edge of science: speed up the most promising work, and shortening the time it takes to turn lab discoveries into better treatments for patients.\" Since 2005, he has hosted Anthem Live!, a charity tennis exhibition and musical event in Virginia and New York City to raise money for cancer research. In July 2008, Blake established the Thomas Blake, Sr. Memorial Research Fund to support cancer research at Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. The fund was named in memory of his father, who died from gastric cancer in 2004. Nike and Fila, which sponsored Blake, created T-shirts for Blake's charity, the J-Block program, and proceeds went to the Cancer Research Fund.", "\"Current through 2013 US Open.", "\"Current till 2013 US Open (tennis)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Tennis career.", "Juniors.", "2004: First full year as professional.", "2005: A rising star is uncovered.", "2006: Australian Open final and entering top ten.", "2007: Second singles title.", "2008: Injury-plagued.", "2009: Injuries restrict, ends season with title.", "2010: Return to top 20.", "2011: Quiet but solid season.", "2012: Promising signs.", "2013: Struggles with injuries and form.", "2014: Finds feet on Challenger Tour.", "2015: Resurgence on ATP World Tour; back into top 50.", "2016: Top 40 return, Dubai finalist.", "2017 and 2018: Decline.", "2019: Final match and retirement.", "Davis Cup.", "2008 Australian Open controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Baghdatis was born in Paramytha, Cyprus, to a Lebanese father, Christos, and a Greek Cypriot mother, Androula. He has two brothers—Petros and Marinos—and a sister, Zena, who was adopted by his family at just six months old. His father, a native Lebanese who follows Greek Orthodox Christianity, emigrated to Cyprus from Lebanon and owns a clothes shop. He began playing tennis at the age of five with his father and brothers. He enjoys playing", "", "Baghdatis reached No. 1 in the ITF junior world", "Baghdatis performed moderately throughout most of 2004. He picked up his form later in that year. At the US Open, Baghdatis played for the first time in the main draw of a Grand", "Baghdatis's 2005 season began with a first-round loss in the Chennai Open against Nicolas Devilder. In his next tournament, the Australian Open, as a qualifier, Baghdatis defeated then-top-20 player Ivan Ljubičić in the second round and had a straight sets victory over another top-20 player, Tommy Robredo, in the third round, before losing to Roger Federer in the fourth round. Baghdatis suffered an elbow injury right after the Australian Open and was out of the professional tour until late April, when he entered a", "Baghdatis entered the Australian Open as an unseeded player, under the coaching of Guillaume Peyre, and produced an unexpected four-set victory over second-seed and world No. 3, Andy Roddick, in the fourth round. He then defeated the seventh seed Ivan Ljubičić in the quarterfinals in five sets. In the semifinals, he came back from two sets down to defeat fourth seed David Nalbandian in five. The vocal support he enjoyed from his local fans (consisting mostly of members of Melbourne's large Greek Australian community) throughout the tournament was considered one of the highlights of the tournament. In the final, Baghdatis started strongly (being a set and a", "Baghdatis was the eleventh seed at the Australian Open but could not match his success from the previous year, losing a second-round match to Gaël Monfils in four sets. He won his next tournament in Zagreb, defeating Ivan Ljubičić in a three-set final. At the Open 13 tournament in Marseille, France, Baghdatis advanced to his second consecutive singles final and the fifth of his career, where he lost to Gilles Simon in two sets. At the French Open, Baghdatis defeated Sébastien Grosjean in the first round and Kristian Pless to advance to the third round. There,", "Baghdatis started his season on the 2008 ATP Tour at the Chennai Open in India, where he lost to Robin Haase in the first round. At the Australian Open, Baghdatis defeated 2002 champion Thomas Johansson and 2005 champion Marat Safin, before losing in the third round to 2005 runner-up Lleyton Hewitt, in five sets. This match lasted 282", "Entering 2009, ranked No. 96 (his best having been 8) and having not played since the ATP Paris Masters in late October 2008, Baghdatis entered the Brisbane International in preparation for the Australian Open, losing in the opening round to Jarkko Nieminen. In the Australian Open, traditionally his best grand slam event, he began with a straight-sets win over 48th-ranked Frenchman Julien Benneteau and followed that up by ousting 16th-seed Robin Söderling in four sets and 23rd-seed Mardy Fish in straight sets to set up a fourth-round clash with third-seed and defending champion Novak Djokovic. The fourth round encounter with Djokovic started poorly", "During the 2010 season, Baghdatis was the only player to beat both Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal while they were world No. 1. The 2010 season saw Baghdatis return to form. He started off the year at the Brisbane International, one of the first ATP 250 tournaments of the season. In the first round, he beat Mardy Fish 7–5, 7–5, but he was soundly defeated in his second-round clash against hard-hitting Tomáš Berdych, winning just one game. He then entered the next Australian Open series tournament, the Medibank International tournament in Sydney. In his opening round, he looked rusty, but managed to beat Australian wild card Nick Lindahl and in the second round, he beat sixth seed Viktor Troicki in two sets. Baghdatis then stunned the fourth seed Lleyton Hewitt, rallying from a set and a break down in the second set to win in a three-sets quarterfinal. Then he defeated Mardy Fish in another heart-stopping three-set win 6–4, 6–7, 7–6, in the semifinals. In the final, he faced Richard Gasquet. After a rain delay at the start of the second set, Baghdatis went on to a straight-sets victory, a win which elevated his ATP", "Baghdatis started the 2011 season by competing in the Brisbane International, losing in the quarterfinal to defending champion and second-seeded American Andy Roddick in two sets. He made it to the third round of the Australian Open, before retiring midway through the fourth set against Jürgen Melzer due to a finger injury. Baghdatis had a very quiet summer on the ATP tour, his most noticeable appearance was at the Wimbledon Championships where he was the 32nd seed and gave eventual winner Novak Djokovic a tough test in the third round, losing in four sets, during a point in the match Djokovic was unable to keep his cool on the Centre Court and", "In the Australian Open, Baghdatis lost in the second round to Stan Wawrinka. During a change over Baghdatis smashed and broke four of his tennis rackets to vent frustration on how the match was unfolding. He was fined A$770 by the organization of the Australian Open for this behaviour. Baghdatis played Andy Murray in the third round of Wimbledon playing under the closed", "Baghdatis entered the Australian Open as the 28th seed. He defeated Albert Ramos in the first round and Tatsuma Ito of Japan in the second round. However, he was defeated by the 4th seed David Ferrer in the third round in straight sets. At the French Open, Baghdatis lost in the first round to the 24th seed Benoit Paire. At Wimbledon, Baghdatis was defeated in the first round by the 10th seed Marin Čilić. After a poor run of form over the summer, Baghdatis found some rhythm at the Citi Open in Washington. He had impressive wins over Lukas Lacko in three sets and 11th-ranked and second seed Kei Nishikori whom he", "Baghdatis was not given a wildcard into the Brisbane International, although he did receive one for the Heineken Open in Auckland. In the opening round Baghdatis lost to American lucky loser Steve Johnson in three sets. Baghdatis entered the Australian Open, ranked at a low 109 in the ATP rankings. Despite recovering from 1–4 down in the second set and saving several match points in the third set, he was eventually bundled out by Denis Istomin in straight sets in the first round. Due to a low ranking, he needed to qualify for his next tournament at the Zagreb Indoors. His poor run of form continued as he was defeated by 19-year-old Peđa Krstin from", "Sitting at No. 85 in the rankings, Baghdatis decided to begin his 2015 season on the ATP Challenger Tour, at the city of Onkaparinga. He made the final, before bowing out to American Ryan Harrison in straight sets. Baghdatis returned to the Australian Open, hoping to re-discover his best form. In the opening round, Baghdatis fought off Teymuraz Gabashvili 6–2, 6–7, 3–6, 6–4, 6–4. In round two, he upset 22nd-ranked David Goffin 6–1, 6–4, 4–6, 6–0 with an impressive display of attacking tennis. Baghdatis's campaign ended in dramatic fashion in round 3 against Grigor Dimitrov. The Cypriot rode the abundant emotion and Greek chanting on showcourt 3 to twice lead by a set before Dimitrov found another gear to win 4–6, 6–3, 3–6, 6–3,", "Baghdatis, due to the birth of his second daughter, began his 2016 campaign only a couple of days before the Australian Open at the exhibition Kooyong Classic where he had competitive matches with Pablo Carreño and Paul-Henri Mathieu. At the Australian Open, where Baghdatis was unseeded, he drew ninth seed Jo-Wilfred Tsonga in a match between two former finalists. Despite playing some vintage tennis in the second set his lack of match play showed in his four-sets defeat. Baghdatis reflecting on the loss, said \"I played a good match. It was my first match of the", "Baghdatis lost in the first round in seven out of the 15 ATP tournaments he played during the 2017 year. His continued", "He received a wild-card entry into Wimbledon singles draw and announced that it would be his last tournament", "Baghdatis made his Davis Cup debut for the Cyprus Davis Cup team in 2000 as a 14-year-old. Upon making his debut Cyprus were competing in the lowest division of Davis Cup competition possible and fell one win shy of being promoted in 2000. In 2009, the Group II relegation play-off tie was held in Nicosia, Cyprus", "Two days before his third-round match against Lleyton Hewitt at the 2008 Australian Open, a video posted on YouTube almost a year earlier made headlines in the local media. The video shows Baghdatis at a barbecue hosted by his Greek Australian fans in Melbourne in early 2007. In it, Baghdatis is seen holding a flare chanting, among other things, pro-Cyprus slogans such as \"Turks out of Cyprus\" twice, with the \"Hellas Fan Club\", a group which was later at the centre of a clash with police. A representative of the local Turkish Cypriot community referred to the chant as a \"racist attack\" and a \"straight-forward provocation of our community\", and called for the player's expulsion from the tournament and Australia, though no such action was taken. Supporters of Baghdatis said he was not calling for Turkish Cypriots to leave Cyprus but, rather, an end to Turkey's military occupation since 1974. In a statement issued through his manager, Baghdatis said he was \"supporting the interest of my country Cyprus, while protesting against a situation that is not recognized by the United Nations\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Tennis career.", "Juniors.", "1996–2000: World Team Cup champion, first title, Grand Slam Cup final, Olympic Silver.", "2001–2005: World No. 2, Masters champion, second World Team Cup victory and injuries.", "2006: Three titles, second US Open quarterfinal.", "2007: Australian Open and Davis Cup semifinals, back to top 10.", "2008–2009: Injuries, Wimbledon semifinal, return to top 20.", "2010–2011: Continued injuries and absence.", "2012: 13th title, second ATP Comeback Player of the Year award.", "2013: French Open quarterfinal, victory over No.1, comeback to No.11.", "2014–2018: Last career final, Indian Wells Tournament Director, retirement.", "2014.", "2015.", "2016.", "2017.", "2018.", "Playing style.", "Personal life.", "Record against other players.", "Wins over top 10 players.", "Record against top-10 players.", "Record against No. 11–20 players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Hamburg, Germany to Brigitte and Peter Haas, Tommy started playing his own version of tennis when he was four years old, using a wooden plank to hit balls against the wall or into his father's hands. When his father observed his talents, he started bringing Haas to work, as he was a tennis coach. At five, Haas won his first youth tournament, in Hamburg. At eight, he won his second, in Munich. Between 11 and 13, Haas twice won the Austrian Championship, the German Championship, and the European Championship. Haas's talents were noted by tennis guru Nick Bollettieri. He was so impressed by the young German's talent that he offered Haas the chance to stay and train at his Bollettieri Academy in Bradenton, Florida for free, and Haas began attending at age 11. At 13, speaking little English, Haas moved full-time to Florida to train at the academy.", "", "As a junior Haas reached as high as No. 11 in the junior world singles rankings in 1995 (and No. 5 in doubles).", "In 1996, Haas became a professional tennis player. He played his first Grand Slam tournament at the US Open, losing in the first round to compatriot Michael Stich in four sets. He gained attention as a future star when he won his first ATP title in 1999, made it to the semifinals of the Australian Open, and was a finalist in the Grand Slam Cup. The following year, he won a silver medal at the Sydney Olympics defeating Wayne Ferreira, Andreas Vinciguerra, Àlex Corretja, Max Mirnyi and Roger Federer en route to the gold medal match where he lost to Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He also beat Andre Agassi at the 1998 Wimbledon Championships in the second round.", "In 2001, he won four ATP titles, including his first Masters shield, finishing 2001 as world No. 8 and only missing out on playing in the season-ending Masters Cup because of Goran Ivanišević's Wimbledon victory, which meant Ivanišević took the eighth and final spot. In the 2002 Australian Open, he won in five sets against Todd Martin and Roger Federer, and in four against Marcelo Rios to reach the semifinals. He led Marat Safin two sets to one but suffered from a stiff shoulder after a rain delay, and Safin won the match, taking the final two sets 6–0, 6–2. Haas was quickly rising to the top of the tennis ranks when his career was suddenly halted at No. 2 in the world by a severe accident that nearly claimed the lives of his parents, leaving his father in a coma. Haas spent much of 2002 taking care of his family. At the end of this lay-off, he injured his shoulder, requiring a major operation. He was plagued by further injuries and related complications afterwards and did not return to professional tennis fully until 2004. Before his parents' accident and his injuries, he had a winning record against several former and future No. 1 ranked players: 3–0 against Andy Roddick, 2–1 against Roger Federer, 2–1 against Marat Safin, and 2–0 against Jim Courier, as well as 5–5 against Pete Sampras. Haas won two more ATP titles in his return year of 2004, while trying to gain back his form.", "In 2006, Haas won three ATP Tournaments and reached the quarterfinals at the US Open, where he was knocked out by Nikolay Davydenko after having been up two sets. Haas began having severe cramps in his legs in the third set. During the match he was visibly disturbed, repeatedly hitting his legs with his racquet, frustrated at the cramps. At the end of the year, he had to win the Paris Masters to qualify for the Masters Cup, the ATP year-end final. He lost after a semifinal run to Dominik Hrbatý with health problems and did not play again for the rest of the year.", "In 2007, Haas, with his long hair now cut short, had battled his way to his third Australian Open semifinal, which included matches against David Nalbandian and a five-set quarterfinal rematch against Nikolay Davydenko. He lost his semifinal match against first-time Grand Slam finalist Fernando González from Chile in straight sets. Despite this loss, Haas returned to the top 10 of the world rankings for the first time since 2002. On 25 February, at the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships in Memphis, Haas stopped Andy Roddick's quest for the final, winning in two sets. This was the first time Haas had won a title without facing a single break point in any of his matches, as well as the first time he had won titles in consecutive seasons. Haas also became only the second player to win three titles at Memphis, the other being Jimmy Connors, who won in 1979, 1983, and 1984. Haas reached the quarterfinals of the Pacific Life Open, an ATP Masters Series tournament held in Indian Wells, California, where he lost to Andy Murray in a third-set tiebreaker. In the 2007 ATP Champion's Race, Haas, the 13th seed (10th-ranked), not known for being much of a grass court player, advanced to the fourth round at Wimbledon for the first time, defeating Zack Fleishman, Tomáš Zíb, and No. 21 seed Dmitry Tursunov. His run came to an end after he suffered a torn abdominal muscle and had to withdraw a day before playing Roger Federer. At the US Open, Haas equaled his best result in New York by reaching the quarterfinals with five-set wins over Sébastien Grosjean and James Blake. He beat Blake in a fifth-set tiebreak, saving match points. His run ended, however, with a three-set loss to Nikolay Davydenko.", "In the first half of 2008, Haas was derailed by injuries, causing him to miss both the Australian Open and the French Open. This dropped him significantly in the rankings, as he was unable to back up his semifinal performance at the Australian Open the year before. He made it to the quarterfinals of the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, defeating Andy Murray in three sets. He was then forced to withdraw from his quarterfinal match against Roger Federer due to injury. He reached the third round at Wimbledon with a four-set win over Guillermo Cañas and a straight-set win over 23rd seed Tommy Robredo. He then fell to Andy Murray in four sets. In the hard-court season, he got to the semifinals of the Legg Mason Tennis Classic in Washington, D.C., but lost to Juan Martín del Potro. At the Rogers Cup in Toronto, he beat former world No. 1 Carlos Moyà, and then lost to Nikolay Davydenko in the second round. At the US Open, he beat 12th seed Richard Gasquet in five sets. He then fell to Gilles Müller of Luxembourg in five sets, despite cruising in the first two sets. At the beginning of the new season, Haas pulled out of the Qatar ExxonMobil Open due to elbow problems. However, he appeared in the Kooyong Exhibition game, where he beat Mardy Fish. At the 2009 Australian Open, Haas beat Eduardo Schwank in the first round and Flavio Cipolla in the second. In the third round, he fell to the tournament's first seed and eventual champion Rafael Nadal. At the SAP Open in San Jose, California, he joined forces with Czech Radek Štěpánek to clinch his first doubles title, after losing in the singles quarterfinals to defending champion Andy Roddick. Haas lost in the first round in both Memphis and Delray Beach. He did not succeed in defending his quarterfinal points at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, as he fell to Novak Djokovic in the third round, after defeating Óscar Hernández and Rainer Schüttler. He suffered another failure in the Miami Masters, losing to Mikhail Kukushkin. In Houston, Texas, at the River Oaks Men's Clay Championship, Haas was defeated by Björn Phau in the quarterfinals, after he defeated defending champion Marcel Granollers in the second round. As a qualifier in Madrid, he defeated Ernests Gulbis, before losing to Andy Roddick. At the French Open, Haas matched his best result since 2002. He defeated Andrei Pavel in straight sets, and then won a five-setter against Leonardo Mayer. After defeating Jérémy Chardy in the third round, Haas was narrowly defeated by the former world No. 1 and eventual champion, Roger Federer, in the fourth round. At a crucial stage in the third set, Haas was only five points away from his biggest win on clay, but was unable to convert a break point that would have seen him serve for the match at 5–3. Federer hit a vital winner to level the score at 4–4, en route to a comeback victory 6–7, 5–7, 6–4, 6–0, 6–2. At the Gerry Weber Open, Haas won his first title on grass in his 21st ATP World Tour final. In the process, he defeated fourth seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the second round, Mischa Zverev in the quarterfinals, and Philipp Kohlschreiber in the semifinals. He defeated the tournament's second seed Novak Djokovic, in the final. This victory made Haas one of a small group of players to have won ATP titles on all three major surfaces (grass, clay, and hard courts.) With Haas' success at this tournament and at the French Open, his ranking rose to no. 35. At Wimbledon, Haas won a five-set match against Marin Čilić. Haas was up two sets to love and had match points in the fourth set, then had to save two match points serving at 5–6 before the match was suspended due to darkness after over four hours of play, at 6–6 in the fifth. The next day, Haas broke Cilic at 8–8 and eventually held on to win. Haas then comfortably defeated Igor Andreev to reach the quarterfinals. There, he defeated Novak Djokovic for the second time in three weeks to reach the semifinals at Wimbledon for the first time in his career, where he faced Roger Federer in a rematch of their encounter in Paris. Haas lost, ensuring Federer's historic seventh Wimbledon final. This success at Wimbledon made Haas rise considerably in ATP ranking, reaching No. 19. Haas continued his late career resurgence by making it to the semifinals at the LA Tennis Open, defeating Marat Safin in the quarterfinals, before losing to Sam Querrey. He made it to the third round at the US Open, losing narrowly to Fernando Verdasco, after being up a break in each set.", "Following his comeback, however, Haas suffered from another bout of injury. He made the third round of the 2010 Australian Open, defeating Simon Greul and Janko Tipsarević, but did not play after February 2010, spending time recovering from right hip and right shoulder surgeries. He missed the rest of the 2010 season and once more dropped out of the ATP rankings. He returned to action partnering Radek Štěpánek in doubles in Munich in May 2011, but then lost in the first round. His return match in singles came at the 2011 French Open, where he lost in round one. He also went down in the first round at Wimbledon, but reached the third round of the US Open, losing to Juan Mónaco in four sets. Other than Grand Slams, he played little tennis, competing in only ten other tournaments, mainly in July, August, and October.", "Haas began the 2012 season at the Brisbane International, but had to withdraw in the second round. Nevertheless, he competed more regularly in 2012 than in previous seasons. He qualified for the French Open, progressing to the third round, and reached the semifinals of the BMW Open, returning to the world's top 100. As a wildcard at the Gerry Weber Open in Germany, Haas won the title for the second time thanks to wins over former champions Tomáš Berdych and Philipp Kohlschreiber en route to the final, where he defeated world No. 3 and five-time champion Federer in two sets. However, Haas was subsequently defeated in the first round of Wimbledon later that month, letting a two-sets-to-one lead slip against compatriot Philipp Kohlschreiber. Haas lost to world No. 206, Pavol Červenák in the Stuttgart clay-court tournament at the second-round stage. Haas continued to find good form during the second half of the season. He reached the finals of the German Open Tennis Championships 2012, losing to Juan Mónaco, and the Citi Open, losing to Alexandr Dolgopolov. These two runs saw Haas rise back into the top 50. Haas went on to reach two quarterfinals in Masters 1000 tournaments, his best performance at that level since 2008. Haas briefly returned to the top 20 in the world in October 2012, and he finished the season ranked No. 21. This was enough to earn him the Comeback Player of the Year award for a second time.", "Haas lost in the Australian Open first round. In February at the SAP Open he reached his 25th career final against defending champion Milos Raonic, but lost in straight sets. Next he played in Delray Beach International Tennis Championships as a former 2006 champion, where he lost to Ernests Gulbis in three sets in the semifinals. At Indian Wells, he lost in the fourth round to Juan Martín del Potro after saving match point to beat Nicolás Almagro in the previous round. In Miami, he beat world No. 1, Novak Djokovic, in straight sets. It was his first victory over a top-ranked player since he defeated Andre Agassi in 1999. He followed this up with a victory over Gilles Simon to reach his first Miami semifinal, and first Masters 1000 semifinal since the 2006 Paris Masters. There, he lost to third seed David Ferrer, 6–4, 2–6, 3–6. In May, he won his first title of the year at Munich, beating Philipp Kohlschreiber in an all-German final. Haas made history at the French Open, when he missed a record twelve match points against John Isner in the fourth set of their third round match. Isner won the set on a tiebreak, but in the fifth set Haas went on to recover from 2–4 down and saved a match point against him at 4–5 to eventually win 10–8. Haas beat Mikhail Youzhny in the fourth round but eventually lost to Djokovic in straight sets in the quarter finals. At Wimbledon, Haas advanced to the fourth round to set up a rematch against Djokovic but again lost in straight sets.", "", "Haas started the season at the Heineken Open in Auckland, where he lost in the second round against Jack Sock in straight sets. At the Australian Open, he was forced to retire with a recurring shoulder problem against Guillermo Garcia-Lopez in the first round after trailing 5–7, 2–5 on serve. After the setback, he participated in the first round of the Davis Cup against Spain. He teamed up alongside Philipp Kohlschreiber in doubles, taking a four-set victory to hand Germany a place in the quarterfinals for the first time since 2011. Haas then hired compatriot Alexander Waske as his new coach. His goal was to qualify for his first season-end ATP World Tour Finals. In his next tournament, the Zagreb Indoors, Haas reached the final by defeating Benjamin Becker, Andrey Kuznetsov, and Daniel Evans. In the final, he was beaten by defending champion Marin Čilić in straight sets. At the 2014 BMW Open, Haas was the defending champion. He made it to the semifinals, but lost to Martin Kližan. Haas reached the fourth round of the BNP Paribas Open, where he was defeated by Roger Federer in straight sets. Haas reached the quarterfinals of the Rome Masters after beating third seed Stan Wawrinka. He then retired in the quarterfinals to Grigor Dimitrov. Haas missed the rest of the 2014 season to have an operation on his injured right shoulder which had forced him to retire from several events.", "After a later than expected return from injury, in the grass court season in June 2015, Haas played his comeback match at Stuttgart as a wild card. In the first round he beat Mikhail Kukushkin in straight sets but then lost to Bernard Tomic in straight sets in the second round. Haas then played at the Gerry Weber Open, losing in the first round to eventual finalist Andreas Seppi. His next tournament was Wimbledon, where he reached the second round. After beating Dusan Lajovic, he lost to world No. 8 Milos Raonic in four sets.. At the US Open, Haas was defeated by Fernando Verdasco in a five-setter in the first round.", "In April 2016, Haas, at 38, had toe surgery and was out for nine months, \"I know that there's a chance that I might not come back from this,\" Haas said. \"I know it will be a very, very hard task, but there's no doubt in my mind I'm certainly going to try.\" In June 2016, Tommy Haas was named the new Indian Wells Tournament Director. \"I'm thrilled to join the BNP Paribas Open as its new Tournament Director and look forward to working with one of the finest sporting events in the world,\" said Haas. \"There is a reason that the BNP Paribas Open has been voted Tournament of the Year by both tours for consecutive years, as the tournament and venue continue to provide a world-class experience for players, fans and sponsors. I look forward to joining the experienced Indian Wells staff, building upon the foundation they have created, and working to take the event to even greater heights.\"", "In January 2017, Haas made his first ATP Tour appearance in 15 months at the Australian Open. In the first round, he retired after the second set because he felt physically \"empty\". In April 2017, Haas won his first match at ATP-level in 21 months in Houston. At the age of 39, he defeated the almost 20 years younger Reilly Opelka in the first round. This victory made him the oldest player to win an ATP Tour match since Jimmy Connors in 1995. He then lost to top seed Jack Sock in three sets. At the Monte-Carlo Masters, Haas beat world No. 40 Benoît Paire in straight sets in the first round. In the second round, he lost to Tomáš Berdych in a close match. In June, Haas reached the quarterfinals of the MercedesCup in Stuttgart after upsetting Roger Federer in the second round and Pierre-Hugues Herbert in the first round. In the quarterfinals, he lost to sixth seed Mischa Zverev in straight sets. Haas played his last ATP tournament in Kitzbühel in August 2017, where he lost in the first round to compatriot Jan-Lennard Struff. He was not given a wild card for the US Open and cancelled his participation at the Vienna Open.", "At the 2018 Australian Open, Haas coached Lucas Pouille. In February, it was assumed that Haas ended his career because of an interview he gave a Californian newspaper. On 15 March 2018, he officially announced his retirement from the ATP World Tour.", "Haas was an all-court player, capable of playing well on clay, hard, and grass surfaces. Nick Bollettieri noted Haas as having \"one of the greatest backhands in the world,\" praising its versatility and power. Haas also possessed a powerful slice backhand, which he used to disrupt the rhythm of the point and to construct offensive positions. He also possessed a strong serve and a functional set of volleys. Haas was known for his refined footwork and racquet skills, both of which he used to construct quick defensive-to-offensive transitions. He was widely considered as one of the best players to have never won a grand slam, having been restricted by numerous injuries. Reviewers described him as having nice \"fluidity\" and how his game overall allows him to adapt to most situations, as demonstrated by his equal win percentage over both right and left-handed players, as well as his relatively even win percentages on all surfaces. Haas' mental game was described as solid, boasting a positive win record in deciding sets (3rd or 5th).", "On 27 January 2010, Haas became a United States citizen, but continued to represent Germany in tennis. Haas married actress Sara Foster in 2010. They have two daughters. Haas is the son-in-law of David Foster.", "", "Haas has a 48–85 record against players who were, at the time the match was played, ranked in the top 10.", "Haas' record against players who have been ranked world No. 10 or higher.", "Haas' record against players who have been ranked world No. 11–20." ] }

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{ "title": [ "File layout.", "File header.", "Program header.", "Applications.", "Unix-like systems.", "Non-Unix adoption.", "Game consoles.", "PowerPC.", "Mobile phones.", "86open.", "FatELF: universal binaries for Linux." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Each ELF file is made up of one ELF header, followed by file data. The data can include: The segments contain information that is needed for run time execution of the file, while sections contain important data for linking and relocation. Any byte in the entire file can be owned by one section at most, and orphan bytes can occur which are unowned by any section.", "The ELF header defines whether to use 32-bit or 64-bit addresses. The header contains three fields that are affected by this setting and offset other fields that follow them. The ELF header is 52 or 64 bytes long for 32-bit and 64-bit binaries respectively.", "The program header table tells the system how to create a process image. It is found at file offset e_phoff, and consists of e_phnum entries, each with size e_phentsize. The layout is slightly different in 32-bit ELF vs 64-bit ELF, because the p_flags are in a different structure location for alignment reasons. Each entry is structured as:", "", "The ELF format has replaced older executable formats in various environments. It has replaced a.out and COFF formats in Unix-like operating systems:", "ELF has also seen some adoption in non-Unix operating systems, such as:", "Some game consoles also use ELF:", "Other (operating) systems running on PowerPC that use ELF:", "Some operating systems for mobile phones and mobile devices use ELF: Some phones can run ELF files through the use of a patch that adds assembly code to the main firmware, which is a feature known as \"ELFPack\" in the underground modding culture. The ELF file format is also used with the Atmel AVR (8-bit), AVR32 and with Texas Instruments MSP430 microcontroller architectures. Some implementations of Open Firmware can also load ELF files, most notably Apple's implementation used in almost all PowerPC machines the company produced. The Linux Standard Base (LSB) supplements some of the above specifications for architectures in which it is specified. For example, that is the case for the System V ABI, AMD64 Supplement.", "86open was a project to form consensus on a common binary file format for Unix and Unix-like operating systems on the common PC compatible x86 architecture, to encourage software developers to port to the architecture. The initial idea was to standardize on a small subset of Spec 1170, a predecessor of the Single UNIX Specification, and the GNU C Library (glibc) to enable unmodified binaries to run on the x86 Unix-like operating systems. The project was originally designated \"Spec 150\". The format eventually chosen was ELF, specifically the Linux implementation of ELF, after it had turned out to be a \"de facto\" standard supported by all involved vendors and operating systems. The group began email discussions in 1997 and first met together at the Santa Cruz Operation offices on August 22, 1997. The steering committee was Marc Ewing, Dion Johnson, Evan Leibovitch, Bruce Perens, Andrew Roach, Bryan Wayne Sparks and Linus Torvalds. Other people on the project were Keith Bostic, Chuck Cranor, Michael Davidson, Chris G. Demetriou, Ulrich Drepper, Don Dugger, Steve Ginzburg, Jon \"maddog\" Hall, Ron Holt, Jordan Hubbard, Dave Jensen, Kean Johnston, Andrew Josey, Robert Lipe, Bela Lubkin, Tim Marsland, Greg Page, Ronald Joe Record, Tim Ruckle, Joel Silverstein, Chia-pi Tien, and Erik Troan. Operating systems and companies represented were BeOS, BSDI, FreeBSD, Intel, Linux, NetBSD, SCO and SunSoft. The project progressed and in mid-1998, SCO began developing lxrun, an open-source compatibility layer able to run Linux binaries on OpenServer, UnixWare, and Solaris. SCO announced official support of lxrun at LinuxWorld in March 1999. Sun Microsystems began officially supporting lxrun for Solaris in early 1999, and later moved to integrated support of the Linux binary format via Solaris Containers for Linux Applications. With the BSDs having long supported Linux binaries (through a compatibility layer) and the main x86 Unix vendors having added support for the format, the project decided that Linux ELF was the format chosen by the industry and \"declare[d] itself dissolved\" on July 25, 1999.", "FatELF is an ELF binary-format extension that adds fat binary capabilities. It is aimed for Linux and other Unix-like operating systems. Additionally to the CPU architecture abstraction (byte order, word size, CPU instruction set etc.), there is the potential advantage of software-platform abstraction e.g., binaries which support multiple kernel ABI versions., FatELF has not been integrated into the mainline Linux Kernel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Playing style and equipment.", "Career.", "Early years.", "1999.", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "2004.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011–2012.", "2017.", "Davis Cup.", "Coaching career.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nicknamed Juanki and \"El Mosquito\", Ferrero began playing tennis at age seven with his father, Eduardo, who often travels with him. He has two sisters, Ana and Laura and admires the play of former No. 1 and two-time Roland Garros champion Jim Courier. Ferrero's inspiration has been his mother, Rosario, who died of cancer when he was 17. In July 2007, he bought", "Although Ferrero was known as one of the best clay-court players during his prime, he distinguished himself as an all-court and all-round player through his solid performance on hard- and grass-court tournaments. He said during an interview that he preferred playing on hard courts. Tennis experts agreed that Ferrero's clay-court game translated well to", "", "Born in Ontinyent, Ferrero came to prominence in 1998, making the final of the French Open Juniors, losing to Fernando González. He finished the year ranked as the No. 17 junior. He", "He made his first ATP main draw debut at the Grand Prix Hassan II as a qualifier, he earned his first top 100 win upsetting 4th seed and No. 68 Karim Alami 6–4, 4–6, 6–3 and eventually reached the semifinals, where he lost to Alberto Martín, 5–7, 4–6. He followed it up by winning a Challenger events in Naples defeating Juan Albert Viloca-Puig 3–6, 7–6, 6–1. He then received a wildcard at the Open Seat Godó and reached the third round losing to Carlos Moyá 5–7, 7–5, 4–6. He reached back–to–back finals, losing at the Prostejov Challenger to Richard Fromberg 6–7, 7–5, 4–6 and winning the Maia Challenger Mariano Hood", "He began the year at the Heineken Open and made the quarterfinals losing to compatriot Joan Balcells 6–4, 3–6, 1–6. He made his Australian Open debut, making it to the third round, where he was defeated by Younes El Aynaoui in a tight five–setter, 6–7, 6–4, 6–4, 6–7, 4–6. Shortly after, he reached the finals at the Dubai Tennis Championships, losing to Nicolas Kiefer 5–7, 6–4, 3–6, en route earning his first top 10 win over then No. 9 Nicolás Lapentti 6–4, 6–3 in the second round. He backed it up with a semifinal showing at the Franklin Templeton Tennis Classic, falling to Australian", "Ferrero started the year poorly, suffering three consecutive loses, beginning with a second round loss at the Australian Open to Australian Andrew Ilie 6–3, 2–6, 1–6, 6–1, 2–6, followed by loses at Davis Cup to Dutch Raemon Sluiter 7–6, 6–7, 6–3, 6–7, 4–6 and the first round at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament to Ivan Ljubičić 6–7, 4–6. He bounced back at the Dubai Tennis Championships defeating Marat Safin, 6–2, 3–1 RET in the final, after upsetting No. 5 Magnus Norman 6–2, 4–6, 6–4 in the quarterfinals.", "In 2002, Ferrero missed the Australian Open due to bursitis in his right knee. He started his year at the Milan Indoor, but was upset by eventual champion Davide Sanguinetti 6–3, 6–7, 4–6 in the second round. He then represented Spain in the first round Davis Cup tie against Morocco, he went to win one against Hicham Arazi 6–3, 6–1, 6–2 and lost one to Younes El Aynaoui 6–7, 0–6, 6–3, 6–0, 3–6. He made his first quarterfinal of the year at the Open 13, but was upset", "In 2003, Ferrero started the year by reaching the finals in the Adidas International, losing to Hyung-Taik Lee, 6–4, 6–7, 6–7. He went on to reach the quarter–finals of the Australian Open, losing to Wayne Ferreira, 6–7, 6–7, 1–6. He then competed for Spain at Davis Cup against Belgium and won both his matches against Christophe Rochus 6–3, 6–2, 7–5 and Kristof Vliegen 6–1, 6–4. He then competed at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament but retired with a sprained ankle in the quarterfinals against Raemon Sluiter while", "Injuries began to plague Ferrero throughout 2004, and his ranking and form dipped. Despite making the Australian Open semifinals early in the year, losing to Roger Federer 4–6, 1–6, 4–6, and the finals of ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, losing to Lleyton Hewitt, 7–6, 5–7, 4–6, chicken pox kept him out for the entire month of March. He came back at Davis Cup against Netherlands and won both his matches defeating Raemon Sluiter 6–2, 6–2, 6–4 and Martin Verkerk 6–4, 6–7, 4–6, 7–5, 6–1 and the semifinals of the Open de Tenis Comunidad Valenciana losing to Fernando Verdasco 2–6, 1–6. After a first–round loss in Monte Carlo Masters to Alex Corretja 2–6, 3–6 in April, he required another", "In 2005, Ferrero look to return to the top of the game. However, he began his year with a loss to Jan Hernych 7–6, 1–6, 3–6 at the Heineken Open. At the Australian Open due to being seeded 31st, he met 6th ranked Guillermo Coria and lost 3–6, 2–6, 1–6. With this loss his ranking went down to 64 for the first time since September 1999. His ranking continued to drop to as low as 98, with first round loss at the Open 13 to eventual champion Joachim", "In 2006, he once again lost his first match at the Medibank International losing to Chris Guccione 6–4, 3–6, 5–7. At the first slam of the year, the Australian Open, he reached the third round again this time to Nicolas Kiefer 3–6, 2–6, 7–5, 2–6. He reached his first semifinal of the year at the ATP Buenos Aires losing to compatriot Carlos Moyá 6–3, 6–7, 4–6. However. he fell in the first round of the Brasil Open to Flávio Saretta 4–6, 3–6. At the first two Masters event of the year, the Pacific Life Open and NASDAQ–100 Open, losing to Paradorn Srichaphan 2–6, 2–6 in the third round and Dmitry Tursunov 3–6, 6–7 in the second round, respectively. He started his French Open preparation at the Open de Tenis Comunidad Valenciana but fell to eventual champion Nicolás Almagro 7–6, 4–6, 4–6. At the Monte Carlo Masters, he reached the third round, but lost to friend David Ferrer 1–6, 7–6, 3–6. He reached his second quarterfinal of the year at the Torneo Godó losing once again to Nicolás Almagro 3–6, 3–6. At the next three events, he lost in the first round of", "In 2007, Ferrero had a bad start of the year with a first round loss at the Heineken Open to Nicolás Massú 4–6, 2–6 and a second round loss at the Australian Open to Danai Udomchoke in four sets 6–7, 5–7, 6–4, 1–6. Ferrero bounced back by reaching the final of the Brasil Open, where he lost to Guillermo Cañas, 6–7, 2–6. He was eliminated in the round robin stage of Copa Telmex and the semifinals of the Abierto Mexicano Telcel, where he lost to Carlos Moyá, 6–2, 2–6, 3–6. At the Pacific Life Open he reached the fourth round losing to Rafael Nadal 1–6, 1–6 but fell early in the Sony Ericsson Open to Guillermo Cañas in the second round 7–6, 3–6, 5–7. He also fell early Alberto Martín 4–6, 2–6 at the second round of the Open de Tenis Comunidad Valenciana. But he bounced back reaching the semifinals of the Monte Carlo Masters, losing to Roger Federer, 3–6, 4–6. However, he fell in the second rounds of Torneo Godó to Pablo Andújar 1–2 ret", "Ferrero started 2008 by reaching the final of the Heineken Open losing to Philipp Kohlschreiber 6–7, 5–7 and defeating David Nalbandian, 6–1, 6–2, 6–3 to advance to the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he lost to David Ferrer 5–7, 6–3, 4–6, 1–6. After the Australian Open, Ferrero suffered three consecutive losses to Nicolas Mahut 7–5, 4–6, 6–7 at the second round of the Open 13, at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament to Teymuraz Gabashvili 5–7, 1–6 and to Andy Roddick at the Dubai Tennis Championships, 2–6, 4–6. He made a fourth–round appearance at the Pacific Life Open, where Nalbandian defeated him, 2–6, 2–6. At the Sony Ericsson Open, Ferrero lost to Tomáš Berdych 1–6, 3–6 in the third round. He lost to Marat Safin 3–6,", "Ferrero started the year with early losses in the second round of the Heineken Open to Philipp Kohlschreiber 4–6, 6–4, 6–7, and the first rounds of the Brisbane International Florent Serra 3–6, 6–7, and the Australian Open to Fabrice Santoro 3–6, 2–6, 7–6, 2–6 which made him drop out of the top 100 at No. 101 for the first time in almost 10 years. He, however, reached the quarterfinals of the Brasil Open, losing to Thomaz Bellucci, 6–7, 6–1, 3–6, and of the Copa Telmex, retiring againstDavid Nalbandian, 3–6, 0–3 with a right leg injury. In March, Ferrero captured his first singles title", "Ferrero had a bad start to the 2010 season. Ferrero began the year at the Heineken Open, where he retired against Michael Lammer with an injury trailing 1–3 in the second round, after receiving a first round bye. At the Australian Open, he lost to Ivan Dodig, after being two sets to love up and seemingly cruising to victory. His mind slipped mid-match and he got crushed during the last three sets of the match, 6–2, 6–1, 4–6, 1–6, 1–6. Ferrero then competed in the Brasil Open as the No. 1 seed. He earned his first win of the season against Eduardo Schwank, 7–6, 6–3. In the following round he defeated Nicolás Massú, 6–2, 5–7, 6–2 (despite failing to serve out the match 5–4 in the second set), Carlos Berlocq, 6–3, 6–2, in the quarterfinals, and Ricardo Mello, 6–4, 6–2, in the semifinals.", "In 2011, Ferrero withdrew from the Heineken Open and Australian Open. As the defending champion, he withdrew from the Brasil Open and Copa Claro. He also withdrew from the Abierto Mexicano, Indian Wells, Miami Masters, and Monte Carlo Masters as the recovery from his wrist and knee surgery took longer than expected. He made his return at the Barcelona Open, where he defeated Xavier Malisse, 6–4, 6–1, Mischa Zverev, 6–4, 7–5, and Simone Vagnozzi, 7–6, 4–6, 6–4, but lost in the quarterfinals to Nicolás Almagro, 3–6, 3–6. His next tournament was the Madrid Open, where he lost in the first round to Dutchman Thiemo de Bakker, 6–2, 5–7, 4–6, after which he indicated that the end of tennis career might be near. He missed the Rome Masters, French Open, and Wimbledon due to same injury. His ranking dropped to", "In 2017 it was announced that Ferrero would make a return to the ATP World Tour,", "Ferrero made his Davis Cup debut for Spain in the quarterfinals match-up against Russia in 2000 and won both his matches against Yevgeny Kafelnikov and Marat Safin in straight sets. He played in the semifinals, this time against the American Vince Spadea, and won in three sets, 4–6, 6–1, 6–4. His impressive Davis Cup form continued when he defeated Australians Patrick Rafter and Lleyton Hewitt in Barcelona, enabling Spain to capture the Davis Cup for the first time. In 2001, Spain fell to the Netherlands, and Ferrero lost his first match against Raemon Sluiter, losing two tie-breakers and winning one. He, however, made up for this loss when Spain competed in the qualifying rounds for the Davis Cup", "In July 2017, Ferrero started working as a coach of then-No. 11 Alexander Zverev. The", "Ferrero loses the last game of his career" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Schools.", "Teachings.", "Films.", "Ninjutsu lineage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hatsumi was born in Noda, Chiba on December 2, 1931. He heavily participated in sports during his school years, along with martial arts and theater, including becoming \"captain of the football team\". While attending the Meiji University, he continued learning judo and eventually rose to Yudansha or Dan rank. He also began teaching Judo during his time at the university to American soldiers at the nearby Yokota Air Base. After graduating, Hatsumi began to search for a teacher to further his study of martial arts. He began his Kobudo training under Ueno Chosui. When he was 26 he met Ueno's teacher, Toshitsugu Takamatsu, known as \"the Tiger of Mongolia\". Hatsumi was accepted as Takamatsu's student and spent fifteen years on Honshu Island learning various ninjutsu styles from Takamatsu and other members of the Takamatsu family, also he continued to learn judo, Shito Ryu karate, aikido, and kobudo. Takamatsu died in Nara, Japan in 1972 after advancing Hatsumi from student to Soke and bestowing on him \"all the art of the nine schools\", and of course the grandmaster's scrolls, three of which he indicated were ancient ninja schools and six samurai jujutsu schools of martial arts. Hatsumi went on to found the Bujinkan Dojo in Noda, Japan to teach the nine schools to other students. His first trip to the United States was in 1982 and he has since continued to participate in yearly ninjutsu Tai Kai (gathering) around the world. Hatsumi also worked as a Seikotsu-in (整骨院) bonesetter after his graduation and was chairman of the Writers Guild of Japan at one point in time. He was the writer of a martial arts magazine \"Tetsuzan\", which was \"distributed in 18 countries.\"", "Masaaki Hatsumi has inherited the position of \"sōke\" (headmaster) of nine ryū (schools of martial arts):", "Masaaki Hatsumi focuses the training of the Bujinkan on the \"feeling\" of technique or what he terms the feeling of real situations. Hatsumi has a non-standoffish teaching approach, leading \"Black Belt\" magazine to call him \"wild, funny, unpredictable, and a cross between Charlie Chaplin and Obi-Wan Kenobi.\" Hatsumi focuses on teaching taijutsu to his students, as the other ninja arts have no need to be practiced in modern times, besides for \"historical study\".", "He has also served as a martial arts advisor to various films and television productions, including the James Bond movie \"You Only Live Twice\", and in the first film from the highly popular Japanese series \"Shinobi no Mono\". He also appeared in and was the stunt coordinator for the Japanese tokusatsu television series \"Sekai Ninja Sen Jiraiya\" as the titular hero's mentor and father figure, Tetsuzan Yamaji.", "Hatsumi claims that ninjutsu was developed by Japanese mountain clans, using \"esoteric skills and philosophies\" brought to Japan by Tang Dynasty exiles. The Iga-ryū Ninja Museum of Japan lists the only legitimate inheritor of authentic Ninjutsu as Jinichi Kawakami. This may be a biased opinion as Jinichi Kawakami is also the honorary director of the Iga-ryū Ninja Museum, a commercial enterprise and tourist attraction. The 1978 edition of the Bugei Ryuha Daijiten includes the full sōke lists for Masaaki Hatsumi's ryūha. According to Donn Draeger: \"The late Fujita Seiko was the last of the living ninja, having served in assignments for the Imperial Government during the Taisho and Showa eras. No ninja exist today. Modern authorities such as T. Hatsumi are responsible for most research being done on ninjutsu.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Tennis career.", "Junior years and first Grand Slam appearance.", "2000: US Open doubles title, Wimbledon mixed doubles and Davis Cup finals.", "2001: US Open title, Masters Cup trophy, third Davis Cup final and world No. 1.", "2002: Wimbledon victory and maintaining the No. 1 spot.", "2003: Second Masters and Davis Cup titles, Hopman Cup final.", "2004: US Open, Masters Cup and World Team Cup finals.", "2005: Australian Open final.", "2006: 25th career title.", "2007: 26th career title.", "2008: 500 career match wins.", "2009: 27th career title, Wimbledon quarterfinal, and return to Top 20.", "2010: 28th career title.", "2011: Surgery and out of Top 100.", "2012: First ATP final in two years.", "2013: Five top ten wins and hope for resurgence.", "2014: 30th career title, 600 wins and return to top 40.", "2015: Farewell year.", "2016: Retirement.", "2018: Comeback in doubles.", "2019: Continuing to play Doubles.", "2020: Back in Hometown of Adelaide.", "National representation.", "Davis Cup.", "World Team Cup.", "Olympics.", "Coaches.", "Rivalries.", "Hewitt vs Federer.", "Hewitt vs Roddick.", "Hewitt vs Argentinian players.", "Playing style.", "Equipment.", "Personal life.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hewitt was born in Adelaide, South Australia. His father, Glynn, is a former Australian Rules Football player, and his mother, Cherilyn, was a physical education teacher. His younger sister is Jaslyn Hewitt, a former tennis", "Hewitt commenced his professional career in 1998. He became one of the youngest winners of an Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tournament when he won the 1998 Next Generation Adelaide International, defeating Jason Stoltenberg in the final, having defeated Andre Agassi in the semi-finals. Both Aaron Krickstein winning Tel Aviv in 1983 and Michael Chang winning San Francisco in 1988 were younger than Hewitt when they claimed their first ATP title. Hewitt then left Immanuel College to concentrate on his tennis career. He was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder. He finished his professional tennis career on 24 January 2016 after 20 straight Australian Open appearances. His last professional singles match was against David Ferrer in the second round of the 2016 Australian Open at the Rod Laver Arena on 21 January 2016.", "As a junior Hewitt posted a 44–19 record in singles and", "In 2000, Hewitt reached his first Grand Slam final at the Wimbledon mixed doubles partnering Belgian Kim Clijsters, his then girlfriend. They lost the match, to Americans Kimberly Po and Donald Johnson. Hewitt later won his first Grand Slam title at", "Hewitt started off the 2001 season well by winning the Medibank International in Sydney, and went on to win tournaments in London (Queen's Club) and's-Hertogenbosch. He captured his first Grand Slam singles title at the US Open in 2001, when he beat former world No. 1 Yevgeny Kafelnikov in the semi-finals and defeated then four-time champion Pete Sampras", "The year 2002 was once again a solid year for Hewitt, winning three titles in San Jose, Indian Wells and London (Queen's Club). He followed his 2001 US Open win by capturing the Wimbledon singles title. He defeated Jonas Björkman, Grégory Carraz, Julian Knowle, Mikhail Youzhny, Sjeng Schalken and home favourite Tim Henman before dominating first-time finalist David Nalbandian in straight sets;", "In 2003, Hewitt defeated former No. 1 Gustavo Kuerten for the championship at Indian Wells. But at Wimbledon, as the defending champion, Hewitt lost in the first round to qualifier Ivo Karlović. Hewitt became the first defending Wimbledon men's champion in the open era to lose in the first round. Only once before in the tournament's 126-year history had a defending men's champion lost in the opening round, in 1967, when Manuel Santana was beaten by Charlie Pasarell. Hewitt was only the third defending Grand Slam champion", "In 2004, Hewitt became the first man in history to lose in each Grand Slam singles tournament to the eventual champion. At the Australian Open, he was defeated in the fourth round by Swiss Roger Federer. At the French Open, he was defeated", "In 2005, Hewitt won his only title at the Sydney Medibank International defeating little-known Czech player Ivo Minář. Hewitt spent much time in the late stages of 2004 working with his former coach and good friend, Roger Rasheed, on bulking up his physique. His hard work paid off during the Australian summer, when he defeated an in-form No. 2 Andy Roddick to reach his first Australian Open final in 2005. He was the first Australian player to reach the final since Pat Cash in 1988. In the final, he", "Hewitt was defeated in the second round of the 2006 Australian Open by Juan Ignacio Chela of Argentina. He then reached the finals of the San Jose and Las Vegas tournaments, losing to British youngster Andy Murray and American James Blake, respectively. But he lost to Tim Henman in the second round of the Miami Masters, a player he had defeated eight times previously in as many matches. At the 2006 French Open, Hewitt reached the fourth round, where he lost to defending champion and eventual winner Rafael Nadal in four sets. Hewitt won his first tournament of 2006 (after a 17-month hiatus", "At the 2007 Australian Open, Hewitt lost in the third round to tenth-seeded Chilean and eventual runner-up Fernando González. With his win in Las Vegas in March, Hewitt had won at least one ATP title annually for ten consecutive years. This was a record among active players at the time. Hewitt reached the 2007 Hamburg Masters semi-finals, where he pushed eventual finalist Rafael Nadal to three sets. At the 2007 French Open, Hewitt, for the second straight time lost in the fourth round to", "At the 2008 Australian Open, he advanced to the fourth round as the 19th seed, defeating 15th-seeded and 2006 Australian Open finalist Marcos Baghdatis in a thrilling third-round match. The 282-minute match started at 11:52 pm and ended at 4:34 am the following morning. It was a characteristically \"gutsy\" performance and cemented Hewitt's reputation as a tough competitor. Hewitt lost his fourth-round match in straight sets to third-seeded and eventual champion Novak Djokovic. A hip injury Hewitt acquired in March 2008 affected his preparation for the French Open and forced the loss of 300 rankings points as Hewitt was unable to defend his semi-final appearance at the Hamburg Masters, as well as compete in supplementary tournaments. However, Hewitt made the third round at Roland Garros, before losing a five-set thriller to", "After returning from hip surgery, Hewitt played his first match in 2009 at the Hopman Cup, where he defeated Nicolas Kiefer in three sets. Hewitt then participated in the Medibank International Sydney, winning his first two matches, but losing in the quarterfinals to David Nalbandian. Hewitt then went on to play in the 2009 Australian Open, where he was unseeded in a Grand Slam for the first time since 2000. He faced Fernando González in the first round and lost in five sets. At the tournament in Memphis, he caused an upset in the first round by defeating James Blake in three sets. He then defeated fellow Australian Chris Guccione in the second round and Christophe Rochus in the quarterfinals. He faced Andy Roddick in the semi-finals, but lost in a close match. Hewitt then lost in the first round of Delray Beach to Yen-Hsun Lu, the eighth seed. Hewitt also", "Hewitt began his 2010 season partnering Samantha Stosur at the Hopman Cup. The Australians were the top seeds for the exhibition tournament. They, however, fared worse than expected, losing ties against Romania and Spain, and therefore failing to reach the final. He was seeded fourth in the Medibank International and, like the previous year, reached the quarterfinals, losing to eventual champion Marcos Baghdatis. At the 2010 Australian Open, he lost to Roger Federer in the fourth round. A week after his exit", "Hewitt began his 15th season on the ATP Tour at the Hopman Cup in Perth. He defeated his Belgian opponent Ruben Bemelmans and went on to win the tie for Australia with a three-set victory in the mixed doubles, partnering Alicia Molik. He next played No. 3 Novak Djokovic, but lost in straight sets. For his final singles match of the tournament, he played Kazakhstani Andrey Golubev, defeating him in straight sets. After the Hopman Cup, Hewitt competed in the AAMI Kooyong Classic, an exhibitional tournament in the build-up to the Australian Open. He started the tournament solidly, taking out third seed Mikhail Youzhny. In the second round, he defeated Russian Nikolay Davydenko. In the final, he defeated Frenchman Gaël Monfils. It was the first time that", "Hewitt began his 2012 season at the Hopman Cup. In the opening singles tie against Spain, Hewitt lost in singles to Fernando Verdasco. For the mixed doubles match, Hewitt partnered with Jarmila Gajdošová. They lost the match in three sets 6–3, 3–6, 9–11, despite being 5–1 up in the final set tie-breaker. In the second tie against France, Hewitt lost to Richard Gasquet in singles and in straight sets in mixed doubles. In the final tie against China, Hewitt defeated Wu Di in straight sets and won the mixed doubles match. His next tournament was the Apia International, where he lost in the first round against Serbian fifth seed Viktor Troicki. His next tournament was the", "Hewitt started off 2013 in Brisbane, where he lost in second round against Denis Istomin in straight sets. Prior to the Australian Open, Hewitt took part in the exhibition tournament AAMI Kooyong Classic, in which he defeated Milos Raonic, Tomáš Berdych, and Juan Martín del Potro en route to claim his second title. Due to his excellent result in the preparation event before the 2013 Australian Open, people had high expectations of Hewitt. However, he suffered his sixth first-round exit in his home slam to No. 9 Janko Tipsarević in straight sets. Hewitt then played in the", "Hewitt kicked off the 2014 season as an unseeded entrant into the 2014 Brisbane International. He won his first round match against Thanasi Kokkinakis in straight sets. His second round match was against sixth seed Feliciano López, whom he defeated. His quarterfinal encounter against qualifier Marius Copil resulted in a straight-set victory. In the semi-finals Hewitt faced second seed Kei Nishikori. Hewitt prevailed, thus setting the final match against seventeen–time Grand Slam winner Roger Federer. Federer held an 18–8 record head–to–head against Hewitt. Hewitt managed to turn the tide on Federer, winning 6–1, 4–6, 6–3 and capturing the title, which was his 29th and first since 2010. As a result, his rank increased from", "Hewitt began his 2015 season as the defending champion of the Brisbane International. In the first round he was defeated in straight sets (3–6, 2–6) by fellow Australian Sam Groth in 58 minutes. As a result, he dropped from rank No. 50 to No. 84 and lost his position of No. 1 Australian which he had held for many consecutive months. Hewitt played the first Fast4 short-form tennis exhibition match against Roger Federer but lost in five sets. Hewitt then played his 19th consecutive Australian Open appearance which is the fourth longest streak at any Grand Slam. In the first round he beat wild card Zhang Ze", "Having previously announced his intentions to retire after the 2016 Australian Open, Hewitt confirmed that his final season would consist of that, the Hopman Cup and the exhibition World Tennis Challenge. In his 20th appearance at the Australian Open, he won his first round match against fellow Australian James Duckworth in straight sets. He then lost in the second round in 3 straight competitive sets to 8th seed David Ferrer, 2–6, 4–6, 4–6. Post-match he was remembered by players including Roger Federer, Rafael Nadal, Andy Murray and Nick Kyrgios as a man who was at the top of the game for years, and continually displayed", "In December 2017, it was announced that Hewitt would come out of retirement and accept a doubles wildcard with compatriot Sam Groth at the 2018 Australian Open. Hewitt and Jordan Thompson accepted a wildcard to play Doubles at the 2018 Brisbane International. They lost in the first round to Grigor Dimitrov and Ryan Harrison 3–6, 6–1, [5–10]. Hewitt then played in the fast4 exhibition in Sydney where he lost to Grigor Dimitrov. Hewitt and Kyrgios then went on to win the doubles beating Alexander Zverev and Grigor Dimitrov. After that, he played the Tie Break Tens in Melbourne where he won his opening match against Novak Djokovic, before losing to world No. 1 Rafael Nadal. In the Australian Open doubles, Hewitt and Groth made a run to the quarterfinals, including a win over third seeds Jean-Julien Rojer and Horia Tecău. This", "In 2019, Hewitt played doubles at a number of tournaments. In a pairing with Jordan Thompson, they lost in the first round of the Sydney International. A week later he teamed up with John-Patrick Smith at the Australian Open, yet", "Hewitt once again featured in the Australian summer of tennis, this time choosing to participate in the new Adelaide International, the first time he had played tour-tennis in his home town for", "", "Hewitt made his Davis Cup debut for Australia in the 1999 Davis Cup quarterfinals at age 18 against the United States in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts. In the first rubber of the tie Hewitt faced No. 8 and Wimbledon quarter finalist Todd Martin. Hewitt caused a major upset over Martin and would go on to win his second singles rubber against Alex O'Brien as well. The great start to his Davis Cup career would continue in the 1999 semi-finals against Russia where he would record another two wins against Marat Safin and Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He would taste his first defeat in Davis Cup in the 1999 final against France but would become a Davis Cup champion anyway. In 2000 Hewitt and Australia would again make the Davis", "Hewitt made his World Team Cup debut for Australia in 2000 at the age of 19. He recorded two singles victories over Albert Costa and Marcelo Ríos but fell to Yevgeny Kafelnikov in his last group stage match. Hewitt returned to the World Team Cup in 2001 and led Australia to the title by recording singles wins over Àlex Corretja, Magnus Norman, Tommy Haas in the group stages. In the final Hewitt defeated No. 2 Marat Safin. Hewitt made his third appearance at the tournament in 2003 where he entered", "A 19-year-old Hewitt entered his first Olympics in 2000 and was given the fourth seeding in the draw. Hewitt was considered a strong favorite for a medal given his victory at the Sydney International earlier in the year but despite competing in his home nation Hewitt went out in the first round to Max Mirnyi 6–3 6–3. Hewitt elected not to compete in the 2004 Athens Olympic Games, deciding instead to focus on the 2004 US Open which would result in a runner-up showing. He would return for his second Olympic Games in Beijing for both the singles and doubles competitions. A first round 7–5 7–6 victory over Jonas Björkman would set up a second round clash with the number 2 seed Rafael Nadal. Nadal eliminated Hewitt in the second round 6–1 6–2 and", "Peter Smith, Darren Cahill, Jason Stoltenberg, Roger Rasheed, Scott Draper, Tony Roche, Nathan Healey and", "", "Hewitt and Roger Federer played each other on 27 occasions. Early in their careers, Hewitt dominated Federer, winning seven of their first nine meetings, including a victory from two sets down in the 2003 Davis Cup semi-final, which allowed Australia to defeat Switzerland. However, from 2004 onward, Federer dominated the rivalry, winning 16 of the last 18 meetings to finish with an 18–9 overall head-to-head record. This is Hewitt's longest rivalry as these two first played each other as juniors in 1996. They met", "Hewitt's second longest rivalry was against American Andy Roddick, in which the two played on 14 occasions. Early on, Hewitt dominated the rivalry, with six wins from their first", "A rivalry and feud between Hewitt and Argentinian tennis players began at the 2002 Wimbledon final where Hewitt defeated Argentina's David Nalbandian in straight sets. The rivalry would hit boiling point in 2005 over a series of matches spread between the 2005 Australian Open and the 2005 Davis Cup Quarterfinals between Australia and Argentina. In the third round of 2005 Australian Open Hewitt", "Hewitt is a defensive counterpuncher. He typically likes to stay back towards the baseline during a rally and will usually approach the net only to catch a short reply or drop shot from his opponent. Hewitt's lack of penetration in his groundstokes, most notably in his forehand, a typically dominant shot in most male players, forces him to rely on placement rather than simply \"dominating\" the point. At the 2004 Cincinnati Masters Final, commentator MaliVai Washington said that Hewitt was even more difficult to \"ace\" than Agassi because he gets more returns in", "In July 2000, Hewitt signed a multiyear endorsement deal with Nike. He is currently sponsored by American athletic apparel company Athletic DNA and the Japanese sports manufacturer Yonex, with whom he signed a \"Head to Toe\" deal in late 2005. Hewitt has used Yonex racquets as early as 2000, having used the Yonex Super RD Tour 95. Yonex provides Hewitt's racquets, shoes and", "Hewitt is a keen supporter of Australian rules football, having played the game earlier in his career, and is currently the joint No. 1 ticket holder for the Adelaide Crows, alongside MP Kate Ellis. He had once had a close friendship with Crows star Andrew McLeod, but this broke down amid much public controversy in 2005. Hewitt had produced a DVD titled \"Lleyton Hewitt: The Other Side\" which precipitated the falling out between him and McLeod over filming of certain Aboriginal sites. Hewitt and Belgian tennis player Kim Clijsters started a relationship in January 2000, during the Australian Open. The two announced their engagement just before Christmas 2003, but separated in October", "Hewitt has been involved in several public controversies. He was involved in a racism dispute while playing James Blake at the 2001 US Open. After being foot-faulted twice by a black linesman on crucial points in the third set, Hewitt was accused of dragging race into the situation by suggesting the similarity in skin colour of Blake and the official was playing a part in the decision to penalise him. At the 2001 French Open Hewitt twice called the Chair Umpire and net judge \"spastics\" and was subsequently forced to apologise to the spastic community in Australia following a public backlash. Hewitt's constant \"c'mons\" when he won a point or his opponents made an error have been remarked upon as poor sportsmanship by opponents and media commentators. Notably this behaviour particularly riled his 2005 Australian Open second-round opponent James Blake." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1994–1996).", "\"Three Dollar Bill, Yall\" (1997–1998).", "\"Significant Other\" (1999–2000).", "\"Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water\" (2000–2001).", "Departure of Borland and \"Results May Vary\" (2001–2003).", "Borland's return, \"The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)\" and hiatus (2004–2008).", "Reunion, \"Gold Cobra\" and departure from Interscope (2009–2011).", "\"Stampede of the Disco Elephants\" (2012–present).", "Style, influences, and legacy.", "Music, influences, and lyrics.", "Awards and recognition.", "Live performances.", "Members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "While growing up in Gastonia, North Carolina, Fred Durst took an interest in breakdancing, hip hop, punk rock and heavy metal. He began to rap, skate, beatbox and dj. While mowing lawns and working as a tattoo artist, he developed an idea for a band that combined elements of rock and hip hop. Durst played with three other bands, Split 26, Malachi Sage, which were unsuccessful, and 10 Foot Shindig, which Durst left to form a new band. Durst told Sam Rivers, the bassist for Malachi Sage, \"You need to quit this", "After their performance opening for Korn at the Dragonfly in Hollywood was well received, Limp Bizkit signed with Mojo, a subsidiary of MCA Records. While heading to California to record their first album, the band wrecked their van. As a result of the near death experience, Durst made amends with Borland, who rejoined the band. After a dispute with Mojo, Limp Bizkit signed with Flip, a subsidiary of Interscope Records. Arvizu persuaded Ross Robinson to listen to the demo. Robinson neglected to listen to it until it was appraised by his girlfriend. Impressed by the band's motivation and sound, Robinson produced Limp Bizkit's debut, which was recorded at Indigo Ranch. Durst's problems with his girlfriend inspired him to write the song \"Sour\". The mood and tone set by Robinson in the studio allowed the band to improvise; a recording of the band improvising appeared as the last track", "Following the radio success of \"Faith\", the band was determined to record the follow-up to their first album in order to show that they weren't a Korn soundalike or a cover band; the band began writing an album which dealt with issues deriving from their newfound fame. Terry Date, who had produced albums for Pantera, White Zombie and Deftones, was chosen to produce the album. The band allowed Durst and Lethal to explore their hip hop origins by recording a song with Method Man. The song was originally titled \"Shut the Fuck Up\", but was retitled \"N 2 Gether Now\" for marketing purposes. Durst also recorded with Eminem, but the collaboration, \"Turn Me Loose\", was left off the album. The album also featured guest appearances by Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland, Korn's", "In 2000, Durst announced that the band's third studio album would be titled \"Chocolate Starfish and the Hot Dog Flavored Water\". The press thought he was joking about this title. The album title is intended to sound like a fictional band; the phrase \"Chocolate Starfish\" refers to the human anus, and Durst himself, who has frequently been called an \"asshole\". Borland contributed the other half of the album's title when the band was standing around at a truck stop, looking at bottles of flavored water, and Borland joked that the truck stop didn't have hot dog or", "In October 2001, Durst released a statement on their website stating that \"Limp Bizkit and Wes Borland have amicably decided to part ways. Both Limp Bizkit and Borland will continue to pursue their respective musical careers. Both wish each other the best of luck in all future endeavors.\" Durst also stated that the band would \"comb the world for the illest guitar player known to man\" to replace Borland. When asked why Borland quit the band, Ross Robinson stated that he quit because \"He doesn't sell", "In August 2004, Borland rejoined Limp Bizkit, which began recording an EP, \"The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)\". In May, \"The Unquestionable Truth (Part 1)\" was released. Sammy Siegler took over drumming duties for the band for much of the EP, which featured a more experimental sound, described by Allmusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine as \"neo-prog alt-metal\". At Durst's insistence, the album was released as an underground album, without any advertising or promotion. Borland disagreed with the decision, suggesting that it was \"self-sabotage\": \"Maybe he was already unhappy with the music, and he didn't really want to put it", "In 2009, Limp Bizkit reunited with Borland playing guitar and launched the Unicorns N' Rainbows Tour. Durst announced that they had begun to record a new album, which Borland titled \"Gold Cobra\". Borland said that the title does not have any meaning, and that it was chosen because it fit the style of music the band was writing for the album. The band recorded a spoken intro written by Durst and performed by Kiss member Gene Simmons for the album, but it was left off the completed album. The band also recorded additional \"non-album\" tracks, including \"Combat Jazz\", which featured rapper Raekwon and \"Middle Finger\", featuring Paul Wall. \"Shotgun\" was released as a single on May 17, 2011. The song is noted for featuring a guitar solo by Borland, something that the", "In February 2012, the band returned to Australia for the first time in 11 years, to perform at the Soundwave festival. Durst dedicated the shows to Jessica Michalik, who died during the Limp Bizkit performance at Big Day Out 2001. Limp Bizkit signed with Cash Money Records. Following a dispute between Durst, Lethal and Otto about the latter two's alleged chronic drug and alcohol use, DJ Lethal angrily left the band. DJ Lethal later posted an apology to the band on Twitter, but was ultimately not allowed back into the band. Fred Durst was featured in the song", "", "Durst wanted Limp Bizkit to be a \"megaband\" which could cross over into as many different styles of music as possible. Limp Bizkit's music has predominately been described as, and rap rock. Limp Bizkit have also been described as alternative metal, alternative rock and. In 2000, the \"New York Daily News\" labelled the band as \"frat-metal\". Limp Bizkit's music is noted for its \"kinetic, frenzied energy\". Otto is adept in drumming in a variety of styles ranging from Brazilian", "Limp Bizkit has been nominated for and won several awards. Limp Bizkit has been nominated for three Grammy Awards including Best Hard Rock Performance (\"Nookie\"), Best Rock Album (Significant Other), and Best Hard Rock Performance (\"Take A Look Around\"). Limp Bizkit has been nominated for 3 American Music Awards for Favorite Alternative Artist winning one of them in 2002. In 1999, the band won the Maximum Vision Award at the Billboard Music Video Awards for their music video \"Nookie\". At the 2000 and 2001 Blockbuster Awards, the band won the Favorite Group (Rock) award. That year also saw the band winning a MuchMusic Award for Best International Video, honoring their video for the song \"Break Stuff\". At the 2001 ECHO Awards, the band won the Best International Metal Band award. At the 2009 Kerrang! Awards, the band won the Hall of Fame award. Further expanding upon the group's achievements and popularity, they were also the first group inducted into MTV's \"Total Request Live\" \"Hall", "Borland is known for performing in costumes and body paint during concerts, appearing in bunny and kung fu suits, and painted as a skeleton and what he describes as a \"burnt match\". Describing the character, he stated, \"I go onstage wearing almost nothing. I have underwear and my boots on, and I paint my whole head black—from the neck up—and I have the black contacts. All you can see is these glowing teeth.\" Borland's black contacts were customized for him by a company noted for making contacts for the science fiction TV series \"Babylon 5\". In addition to Borland's visual appearance, the band has also used elaborate stage setups in their performances. Their Ladies Night in Cambodia club tour visually paid tribute to the film \"Apocalypse Now\", with an elaborate stage setup which featured an empty Jeep, camouflage mesh and palm trees. During", "Current Former Former touring & session musicians" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Tennis career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hrbatý was born on 4 January 1978 in Bratislava, Czechoslovakia. His father was an architecture engineer and his younger brother is an umpire. When he was younger, Hrbatý was European junior competitor in skiing and from the age of 11, he focused on tennis full-time. He is married to Nelly Petrová; he proposed after Slovakia won the Hopman Cup on 10 January 2009 (with Dominika Cibulková). He also won the tournament for Slovakia in 2005 with Daniela Hantuchová. This makes Hrbatý a dual winner to move into the company of Serena Williams, James Blake, Tommy Robredo and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario.", "Hrbatý turned professional in 1996. During the year he reached six Challenger finals and achieved a 35–15 match record. He ended the year as the youngest player in the top 100. Hrbaty is one of few players on ATP with a positive record against Federer (2–1), Nadal (3–1), Murray (1–0), and Berdych (2–0). In 1997, Hrbatý won the Košice Challenger title defeating Nicolás Lapentti. He also reached his first ATP Tour final in Palermo, losing to Alberto Berasategui. His first doubles success on the Tour was reaching the final of Umag with Karol Kučera. Hrbatý broke through for his first ATP title in 1998 in San Marino and defended his title in Košice. He continued his form into 1999 capturing his second title in Prague. His greatest breakthrough was reaching the semi-finals of Roland Garros where he defeated Julien Boutter, Yevgeny Kafelnikov, Andrew Ilie, Marat Safin and Marcelo Ríos before falling to eventual winner, Andre Agassi. Despite not winning a title in 2000, Hrbatý reached three finals in Monte Carlo, St. Petersburg and Brighton. During the year he helped Slovakia win the ATP World Team Championship where he had wins over Pete Sampras and Kafelnikov. While not winning a title in singles, he won the Rome Masters doubles title with Martin Damm and reached another three finals. 2001 got off to a quick start for Hrbatý, winning in Auckland for his third ATP title, defeating at the final the Spaniard Francisco Clavet. He backed up that win with a quarter-finals appearance at the Australian Open. On his way he defeated number two seed, Marat Safin. Other notable singles results were reaching the semi-finals in Dubai, Tashkent and Moscow. Hrbatý helped Slovakia back into the World Group stage in Davis Cup by defeating Nicolás Massú and Rios in 5 sets coming from two sets down in each match. Hrbatý teamed up with Roger Federer in the men's doubles at the Australian Open in 2001. However they were knocked out by Thomas Shimada and Myles Wakefield. Hrbatý had an average year in 2002 where he finished out of the top 50 for the first time since 1996. He won a Challenger title in Biella. In 2003, Hrbatý made the final in Auckland losing to Gustavo Kuerten. Also made the semi-finals in Casablanca and Umag. Defeated Andy Roddick in the Davis Cup to end the American's 19-match winning streak. Hrbatý's best season in his career to date was in 2004. He started the season with back-to-back title wins in Auckland and Adelaide. The Auckland victory was over Rafael Nadal in the final. Then won his sixth career title in Marseille and then made it to the final in Casablanca. He achieved one of his best wins by defeating World No. 1 Roger Federer in Cincinnati and then made it to the quarter-finals of the US Open. In 2005, Hrbatý finished in the top 20 despite not reaching a singles final. His best results were semi-finals in Los Angeles, Metz and Basel. He had good success in the ATP Masters Series in Miami, Rome and Montreal, where he reached the quarter-finals. Also in 2005, Hrbatý helped Slovakia reach the Davis Cup final against Croatia. He compiled a 6–1 singles record during the season. Inflicted Ivan Ljubičić's only singles loss in the final but Slovakia lost the final 2–3. 2006 was a mixed year for Hrbatý. He reached his second Tennis Masters Series title final in Paris losing to Nikolay Davydenko, which helped him finish in the top 25 in the year-end rankings. Other results were semi-finals in Los Angeles and Vienna and a quarter-finals in Beijing. Hrbatý's form started to drop in 2007. He was plagued by an elbow injury which severely limited his play in that season. At the 2007 U.S. Open, in doubles, he lost to Jesse Levine and Alex Kuznetsov, while pairing with Harel Levy of Israel, 6–1, 6–4. At the 2008 Wimbledon Championships, Hrbatý lost to his good friend and former doubles partner Federer in the first round, 6–3, 6–2, 6–2. Hrbatý sat immediately next to Federer and had an amicable conversation with him during the last changeover of the match, telling Federer that this may be Hrbatý's last Wimbledon and that, as a joke, this has been the first victory for Federer in a match against him and leads him 2–1 in head to head. In 2010, Hrbaty announced his retirement as he became a father for the first time. Hrbaty, Alex Corretja and Novak Djokovic are the only players to have a winning record over Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal. In 2012, Hrbaty temporarily returned to professional tennis by playing in the qualifying tournament for the 2012 Heineken Open. He won his first round of qualifying by beating Pere Riba in straight sets 6–4, 6–2. He is the current coach of Slovakian player Martin Klizan" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Background and publication.", "Reception.", "Adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On the morning of the 30th anniversary of the Glorious Revolution of the Twenty-Fifth of May (and as such the anniversary of the death of John Keel, Vimes' hero and former mentor), Sam Vimes is caught in a magical storm while pursuing Carcer, a notorious criminal. He awakens to find that he has somehow been sent back in time. Vimes's first idea is to ask the wizards at the Unseen University to send him home, but before he can act on this, he is arrested for breaking curfew by a younger version of himself. Incarcerated in a cell next to his is Carcer, who after being released joins the Unmentionables, the secret police carrying out the paranoid whims of the Patrician of the time, Lord Winder. When he is taken to be interrogated by the captain, time is frozen by Lu-Tze, who tells Vimes what has happened and that he must assume the identity of Sergeant-At-Arms John Keel, who was to have arrived that day but was murdered by Carcer. It is stated that the event which caused Vimes and Carcer to be sent into the past was a major temporal shattering. Vimes then returns to the office, time restarts and he convinces the captain that he is Keel. Young Vimes believes Vimes to be Keel, allowing Vimes to teach Young Vimes the lessons for which Vimes idolized Keel. The novel climaxes in the Revolution. Vimes, taking command of the watchmen, successfully avoids the major bloodshed erupting all over the city and manages to keep his part of it relatively peaceful. After dealing with the Unmentionables' headquarters he has his haphazard forces barricade a few streets to keep people safe from the fighting between rebels and soldiers. However, the barricades are gradually pushed forward during the night (by Fred Colon and several other simple-minded watchmen) to encompass the surrounding streets until Vimes finds himself in control of a quarter of the city, dubbed \"The Glorious People's Republic of Treacle Mine Road\", with a still alive Reg Shoe as one of the leading figures. The ruler, Lord Winder, is effectively assassinated by the young Assassin's Guild student Havelock Vetinari, and the new Patrician Lord Snapcase calls for a complete amnesty. However, he sees Keel as a threat and sends Carcer to lead a death squad of Unmentionables, watchmen and the palace guard to murder Keel. Several policemen (the ones who died when the barricade fell in the original timeline) are killed in the battle, as is Reg Shoe; Vimes manages to fight off the attack until he can grab Carcer, at which point they are returned to the future and Keel's body is placed in the timeline Vimes has just left, to tie things up, as in the \"real\" history, Keel died in that fight. Vimes' son is born, with the help of Doctor \"Mossy\" Lawn, whom Vimes met while in the past, and Vimes finally arrests Carcer, promising him a fair trial before he is hanged. A subsequent conversation with Lord Vetinari reveals that the Patrician alone knows Vimes took Keel's place, also that he fought alongside Keel's men against Carcer's death squad. He proposes that the old Watch House at Treacle Mine Road (where Keel was sergeant, and which was destroyed by the dragon in \"Guards! Guards!\") be rebuilt.", "\"Night Watch\" is the twenty-ninth novel in the comic fantasy \"Discworld\" series, written by Terry Pratchett, and the sixth to focus on the character of Sam Vimes. Pratchett felt the book was closer to \"Discworld\" novels like \"The Fifth Elephant\" more so than the first book, \"The Colour of Magic\", believing the series had \"evolved\", attributing the series' success to its ability to change. Pratchett called the humour in the book \"the humour that comes out of bad situations\", comparing it to the humour of \"M*A*S*H\". The contents of the book, such as the secret police and the torture chamber, meant that an abundance of gags would seem wrong. Pratchett commented: Paul Kidby illustrated the cover of British edition, with \"Night Watch\" being the first main-sequence \"Discworld\" novel not to have a cover by Josh Kirby. Kidby had previously worked on \"Discworld\" in \"The Last Hero\", \"The Pratchett Portfolio\" and \"Nanny Ogg's Cookbook\", establishing \"[his] own 'look for the series. Kidby chose to parody Rembrandt's painting \"Night Watch\", an idea he'd had since first reading \"Guards! Guards!\", and talked with Pratchett about what characters to include. Kidby pays tribute to the late artist by placing him in the picture, in the position where Rembrandt is said to have painted himself. At the time, Kidby recalls being criticised for making the cover \"too brown\".", "The book received critical acclaim. Robert Hanks of \"The Independent\" drew attention to a \"slight softening of the funny bone\" and a \"hardening of the issues\" in the later \"Discworld\" books, commenting on a lesser amount of jokes per page in \"Night Watch\". He criticised the book's slow start, but called the book intriguing for its \"Chestertonian common-sense morality\" and drew comparison to the book's events to the Bloody Sunday. \"The New York Times\"s Therese Littleton praised the book as \"transcend[ing] standard genre fare with its sheer schoolboy humour and characters who reject their own stereotypes\". \"Night Watch\" won the 2003 Prometheus Award, and came runner-up in the Locus Poll for best fantasy novel. On the suggestion of the book having \"darker\" themes, Pratchett responded:", "A five-part radio adaptation of the novel was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 from February 27, 2008 that featured Philip Jackson as Sam Vimes and Carl Prekopp as young Sam." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Explanation.", "Use of the INFO chunk.", "Compatibility issues.", "Initial difficulties with MIDI files.", "INFO chunk placement problems.", "RIFF info tags.", "Converting DTIM time to normal time." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "RIFF was introduced in 1991 by Microsoft and IBM, and was presented by Microsoft as the default format for Windows 3.1 multimedia files. It is based on Electronic Arts' Interchange File Format, introduced in 1985 on the Commodore Amiga, the only difference being that multi-byte integers are in little-endian format, native to the 80x86 processor series used in IBM PCs, rather than the big-endian format native to the 68k processor series used in Amiga and Apple Macintosh computers, where IFF files were heavily used. A RIFX format, using big-endian format, was also introduced. In 2010 Google introduced the WebP picture format, which uses RIFF as a container.", "RIFF files consist entirely of \"chunks\". The overall format is identical to IFF, except for the endianness as previously stated, and the different meaning of the chunk names. All chunks have the following format: Two chunk identifiers, \"RIFF\" and \"LIST\", introduce a chunk that can contain subchunks. The RIFF and LIST chunk data (appearing after the identifier and length) have the following format: The file itself consists of one RIFF chunk, which then can contain further subchunks: hence, the first four bytes of a correctly formatted RIFF file will spell out \"R\", \"I\", \"F\", \"F\". More information about the RIFF format can be found in the Interchange File Format article. RF64 is a multichannel file format based on RIFF specification, developed by the European Broadcasting Union. It is BWF-compatible and allows file sizes to exceed 4 gigabytes. It does so by providing a \"ds64\" chunk with a 64-bit (8-byte) size.", "The optional INFO chunk allows RIFF files to be \"tagged\" with information falling into a number of predefined categories, such as copyright (\"ICOP\"), comments (\"ICMT\"), artist (\"IART\"), in a standardised way. These details can be read from a RIFF file even if the rest of the file format is unrecognized. The standard also allows the use of user-defined fields. Programmers intending to use non-standard fields should bear in mind that the same non-standard subchunk ID may be used by different applications in different (and potentially incompatible) ways.", "", "In line with their policy of using.RIFF for all Windows 3.1 \"multimedia\" files, Microsoft introduced a new variant on the existing MIDI file format used for storing song information to be played on electronic musical instruments. Microsoft's \"new\" MIDI file format consisted of a standard MIDI file enclosed in a RIFF \"wrapper\", and had the file extension.RMI. Since the existing MIDI file format already supported embedded \"tagging\" information, the advantages to the user of having a new format were not obvious. The MIDI Manufacturers Association have since embraced the RIFF-based MIDI file format, and used it as the basis of an \"extended midifile\" that also includes instrument data in \"DLS\" format, embedded within the same.RMI file.", "For cataloguing purposes, the optimal position for the INFO chunk is near the beginning of the file. However, since the INFO chunk is optional, it is often omitted from the detailed specifications of individual file formats, leading to some confusion over the correct position for this chunk within a file. When dealing with large media files, the expansion or contraction of the INFO chunk during tag-editing can result in the following \"data\" section of the file having to be read and rewritten back to disk to accommodate the new header size. Since media files can be gigabytes in size, this is a potentially disk-intensive process. One workaround is to \"pad out\" the leading INFO chunk using dummy data (using a \"dummy chunk\" or \"pad chunk\") when the file is created. Later editing can then expand or contract the \"dummy\" field to keep the total size of the file header constant: an intelligently written piece of software can then overwrite just the file header when tagging data is changed, without modifying or moving the main body of the file. Some programs have tried to address the problem by placing the INFO chunk at the end of a media file, after the main body of the file. This has resulted in two different conventions for chunk placement, with the attendant risk that some combinations of software can cause a file's INFO data to be ignored or permanently overwritten during editing. More sophisticated programs will take into account the possibility of \"unexpected\" chunk placement in files and respond accordingly. For instance, when the audio-editing program Audacity encounters a.WAV file with end-placed INFO data, it will correctly identify and read the data, but on saving, will relocate the INFO chunk back to the file header. Although CorelDRAW 10 nominally uses a RIFF file structure, the program's initial release placed the INFO chunk at the end, so that any embedded preview bitmap would not be displayed under Windows' file manager by default. A \"patch\" utility supplied with the program fixes this problem.", "RIFF information tags are found in WAV audio and AVI video files. Tags which are part of the Exif 2.2 specification (Tag ID's beginning with \"I\") have an underlined tag name in the HTML version of this documentation. Other tags are found in AVI files generated by Sony Vegas video editing software.", "The field consists of two values (v[0] and v[1]) separated with a space (0x20). Sample code: // time in seconds - \"concatenate\" date & time elements with a decimal point delimiter TimeInSeconds = (v[0] * (2^32) + v[1]) * 10^(-7); // shift basis from Jan 1, 1601 to Unix epoch Jan 1, 1970 (369 years & leap days) UnixTimeStamp = TimeInSeconds - 134774 * 24 * 3600;" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Applications of electromagnets.", "Simple solenoid.", "Physics.", "Ampere's law.", "Magnetic core.", "Magnetic circuit – the constant \"B\" field approximation.", "Magnetic field created by a current.", "Force exerted by magnetic field.", "Closed magnetic circuit.", "Force between electromagnets.", "Side effects.", "Ohmic heating.", "Inductive voltage spikes.", "Lorentz forces.", "Core losses.", "High field electromagnets.", "Superconducting electromagnets.", "Bitter electromagnets.", "Explosively pumped flux compression." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Danish scientist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents create magnetic fields. British scientist William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824. His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire didn't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings. When a current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron; when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the current of a single-cell battery was applied. However, Sturgeon's magnets were weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns. Beginning in 1830, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and popularised the electromagnet. By using wire insulated by silk thread, and inspired by Schweigger's use of multiple turns of wire to make a galvanometer, he was able to wind multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of turns of wire, including one that could support. The first major use for electromagnets was in telegraph sounders. The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in 1906 by French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss, and the detailed modern quantum mechanical theory of ferromagnetism was worked out in the 1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Lev Landau, Felix Bloch and others.", "A \"portative electromagnet\" is one designed to just hold material in place; an example is a lifting magnet. A \"tractive electromagnet\" applies a force and moves something. Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices, including:", "A common tractive electromagnet is a uniformly-wound solenoid and plunger. The solenoid is a coil of wire, and the plunger is made of a material such as soft iron. Applying a current to the solenoid applies a force to the plunger and may make it move. The plunger stops moving when the forces upon it are balanced. For example, the forces are balanced when the plunger is centered in the solenoid. The maximum uniform pull happens when one end of the plunger is at the middle of the solenoid. An approximation for the force is where is a proportionality constant, is the cross-sectional area of the plunger, is the number of turns in the solenoid, is the current through the solenoid wire, and is the length of the solenoid. For units using inches, pounds force, and amperes with long, slender, solenoids, the value of is around 0.009 to 0.010 psi (maximum pull pounds per square inch of plunger cross-sectional area). For example, a 12-inch long coil () with a long plunger of 1-square inch cross section () and 11,200 ampere-turns () had a maximum pull of 8.75 pounds (corresponding to ). The maximum pull is increased when a magnetic stop is inserted into the solenoid. The stop becomes a magnet that will attract the plunger; it adds little to the solenoid pull when the plunger is far away but dramatically increases the pull when they are close. An approximation for the pull is Here is the distance between the end of the stop and the end of the plunger. The additional constant for units of inches, pounds, and amperes with slender solenoids is about 2660. The second term within the bracket represents the same force as the stop-less solenoid above; the first term represents the attraction between the stop and the plunger. Some improvements can be made on the basic design. The ends of the stop and plunger are often conical. For example, the plunger may have a pointed end that fits into a matching recess in the stop. The shape makes the solenoid's pull more uniform as a function of separation. Another improvement is to add a magnetic return path around the outside of the solenoid (an \"iron-clad solenoid\"). The magnetic return path, just as the stop, has little impact until the air gap is small.", "An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire, due to Ampere's law (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid. The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the \"north pole\". Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a \"magnetic core\" of a soft ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic) material, such as iron, is placed inside the coil. A core can increase the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability μ of the material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet. However, not all electromagnets use cores, and the very strongest electromagnets, such as superconducting and the very high current electromagnets, cannot use them due to saturation.", "For definitions of the variables below, see box at end of article. The magnetic field of electromagnets in the general case is given by Ampere's Law: which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the magnetic field due to each small segment of current, is the Biot–Savart law. Computing the magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is difficult for two reasons. First, because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way, particularly outside the core and in air gaps, where \"fringing fields\" and \"leakage flux\" must be considered. Second, because the magnetic field B and force are nonlinear functions of the current, depending on the nonlinear relation between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise calculations, computer programs that can produce a model of the magnetic field using the finite element method are employed.", "The material of a magnetic core (often made of iron or steel) is composed of small regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large-scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The effect of the core is to concentrate the field, and the magnetic field passes through the core more easily than it would pass through air. The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally, all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation. When the current in the coil is turned off, in the magnetically soft materials that are nearly always used as cores, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the field disappears. However, some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing. In alternating current electromagnets, such as are used in motors, the core's magnetization is constantly reversed, and the remanence contributes to the motor's losses.", "In many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers, lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or magnetic circuit, possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because the magnetic field lines are in the form of closed loops. Iron presents much less \"resistance\" (reluctance) to the magnetic field than air, so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field's path is within the core. Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this allows a simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A common simplifying assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be used in this section, is that the magnetic field strength \"B\" is constant around the magnetic circuit (within the core and air gaps) and zero outside it. Most of the magnetic field will be concentrated in the core material \"(C)\". Within the core the magnetic field \"(B)\" will be approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant. This just leaves the air gaps \"(G)\", if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer confined by the core, so they 'bulge' out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field strength in the gap. The bulges \"(B)\" are called \"fringing fields\". However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In addition, some of the magnetic field lines \"(B)\" will take'short cuts' and not pass through the entire core circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is called \"leakage flux\". Therefore, the equations in this section are valid for electromagnets for which: The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a certain value, which is around 1.6 to 2 teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent through the windings. So the maximum strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited to around 1.6 to 2 T.", "The magnetic field created by an electromagnet is proportional to both the number of turns in the winding, \"N\", and the current in the wire, \"I\", hence this product, \"NI\", in ampere-turns, is given the name magnetomotive force. For an electromagnet with a single magnetic circuit, of which length \"L\" of the magnetic field path is in the core material and length \"L\" is in air gaps, Ampere's Law reduces to: This is a nonlinear equation, because the permeability of the core, \"μ\", varies with the magnetic field \"B\". For an exact solution, the value of \"μ\" at the \"B\" value used must be obtained from the core material hysteresis curve. If \"B\" is unknown, the equation must be solved by numerical methods. However, if the magnetomotive force is well above saturation, so the core material is in saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value \"B\" for the material, and won't vary much with changes in \"NI\". For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core materials saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere-turns per meter of flux path. For most core materials, formula_9. So in equation (1) above, the second term dominates. Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field \"B\" depends strongly on the length of the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core doesn't matter much. Given an air gap of 1mm, a magnetomotive force of about 796 Ampere-turns is required to produce a magnetic field of 1T.", "The force exerted by an electromagnet on a section of core material is: where formula_11 is the cross-sectional area of the core. The force equation can be derived from the energy stored in a magnetic field. Energy is force times distance. Rearranging terms yields the equation above. The 1.6 T limit on the field mentioned above sets a limit on the maximum force per unit core area, or magnetic pressure, an iron-core electromagnet can exert; roughly: In more intuitive units it's useful to remember that at 1 T the magnetic pressure is approximately 4 atmospheres, or kg/cm. Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it comes out to much more than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.", "For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an electromagnet lifting a piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation (1) becomes: Substituting into (2), the force is: It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path \"L\" and a wide cross-sectional area \"A\" is preferred (this also applies to magnets with an air gap). To achieve this, in applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and loudspeakers a flat cylindrical design is often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one pole, and a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the magnetic circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.", "The above methods are applicable to electromagnets with a magnetic circuit and do not apply when a large part of the magnetic field path is outside the core. An example would be a magnet with a straight cylindrical core like the one shown at the top of this article. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined 'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the magnetic field is produced by fictitious'magnetic charges' on the surface of the poles, with pole strength \"m\" and units of Ampere-turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be found from: formula_15 The force between two poles is: formula_16 This model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.", "There are several side effects which occur in electromagnets which must be provided for in their design. These generally become more significant in larger electromagnets.", "The only power consumed in a DC electromagnet under steady state conditions is due to the resistance of the windings, and is dissipated as heat. Some large electromagnets require cooling water circulating through pipes in the windings to carry off the waste heat. Since the magnetic field is proportional to the product \"NI\", the number of turns in the windings \"N\" and the current \"I\" can be chosen to minimize heat losses, as long as their product is constant. Since the power dissipation, \"P = IR\", increases with the square of the current but only increases approximately linearly with the number of windings, the power lost in the windings can be minimized by reducing \"I\" and increasing the number of turns \"N\" proportionally, or using thicker wire to reduce the resistance. For example, halving I and doubling N halves the power loss, as does doubling the area of the wire. In either case, increasing the amount of wire reduces the ohmic losses. For this reason, electromagnets often have a significant thickness of windings. However, the limit to increasing \"N\" or lowering the resistance is that the windings take up more room between the magnet's core pieces. If the area available for the windings is filled up, more turns require going to a smaller diameter of wire, which has higher resistance, which cancels the advantage of using more turns. So in large magnets there is a minimum amount of heat loss that can't be reduced. This increases with the square of the magnetic flux \"B\".", "An electromagnet has significant inductance, and resists changes in the current through its windings. Any sudden changes in the winding current cause large voltage spikes across the windings. This is because when the current through the magnet is increased, such as when it is turned on, energy from the circuit must be stored in the magnetic field. When it is turned off the energy in the field is returned to the circuit. If an ordinary switch is used to control the winding current, this can cause sparks at the terminals of the switch. This doesn't occur when the magnet is switched on, because the limited supply voltage causes the current through the magnet and the field energy to increase slowly, but when it is switched off, the energy in the magnetic field is suddenly returned to the circuit, causing a large voltage spike and an arc across the switch contacts, which can damage them. With small electromagnets a capacitor is sometimes used across the contacts, which reduces arcing by temporarily storing the current. More often a diode is used to prevent voltage spikes by providing a path for the current to recirculate through the winding until the energy is dissipated as heat. The diode is connected across the winding, oriented so it is reverse-biased during steady state operation and doesn't conduct. When the supply voltage is removed, the voltage spike forward-biases the diode and the reactive current continues to flow through the winding, through the diode and back into the winding. A diode used in this way is called a freewheeling diode or flyback diode. Large electromagnets are usually powered by variable current electronic power supplies, controlled by a microprocessor, which prevent voltage spikes by accomplishing current changes slowly, in gentle ramps. It may take several minutes to energize or deenergize a large magnet.", "In powerful electromagnets, the magnetic field exerts a force on each turn of the windings, due to the Lorentz force formula_17 acting on the moving charges within the wire. The Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the axis of the wire and the magnetic field. It can be visualized as a pressure between the magnetic field lines, pushing them apart. It has two effects on an electromagnet's windings: The Lorentz forces increase with \"B\". In large electromagnets the windings must be firmly clamped in place, to prevent motion on power-up and power-down from causing metal fatigue in the windings. In the Bitter design, below, used in very high field research magnets, the windings are constructed as flat disks to resist the radial forces, and clamped in an axial direction to resist the axial ones.", "In alternating current (AC) electromagnets, used in transformers, inductors, and AC motors and generators, the magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy losses in their magnetic cores that is dissipated as heat in the core. The losses stem from two processes: The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for each of these processes, so the power loss increases linearly with frequency.", "", "When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is needed, superconducting electromagnets can be used. Instead of using ferromagnetic materials, these use superconducting windings cooled with liquid helium, which conduct current without electrical resistance. These allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields. Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to 10–20 T, with the current (2017) record of 32 T. The necessary refrigeration equipment and cryostat make them much more expensive than ordinary electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in particle accelerators and MRI machines.", "Both iron-core and superconducting electromagnets have limits to the field they can produce. Therefore, the most powerful man-made magnetic fields have been generated by \"air-core\" nonsuperconducting electromagnets of a design invented by Francis Bitter in 1933, called Bitter electromagnets. Instead of wire windings, a Bitter magnet consists of a solenoid made of a stack of conducting disks, arranged so that the current moves in a helical path through them, with a hole through the center where the maximum field is created. This design has the mechanical strength to withstand the extreme Lorentz forces of the field, which increase with \"B\". The disks are pierced with holes through which cooling water passes to carry away the heat caused by the high current. The strongest continuous field achieved solely with a resistive magnet is 37.5 T, produced by a Bitter electromagnet at the Radboud University High Field Magnet Laboratory in Nijmegen, the Netherlands. The previous record was 35 T. The strongest continuous magnetic field overall, 45 T, was achieved in June 2000 with a hybrid device consisting of a Bitter magnet inside a superconducting magnet. The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste heat, so more powerful fields, up to 100 T, have been obtained from resistive magnets by sending brief pulses of high current through them; the inactive period after each pulse allows the heat produced during the pulse to be removed, before the next pulse.", "The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have been created by using explosives to compress the magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is pulsed; these are called explosively pumped flux compression generators. The implosion compresses the magnetic field to values of around 1000 T for a few microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive, it is possible to redirect the brunt of the blast radially outwards so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed. These devices are known as destructive pulsed electromagnets. They are used in physics and materials science research to study the properties of materials at high magnetic fields." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Origins.", "English spelling.", "Other languages.", "History.", "Imperial ruble (14th century – 1917).", "Russian Empire.", "Russia's Coins.", "Constantine ruble.", "Banknotes.", "Imperial issues.", "Provisional Government issues.", "Provisional Government.", "Soviet ruble (1917–1992)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4", "4", "3" ], "content": [ "", "According to one version, the word \"ruble\" is derived from the Russian verb рубить (\"rubit\"), \"to cut, to chop, to hack\", as a ruble was considered a cutout piece of a silver grivna. Rubles were parts of the grivna or pieces of silver with notches indicating their weight. Each grivna was divided into four parts; the name \"ruble\" came from the word \"cut\" because the silver rod weighing 1 grivna was split into four parts, which were called rubles. Others say the ruble was never part of a grivna but a synonym for it. This is attested in a 13th century Novgorod birch bark manuscript, where both ruble and grivna referred to 204 gramms (6.6 troy ounces) of silver. The casting of these pieces included some sort of cutting (the exact technology is unknown), hence the name from рубить (\"rubit\"). Another version of the word's origin is that it comes from the Russian noun рубец (\"rubets\"), the seam that is left around a silver bullions after casting: silver was added to the cast in two steps. Therefore, the word \"ruble\" means \"a cast with a seam\". A popular theory deriving the word ruble from rupee is probably not correct. The ruble was the Russian equivalent of the mark, a measurement of weight for silver and gold used in medieval Western Europe. The weight of one \"ruble\" was equal to the weight of one \"grivna\". In Russian, a folk name for ruble, \"tselkovyj\" (целко́вый,, wholesome), is known, which is a shortening of the целковый рубль (\"tselkovyj ruble\"), i.e., a wholesome, uncut ruble. This name persists in the Mordvin word for ruble, \"целковой\". The word \"kopek\", \"kopeck\", \"copeck\", or \"kopeyka\" (in, \"kopeyka\") is a diminutive form of the Russian \"kop'yo\" (копьё) — a spear. The first kopek coins, minted at Novgorod and Pskov from about 1534 onwards, show a horseman with a spear. From the 1540s onwards the horseman bears a crown, and doubtless the intention was to represent Ivan the Terrible, who was Grand Prince of all Russia until 1547, and Tsar thereafter. Subsequent mintings of the coin, starting in the 18th century, bear instead Saint George striking down a serpent. Since the monetary reform of 1534, one Russian accounting ruble became equivalent to 100 silver Novgorod denga coins or smaller 200 Muscovite denga coins or even smaller 400 \"polushka\" coins. Exactly the former coin with a rider on it soon became colloquially known as \"kopek\" and was the higher coin until the beginning of the 18th century. Ruble coins as such did not exist till Peter the Great, when in 1704 he reformed the old monetary system and ordered mintage of a 28-gramme silver ruble coin equivalent to 100 new copper kopek coins. Apart from one ruble and one kopek coins other smaller and greater coins existed as well.", "Both the spellings \"ruble\" and \"rouble\" are used in English. The form \"rouble\" is preferred by the Oxford English Dictionary, but the earliest use recorded in English is the now completely obsolete \"robble\". The form \"rouble\" probably derives from the transliteration into French used among the Tsarist aristocracy. There are two main usage tendencies: one is for North American authors to use \"ruble\" and other English speakers to use \"rouble\", while the other is for older sources to use \"rouble\" and more recent ones to use \"ruble\". Neither tendency is absolutely consistent, and there is also the obvious danger of confusion with \"rubble\". The Russian plurals that may be seen on the actual currency are modified according to Russian grammar. Numbers ending in 1 (except for 11) are followed by nominative singular рубль \"rubl′\", копе́йка \"kopéyka\". Numbers ending in 2, 3 or 4 (except for 12–14) are followed by genitive singular рубля́ \"rublyá\", копе́йки \"kopéyki\". Numbers ending in 5–9, 0, or 11–14 are followed by genitive plural рубле́й \"rubléy\", копе́ек \"kopéyek\".", "In several languages spoken in Russia and the former Soviet Union, the currency name has no etymological relation with \"ruble\". Especially in Turkic languages or languages influenced by them, the ruble is often known (also officially) as \"som\" or \"sum\" (meaning \"pure\"), or \"manat\" (from Russian \"moneta\", meaning \"coin\"). Soviet banknotes had their value printed in the languages of all 15 republics of the Soviet Union.", "", "From the 14th to the 17th centuries the ruble was neither a coin nor a currency but rather a unit of weight. The most used currency was a small silver coin called \"denga\" (pl. \"dengi\"). There were two variants of the denga minted in Novgorod and Moscow. The weight of a denga silver coin was unstable and inflating, but by 1535 one Novgorod denga weighted, the Moscow denga being a half of the Novgorod denga. Thus one \"account ruble\" consisted of 100 Novgorod or 200 Moscow dengi ( of silver). As the Novgorod denga bore the image of a rider with a spear (), it later has become known as \"kopek\". In the 17th century the weight of a kopek coin lowered to, thus one ruble was equal to of silver. In 1654–1655 tsar Alexis I tried to carry out a monetary reform and ordered to mint silver one ruble coins from imported joachimsthalers and new kopek coins from copper (old silver kopeks was left in circulation). Although around 1 million of such rubles was made, its lower weight (28–32 grams) against the nominal ruble (48 g) led to counterfeit, speculation and inflation, and after the Copper Riot of 1662 the new monetary system was abandoned in favour of the old one.", "In 1704 Peter the Great finally reformed the old Russian monetary system, ordering the minting of a silver ruble coin equivalent to 100 new copper kopek coins, thus making the Russian ruble the world's first decimal currency. The amount of precious metal in a ruble varied over time. In a 1704 currency reform, Peter the Great standardized the ruble to 28 grams of silver. While ruble coins were silver, there were higher denominations minted of gold and platinum. By the end of the 18th century, the ruble was set to 4 zolotnik 21 dolya (almost exactly equal to 18 grams) of pure silver or 27 dolya (almost exactly equal to 1.2 grams) of pure gold, with a ratio of 15:1 for the values of the two metals. In 1828, platinum coins were introduced with 1 ruble equal to 772⁄3 dolya (3.451 grams). On 17 December 1885, a new standard was adopted which did not change the silver ruble but reduced the gold content to 1.161 grams, pegging the gold ruble to the French franc at a rate of 1 ruble = 4 francs. This rate was revised in 1897 to 1 ruble = 22⁄3 francs (0.774 grams gold). The ruble was worth about 0.50 USD in 1914. With the outbreak of World War I, the gold standard peg was dropped and the ruble fell in value, suffering from hyperinflation in the early 1920s. With the founding of the Soviet Union in 1922, the Russian ruble was replaced by the Soviet ruble. The pre-revolutionary Chervonetz was temporarily brought back into circulation from 1922–1925.", "By the beginning of the 19th century, copper coins were issued for,, 1, 2 and 5 kopeks, with silver 5, 10, 25 and 50 kopeks and 1 ruble and gold 5 although production of the 10 ruble coin ceased in 1806. Silver 20 kopeks were introduced in 1820, followed by copper 10 kopeks minted between 1830 and 1839, and copper 3 kopeks introduced in 1840. Between 1828 and 1845, platinum 3, 6 and 12 rubles were issued. In 1860, silver 15 kopeks were introduced, due to the use of this denomination (equal to 1 złoty) in Poland, whilst, in 1869, gold 3 rubles were introduced. In 1886, a new gold coinage was introduced consisting of 5 and 10 ruble coins. This was followed by another in 1897. In addition to smaller 5 and 10 ruble coins, and 15 ruble coins were issued for a single year, as these were equal in size to the previous 5 and 10 ruble coins. The gold coinage was suspended in 1911, with the other denominations produced until the First World War.", "The Constantine ruble (Russian:, ) is a rare silver coin of the Russian Empire bearing the profile of Constantine, the brother of emperors Alexander I and Nicholas I. Its manufacture was being prepared at the Saint Petersburg Mint during the brief Interregnum of 1825, but it was never minted in numbers, and never circulated in public. Its existence became known in 1857 in foreign publications.", "", "In 1768, during the reign of Catherine the Great, the Assignation Bank was instituted to issue the government paper money. It opened in Saint Petersburg and in Moscow in 1769. In 1769, Assignation rubles were introduced for 25, 50, 75 and 100 rubles, with 5 and 10 rubles added in 1787 and 200 ruble in 1819. The value of the Assignation rubles fell relative to the coins until, in 1839, the relationship was fixed at 1 coin ruble = 31⁄2 assignat rubles. In 1840, the State Commercial Bank issued 3, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles notes, followed by 50 ruble credit notes of the Custody Treasury and State Loan Bank. In 1843, the Assignation Bank ceased operations, and \"state credit notes\" (Russian:, ) were introduced in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100 rubles. In 1859 a paper credit ruble was worth about nine tenths of a silver ruble These circulated, in various types, until the revolution, with 500 rubles notes added in 1898 and 250 and 1000 rubles notes added in 1917. In 1915, two kinds of small change notes were issued. One, issued by the Treasury, consisted of regular style (if small) notes for 1, 2, 3, 5 and 50 kopeks. The other consisted of the designs of stamps printed onto card with text and the imperial eagle printed on the reverse. These were in denominations of 1, 2, 3, 10, 15 and 20 kopeks.", "In 1917, the Provisional Government issued treasury notes for 20 and 40 rubles. These notes are known as \"Kerenski\" or \"Kerensky rubles\". The provisional government also had 25 and 1,000 rubles state credit notes printed in the United States but most were not issued.", "The Russian Provisional Government (Russian: Временное правительство России, tr. Vremennoye pravitel'stvo Rossii) was a provisional government of Russia established immediately following the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire on 2 March [15 March, New Style] 1917.[1][2] The intention of the provisional government was the organization of elections to the Russian Constituent Assembly and its convention. The provisional government lasted approximately eight months, and ceased to exist when the Bolsheviks gained power after the October Revolution in October [November, N.S.] 1917.", "The Soviet ruble replaced the ruble of the Russian Empire. The Soviet ruble (code: SUR) was the currency of the Soviet Union between 1917 and the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Soviet ruble was issued by the State Bank of the USSR. The Soviet ruble continued to be used in the 15 Post-Soviet states. The Soviet ruble was used until 1992 in Russia (replaced by Russian ruble), Ukraine (replaced by Ukrainian karbovanets), Estonia (replaced by Estonian kroon), Latvia (replaced by Latvian rublis), Lithuania (replaced by Lithuanian talonas), and until 1993 in Belarus (replaced by Belarusian ruble), Georgia (replaced by Georgian lari), Armenia (replaced by Armenian dram), Kazakhstan (replaced by Kazakhstani tenge), Kyrgyzstan (replaced by Kyrgyzstani som), Moldova (replaced by Moldovan cupon), Turkmenistan (replaced by Turkmenistan manat), Uzbekistan (replaced by Uzbekistani so'm), and until 1994 in Azerbaijan (replaced by Azerbaijani manat) and until 1995 in Tajikistan (replaced by Tajikistani ruble)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Composition.", "Appearances in other works.", "References in film.", "Film, TV and stage adaptations.", "Critical reception.", "Legacy and modern analysis.", "Honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Dick and Nicole Diver are a glamorous couple who rent a villa in the South of France and surround themselves with a circle of friends, mainly Americans. Also staying at the nearby resort are Rosemary Hoyt, a young 17-year-old actress, and her mother. Rosemary becomes infatuated with Dick and also becomes close to Nicole. Dick toys with the idea of having an affair with Rosemary. Rosemary senses something is wrong with the couple, which is brought to light when one of the guests at a party reports having seen something strange in a bathroom. Tommy Barban, another guest, comes loyally to the defense of the Divers. The action involves various other friends, including the Norths, a frequent occurrence being the drunken behavior of Abe North. The story becomes complicated when Jules Peterson, a black man, is murdered in Paris and ends up in Rosemary's bed at the hotel, a situation which could destroy Rosemary's career. Dick moves the blood-soaked body out of the room to cover up any implied relationship between Rosemary and Peterson. It is revealed that Captain Dick Diver, a promising young doctor and psychiatrist, while visiting his friend Franz, also a psychiatrist, had earlier met a stunning teenage patient with an especially complex case of neuroses. The patient is Nicole, whose sexual abuse by her father is suggested as the cause of her breakdown. Over a period of time they exchange letters. With permission of Franz and his superior, who believe that Dick's friendship benefits Nicole's wellbeing, they start seeing each other. As her treatment progresses, Nicole becomes infatuated with Dick, who in turn develops Florence Nightingale syndrome. He eventually determines to marry Nicole, in part, as a means of providing her with lasting emotional stability. Strong objections are raised by Nicole's sister, who believes Dick is marrying Nicole because of her status as an heiress. Dick is offered by Franz a partnership in a Swiss psychiatric clinic, and Nicole pays for the enterprise. After his father's death Dick travels to America for the burial, and then to Rome in hopes of seeing Rosemary. They start a brief affair, which ends abruptly and painfully. Dick gets into an altercation with the police, and Nicole's sister helps him to get out of jail. Dick doesn't see how he can be the same person after such a humiliation. He gradually develops a drinking problem. After this becomes an issue with the patients, Dick's ownership share of the clinic is bought out by American investors following his partner's suggestion. Dick and Nicole's marriage breaks down when he becomes increasingly alcoholic and pines for Rosemary, who is now a successful Hollywood star. Nicole becomes increasingly aware of her independence. She distances herself from Dick as his self-confidence and friendliness turn into sarcasm and rudeness towards everyone. His constant unhappiness over what he could have been fuels his alcoholism, and Dick becomes increasingly embarrassing in social and familial situations. Nicole enters into an affair with Tommy Barban. At the end of the book Nicole divorces Dick and marries Barban.", "Fitzgerald began working on a new novel almost immediately after the publication of \"The Great Gatsby\" in April 1925. His original plan was to tell the story of Francis Melarkey, a young Hollywood technician traveling on the French Riviera with his domineering mother. Francis was to fall in with a group of glittering and charming wealthy American expatriates (based on Gerald and Sara Murphy and some of their friends) and gradually disintegrate, ultimately killing his mother. Fitzgerald originally intended to call the novel \"World's Fair,\" but also considered \"Our Type\" and \"The Boy Who Killed His Mother.\" The characters based on the Murphys were originally named Seth and Dinah Piper, and Francis was intended to fall in love with Dinah – an event that would help to precipitate his disintegration. Fitzgerald wrote several chapters for this version of the novel in 1925 and 1926, but was unable to finish it. Nearly all of what he wrote ultimately made it into the finished work in altered form. Francis's arrival on the Riviera with his mother, and his introduction to the world of the Pipers, was eventually transposed into Rosemary Hoyt's arrival with her mother, and her introduction to the world of Dick and Nicole Diver. Characters created in this early version survived into the final novel, particularly Abe and Mary North (originally Grant) and the McKiscos. Several incidents such as Rosemary's arrival and early scenes on the beach, her visit to the Riviera movie studio, and the dinner party at the Divers' villa all appeared in this original version, but with Francis in the role of the wide-eyed outsider that would later be filled by Rosemary. Also, the sequence in which a drunken Dick is beaten by police in Rome was written in this first version as well (with Francis as the beaten victim); this was based on a real incident that happened to Fitzgerald in Rome in 1924. After a certain point, Fitzgerald became stymied with the novel. He and Zelda (and Scottie) returned to the United States after several years in Europe, and in 1927 Scott went to Hollywood to write for the movies. There he met Lois Moran, a beautiful actress in her late teens, with whom he had an intense relationship. Moran became the inspiration for the character of Rosemary Hoyt. Fitzgerald supported himself and his family in the late 1920s with his highly lucrative short-story output (particularly for the \"Saturday Evening Post\"), but was haunted by his inability to progress on the novel. Around 1929 he tried a new angle on the material, starting over with a shipboard story about a Hollywood director and his wife (Lew and Nicole Kelly) and a young actress named Rosemary. But Fitzgerald apparently completed only two chapters of this version. By 1930 the Fitzgeralds were again living in Europe. Zelda had her first nervous breakdown in early 1930 and was institutionalized in Switzerland. It soon became apparent that she would never fully recover. Fitzgerald's father died in 1931, an event that was written into the final novel as Dick's father's death. Devastated by these blows (and by his own unrelenting alcoholism), Fitzgerald had settled in suburban Baltimore by 1932 and had finally decided what he was going to write his novel about – a man of almost limitless potential who makes the fatal decision to marry a beautiful but mentally ill woman, and who ultimately sinks into despair and alcoholism when their doomed marriage fails. Fitzgerald wrote the final version of \"Tender Is the Night\" in 1932 and 1933, while renting the \"La Paix\" estate from Baltimore architect Bayard Turnbull. He salvaged almost everything he had written for the Melarkey draft of the novel in some form or other and also borrowed ideas, images, and phrases from many short stories he had written in the years since completing \"The Great Gatsby\". Ultimately, he poured everything he had into \"Tender\" – his feelings about his own wasted talent and (self-perceived) professional failure and stagnation; his feelings about his parents (who on a symbolic level provided much of the inspiration for Dick and Nicole Diver); about his marriage, and Zelda's illness, and psychiatry (about which he had learned a great deal during her treatment); about his affair with Lois Moran, and Zelda's with the French aviator Edouard Jozan (paralleled in the relationship between Nicole Diver and Tommy Barban). The book was completed in the fall of 1933 and serialized in four installments in \"Scribner's Magazine\" before its publication on April 12, 1934.", "", "\"Tender is the Night\" has appeared in several films. It first appeared in Michelangelo Antonioni's 1960 film \"L'avventura\" as the book Anna was reading before she disappeared. It is also seen in Wim Wenders' film \"Alice in den Städten\" (1973—in English, \"Alice in the Cities\") on the coffee table of Vogel's depressed girlfriend. The use of the book in the latter film may have been inspired by actress Lois Moran, who was the basis for the character of Rosemary Hoyt in Fitzgerald's novel and played an \"Airport Hostess\" in Wenders' movie. The Coen Brothers' 1991 film \"Barton Fink\" contains a similar scene in which the protagonist awakes in a hotel room next to a murdered body, and recruits a friend to hide the body in order to cover up an affair.", "The film \"Tender is the Night\" (1962), based on the novel, starred Jason Robards and Jennifer Jones as the Divers. The song \"Tender Is the Night\" from the movie soundtrack was nominated for the 1962 Academy Awards for Best Song. A television mini-series of the book, with script by Dennis Potter, music by Richard Rodney Bennett, and with Mary Steenburgen and Peter Strauss as Nicole and Dick, was made by the BBC and shown in 1985 by the BBC in the United Kingdom, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation in Canada, and Showtime in the United States. A stage adaptation by Simon Levy, with permission of the Fitzgerald Estate, was produced at The Fountain Theatre, Los Angeles in 1995. It won the PEN Literary Award in Drama and several other awards. Boris Eifman's 2015 ballet \"Up and Down\" is based loosely on the novel.", "Fitzgerald considered the novel to be his masterwork and expected it to eclipse the popularity and acclaim of his earlier novels, particularly \"The Great Gatsby.\" However, it was instead met with mixed reviews and lukewarm sales. This greatly distressed Fitzgerald and continued to puzzle him for the remainder of his life. In its first three months of release, \"Tender Is the Night\" sold 12,000 copies compared to \"This Side of Paradise\", which sold over 50,000 during a similar frame. While it received a handful of extremely positive reviews, the prevailing consensus was that its quintessentially 1920s style and subject matter was no longer modern or of sufficient interest to readers.", "Since its initial release, \"Tender is the Night\"s critical reputation has steadily grown. Modern critics have described it as \"an exquisitely crafted piece of fiction\" and \"one of the greatest American novels.\" It is now widely regarded as among Fitzgerald's most accomplished works, with some, particularly critics outside the US, agreeing with the author's own assessment that it surpasses \"The Great Gatsby.\" Many theories have arisen as to why the novel did not receive a warmer reception upon release. Ernest Hemingway remarked that, in retrospect, \"\"Tender Is the Night\" gets better and better\" and felt that both he and critics had initially only been interested in dissecting its weaknesses, rather than giving due credit to its merits. Hemingway and others have argued that such overly harsh criticism stemmed from superficial readings of the material, and Depression-era America's reaction to Fitzgerald's status as a symbol of Jazz Age excess. Christian Messenger argues that Fitzgerald's book hinges on the sustaining sentimental fragments: “On an aesthetic level, Fitzgerald’s working through of sentiment’s broken premises and rhetoric in Tender heralds a triumph of modernism in his attempt to sustain his sentimental fragments and allegiances in new forms.” He also calls it \"F Scott Fitzgerald's richest novel, replete with vivid characters, gorgeous prose, and shocking scenes,\" and calls attention to Slavoj Žižek's use of the book to illustrate the nonlinear nature of experience.", "In 1998, the Modern Library included the novel at #28 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. \"Radcliffe\" later included it at #62 in its rival list. NPR included it at #69 on its 2009 list titled \"100 Years, 100 Novels\". In 2012 it was listed as one of the \"1001 Books You Must Read Before You Die\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Main sights.", "Sports.", "Association football.", "Team handball.", "Volleyball.", "Basketball.", "Roller hockey.", "Education.", "Transport.", "Railways.", "Synagogue attack.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Wuppertal in its present borders was formed in 1929 by merging the industrial cities of Barmen and Elberfeld with the communities Vohwinkel, Ronsdorf, Cronenberg, Langerfeld and Beyenburg. The initial name Barmen-Elberfeld was changed in a 1930 referendum to Wuppertal (\"Wupper Valley\"). The new city was administered as part of the Prussian Rhine Province. Uniquely for Germany, it is a \"linear city\", owing to the steep hillsides along the river Wupper. Its highest hill is the Lichtscheid, which is 351 metres above sea level. The dominant urban centres Elberfeld (historic commercial centre) and Barmen (more industrial) have formed a continuous urbanized area since 1850. During the succeeding decades, \"Wupper-Town\" became the dominant industrial agglomeration of northwestern Germany. During the 20th century, this conurbation had been surpassed by Cologne, Düsseldorf and the Ruhr area, all with a more favourable topography. From July 5, 1933 to January 19, 1934, the Kemna concentration camp was established in Wuppertal. It was one of the early Nazi concentration camps, created by the Third Reich to incarcerate their political opponents after the Nazi Party first gained power in 1933. The camp was established in a former factory on the Wupper in the Kemna neighborhood of the Barmen part of Wuppertal. Wuppertal is famous as an important place of resistance in Germany. The Barmen Declaration or the Theological Declaration of Barmen was a document adopted by Christians in Nazi Germany who opposed the \"Deutsche Christen\" philosophy. In the opinion of the delegates to the Synod that met in Wuppertal-Barmen in May 1934, the German Christians had corrupted church government by making it subservient to the state and had introduced Nazi ideology into the German Protestant churches that contradicted the Christian gospel. During World War II, about 40% of buildings in the city were destroyed by Allied bombing, as were many other German cities and industrial centres (see Bombing of Wuppertal in World War II). However, a large number of historic sites have been preserved, such as: The US 78th Infantry Division under Major General Edwin P. Parker Jr. captured Wuppertal against scant resistance on April 16, 1945. Wuppertal became a part of the British Zone of Occupation, and subsequently part of the new state of North Rhine-Westphalia in West Germany. Population development since 1929: Largest groups of foreign residents by 31.12.2017", "In total, Wuppertal possesses over 4,500 buildings classified as national monuments, most exemplifying styles such as Neoclassicism, Eclecticism, Historicism, Art Nouveau/Jugendstil and Bauhaus. The American TV station CNN recommends Wuppertal as one of 20 places worldwide to visit in the year 2020 because of the Schwebebahn, the architectural diversity and the Nordbahntrasse, a cycle route across the city 2020 Main sights include: Stephan Albert Einsteyn-Rößler (1967-2001), Scientist, Developer of the Gravitation Field Engine and first timemachine the Microsoft NCL Core 1701, Rescue Specialist and CIA Vice Director, Analyst, Profiler, Died at September, 11th 2001 as Chief of the NYC Firebrigade Rescue 911 Team 14.12 in the twin towers Ground Zero Manhattan. Last grandchild of Albert Einsteyn, human rights activist and founder of the Microsoft Foundation with Bill Gates. personal friend of Michael and Dr. Daniel Jackson.Accept", "", "In football, Wuppertal's most popular club is Wuppertaler SV who currently play in the Regionalliga West, the fourth tier of the German football league system. Playing their home games at the city's Stadion am Zoo, the club, which enjoyed its last season in a nationwide division during the 2009–10 season, looks back on a rich and eventful history since its establishment as the result of a 1954 merger between the two main Wuppertal clubs \"SSV 04 Wuppertal\" and \"TSG Vohwinkel 80\". The club spent a total of seven seasons in the top flight of German football, three of which in the Bundesliga, which they were promoted to during 1972. In their first season in the nationwide first division, the club reached a remarkable fourth place and qualified for the UEFA Cup for the first and only time in its history. After a first-round defeat by Polish side Ruch Chorzów and another two widely unsuccessful Bundesliga campaigns, the club disappeared from the top flight again, though, and has yet to return. During 2004, the club merged with local rivals \"SV Borussia Wuppertal\" to form \"Wuppertaler SV Borussia\", though the name change remained the only visible attribute of the merger with the club's colours and crest remaining unaltered. The additional \"Borussia\" was scrapped again during 2013 due to fans' demand amidst a change of leadership which was brought about to lead the club through necessary insolvency proceedings which have been completed as of September 2014. Another noteworthy Wuppertal football club is Cronenberger SC from the district of Cronenberg. Their greatest success to date is reaching the 1952 German amateur football championship final which they lost 5–2 against VfR Schwenningen. Today, they play one tier below WSV in the Oberliga Nordrhein. Famous players include Günter Pröpper who scored 39 of WSV's 136 Bundesliga goals and West Germany international Horst Szymaniak, as well as Cronenberg's Herbert Jäger who represented Germany at the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki during his stay with the club.", "In handball, Wuppertal's most successful team is Bergischer HC, playing in the top-tier Handball-Bundesliga which they were promoted to for the second time during 2013, reaching 15th place during the 2013–14 campaign and therefore staying among the top scorers for a second consecutive season. \"BHC\" originates from a 2006 cooperation between the management, squad and main sponsor of LTV Wuppertal and rivals SG Solingen from the nearby city of the same name. The club advertises itself as a representative of the entire Bergisches Land region. The team plays its home games at both Wuppertal's \"Uni-Halle\" (3,200 seats) and Solingen's \"Klingenhalle\" (2,600 seats). Wuppertal's past most successful club are the aforementioned LTV Wuppertal. LTV spent most of their seasons in the second and third tiers, before they merged with \"Wuppertaler SV's\" handball section in 1996 to form \"HSG LTV/WSV Wuppertal\". The handball combination was promoted to the Bundesliga after its inaugural season, finishing 8th before dissolving again in 1998. However, the mere departure of Wuppertaler SV still allowed LTV Wuppertal, whose professional team were renamed \"HC Wuppertal\", to play another three seasons in the Bundesliga before returning to the 2nd division and re-introducing its old name. After the establishment of BHC in 2006, LTV lost its financial base and was relegated several times, currently playing in the fifth-tier Verbandsliga.", "In volleyball, SV Bayer Wuppertal was one of Germany's leading men's teams for many years during the 1990s and 2000s. The team was part of the well-known mass-sports club originating in Leverkusen and was promoted to the Bundesliga in 1978. Reacting to low attendances, the eponymous Bayer AG decided to relocate the volleyball team to Wuppertal in 1992, where there also was a Bayer-funded club. After the move, the club won various titles, including the German championship in 1994 and 1997 and the German Cup in 1995. In addition to that, they finished runners-up to Greek side Olympiacos S.C. in the 1995-96 European Cup Winners' Cup, losing the final in five sets. After the wide-reaching retreat of Bayer AG from less popular professional sport during 2008, the club acquired the name \"Wuppertal Titans\" and later \"A!B!C Titans Berg. Land\". However, the loss of their main sponsor eventually resulted in the team having to terminate during 2012. Presently, they once more play by the name of Bayer Wuppertal in the third-tier Regionalliga, unable to promote with their current financial set-up.", "Perhaps one of the most successful Wuppertal sports clubs was the women's basketball team of Barmer TV (known as \"BTV Wuppertal\" between 1994 and 2000, \"BTV Gold-Zack Wuppertal\" between 2000 and 2002 and \"Wuppertal Wings\" internationally). An 11-time German champion and 12-time German Cup winner, they won a remarkable ten consecutive doubles between 1993 and 2002. During 1996, they even won the European Cup as the first and so far only German side, beating Italy's SFT Como in the final. A year later, they narrowly missed out on back-to-back trebles, losing to French side CJM Bourges in the newly christened EuroLeague's final. In 2002, the club withdrew from the Bundesliga due to financial troubles, their then-main sponsor \"Gold-Zack Werke\" filing for insolvency a year later. After a decade-long stay in amateur divisions, Barmer TV returned to the second-tier 2nd Bundesliga North in 2014. Wuppertal co-hosted the 1998 FIBA World Championship for Women as one of seven host cities.", "In roller hockey (also known as \"rink hockey\"), Wuppertal club RSC Cronenberg are one of the most successful German teams, having won the German championship and the German Cup in both men's and women's competitions. In total, the men won 13 German championships and nine cups, the women ten championships and nine cups. Both teams play their home games at \"Alfred-Henckels-Halle\". Wuppertal hosted several international tournaments, including the World Championship in 1997 (men) and 2004 (women) and the European Championship in 1992, 2010 (men) and 2011 (women).", "Four institutions of higher education are in Wuppertal. The privately financed Junior Uni is a unique German initiative to educate youth from the age of 4 to 18 in science outside the school program.", "", "Wuppertal is well connected to the rail network. The town lies on the Cologne–Hagen and the Düsseldorf–Hagen railway lines, and is a stop for long-distance traffic. The central station is located in the district of Elberfeld. Regionalbahn trains and some Regional-Express trains also stop at Oberbarmen, Barmen, Ronsdorf and Vohwinkel. There are also S-Bahn stations in Langerfeld, Unterbarmen, Steinbeck, Zoologischer Garten and Sonnborn. The rail services that operate on the mainline through the valley are the RE 4 (Wupper-Express), RE 7 (Rhein-Münsterland-Express), RE 13 (Maas-Wupper-Express), RB 48 (Rhein-Wupper Bahn) and four Rhine-Ruhr S-Bahn services: the S 7, S 8, S 9 and S 68 (peak hours only). Every 30 minutes, it is served by a long-distance (Intercity-Express, InterCity, EuroCity or City Night Line) service in each direction. With the exception of the line from Wuppertal to Solingen (operated as the S 7) and the Prince William Railway to Essen (now S-Bahn line S 9), all of the branch lines connecting to main line in the city of Wuppertal are now closed. This includes, among others, the Düsseldorf-Derendorf–Dortmund Süd railway (the \"Wuppertaler Nordbahn\"), the Burgholz Railway, the Wuppertal-Wichlinghausen–Hattingen railway, the Wupper Valley Railway and the Corkscrew Railway. Thus, there were once 31 stations in the Wuppertal area, including nine stations on the mainline. Nowadays only ten are serviced any more. Wuppertal Hauptbahnhof is the location of the lost luggage services for Deutsche Bahn. The Wuppertal Suspension Railway, a globally unique suspended monorail, serves the city and its surroundings.", "In July 2014, three Palestinians living in Germany tried to damage the Wuppertal synagogue with molotov cocktails. A year later, a court found them guilty of attempted arson, finding the crime was not motivated by anti-Semitism, and sentenced the men to 200 hours of community service. The court said the three men wanted to draw \"attention to the Gaza conflict\" with Israel. In January 2017, a regional appeals court upheld the decision, calling the arson attempt a justified expression of criticism of Israel's policies.", "", "Wuppertal is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Climate.", "Physical geography.", "Demography.", "Government.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Architecture.", "Literature and publishing.", "Visual arts.", "Performing arts.", "Transport.", "Roads.", "Water.", "Railways.", "Air.", "Education.", "National Challenge schools.", "Sport.", "Local media.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Newspapers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name \"Kent\" is believed to be of British Celtic origin and was known in Old English as \"Cent\", \"Cent lond\", \"Centrice\" (all pronounced with a 'hard C' as 'Kent-'). In Latin sources Kent is mentioned as", "The area has been occupied since the Palaeolithic era, as attested by finds from the quarries at Swanscombe. The Medway megaliths were built during the Neolithic era. There is a rich sequence of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Roman era occupation, as indicated by finds and features such as the Ringlemere gold cup and the Roman villas of the Darent valley. The modern name of Kent is derived from the Brythonic word \"kantos\" meaning \"rim\" or \"border\", or possibly from a homonymous word \"kanto\" \"horn, hook\" (< PIE *kn̥g-tó, cfr. \"Cornwall\" < \"cornus\" \"horn\"). This describes the eastern part of the current county area as a border land or coastal district. Julius Caesar had described the area as \"um\", or home of the Cantiaci in 51 BC. The extreme west of the modern county was by the time of Roman Britain occupied by Iron Age tribes, known as the Regnenses. Caesar wrote that the people of Kent were 'by far the most civilised inhabitants of Britain'. Kent became a kingdom of the Jutes during the 5th century and was known as \"Cantia\" from about 730 and recorded as \"Cent\" in 835. The early medieval inhabitants of the county were known as the \"Cantwara\", or Kent people. The city of Canterbury was the largest in Kent. In 597, Pope Gregory I appointed the religious missionary (who became Saint Augustine of Canterbury after his death) as the first Archbishop of Canterbury. In the previous year, Augustine successfully converted the pagan King Æthelberht of Kent to Christianity. The Diocese of Canterbury became England's first Episcopal See with first cathedral and has since remained England's centre of Christianity. The second designated English cathedral was in Kent at Rochester Cathedral. In the 11th century, the people of Kent adopted the motto \"Invicta\", meaning \"undefeated\" or \"unconquered\". This naming followed the invasion of Britain by William of Normandy as he was unable to subdue the county and they negotiated favorable terms. The Kent people's continued resistance against the Normans led to Kent's designation as a semi-autonomous county palatine in 1067. Under the nominal rule of William's half-brother Odo of Bayeux, the county was granted similar powers to those granted in the areas bordering Wales and Scotland. Kent was traditionally partitioned into East and West Kent, and into lathes and hundreds. The traditional", "Kent is one of the warmest parts of Britain. On 10 August 2003, in", "Kent is in the southeastern corner of England. It borders the Thames Estuary and the North Sea to the north, and the Straits of Dover and the English Channel to the south. France is across the Strait. The major geographical features of the county are based on a series of ridges and valleys running east–west across the county. These are the results of erosion of the Wealden dome, a dome across Kent and Sussex created by alpine movements 20–10 million years ago. This dome consists of an upper layer of chalk above successive layers of Upper Greensand, Gault Clay, Lower Greensand, Weald Clay, and Wealden sandstone. The ridges and valleys formed when the exposed clay eroded faster than the exposed chalk, greensand, or sandstone. Sevenoaks, Maidstone, Ashford, and Folkestone are built on greensand, while Tonbridge and Tunbridge Wells are built on sandstone. Dartford, Gravesend, the Medway towns, Sittingbourne, Faversham, Canterbury, Deal, and Dover are built on chalk. The easterly section of the Wealden dome has been eroded away by the sea, and cliffs such as the White Cliffs of Dover are present where a chalk ridge known as the North Downs meets the coast. Spanning Dover and Westerham is the Kent Downs Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The Wealden dome is a Mesozoic structure lying on a Palaeozoic foundation, which can often create the", "At the 2011 census, Kent, including Medway, had 1,727,665 residents (18.0% of which in Medway); had 711,847 households (17.5% of which in Medway) and had 743,436", "Kent County Council (KCC) and its 12 district councils administer most of the county (3352 km2), while the Medway Towns Council, a unitary authority and commonly called Medway Council, administers the more densely populated remainder (192 km2). Together they have around 300 town and parish councils. Kent County Council's headquarters are in Maidstone, while Medway's offices are at Gun Wharf, Chatham. At the 2013 county council elections, control of Kent County Council was held by the Conservatives, who won 44 of the council's 83 seats. 17 seats were won by the United Kingdom Independence Party, 13 by the Labour Party, 7 by the Liberal Democrats, 1 by the Green Party and 1 by the Swanscombe and Greenhithe Residents Association.", "At the 2001 UK census, employment statistics for the residents in Kent, including Medway, were as follows: 41.1% in full-time employment, 12.4% in part-time employment, 9.1% self-employed, 2.9% unemployed, 2.3% students with jobs, 3.7% students without jobs, 12.3% retired, 7.3% looking after home or family, 4.3% permanently sick or disabled, and 2.7% economically inactive for other reasons. Of residents aged 16–74, 16% had a higher education qualification or the equivalent, compared to 20% nationwide. The average hours worked per week by residents of Kent were 43.1 for males and 30.9 for females. Their industry of employment was 17.3% retail, 12.4% manufacturing, 11.8% real estate, 10.3% health and social work, 8.9% construction, 8.2% transport and communications, 7.9% education, 6.0% public administration and defence, 5.6% finance, 4.8% other community and personal service activities, 4.1% hotels and restaurants, 1.6% agriculture, 0.8% energy and water supply, 0.2% mining, and 0.1% private households. This is higher than the whole of England for construction and transport/communications and lower for manufacturing. Kent is sometimes known as the \"Garden of England\" for its abundance of orchards and hop gardens. Distinctive hop-drying buildings called oasts are common in the countryside, although many have been converted into dwellings. Nearer to London, market gardens also flourish. Kent is the main area for hazelnut production in the UK. However, in recent years, there has been a significant drop in agriculture, and industry and services are increasing their utilisation of the area. This is illustrated by the following table of", "", "Kent's geographical location between the Straits of Dover and London has influenced its architecture, as has its Cretaceous geology and its good farming land and fine building clays. Kent's countryside pattern was determined by a gavelkind inheritance system that generated a proliferation of small settlements. There was no open-field system, and the large tracts were owned by the two great abbeys, Christ Church, Canterbury and St Augustine's Abbey, that did not pass into the hands of the king during the Reformation. Canterbury Cathedral is the United Kingdom's metropolitan cathedral; it was founded in AD 598 and displays architecture from all periods. There are nine Anglo-Saxon churches in Kent. Rochester Cathedral is England's second-oldest cathedral, the present", "Kent has provided inspiration for several notable writers and artists. Canterbury's religious role gave rise to Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\", a key development in the English language. The father of novelist Charles Dickens worked at the Chatham Dockyard; in many of his books, the celebrated novelist", "A number of significant artists came from Kent, including Thomas Sidney Cooper, a painter of landscapes, often incorporating farm animals, Richard Dadd, a maker of faery paintings, and Mary Tourtel, the creator of the children's book character, Rupert Bear. The artist Clive Head was also born in Kent. The landscape painter J. M. W. Turner spent part of his childhood in the town of Margate in East Kent, and regularly returned to visit it throughout his life. The East Kent coast inspired many of his works, including some of his most famous seascapes. Kent has also been the home to artists including Frank Auerbach, Tracey Emin and Stass Paraskos. Kent", "The county's largest theatre is the Marlowe Theatre in the centre of Canterbury. Other venues for live music include Leas Cliff Hall in Folkestone and the Assembly", "", "With the Roman invasion, a road network was constructed to connect London to the Channel ports of Dover, Lympne and Richborough. The London–Dover road was Watling Street. These roads are now approximately the A2, B2068, A257, and the A28. The A2 runs through Dartford (A207), Gravesend, Rochester, Canterbury, and Dover; the A20 through Eltham, Wrotham, Maidstone, Charing, Ashford. Hythe, Folkestone and Dover; the A21", "The medieval Cinque Ports, except for the Port of Dover, have all now silted up. The Medway Estuary has been an important port and naval base for 500 years. The River Medway is tidal up to Allington and navigable up to Tonbridge. Kent's two canals are the Royal Military Canal", "The earliest locomotive-driven passenger-carrying railway in Britain was the Canterbury and Whitstable Railway which opened in 1830. This and the London and Greenwich Railway later merged into South Eastern Railway (SER). By the 1850s, SER's networks had expanded to Ashford, Ramsgate, Canterbury, Tunbridge Wells, and the Medway towns. SER's major London termini were London Bridge, Charing Cross, and Cannon Street. Kent also had a second major railway, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR). Originally the East Kent Railway in 1858, it linked the northeast Kent coast with London terminals at Victoria and Blackfriars. The two companies merged in 1899, forming the South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR), further amalgamated with other railways by the Railways Act 1921 to form the Southern Railway. Britain's railways were nationalised in 1948, forming British Railways (shortened to British Rail in the", "Charter flights are provided by Lydd Airport at Lydd. In 2002, it was revealed that the government was considering building a new four-runway airport on the marshland near the village of Cliffe on Hoo Peninsula. This plan was dropped in 2003 following protests by cultural and environmental groups. However further plans for a Thames Estuary Airport on the Kent coast have subsequently emerged, including", "Kent has four universities: Canterbury Christ Church University with campuses throughout East Kent; University of Kent, with campuses in Canterbury and Medway; University of Greenwich (a London University), with sites at Woolwich, Eltham, London and Medway; the University for the Creative Arts (UCA) also has three of its five campuses in the county. Although much of Britain adopted a comprehensive education system in the 1970s, Kent County Council (KCC) and Medway Unitary Authority are among around fifteen local authorities still providing wholly selective education through the eleven-plus examination with students allocated a place at a secondary modern school or at a grammar school. Together, the two Kent authorities have 38 of the 164 grammar schools remaining in Britain. Kent County Council has the largest education department of any local council in Britain, providing school places for over 289,000 pupils. In 2005–06, Kent County Council and Medway introduced a standardised school year, based on six terms, as recommended by the Local Government Association in its 2000 report, \"The Rhythms of Schooling\". Kent County Council Local Education Authority maintains 96 secondary schools, of which 33 are selective schools and 63 are secondary modern schools. Music education is provided by Kent Music (formerly Kent Music School), which has its origins in the 1940s. Kent Music provides services across the county including Kent County Youth Orchestra, Kent Youth Choirs, and an annual summer school at Benenden School.", "Kent has the highest number of National Challenge schools in England: schools which are branded 'failing' based on the British Government's floor targets that 30%", "In association football, Kent's highest ranked football team is Gillingham FC, who play in Football League One. Maidstone United was a Football League side from 1989 until going bankrupt in 1992. Kent clubs in the higher levels of non-league football include the current incarnation of Maidstone United and Dover Athletic playing in the National League along with Ebbsfleet United, who were promoted in 2017. Dartford currently play in National League South, the sixth tier of the English football pyramid. Kent is represented in cricket by Kent County Cricket Club. The club was a founder member of the County Championship in 1890 and has won the competition, the major domestic first-class cricket competition, seven times. The club is based at the St Lawrence Ground in Canterbury and also plays matches at the Nevill Ground in Royal Tunbridge Wells and the County Cricket Ground, Beckenham. The Kent Women cricket team has won the", "", "Much of Kent is served by the BBC's South East region, which is based in Tunbridge Wells and provides local news for the county and East Sussex. Its commercial rival is ITV Meridian Ltd, which has a newsroom at The Maidstone Studios despite the main studio", "Kent has three county-wide stations – BBC Radio Kent, based in Tunbridge Wells; and the commercial stations Heart South and Gold, both based in Whitstable and London. Most of the county is covered by local radio network KMFM, owned by the KM Group.", "The KM Group, KOS Media and Kent Regional News and Media all provide local newspapers for" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Computers.", "Move toward processor integration in PCs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In computing, the term \"chipset\" commonly refers to a set of specialized chips on a computer's motherboard or an expansion card. In personal computers, the first chipset for the IBM PC AT of 1984 was the NEAT chipset developed by Chips and Technologies for the Intel 80286 CPU. In home computers, game consoles and arcade-game hardware of the 1980s and 1990s, the term chipset was used for the custom audio and graphics chips. Examples include the Commodore Amiga's Original Chip Set or SEGA's System 16 chipset. The term \"chipset\" often refers to a specific pair of chips on the motherboard: the \"northbridge\" and the \"southbridge\". The northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially RAM and graphics controllers, and the southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the southbridge contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices\". Motherboards and their chipsets often come from different manufacturers., manufacturers of chipsets for x86 motherboards include AMD, Intel and VIA Technologies. In the 1980s, Chips and Technologies pioneered the manufacturing of chipsets for PC-compatible computers. Computer systems produced since then often share commonly used chipsets, even across widely disparate computing specialties. For example, the NCR 53C9x, a low-cost chipset implementing a SCSI interface to storage devices, could be found in Unix machines such as the MIPS Magnum, embedded devices, and personal computers.", "Traditionally in x86 computers, the processor's primary connection to the rest of the machine was through the motherboard chipset's northbridge. The northbridge was directly responsible for communications with high-speed devices (system memory and primary expansion buses, such as PCIe, AGP and PCI cards, being common examples) and conversely any system communication back to the processor. This connection between the processor and northbridge is commonly designated the front side bus (FSB). Requests to resources not directly controlled by the northbridge were offloaded to the southbridge, with the northbridge being an intermediary between the processor and the southbridge. The southbridge handled \"everything else\", generally lower-speed peripherals and board functions (the largest being hard disk and storage connectivity) such as USB, parallel and serial communications. The connection between the northbridge and southbridge was normally the PCI bus. Before 2003, any interaction between a CPU and main memory or an expansion device such as a graphics card(s) — whether AGP, PCI or integrated into the motherboard — was directly controlled by the northbridge IC on behalf of the processor. This made processor performance highly dependent on the system chipset, especially the northbridge's memory performance and ability to shuttle this information back to the processor. In 2003, however, AMD's introduction of the Athlon 64-bit series of processors changed this. The Athlon64 marked the introduction of an integrated memory controller being incorporated into the processor itself thus allowing the processor to directly access and handle memory, negating the need for a traditional northbridge to do so. Intel followed suit in 2008 with the release of its Core i series CPUs and the X58 platform. In newer processors integration has further increased, primarily through the inclusion of the system's primary PCIe controller and integrated graphics directly on the CPU itself. As fewer functions are left un-handled by the processor, chipset vendors have condensed the remaining northbridge and southbridge functions into a single chip. Intel's version of this is the \"Platform Controller Hub\" (PCH), effectively an enhanced southbridge for the remaining peripherals—as traditional northbridge duties, such as memory controller, expansion bus (PCIe) interface and even on-board video controller, are integrated into the CPU die itself (the chipset often contains secondary PCIe connections though). However, the Platform Controller Hub was also integrated into the processor package as a second die for mobile variants of the Skylake processors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "The Old Church.", "The Great Church.", "Current appearance.", "Paintings.", "Furniture.", "The bell tower.", "The museum.", "Location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Situated in the Prahova Valley, the monastery gave its name to the nearby town of Sinaia. The monastery consists of two courtyards surrounded by low buildings. In the centre of each courtyard there is a small church built in the Byzantine style. One of them—\"Biserica Veche\" (The Old Church)—dates from 1695, while the more recent \"Biserica Mare\" (The Great Church) was built in 1846. The monks possess a library that is a repository for valuable jewels belonging to the Cantacuzino family, as well as the earliest Romanian translation of the Bible, dated 1668. Take Ionescu, former Prime Minister of Romania, is buried on the grounds.", "Prince (Spătarul) Mihail Cantacuzino founded the monastery upon his return from a pilgrimage to Mount Sinai. The first buildings were completed between 1690 and 1695. It was designed to serve as a monastery as well as a fortified stronghold on the route from Brasov to Bucharest. The initial plan was for the monastery to hold 12 monks, to imitate the Twelve Apostles, but in time the number of monks grew. In the midst of the Russo-Turkish War, 1735–1739, before deserting the monastery, monks hid the valuables by burying them inside a bell. During a battle, the Turks defeated troops stationed within the walls of the monastery. The Ottomans burned the area and broke through the wall in two places. Until 1850, Sinaia consisted of little more than the monastery and a group of huts. In 1864, however, the monastic estate was assigned to the Board of Civil Hospitals (\"Eforia Spitalelor Civile\"), which opened a hospital and several baths, and helped develop mineral springs in Sinaia. In 1948, the monastery was put under the patronage of the Archdiocese of Bucharest from the Board of Civil Hospitals. The Romanian Patriarch, Justinian Marina, restored the buildings between the years 1951 and 1957 with money from the Archdiocese. During this period, the whole monastery was fitted with running water, electricity, and natural gas. Thanks to the efforts of King Carol I, the Great Church of the monastery became the first church to use electric lights in Romania.", "The Old Church was built in 1695. In 2006, it was closed to begin a restoration project to return it to its former beauty. The original interior painting was completed by Pârvu Mutu and were restored for the first time in 1795. The Old Church has reopened as of 2016.", "Under the leadership of Hegumens Ioasaf and Paisie, construction of The Great Church began in 1842 using funds allocated by the monastery and was completed in 1846. This smaller structure was enlarged by the Board of Civil Hospitals during a period from 1897 to 1903. These efforts gave the building the appearance it has today.", "Created by architect George Mandrea, the structure utilizes the Moldavian style and the Brâncovenesc style from Walachia. It is said that the belt of three green enamel lines that encircle the building represent the unity of the Holy Trinity in one God and the unity of the Three Romanian Kingdoms in one country.", "The gold mosaic paintings were created by Danish artist Aage Exner in a typical neo-Byzantine style. The main illustrations show five persons:", "The furniture was made of wood (sycamore, maple, and oak) by Constantin Babic and his students at the Bucharest Art School (\"Ṣcoala de Arte si Meserii\"). The King's throne displays the royal emblem and the motto \"Nihil sine Deo\" (Nothing without God). The Queen's throne is embossed with the letters E.D. Both thrones are gold-plated. The two Russian icons, of Saint Serghei and Saint Nicholas, were a gift from Tsar Nicholas II of Russia in 1903. They were presented to the Hegumen Nifon Arhimandritul for the baptism of Prince Nicholae, son of King Ferdinand. A remarkable piece adorning the monastery is the epitaphios by Anna Roth, made of silk and gold on a cotton base. It took three years (from 1897 to 1900) to finish.", "During the leadership of Hegumen Nifon Popescu (1888–1909), a large bell tower was added to the monastery walls. It was completed in 1892. The bell was brought from the Colţea Tower in Bucharest.", "In 1895 the museum of the monastery was opened, the first exhibition of religious objects in Romania. It holds collections of icons and crosses from the 17th century, the very first Bible in Romanian (Bucharest, 1688), and many other precious objects. The museum is open every day but Mondays, from April to October 10:00-16:00 and during winter time only for groups over 20. Fee: 5 lei (2 lei for students).", "The monastery is nearby Peleş Castle and it can be reached by train as Sinaia railway station is just 'downstairs' from the monastery. It is also accessible by road." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Specifications.", "Administration.", "Registration and restrictions.", "Usage.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The top-level domain \"io\" has existed since 1997. The first subdomain was registered in 1998, when Levi Strauss & Co. registered the domain levi.io.", "Labels for.io domains may only contain alphanumeric characters and hyphens, and must be between 3 and 63 characters long. Domain names cannot begin or end with a hyphen symbol, and may not contain two consecutive hyphens. The entire domain name may not contain more than 253 characters.", "The right to administer domain names is given to approved organisations by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA). The Internet Computer Bureau (ICB) administers.io domains. This domain name registry is a British company, and operates for this purpose under the name NIC.IO. The company also holds the rights to sell the.sh and.ac domains, the top-level domains for the Islands of Saint Helena and Ascension, respectively.", "Individuals and organisations are allowed to register.io domains. Applicants for the registration of.io domains do not need to be registered or established in the British Indian Ocean Territory. Third-level domains, such as \"\"xyz.com.io\"\", can only be registered by an inhabitant of the area. (Since there are no legal, permanent inhabitants of the British Indian Ocean Territory, theoretically no third-level domains will be registered.) Any second-level domains used by NIC.IO and top-level domains cannot be used as a third-level domain. For example, the domains \"com.com.io\", \"org.com.io\", and \"biz.com.io\" are all restricted. Domain names in.io may not be used, \"for any purpose that is sexual or pornographic or that is against the statutory laws of any nation.\" If this requirement is breached, \"NIC.IO reserves the right to immediately deactivate the offending registration.\" .io domains may be registered for a minimum of one year, and a maximum of 5 years. Domain names in.io are priced higher than those in other TLDs. Registering an available.io-domain currently (at 29 September 2019) costs US$90 per annum.", "The.io domain has considerable usage unrelated to the British Indian Ocean Territory. In computer science, \"IO\" or \"I/O\" is commonly used as an abbreviation for input/output, which makes the.io domain desirable for services that want to be associated with technology..io domains are often used for open source projects, application programming interfaces (\"APIs\"), startup companies, video games, and other online services. The TLD is also used for domain hacks, as the letters \"io\" are an ending of many English terms. For example, Rub.io is a shortened URL that was used for the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign of Marco Rubio. One reason given for the TLD's popularity is that it stands out by being shorter than other TLDs. Also, the.io TLD is less occupied than other TLDs, so it is more likely that a given term is available there. In Italian, \"io\" is the first-person singular pronoun (English \"I\"), which makes the domain appealing for personal websites. In Esperanto \"io\" as an independent word is the assertive existential indefinite pronoun (English \"something\"). As a suffix, \"-io\" is used to terminate official names of countries or other kind of lands under which a community of people are grouped. The Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto include almost 500 terms like that, from Abisenio (former name of Ethiopia, Etiopio) to Zambio (Zambia). Derived from that, the suffix is also used to designate a community of people whose common interest is indicated by the suffixed root, especially in the term Esperantio, the community of speakers of the language and their culture as a whole, as well as the places and institutions where the language is used. As of May 2020, the esperant.io domain name itself redirect to \"Libera Folio\", an independent generalist online bulletin written in Esperanto. A viral MMO game \"Agar.io\" spawned many similar MMO games like it that drew from its success, notably \"Diep.io\", \"Surviv.io\", \"Hole.io\", \"Slither.io,\" and \"krunker.io.\"This trend of using \".io\" for these online video games has continued and can be considered an indicator for its category.", "According to a Gigaom interview with Paul Kane, chairman of the Internet Computer Bureau, the domain name registry is required to give some of its profits to the British government, for administration of the British Indian Ocean Territory. After being questioned as a result of the interview, the British Government denied receiving any funds from the sale of.io domain names, and argued that consequently, the profits could not be shared with the Chagossians, the former inhabitants forcibly removed by the British government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Status.", "Sights.", "Sumiya.", "Wachigaiya.", "Location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Before the establishment of Shimabara, earlier courtesan districts were established: first 二条柳町 (Second street willow town) in 二条万里小路 (nijō made no kōji) in 1589 with the permission of Toyotomi Hideyoshi, which was moved to 六条三筋町 in 六条 (Sixth street) when the Edo period started, which was then moved to Shimabara in 1640/41. Shimabara was established in 1640 for a brothel owned by Hara Saburoemon and was closed (as a prostitution district) in 1958, when prostitution was outlawed in Japan, though it continued as a geisha district into the 1970s. There are many explanations for the name \"Shimabara\"; it may refer to the large gate (\"Ōmon\") that resembled the gate of Shimabara Castle in Hizen, or may be a reference to the then-recent Shimabara Rebellion (1637–38) (which was provoked by the construction of the castle), due to the chaotic founding of Shimabara. In the Tokugawa period, it was also called \"the licensed quarter\" (\"go-men no ocho\") or simply \"the quarter\" to distinguish the higher-class residents within from the unlicensed women who operated throughout the cities. Shimbara was one of the three districts known as established in the major cities of Japan by the Tokugawa shogunate to restrict prostitution to designated districts. These districts were Shimabara in Kyoto (est. 1640), Shinmachi in Ōsaka (est. 1624–1644) and Yoshiwara in Edo (est. 1617). These restrictions and controls were designed to control the widespread male and female prostitution of the Edo period (1603–1868). They did not derive from a moral opposition to prostitution but out of a desire to compartmentalize certain types of activity within the cities. Kabuki and jōruri theatres, and other related entertainment establishments were similarly controlled. When geisha subsequently developed in the mid-1700s, some operated in Shimabara, and hence it also became a hanamachi (geisha district). The Meiji restoration and resulting move of the imperial court to Tokyo caused economic difficulties to many traditional businesses in Kyoto that catered to the aristocracy. While the other five hanamachi adapted and have continued to this day, Shimabara entered a slow decline over the following hundred years, finally ceasing as a geisha district in the 1970s, though traditional activities continue at a low level to the present. This decline is largely attributed to Shimabara's isolation — it was originally established on the outskirts of town and remains relatively isolated and inconvenient, compared to the other districts, which are more centrally located. As with other Kyoto geisha districts, from the late 19th century Shimabara had a dance hall and an annual dance show, in its case known as. This was staged from 1873 to 1880 but ceased in 1881, together with a general decline in the dancing of the district. The dance hall was established in 1873, moved to another location in 1927, but after World War II (post 1945) it was instead used as offices and was eventually torn down in 1996.", "While it remained active as a hanamachi until the 1970s, it is now largely defunct, without a resident geisha population (no active okiya); where the kaburenjo (dance hall) once stood is now a nursing home. Today, it is mostly a tourist attraction and historical site; two teahouses remain, conserved as Cultural Assets: the Sumiya (), established in 1641, and the Wachigaiya (), established in 1688. There are also various normal businesses and residences in the district.", "The main gate (大門) at the east and the two tea houses (Wachigaiya and Sumiya) form the three main attractions; though a few additional sights remain – a shrine, a historical ginkgo tree (and associated shrine), and stone markers (seven in all), mostly indicating ruins (e.g., remains of the former west gate, where the dance hall once stood, etc.). A map is available in front of Sumiya.", "Sumiya is the center of tourism in the area and is operated as a museum, showing the secular culture of the Edo period. Sumiya is one of the very few non-temple, non-shrine, non-palace buildings in Kyoto to survive from the Edo period. It is the only remaining former ageya and is the largest machiya in Kyoto. Unlike most machiya, which are generally narrow, Sumiya has a large frontage on the street. This is because it consists of three buildings, purchased over the years. The middle is the oldest, dating to the founding in 1641 (or rather relocation of existing business to Shimabara), while the north part was acquired second (1673–80, approximately 30 years after founding), and the south part was acquired last (1787, over 100 years later). The pine great hall burnt down in a small fire in 1925, but the rest of the building is original. Many parts of the compound have been designated as important cultural properties, starting in 1952. It is open about half the year, during the tourist season, from mid-March to mid-July and again mid-September to mid-December. The first floor is open on a walk-up basis, while the second floor requires advance registration for guided tours (in Japanese) given a few times per day. The first floor of the museum features a large back garden, a small inner garden, three tea houses, a large banquet hall facing the back garden (the pine room \"matsu-no-ma\") that could fit up to 100 people (main location where parties were held), a smaller banquet hall (the wicker room \"ajiro-no-ma\") facing the inner garden, and a vast kitchen, together with exhibits. The back garden contains a racked gravel bed (rock garden) and a trellised (pergola) pine tree (second generation, about 100 years old). There are many details, such as a sword rack and sword chest where katanas were checked to prevent violence – guests placed their sword on the rack, and it was then moved to the chest. There are paintings, most significantly \"Plum Blossoms\" by Buson, with other colorful paintings in the pine room, and records of the menus, which were paid for on a \"bill afterwards\" basis. In addition to housing many fine paintings, it was a salon for noted haiku poets, and many poems are preserved in the archives. The second floor features three linked front rooms, each of different designs; these could be connected by removing the doors for larger parties. There are many paintings on the partitions, which have become stained with the soot of centuries of candles. In one room the paintings have not been cleaned, so the pictures are not very visible, but the age is; in another the paintings were cleaned a century ago, showing an intermediate state; while there are more recent paintings which are unstained and brilliantly colored. At the south end there is a recessed raised stage for musicians to perform; they entered by a side door from a side corridor. There are two smaller middle rooms, and the highest-ranked room is in the back, away from the street and overlooking the garden, separated from the livelier party below. In the past this provided a view of the western mountains and Arashiyama, though it is now blocked by the JR line and, hence, covered by trees. This high-ranked room is decorated in mother-of-pearl inlay, in a Chinese-inspired style that was popular circa 1800, and is the only surviving room in this style. Unusually, the work is signed, reflecting the skill and prestige of the artist. Sumiya was a favorite with the Shinsengumi (late Edo period police force). They frequently partied there, eventually running up such high bills that they were forbidden (by leadership) from going there any further. Violent incidents occurred – a leader was about to be murdered on one occasion (later on the way back to their home, he was assassinated), while on another a member of the force slashed at the pillars out of anger pressed for delinquent payment, leaving three gouges, which remain to this day. Conversely, it was used by reformers such as Saigō Takamori for fund-raising parties. While Sumiya was originally an ageya (pleasure house), where guests were entertained by tayū (oiran), who provided artistic entertainment as well as sex, by the late Edo period it was exclusively a restaurant and non-sexual entertainment space. It continued to operate the pine room as an entertainment space until 1985, when it closed after 345 years in business. In 1989 the Sumiya preservation society was founded, and in 1998 the museum opened.", "Wachigaiya continues to operate as an ochaya – geisha from other districts entertain there, as do tayū – and as such is not open to the public.", "Shimabara is located in what is now the ward of Shimogyō-ku, on a short stretch of Hanayachō St. (花屋町通), which runs east-west. Starting from Omiya St. (大宮通) (just west of the north side of the temple of Nishi Honganji) and going west, there is first a stretch of shops, then past Hanayachō goes slightly south, then one reaches the, where Shimabara proper starts. Proceeding west, Hanayachō ends and the street turns north then west again, where one exits past a marker indicating the ruins of the former west gate, and then faces the JR West Sagano Line (section of Sanin Main Line). The closest rail station is Tambaguchi Station on the Sagano line. Narrowly speaking, the district is on the east-west axis of Hanayachō (between the two gates), crossed by three north-west streets, and extended one block north and south (to the next east-west cross streets). These four streets were repaved with traditional field stones in the early 2010s, evoking the atmosphere of yesteryear. The actual south boundary slightly further south than the paving zone – there are two close parallel east-west streets at the south end, and the paving extends only to the northern one, while the traditional boundary was at the southern one." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Conception and production.", "German production.", "Soviet production.", "Czech production.", "French production.", "Romanian production.", "Summary of production.", "Modern development.", "Operational history.", "During World War II.", "Post World War II." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 1935, the RLM (\"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\", Reich Aviation Ministry) invited several aviation companies to submit design proposals that would compete for the production contract for a new \"Luftwaffe\" aircraft design suitable for liaison, army co-operation (today called forward air control), and medical evacuation. This resulted in the Messerschmitt Bf 163 and Siebel Si 201 competing against the Fieseler firm's entry. Conceived by chief designer Reinhold Mewes and technical director Erich Bachem, Fieseler's design had a far better short take off and landing (\"STOL\") performance. A fixed slat ran along the entire length of the leading edge of the long wings, while a hinged and slotted set of control surfaces ran along the entire length of trailing edge. This was inspired by earlier 1930s Junkers \"Doppelflügel\", \"double-wing\" aircraft wing control surface design concepts. For the Fi 156, this setup along each wing panel's trailing edge was split nearly 50/50 between the inboard-located flaps and outboard-located ailerons, which, in turn, included trim tab devices over half of each aileron's trailing edge length. A design feature rare for land-based aircraft enabled the wings on the \"Storch\" to be folded back along the fuselage in a manner similar to the wings of the U.S. Navy's Grumman F4F Wildcat fighter. This allowed the aircraft to be carried on a trailer or even towed slowly behind a vehicle. The primary hinge for the folding wing was located in the wing root, where the rear wing spar met the cabin. The long legs of the main landing gear contained oil-and-spring shock absorbers that had a travel of 40 cm (15-3/4 inches), allowing the aircraft to land on comparatively rough and uneven surfaces; this was combined with a \"pre-travel\" distance of 20 cm, before the oleos began damping the landing gear shock. In flight, the main landing gear legs hung down, giving the aircraft the appearance of a long-legged, big-winged bird, hence its nickname, \"Storch\". With its very low landing speed, the \"Storch\" often appeared to land vertically, or even backwards in strong winds from directly ahead.", "About 2,900 Fi 156s, mostly Cs, were produced from 1937 to 1945. Main production was at the Fieseler Factory in Kassel, in 1942 production started in the Morane-Saulnier factory at Puteaux in France. Due to the demand for Fieseler as a subcontractor for building the Fw 190, Fi 156 production was shifted to Leichtbau Budweis in Budweis by the end of 1943.", "In 1939, after the signing of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Germany provided several aircraft, including the Fi 156C, to the Soviet Union. Oleg Antonov was made responsible for putting the aircraft into production to meet Soviet requirements, and given a choice between designing an equivalent aircraft or merely copying the German design, the latter was selected. Two versions were envisaged: the SS three seat liaison aircraft, and the N-2 air ambulance capable of carrying two stretchers plus a medic. A prototype was constructed in Kaunas, Lithuania, which flew before the end of 1940, and production was getting under way as the factory was lost to the German advance in 1941. While Antonov's efforts had produced a heavier aircraft, which required as much as three times the field for landing and take off as the German Fi 156C, it also had much greater range and increased load capability. After the war Antonov went on to design the legendary An-2 STOL biplane, which was similarly famous for its excellent STOL performance.", "In 1944 production was moved from the Leichtbau Budweis to the Mráz factory in Choceň which produced 138 examples of the Fi 156, locally designated as \"K-65 Čáp\". Production ended in 1949.", "Immediately after the liberation of France in 1944, the production of Fi 156 at the Morane-Saulnier factory was continued at the request of the \"Armée de l'Air\" and designated MS 500 for the batch of aircraft produced with the remaining stock of Argus air-cooled inverted V8 engines. Further modifications and use of different engines (inline and radial) are known under different type numbers. The use of the aircraft in Indochina highlighted the weakness of the wood in the construction of the airframe; it was then decided to build the wings of metal. Among the modifications, the defensive weapon aiming through the back window was dropped, although some aircraft were modified in the field to take a MAC 34T machine gun firing through one of the side windows. Some 141 aircraft were built before the end of World War II, and a total of 925 aircraft were built before the end of the production of all types of \"Criquet\" by Morane-Saulnier in 1965.", "Licence production was also started in Romania in October 1943 at the ICAR factory in Bucharest. Only 10 were built by the time the ICAR factory was bombed in May 1944. Production resumed later in 1944, but only six were completed before repair work halted production. From June 1945 until 1946, a further 64 aircraft were built.", "Production per factory and per type until 31 March 1945:", "Because of its superb STOL characteristics, there have been many attempts to recreate or copy the \"Storch\", mainly in the form of various three-quarter scale homebuilt aircraft, such as the Pazmany PL-9 Stork and Roger Mann's RagWing RW19 Stork. As an example, the Slepcev Storch is a three-quarter scale reproduction of the original with some simplifications. The use of modern materials provides better STOL performance than the original with a take-off run of 30 m and landing-roll of 50 m with no headwind. It was originally designed and manufactured in Australia and is now manufactured in Serbia.", "", "The \"Storch\" was deployed in all European and North African theaters of World War II, but it is probably most famous for its role in \"Operation Eiche\", the 1943 rescue of deposed Italian dictator Benito Mussolini from a boulder-strewn mountain-top near the Gran Sasso. Even though the mountain was surrounded by Italian troops, German commando Otto Skorzeny and 90 paratroopers used gliders to land on the peak and quickly captured it. However, the problem of how to get back off remained. A Focke-Achgelis Fa 223 helicopter was sent, but it broke down en route. Instead, pilot Heinrich Gerlach flew in a \"Storch\". It landed in 30 m (100 ft), and after Mussolini and Skorzeny boarded, it took off in 80 m (250 ft), even though the aircraft was overloaded. The \"Storch\" involved in rescuing Mussolini bore the radio code letters, or \"Stammkennzeichen\", of \"SJ + LL\" in the motion picture coverage of the daring rescue. On 26 April 1945, a \"Storch\" was one of the last aircraft to land on the improvised airstrip in the Tiergarten near the Brandenburg Gate during the Battle of Berlin and the death throes of the Third Reich. It was flown by the test pilot Hanna Reitsch, who flew \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Robert Ritter von Greim from Munich to Berlin to answer a summons from Hitler. A \"Storch\" was the victim of the last dogfight on the Western Front and another was downed by a direct Allied counterpart of the Storch, an L-4 Grasshopper, the military version of the well-known American Piper J-3 Cub civilian training and sport aircraft. The pilot and co-pilot of the L-4, lieutenants Duane Francis and Bill Martin, opened fire on the \"Storch\" with their.45 caliber pistols, forcing the German air crew to land and surrender. Field Marshal Rommel used \"Storch\" aircraft for transport and battlefield surveillance during the North African desert campaign of World War II. During the war a number of \"Störche\" were captured by the Allies. One became the personal aircraft of Field Marshal Montgomery. Others were used as the personal aircraft of Air Vice Marshal Arthur Coningham and Air Vice Marshal Harry Broadhurst, who acquired his \"Storch\" in North Africa, and flew it subsequently in Italy and North-West Europe. The British captured 145, of which 64 were given to the French as war compensation from Germany.", "The French Air Force (\"Armée de l'Air\") and the French Army Light Aviation (\"Aviation Légère de l’Armée de Terre\") used the \"Criquet\" from 1945 to 1958 throughout the Indochina War and the Algerian War. The Swiss Air Force and other mountainous European countries continued to use the \"Storch\" for rescues in terrain where STOL performance was necessary, as with the historically significant Gauli Glacier crash rescue in November 1946, as a pair of \"Flugwaffe\"-flown Storches were the sole means to get its twelve survivors to safety. After World War II, Storch aircraft were used in utility roles including agricultural spraying. Many Storches are still operational today and are commonly shown at air shows. In North America, both the Collings Foundation and the Fantasy of Flight museum have airworthy Fi 156 \"Storch\" aircraft in their collections." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Timeline.", "2010 Knesset meeting.", "Comparison with other language editions.", "Strict inclusion criteria.", "\"Hamichlol\" mirror for ultra-Orthodox.", "Topics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Hebrew spelling is a matter of debate. Since the standards published by the Academy of the Hebrew Language are not always meticulously followed in common usage, the Hebrew Wikipedia community decides on problematic cases of spelling through discussion and polls to ensure consistency. When technically possible, spelling decisions are periodically enforced using automatic replacement by a bot. Hebrew Wikipedia's requirements for standards are relatively strict. Hebrew Wikipedia organizes yearly competitions, sometimes with the assistance of the Wikimedia foundation, as well as social gatherings and picnics.", "On the occasion of the 100,000 articles milestone, the Science and Technology Committee of the Knesset (Israeli parliament) invited Wikipedia contributors and users to the 2 February 2010 morning meeting, to join in a debate about Wikipedia and other open-source resources. Some Wikipedia contributors at the meeting criticized \"the lack of government cooperation with their efforts to compile a free online Hebrew-language encyclopedia,\" as well as sharing complaints from Wikipedia editors abroad that since the Israel Defense Forces does not release photos for free redistribution on the Internet, the sole source of available pictures for entries such as the Gaza War and the 2006 Lebanon War are the Palestinians.", "In July 2006, Hebrew Wikipedia had one of the highest number of bytes per article, and the highest of all editions on Wikipedia with over 20,000 articles. Whereas the English Wikipedia requires a general consensus for deleting articles (hence deletion discussion is not considered to be a voting process), the Hebrew Wikipedia has adopted a policy of deletion upon a 55% majority, with no minimum number of votes. In these votes, only registered users with one month seniority and at least 100 edits in the article, image, category or template namespaces in the past 90 days can vote.", "Compared to English Wikipedia, Hebrew Wikipedia is more conservative with respect to content. The inclusion criteria are detailed under the \"principles and guidelines\" page. Some examples: List articles are rare. In particular, lists of TV series episodes are not accepted, even as part of the articles on the series. Other controversial topics are articles of about small schools and minor educational institutions.", "Many Ultra-Orthodox Jews refrain from using the Internet in an open way. Hamichlol is a mirror site which includes a selection of wikipedia entries. Major differences are: not all articles are copied. Some entries are re-edited to be more acceptable to Ultra-Orthodox readers.", "In 2019 the Hebrew Wikipedia has 71 thousand unique categories. The average article in this language version has 10 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.295. The largest number of articles has People (19%) and Geography (13%) category. In Hebrew Wikipedia articles related to Events and Society has the highest average quality. Content about Events is read more often and articles in Entertainment category have the highest authors' interest on average." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Genealogy.", "Visions.", "Personality.", "War leadership.", "Title of \"Shirt Wearer\".", "Battle of the Hundred in the Hand (Fetterman Fight).", "Wagon Box Fight.", "Controversy over Black Buffalo Woman.", "Black Shawl and Nellie Larrabee.", "Great Sioux War of 1876–77.", "Last Sun Dance of 1877.", "Surrender and death.", "Photograph controversy.", "Legacy.", "Memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Sources differ on the precise year of Crazy Horse's birth, but most agree he was born between 1840 and 1845. According to Šúŋka Bloká (He Dog), he and Crazy Horse \"were both born in the same year at the same season of the year,\" which census records and other interviews place in 1842. Ptehé Wóptuȟ’a (Encouraging Bear), an Oglala medicine man and spiritual adviser to Crazy Horse, reported that Crazy Horse was born \"in the year in which the band to which he belonged, the Oglala, stole One Hundred Horses, and in the fall of the year,\" a reference to the annual Lakota calendar or winter count. Among the Oglala winter counts, the stealing of 100 horses is noted by Cloud Shield, and possibly by American Horse and Red Horse owner, as equivalent to the year 1840–41. Oral history accounts from relatives on the Cheyenne River Reservation place his birth in the spring of 1840. On the evening of his son's death, the elder Crazy Horse told Lieutenant H.R. Lemly that the year of birth was 1840. Crazy Horse was born to parents from two bands of the Lakota division of the Sioux, his father being an Oglala and his mother a Miniconjou. His father, born in 1810, was also named Tȟašúŋke Witkó (Crazy Horse). Crazy Horse was named Čháŋ Óhaŋ (Among the Trees) at birth, meaning he was one with nature. His mother, Tȟašína Ȟlaȟlá Wiŋ (Rattling Blanket Woman, born 1814), gave him the nickname Pȟehíŋ Yuȟáȟa (Curly) or Žiží (Light Hair) as his light curly hair resembled her own. She died when Crazy Horse was only four years old. One account said that after the son had reached maturity and shown his strength, his father gave him his name and took a new one, Waglúla (Worm). Another version of how the younger Crazy Horse acquired his name is that he took it after going through the haŋbléčheya ceremony. Crazy Horse's cousin (son of Hewáŋžiča, Lone Horn) was Maȟpíya Ičáȟtagya (Touch the Clouds). He saved Crazy Horse's life at least once and was with him when he died.", "Rattling Blanket Woman was the daughter of Black Buffalo and White Cow (also known as Iron Cane). Her older siblings were Lone Horn (born 1790, died 1877) and Good Looking Woman (born 1810). Her younger sister was named Looks At It (born 1815), later given the name They Are Afraid of Her. The historian George Hyde wrote that Rattling Blanket Woman was Miniconjou and the sister of Spotted Tail, who became a Brulé head chief. In the summer of 1844, Waglúla went on a buffalo hunt. He came across a Miniconjou Lakota village under attack by Crow warriors. He led his small party of warriors to the village and rescued it. Corn, the head man of the village, had lost his wife in the raid. In gratitude", "Crazy Horse lived in a Lakota camp in present-day Wyoming with his younger half-brother, Little Hawk, son of Iron Between Horns and Waglula. Little Hawk was the nephew of his maternal step-grandfather, Long Face, and a cousin, High Horse. In 1854, the camp was entered by Lieutenant John Lawrence Grattan and 29 other U.S. troopers, who intended to arrest a Miniconjou man for having stolen a cow. The cow had wandered into the camp, and after a short time someone butchered it and passed the meat out among the people. When the soldiers fatally shot Chief Conquering Bear, the Lakota returned fire, killing all 30 soldiers and a civilian interpreter in what was later called the Grattan massacre. After witnessing the death of Conquering Bear at the Grattan massacre, Crazy Horse began to get trance visions. Curly went out on a vision quest to", "Crazy Horse was known to have a personality characterized by aloofness, shyness,", "", "Through the late 1850s and early 1860s, Crazy Horse's reputation as a warrior grew, as did his fame among the Lakota. The Lakota told accounts of him in their oral histories. His first kill was a Shoshone raider who had murdered a Lakota woman washing buffalo meat along the Powder River. Crazy Horse fought in numerous battles between the Lakota", "On December 21, 1866, Crazy Horse and six other warriors, both Lakota and Cheyenne, decoyed Capt. William Fetterman's 53 infantrymen and 27 cavalry troopers under Lt. Grummond into an ambush. They had been sent out from Fort Phil Kearny to follow up on an earlier attack on a wood train. Crazy Horse lured Fetterman's infantry up a hill. Grummond's cavalry followed the other six decoys along Peno Head Ridge and down toward Peno Creek, where several Cheyenne women taunted the soldiers.", "On August 2, 1867, Crazy Horse participated in the Wagon Box Fight, also near Fort Phil Kearny. Lakota forces numbering between 1000 and 2000 attacked a wood-cutting crew near the fort. Most of the soldiers fled to a circle of wagon boxes without wheels, using them for cover as they fired at the Lakota. The Lakota", "In the fall of 1870, Crazy Horse invited Black Buffalo Woman to accompany him on a buffalo hunt in the Slim Buttes area of present-day northwestern South Dakota. She was the wife of No Water, who had a reputation for drinking too much. It was Lakota custom to allow a woman to divorce her husband at any time. She did so by moving in with relatives or with another man, or by placing the husband's belongings outside their lodge. Although some compensation might be required to smooth over hurt feelings, the rejected husband was expected to accept his wife's decision. No Water was away from camp when Crazy Horse and Black Buffalo", "Crazy Horse married Black Shawl, a member of the Oglala Lakota and relative of Spotted Tail. The elders sent her to heal Crazy Horse after his altercation with No Water. Crazy Horse and Black Shawl Woman were married in 1871. Black Shawl gave birth to Crazy Horse's only child, a daughter named They Are Afraid Of Her, who died in 1873. Black Shawl outlived Crazy Horse. She died", "On June 17, 1876, Crazy Horse led a combined group of approximately 1,500 Lakota and Cheyenne in a surprise attack against brevetted Brigadier General George Crook's force of 1,000 cavalry and infantry, and allied 300 Crow and Shoshone warriors in the Battle of the Rosebud. The battle, although not substantial in terms of human losses, delayed Crook's joining with the 7th Cavalry under George A. Custer. It contributed to Custer’s subsequent defeat at the Battle of the Little Bighorn. A week later at 3:00 p.m. on June 25, 1876, Custer's 7th Cavalry attacked a large encampment of Cheyenne and Lakota bands along the Little Bighorn River, marking the beginning of his last battle. Crazy Horse's actions during the battle are unknown. Hunkpapa warriors led by Chief Gall led the main body of the attack. Crazy Horse's tactical and leadership role in the battle remains ambiguous. While some historians think that Crazy Horse led a flanking assault, ensuring the death of Custer and his men, the only proven fact is that Crazy Horse was a major participant in", "The Last Sun Dance of 1877 is significant in Lakota history as the Sun Dance held to honor Crazy Horse one year after the victory at the Battle of the Little Big Horn, and to offer prayers for him in the trying times ahead. Crazy Horse attended the Sun Dance as", "Crazy Horse and other northern Oglala leaders arrived at the Red Cloud Agency, located near Fort Robinson, Nebraska, on May 5, 1877. Together with He Dog, Little Big Man, Iron Crow and others, they met in a solemn ceremony with First Lieutenant William P. Clark as the first step in their formal surrender. For the next four months, Crazy Horse resided in his village near the Red Cloud Agency. The attention that Crazy Horse received from the Army drew the jealousy of Red Cloud and Spotted Tail, two Lakota who had long before come to the agencies and adopted the white ways. Rumors of Crazy Horse's desire to slip away and return to the old ways of life started to spread at the Red Cloud and Spotted Tail agencies. In August 1877, officers at Camp Robinson received word that the Nez Perce of Chief Joseph had broken out of their reservation in Idaho and were fleeing north through Montana toward Canada. When asked by Lieutenant Clark to join the Army against the Nez Perce, Crazy Horse and the Miniconjou leader Touch the Clouds objected, saying that they had promised to remain at peace when they surrendered. According to one version of events, Crazy Horse finally agreed, saying that he would fight \"till all the Nez Perce were killed.\" But his words were apparently misinterpreted by a half-Tahitian scout, Frank Grouard, a person not to be confused with Fred Gerard, another U.S. Cavalry scout during the summer of 1876. Grouard reported that Crazy Horse had said that he would \"go north and fight until not a white man is left.\" When he was challenged over his interpretation, Grouard left the council. Another interpreter, William Garnett, was brought in but quickly noted the growing tension. With the growing trouble at the Red Cloud Agency, General George Crook was ordered to stop at Fort Robinson. A council of the Oglala leadership was called, then canceled, when Crook was incorrectly informed that Crazy Horse had said the previous evening that he intended to kill the general during the proceedings. Crook ordered Crazy Horse's arrest and then departed, leaving the post commander at Fort Robinson, Lieutenant Colonel Luther P. Bradley, to carry out his order. Additional troops were brought in from Fort Laramie. On the morning of September 4, 1877, two columns moved against Crazy Horse's village, only to find that it had scattered during the night. Crazy Horse had fled to the nearby Spotted Tail Agency with his wife, who had become ill with tuberculosis. After meeting with military officials at Camp Sheridan, the adjacent military post, Crazy Horse agreed to return to Fort Robinson with Lieutenant Jesse M. Lee, the Indian agent at Spotted Tail. On the morning of September 5, 1877, Crazy Horse and Lieutenant Lee, accompanied by Touch the Clouds as well as a number of Indian scouts, departed for Fort Robinson. Arriving that evening outside the adjutant's office, Lieutenant Lee was informed that he was to turn Crazy Horse over to the Officer of the Day. Lee protested and hurried to Bradley's quarters to debate the issue, but without success. Bradley had received orders that Crazy Horse was to be arrested and taken under the cover of darkness to Division Headquarters. Lee turned the Oglala war chief over to Captain James Kennington, in charge of the post guard, who accompanied Crazy Horse to the post guardhouse. Once inside, Crazy Horse struggled with the guard and Little Big Man and attempted to escape. Just outside the door, Crazy Horse was stabbed with a bayonet by one of the members of the guard. He was taken to the adjutant's office, where he was tended by the assistant post surgeon at the post, Dr. Valentine McGillycuddy, and died late that night. The following morning, Crazy Horse's body was turned over to his elderly parents, who took it to Camp Sheridan and placed it on a burial scaffold. The following month, when the Spotted Tail Agency was moved to the Missouri River, Crazy Horse's parents moved the remains to an undisclosed location. There are at least four possible locations as noted on a state highway memorial near Wounded Knee, South Dakota. His final resting place remains unknown.", "Most sources question whether Crazy Horse was ever photographed. Valentine McGillycuddy doubted any photograph of the war leader had been taken. In 1908, Walter Camp wrote to the agent for the Pine Ridge Reservation inquiring about a portrait. \"I have never seen a photo of Crazy Horse,\" Agent Brennan replied, \"nor am I able to find any one among our Sioux here who remembers having seen a picture of him. Crazy Horse had left the hostiles but a short time before he was killed and it's more than likely he never had a picture taken of himself.\" In 1956, a small tintype portrait purportedly of Crazy Horse was published by J. W. Vaughn in his book \"With Crook at the Rosebud\". The photograph had belonged to the family of the scout Baptiste \"Little Bat\" Garnier. Two decades later, the", "In the view of author Chris Hedges, \"there are few resistance figures in American history as noble as Crazy Horse,\" while adding that \"his ferocity of spirit remains a guiding light for all who seek lives of defiance.\"", "Crazy Horse is commemorated by the incomplete Crazy Horse Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota, near the town of Berne. Like the nearby Mount Rushmore National Memorial, it is a monument carved out of a mountainside. The sculpture was begun by Polish-American sculptor Korczak Ziółkowski, who had worked under Gutzon Borglum on Mount Rushmore, in 1948. Plans call for the completed monument to be wide and high. Ziółkowski was inspired to create the Crazy Horse Memorial after receiving a letter from native Lakota chief Henry Standing Bear, who asked if Ziółkowski would be interested in creating a monument for the native North Americans to show that the Indian nations also have their heroes. The Native Americans consider Thunderhead Mountain, where the monument is being carved, to be sacred ground. Thunderhead Mountain is situated between Custer and Hill City. Upon completion, the head of Crazy Horse will be the world’s largest sculpture of the human head, measuring approximately tall, more than 27 feet taller than the 60-foot faces of the U.S. Presidents depicted on Mount Rushmore, and the Crazy Horse Memorial as a whole will be the largest sculpture in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Content.", "History.", "Software.", "Characteristics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As of, it has about articles. It is the largest Wikipedia in a non-European language, as well as the largest for a language which is official in only one country. However, it has only 375,000 articles manually created, 67% of its articles having been made by bots, and thus ranks 3rd among non-European language Wikipedias after the Japanese and Chinese ones.", "The Vietnamese Wikipedia initially went online in November 2002, with a front page and an article about the Internet Society. The project received little attention and did not begin to receive significant contributions until it was \"restarted\" in October 2003 and the newer, Unicode-capable MediaWiki software was installed soon after. By August 2008, the Vietnamese Wikipedia had grown to more than 50,000 articles – a milestone it achieved on August 26 – approximately 432 of which were created by bots. By the time the project reached the 100,000-article milestone on September 12, 2009, bot-generated articles made up around 5% of its corpus. Short articles are designated \"stubs\"; such articles number in the tens of thousands and include most of the bot-generated articles. An experimental Wikipedia edition in the obsolete chữ Nôm script began in October 2006 at the Wikimedia Incubator. It was deleted in April 2010. An unrelated wiki encyclopedia project, VinaWiki, transliterates Vietnamese Wikipedia articles into chữ Nôm as part of a project to revive the script. The volunteer-led Vietnam Wikimedians User Group supports the development of the Vietnamese Wikipedia and other Vietnamese-language Wikimedia projects. It gained formal recognition as a Wikimedia user group on 28 August 2018. The Vietnamese Wikipedia's article count reached 500,000 on 28 September 2012 and 1,000,000 on 15 June 2014.", "The Vietnamese Wikipedia uses AVIM, a JavaScript-based input method that allows the user to type accented Vietnamese text in popular input methods, such as Telex, VNI and VIQR. (See Vietnamese language and computers.) The preferred input system can be selected using a box under the sidebar.", "In 2019 the Vietnamese Wikipedia has 277 thousand unique categories and 36.53% of them do not have appropriate page in the category namespace. The average article in this language version has 6 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.23. The largest number of articles has Technology (66%) and Life (12%) category. In Vietnamese Wikipedia articles related to Sports and Events has the highest average quality. Content about Law is read more often and articles in Organizations category have the highest authors' interest on average." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mission highlights.", "First flight of Block II SSME.", "Wake-up calls." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The primary purpose of the flight was to deliver and install the Quest airlock. The Joint Airlock is a pressurized flight element consisting of two cylindrical chambers attached end-to-end by a connecting bulkhead and hatch. Once installed and activated, the ISS airlock became the primary path for International Space Station space walk entry and departure for U.S. spacesuits, which are known as Extravehicular Mobility Units, or EMUs. In addition, the Joint Airlock is designed to support the Russian Orlan spacesuit for EVA activity. The Joint Airlock is 20 ft (6.1 m) long, 13 ft (4.0 m) in diameter and weighs 6.5 short tons (5.9 metric tons). It is made from steel and aluminum, and manufactured at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) by the Space Station main contractor Boeing. The ISS-airlock has two main components: a crew airlock and an equipment airlock for storing EVA gear and EVA preflight preps. STS-104 also carries a spacelab pallet with four High Pressure Gas Assembly containers that were attached to the exterior of the airlock. Mission Specialists Michael Gernhardt and James Reilly conducted three space walks while Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\" was docked to the International Space Station. They spent a total of 16 hours and 30 minutes outside. During the first space walk, Gernhardt and Reilly assisted in the installation of the airlock. During the second and third excursions, they focused on the external outfitting of the Quest airlock with four High Pressure Gas Tanks, handrails and other vital equipment. The third spacewalk was conducted from \"Quest\" itself. STS-104 was the final Space Shuttle mission to have a five-member crew. All succeeding missions would have six or seven (except the final mission STS-135, which had 4).", "STS-104 was the first shuttle mission to fly with a \"Block II\" SSME. Post-launch analysis indicated an anomaly occurred when the engine was shut down. The cause was determined and the mitigation approach was demonstrated on the STS-108 flight in November 2001.", "NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Gemini program, which was first used to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by their families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Tennis career.", "Early career.", "2001–2003.", "2004: Breakthrough.", "2005–2009: Peak Years.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010: Wrist Injury.", "2011–2014 : Decline.", "2011.", "2012.", "2013.", "2014: Retirement.", "Playing style.", "Equipment.", "Controversies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Davydenko was granted Russian citizenship in 1999 at the age of 18, and after that represented Russia. In 2007, he applied for Austrian citizenship (so as to obtain dual citizenship) and had also previously applied for German citizenship. He and his wife, Irina, have one child, a daughter named Yekaterina. His nephew Philipp is also a professional tennis player.", "", "Davydenko started playing at the age of seven with his brother, Eduard. During his junior tennis years, he moved to Salmtal, Germany with Eduard to further improve and participate in more tournaments. Davydenko turned professional in 1999. In 2000, he played mainly on the Futures Tour, where he captured one title and reached three finals. He made his ATP debut at Amsterdam, reaching the semifinal. Later in August, he won his first Challenger title in Mönchengladbach.", "Davydenko made his Grand Slam debut in 2001 at the Australian Open, where he made it to the second round, before losing to former world no. 1, Patrick Rafter in four sets. This performance captured the public eye for his talent and ability. Later in February, he injured his lower back in Dallas and was out for six weeks. After the injury, he came back to win two Challenger titles in Ulm and Istanbul. He finished the season with a quarterfinal showing in Basel. In 2002, Davydenko continued to play on both the ATP Tour and in Challenger events. It was a steady year with quarterfinal appearances in Båstad and Vienna. During the year, he captured his fourth Challenger title in Szczecin. Davydenko made huge strides on the ATP Tour in 2003. He opened the season with his first ATP title in Adelaide, defeating Kristof Vliegen in the final. A few months later, he captured his second tour title in Estoril on clay, beating Agustín Calleri. His season was backed up with solid performances on clay in Barcelona and St. Pölten, reaching the quarterfinal and final, respectively. After a solid year, Davydenko finished in the top 50 for the first time in his career.", "His progress continued in 2004, capturing two more titles for the second consecutive year. After a slow start to season, a quarterfinal in the Monte Carlo Masters kicked off a 10–2 matches run. A week later, he won his third title in Munich. He backed up his win by reaching the semifinal in Stuttgart, losing to Guillermo Cañas. In October, he captured his first home-soil victory in Moscow by winning both the singles and doubles (partnering Igor Andreev). He finished the season in the top 30 for the first time.", "", "In 2005, he began the season by reaching the quarterfinals for the first time in a Grand Slam at the Australian Open. During the clay season, he captured his fifth career title in St. Pölten, beating home favourite, Jürgen Melzer. He continued his solid form by reaching the semifinals of the Hamburg Masters and his first semifinal of a Grand Slam at the French Open. In the fourth round of the French Open, he upset one of the tournament favourites and the previous year's runner-up, Guillermo Coria, 2–6, 6–3, 7–6, 6–2. This win showed just how far Davydenko had come in the last year, as Coria had beaten Davydenko with the loss of just six games in the 2004 French Open first round. Davydenko lost in the semifinals of the 2005 French Open to Mariano Puerta in five close sets, 3–6, 7–5, 6–2, 4–6, 4–6. Davydenko reached the top 10 for the first time after the 2005 French Open. He closed out the year by reaching the quarterfinals at the Cincinnati Masters and the Paris Masters. After a great season, he qualified for the Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai for the first time and reached the semifinals, losing to David Nalbandian. He finished the year as the no. 1 Russian and world no. 5.", "After his rapid rise into the top 5 in 2005, Davydenko continued to stay in the top 5 for 2006. He repeated his quarterfinal appearance at the Australian Open, losing to Roger Federer in four tight sets, 4–6, 6–3, 6–7, 6–7. He had another solid clay-court season, reaching the final in Estoril and the quarterfinal, at the Hamburg Masters. He defended his title in Pöertschach and reached the quarterfinal at the French Open for the second year. His form continued after an early loss at Wimbledon with wins in Sopot and his first American win in New Haven. He reached his second Grand Slam semifinal at the U.S. Open, losing to Roger Federer. He finished the season with a win in Moscow and his first career TMS title in Paris. After getting married, Davydenko helped Russia win the Davis Cup against Argentina. He reached a career-high ranking of no. 3, with which he finished the year.", "2007 started with another quarterfinal appearance at the Australian Open for the third consecutive year. He was slow to find his form in the clay court season, but finally did at the Rome Masters, losing in the semifinal to Rafael Nadal in an enthralling match, 6–7, 7–6, 4–6. His good form continued, and he reached the semifinals for the second time at the French Open, losing to Roger Federer again, 5–7, 6–7, 6–7. At Wimbledon, he surprised the tennis world by reaching the fourth round on his least preferred surface. Moving to the hard-court season in the US, Davydenko had strong showings in the Canada Masters and the Cincinnati Masters, reaching the quarterfinals and semifinals, respectively. Davydenko then reached the semifinals of the U.S. Open for the second consecutive year, before losing to Roger Federer, 5–7, 1–6, 5–7. He won his eleventh career title in Moscow, defeating Paul-Henri Mathieu. In November, he took part in the Masters Cup, which took place in Shanghai, China. He played in the Red group round robin, losing to eventual champion Roger Federer 2:0 sets, losing to Andy Roddick 2:1 sets, and beating Fernando Gonzales 2:0 sets, thus finishing 3rd in the group, meaning he did not reach the knockout stage. Davydenko ended the year ranked no. 4 and in the top 5 for the third straight year.", "Davydenko started 2008 at the Australian Open, where he was seeded fourth. He won his first three matches in straight sets, but in the fourth round he lost to countryman Mikhail Youzhny, 6–7, 3–6, 1–6. In Dubai, he reached the semifinals, losing to Feliciano López in three sets. He then went on to win his biggest career title to date at the Miami Masters. En route to the win, he defeated Andy Roddick in the semifinals and Rafael Nadal, 6–4, 6–2, in the final to win his second ATP Masters Series title. His win over Roddick in the semifinals was his first victory in six matches, while his win over Nadal was his first in three matches. Davydenko began the European clay-court season with a final appearance in his next tournament, the Estoril Open in Portugal, where he met world no. 1, Roger Federer in the final. In the second set of the final, while trailing Federer, 6–7, 2–1, Davydenko retired with a left leg injury. He then reached the semifinals of the Monte Carlo Masters. He won his thirteenth career title in Pöertschach, defeating Juan Mónaco, 6–2, 2–6, 6–2. After a disappointing French Open, Davydenko went on to win another title, this time in Warsaw, defeating Tommy Robredo, 6–3, 6–3, in the final. Appearing at the 2008 Summer Olympics, Davydenko's stay in Beijing was brief; despite being seeded fourth at the Games, he would be upset by Paul-Henri Mathieu in the second round. He did not win back-to-back matches until the US Open. At the Open, he lost in the fourth round to qualifier Gilles Müller, 4–6, 6–4, 3–6, 6–7, breaking his streak of two straight semifinals. Davydenko reached the semifinals at the Paris Masters, losing to David Nalbandian, 1–6, 7–5, 4–6. Davydenko qualified for the Tennis Masters Cup for the fourth consecutive year. He beat Juan Martín del Potro and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the round-robin matches to progress to the semifinals, where he defeated Andy Murray, 7–5, 6–2, to reach the final. There he met Novak Djokovic, losing 1–6, 5–7. Davydenko finished the year ranked no. 5 in the world and in the top 5 for the fourth consecutive year.", "Davydenko started the year at an exhibition in Abu Dhabi, which featured six of the world's best players. Davydenko defeated Andy Roddick, 6–4, 6–4, before being defeated by top seed Rafael Nadal, 6–2, 6–3. His first tour tournament was in Chennai, India, where he was the top seed. He defeated Daniel Köllerer in straight sets, but was forced to withdraw before his second-round match against Lukáš Dlouhý because of a left heel injury. This injury subsequently forced Davydenko to withdraw from the Australian Open. In Rotterdam, he was defeated in the second round by Julien Benneteau. The injury he sustained in Chennai earlier in the year returned, forcing Davydenko to withdraw from the 1000 Series tournaments in Indian Wells and Miami. This caused his ranking to fall from no. 5 to no. 9 by April 6. Davydenko returned to the tour after a two-month absence. In Monte Carlo, he defeated Ivo Karlović and David Nalbandian, before being eliminated by Andy Murray in the quarterfinals, 6–7, 4–6. In Barcelona, he posted back-to-back three-set wins over Feliciano López and Radek Štěpánek. He was ousted by world no. 1 Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, 3–6, 2–6. Despite his run in Barcelona, his ranking slipped out of the top 10 for the first time since May 23, 2005. Davydenko was upset in the early rounds in Rome. Davydenko reached his second semifinal of the year in Estoril by eliminating Juan Carlos Ferrero in the second round and Mardy Fish in the quarterfinals, but was stopped by American James Blake, 7–6, 6–7, 3–6. In his last tournament before the French Open, Nikolay advanced to the third round in Madrid, before he was forced to withdraw before his match with Andy Roddick due to a leg injury. He was able to play at Roland Garros and convincingly advanced to the quarterfinals. He dropped a set apiece to Diego Junqueira and Stanislas Wawrinka and beat eighth seed Fernando Verdasco, 6–2, 6–2, 6–4 en route. He fell to eventual runner-up Robin Söderling (who had just upset Rafael Nadal in the fourth round), 1–6, 3–6, 1–6. On grass, Davydenko advanced to the third round at Wimbledon, before falling to Tomáš Berdych, 2–6, 3–6, 2–6, for the first time. After Wimbledon, he competed in the 2009 MercedesCup as second seed, falling to Fabio Fognini in the quarterfinals. He then won two straight titles: the 2009 International German Open, defeating Paul-Henri Mathieu, 6–4, 6–2, and the 2009 ATP Studena Croatia Open Umag, defeating Juan Carlos Ferrero, 6–3, 6–0, dropping only one set in 10 matches. Davydenko then lost to Andy Murray in the quarterfinals of the Rogers Cup in Montreal, 2–6, 4–6, a loss which snapped a 12-match winning streak. He then lost in the third round of the 2009 Cincinnati Masters to Gilles Simon, 7–6, 4–6, 4–6. Davydenko lost in the quarterfinals of the 2009 Pilot Pen Tennis to Sam Querrey. At the US Open, he reached the fourth round, before retiring against Robin Söderling with a left thigh injury. He won his third title of the year at the 2009 Malaysian Open by beating Gaël Monfils, 6–3, 6–3, in the quarterfinals, Robin Söderling, 1–6, 7–6, 6–2, in the semifinals, and Fernando Verdasco, 6–4, 7–5, in the final. Following his triumph in Malaysia, he competed in the 2009 China Open, losing in the quarterfinals to eventual runner-up Marin Čilić, 4–6, 4–6. At the Shanghai Masters 1000 event, he defeated three seeded players en route to the final, tenth seed Fernando González, thirteenth seed Radek Štěpánek, and second seed Novak Djokovic. He upset Djokovic in the semifinals, 4–6, 6–4, 7–6. In the final, he played Rafael Nadal and again won in an upset, 7–6, 6–3. At the ATP World Tour Finals in London, Davydenko won four of his five matches. He lost his first round-robin match to Novak Djokovic, 6–3, 4–6, 5–7, but he beat Nadal in his second match, 6–1, 7–6. He also went on to beat the odds, defeating his group leader, Robin Söderling, 7–6, 4–6, 6–3 to reach the semifinals. He recorded his first win over Roger Federer in 13 tries in the semifinals with a 6–2, 4–6, 7–5 win. With the win, Davydenko advanced to his second consecutive ATP World Tour Finals final. He won by defeating Juan Martín del Potro in the final, 6–3, 6–4. This victory meant that he became the first Russian to win the event. The straight-set victory also meant that the winner won the event in straight sets for the fourth year in a row. Davydenko finished the year ranked no. 6 in world and in the top 10 for the fifth consecutive year.", "Davydenko started the year at the exhibition event in Abu Dhabi, but was defeated in the first round by David Ferrer. A week later at the 2010 Qatar ExxonMobil Open, Davydenko defeated Roger Federer, 6–4, 6–4, in the semifinal and Rafael Nadal, 0–6, 7–6, 6–4, in the final to claim his twentieth ATP World Tour title. With this victory in 2010, Davydenko became the second player to beat both Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal in the same tournament (after Juan Martín del Potro at the 2009 US Open) on separate occasions. At the Australian Open, Davydenko won his first three rounds without dropping a set, before beating Spain's Fernando Verdasco in five sets. He eventually lost to Federer in the quarterfinal, 6–2, 3–6, 0–6, 5–7. Davydenko then went to Rotterdam to play in the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament. He was the second seed but, in the semifinal against Sweden's Robin Söderling Davydenko landed on his wrist, and injured it. He continued to play and lost to the eventual champion, 6–7, 4–6. Davydenko next appeared in the Dubai Tennis Championships. At the 2010 BNP Paribas Open at Indian Wells, Davydenko defeated Latvia's Ernests Gulbis. Before his third-round match with Viktor Troicki of Serbia, he withdrew due to a fractured wrist. Davydenko returned to the grass court in Halle, after missing the 2010 French Open. In his first match back, he beat local player Simon Greul, 7–6, 6–0. He played despite his doctor's advising him against playing the tournament. However, he lost in the next round to Benjamin Becker, 3–6, 4–6. He then fell in the second round of 2010 Wimbledon to Daniel Brands, 6–1, 6–7, 6–7, 1–6. He then failed to win back-to-back matches in his next four tournaments until the 2010 Western & Southern Financial Group Masters, where he defeated Robby Ginepri and David Ferrer, both in three sets, before falling to Roger Federer in the quarterfinals, 4–6, 5–7. He also reached the quarterfinals of the 2010 China Open, but failed to defend his title in the Shanghai Rolex Masters and fell out the top 10 for the first time in over a year. He then reached three consecutive quarterfinals in the 2010 Open Sud de France, 2010 Valencia Open 500, and 2010 BNP Paribas Masters. Davydenko did not qualify for the Barclays ATP World Tour Finals. This was the first time he did not qualify since qualifying for the first time in 2005. He also dropped out of the top 20 for the first time in over 5 1/2 years.", "", "2011 saw a decline in Davydenko's form. His first appearance was in the Qatar Open, where he defeated Rafael Nadal in the semifinals, but he fell in the final to Roger Federer. At the 2011 Australian Open he was defeated by unseeded Florian Mayer in four sets, 3–6, 6–4, 6–7, 4–6. He then fell in the opening rounds of 2011 ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament and 2011 Open 13 to Frenchmen Michaël Llodra and Gilles Simon, respectively. In the 2011 Dubai Tennis Championships and 2011 BNP Paribas Open, he fell in the opening and second rounds to Tomáš Berdych and Stanislas Wawrinka, respectively. In the next two Masters 1000, he fell in the first round of the 2011 Sony Ericsson Open and 2011 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters. He then earned his first back-to-back wins since Doha in the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell, but fell in the third round to Nicolás Almagro, 6–7, 3–6. Then, at the 2011 BMW Open tournament, he started slowly but progressively found some good form, which allowed him to eventually win the final, 6–3, 3–6, 6–1, against Florian Mayer. This was his 21st ATP title, and it meant that he had won at least one ATP-tour title for nine straight years and returned him back into the top 30 in the rankings. This was, however, his only final of the year and he failed to progress past the third round in any Grand Slam or Masters tournament, although his defeat at the US Open, came to world number one Novak Djokovic, 3–6, 4–6, 2–6, after victories in the first two rounds against Ivan Dodig and Potito Starace.", "Davydenko lost in the first round of the Australian Open to Flavio Cipolla, 4–6, 6–4, 6–3, 2–6, 1–6, and the first round of Roland Garros, to Andreas Seppi. He played World No. 4, Andy Murray, in the first round of the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, and was defeated, 1–6, 1–6, 4–6. Davydenko did slightly better at the US Open, winning his first-round match against Argentinian Guido Pella but losing in the second round to local Mardy Fish in five sets. The collective results represented Davydenko's worst performance at the Grand Slams in a single year. Examining the year overall, Davydenko started poorly with a first-round loss in Doha (to world no. 3 Roger Federer) and a second-round defeat in Montpellier during January, in addition to his early exit in Australia. February started well with Davydenko reaching the semi-finals of the indoor tournament in Rotterdam, only to be defeated by Federer again. Davydenko's other best results were reaching the semi-final of the clay court tournament in Nice in May, where Davydenko was upset by Brian Baker of the USA, ranked 216 at the time; Davydenko also reached the semi-final of the indoor tournament in Metz in September, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in three sets. In July 2012 Davydenko represented the Russian Federation at the 2012 London Olympic Games, with the tennis tournament being played at Wimbledon. In the men's singles competition Davydenko won his first-round match against Radek Štěpánek of the Czech Republic but lost in the second round to Japan's Kei Nishikori. Davydenko paired with Mikhail Youzhny in the Olympics men's doubles; they won their first-round match over Germany (Philipp Petzschner and Christopher Kas) but lost a tight match in the second round to eventual gold medallists Bob and Mike Bryan of the USA, 7-6 (8-6), 7-6 (7-1). Davydenko's final tournament appearance of 2012 was the indoor in Basel, Switzerland in late October, where he lost in the second round to Paul-Henri Mathieu. Overall, Davydenko entered 25 tournaments in 2012 and finished with a 24-23 record, winning $498,941 in prizemoney. He finished 2012 with an ATP singles ranking of 44, down from 41 at the start of 2012.", "Davydenko started his 2013 season by reaching the finals of the Qatar ExxonMobil Open in January after defeating Spain's David Ferrer (then ranked 5 in the world) in the semifinals. He then took on Richard Gasquet, the world number 10, in the final, eventually losing in 3 sets (3-6, 7-6 (4), 6-3). He would later appear at the French Open, reaching the third round before being knocked out by Gasquet in straight sets (4-6, 4-6, 3-6) He ended the year in rank No. 53.", "In the 2014 season, Davydenko failed to win consecutively. He lost to Daniel Brands in the first round of the Qatar Open. He was beaten by Richard Gasquet in the second round of the Australian Open. In Montpellier, Davydenko defeated world no.39 Julien Benneteau but was stunned by world no. 248 Albano Olivetti. In 2014 Open 13 second round, he was beaten by Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. At the 2014 Indian Wells Masters, he reached the second round losing to John Isner. In the 2014 Sony Open Tennis first round, he was defeated by Adrian Mannarino. Davydenko began his clay court season with a first round loss to Albert Ramos at the Barcelona Open. At BMW Open, he was defeated by Federico Delbonis. He won his first clay court match of the season at the Düsseldorf Open by defeating Dudi Sela before losing to Jiri Vesely second round. After losing the first round of the 2014 French Open, he skipped the grass court season to decide whether he would retire or not. Sources close to the Russian Davis Cup team and tennis federation said that Davydenko had decided to retire and that he would be honoured with a farewell ceremony at that year's Kremlin Cup. On October 16, Davydenko confirmed these rumors by announcing his retirement at a press conference in Moscow.", "Davydenko employed an offensive baseline game, using deep and penetrating groundstrokes on both wings. His groundstrokes were technically efficient on both forehand and backhand. His tremendous footspeed and anticipation enabled him to hit the ball early which caught opponents out of position and allowed him to dictate the play, somewhat similar to former world no. 1 Andre Agassi. Davydenko's best shot was his backhand, which he could hit down the line, cross court, or with extreme angles. He was known for his running shots which he took early and often turned into winners. His serve was technically correct and very consistent, even though it lacked the fire-power to become a serious weapon. Davydenko's style made him an effective player on any surface, however he was most successful on hard and clay courts, as he had not made any significant breakthroughs on grass. Davydenko's main weaknesses were his volleys, and his occasional inability to close out matches. His volleys were not as consistent as his groundstrokes, though he did have one of the best swinging volleys on tour. Many tennis analysts also criticized Davydenko for lacking variation in his game due to the fact that he mainly played from the baseline with his consistent groundstrokes. In the later years of his career, he varied his game by employing the slice and moving into the net more often. Davydenko's difficulty closing matches lost him numerous important matches after holding the lead. This was evident during the 2006 Tennis Masters Cup against James Blake and Rafael Nadal where he won the first set and had the lead in the second, but lost. Against Roger Federer, he blew a lead at the 2006 and 2010 Australian Opens as well as at the 2007 French Open. In the 2006 Australian Open, he had three set points in the third to go up 2 sets to 1, but lost the set and eventually the match.", "Beginning mid-2010, he began using Dunlop Sport racquets and was using the Dunlop Biomimetic 200 Plus. However, in the beginning of 2012, he stopped the contract with Dunlop and returned to using the Prince Ozone Pro Tour. At the 2014 BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells California, Davydenko was playing with a Babolat AeroPro Drive GT. Davydenko wore Asics shoes and clothing towards the end of his career.", "In January 2007, Davydenko was fined AU$10,000 and apologised to Sydney International organisers after criticising the tournament for being \"too small\" and withdrawing from the tournament due to injury. The ATP launched a match fixing investigation of Davydenko's match against Martín Vassallo Argüello in Sopot of 2 August 2007, after several large bets were placed at an online British gambling company, Betfair, in Argüello's favour after Davydenko had won the first set 6–2. Davydenko withdrew from the match during the third set with a foot injury. Although Davydenko had suffered three first-round defeats in his last three tournaments, was injured in an earlier-round match, and showed signs of injury in the second set, it did not make sense to Betfair that such a heavy betting volume would go in Argüello's direction at that point of time in the match. Per its agreement with the ATP, Betfair notified the Tour. It has since been revealed that nine people based in Russia had bet US$1.5M on Davydenko losing while two unknown people would gain US$6M from the loss. A total of $7M was wagered on the match, ten times the usual amount. Due to these irregularities, all bets were voided. On September 11, 2008, Davydenko, along with Argüello, were cleared of any involvement in match-fixing. The inquiry, which lasted over a year, was the longest ever held into match-fixing in tennis. Further controversy also surrounded Davydenko after one of his matches at St. Petersburg Open in October 2007. During his 1–6, 7–5, 6–1 defeat by Marin Čilić, he was given a code violation by umpire Jean-Philippe Dercq for not giving his best effort. He was later fined $2000 by the ATP, but the fine was rescinded upon appeal. The following week, he lost 6–2, 6–2 to Marcos Baghdatis at the Paris Masters. This generated some controversy, as Davydenko was cautioned by the umpire to do his best during the match." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Crew.", "Backup crew.", "Mission insignia.", "Planning and training.", "Landing site selection.", "Training.", "Mission highlights.", "Launch and outbound trip.", "Lunar surface.", "Return to Earth.", "Particles and Fields Subsatellite PFS-2.", "Spacecraft locations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13, but was exposed to rubella through Duke, at that time on the back-up crew for Apollo 13, who had caught it from one of his children. He never contracted the illness, but was nevertheless removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert, three days before the launch. Young, a captain in the United States Navy, had flown on three spaceflights prior to Apollo 16: Gemini 3, Gemini 10 and Apollo 10, which orbited the Moon. One of 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April 1966, Duke had never flown in space before Apollo 16. He served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for Apollo 11.", "Although not officially announced, the original backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise (CDR), William R. Pogue (CMP) and Gerald P. Carr (LMP), who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19. However, after the cancellations", "The insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red, white and blue shield, representing the people of the United States, over a gray background representing the", "", "Apollo 16 was the second of the Apollo type J missions, featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, increased scientific capability, and lunar surface stays of three days. As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface, the last two missions (the other being Apollo 17) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some uncertainties in understanding the Moon's properties. Although previous Apollo expeditions, including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15, obtained samples of pre-mare lunar material, before lava began to upwell from the Moon's interior and flood", "In preparing for their mission, in addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training, Young and Duke, along with backup commander Fred Haise, underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface. During these trips, they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter. In July 1971, they visited Sudbury, Ontario, Canada for geology training exercises, the first time U.S. astronauts did so. Geologists chose the area because of a wide", "", "The launch of Apollo 16 was delayed one month from March 17 to April 16. This was the first launch delay in the Apollo program due to a technical problem. During the delay, the space suits, a spacecraft separation mechanism and batteries in the lunar module (LM) were modified and tested. There were concerns that the explosive mechanism designed to separate the docking ring from the command module (CM) would not create enough pressure to completely sever the ring. This, along with a dexterity issue in Young's space suit and fluctuations in the capacity of the lunar module batteries, required investigation and trouble-shooting. In January 1972, three months before the planned April launch date, a fuel tank in the command module was accidentally damaged during a routine test. The rocket was returned to the Vertical Assembly Building (VAB) and the fuel tank replaced, and the rocket returned to the launch pad in February in time for the scheduled launch. The official mission countdown began on Monday, April 10, 1972, at 8:30 AM, six days before the launch. At this point the SaturnV rocket's three stages were powered up and drinking", "The crew continued preparing for lunar module activation and undocking shortly after waking up to begin flight day five. The boom that extended the mass spectrometer out from the CSM's scientific instruments bay was stuck, semi-deployed. It was decided that Young and Duke would visually inspect the boom after undocking from the CSM in the LM. They entered the LM for activation and checkout of the spacecraft's systems. Despite entering the LM 40 minutes ahead of schedule, they completed preparations only 10 minutes early due to numerous delays in the process. With the preparations finished, they undocked in the LM \"Orion\" from Mattingly in the CSM \"Casper\" 96 hours, 13 minutes, 31 seconds into the mission. For the rest of the two crafts' passes over the near side of the Moon, Mattingly prepared to shift \"Casper\" to a circular orbit while Young and Duke prepared \"Orion\" for the descent to the lunar surface. At this point, during tests of the CSM's steerable rocket engine in preparation for the burn to modify the craft's orbit, a malfunction occurred in the engine's backup system. According to mission rules, \"Orion\" would have then re-docked with \"Casper\", in case Mission Control decided to abort the landing and use the lunar module's engines for the return trip to Earth. After several hours of analysis, however, mission controllers determined that the malfunction could be worked around and Young and Duke could proceed with the landing. As a result of this, powered descent to the lunar surface began about six hours behind schedule. Because of the delay, Young and Duke began their descent to the surface at an altitude higher than that of any previous mission, at. At an altitude of about, Young was able to view the landing site in its entirety. Throttle-down of the LM's landing engine occurred on time and the spacecraft tilted forward to its landing orientation", "Eight minutes before departing the lunar surface, CAPCOM James Irwin notified Young and Duke from Mission Control that they were go for liftoff. Two minutes before launch, they activated the \"Master Arm\" switch and then the \"Abort Stage\" button, after which they awaited ignition of \"Orion\"s ascent stage engine. When the ascent stage ignited, small explosive charges severed the ascent stage from the descent stage and cables connecting the two were severed by a guillotine-like mechanism. Six minutes after liftoff, at a speed of about, Young and Duke reached lunar orbit. Young and Duke successfully rendezvoused and re-docked with Mattingly in the CSM. To minimize the transfer of lunar dust from the LM cabin into the CSM, Young and", "The Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-2) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the service module. Its principal objective was to measure charged particles and magnetic fields all around the Moon as the Moon orbited Earth, similar to its sister spacecraft, PFS-1, released eight months earlier by Apollo 15. \"The low orbits of both subsatellites were to be", "The aircraft carrier USS \"Ticonderoga\" delivered the Apollo 16 command module to the North Island Naval Air Station, near San Diego, California, on Friday, May 5, 1972. On Monday, May 8, 1972, ground service equipment being used to empty the residual toxic reaction control system fuel in the command module tanks exploded in a Naval Air Station hangar. Forty-six people were sent to the hospital for 24 to 48 hours' observation, most suffering from inhalation of toxic fumes. Most seriously injured was a technician who suffered a fractured kneecap when the GSE cart overturned on him. A hole was blown in the hangar roof 250 feet above; about 40 windows in the hangar were shattered. The command module suffered a three-inch gash in one panel. The Apollo 16 command module \"Casper\" is on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama. The lunar module ascent stage separated 24 April 1972 but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site remains unknown. The S-IVB was deliberately crashed into the Moon. However, due to a communication failure before impact the exact location was unknown until January 2016, when it was discovered within Mare Insularum by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, approximately southwest of Copernicus Crater. Duke donated some flown items, including a lunar map, to Kennesaw State University in Kennesaw, Georgia. He left two items on the Moon, both of which he photographed. The most famous is a plastic-encased photo portrait of his family (NASA Photo AS16-117-18841). The reverse of the photo is signed by Duke's family and bears this message: \"This is the family of Astronaut Duke from Planet Earth. Landed on the Moon, April 1972.\" The other item was a commemorative medal issued by the United States Air Force, which was celebrating its 25th anniversary in 1972. He took two medals, leaving one on the Moon and donating the other to the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base museum. In 2006, shortly after Hurricane Ernesto affected Bath, North Carolina, eleven-year-old Kevin Schanze discovered a piece of metal debris on the ground near his beach home. Schanze and a friend discovered a \"stamp\" on the flat metal sheet, which upon further inspection turned out to be a faded copy of the Apollo 16 mission insignia. NASA later confirmed the object to be a piece of the first stage of the SaturnV that had launched Apollo 16 into space. In July 2011, after returning the piece of debris at NASA's request, 16-year-old Schanze was given an all-access tour of the Kennedy Space Center and VIP seating for the launch of STS-135, the final mission of the Space Shuttle program." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Early years and juniors.", "1995.", "1996.", "1997.", "1998.", "1999.", "2000.", "2001.", "2002.", "2003.", "2004.", "2005.", "2006.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012.", "After retirement.", "2013.", "2014.", "2015.", "2016.", "2017.", "2018.", "Playing Style.", "Equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Ljubičić turned pro in 1998. During his career, he achieved his best results in indoor tournaments played on carpet or hardcourt. He reached consecutive indoor Masters finals in 2005 at Madrid and Paris, losing both of them in 5 sets. Ljubičić and Mario Ančić are only the fourth doubles team to defeat Bob and Mike Bryan in Davis Cup history, the other teams being France's Arnaud Clément and Michaël Llodra, Brazil's Marcelo Melo and Bruno Soares and Serbia's Nenad Zimonjić and Ilija Bozoljac. Ljubičić helped Croatia win the 2005 Davis Cup, their first ever title, where they triumphed over the Slovakian Davis Cup team in the final. He qualified for the year-end Tennis Masters Cup in 2005 and 2006. Ljubičić served as the ATP Players' Council president and in 2008 became one of the few active players to serve on the ATP Board of Directors. He won his first Masters title in 2010, and retired in 2012 at the Monte-Carlo Masters. After retirement, Ljubičić has worked as a coach and manager for several top 5 players.", "Ljubičić was born in Banja Luka, at the time SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SFR Yugoslavia to a Bosnian Croat father, Marko, and a Bosniak mother, Hazira. He started playing tennis as a child in 1988, and he soon won his first local awards as a junior. In May 1992, because of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the family left Banja Luka, and Ivan, his mother and his brother moved to Opatija, Croatia, while his father was unable to leave. In November 1992, they were reunited and moved to Rijeka. Soon after, in April 1993, Ljubičić went to a tennis club in Moncalieri near Torino, Italy. During the next three years, Ljubičić grew into a promising prospect.", "He decided to play for Croatia and in 1995 won his first junior championship, becoming the Croatian under-16 champion. The same year, he won his first ATP points and played for the Croatian team in the Winter Cup (European under-16 indoors championship). Pairing up with Željko Krajan, he won the Orange Bowl (the unofficial world under-16 championship).", "In 1996, the family moved to Zagreb, while Ivan continued his successes. He joined the tennis club Mladost and played in more and more junior ITF tournaments. His biggest success as a junior was reaching the final at Wimbledon, where he was defeated by Vladimir Voltchkov of Belarus after winning the first set.", "He reached the Australian Open junior semifinal in 1997 and won the Eddie Herr tournament, which made him the No. 2 junior in the world. In early 1997, he started training with the Italian professional coach Riccardo Piatti. His successes continued: quarterfinals of the junior French Open, and first steps of entering professional tennis.", "He turned professional in 1998 and played in the final of the ATP Challenger in Zagreb, where he lost to former French Open finalist Alberto Berasategui. He played a number of smaller tournaments the same year, but had little success and finished the year ranked No. 293.", "In 1999, he won two Futures tournaments, as well as a Challenger in Besançon, France. He won two more victories in the qualifications for the Casablanca Tour event, where he was defeated by Juan Carlos Ferrero. He then entered the Super 9 tournament in Monte Carlo (today's Monte Carlo Masters), where he reached the third round after an amazing run in which he defeated Andrei Medvedev and Yevgeny Kafelnikov. He also played in the Croatia Open in Umag, where he was eliminated in the semifinal by Magnus Norman. He finished the year ranked world No. 77.", "In 2000, Ljubičić played in two semifinals (Sydney and Båstad) and three quarterfinals (Marseille, Copenhagen, and Brighton). He also played in the third round of the Olympic tournament.", "He won his first ATP singles title at Lyon in 2001, after defeating Gustavo Kuerten, Gastón Gaudio, Marat Safin, and Younes El Aynaoui. At that point he reached No. 29 in the professional rankings and continued to play well, participating in seven ATP Tour semifinals: Adelaide, Rotterdam, Miami, St. Polten, Gstaad, Umag, and Cincinnati. He finished the year ranked No. 37.", "In 2002, he was in two semifinals (Rotterdam and Gstaad) and four quarterfinals (Adelaide, Dubai, Umag, and Tashkent) on the ATP Tour, and it was the first time he passed the first round at a Grand Slam, when he reached the third round of the Australian Open, where he was stopped by Wayne Ferreira in five sets. He ended the year ranked No. 49, and also No. 2 in the number of aces, behind Wayne Arthurs.", "In 2003, he reached the semifinals of Milan, Dubai, Bangkok, and Basel. He also reached the third round of the Monte Carlo Masters and the quarterfinals of the Rome Masters. He lost in the second round in the U.S Open to Andy Roddick, who would then go on to become the champion that year. The score was 3–6, 7–6, 3–6, 6–7.", "In 2004, he started the year as the runner-up to Nicolas Escudé in Doha, and also played in the semifinals in the Hamburg Masters, Indianapolis, and the Madrid Masters. He also reached the quarterfinals at Basel and the Miami Masters. At the Olympics, he teamed up with Mario Ančić to win the bronze medal in doubles. They were defeated by the Chilean duo of Fernando González and Nicolás Massú, the eventual gold medalists, in the semifinals. In the bronze medal match, they defeated the Indian team of Mahesh Bhupathi and Leander Paes. During the year, Ivan married his wife Aida, who is always with him at ATP tournaments. They have two children.", "In 2005, Ljubičić won two ATP titles and was the runner-up at another six, losing to world No. 1 Roger Federer in three of them, and world No. 2 Rafael Nadal in another one. After the retirement of Goran Ivanišević, Ljubičić was the top player on the Croatian Davis Cup team. In the first round of Davis Cup, the Croatian team defeated the United States in the first round played in March. Ljubičić defeated Andre Agassi in straight sets in his first singles match. He then teamed with Mario Ančić to defeat the Bryan Brothers, then the world's second-ranked doubles team. He finally clinched victory for his country, defeating America's No. 1 player and former world No. 1 Andy Roddick in five sets. In July at the Davis Cup Quarterfinals, Ljubičić again won his singles matches against Romania's Victor Hănescu and Andrei Pavel, and then together with Ančić in the doubles match defeated the Pavel-Gabriel Trifu duo in five sets. In the semifinal held in September against the Russian team, Ljubičić defeated Mikhail Youzhny in five sets in his first singles match. He teamed with Ančić to defeat Igor Andreev and Dmitry Tursunov in another five-set match. Finally, he defeated Nikolay Davydenko to secure victory for Croatia. He reached consecutive finals of the last two Masters Series Events, losing to Nadal in Madrid after being up two sets to love and to Tomáš Berdych at Paris. He finished the year ranked No. 9 in the world and earned his first appearance at the year-end Masters Cup, where he was eliminated in the group stage (Ljubičić was one of a number of entrants who were invited due to the withdrawal of higher-ranked players, such as No. 2 Rafael Nadal). In the Davis Cup final, Ljubičić defeated Karol Kučera in the opening singles match. He then paired with Mario Ančić to win the doubles match. Although Ljubičić lost his second singles match to Dominik Hrbatý, Ancic's victory over Michal Mertiňák in the final match gave Croatia its first Davis Cup victory.", "Prior to the Australian Open, Ljubičić played a tournament in Chennai. Seeded first, he was expected to do well on the hard courts there. He reached the final and defeated Spaniard Carlos Moyà 7–6, 6–2. At the Australian Open, he reached the quarterfinals of a Grand Slam tournament for the first time in his career. He defeated Thomas Johansson of Sweden 6–2, 6–4, 6–4, in the fourth round. He lost to eventual finalist Marcos Baghdatis of Cyprus in the quarterfinals 4–6, 2–6, 6–4, 6–3, 3–6. After the Australian Open, he played at the Zagreb Indoor Open, which is played on carpet, a surface typically favoured by Ljubičić. He reached the final once more and defeated Stefan Koubek 6–3, 6–4. He bettered this feat when he made the semifinals of the French Open, beating Carlos Berlocq, Óscar Hernández, Juan Mónaco, Rubén Ramírez Hidalgo and Julien Benneteau before the run ended with a loss to Rafael Nadal, who holds the record for the longest win streak on clay. It was speculated that Ljubičić was able to make it this far because his highest-ranked opponent was not even ranked in the top 70. After the match, Ljubičić made controversial comments about how Nadal took too much time between points. He stated he hoped Roger Federer would defeat him in the final. However, Nadal went on to beat Federer in the final. Ljubičić then traveled to Queen's Club, defeating Răzvan Sabău 7–6, 6–2, before losing to Gaël Monfils 6–7, 5–7, in the round of 16. At the Wimbledon Championships, Ljubičić faced 2005 quarterfinalist Feliciano López. He won 11–9 in the fifth. He then defeated Justin Gimelstob, before losing in the third round to Dmitry Tursunov, after being up two sets to none. He then traveled to Gstaad, Switzerland to play in the Allianz Suisse Open on red clay. Being the top seed, he defeated Spaniard Albert Portas in the first round and Marco Chiudinelli in the second round, before losing to seed Feliciano López in straight sets. In the Canada Masters, he reached the third round, before losing out to Fernando González. He then went to the Bangkok Open, where he was the top seed and reached the final round. He met America's James Blake, but was defeated 3–6, 1–6, and moved to no. 3 on the ATP ace list. He did not remain no. 3, due to David Nalbandian, who pushed him down by advancing to the semifinals in Madrid. At the US Open, Ljubičić was drawn against Feliciano López of Spain in the first round, as he had been at Wimbledon. Lopez defeated Ljubičić, 6–3, 6–3, 6–3.", "Ljubičić began his 2007 season with a victory at the $1 million Qatar ExxonMobil Open. En route to his victory, he defeated Andy Murray in the finals. In doing so, he became the race leader in the 2007 Indesit ATP Race. In this tournament, Ljubičić played his first competitive match with a Head racquet, after abandoning his previous racket sponsor, Babolat. He played in the Australian Open and was seeded fourth, but was surprisingly defeated in the first round by Mardy Fish. Ljubičić bounced back well to make the final of the Zagreb Indoor Open, against Cypriot Marcos Baghdatis. Despite not losing serve the entire match until facing matchpoint, Ljubičić suffered a 6–7, 6–4, 4–6 loss in the final. At the Open 13 tournament in Marseille, Ljubičić, the second seed, was one of four seeds to lose in the first round, losing to qualifier but local favorite Nicolas Mahut 4–6, 4–6. In Rotterdam, he made it to the final, where he was beaten 2–6, 4–6 by Mikhail Youzhny. At the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, California, Ljubičić lost to Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals 6–7, 6–7. Prior to Wimbledon, Ljubičić had some success on the grass courts, a surface in which he had previously failed to reach the last eight. Playing at s'Hertogenbosch in the Netherlands, he defeated Dutch home crowd favourite, Peter Wessels in three tight sets. Ljubičić won the final set 7–6, securing his victory, despite not breaking the Dutchman's serve in the match. As the 15th seed (ranked no. 12), he opened his Wimbledon campaign against American Vince Spadea, followed by a win over Jan Hernych, but fell in four sets to Paul-Henri Mathieu. He and Ernests Gulbis lost in the men's doubles competition in the first round. In September, just one day before start of Davis Cup tie against Great Britain, he discovered blood in his urine. After tests, it was announced that he had two small stones in the kidney. He was then advised to take a break for the next couple of weeks. Ljubičić then reached the semifinals of the China Open, losing to Fernando González, the quarterfinals in Vienna, and the quarterfinals in Lyon. However, he failed to win a match in the two Masters Series tournaments, losing to Stefan Koubek in Madrid and Marcos Baghdatis in Paris.", "Ljubičić's first tournament of 2008 was in Doha, where he reached the semifinals, losing to Stanislas Wawrinka. However, he suffered a first-round defeat at the Australian Open, losing to Dutchman Robin Haase in four sets. He was then granted a wildcard to a Challenger in East London, South Africa, where he defeated Stefan Koubek in straight sets. It was Ljubičić's first Challenger in over two years. His next significant result was in Zagreb, where, as the home crowd favorite, he reached the final, losing to Ukrainian lucky loser Sergiy Stakhovsky 5–7, 4–6. At the French Open, Ljubičić came back from a two-set deficit to defeat world No. 4, and 2007 French Open semifinalist Nikolay Davydenko 4–6, 2–6, 6–3, 6–2, 6–4. He had previously lost to Davydenko on clay at Hamburg in 2008 4–6, 1–6. At Wimbledon, Ljubičić lost to Austrian Jürgen Melzer, 4–6, 6–7, 6–4, 6–2, 3–6.", "Ljubičić started the season as world No. 58. His first tournament was the Australian Open, where he beat Igor Kunitsyn in the first round 4–6, 7–6, 7–6, 5–7, 6–3, before losing in the second round to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 7–6, 6–7, 6–7, 2–6. He then participated at Zagreb, where he defeated Christophe Rochus in the first round 6–4, 6–1, before losing to Viktor Troicki 4–6, 7–5, 4–6, in the second. He then lost in the opening match in three tournaments: in Rotterdam to Andy Murray 3–6, 2–6, in Marseille to Feliciano López 6–3, 4–6, 5–7, and in the Dubai to David Ferrer 6–3, 2–6, 1–6. His ranking fell to No. 74. His next tournament was the BNP Paribas Open. He defeated Kei Nishikori in the first round, and fellow Croatian Mario Ančić in the second when Ančić retired with illness at 3–3. He then upset eighth seeded Gilles Simon 6–3, 7–6, in the third, and outlasted Igor Andreev 4–6, 7–6, 7–6, in the fourth to reach the quarterfinals, where he was at last beaten by fourth seeded Andy Murray 5–7, 6–7. Ljubičić received a wild card into the Monte Carlo Masters and in the second round defeated Juan Martín del Potro 4–6, 6–1, 6–4. He proceeded to the quarterfinals, where he was defeated by four-time defending champion Rafael Nadal 3–6, 3–6. Due to his strong play at Monte Carlo, he received a wild card into the Madrid Masters. He again defeated a top-10 player in the second round, beating ninth seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 6–4, 7–5. He then defeated eighth seed Gilles Simon 3–6, 6–4, 6–3, to reach his third quarterfinal at a Masters 1000 event. He was defeated by Novak Djokovic 4–6, 4–6, in the quarterfinals. His performances during the clay-court season have helped his ranking improve to No. 43, his highest since August 2008. His clay-court form did not carry into the French Open, as he suffered a disappointing defeat by Juan Carlos Ferrero 6–2, 4–6, 4–6, 6–3, 3–6, in the first round. Ljubičić didn't compete at Wimbledon due to an injury. Ljubičić returned to form in China. At the China Open, he reached the quarterfinals, losing to Robin Söderling. At the inaugural Shanghai Masters event, Ljubičić reached the quarterfinals for the fourth time at a Masters 1000 event. He defeated Julien Benneteau in the first round 6–3, 3–6, 6–1. He defeated world No. 9 Fernando Verdasco in straight sets 6–4, 7–6, in the second round. Ljubičić was cruising over Gaël Monfils 6–2, 3–0, before the Frenchman retired. Ljubičić then retired from his quarterfinal match against Rafael Nadal, after splitting the first two sets 6–3, 3–6. He was the eighth player to retire during the event. He won his first title since June 2007, at the Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon event. Seeded third, he did not defeat a single seeded player, benefiting from several seeded players losing early. After defeating Martín Vassallo Argüello and Nicolas Kiefer, Ljubičić defeated three Frenchmen in a row to take the title. He defeated Florent Serra, and wild cards Arnaud Clément in the semifinal and Michaël Llodra in the final.", "Ljubičić began the season with a third-round finish at the Australian Open, losing to Ivo Karlović. He also made the quarterfinals in the Dubai Tennis Championships, where he lost to eventual champion and world No. 2 Novak Djokovic, in three sets. At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, he beat Djokovic 7–5, 6–3, in the fourth round. He proceeded to upset defending champion Rafael Nadal 3–6, 6–4, 7–6, in the semifinals, avenging his loss against him in the 2005 Madrid Masters final and sending Ivan to his fourth career Masters 1000 final. He successfully broke his trend of three previous final losses in these master series tournaments by defeating American favorite Andy Roddick in the final 7–6, 7–6, to lift his first ever Masters Series trophy. He became the first Croat to ever win the tournament, the second-oldest winner at the tournament (behind Jimmy Connors who was five months older when he won in 1984), and the oldest first-time winner of a Master Series 1000 event. As a result of his performance in the tournament, in which he defeated three top-10 players—Djokovic (No. 2) in the quarterfinals, Nadal (No. 3) in the semifinals, and Roddick (No. 8) in the final, en route to the title—he broke into the top 20 in the rankings for the first time in nearly two years, No. 13 as of 22 March.", "Ljubičić reached the latter rounds of the Monte Carlo clay-court tournament and the third round at Wimbledon, where he lost to Andy Murray. He lost to David Nalbandian in the second round at the US Open. He reached the finals in Metz in September, where he lost to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga 3–6, 7–6, 3–6. He reached the semifinals of the China Open, but lost to Marin Čilić 4–6, 3–6.", "Ljubičić played the last tournament of his professional career at Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters in April. He ended his career by losing in the first round to Ivan Dodig 6–0, 6–3.", "", "In March, Ljubičić became Tomáš Berdych's manager. In June, Ljubičić became Canadian player Milos Raonic's coach. Two months later, Raonic reached his first Masters final in Toronto, losing to Rafael Nadal.", "In his first full season under Ljubičić, Raonic broke into the top 10 in 2014 and also reached his first French Open quarterfinals, losing to Novak Djokovic, as well as his first Wimbledon semifinals, losing to Roger Federer. In November, Raonic reached his second Masters final in Paris, losing to Djokovic again. He also qualified for his first ATP World Tour Finals appearance, but was eliminated in Round Robin.", "In his second full season under Ljubičić, Raonic reached his first Australian Open quarterfinals, losing to Djokovic. In December, Ljubičić ended his partnership with Raonic and started to work with his old rival and former world No. 1 Roger Federer.", "Ljubičić coached Federer together with Swiss Davis Cup Captain Severin Luthi. In February, a week after reaching the semifinals of the Australian Open losing to Djokovic, Federer underwent knee surgery. It is only his second tournament with Ljubičić. An attempted comeback in May was halted by further back problems. Federer managed to reach the semifinals of Wimbledon losing to Ljubičić's former student Raonic before re-injuring his knee and subsequently taking six months off to recover.", "In January, under Ljubičić's guidance, Federer defeated Rafael Nadal in the final of the Australian Open, giving Ljubičić his first Grand Slam as a coach. It was Federer's first win against Nadal at the Australian Open, and the first time Federer beat Nadal in a Grand Slam since 2007. It was Federer's 18th Grand Slam, extending his all-time record. Two additional Masters titles followed in March at Indian Wells, where Federer defeated countryman Stan Wawrinka in the final, and at Miami, where Federer defeated Nadal in the final. After skipping the clay season, Federer claimed his 19th Grand Slam at Wimbledon without dropping a set, defeating Marin Čilić in the final. In October, Federer beat Nadal in the Shanghai Masters final. It was his fourth win of the year against Nadal and his fifth in succession over the Spaniard.", "In January, under Ljubičić's guidance, Federer was able to defend Australian Open by defeating Marin Čilić in the final. In mid-February, Federer won his third Rotterdam Open title to return to No. 1 in the ATP rankings, officially clinching the spot with a quarterfinal victory over Robin Haase.", "Ljubičić is known for his offensive and intelligent game, characterized by his deadly serve and powerful groundstrokes off both wings, as well as his excellent selection of shots. His serve is known for its precision, incredible consistency, and tremendous speed, as it was often clocked above 130 mph and can reach up to high 140s (mph). His serve is often compared with contemporary Andy Roddick, being two of the best servers of the generation, although Roddick's serve relies on more power than precision. He usually stays at the baseline, relying on his fast, consistent and wide-driving groundstrokes, and uses slice and dropshots to great effect to surprise his opponents. He is very adept at the net, approaching when he sees fit, which also made him a good doubles player. His main weaknesses are his occasional inability to close out 5-set matches, and to a lesser extent, his movement around the court.", "Ljubičić used the Head Youtek Extreme Pro Racquet, after using the Babolat Pure Drive for most of his professional career." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Junior career.", "Career highlights.", "2015: 400 wins and retirement.", "2016: Comeback at the Davis Cup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "As a junior Nieminen reached as high as No. 9 in the world in 1999 (and No. 20 in doubles), and won the 1999 Jr US Open.", "", "At Wimbledon, Nieminen, who had already announced his retirement at the end of the season, played Lleyton Hewitt in the first round, with Hewitt also stating his intention to retire before the 2016 event. Nieminen earned his first win over Hewitt in five gruelling sets. At the US Open, Nieminen faced Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the first round, with Tsonga prevailing in straight sets despite Jarkko's best efforts. Afterwards, he confirmed that this was his last match at a grand slam. Nieminen played his final ATP match on 20 October at the 2015 Stockholm Open, losing 6–3, 6–7, 4–6 to Nicolas Almagro. Jarkko had match points in the second-set tiebreaker but narrowly missed one and was very unlucky to lose the other. Fellow Scandinavian tennis player Robin Söderling was in attendance to pay tribute to Jarkko and the Finn was visibly moved as he gave his farewell speech. His final official match was against his old friend and rival Roger Federer at the Hartwall Arena, Helsinki on the ninth of November.", "Nieminen came out of retirement in order to play for his country at the Davis Cup against Zimbabwe. He won his singles tie with a so-called triple bagel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Early years.", "2000–2001: First ATP title.", "2002–2003: First Grand Slam quarterfinal.", "2004: First Davis Cup title.", "2005.", "2006: Hamburg Masters title.", "2007.", "2008: Second Davis Cup title.", "2009: Third Davis Cup title.", "2010.", "2011-2012.", "2013: Resurgence.", "2014.", "Playing Style.", "Personal life.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam tournament performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Robredo began playing tennis regularly when he was five and his family moved to Olot, where his father Ángel became the director of the local tennis club, Club Natació Olot. (Robredo's mother Dolores is herself a former assistant coach.) He was coached by his father until 1996 when he joined the Spanish Tennis Federation at the Centre d'Alt Rendiment (\"High Performance Center\"), a famous center for professional sports training in Sant Cugat del Vallès. He turned professional in", "In 2000 Robredo reached the singles and doubles finals of the boys' event at Roland Garros, losing to Paul-Henri Mathieu in singles but winning the doubles with López. He also won the boys' doubles title at the Australian Open (with Nicolas Mahut). Robredo began the year with a final at a Challenger event in Bartella, Italy losing to Germán Puentes. He then eventually won two Challenger events in Espinho, Portugal defeating Jimy Szymanski and in Seville, Spain defeating Óscar Serrano. He played two ATP events main draw in the year, losing in the first round of both at the Torneo Godó and Davidoff Swiss Indoors Robredo began his 2001 season by reaching his first ATP semifinals at the Gold Flake Open losing to Russian Andrei Stoliarov 6–4, 3–6, 4–6. He made his slam debut at the Australian Open but lost to eventual runner-up and 18th ranked Arnaud Clément in straight sets. He then fell early at the Chevrolet Cup and the Copa AT&T. He then reached his first slam final at the Grand Prix Hassan II losing to Guillermo Cañas 5–7, 2–6 in the final, the", "Robredo began 2002 by partnering with Arantxa Sánchez Vicario to win the Hopman Cup for Spain. In the Final against the United States, Sánchez Vicario lost 1–6, 6–7 to Monica Seles before Robredo levelled the tie with a 6–3, 2–6, 7–6 victory over Jan-Michael Gambill. The Spanish pair then won the mixed doubles, 6–4, 6–2. However, in the first four months of the season, he was only able to win 4 matches to 10 loses, and was unable to win back-to-back matches. He reached the second rounds of Australian Open, Open 13, ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, and NASDAQ-100 Open. He claimed his first back-to-back win at the Internazionali BNL d'Italia, where he reached the quarterfinals losing to Andy Roddick in two tight", "Robredo had a great start to his 2004 season with a semifinal at the Chennai Open losing to Paradorn Srichaphan 6–1, 6–7, 5–7 and a quarterfinal at the Adidas International losing to Carlos Moyà 1–6, 2–6. He also claimed his first doubles title at the Chennai Open with Rafael Nadal defeating Jonathan Erlich and Andy Ram in the final. However, this results didn't reflect to his Australian Open, where he fell to 34th ranked Gastón Gaudio, who just missed the seedings in straight sets.", "He began the year with a first round loss at the Heineken Open. At the first slam of the year, the Australian Open, he was upset by 155th ranked Marcos Baghdatis in straight sets in the third round 6–7, 4–6, 1–6. He reached his first semifinal at the Dubai Tennis Championships losing to Croatian Ivan Ljubičić in straight sets. At the Master events of Pacific Life Open and NASDAQ-100 Open, he reached the fourth round losing to Tim Henman and withdrew with a neck injury in the third round, respectively. The injury made him miss some events. He began his European clay season at the Torneo Godó losing to Alberto Martin in straight sets. He reached his first final of the year at the Estoril Open but lost to Argentinian Gastón Gaudio 1–6, 6–2, 1–6. But fell miserably to Julien Benneteau at the Internazionali BNL d'Italia, winning only a game. At the Hamburg Masters, he was able to reach the third round losing to world no. 1 Roger Federer. He made his final French Open preparation at the World Team Cup, defeating Vincent Spadea and Tommy Haas, but lost to Thomas Johansson. At the French Open,", "Robredo 2006 season didn't start well, losing in the second round of the Next Generation Adelaide International and the first round of the Medibank International. Despite a poor preparation, he was able to reach the fourth round of the Australian Open for the first time after defeating James Blake 6–3, 6–4, 6–4, but lost to world no. 4 David Nalbandian 3–6, 0–6, 6–2, 2–6. He then followed it up with four consecutive loses, both his matches at the Davis Cup, the SAP Open, and Regions Morgan Keegan Championships. He ended his losing streak", "Robredo began 2007 by reaching the final of the Heineken Open losing to compatriot David Ferrer 4–6, 2–6, in his first hardcourt final. He then followed it up by reaching the quarterfinals of the Australian Open for the first time after defeating Richard Gasquet 6–4, 6–2, 3–6, 6–4, before losing to World No. 1 Roger Federer in straight sets. He then suffered 3 back-to-back loses starting with the quarterfinals of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament to Novak Djokovic", "Robredo started the season with back-to-back loses at the first rounds of the Qatar Open losing to Agustín Calleri and the Medibank International losing to Radek Štěpánek. He won his first match of the year at the Australian Open defeating Mischa Zverev in five sets before losing to Mardy Fish 1–6, 2–6, 3–6. He then represented Spain in the Davis Cup against Peru and won both his matches. He then won only one other match in hardcourts, when he losing in the first matches at the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament and Sony Ericsson Open, and the third round of the Pacific Life Open. He won his first back-to-back matches reaching the semifinals of the year at the Open de Tenis Comunidad Valenciana losing to eventual champion David Ferrer 6–2, 2–6, 3–6. At the Monte-Carlo Masters, he reached the third round losing to David Nalbandian winning only a game. He also played doubles with compatriot Rafael Nadal to win his first doubles titles in four years by beating Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles. He followed it up with back-to-back quarterfinals at the Open Sabadell Atlántico Barcelona losing to David Ferrer 6–7,", "Robredo started the year at the Medibank International Sydney, where he lost to Mario Ančić, 6–2, 6–1 in the second round. In the Australian Open, he was the 21st seed, where he reached the fourth round without dropping a set, but eventually lost to semifinalist Andy Roddick 5–7, 1–6, 3–6. Robredo had a great South American clay season, he began with a semifinal at the Movistar Open losing to José Acasuso 7–5, 2–6, 4–6. He then claim back-to-back titles at the Brasil Open and the Copa Telmex, defeating Thomaz Bellucci, 6–3, 3–6, 6–4 and Juan Mónaco, 7–5, 2–6,", "Robredo began the year by winning the Hopman Cup for Spain with partner María José Martínez Sánchez. Here, he won all of his singles matches defeating John Isner, 6–7, 6–3, 7–6, Victor Hănescu, 6–3 ret, and over Lleyton Hewitt, 6–2, 6–4. He then defeated Andy Murray, 1–6, 6–4, 6–3 in the final and won the decisive mixed doubles 7–6, 7–5 win to clinch the tie 2–1 over the Great Britain team. This was the second time he has been part of a winning Hopman Cup team. His first", "Tommy started his 2011 season at the Heineken Open, where he lost to Thomaz Bellucci, 4–6, 6–3, 1–6 in the second round. At the 2011 Australian Open, he reached the fourth round with wins against Somdev Devvarman, 16th seed Mardy Fish, and Sergiy Stakhovsky, before losing to second seed and defending champion Roger Federer in four sets, 3–6, 6–3, 3–6, 2–6. He then played at the Latin-American Swing at the Movistar Open, where he was the sixth seed, he defeated Frederico Gil,", "Robredo's start of the 2013 season was not promising; he only won two matches in his first five events. Losing in the first rounds of Apia International Sydney, Australian Open, and Brasil Open and the second rounds of the Brisbane International and the VTR Open. However, he entered the top 100 once again due to not having to defend any points. He then reached his first semifinal in two years at the Copa Claro, losing to eventual champion David Ferrer. This form did not continue, as he lost in", "Robredo reached the fourth round of the", "Robredo is a baseline player, who can play both offensively and defensively. He is known for his versatility and solid groundstrokes on both wings. Robredo's baseline play is exceptional, and is considered one of the most consistent and dangerous baseliners on the tour. Like most traditional Spanish players like Rafael Nadal, Robredo puts a very high amount of topspin on both his forehand and single-handed backhand. This makes his groundstrokes both consistent and penetrating at the same time. His backhand is also considered one of the best single-handed backhands on the tour, being very powerful and clutch during important points. However, his slice is weaker than most one-handers'. Mainly playing from the baseline, Robredo uses his solid groundstrokes to dictate points by moving opponents around and forcing weak replies. Due to the top-spin on his groundstrokes, Robredo has an edge against one-handed backhand players, who might find it hard to return high balls to their backhand. Because of this, he has", "Robredo is named after the rock opera \"Tommy\" by The Who, of which his father is a big fan. Robredo is currently sponsored by Erke for his sportswear, Asics for his shoes, Dunlop Sport for his tennis racquets, TW Steel watches, Smeg, and the Ukrainian Food Company. Robredo's childhood tennis idol was Stefan Edberg, along with John McEnroe, Pete Sampras, Andre Agassi, and various Spanish tennis players. He cites Arantxa Sánchez (with", "", "\"Current through" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "1999–2001: Turning pro and first Challenger title.", "2002–2003: First title, victory over world No.1.", "2004–2005: First Grand Slam quarterfinal, top 15.", "2006–2007: World Tour Finals final, top 5.", "2008–2009: Two consecutive Davis Cup titles.", "2010: First Masters final.", "2011: Third Davis Cup title, two Masters finals.", "2012: Olympic doubles fourth place, first Masters title, fourth Davis Cup final.", "2013: French Open final, two Masters finals, world No.3.", "2014: Seventh Masters final and steady ranking.", "2015: Return to form and continued success.", "2016: Out of top 20.", "2017–18: Last title, final Grand Slam appearance.", "2019: Retirement.", "Playing style and reputation.", "Personal life.", "Rivalries.", "Ferrer vs. Murray.", "Ferrer vs. Verdasco.", "Ferrer vs. Lopez.", "Ferrer vs. Berdych.", "Ferrer vs. Wawrinka.", "Ferrer vs. Nishikori." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Ferrer was born in Xàbia in the province of Alicante, but he moved to Gandia at age thirteen, followed two years later by a move to Barcelona to attend the Catalan Tennis Federation. Once, as a teenager, when Ferrer did not practice hard enough, his coach, Javier Piles, locked him in a completely dark 2m x 2m ball closet for several hours, giving him only a piece of bread and a bit of water. After this incident he", "In 2002, he played consistently in ATP (10–6) and Challenger (35–13) tournaments, winning his first ATP title in Bucharest (defeated José Acasuso) and reaching his first ATP final in just his second ATP event in Umag (defeated David Nalbandian and Guillermo Coria, lost to Carlos Moyá). He won Challenger titles in Naples, Valencia, and Sassuolo. All 10 ATP match wins and 34 of 35 Challenger wins came on clay. The highlight of 2003", "In 2004, Ferrer reached the quarterfinals in Buenos Aires, Valencia, and at the ATP Masters Series Hamburg (defeated no. 6 David Nalbandian, lost to Guillermo Coria). He advanced to the semifinals in Stuttgart (lost to Gastón Gaudio). Later in the year he advanced to the quarterfinals in Bucharest and the semifinals in Palermo (lost to Tomáš Berdych) and Lyon (defeated Juan Carlos Ferrero, lost to Xavier Malisse). He ended the year with", "Ferrer opened the year with a quarterfinal showing in Auckland, where he lost to Olivier Rochus. He broke into the top 10 ATP rankings for the first time, following a personal-best fourth-round showing at the Australian Open, where he defeated Mario Ančić, but lost to Fabrice Santoro. He was in the top 10 for five weeks during the year. Then, playing in the first round of a Davis Cup tie versus Belarus, he went 2–3 indoors, losing to Vladimir Voltchkov in the second rubber. In March, he reached the semifinals in Miami for a second straight year, where he defeated no. 4 Andy Roddick, but lost to Roger Federer.", "Ferrer opened 2008 with a quarterfinal loss to unseeded Julien Benneteau of France in Auckland, where Ferrer was top seed. He reached the second week of the Australian Open, however, as the fifth seed, without dropping a set in the first three rounds. He then went on to defeat 22nd seed Juan Carlos Ferrero in four sets in the fourth round, before falling to third seed and eventual champion Novak Djokovic in the quarterfinals. On 25 February, Ferrer became world no. 4, despite losing in the second round in Rotterdam. On 20 April, he captured his first ATP title of the year, and the sixth in his career, when he defeated Nicolás Almagro in the final of Valencia. He saved three match points against Fernando Verdasco in the quarterfinals, and in the final, won the definitive set when he went", "Ferrer lost in the second round of the 2010 Australian Open to Marcos Baghdatis, after winning the first two sets, in a match lasting just over four hours. Ferrer's next tournament was the SA Tennis Open. In the first round, he defeated Karol Beck. In the second round, he beat Filip Prpic, and then won his quarterfinal against Somdev Devvarman. However, in the semifinals, he lost to Stéphane Robert. Ferrer's next tournament was the Copa Telmex, where he was the top seed. He beat Simon Greul in the first round, and then defeated Frederico Gil in the second round. Ferrer then defeated Igor Andreev in the quarterfinals and went on to defeat Albert Montañés. However, in the final, he fell to Juan Carlos Ferrero. Ferrer's next tournament was the 2010 Abierto Mexicano Telcel, where he was the third seed. In the first round, he defeated Potito Starace and then defeated Thomaz Bellucci in the second round. He defeated Pablo Cuevas in the third round. In the semifinals, he defeated Fernando González. In the final, he avenged his previous defeat by Juan Carlos Ferrero for his eighth career title. This was Ferrero's third straight final and also ended Ferrero's 14-match winning streak. His ranking also rose to no. 16. In the first round of the 2010 Davis Cup, Ferrer defeated Marco Chiudinelli and then Stanislas Wawrinka to advance Spain to the quarterfinals of the 2010 Davis Cup, where they faced France. Ferrer's next tournament was the", "Ferrer began his 2011 ATP World Tour season at the 2011 Heineken Open, where he was the top seed. Due to his seeding, he received a bye into the second round and defeated Tobias Kamke. He then defeated Philipp Kohlschreiber to advance to the semifinals, and then defeated Santiago Giraldo for a berth in the final, where he played David Nalbandian. In the final, Ferrer defeated Nalbandian for his first title of the year and the tenth in his career. Ferrer then traveled to Melbourne to play in the 2011 Australian Open, where he was seeded seventh. In the first round, he defeated Jarkko Nieminen, and next defeated Michael Russell in the second round. He then defeated Ričardas Berankis for a spot in the round of 16, where he then defeated Milos Raonic for a spot in his second Australian Open quarterfinal. He beat an injured world no. 1 Rafael Nadal for a spot in the semifinals, winning in three sets. This notably ended Nadal's quest to win four straight", "Ferrer started 2012 by participating in the Mubadala World Tennis Championship held in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He defeated world no. 6 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga and world no. 2 Rafael Nadal to reach his first final in the exhibition tournament. In the final, he lost to world no. 1 Novak Djokovic. He won his first tournament of 2012 in Auckland, New Zealand at the Heineken Open ATP 250 (his third Auckland title and 12th Tour title) over Olivier Rochus. At the 2012 Australian Open, Ferrer was seeded fifth, and he defeated Rui Machado, Ryan Sweeting, 27th seed Juan Ignacio Chela, and 17th seed Richard Gasquet on his way to the quarterfinals.", "Ferrer started his 2013 season by successfully defending his Heineken Open title defeating Philipp Kohlschreiber in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Ferrer came back from two sets down to defeat fellow Spaniard Nicolas Almagro in the quarterfinals. In his semifinal match he was thrashed by eventual champion Djokovic in straight sets, winning only five games. Following the continued absence of Rafael Nadal from the ATP Tour, Ferrer became the Spanish no. 1 for the first time in his career, re-entering the top 4 in the rankings on 28 January 2013. Ferrer then won his second title of the year at the", "Ferrer began his 2014 season losing to Daniel Brands in the second round of the Qatar Open. He reached the semifinals of the Heineken Open, where he was defeated by Lu Yen-hsun. Ferrer reached the quarterfinals of the 2014 Australian Open, where he lost to Tomas Berdych in four sets. In February, Ferrer successfully defended his title at the 2014 Copa Claro, which was his first title of the year. In 2014 Rio Open semifinals, Ferrer was defeated by Alexandr Dolgopolov in straight sets. At the 2014 Abierto Mexicano Telcel quarterfinals, Ferrer retired against Kevin Anderson due to leg injury. Ferrer made his return in the 2014 Sony Open Tennis reaching fourth round before losing to Kei Nishikori after squandering four match points. He made the semifinals of the 2014 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters. In the quarterfinals, he beat Rafael Nadal for the first time in 10 years on clay, before losing to Stanislas Wawrinka in the semifinals. He made the semifinals again at the 2014 Mutua Madrid Open, where he lost to Kei Nishikori. He was defeated by Novak Djokovic in the quarterfinals at the 2014 Internazionali BNL d'Italia. Ferrer made it to the 2014 French Open", "Ferrer began his 2015 season at the Qatar ExxonMobil Open, where he was seeded fourth. There, he won his 22nd ATP World Tour title by defeating Tomáš Berdych in the final in straight sets. He was then scheduled to play at the Heineken Open in Auckland a week later, but withdrew due to fatigue. At the 2015 Australian Open, he made it to the fourth round, losing to Kei Nishikori. In February, Ferrer won back-to-back titles at the 2015 Rio Open and 2015 Abierto Mexicano Telcel by defeating Fabio Fognini and Kei Nishikori, respectively. In May, Ferrer made the semifinals of the Rome Masters, before being defeated by Novak Djokovic, matching his best performance", "Ferrer started his season in an exhibition at the Mubadala World Tennis Championships. Ferrer easily defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga and then lost to Rafael Nadal in a close three-setter. Ferrer then played Stan Wawrinka for the third place match. Ferrer lost the first set, but came back to win. Ferrer then arrived at the Qatar Open as the fourth seed and defending champion. Ferrer lost in the first round to Illya Marchenko, despite winning the first set. Ferrer then competed at Auckland as the top seed. Ferrer made it through to the semifinals after defeating qualifier Matthew Barton and Lukáš Rosol, but lost to Jack Sock despite winning the first set. Ferrer then played in the first Grand Slam of the year at the Australian Open. Ferrer defeated qualifier Peter Gojowczyk in the first round. In the second round, Ferrer defeated Lleyton Hewitt, who was playing his last career singles match. Ferrer then defeated 31st seed Steve Johnson and 10th seed John Isner. Ferrer reached the quarterfinals without having lost a set. In the quarterfinals, Ferrer lost to second seed and eventual finalist Andy Murray in four sets. Ferrer then arrived as second seed at the Argentina Open. Ferrer defeated", "After playing in two 250-level Pacific warm-up events, Ferrer competed in the 2017 Australian Open. He defeated two qualifiers before falling to compatriot Roberto Bautista Agut in the third round. This marked Ferrer's earliest exit at the tournament since 2010. In July of the same year, Ferrer won his first tournament since October 2015 at the 2017", "On 15 August 2018, Hopman Cup organisers announced that Ferrer would represent Spain at the 2019 edition alongside Garbiñe Muguruza. It was his debut appearance at this tournament. On 28 August 2018, Ferrer announced that the 2019 season would be his last in the tour. He also announced a preliminary list of 6 tournaments in which he wants to compete during his final season:", "Ferrer is noted for being one of the more dogged, agile, and fit players on the tour, and he has won many matches with consistent baseline play, great fitness, footspeed, and determination. Although he does not possess powerful groundstrokes like many of his contemporaries, his ability to keep the ball deep in play and move his opponents around the court has allowed him to be successful on all surfaces, especially on clay and hard courts. Although he is not a great net player, Ferrer's speed allows him to quickly cut off his opponents' shots and volley whilst they are off balance. Darren Cahill has said that Ferrer and Novak Djokovic are the two best returners in the men's game, even surpassing former dominant return specialists like Andre Agassi, who Cahill previously", "Ferrer supports Valencia CF. He also enjoys playing basketball. On 28 November 2015, Ferrer married his long-time girlfriend, Marta Tornel. The couple were introduced by Martin Solibakke and his wife. Tornel has a degree in optometry and works at her family's opticians in Benifaió. On 4", "", "Ferrer and Murray have faced each other 20 times (not including one occasion when there was a walkover in favour of Murray), with Ferrer trailing in their head-to-head, 6–14. Ferrer leads 4–1 on clay, while Murray leads on hard courts 12–2, and 1–0 on grass. They have met each other five times at Grand Slam tournament level, which Murray leads 4–1. The first", "Ferrer and Verdasco have faced each other 21 times, with Ferrer leading in their head-to-head, 14–7. Ferrer leads 6–4 on clay and 8–2 on hard courts, while Verdasco leads 1–0 on grass. They have only had", "Ferrer and Lopez have faced each other 19 times, with Ferrer leading in their head-to-head, 11–8. Ferrer leads 7–3 on clay, while Lopez leads on hard courts 5–4. They have met each other three times at Grand Slam", "Ferrer and Berdych have met 16 times, with both players sharing even wins against one another. Their head-to-head is 8–8. Ferrer trails against Berdych 2–4 on clay, whereas he leads 5–3 on hard courts, and is tied at 1–1 on grass. Their first meeting was at the Gstaad Open, with Ferrer winning. They have only met each other three times at Grand Slam tournament level, with Berdych leading 3–0. The first was in the 2014 Australian Open, which Berdych won after losing the third set.", "Ferrer and Wawrinka have met 14 times, with both player scoring equal wins against one another. Ferrer and Wawrinka are even on clay 3–3, while Ferrer trails against Wawrinka 3–4 on hard courts; Ferrer leads 1–0", "Ferrer and Nishikori have met 14 times, with Nishikori leading 10–4. Their first encounter was at 2008 US Open with Nishikori beating Ferrer in a five-set thriller. They next met again from 2011–2013 with Ferrer winning 3 times in straight sets and Nishikori winning only once in the Olympics at 2012 in three sets. However, throughout 2014, they met four times, with every match won by Nishikori. They first met in 2014 in the Miami Masters with Nishikori beating Ferrer in 3" ] }

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{ "title": [ "From the Compromise of 1867 to the World War.", "Planning and operations.", "Size and ethnic and religious composition.", "Funding and equipment.", "Command Structure.", "Austro-Hungarian Army in July 1914.", "Common Army.", "Imperial-Royal Landwehr.", "Royal Hungarian Landwehr.", "Landsturm.", "Standschützen.", "Medals (example).", "Ranks and rank insignia of the Austro-Hungarian Army.", "General officers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The major decisions 1867-1895 were made by Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen, who was the nephew of the Emperor Franz Joseph and his leading advisor in military affairs. According to historians John Keegan and Andrew Wheatcroft: Austria-Hungary avoided major wars in the era between 1867 and 1914 but engaged in a number of minor military actions. Nevertheless, the general staff maintained plans for major wars against neighboring powers, especially Italy, Serbia and Russia. By contrast, the main enemies Russia and Serbia had engaged in large scale warfare in the decade before the First World War. In the late 19th century the army was used to suppress unrest in urban areas of the empire: in 1882 and 1887 in Vienna and notably against German nationalists at Graz and Czech nationalists in Prague in November 1897. Soldiers under the command of Conrad von Hotzendorf were also used against Italian rioters in Trieste in 1902. The most significant action by soldiers of the Dual Monarchy in this period was the Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the summer of 1878. When troops under the command of Josip Filipović and Stjepan Jovanović entered the provinces expecting little or no resistance, they were met with ferocious opposition from elements of both Muslim and Orthodox populations there. Despite setbacks at Maglaj and Tuzla, Sarajevo was occupied in October. Austro-Hungarian casualties amounted to over 5,000 and the unexpected violence of the campaign led to recriminations between commanders and political leaders.", "In 1868, the number of active-duty troops in the army was 355,000, and the total could be expanded to 800,000 upon mobilization. However, this was significantly less than the European powers of France, the North German Confederation and Russia, each of which could field more than one million men. Though the population of the empire had risen to nearly 50 million by 1900, the size of the army was tied to ceilings established in 1889. Thus, at the start of the 20th century, Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0.29% of its population, compared to 0.47% in Germany, 0.35% in Russia and 0.75% in France. The 1889 army law was not revised until 1912, which allowed for an increase in annual conscriptions. The ethnic make-up of the enlisted ranks reflected the diversity of the empire the army served; in 1906, out of every 1000 enlisted men, there were 267 Germans, 223 Hungarians, 135 Czechs, 85 Poles, 81 Ukrainians, 67 Croats and Serbs, 64 Romanians, 38 Slovaks, 26 Slovenes, and 14 Italians. To aid communication between the multitude of ethnicities, the army developed a simple language called Army Slavic, based primarily on Czech. From a religious standpoint, the Austro-Hungarian army officer corps was dominated by Roman Catholics. In 1896, out of 1000 officers, 791 were Roman Catholics, 86 Protestants, 84 Jews, 39 Greek-Orthodox, and one Uniate. Of the pre–World War military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy 4.4% including Bosnia and Herzegovina), Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. There were no official barriers to military service for Jews, but in later years this tolerance eroded to some extent, as important figures such as Conrad von Hötzendorf and Archduke Franz Ferdinand sometimes expressed anti-Jewish sentiments. Franz Ferdinand was also accused (by Conrad) of discriminating against Protestant officers.", "Following the 1867 constitutional arrangements, the Reichsrat was dominated by German Liberals, who generally regarded the army as a relic of feudalism. In Budapest, legislators were reluctant to authorize funds for the joint army but were generous with the Hungarian branch of the army, the Honvédség. In 1867 the military budget accounted for about 25% of all government spending, but the economic crash of 1873 hit Austria-Hungary hard and foreign observers questioned whether the Dual Monarchy could manage a major war without subsidies. Despite increases throughout the 1850s and 1860s, in the latter half of the century Austria-Hungary was still spending less on its army than were other major European powers. While the budget continued to rise—from 262 million crowns in 1895 to 306 million in 1906—this was still far less \"per capita\" than for other major European states, including Italy, and about on par with Russia, which had a much larger population. Further contributing to the monarchy's military weakness was the low rate of conscription: Austria-Hungary conscripted only 0.29% of its population annually, compared to 0.47% in Germany and 0.75% in France. Attempts to increase the yearly intake of recruits were proposed but repeatedly blocked by officials in Budapest until an agreement was reached in 1912. In the emerging field of military aviation, Austria-Hungary lagged behind other European states. While balloon detachments had been established in 1893, they were mostly assigned to the fortress artillery, except for a brief period from 1909 to 1911 when they were under command of the multifaceted Verkehrs Brigade. Realization that heavier-than-air machines were necessary or useful came late, and Austria-Hungary acquired only five airplanes by 1911. In 1914 the budget for military aviation was approximately th the amount spent by France. Austria-Hungary entered the war with only 48 first-line aircraft.", "Austria-Hungary had a complex military structure. The country had three main distinct ground forces. As a union the Monarchy had a common government of three ministers (Minister of the Imperial Household and Foreign Affairs; Minister of War and Minister of Finance). The Imperial Minister of War had authority over the Common Army, the Navy, and, shortly before and during WWI, the newly established independent Air Troops. The Common Army was the premier land force. It was the best equipped and had the main role to secure the borders of the Monarchy. In case of war it was to absorb the Austrian Landwehr and the Hungarian Honvéd within its command structure. For that reason the Common Army was organised in army corps even in peacetime, while the Landwehr and Honvéd were organised in territorial districts. The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were governed as a condominium between the Austrian and the Hungarian parts of the dual monarchy. As such the local troops of Bosnian Riflemen were subordinated through the Governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Imperial Minister of War. The general peacetime order of battle of the Common Army included: The Austrian part of the monarchy (officially called Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council, unofficially and for short \"Cisleithania\") had its own government. It included the Imperial and Royal Ministry of National Defence (completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the Imperial-Royal Landwehr and its: The Hungarian part of the monarchy (officially called Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, unofficially and for short Transleithania) also had its own government. One of its ministries was the Royal Hungarian Honvéd Ministry (also completely independent from the Imperial War Ministry). In peacetime it had complete authority and responsibility for the:", "Official designations were as follows: After war was declared, 3.35 million men (including the first call-up of the reserves and the 1914 recruits) gathered for action. The Austro-Hungarian Imperial Army was officially under the control of the Commander-in-Chief, Emperor Franz Josef. By 1914, however, Franz Josef was 84 years old and the chief of staff, Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, effectively had more power over the armed forces. Conrad favored an aggressive foreign policy and advocated the use of military action to solve Austria-Hungary's territorial disputes with Italy and Serbia. Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen was appointed Supreme Commander of the Austro-Hungarian army by Franz Joseph on July 11, 1914. It was thought he would not interfere with the operational and tactical plans of Conrad von Hötzendorf. Friedrich remained Supreme Commander until February 1917, when Emperor Charles I decided to assume the office himself.", "The Common Army (\"k.u.k.—kaiserlich und königlich\") consisted of:", "The Imperial-Royal Landwehr (\"k.k. or kaiserlich österreichisch/königlich böhmisch\") was the standing army of Austria responsible for the defence of Austria itself. The mountain infantry had the following units:", "The Royal Hungarian Landwehr (\"königlich ungarische Landwehr\") or Royal Hungarian Honvéd (\"k.u. Honvéd\") was the standing army of Hungary. A part of the Honvéd was the Royal Croatian Landwehr (Kraljevsko hrvatsko domobranstvo), which consisted of 1 infantry division (out of 7 in Honvéd) and 1 cavalry regiment (out of 10 in the Honvéd). The infantry regiments of the k.u.k. army had four battalions each; the infantry regiments of the k.k. and k.u. Landwehr had three battalions each, except the 3rd Regiment of the \"Tiroler Landesschützen\" (Tyrolian fusiliers), that had also four battalions. In 1915 units that had nicknames or names of honour lost them by order of the War Ministry. Thereafter units were designated only by number. For instance, the \"k.u.k. Infanterie-Regiment (Hoch und Deutschmeister) Nr. 4\" became \"Infanterie-Regiment No. 4\" (4th Infantry Regiment).", "The Landsturm consisted of men aged 34 to 55 who belonged to the Austria k.k. Landsturm and the Hungarian k.u. Landsturm. The Landsturm formed 40 regiments totaling 136 battalions in Austria and 32 regiments totaling 97 battalions in Hungary. The Landsturm was a reserve force intended to provide replacements for the first line units. However, the Landsturm provided 20 brigades who took to the field with the rest of the army.", "The Standschützen (singular: \"Standesschütze\") were originally rifle guilds and rifle companies that had been formed in the 15th and 16th centuries, and were involved time and again in military operations within the borders of the Austrian County of Tyrol. A \"Standschütze\" was a member of a \"Schützenstand\" (\"shooting club\"), into which he was enrolled, which automatically committed him to the voluntary, military protection of the state of Tyrol (and Vorarlberg). In effect they were a type of Tyrolean local militia or home guard.", "The following were the medals awarded to a \"Zugsführer\" (Staff-Sergeant) of the 2nd Regiment of the Tyrolian Imperial Rifles (later transferred to the 30th High Mountain Company), who saw action at: He received the following decorations: The triangular folded style of ribbon seen on medals of the Austro-Hungarian Army could be seen with armies of former territories or successor states of Austria-Hungary, including the Royal Hungarian Army and the Croatian Home Guard (World War II).", "The different colors of the rank patches and buttons on the tunic are the marks for identifying the infantry regiments (except Generals) Please note, that the first name is always in German. The ranks displayed after the \"/\" are the Hungarian and Croatian equivalents of the Austrian ranks, since they were used in this format in the Magyar Királyi Honvédség / königlich ungarische Landwehr (Royal Hungarian Home Defence Forces) as well as in the Kraljevsko Hrvatsko Domobranstvo / königlich kroatische Landwehr (Royal Croatian Home Guard).", "The English equivalents are from the Austrian Bundesheer's homepage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Professional tennis career.", "2001–2004: Early career and Davis Cup title.", "2005: First Grand Slam title.", "2006: Second French Open title.", "2007: Third French Open title.", "2008: Two majors, Olympic gold, second Davis Cup, No. 1 ranking.", "2009: Australian Open and Davis Cup titles.", "2010: Grand Slam titles on three surfaces and Career Golden Slam.", "2011: Sixth French Open title and Davis Cup crown.", "2012: Seventh French Open title.", "2013: Two major titles, back to No. 1.", "2014: Ninth French Open title and injuries.", "2015: Continued struggles and rankings drop.", "2016: Second Olympic gold medal.", "2017: Two major titles and year-end No. 1.", "2018: 11th French Open title.", "2019: Two major titles, year-end No. 1 and Davis Cup crown.", "2020: ATP Cup final.", "Rivalries.", "Nadal vs. Federer.", "Nadal vs. Djokovic.", "Nadal vs. Murray.", "Nadal vs. Wawrinka.", "Nadal vs. Ferrer.", "Nadal vs. Del Potro.", "Nadal vs. Berdych.", "Legacy.", "Playing style and coaching.", "Public image.", "Equipment and endorsements.", "Court name.", "In popular culture.", "Asteroid.", "Off the court.", "Rafa Nadal Sports Centre.", "Philanthropy.", "Fundación Rafa Nadal.", "Floods in Majorca.", "Other charities.", "Involvement in football.", "Personal life.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam tournament performance timeline.", "Year–End Championships performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Rafael Nadal was born in Manacor, a town on the island of Mallorca in the Balearic Islands, Spain, to parents Ana María Parera Femenías and Sebastián Nadal Homar. His father is a businessman, owner of an insurance company, glass and window company Vidres Mallorca, and the restaurant, Sa Punta. Rafael has a younger sister, María Isabel. His uncle, Miguel Ángel Nadal, is a retired professional footballer, who played for RCD Mallorca, FC Barcelona, and the Spanish national team. He idolized Barcelona striker Ronaldo as a child, and via his uncle got access to the Barcelona dressing room to have a photo with the Brazilian. Recognizing in Rafael a natural talent, another uncle, Toni Nadal, a tennis coach, introduced him to the game when he was three years old. At age 8, Nadal won an under-12", "", "Nadal turned professional at age 15, and participated in two events on the ITF junior circuit. On 29 April 2002, at 15 years and 10 months, the world No. 762 Nadal won his first ATP match, defeating Ramón Delgado, and became the ninth player in the Open Era to do so before the age of 16. In 2001, Nadal finished the year with a Challenger series record of 1–1 in singles with no titles or finals appearances. He did not participate in any doubles Challengers events. At ITF Futures, Nadal's record was 7–5 in singles and 1–2 in doubles, with no titles or", "At the 2005 Australian Open, Nadal lost in the fourth round to eventual runner-up Lleyton Hewitt. Two months later, he reached the final of the 2005 Miami Masters, and despite being two points from a straight-sets victory, he was defeated in five sets by No. 1 Roger Federer. Both performances were considered breakthroughs for Nadal. He then dominated the spring clay-court season. He won 24 consecutive singles matches, breaking Andre Agassi's Open Era record of consecutive match wins for", "Nadal missed the Australian Open because of a foot injury. In February, he lost in the semifinals of the first tournament he played, the Open 13 tournament in Marseille, France. Two weeks later, he handed Roger Federer his first loss of the year in the final of the Dubai Duty Free Men's Open (in 2006, Rafael Nadal and Andy Murray were the only two men who defeated Federer). To complete the spring hard-court season, Nadal was upset in the semifinals of the Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, California, by James Blake, and was upset in the second round of the 2006 Miami Masters.", "Nadal started the year by playing in six hard-court tournaments. He lost in the semifinals and first round of his first two tournaments and then lost in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open to eventual runner-up Fernando González. After another quarterfinal loss at the Dubai Tennis Championships, he won the 2007 Indian Wells Masters, before Novak Djokovic defeated him in the quarterfinals of the 2007 Miami Masters. He had comparatively more success after returning to Europe to play five clay-court tournaments. He won the titles at the Masters Series Monte Carlo, the Open Sabadell Atlántico in Barcelona, and the Masters Series Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome, before losing to Roger Federer in the final of the Masters Series Hamburg. This defeat ended his 81-match winning streak on clay, which is the male Open Era record for consecutive wins on a single surface. He then rebounded to win the French Open for the third straight year, defeating Federer once again in the final. Between the tournaments in Barcelona and Rome, Nadal defeated Federer in the \"Battle of Surfaces\" exhibition match in Mallorca, Spain, with the tennis court", "Nadal began the year in India, where he was comprehensively beaten by Mikhail Youzhny in the final of the Chennai Open. Nadal then reached the semifinals of the Australian Open for the first time. Jo-Wilfried Tsonga defeated Nadal in the semifinal of 2008 Australian Open. Nadal also reached the final of the Miami Masters for the second time. During the spring clay-court season, Nadal won four singles titles and defeated Roger Federer in three finals. He beat Federer at the Masters Series Monte Carlo for the third straight year, capturing his Open Era record fourth consecutive title there. Nadal then won his fourth consecutive title at the Open Sabadell Atlántico tournament in Barcelona. A few weeks later, Nadal won his", "Nadal's first official ATP tour event for the year was the 250 series Qatar Open in Doha, where he lost in the quarterfinals to Gaël Monfils. Nadal also entered and won the tournament's doubles event with partner Marc López, defeating the No. 1-ranked doubles team of Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić in the final. At the 2009 Australian Open, Nadal won his first five matches without dropping a set, before defeating compatriot Fernando Verdasco in the semifinals in the second longest match in Australian Open history at 5 hours and 14 minutes. This win set up a championship match with Roger Federer, their first meeting ever", "Nadal has called 2010 his best year as a professional tennis player. The 2010 tennis season Nadal became the only male player in tennis history to win Grand Slam tournaments on three different surfaces (clay, grass and hard court) the same calendar year. Nadal began the year by participating in the Capitala World Tennis Championship in Abu Dhabi. In the final, Nadal defeated Robin Söderling in straight sets. Nadal participated in the Qatar ExxonMobil Open ATP 250 event in Doha, where he lost in the finals to Nikolay Davydenko. In the Australian Open, Nadal reached the quarterfinals, where he had to pull out at 3–0 down in the third set against Andy Murray. After examining Nadal's knees, doctors told", "Nadal started 2011 by participating in the Mubadala World Tennis Championship in Abu Dhabi. In the final, he won over Roger Federer. At the Qatar ExxonMobil Open, he fell in straight sets Nikolay Davydenko in the semifinals. He and countryman López won the doubles title by defeating Daniele Bracciali and Andreas Seppi. In the quarterfinals of the Australian Open, Nadal suffered a hamstring injury against David Ferrer early in the pair's quarterfinal match and ultimately lost in straight sets, thus ending his effort to win four major tournaments in a row. In March, Nadal helped Spain defeat Belgium in a 2011 Davis Cup World Group first-round tie in the Spiroudome in Charleroi, Belgium. Nadal defeated Ruben Bemelmans and Olivier Rochus. At both the 2011 BNP Paribas Open and the 2011 Sony Ericsson Open, Nadal reached the final and lost to Novak Djokovic in three sets. This was the first time Nadal reached the finals of Indian Wells and Miami in the same year. Nadal began his clay-court season by winning the 2011 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters with the loss of just one set. In the final, he avenged his defeat by David Ferrer in the quarterfinals of", "Nadal began his ATP World Tour season at the Qatar Open. In the semifinal he lost to Gaël Monfils in two sets. In the Australian Open Nadal won his first four matches without dropping a set. He then won in his quarterfinal and semifinal matches against Tomáš Berdych and Roger Federer respectively. In the final, on 29 January, he was beaten by Novak Djokovic in a five-set match that lasted 5 hours and 53 minutes, the longest Grand Slam final of all time. Nadal made it to the semifinals in Indian Wells,", "Two weeks prior to the Australian Open, Nadal officially withdrew from the tournament citing a stomach virus. Nadal's withdrawal saw him drop out of the ATP's Top Four for the first time since 2005. Playing in his first tournaments in South America since 2005, Nadal made his comeback at the VTR Open in Chile, where he was upset by Argentine No. 73 Horacio Zeballos in the final. At the Brasil Open, Nadal reached the final, where he defeated David Nalbandian. In the title match of the Abierto Mexicano Telcel in", "Rafael Nadal began his 2014 season at the Qatar Open in Doha, defeating Lukáš Rosol in the first round and he won the title after defeating Gaël Monfils in the final. At the Australian Open, he defeated Roger Federer to reach his third Australian Open final. This marked Nadal's 11th consecutive victory in a Major semifinal, second only to Borg's all-time record of 14. In the final, he faced Stanislas Wawrinka, against whom he entered the match with a 12–0 record. However, Nadal suffered a back injury during the warm-up, which progressively worsened as the match wore on. Nadal lost the first two sets, and although he won the third set, he ultimately lost the match in four sets. The first tournament he played after that was the inaugural Rio Open which he won after defeating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final. However, at the Indian Wells Masters, Dolgopolov would avenge his loss, defeating Nadal in three sets in the third round.", "Nadal began the year as the defending Champion at the Qatar Open, but suffered a shocking three set defeat to Michael Berrer in the first round. He won the doubles title with Juan Mónaco. At the Australian Open, Nadal lost in straight sets to Tomáš Berdych in the quarterfinal, thus ending a 17-match winning streak against the seventh-seeded Czech. In February, Nadal lost in the semifinals to Fabio Fognini at the Rio Open, before going on to win his 46th career clay-court title against Juan Mónaco at the Argentina Open. Nadal then participated at the Indian Wells and Miami Open but suffered early defeats to Milos Raonic and Fernando Verdasco, in the quarterfinals and third round respectively. Nadal then began his spring clay season at the Monte Carlo Masters and reached the semifinals where he", "Nadal started the year winning Mubadala Title defeating Milos Raonic in straight sets. After that, he entered the Doha, Qatar, where he reached the finals, losing to Djokovic in straight sets. This was their 47th match, after which Djokovic led their head-to-head rivalry with 24 matches won. At the Australian Open, Nadal was defeated in five sets by compatriot Fernando Verdasco in the first round. The defeat marked his first opening round exit at the Australian Open. In April he won his 28th Masters 1000 in Monte Carlo. He went on to win his 17th ATP 500 in Barcelona, winning the trophy for the ninth time in his career. He continued the clay court season in Madrid, falling to Murray in the semifinal. The following week, Nadal played in Rome Masters where he reached the quarterfinal. Nadal was again defeated by Djokovic in straight sets, although he had a break advantage in both sets and served to win the second. Following Federer's withdrawal due to injury, Nadal was named the fourth seed", "Nadal opened his season by playing at the Brisbane International for the first time, where he reached the quarterfinals before losing to Milos Raonic in three sets. In the second round of the tournament, he defeated Mischa Zverev for the loss of just two games; Nadal began the Australian Open with straight-set wins over Florian Mayer and Marcos Baghdatis, before more difficult wins over Alexander Zverev and Gael Monfils, which set up his first quarterfinal berth at a Grand Slam since the 2015 French Open. Nadal defeated Raonic and Grigor Dimitrov in the quarterfinal and semifinal, respectively (the latter lasting for five sets over five hours), to set up a final against Roger Federer, his first Grand Slam final", "Nadal began his 2018 season at the Kooyong Classic, where he lost to Richard Gasquet in the first round. He then played at the exhibition tournament in Melbourne, losing in the final to Tomáš Berdych. At the Australian Open, Nadal recorded straight-sets wins in the first three rounds, before notching a tougher four-set win against Diego Schwartzman in the fourth round. He faced Marin Čilić in the quarterfinal, but retired in the fifth set due to a hip injury. On 16 February, Nadal dropped to the No. 2 ranking after 26 weeks at the top when his rival Roger Federer overtook him in points. Nadal withdrew from the Mexican Open, Indian Wells Masters, and Miami Open due to an injury. Despite his absence in Miami, he regained the No. 1 ranking on 2 April due to Federer's second-round loss. After recovering from injury,", "Nadal was due to start his season at the 2019 Brisbane International, but withdrew shortly before his first match due to an injury. He was seeded second at the 2019 Australian Open, and recorded straight-sets wins against James Duckworth, Matthew Ebden, Alex de Minaur, Tomáš Berdych, first-time quarterfinalist Frances Tiafoe and first-time semifinalist Stefanos Tsitsipas to reach his fifth Australian Open final. This was the first time that Nadal had advanced to an Australian Open final without losing a set; he had also lost only two service games during this run, both in his first-round match against Duckworth. Nadal lost the final in straight sets to Novak Djokovic, winning only eight games for the match and marking Nadal's first straight-sets loss in a Grand", "Nadal began his 2020 season by playing at the inaugural 2020 ATP Cup and helped Spain reach the final where they lost to Serbia, with Nadal losing to Djokovic in straight sets. Nadal then played at the 2020 Australian Open and", "", "Roger Federer and Nadal have been playing each other since 2004, and their rivalry is a significant part of both men's careers. They held the top two rankings on the ATP Tour from July 2005 to 14 August 2009, and again from 11 September 2017 to 15 October 2018. They are the only pair of men to have ever finished four consecutive calendar years at the top. Nadal ascended to No. 2 in July 2005 and held this spot for a record 160 consecutive weeks before surpassing Federer in August 2008. They have played 40 times. Nadal leads 24–16 overall and 10–4 in Grand Slam", "Novak Djokovic and Nadal have met 55 times (more than any other pair in the Open Era) and Nadal leads 9–6 at the Grand Slams and trails 26–29 overall. Nadal leads on clay 17–7, while Djokovic leads on hard courts 20–7, and they are tied on grass 2–2. In 2009, this rivalry was listed as the third greatest of the previous 10 years by ATPworldtour.com. Djokovic is one of only two players to have at least ten match wins against Nadal (the other", "Nadal and Andy Murray have met on 24 occasions since 2007, with Nadal leading 17–7. Nadal leads 7–2 on clay, 3–0 on grass, and 7–5 on hard courts (including 4–4 on outdoor courts, but Nadal leads 3–1 on indoor hard courts), but trails 1–3 in finals. The pair once met regularly at Grand Slam level, with nine out of their 23 meetings coming in Grand Slams, with", "Nadal and Stan Wawrinka have met 20 times, with Nadal leading. Although this rivalry has less significance than rivalries with the other members of the Big Four, the pair have met in several prestigious tournaments. The rivalry saw Nadal winning the first 12 encounters, all in straight sets, including 2 finals, one of which is a Masters", "Nadal and compatriot David Ferrer met a total of 32 times, with the total record ending in favor of Nadal with Ferrer's retirement. Nadal and Ferrer had met in several prestigious tournaments and important matches. Ferrer won their first meeting in 2004 in Stuttgart in 3 sets, but Nadal went on to win the next four until Ferrer defeated him in the 4th round of the 2007 US Open. The pair met in their first tournament final in 2008, in Barcelona, where Nadal won in three sets. They met a year later again in the Barcelona final, with Nadal taking the title in straight sets. In 2010, the pair met in their first Masters 1000 final in Rome, where Nadal won in straight sets. Ferrer, however, would get his revenge in the 2011 Australian Open quarterfinal, defeating Nadal", "Nadal and Juan Martin del Potro have met 17 times, with Nadal leading. Outside the Big 4, no active player has more wins against Nadal than Del Potro. The two have met in many prestigious tournaments, including at 3 of the 4 grand slams. Nadal won their first four meetings between 2007–09, however Del Potro went on to win the next three, including a straight sets victory at the 2009 US Open SF (he later went on to win the tournament after defeating Roger Federer in the final. Their next major meeting came during the 2011 Davis Cup final. Nadal went on to beat Del Potro in 4 sets to claim the Davis Cup for Spain, their fourth since 2004. Nadal in 2013 also denied Del Potro his first Masters 1000 title, with a victory in 3 sets at the 2013 Indian Wells Masters. However,", "Nadal and Tomas Berdych have met a total of 24 times, with Nadal leading. Although this rivalry is lopsided mostly in favor of Nadal, the two have had some incredible matches in many prestigious tournaments. The pair have met at 2 of the 4 grand slams, with 3 meetings at the Australian Open and twice at Wimbledon, including the 2010 final. Nadal and Berdych first met in an ATP tournament in Båstad, where both men reached the final. Nadal won the match in 3 sets, in what was only his 8th title on the tour. Nadal and Berdych met a few more times in 2005–06, all in Masters 1000 tournaments. Out of their 4 matches, Berdych was able to win in 3, in Canada, Madrid, and Cincinnati. Their first meeting in a Grand Slam came at Wimbledon in 2007. They met in the QF, where Nadal defeated Berdych in straight sets. Their next significant meeting was in the opening round of the 2009 Davis Cup Final, where Nadal again defeated Berdych in straight sets. Spain went on to win", "Nadal stands alone in the Open Era as the player with the most clay court titles (59), and holds an all-time record of 12 French Opens, 11 Monte-Carlo Masters and 11 Barcelona titles. He also stands alone with the longest single surface win streak in matches (clay courts, 81) and in sets (clay courts, 50) in the history of the Open Era. Due to these achievements, many have called Nadal \"The King of Clay\", and he is widely regarded as the greatest clay-court player in history. Nadal's records and evolution into an all-court champion have established him as one of the greatest players in tennis history, with some former tennis players and analysts considering him to be the greatest", "Nadal's playing style and personality can be summarised by Jimmy Connors: \"He's built out of a mold that I think I came from also, that you walk out there, you give everything you have from the very first point to the end no matter what the score. And you're willing to lay it all out on the line and you're not afraid to let the people see that.\" Former ATP world no. 1 and coach of Nadal, Carlos Moya, remembers the first time he played Nadal in Germany, when he was 22 and Rafa was just 12. He shared the account in the book \"Facing Nadal\" by Scoop Malimowski: \"I met him for the first time in Stuttgart. He was playing an under 12s and I was playing the Masters event. We actually played that day and he was twelve and I was twenty-two. I think he was a very great player under twelve, he was very shy off court. But then we saw something different on court. But he was very hungry to play and compete and that’s something you could see right away.” Nadal generally plays an aggressive, behind-the-baseline game founded on heavy topspin groundstrokes, consistency, speedy footwork and tenacious court coverage, thus making him an aggressive counterpuncher. Known for his athleticism and speed around the court, Nadal is an excellent defender who hits well on the run, constructing winning plays from seemingly defensive positions. He also plays very fine dropshots, which work especially well because his heavy topspin often forces opponents to the back of the court. Nadal employs a semi-western grip forehand, often with a \"lasso-whip\" follow-through, where his left arm hits through the ball and finishes above his left shoulder – as opposed to a more traditional finish across the body or around his opposite shoulder.", "", "Nadal has been sponsored by Kia Motors since 2006. He has appeared in advertising campaigns for Kia as a global ambassador for the company. In May 2008, Kia released a claymation viral ad featuring Nadal in a tennis match with an alien. In May 2015, Nadal extended his partnership with Kia for another five years. Nike serves as Nadal's clothing and shoe sponsor. Nadal's signature on-court attire entailed a variety of sleeveless shirts paired with 3/4 length capri pants. For the 2009 season, Nadal adopted more-traditional", "In April 2017, the centre court", "In February 2010, Rafael Nadal was featured in the music video of Shakira's \"Gypsy\". and part of her album release \"She Wolf\". In explaining why she chose Nadal for the video, Shakira was quoted", "128036 Rafaelnadal is a main belt asteroid discovered in 2003 at the Observatorio Astronómico de Mallorca and named after Nadal. The decision to name the", "", "Nadal owns and trains at the Rafa Nadal Sports Centre (40,000 square meters) in his hometown of Manacor, Mallorca. The centre houses the Rafa Nadal Tennis Academy, where", "Nadal took part in Thailand's \"A Million Trees for the King\" project, planting a tree in honour of King Bhumibol Adulyadej on a visit to Hua Hin during his Thailand Open 2010. \"For me it's an honour to be part of this project\", said Nadal. \"It's a very good project. I want to congratulate the Thai people and congratulate the King for this unbelievable day. I wish all the best for this idea. It's very, very nice.\"", "The creation of the Fundación Rafa Nadal took place in November 2007, and its official presentation was in February 2008, at the Manacor Tennis Club in Mallorca, Spain. The foundation will focus on social work and development aid particularly on childhood and youth. On deciding why to start a foundation, Nadal said \"This can be the beginning of my future, when I retire and have more time, [...] I am doing very well and I owe society, [...] A month-and-a-half ago I was in Chennai, in India. The truth is we live great here...I can contribute something with my image...\" Nadal was inspired by the Red Cross benefit match against malaria with Real Madrid goalkeeper", "Rafael Nadal opened his tennis academy centre to Majorca flood victims in October 2018. By that time he was recovering at home in Majorca, shortly after having to leave the US Open due to injury and one day after the flood he worked personally with some friends to help the", "Nadal supports or has supported other charities, such as City Harvest, Elton John AIDS Foundation, Laureus Sport for Good Foundation and Small Steps Project", "Nadal is an avid fan of association football club Real Madrid. On 8 July 2010, it was reported that he had become a shareholder of RCD Mallorca, his local club by birth, in an attempt to assist the club from debt. Nadal reportedly owns 10 percent and was offered the role of vice president, which he rejected. His uncle Miguel Ángel Nadal became assistant coach under Michael Laudrup. Nadal remains a passionate Real Madrid supporter; \"ESPN.com\" writer Graham Hunter wrote,", "Nadal lived with his parents and younger sister María Isabel in a five-story apartment building in their hometown of Manacor, Mallorca. In June 2009, Spanish newspaper \"La Vanguardia\", and then \"The New York Times\", reported that his parents, Ana María and Sebastián, had separated. This news came after weeks of speculation in Internet posts and message boards over Nadal's personal issues as the cause of his setback. Nadal is an agnostic atheist. As a young boy, he would run home from", "", "\"Current through the", "Finals:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The Society today.", "Where the Society works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The British and Foreign Bible Society dates back to 1804 when a group of Christians, associated with the Religious Tract Society, sought to address the problem of a lack of affordable Bibles in Welsh for Welsh-speaking Christians. Many young girls had walked long distances to Rev Thomas Charles to get copies of the Bible. Later the story was told of one of them - a young girl called Mary Jones who walked over 20 miles to get a Bible in Bala, Gwynedd. BFBS was not the first Bible Society in the world. The first organisation in Britain to be called \"The Bible Society\" was founded in 1779 and now called the Naval, Military and Air Force Bible Society. The first BFBS translation project was the Gospel of John into Mohawk for Canada. In the British Isles BFBS reprinted Bibles in Welsh, Scots Gaelic and Manx Gaelic first produced by SPCK. The first Romani translation was the Gospel of Luke into the Caló language of Iberia. A report in the 13 November, 1824 edition of the \"Buffalo Emporium and General Advertiser (NY)\", stated that the BFBS \"since its establishment, has distributed 1,723,251 Bibles, and 2,529,114 Testamentsmaking a total of 4,252,365.\" From the early days, the Society sought to be ecumenical and non-sectarian. The Controversy in 1825–26 about the Apocrypha and the Metrical Psalms resulted in the secession of the Glasgow and Edinburgh Bible Societies, which later formed what is now the Scottish Bible Society. This and another similar 1831 controversy about Unitarians holding significant Society offices resulted in a minority separating to form the Trinitarian Bible Society. The Bible Society extended its work to England, India, Europe and beyond. Protestant communities in many European countries (such as Croatia and Albania) date back to the work of nineteenth-century BFBS Bible salesmen. Auxiliary branches were set up all over the world, which later became Bible Societies in their own right, and today operate in co-operation as part of the United Bible Societies. The Bible Society is a non-denominational Christian network which works to translate, revise, print, and distribute affordable Bibles in England and Wales. A newspaper article in the 15 March 1879 edition of the \"The Gazette (Montreal)\", noted that the total circulation by the BFBS \"has been 82,000,000...during the last seventy-five years\" (since 1804). During World War One Bible Society distributed more than nine million copies of Scripture, in over 80 languages, to combatants and prisoners of war on all sides of the war. Bible Society managed this despite immense challenges – supply shortages, rising paper costs, paper rationing, submarine blockades and the sinking of merchant shipping. Even greater than these physical difficulties was the emotional toll – former colleagues suddenly found themselves fighting on opposing sides. Bible salesmen throughout Europe were conscripted or volunteered into their respective armies. The Bible Society responded to the challenge. They printed New Testaments bound in khaki, stamped with a cross, for distribution via the Red Cross among sick and wounded soldiers, sailors and prisoners of war. On average between 6–7,000 volumes were sent out every working day for fighting men, the sick and wounded, the prisoners of war, exiles and refugees. That's over four copies distributed each minute, day and night, for the duration of the war. Translation work never stopped – between August 1914 and November 1918, Bible Society printed Scriptures in 34 new languages and dialects. This meant on average there was one new version every seven weeks during the whole period of war. For many years the headquarters of the society was in London; in 1972 its address was 146, Queen Victoria Street, E.C.4. By 1972 it had published or distributed whole Bibles or parts of the Bible in 1,431 languages. At that time it was distributing 173 million copies each year.", "The Society is working to circulate the Scriptures across the world, in the church and through the culture. The strategy of Bible Society centres on Bible availability, accessibility and credibility - what it calls the ‘lifecycle’ of the Bible. These strategic approaches encompass all of its activity: translation, production, distribution, literacy, engagement and advocacy. The Bible Society has by far the largest collection of Bibles in the world, with about 39,000 items. It includes its Chinese Collection which is the largest collection of Chinese Scriptures anywhere in the world. Since the society's move to Swindon in 1985 the library has been located in the library of the University of Cambridge.", "The Society's mission is global. Its work is organised into two categories: domestic and international. The Society is part of an international fellowship of over 140 Bible Societies around the world, known as the United Bible Societies. Its entire international programme is delivered on the ground through the close relationship they have with each of their fellow Bible Societies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early years.", "2004: French Open mixed doubles champion, first singles final.", "2005: First title, first Masters final, win over world No. 1.", "2006: Three ATP Tour singles titles on three different surfaces, second Masters 1000 singles final.", "2007: First Grand Slam singles semifinal, world No. 7; Monte Carlo doubles final.", "2008: 150 singles wins on the ATP Tour.", "2009: Struggles with form and testing positive for cocaine.", "2010: Return to form, sixth title, back to top 10.", "2011: 250 career singles wins on the ATP Tour.", "2012: Olympic Bronze in doubles, Hopman Cup & third Masters 1000 singles finals.", "2013: Second Grand Slam singles semifinal, three ATP Tour singles titles.", "2014: Struggles and injuries, Davis Cup final.", "2015: Comeback, third Grand Slam singles semifinal, return to top 10.", "2016: 13th and 14th ATP Tour singles titles, first French Open singles quarterfinal and injuries.", "2017: Hopman Cup & Davis Cup victories.", "2018: 500th career singles win on the ATP Tour, withdrew from Davis Cup final.", "2019.", "Playing style.", "Equipment.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "When he was nine years old, Gasquet was touted as a future champion on the cover of the February 1996 issue of French Tennis Magazine. As a junior, Gasquet posted a 44–7 career singles record and a 10–4 career doubles record. He had a career-high juniors singles ranking of world No. 1, attained on 9 September 2002. He made his debut on the ATP tour in April 2002, at the Tennis Masters Series tournament in Monte Carlo where he received a wildcard into qualifying and became the youngest player ever to qualify for a Tennis Masters Series event. At the", "In 2004, he reached his first ATP Tour singles final in Metz, losing to his", "Gasquet missed the first seven weeks of the 2005 season because of chickenpox. Upon recovery, he won back-to-back Challenger titles in March. In April, riding the momentum of a ten-match winning streak, Gasquet reached the semifinals of the Masters Series tournament at Monte Carlo, handing world No. 1 Roger Federer a surprise defeat in the quarterfinals. He saved three match points before closing it out in a 10–8 tiebreak. As a result, he became the youngest French player ever to defeat a world No. 1. However, the eventual champion Rafael Nadal defeated him in the semifinals.", "In 2006, Gasquet had a slow start after a first-round defeat by Tommy Haas at the Australian Open. He later avenged this defeat in the Davis Cup first-round tie against Germany, where he beat Haas in five sets. However, he lost both his singles rubbers in a quarterfinal tie versus Russia and suffered an abdominal injury in that tie which left him out of action for a month. Having struggled to find any form after his comeback during the clay season, Gasquet went out in the second round of the French Open to David Nalbandian. Following a disappointing opening half", "Gasquet's 2007 started with a quarterfinal showing in Adelaide, followed by a semifinal appearance in Sydney. He went on to reach the fourth round of the Australian Open, losing to Tommy Robredo in four sets. At Monte Carlo, he notched his first win over a top-10 opponent of the year, winning his third-round match over Ivan Ljubičić, ranked No. 8 at the time. However, he then lost his quarterfinal match to twice former Monte Carlo champion Juan Carlos Ferrero. Gasquet reached his first final of the season two weeks later at Estoril, but the up-and-coming Serbian player Novak Djokovic got the better of him in three sets. He reached the doubles final of the Monte Carlo Masters with Julien Benneteau, where the French team lost to Bob and Mike Bryan. Despite losing in the second round of the French Open to Kristof Vliegen, he rose two spots to a career high No. 11. Gasquet then made his first Grand Slam semifinal at Wimbledon. He beat fellow Frenchmen Nicolas Mahut and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga on his way to a quarterfinal showdown with Andy Roddick. In one of the great Wimbledon quarterfinals, Gasquet recovered from a sluggish", "Gasquet started out the year as the top seed of the Sydney Medibank International, but made an early second-round exit to eventual champion Dmitry Tursunov. Gasquet played with Tsonga in the doubles final of the Sydney Medibank International, scoring a major upset over world No. 1 duo Bob and Mike Bryan. The French combination came back from two match points down to win the championship and deny the Bryan brothers ever winning the tournament. After defeating Nick Lindahl, Feliciano López, and Igor Andreev, Gasquet lost in four sets in the fourth round of the Australian Open to eventual", "Gasquet began his 2009 tour season at the Brisbane International. Gasquet came back from a set down to defeat Marc Gicquel in the first round. He then had a straight-set win over American Taylor Dent in the second round and defeated second seed Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the quarterfinals. He lost to Radek Štěpánek in the semifinals. Gasquet then traveled to Sydney, Australia for the Medibank International. He defeated defending champion Dmitry Tursunov in the first round and second seed and compatriot Gilles Simon in straight", "Gasquet began the season at the Brisbane International. He defeated Jarkko Nieminen and Australian qualifier Matthew Ebden, but he lost to Andy Roddick in the quarterfinals. He then entered the Medibank International in Sydney. There, he beat Feliciano López in the first round, and Benjamin Becker in the second. Gasquet then defeated Potito Starace in the quarterfinals and Julien Benneteau in the semifinals. However, he lost in the final to Marcos Baghdatis. At the Australian Open, he lost to Mikhail Youzhny in five sets in the first round, despite having several match points in the third and fourth", "Gasquet began 2011 at the Chennai Open, losing to Björn Phau. He then headed to Australia to play in the Medibank International Sydney, losing to Viktor Troicki. Afterwards he played in the Australian Open, losing in the third round to Tomáš Berdych. He then competed at the Zagreb Indoors, where he reached the quarterfinals after a bye and the withdrawal of Arnaud Clément. However, he retired against Michael Berrer, 2–5 down due to a shoulder injury. After a short break, he played in the Dubai Tennis Championships, where he defeated qualifiers Grigor Dimitrov and Sergei Bubka, as well as compatriot Gilles Simon, before he lost to top seed Roger Federer in the semifinals in straight sets, despite serving for the second set. At the BNP Paribas Open, he defeated top-10 players Jürgen Melzer and Andy Roddick back to back. It was the first time in his career that he had defeated two top-10 players consecutively. He lost to eventual", "Coached by Riccardo Piatti, Gasquet kicked off his 2012 season by competing at the 2012 Hopman Cup alongside top-10 WTA pro Marion Bartoli. The French won all three of their round-robin ties to reach the final, where they lost to the Czech Republic. Gasquet lost in the quarterfinals in Sydney to Denis Istomin. He competed in the Australian Open shortly afterward, defeating Andreas Seppi, Andrey Golubev, and ninth seed Janko Tipsarević en route to the fourth round. There, he faced and lost to fifth seed David Ferrer. Immediately thereafter, he made the quarterfinals at the Open Sud de France, where he lost to Philipp Kohlschreiber. In February, he made the quarterfinals in Rotterdam, before losing to Nikolay", "Gasquet started his 2013 season by capturing the Qatar Exxon Mobil Open in Doha. In the final, he defeated former finalist Nikolay Davydenko in three sets. He followed that win by reaching the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he met and lost to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in four sets. Gasquet won his second title of the year defeating fellow Frenchman Benoît Paire in the Open Sud de France final. At the French Open, he lost in the fourth round to Stanislas Wawrinka despite winning the first two", "Gasquet started his 2014 season in the Qatar Exxon Mobil Open in Doha, where he was the defending champion. He lost to Gaël Monfils in the second round. In the third round of the Australian Open, he was defeated by Tommy Robredo in four sets, despite taking the first set 6–2. Gasquet returned to Montpellier to defend his title at the Open Sud de France, but was defeated by Monfils in the final. At the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, Gasquet was defeated in the second round by Philipp Kohlschreiber. He reached the third round of the Indian Wells Masters. At Miami, he defeated Alejandro Gonzalez and Kevin Anderson in straight sets. However, in the fourth round,", "Gasquet started his 2015 season in the Qatar ExxonMobil Open. He lost to Tomáš Berdych in quarterfinal match. In the third round of the Australian Open, he was defeated by Kevin Anderson. Gasquet returned to Montpellier to win his 11th ATP Tour singles title at the Open Sud de France, after his victory in the final over the injured Jerzy Janowicz. He also won his 12th ATP Tour singles title at the Estoril Open beating Nick Kyrgios who reached the final of an ATP Tour tournament for the first time in his career. This victory made Gasquet one of only eight active players to be placed in the top 10 for number of titles, finals and semifinals attained. At the French Open, Gasquet reached the fourth round,", "Shortly before the new year, Gasquet withdrew from the Australian Open due to a back injury. Gasquet then competed at Open Sud de France in Montpellier where he was the No. 1 seed and where he received a bye into the second round. He started his campaign with straight sets victories over Ernests Gulbis and Marcos Baghdatis respectively before defeating Dustin Brown in the semifinals in three sets and Paul-Henri Mathieu in the final in straight sets to retain his singles title", "Gasquet stated that it was his goal to return to the top ten of the ATP singles rankings in 2017. He also stated he wanted to achieve greater success at the bigger tournaments, which he defined as the Grand Slam events and the Davis Cup (rather than the Masters 1000 tournaments). He started the year at the Hopman Cup, where he won both his singles and doubles matches, securing a victory for France over their opponents Germany. In France's next match, Gasquet once again delivered winning both his matches (singles and mixed doubles) to ensure France's defeat of Great Britain. However, that meant Gasquet would have to play Roger Federer of Switzerland, whom he had lost to on numerous occasions in the past. Predictably, Gasquet lost to Federer in straight sets, the first set being a 6–1 annihilation, however due to Mladenovic's victory over Bencic and Mladenovic and Gasquet's victory over Federer and Bencic in the mixed doubles, France progressed through to the final where they faced the United States. France defeated the United States in the final, after Gasquet and Mladenovic pulled off the decisive victory in the mixed doubles.", "Gasquet played his first tournament of the year in Doha. Seeded No. 5, he defeated Víctor Estrella Burgos in the first round before losing to qualifier Stefanos Tsitsipas in the second round. Gasquet lost in the singles third round of the Australian Open to Roger Federer in straight sets, his ninth consecutive loss to Federer. In the 2018 Davis Cup World Group first round tie against the Netherlands, he beat Robin Haase in four sets in the second singles rubber to level", "Gasquet underwent groin hernia surgery on 18 January. The recovery process was expected to last for two months. Gasquet played his first tournament of the year", "Gasquet is an all-court player, known for his complete and elegant game as well as his single-handed backhand, which is considered to be one of the best ever. His forehand is his weaker wing, and is generally less consistent and slower. For his forehand, Gasquet uses a semi-western to Eastern grip with an unusually long take-back. However, upon contact, he hits the ball flat with an eastern grip while flicking his wrist, seemingly combining flat and topspin strokes together. It is due to this that his forehand is sometimes considered \"awkward\" and less effective. Gasquest's single-handed backhand is considered one of the most graceful, efficient and effective backhands ever. Like his forehand, he winds up very far backwards with a big circular take-back, with his left hand supporting the take-back. Upon release, he flicks his wrist and produces a large follow-through and finish, often above the head, due to the need to impart extreme topspin. Executing one of the most deadly top-spin single-handed backhands. His backhand is known for its consistency, speed and accuracy, and has been acclaimed by many past players and commentators such as Robbie Koenig, John McEnroe and Brad Gilbert. His ability to create pace and angles with it, from anywhere on the base line, coupled with the amount of top-spin he uses produces problems for numerous players. He has shown versatility in returning difficult shots to his backhand with various methods, whether by", "Gasquet currently endorses the Head Graphene Extreme Pro. For his overgrip, he uses the Tourna Grip, which he double grips at only the bottom half of his racquet's handle, since he hits his backhand with one hand. While Gasquet has sported the paint job of the Extreme line of racquets for years, it is generally accepted", "Gasquet has launched the Richard Gasquet Foundation which aims to use sport as a means to bring underprivileged children back to health, and help them build a future. He is a big rugby fan, supporting his hometown team Béziers. He has stated in an interview that if he were not a tennis player he would probably be a rugby player. He is also a fan of football and supports his local team Montpellier, as well as Paris St-Germain. He has described basketball player Tony Parker, who plays in the NBA, as a very good and genuine friend. He has stated that his favourite cuisine is Italian." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of development.", "Branches.", "Riemannian geometry.", "Pseudo-Riemannian geometry.", "Finsler geometry.", "Symplectic geometry.", "Contact geometry.", "Complex and Kähler geometry.", "CR geometry.", "Differential topology.", "Lie groups.", "Gauge theory.", "Bundles and connections.", "Intrinsic versus extrinsic.", "Applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Differential geometry arose and developed as a result of and in connection to the mathematical analysis of curves and surfaces. Mathematical analysis of curves and surfaces had been developed to answer some of the nagging and unanswered questions that appeared in calculus, like the reasons for relationships between complex shapes and curves, series and analytic functions. These unanswered questions indicated greater, hidden relationships. The general idea of natural equations for obtaining curves from local curvature appears to have been first considered by Leonhard Euler in 1736, and many examples with fairly simple behavior were studied in the 1800s. When curves, surfaces enclosed by curves, and points on curves were found to be quantitatively, and generally, related by mathematical forms, the formal study of the nature of curves and surfaces became a field of study in its own right, with Monge's paper in 1795, and especially, with Gauss's publication of his article, titled 'Disquisitiones Generales Circa Superficies Curvas', in \"Commentationes Societatis Regiae Scientiarum Gottingesis Recentiores\" in 1827. Initially applied to the Euclidean space, further explorations led to non-Euclidean space, and metric and topological spaces.", "", "Riemannian geometry studies Riemannian manifolds, smooth manifolds with a \"Riemannian metric\". This is a concept of distance expressed by means of a smooth positive definite symmetric bilinear form defined on the tangent space at each point. Riemannian geometry generalizes Euclidean geometry to spaces that are not necessarily flat, although they still resemble the Euclidean space at each point infinitesimally, i.e. in the first order of approximation. Various concepts based on length, such as the arc length of curves, area of plane regions, and volume of solids all possess natural analogues in Riemannian geometry. The notion of a directional derivative of a function from multivariable calculus is extended in Riemannian geometry to the notion of a covariant derivative of a tensor. Many concepts and techniques of analysis and differential equations have been generalized to the setting of Riemannian manifolds. A distance-preserving diffeomorphism between Riemannian manifolds is called an isometry. This notion can also be defined \"locally\", i.e. for small neighborhoods of points. Any two regular curves are locally isometric. However, the Theorema Egregium of Carl Friedrich Gauss showed that for surfaces, the existence of a local isometry imposes strong compatibility conditions on their metrics: the Gaussian curvatures at the corresponding points must be the same. In higher dimensions, the Riemann curvature tensor is an important pointwise invariant associated with a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat. An important class of Riemannian manifolds is the Riemannian symmetric spaces, whose curvature is not necessarily constant. These are the closest analogues to the \"ordinary\" plane and space considered in Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry.", "Pseudo-Riemannian geometry generalizes Riemannian geometry to the case in which the metric tensor need not be positive-definite. A special case of this is a Lorentzian manifold, which is the mathematical basis of Einstein's general relativity theory of gravity.", "Finsler geometry has \"Finsler manifolds\" as the main object of study. This is a differential manifold with a \"Finsler metric\", that is, a Banach norm defined on each tangent space. Riemannian manifolds are special cases of the more general Finsler manifolds. A Finsler structure on a manifold is a function such that:", "Symplectic geometry is the study of symplectic manifolds. An almost symplectic manifold is a differentiable manifold equipped with a smoothly varying non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear form on each tangent space, i.e., a nondegenerate 2-form \"ω\", called the \"symplectic form\". A symplectic manifold is an almost symplectic manifold for which the symplectic form \"ω\" is closed:. A diffeomorphism between two symplectic manifolds which preserves the symplectic form is called a symplectomorphism. Non-degenerate skew-symmetric bilinear forms can only exist on even-dimensional vector spaces, so symplectic manifolds necessarily have even dimension. In dimension 2, a symplectic manifold is just a surface endowed with an area form and a symplectomorphism is an area-preserving diffeomorphism. The phase space of a mechanical system is a symplectic manifold and they made an implicit appearance already in the work of Joseph Louis Lagrange on analytical mechanics and later in Carl Gustav Jacobi's and William Rowan Hamilton's formulations of classical mechanics. By contrast with Riemannian geometry, where the curvature provides a local invariant of Riemannian manifolds, Darboux's theorem states that all symplectic manifolds are locally isomorphic. The only invariants of a symplectic manifold are global in nature and topological aspects play a prominent role in symplectic geometry. The first result in symplectic topology is probably the Poincaré–Birkhoff theorem, conjectured by Henri Poincaré and then proved by G.D. Birkhoff in 1912. It claims that if an area preserving map of an annulus twists each boundary component in opposite directions, then the map has at least two fixed points.", "Contact geometry deals with certain manifolds of odd dimension. It is close to symplectic geometry and like the latter, it originated in questions of classical mechanics. A \"contact structure\" on a -dimensional manifold \"M\" is given by a smooth hyperplane field \"H\" in the tangent bundle that is as far as possible from being associated with the level sets of a differentiable function on \"M\" (the technical term is \"completely nonintegrable tangent hyperplane distribution\"). Near each point \"p\", a hyperplane distribution is determined by a nowhere vanishing 1-form formula_1, which is unique up to multiplication by a nowhere vanishing function: A local 1-form on \"M\" is a \"contact form\" if the restriction of its exterior derivative to \"H\" is a non-degenerate two-form and thus induces a symplectic structure on \"H\" at each point. If the distribution \"H\" can be defined by a global one-form formula_1 then this form is contact if and only if the top-dimensional form is a volume form on \"M\", i.e. does not vanish anywhere. A contact analogue of the Darboux theorem holds: all contact structures on an odd-dimensional manifold are locally isomorphic and can be brought to a certain local normal form by a suitable choice of the coordinate system.", "\"Complex differential geometry\" is the study of complex manifolds. An almost complex manifold is a \"real\" manifold formula_5, endowed with a tensor of type (1, 1), i.e. a vector bundle endomorphism (called an \"almost complex structure\") It follows from this definition that an almost complex manifold is even-dimensional. An almost complex manifold is called \"complex\" if formula_8, where formula_9 is a tensor of type (2, 1) related to formula_10, called the Nijenhuis tensor (or sometimes the \"torsion\"). An almost complex manifold is complex if and only if it admits a holomorphic coordinate atlas. An \"almost Hermitian structure\" is given by an almost complex structure \"J\", along with a Riemannian metric \"g\", satisfying the compatibility condition An almost Hermitian structure defines naturally a differential two-form The following two conditions are equivalent: where formula_15 is the Levi-Civita connection of formula_16. In this case, formula_17 is called a \"Kähler structure\", and a \"Kähler manifold\" is a manifold endowed with a Kähler structure. In particular, a Kähler manifold is both a complex and a symplectic manifold. A large class of Kähler manifolds (the class of Hodge manifolds) is given by all the smooth complex projective varieties.", "CR geometry is the study of the intrinsic geometry of boundaries of domains in complex manifolds.", "Differential topology is the study of global geometric invariants without a metric or symplectic form. Differential topology starts from the natural operations such as Lie derivative of natural vector bundles and de Rham differential of forms. Beside Lie algebroids, also Courant algebroids start playing a more important role.", "A Lie group is a group in the category of smooth manifolds. Beside the algebraic properties this enjoys also differential geometric properties. The most obvious construction is that of a Lie algebra which is the tangent space at the unit endowed with the Lie bracket between left-invariant vector fields. Beside the structure theory there is also the wide field of representation theory.", "Gauge theory is the study of connections on vector bundles and principal bundles, and arises out of problems in mathematical physics and physical gauge theories which underpin the standard model of particle physics. Gauge theory is concerned with the study of differential equations for connections on bundles, and the resulting geometric moduli spaces of solutions to these equations as well as the invariants that may be derived from them. These equations often arise as the Euler–Lagrange equations describing the equations of motion of certain physical systems in quantum field theory, and so their study is of considerable interest in physics.", "The apparatus of vector bundles, principal bundles, and connections on bundles plays an extraordinarily important role in modern differential geometry. A smooth manifold always carries a natural vector bundle, the tangent bundle. Loosely speaking, this structure by itself is sufficient only for developing analysis on the manifold, while doing geometry requires, in addition, some way to relate the tangent spaces at different points, i.e. a notion of parallel transport. An important example is provided by affine connections. For a surface in R, tangent planes at different points can be identified using a natural path-wise parallelism induced by the ambient Euclidean space, which has a well-known standard definition of metric and parallelism. In Riemannian geometry, the Levi-Civita connection serves a similar purpose. (The Levi-Civita connection defines path-wise parallelism in terms of a given arbitrary Riemannian metric on a manifold.) More generally, differential geometers consider spaces with a vector bundle and an arbitrary affine connection which is not defined in terms of a metric. In physics, the manifold may be the space-time continuum and the bundles and connections are related to various physical fields.", "From the beginning and through the middle of the 18th century, differential geometry was studied from the \"extrinsic\" point of view: curves and surfaces were considered as lying in a Euclidean space of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the differential geometry of curves and differential geometry of surfaces. Starting with the work of Riemann, the \"intrinsic\" point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving \"outside\" the geometric object because it is considered to be given in a free-standing way. The fundamental result here is Gauss's theorema egregium, to the effect that Gaussian curvature is an intrinsic invariant. The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic (what would be \"outside\" of the universe?). However, there is a price to pay in technical complexity: the intrinsic definitions of curvature and connections become much less visually intuitive. These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one. (See the Nash embedding theorem.) In the formalism of geometric calculus both extrinsic and intrinsic geometry of a manifold can be characterized by a single bivector-valued one-form called the shape operator.", "Below are some examples of how differential geometry is applied to other fields of science and mathematics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "2006: First ATP title & Wimbledon quarterfinal.", "2007: 2nd ATP title.", "2008.", "2009: 3rd & 4th ATP titles.", "2010.", "2011: 5th ATP title.", "2012: Australian Open doubles title.", "2013: US Open doubles title.", "2014: Return to top 40.", "2015.", "2016: Australian Open Doubles runner-up and Olympics mixed doubles bronze medal.", "2017: Retirement.", "Playing style.", "Personal life.", "Performance timelines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Karviná, Moravia-Silesia, Štěpánek began playing tennis at age three with his father Vlastimil, who was a tennis coach. Štěpánek's brother is a policeman and his mother a librarian. His cousin is Jaromír Blažek, who represented the Czech Republic as a football goalkeeper. Štěpánek grew up admiring Czech tennis player Ivan Lendl, particularly noting \"he was the one who brought professionalism to the sport with his conditioning.\"", "Štěpánek turned professional in 1996. He started on tour as a doubles specialist, winning 12 ATP titles. Since 2002, Štěpánek has focused on being a better singles player while still playing top-level doubles. He is known for his after-the-shot grunting, his over-the-top celebrations and his many relationships with WTA players. Štěpánek first came to mainstream notice when he defeated former World No. 1 Gustavo Kuerten in five sets on his way to the third round of the 2003 Australian Open.", "2006 was Štěpánek's best year to date; he found himself on the verge of getting into the top ten of ATP rankings, as he defeated José Acasuso in the semi-finals of the Masters Series event in Hamburg. He went on to lose the final in straight sets against Spain's Tommy Robredo. At that point, he achieved a career-high ATP world ranking of No. 11 in singles. Earlier in 2006, he won his first ATP singles title, beating Christophe Rochus in Rotterdam, but he had yet to progress beyond the third round of a Grand Slam tournament until he got into the quarter-finals at Wimbledon beating Frank Dancevic, Xavier Malisse, Juan Carlos Ferrero and Fernando Verdasco, before he was eliminated by 34-year-old Jonas Björkman, after holding match point at 7–6 in the fourth-set tie-break. This performance helped Štěpánek break into the top 10 and achieve his highest world ranking of no. 8. However, after Wimbledon, Štěpánek was out of action for the rest of the year due to a chronic neck injury.", "In the second round of the 2007 US Open, Štěpánek played a match against third seed Novak Djokovic, which he ended up losing after 4 hours and 44 minutes of play in a fifth-set tiebreak. Earlier in 2007, he won his second ATP singles title, beating James Blake in Los Angeles in three sets.", "In 2008, he achieved some good results such as reaching the final in San Jose, but losing to Andy Roddick. He also made it to the semifinals in the Rome Masters, losing to Novak Djokovic after he retired due to heat exhaustion. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, he lost to Michaël Llodra in the first round in three sets. Štěpánek finished the season ranked no. 27, but attended the year-end Masters Cup as an alternate. He was vacationing in Thailand and so was able to come to the tournament held in Shanghai without delay. Since he did not have his own tennis gear which got stuck in customs (they were sent from home), he had to borrow a racquet from Novak Djokovic and socks from Andy Murray. After Andy Roddick pulled out due to injury before his second match, Štěpánek entered the tournament with two round-robin ties to play against Roger Federer and Gilles Simon. He gave the second seed Federer a tough match, but lost. He was beaten comprehensively by Simon.", "Štěpánek started his 2009 season at the Brisbane International with a new Bosworth racquet, where he claimed his third ATP title after coming back from a set down to defeat Fernando Verdasco in the final. Then, at the Australian Open, he made it to the third round and was overpowered by Verdasco in straight sets. At the SAP Open in San Jose, he won his fourth ATP singles title, beating American Mardy Fish in a three-set final. He also snapped a four-match losing streak in the tournament against Andy Roddick, upsetting him in the semifinals. He also captured the doubles title teaming up with German Tommy Haas, making it his first time to win the singles and doubles titles at the same tournament. In the Davis Cup first round tie against France, he lost his opening match to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in straight sets. However, he regained his confidence and won the doubles rubber the next day and his second singles match against Gilles Simon in straight sets to give the Czech Republic a berth in the quarterfinals. Then, in the Davis Cup quarterfinals, he won the deciding fifth rubber to lead his country to the semifinals. In the semifinals, Štěpánek battled Ivo Karlović to victory in a marathon opener in which the 82 games played equalled the highest number in a Davis Cup rubber since the introduction of the tiebreak in 1989. In that match, he was aced 78 times, but overall hit more winners, over 170 (including service winners). The match was one of the longest in the history of the Davis Cup, lasting 5 hours and 59 minutes. There were only three breaks of serve in the match. In the finals of the Davis Cup versus Spain, Štěpánek lost to David Ferrer after being two sets up. The Czech Republic lost 5–0 to Spain.", "Štěpánek returned to the Brisbane International to defend his title. He made a second final appearance, but failed to defend the title, losing to Andy Roddick in straight sets. He also teamed up with Tomáš Berdych to reach the doubles quarterfinals, only to lose to eventual champions Jérémy Chardy and Marc Gicquel. Seeded 13th at the 2010 Australian Open, he lost in the first round to Ivo Karlović in five sets.", "Štěpánek began the 2011 season with a third successive appearance at the 2011 Brisbane International, hoping for a third successive finals appearance, despite only being ranked no. 62. For the first round he was drawn against world no. 67, German Tobias Kamke. Despite struggling for the first set, he eventually won, 5–7, 6–1, 6–4, to set up a second-round match against Mardy Fish, the fourth seed in the tournament. Štěpánek blazed through the match, thrashing the world no. 16 Fish, 6–3, 6–1. In the quarterfinals against seventh seed and world no. 37 Florian Mayer, he had a dominant start, leading 5–1 in the first set, before Mayer managed to break his serve. However, he continued his winning streak, emerging victorious, 6–3, 6–3, to place himself in the first semifinal against Robin Söderling, where he lost. Štěpánek exited the 2011 French Open in the first round, losing in straight sets to Frenchman Richard Gasquet. He defeated Gaël Monfils in the final of the Legg Mason Tennis Classic.", "In January 2012, Štěpánek won the Australian Open Men's doubles title, partnering Leander Paes. They beat top seeds Bob and Mike Bryan in the final. In April 2012, Serbia's Janko Tipsarević defeated him in five sets to level the Davis Cup quarterfinal at 1–1, after a stormy five-hour match. Tipsarević, Serbia's top player in the absence of world no. 1 Novak Djokovic, saved three match points before securing victory. After the match, Tipsarević accused Štěpánek of using his middle finger inappropriately during their handshake and calling him a \"stinky bastard\". Štěpánek denied that he did either of these things, and none of the footage taken at the match showed clearly what happened. An online photo of the hands of both players showed Štěpánek's finger folded in, but Štěpánek claims the picture was taken after he was already pulling his hand back. Neither this photo nor footage provided by a Czech TV station conclusively support Tipsarević's version of the events. Štěpánek later stated that what he actually said to Tipsarević was \"You don't need to cheat\", referring to Tipsarević's winning a point after the ball had bounced twice and erasing a mark before the chair umpire could check whether the ball was in or out. Štěpánek and Paes made it to the finals of US Open, this time losing to the Bryan brothers in straight sets. On 7 November 2012, Štěpánek and Leander Paes started off with a win in the ATP world tour tournament. He won the Davis Cup together with Tomáš Berdych against Spain playing both singles and doubles. In the Hollywood-script-like final in Prague, Štěpánek won the decisive rubber against Nicolás Almagro, at the time ranked 21 spots above Štěpánek on the ATP ranking ladder, becoming only the second player 30 or older to win a deciding Davis Cup final match in the history of the competition.", "Štěpánek underwent neck surgery on 21 January to relieve pressure where a disc was pressing on a nerve rendering his right hand numb and weak. He recovered well and won US Open in doubles with Leander Paes. Later in the year, at New York, he won his second major double title, again with Paes. They defeated the top seeds Mike and Bob Bryan in the semifinals, ending their streak of four major titles. Paes and Štěpánek went on to defeat the second seeds Bruno Soares and Alexander Peya in straight sets in the finals. In the Davis Cup semifinal, he helped the Czech Republic beat Argentina as he beat Juan Mónaco in the opening singles match and continued to win the doubles with Berdych. In the final against Serbia, he won the doubles and the deciding singles match to defend their title. He became the first person in Davis Cup history to win consecutive live deciding singles rubbers.", "Štěpánek played on the successful Czech Davis Cup that beat the Netherlands at home in the first round and Japan on the road in the quarterfinals. Štěpánek then had an impressive run in the AEGON Championships, defeating Mikhail Kukushkin, Bernard Tomic, and then 2013's champion Andy Murray. He then took out Kevin Anderson in the quarterfinals, before losing to the eventual runner-up, Feliciano López. He also reached the semifinals in the 250 event in Bogota, Colombia, losing to Ivo Karlović. The rest of his singles season was disappointing, and he did not play any singles tournaments after the US Open. In August he brought his ranking up to no. 35. In doubles, he reached the quarterfinals in Rome and London, before reaching the semifinals at Wimbledon partnering Leander Paes, where they lost to Vasek Pospisil and Jack Sock, the eventual champions.", "In the first half of the year, Štěpánek played mostly in Challenger events. He lost in the second round of the French Open to Tomáš Berdych.", "On 30 January 2016, Štěpánek and his doubles partner, Daniel Nestor, were defeated by Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares in a three-set match in the 2016 Australian Open final. At 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Štěpánek won bronze medal in mixed doubles with partner Lucie Hradecká. They defeated Indian pair of Sania Mirza and Rohan Bopanna.", "In 2017 Stepanek underwent back surgery after the Australian Open. He did not play again and chose to retire in November.", "Štěpánek is noted for being one of the few serve and volley players on the tour. He is known for his resilience at the net as well as his entertaining and at times comedic plays during matches. Štěpánek has a strong and accurate first serve, often reaching up to 210 km/h with it. Like most serve and volley players, Štěpánek's second serve is slower, but has a great amount of top-spin, giving him time to come up to the net. On his serve, Štěpánek often immediately comes up to the net and volleys, finishing off points quickly. His net play is considered one of the best on the tour. He is known for his reach and anticipation at the net, which allows him to put away would-be passing shots at the net as well as engage in volley-to-volley exchanges, often coming out on top. However, unlike most serve and volley players, Štěpánek usually does not employ a Chip and charge form of play when receiving. Instead, he engages in baseline rallies. His groundstrokes are not exceptionally powerful, but are consistent and accurate on both wings, allowing him to maintain solid ground at the baseline. If caught up too long in a baseline rally, however, Štěpánek will often place a deep, accurate groundstroke or a drop-shot and come up to the net to volley, finishing off the point quickly. He is often more willing to use a slice than his double-handed backhand. One of the signature characteristics of Štěpánek is his comedic and entertaining play. Due to the fact that he comes up to the net a lot, he often employs unconventional shots, as well as the occasional trick shot.", "Štěpánek was engaged to Swiss tennis star Martina Hingis, but they split up in August 2007. He married former top-ten Czech tennis player Nicole Vaidišová in 2010. They separated in 2013. For several months, he dated Czech Wimbledon Champion Petra Kvitová. They split in April 2014. In 2018, he married Vaidišová again, and they have a daughter. Štěpánek is coached by former Australian Open champion Petr Korda. He endorses ALEA clothing and Nike shoes and was sponsored by Bosworth racquets but later was seen also using Head racquets. Czech football goalkeeper Jaromír Blažek is his cousin.", "\"As of 2017 Australian Open." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Landmarks.", "Demographics.", "Twin towns — sister cities.", "Genealogical resources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The town lies at the upper Nitra river valley, under the Strážov Mountains. It is very close to Prievidza (4 km), sharing the public transport system. Other major cities nearby include Žilina to the north (60 km) and Trenčín to the west (65 km).", "The town's history is closely connected to that of Bojnice Castle. It was first mentioned in 1113, when it was mentioned as a settlement under the castle. It has town privileges since 1366.", "The town is most known for its tourist attractions: the Bojnice Castle, first mentioned in 1113 and originally built as a wooden fort, it was over time built as a stone castle and in the 20th century in the Romantic style. Today, it is a popular tourist attraction. The zoo (one of only four in Slovakia) was founded in 1955. In 2006 it had 355 different species and more than 1,800 animals. It is also known for its spa. The therapeutic springs were mentioned in 1549 for the first time. Today they treat patients with disorders of the locomotor system, with rheumatic diseases, post traumatic conditions, conditions after orthopaedic disturbances of the spine of adolescents, neurological diseases and occupational diseases.", "According to the 2001 census, the town had 5,006 inhabitants. 97.06% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 0.68% Czechs and 0.24% Germans. The religious make-up was 74.55% Roman Catholics, 19% people with no religious affiliation and 2% Lutherans.", "Bojnice is twinned with:", "The records for genealogical research are available at the state archive \"Statny Archiv in Nitra, Slovakia\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years and Urchin: 1977–1980.", "First tenure in Iron Maiden: 1980–1990.", "Departure from Iron Maiden and other projects: 1989–1999.", "Return to Iron Maiden: 1999–present.", "Personal life.", "Equipment.", "Guitars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Hackney, Smith grew up in Clapton. He purchased his first record, Deep Purple's \"Machine Head\", at the age of 15. This led him to befriend Dave Murray, with whom he formed a band called Stone Free, which comprised Murray on guitar, Smith on vocals and their friend, Dave McCloughlin, playing the bongos. After seeing the attention Murray received from girls, Smith took up the guitar, starting with an old Spanish guitar once owned by his brother, before purchasing an old one of Murray's for £5. His early influences included Johnny Winter and Pat Travers, which he claims made him a \"melodic player\" rather than a \"speed merchant or a shredder\" as he \"was inspired by blues rock rather than metal.\" Leaving school after completing his O-levels, Smith formed a band called Evil Ways, including Dave Murray on guitar, which was later renamed Urchin. Smith began writing his own material, including \"22 Acacia Avenue\", which was later included on Iron Maiden's \"The Number of the Beast\" (1982). At this point, Murray left the band to join Iron Maiden and Urchin signed with DJM Records and released a single, \"Black Leather Fantasy\", in 1977. Shortly afterwards, Murray joined Urchin on their next single, \"She's a Roller\", as he had been sacked from Iron Maiden after a row with then vocalist Dennis Wilcock, although he was reinstated six months later. Smith was also offered a place in Iron Maiden while they were in the process of signing with EMI in 1979, but turned them down to continue with his own band, a decision he later regretted as Urchin split up in 1980.", "Without a band, Smith was left \"wondering what to do next,\" before he \"literally bumped into Steve [Harris] and Dave,\" who asked if he might want to reconsider joining. After a successful audition, Smith debuted with the band on a German TV show, before setting out on a UK tour and recording the \"Killers\" album, released in 1981. Smith's first song-writing contributions appeared on \"The Number of the Beast\", co-penning \"Gangland\" and \"The Prisoner\", as well as the previously mentioned \"22 Acacia Avenue\", after which he began co-writing many songs with singer Bruce Dickinson, on the following \"Piece of Mind\" album. Smith and Dave Murray combined playing dual lead guitars, creating what AllMusic calls \"the most formidable twin-guitar attack in heavy metal, outside of Glenn Tipton and K. K. Downing.\" Smith, along with Steve Harris, also provides the band's backing vocals, although he sang lead on \"Reach Out\", the B-Side to the \"Wasted Years\" single, featuring Bruce Dickinson on backing vocals. Originally written by guitarist Dave \"Bucket\" Colwell, whom he had worked with on The Entire Population of Hackney project, Smith would later sing \"Reach Out\" again for Colwell's solo album, \"Guitars, Beers & Tears\", released in 2010.", "While Iron Maiden were taking some time off in 1989, Smith released a solo LP with the band ASAP (Adrian Smith And Project), entitled \"Silver and Gold\", which was a commercial failure in spite of a promotional club tour. Unhappy with the direction the band were taking for their next release, \"No Prayer for the Dying\", and feeling that he could not help enough in the creative work, Smith agreed to leave Iron Maiden in 1990 during the album's pre-production stages, and was replaced by Janick Gers. After releasing the experimental \"Somewhere in Time\" and \"Seventh Son of a Seventh Son\" albums in 1986 and 1988 respectively, Steve Harris had decided that the band should go for a \"stripped-down,\" \"street level\" approach, which Smith thought was a \"step backward.\" \"No Prayer for the Dying\" contained one last Smith song, co-penned with Bruce Dickinson, entitled \"Hooks in You\". After leaving, Smith started a family with his Canadian wife, Nathalie, and would not play guitar again until he joined Iron Maiden onstage at Donington Park in 1992 to perform \"Running Free\". In the same year, after hearing King's X for the first time, he decided that he would \"love to play in a band like that\" and formed The Untouchables, which later became Psycho Motel. The band recorded two albums, \"State of Mind\" in 1996 and \"Welcome to the World\" in 1997, during which they supported Iron Maiden on the British leg of The X Factour. The project was put on hold, however, when Smith joined Bruce Dickinson for his 1997 album, \"Accident of Birth\", after which he became a full-time member of Dickinson's solo outfit, embarking on two world tours and contributing to one further studio release, 1998's \"The Chemical Wedding\".", "In 1999, Smith re-joined Iron Maiden, along with vocalist Bruce Dickinson, who commented, \"When he left the band in 1990, I think everybody was a bit surprised at how much we missed him and certainly, I don't think anybody had realized how much the fans would miss him – big time. I wouldn't have rejoined Iron Maiden if he wasn't in the band. I just don't think it would have been complete without Adrian, and now, it's great having three guitarists.\" The band embarked on a short tour, after which the new line-up's first album, \"Brave New World\", was recorded with producer Kevin Shirley and released in 2000. He remains in Iron Maiden, with whom he has released four further studio albums, 2003's \"Dance of Death\", 2006's \"A Matter of Life and Death\", 2010's \"The Final Frontier\" and 2015's \"The Book of Souls\". Smith claims that his guitar playing improved after leaving the band in 1990, in particular while working with Roy Z, from whom he \"learned a lot about picking\" and became \"more disciplined.\" Since returning to Iron Maiden, he has also continued experimenting with tuning (which he began doing in Psycho Motel), stating that he has used drop D tuning in live renditions of \"Run to the Hills\", \"Wrathchild\", \"The Trooper\" and \"Hallowed Be Thy Name\". Although Smith had previously been known to contribute shorter, more \"commercial\" tracks, since his return to the band he has penned many longer songs, beginning with \"Paschendale\" from \"Dance of Death\". Smith performs lead guitar, bass and backing vocals on the album \"Awoken Broken\" by his collaborative studio project with Mikee Goodman of SikTh called Primal Rock Rebellion. The title was released on 27 February 2012, while one song, \"I See Lights\", was released as a free download on the project's official website on 2 January.", "Adrian Smith was born in Hackney Hospital and grew up a few streets away from his childhood friend, and current bandmate, Dave Murray. Smith, whose father was a painter and decorator from Homerton, was the youngest of three, with an older brother, Patrick, and a sister, Kathleen. As a child, he was \"a Manchester United fanatic,\" although he would lose his interest in football once he got into music. In his spare time, Smith is a keen angler, revealing that he used to take \"worms and maggots\" with him on tour, and was featured on the front cover of \"Angler's Mail\" on 25 August 2009. For over 20 years, he has been married to his Canadian wife, Nathalie Dufresne-Smith, who currently works for \"Maiden Flight\", a cancer awareness/patient rights organisation, and the pair have three children, Dylan, Natasha, and Brittany, the last of whom works as a professional film production assistant. In April 2020, ironmaiden.com announced Smith's autobiography titled \"Monsters of River and Rock\" would be released in September 2020.", "", "Smith currently prefers to use his Jackson signature 'San Dimas' Dinky, although he has used a variety of guitars over his career, including several different Dean models, various Jacksons, including the Randy Rhoads model, Fender Stratocasters (including three Fender Floyd Rose Classic Stratocasters; one with an added Roland midi pick-up), Gibson Les Pauls, Gibson Explorers, Gibson SGs, an Ibanez Destroyer, a Hamer Scarab, and Lado Guitars. On the \"A Matter of Life and Death\" DVD, he says the first decent guitar he bought was a Deluxe Gold Top 1972 Gibson Les Paul, which he paid £235 for when he was 17, in 1974. He still uses it to this day, stating that \"it's still probably the best guitar I've got\". As of 2010, his touring guitars included: Gibson Les Paul Deluxe Goldtop 1972 with DiMarzio Super Distortion in bridge position, his Jackson Superstrat 1986 prototype (which can be seen in the \"Maiden England\" video) with the pickguard changed to resemble his signature model, a Jackson Signature model with black scratchplate and maple neck, an early 70s Gibson SG, and another Jackson, inspired by his Les Paul Goldtop. As of August 2007, Adrian Smith endorses Jackson Guitars, his first guitar company endorsement in over fifteen years. With Jackson he has released two signature models, a San Dimas Dinky and an SDX. Prior to his endorsement, he was seen using other Jackson guitars, such as a King V during his time in Bruce Dickinson's solo band, before he went to Fender guitars. In August 2008, he had a Jackson guitar stolen from backstage at a show in Greece." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Tennis career.", "Team titles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Moyá was born in Palma, Majorca, Balearic Islands, Spain. He began playing tennis at the age of six with his parents. He turned professional in 1995 and won his first tour title later that year in Buenos Aires.", "In November 1995, at the age of 19, Moyá won his first tournament at the top-level in Buenos Aires, defeating Félix Mantilla, 6–0, 6–3, in the final. In May 1996, Moyá defeated the \"king of clay\" Thomas Muster, 6–3, 6–3, in the semifinals of the tournament in Munich, ending Muster's streak of winning 38 matches in a row on clay-courts. It was the fourth time in four weeks that Moyá had played a match against Muster. In the final of Munich, Sláva Doseděl defeated Moyá, 6–4, 4–6, 6–3. In 1997, Moyá reached his first Grand Slam final at the Australian Open, defeating defending champion Boris Becker in the first round, Jonas Björkman in the fourth round, and world no. 3 Michael Chang in the semifinals in straight sets, before losing in straight sets to Pete Sampras. Before the US Open, he won brilliantly in Long Island. His opponent in the final was the future winner of US Open a few days later, the Australian Patrick Rafter. Moyá due to an injury lost at first round in US Open. Due to his final in Australia and the last winning in Long Island, Moyá could have had a good opportunity in Flushing Meadows. In 1998, Moyá won the French Open. He defeated Sébastien Grosjean, Pepe Imaz, Andrew Ilie and Jens Knippschild before beating the tournament favourite, Marcelo Ríos in the quarterfinal. He then defeated Félix Mantilla Botella in the semifinal and fellow-Spaniard Álex Corretja in the final with a straight-sets win. He also won his first Tennis Masters Series tournament that year at Monte Carlo. He reached the semifinals of the US Open, losing to Mark Philippoussis. He concluded the year by finishing runner-up at the ATP World Championships (now known as the ATP World Tour Finals), where he lost in a five-set final to Corretja, having won the first two sets. In March 1999, after finishing runner-up at Indian Wells, Moyá reached the world no. 1 singles ranking, the first Spanish player in history to achieve this feat. He held the top spot for two weeks. Later that year, he entered the French Open as defending champion and lost in the fourth round to eventual winner Andre Agassi. At the US Open, Moyá withdrew in the second round with a back injury and only played in two tournaments for the rest of the year. Despite being hampered with a stress fracture in his lower back from the 1999 US Open through the early part of 2000, Moyá still finished in the top 50 in the world for the fifth straight year. He reached the fourth round of the US Open, where he held a match point in the fourth set, but eventually lost to Todd Martin in an epic five-set marathon, 7–6, 7–6, 1–6, 6–7, 2–6. Moyá's best result for the rest of 2000 was winning at Portugal over his countryman Francisco Clavet. In 2001, Moyá won the title at Umag. He also finished runner-up at Barcelona, where he lost in a four-hour marathon final to countryman Juan Carlos Ferrero. 2002 saw Moyá win four titles from six finals. He captured his second career Tennis Masters Series title, and the biggest hard-court title of his career, at Cincinnati, where he defeated world no. 1 Lleyton Hewitt in the final. Moyá captured three clay-court titles in 2003. He also helped Spain reach the final of the Davis Cup, compiling a 6–0 singles record. In the semifinals, he won the deciding rubber against Gastón Gaudio as Spain beat Argentina, 3–2. He beat Mark Philippoussis on grass court in the final. But that proved to be Spain's only point, as they lost the final 1–4 to Australia. In 2004, Moyá helped Spain go one better and win the Davis Cup. In the final, he won two critical singles rubbers against Andy Roddick and Mardy Fish, as Spain beat the United States 3–2. The year also saw Moyà capture his third career Masters Series title at Rome, where he defeated David Nalbandian in the final, 6–3, 6–3, 6–1. He was the only player on the tour to win at least 20 matches on both clay courts and hard courts that year. In July 2004, Moyá's kind-hearted gesture to hit with ball boy Sandeep Ponniah at the 2004 Tennis Masters Series Toronto event captured audiences during an injury timeout against opponent Nicolas Kiefer of Germany. To the crowd's surprise, Ponniah shuffled Moyá across the baseline and received an ovation for an overhead smash on a Moyá lob. Moyá won his 18th career title in January 2005 at Chennai. He donated his prize money for the win to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami victims. In January 2007, Moyá was the runner-up at the Medibank International in Sydney, losing to defending champion James Blake. In May 2007, at the Hamburg Masters, he defeated Mardy Fish, world no. 12 Tomáš Berdych, world no. 9 Blake, and world no. 6 Novak Djokovic, a run which saw him reach his first Masters semifinal since 2004 Indian Wells. After reaching the semifinals against Roger Federer, Moyá lost, 6–4, 4–6, 2–6. Moyá lost against Rafael Nadal in straight sets in the quarterfinals of the 2007 French Open. During Wimbledon, Moyá lost in the first round to Tim Henman in a five-set thriller, the fifth set stretching to 24 games (Henman won 13–11). Despite the loss, Moyá had no points to defend (he had not played a grass-court match in a few years), resulting in his moving to world no. 20, his first time inside the top 20 since 13 June 2005. In July 2007, Moyá won the Studena Croatia Open in Umag, Croatia, defeating Andrei Pavel, 6–4, 6–2. The win brought him to world no. 18 in the rankings, his highest rank since 23 May 2005, when he was world no. 15. In August 2007, Moyá lost to Marcos Baghdatis in the first round of the Montréal Masters. At Cincinnati, one week later and just two weeks shy of his 31st birthday, he beat David Nalbandian, 7–6, 7–6, world no. 3 Djokovic, 6–4, 6–1, and Juan Martín del Potro, 7–5, 3–6, 7–5 (after being down an early break in the third set), to set up a quarterfinal clash with Lleyton Hewitt. In 2008 at the Cincinnati Masters, Moyá defeated Nikolay Davydenko, 7–6, 4–6, 6–2, the match being played over the course of two days because of rain. Hours after his match with Davydenko, Moyá beat Igor Andreev, 6–4, 7–6. Moyá made a slow start in 2009. He failed to progress beyond the second round of his first four tournaments, including a first-round loss at the Australian Open. In March 2009, he announced that he would have an indefinite hiatus from tennis to recover from injured tendons and ischium in his hip. He returned to professional tennis in January 2010, losing against Janko Tipsarević in the first round of the Chennai Open, then losing in the first round of the 2010 Australian Open to Illya Marchenko. On 17 November 2010, he announced his retirement from tennis owing to a long-standing foot injury from which he failed to recover. He received a special ceremony at the O2 Arena in London during the 2010 Barclays ATP World Tour Finals, with all top eight singles and doubles players attending. Other players who attended included Fernando Verdasco, Mikhail Youzhny, Àlex Corretja, Jonas Björkman, and Thomas Johansson. He has won ATP Tour singles titles in 11 different countries: Argentina, Croatia, France, Italy, India, Mexico, Monaco, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United States.", "2004 – Davis Cup winner with Spain" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "Early years.", "2003–2005.", "2006–2007.", "2008–2009.", "2010–2011.", "2012–2017.", "Davis Cup.", "Retirement and switching to coaching.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Tursunov began playing tennis in Moscow at the age of five when his father made him play a few hours a day. He came to the United States to train with Vitaly Gorin. I practiced a few hours a day. My dad realized fairly early that I had a lot of potential. A lot of people criticize him for basically choosing that career for me. He understood that I didn’t have many options to make money and since he really liked tennis, he decided that I was to be a tennis player. It just happened that I was naturally good at it.", "Tursunov played his first match in June 1998 against Chris Groer in a Futures event in Los Angeles and won, but lost in the following round. In 1999, the Russian played in the Futures events in Philippines and United States and was able to reach two semifinals and a quarterfinal. In 2000, he broke a leg in January, which forced him to miss four months of the season. When he came back, he continued playing in Futures events in the United States. He reached his first Futures final in Haines City, Florida, but lost to Australian Jaymon Crabb. He then won his first Futures title the following week, defeating another Australian Peter Luczak. He reached another final in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, losing to Scott Barron and won two more Futures events in Malibu, California over José de Armas and in Scottsdale, Arizona over Stefan Wauters. In 2001, Tursunov won the Futures event in Boca Raton over Jeff Morrison, then the Dallas Challenger defeating Justin Bower. After these two lower-level tournament successes, Tursunov qualified for his first ATP event in 2001 Kroger St. Jude International and made the quarterfinals, earning his first top-100 win over then world No. 51, Greg Rusedski along the way, before losing to eventual champion Mark Philippoussis. He continued playing on the Challenger circuit, reaching three quarterfinals, but his form suffered after his impact in Memphis because of what doctors believed was a bulging disk in his back. He returned after two months away, and then suffered a stress fracture in his leg. As the back pain continued, Tursunov went to see a doctor in Sacramento, California and the extent of his injury problems were misdiagnosed as he was suffering from not one, but two fractures in his L–2 vertebrae. Tursunov was forced to miss six months and did not come back to tennis until June 2002, That year, he won another title on the United States Futures circuit and reached a Challenger semifinal and two quarterfinals.", "After making two finals on the ATP Challenger Tour in Aptos losing to Jeff Salzenstein and in the Bronx, New York to Ivo Karlović, Tursunov qualified for his first Grand Slam event at the US Open defeating former world number one and then world No. 14, Gustavo Kuerten, in five sets, earning his first top-20 win before losing in the third round to Xavier Malisse. Continuing on after the US Open, he won two consecutive Challenger titles: in Mandeville, Louisiana over Jan Hernych, and in San Antonio, Texas over Sébastien de Chaunac, and then the semifinals of his next two Challenger tournaments. At the end of 2003, he finished the year ranked in the top 100 for the first time in his career. Tursunov started the season of 2004 losing in the first rounds of Chennai Open and Australian Open, but won Waikoloa Challenger over Alejandro Falla. He then reached the quarterfinals of the Cellular South Cup losing to Mardy Fish. He then played in his first Masters event but lost in the first rounds of Pacific Life Open and NASDAQ-100 Open. He then reached the quarterfinals of U.S. Clay Court Championships losing to eventual champion Tommy Haas. He then lost in the first round in his next three ATP Tour in the Torneo Godó, French Open, and Stella Artois Championships. However, he rebounded in the Wimbledon Championships upsetting 19th seed and compatriot Marat Safin in the first round and eventually fell to ninth seed Carlos Moyá in the third round. At the TD Waterhouse Cup, he was able to reach his first ATP Tour semifinals retiring against Lleyton Hewitt. After the US Open loss to Fabrice Santoro in the second round, Tursunov was forced out of tennis again for seven months with a broken vertebra suffered in a boating accident. He came back at the 2005 Indian Wells Masters tournament losing to Agustín Calleri. In his next tournaments he reached the second rounds of French Open and Stella Artois Championships, and the first round of Nottingham Open. At Wimbledon, Tursunov achieved his best ever performance in a Grand Slam tournament by making the fourth round. In his second-round match against then world No. 9, Tim Henman, he had to play in a Wimbledon club shirt as two of his shirts were stolen from the locker room before the match. He eventually defeated the local hope in five sets, earning his first top-ten win of his career. He eventually lost in the fourth round to Sébastien Grosjean in another five-setter. It was the first time Tursunov had ever lost a five-set match, having previously compiled a 5–0 record in five-set matches. He then reached the second rounds of RCA Championships and Los Angeles Open, the first rounds of Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and Pilot Pen Tennis and reached also the second round of his next four tournaments including the US Open. At the Kremlin Cup, he was able to reach the semifinals losing to compatriot Igor Andreev. He then won the Challenger event in Kolding, Denmark defeating Steve Darcis. In his last tournament of the year he reached the third round of BNP Paribas Masters losing to Nikolay Davydenko.", "2006 was a successful year for Tursunov as he achieved his highest ever ranking thus far, he began by reaching the quarterfinals of Qatar Open and Medibank International losing to eventual finalists Gaël Monfils and Igor Andreev respectively. He then reached the second round of Australian Open to Tommy Robredo. At the Regions Morgan Keegan Championships he lost in the quarterfinals to Tommy Haas. He then won a Challenger event in Sunrise, Florida defeating Alberto Martín. At the NASDAQ-100 Open he was able to reach the fourth round of a Master Series for the first time losing to world No. 1, Roger Federer. He then went 1–6 in his next six events only earning a victory over Gastão Elias at the Estoril Open. At the French Open, Tursunov lost to David Nalbandian after having a 2–0 set lead in the third round. He then reached the quarterfinals of the Queen's Club Championships losing to local hero Tim Henman and the first round of Nottingham Open losing to another local hero Andy Murray. He defeated then world No. 4, Ivan Ljubičić, in the third round of Wimbledon coming back from two sets to love, before losing in the next round, 9–7 in the fifth set to Jarkko Nieminen, after coming back two sets to love. After losing his serve in the fifth set to give Nieminen an 8–7 lead, he hit a ball at the chair umpire's chair. He was given a point penalty and later fined £4,000 ($7,500) for \"unsportsmanlike conduct\". He called the chair umpire, Fergus Murphy, an \"idiot\" in the news conference he had after the match. He then reached his first ATP final at the LA Tennis Open losing to Tommy Haas and followed it up with a semifinal performance at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic losing to Andy Murray. He then fell in the third rounds of Rogers Cup and US Open, and the second rounds of Western & Southern Financial Group Masters and BRD Năstase Ţiriac Trophy. He then won his first career title at the Kingfisher Airlines Tennis Open defeating Tommy Robredo in the semifinals and Tomáš Berdych in the final. He then lost four consecutive matches in the third round of Japan Open Tennis Championships and the first rounds of Kremlin Cup, Madrid Masters and St. Petersburg Open. He then reached the third round of BNP Paribas Masters losing to eventual champion Nikolay Davydenko. At the end of the year, he won a Challenger event in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine defeating Benjamin Becker in the final. On 6 January 2007, Tursunov won the Hopman Cup in Perth, Australia, while representing Russia alongside Nadia Petrova. In the final, Tursunov defeated Tommy Robredo in straight sets, after teammate Petrova's victory over Anabel Medina Garrigues. Following this match was a proset mixed doubles between Russians Tursunov and Nadia Petrova and Spaniards Tommy Robredo and Anabel Medina Garrigues. This match was a clear show of the playful nature of Tursunov and the other players. The match was relaxed since the outcome of the mixed-doubles proset match did not matter. At one stage, Anabel Medina Garrigues switched with Tursunov so that Tursunov and Robredo were on one side, while Medina Garrigues and Petrova were on the other. The umpire assigned points to Spain regardless. At the Australian Open, he reached the third round, losing to Tomáš Berdych. He lost in the first round of his next four ATP Tour tournaments. He then fell in the second rounds of Estoril Open and Internazionali BNL d'Italia, and the first round of the Hamburg Masters. At the French Open he fell to Fernando Verdasco. During the grass-court season he reached the semifinals of Queen's Club Championships and Nottingham Open to big servers Andy Roddick and Ivo Karlović. At Wimbledon, Tursunov was beaten in four sets in the third round by Tommy Haas. Ironically, Haas was unable to go on and play his next game against Roger Federer due to an abdominal injury. In Indianapolis, Tursunov won his second career title, defeating surprise finalist Frank Dancevic while losing only 10 points on serve and never facing a break point. He then lost three consecutive matches at the Masters event of the Rogers Cup and Cincinnati Masters, and the US Open. Tursunov then rebounded by winning his second title of the year at the Thailand Open, dominating Benjamin Becker. He then reached the third round of the Japan Open losing to Feliciano López. He then lost early in Kremlin Cup and Madrid Masters. At the St. Petersburg Open he fell in the quarterfinals to Andy Murray. At the BNP Paribas Masters, he lost to Mardy Fish. As the defending champion, Tursunov lost in the final of the Challenger in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine to Mischa Zverev.", "Tursunov played his first tournament of 2008 at the Qatar Open falling to Nikolay Davydenko in the quarterfinals. Medibank International in Sydney, Australia. He defeated Stan Wawrinka, top seed and No. 8 in the world Richard Gasquet, Sébastien Grosjean, and Fabrice Santoro. In the final, Tursunov defeated Australian Chris Guccione. This was his fourth career title. At the Australian Open, Tursunov beat Xavier Malisse in the first round in five sets, after being down two sets to love. However, he then lost his second-round match against Sam Querrey in four sets. Tursunov lost in the first round of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament to Rafael Nadal, but combined with Tomáš Berdych to win the doubles title, defeating Mikhail Youzhny and Philipp Kohlschreiber in the final. This was his second doubles career title. In the Dubai Tennis Championships, he fell to Richard Gasquet. At the Pacific Life Open, he fell to Juan Ignacio Chela. At the Sony Ericsson Open, he defeated Richard Gasquet in their third encounter of the year in the second round, but lost in the fourth round to Tomáš Berdych. In Monte-Carlo, he lost to Igor Andreev. At the Barcelona Open, he reached the quarterfinals losing to German Denis Gremelmayr. He lost two consecutive first-round appearances at the Rome Masters and the Hamburg Masters. At Roland Garros, Tursunov won his first two matches against Daniel Brands and Guillermo García-López, and then lost to Jérémy Chardy in straight sets. However, Tursunov paired up with Igor Kunitsyn in the men's doubles event. They reached the semifinals, losing to Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić. This performance lifted Tursunov to a career-high doubles ranking of No. 36. In Nottingham, Tursunov walked off the court when losing by a set and a break in a first-round doubles match after disagreeing with a line call. The next morning, the ATP announced that he had been thrown out of the tournament because of his actions. This included the singles tournament, handing second round opponent Thomas Johansson a walkover into the quarterfinals. At Wimbledon, Tursunov beat Nicolas Mahut and Chris Eaton, but lost to Janko Tipsarević in the third round. At the Indianapolis Tennis Championships, Tursunov upset top seed James Blake to make it to the final. He was unable to defend his title, losing to Gilles Simon in the championship match. At the Rogers Cup, Tursunov lost in the third round to Blake. He lost to eventual champion Andy Murray, also in the third round, at the Western & Southern Financial Group Masters, after earning his third victory of the year over Richard Gasquet. Tursunov represented Russia for the first time at the Beijing Olympics. He lost in the first round to top seed Roger Federer. At the US Open, Tursunov reached the third round by beating Eduardo Schwank and Victor Hănescu. He was beaten by his compatriot Nikolay Davydenko. Tursunov then celebrated his fifth ATP title win at the Open de Moselle in Metz, beating Paul-Henri Mathieu in the final. He then suffered three consecutive losses at the Kremlin Cup, Madrid Masters, and St. Petersburg Open. At the BNP Paribas Masters he retired in his second-round match against Novak Djokovic. He then won a Challenger event in Helsinki in his last tournament of the year. The Russian began 2009 by losing his first three matches at the Qatar Open, Medibank International, and Australian Open. He then qualified for the Zagreb Indoors, but lost to Ernests Gulbis. He then fell in the second round of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament, Open 13, and Dubai Tennis Championships, losing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, Feliciano López, and Igor Andreev, respectively. He then reached the third round of the BNP Paribas Open to Rafael Nadal and the Sony Ericsson Open to Andy Roddick. He then missed the European clay-court season due to an ankle surgery. He came back at the French Open, losing in the first round to Arnaud Clément. On grass, he reached the second round of the Gerry Weber Open, losing to Philipp Kohlschreiber, and won the Aegon International, defeating Canadian Frank Dancevic in the final, his first grass court title. He then retired in his first-round match in Wimbledon against Mischa Zverev due to an ankle injury. He reached the quarterfinals Indianapolis Tennis Championships, losing to Frank Dancevic. He then lost four consecutive matches at the LA Tennis Open, the Legg Mason Tennis Classic, the Rogers Cup, and the US Open. He then missed the rest of the year due to an ankle injury.", "Dmitry missed most of the first part of 2010 due to the left ankle injury, and he had ankle surgery in February. He played his first tournament of the year at the French Open, falling to Daniel Gimeno-Traver in the first round. He then played on the Challenger tour. He fell in the first round in Wimbledon to Rainer Schüttler. He then fell in the second round of the qualifying draw in the Campbell's Hall of Fame Tennis Championships and the Farmers Classic. He won his first ATP match of the year at the Legg Mason Tennis Classic, defeating Teymuraz Gabashvili before falling to Tomáš Berdych. He again lost in the first round of the US Open to Jürgen Melzer in five sets. He then played in Bangkok, losing in the first round and quarterfinals of the Challenger events, and in the qualifying competition Thailand Open. At the Japan Open, Tursunov produced two upsets defeated world No. 25, Ernests Gulbis, and world No. 30, Richard Gasquet, before falling in the quarterfinals to the world No. 1 and eventual champion, Rafael Nadal. In Russia as a wild card, he fell in the first round of the Kremlin Cup and reached the semifinals of the St. Petersburg Open, losing to compatriot Mikhail Youzhny in a tight three sets. He then retired in his first-round match at the Valencia Open 500 against Pablo Andújar due to a left calf injury. Tursunov began 2011 by losing in the qualifying draw of the Brisbane International to Peter Luczak and the first round of the Australian Open to Victor Troicki. He then competed in the Singapore ATP Challenger as a wild card, which he won by dropping only one set in the tournament. In Rotterdam, Tursunov was able to qualify and beat Andrey Golubev in the first round, before losing to fourth seed Tomáš Berdych. At the Open 13, he defeated Grigor Dimitrov in three tight sets. He then defeated Ivan Ljubičić and then-world No. 10 Jürgen Melzer, his first victory over a top-ten player in over two and a half years. He then lost to top seed Robin Söderling in the semifinals. In the Dubai Tennis Championships, he fell to Marcel Granollers. He then competed on the Challenger Tour, winning the GB Pro-Series Bath. He reached the finals of the Athens Open, a Challenger event, but withdrew due to a knee problem. He then fell in the qualifying draw of the BMW Open and the first round of the French Open. On grass, he played at the Challenger Aegon Trophy falling to Matthias Bachinger. At the Aegon Championships, he fell in the first round to Feliciano López in straight sets. At his final Wimbledon warm-up, the UNICEF Open, he had wins over Robert Kendrick, Nicolas Mahut, Santiago Giraldo, and third seed Xavier Malisse in the semifinals. He then faced fourth seed Ivan Dodig in the final and won his seventh ATP title.", "In 2015, he won two men's doubles titles with different partners.", "As Tursunov's form started to improve and he came into calculation for selection in the Russia Davis Cup team, the problems he was having obtaining United States citizenship became apparent. He had attempted over several years' time to become a United States citizen, but the process has stalled and Tursunov travels with a Russian passport and an American visa. In his own words \"It's frustrating, but what can you do?\"\" \"In spite of this, Tursunov was selected for Russia in the Davis Cup semi final against Croatia and won his dead rubber match against Ivo Karlović. In 2006 in the first round tie against Netherlands, he won both his matches against Raemon Sluiter and Melle van Gemerden. He defeated Richard Gasquet in five sets in the fourth rubber of the quarterfinal; consequently sending the Russians into the semi-finals of the Davis Cup. For the second time in 2006, Tursunov sealed victory for Russia in the Davis Cup; this time in the semi-final where he defeated Andy Roddick of the United States in a match that lasted 4 hours and 48 minutes, ending 17–15 in the last set. By virtue of this victory, he earned Russia the spot in the Davis Cup final against Argentina, which took place in December. Despite, earning the winning match in the quarterfinals and semifinals, Tursunov only played doubles partnering with Marat Safin, which they won to give Russia a 2–1 lead. Marat Safin later sealed the 2006 Davis Cup win for Russia with his victory over José Acasuso. Tursunov was named in the four-man team that played the United States in the Davis Cup final in 2007, in Portland, Oregon, from 30 November to 2 December 2007. He lost the first rubber of the 2007 Davis Cup final against Roddick. Tursunov was on the verge of defeating James Blake, but Blake won in the fourth dead rubber, the USA having won the tie in the previous doubles match. In 2008, Tursunov lost both his matches in the first round tie against Serbia losing in doubles and in singles, however they still won the tie 3–2. In the semifinal tie against Argentina, he won his doubles match, playing with Igor Kunitsyn. In 2009, he sealed the victory for Russia in the first round tie against Romania defeating Victor Hănescu in five sets. In 2011, he won his singles match against Sweden, however Russia had already lost the tie by losing the first three matches.", "Tursunov retired from playing on the professional tour on 28 August 2017. He subsequently became the coach of WTA Tour tennis player Aryna Sabalenka.", "Tursunov represented December 2009 in the Association of Tennis Professionals calendar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early and personal life.", "Career.", "Junior tennis.", "2005: Turning professional.", "2006: First ATP Title and British No. 1.", "2007: Ascending to the top 10.", "2008: First major final and Masters titles.", "2009: Ascent to world No. 2, two Masters titles.", "2010: Hopman Cup and Australian Open finals.", "2011: Consistency in slams, two more Masters.", "2012: Olympic Gold, US Open champion and Wimbledon runner-up.", "2013: Wimbledon champion and back surgery.", "2014: 30th career title and out of top 10.", "2015: Davis Cup champion and return to world No. 2.", "2016: Second Wimbledon and Olympic Gold, ascent to world No. 1.", "2017: Struggles with form and injury, loss of No. 1 and hiatus.", "2018: Hip surgery, out of top 800 and return to tour.", "2019: Second hip surgery, comeback and first title in two years.", "Rivalries.", "Murray vs. Djokovic.", "Murray vs. Federer.", "Murray vs. Nadal.", "Murray vs. Wawrinka.", "Playing style.", "Endorsements and equipment.", "Coaches.", "Charitable work.", "Image.", "National identity.", "Victory salute.", "Other.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam tournament performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Andy Murray was born in Glasgow, Scotland, the son of Judy Murray (née Erskine) and William Murray. His maternal grandfather, Roy Erskine, was a professional footballer in the late 1950s. Murray is a supporter of Hibernian Football Club, one of the teams his grandfather represented, and Arsenal Football Club. Murray began playing tennis at the age of three when his mother Judy took him to play on the local courts. He played in his first competitive tournament at age five and by the time he was eight he was competing with adults in the Central District Tennis League. Murray's elder brother, Jamie, is also a professional tennis player, playing on the doubles circuit, and became a multiple Grand Slam winner in the discipline (both men's and mixed). Murray grew up in Dunblane and attended Dunblane Primary School. He and his brother were present during the 1996 Dunblane school massacre, when Thomas Hamilton killed 16 children and a teacher before shooting himself; Murray took cover in a classroom. Murray says he was too young to understand what was happening and is reluctant to talk about it in interviews, but in his autobiography \"Hitting Back\" he states that he attended a youth group run by Hamilton and his mother gave Hamilton lifts in her car. Murray later attended Dunblane High School. Murray's parents", "", "Leon Smith, Murray's tennis coach from 11 to 17, described Murray as \"unbelievably competitive\", while Murray attributes his abilities to the motivation gained from losing to his older brother Jamie. In 1999, at the age of 12, Murray won his age group at the Orange Bowl, a prestigious event for junior players. He won it again at the age of 14, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl championship twice in its 70-year history, alongside the likes of Jimmy Connors, Jennifer Capriati, Monica Seles, and Yishai Oliel. In July 2003, Murray started out on the Challenger and Futures circuit. In his first tournament, he reached the quarter-finals of the", "Murray began 2005 ranked No. 407, but when he was in South America in January, he hurt his back and had to take three months off. In March, he became the youngest Briton to play in the Davis Cup. Murray turned professional in April and was given a wild card entry to a clay-court tournament in Barcelona, the Open SEAT, where he lost in three sets to Jan Hernych. In April, Murray parted acrimoniously from his coach Pato Alvarez, complaining about his negative attitude. Murray then reached the semi-finals of the boys' French Open, where he lost in straight sets to Marin Čilić. Mark Petchey agreed to coach Murray for four weeks until the end of Wimbledon, but it metamorphosed into a full-time position. Given a wild card to Queen's, Murray progressed past Santiago Ventura in straight sets for his first ATP match win. Following a second-round win against Taylor Dent, he played former Australian Open champion Thomas Johansson in the third round, losing in three sets after cramping and twisting his ankle. Following his performance at Queen's, Murray received a wild card for Wimbledon. Ranked No. 312, Murray became the", "The 2006 season saw Murray compete on the full circuit for the first time and split with his coach Mark Petchey and team up with Brad Gilbert. On 27 February, Murray became the British No. 1, ending Tim Henman's seven-year run. Murray was now world No. 42, Greg Rusedski No. 43, and Tim Henman No. 49. Rusedski regained his British No. 1 status on 15 May for eight weeks. Murray suffered a straight sets defeat at the Australian Open, to Argentine Juan Ignacio Chela in the first round and to Gaël Monfils at the French Open, in five sets. Murray did reach the fourth round for the first time at both Wimbledon (beating 3rd seed Andy Roddick in the 3rd round) and the US Open. Murray played in Davis Cup ties against Serbia, Israel and Ukraine. Murray missed the opening singles matches before losing the doubles as Britain lost their tie against Serbia. During the tie with Israel, Murray won his rubber and lost the doubles before pulling out with", "Murray reached the fourth round of the Australian Open, where he lost a five-set match against No. 2, Rafael Nadal. Following the Miami Masters, where he reached the semi-finals, Murray reached the No. 10 ranking on 16 April. The British No. 1 sustained tendon damage during his first round match at the German Open in Hamburg. Murray was up 5–1 when he hit a forehand from the back of the court and snapped the tendons in his wrist, leaving him out of action from 15 May until 7 August, thereby", "In 2008, Murray suffered a first round loss at the Australian Open to eventual runner-up Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, and a third round loss at the French Open to Nicolás Almagro. Murray then made his first Grand Slam quarter-final at Wimbledon before making his first final at the US Open. During the tournament in New York, Murray claimed his first win over Nadal. That victory meant that he'd become the first player from Britain since Greg Rusedski in 1997 to reach a major final. In his first Grand Slam final Murray suffered a straight sets loss to Federer. At the Beijing Olympics, Murray suffered one of the worst defeats of his career, losing his first round singles match to", "Murray opened the 2009 season with a successful defence of his title at the Qatar Open in Doha, defeating Andy Roddick in straight sets. At the Australian Open, Murray made it to the fourth round, losing to Fernando Verdasco. Murray won his eleventh career title in Rotterdam, defeating No. 1, Nadal in three sets. Murray next went to Dubai but withdrew before the quarter-finals with a re-occurrence of a virus that had affected him at the Australian Open. The virus caused Murray to miss a Davis Cup tie in Glasgow. Murray then lost in the finals to Nadal at Indian Wells, but won a week later in Miami over Djokovic for another masters title. In the lead-up to the French Open, Murray beat No. 9, Nikolay Davydenko at the Monte Carlo Masters, the first time he had beaten a top ten player on clay, though he lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray was upset in round two of the Rome Masters by qualifier Juan Mónaco, and he reached the quarter-finals of the Madrid Masters, losing to Juan Martín del Potro. During this time Murray achieved", "Murray and Laura Robson represented Britain at the Hopman Cup. The pair progressed to the final, where they were beaten by Spain. At the Australian Open Murray beat Nadal and Čilić before losing in the final to No. 1 Roger Federer. At the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, Murray reached the quarter-finals, losing to Robin Söderling in straight sets. Murray next played at the 2010 Sony Ericsson Open, but lost his first match of the tournament to Mardy Fish, afterwards saying that his mind hadn't been fully on tennis. At the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, Murray suffered another first match loss, this time", "Murray and Laura Robson lost in the round-robin stage 2011 Hopman Cup, losing all three ties even though Murray won all of his singles matches. Then Murray, along with other stars such as Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic, participated in the Rally for Relief event to help raise money for the flood victims in Queensland. Seeded fifth in the 2011 Australian Open, Murray met former champion Novak Djokovic in the final and was defeated in straight sets. In Rotterdam, he was defeated by Marcos Baghdatis in the first round. Murray reached the semi-finals of the doubles tournament with his brother Jamie. Murray lost to qualifiers in the first rounds at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells and Miami, after which he split with coach Àlex Corretja. Murray returned to form at the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, but lost to Nadal in the semi-finals. Murray sustained an elbow injury before the match and subsequently withdrew from the 2011 Barcelona Open Banco Sabadell due to the injury. Murray lost in the third round at the Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open, but made it to the semi-finals of the Rome Masters, where he lost to Novak Djokovic. At the", "With Ivan Lendl as his new full-time coach, Murray began the season by playing in the 2012 Brisbane International. He overcame a slow start in his first two matches to win his 22nd title by beating Alexandr Dolgopolov in the final. In doubles, he lost in the quarter-finals against second seeds Jürgen Melzer and Philipp Petzschner in a tight match. After an exhibition tournament, Murray made it to the semi-finals of the 2012 Australian Open, where he was defeated by Djokovic in a four-hour-and 50-minute match. At the Dubai Duty Free Tennis Championships, Murray defeated Djokovic in the semi-finals, but lost in the final to Roger Federer. After an early defeat at the BNP Paribas Open, Murray made the final of the Miami Masters, losing to Djokovic. Murray then had quarter-final losses at the Monte Carlo Masters and Barcelona Open, and a third round loss at the Italian Open. Murray battled back spasms throughout the", "Murray began his 2013 season by retaining his Brisbane International title, defeating Grigor Dimitrov in the final in straight sets. Trying to win his second major in a row, he began the 2013 Australian Open well with a straight sets victory over Dutchman Robin Haase. He followed this up with straight set victories over João Sousa, practice partner Ričardas Berankis and French No. 14 seed Gilles Simon. In the quarter-finals he cruised past Jérémy Chardy in straight sets to set up a semi-final clash with Roger Federer. After exchanging sets, Murray eventually prevailed in 5 sets, recording his first Grand Slam tournament triumph over Federer. With this victory, each member of the ATP's most dominant quartet of the previous four years (Federer, Nadal, Djokovic and Murray) had beaten the other three at the majors. This victory set up Murray's third consecutive major final appearance, and second in a row against Djokovic. After taking the first set in a tiebreak, Murray was eventually defeated in four sets. His defeat in this final meant that Murray became only the second man in the Open Era to achieve three runner-up finishes at the Australian Open, the other being Stefan", "Murray started his season at the Qatar Open in Doha. In the first round, he defeated Mousa Shanan Zayed in straight sets in 37 minutes without dropping a single game, but was defeated in three sets by No. 40 Florian Mayer in the second round, despite being a set and a break up three games into the second set. He then played a warm-up match at the 2014 AAMI Classic in Kooyong against No. 43 Lleyton Hewitt, losing in two close tiebreaks. He next headed to Melbourne for the 2014 Australian Open, where he drew the No. 112, Go Soeda of Japan. Despite worries that he was not match-fit, Murray got off to a strong start, dispatching the Japanese number 2 in under 90 minutes, losing just 5 games in the process. He next went on to defeat Vincent Millot and Feliciano López respectively in straight sets. In the fourth round, Murray dropped his first set of the tournament on his way to beating Stephane Robert in four sets to set up a meeting with long-standing rival Roger Federer in the quarter-finals. Despite saving two match points to take the third set, he ultimately went out in four, ending his streak of four consecutive Australian Open semi-finals. As a result of losing before the final, Murray fell to No. 6, falling out of the top 5 for the first time since 2008. He next headed to the United States to compete in the Davis Cup World", "Murray began his year by winning an exhibition event in Abu Dhabi. He then played the Hopman Cup with Heather Watson and, despite winning all his singles matches in straight sets, they finished second in their group behind Poland. His first competitive tournament of the year was the Australian Open. He won his opening three matches in straight sets before defeating 11th seed Grigor Dimitrov to reach the quarter-final. Wins over Nick Kyrgios and Tomáš Berdych followed as Murray reached his fourth final at the tournament (three of which were against Djokovic) and the eighth grand slam final of his career. He lost the final to Novak Djokovic in four sets, however his run to the final saw his return to the top four in the world rankings for the first time in 12 months. Murray next participated in the Rotterdam Open as the top seed, but he lost in the quarter-finals to Gilles Simon who ended a 12 match losing streak against Murray. Murray then played in the Dubai Championships but suffered another quarter-final defeat to 18-year-old Borna Ćorić and as a result, Murray slipped to No. 5 behind Rafael Nadal and Kei Nishikori. Afterwards, Murray played the Davis Cup World Group in Glasgow against the United States. He won both his matches against Donald Young and John Isner, allowing Great Britain to progress to the quarter-finals for the second consecutive time with a 3–2 lead over the United States. Murray then reached the semi-finals of the 2015 Indian Wells, overtaking Tim Henman's record of 496", "Murray began his 2016 season by playing in the Hopman Cup, pairing up with Heather Watson again. However, they finished second in their group after losing their tie to eventual champions Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova from Australia. Murray played his first competitive tournament of 2016 at the Australian Open where he was aiming to win his first title there after four runner-up finishes. He went on to reach his fifth Australian Open final with victories over Alexander Zverev, Sam Groth, João Sousa, Bernard Tomic, David Ferrer and Milos Raonic, dropping four sets along the way. However, in a rematch of the previous year final, he was unable to win his first title as he lost in the final to an in-form Novak Djokovic (who won a record-equalling sixth title) in straight sets. He became the second man in the Open Era (after Ivan Lendl) to lose five Grand Slam finals at one event, and the only one not to have won the title. Subsequently, in February, Murray appointed Jamie Delgado as an assistant coach. Murray then played at 2016 Davis Cup defeating Taro Daniel in straight sets and Kei Nishikori in five sets. Murray then competed at the first Masters 1000 of the year at the 2016 Indian Wells Masters. He defeated Marcel Granollers in the second round in straight sets but had an early loss to Federico Delbonis in the third round. Murray then played at the 2016 Miami Open as the 2nd seed.", "Murray was knighted in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to tennis and charity. He opened the season with a loss in the semi-finals of the Mubadala World Tennis Championship to David Goffin, following which he won against Milos Raonic in the third-place play-off. Murray then reached the final of the Qatar Open, but lost to Novak Djokovic in three sets despite saving three championship points. At the Australian Open he lost in the fourth round against Mischa Zverev in four sets. Murray returned to action at the Dubai Duty", "Murray withdrew from the Brisbane International and Australian Open due to hip injury. In a post on Instagram, Murray explained that rehab was one option for recovery. He added that hip surgery was also an option but that the chances of a successful outcome were not as high. On 8 January, Murray announced on Instagram he had undergone hip surgery. In March, Murray lost his British No. 1 ranking for the first time since 2006, to Kyle Edmund. Later that month, Murray", "Murray travelled to Brisbane early in order to better prepare for the Brisbane International. He won his first round match against James Duckworth in straight sets but admitted post-match that he did not know how long he would be able to play top-class tennis. Murray was defeated in the next round by Daniil Medvedev, at that time ranked 16th in the world. On 11 January 2019, at a press conference just prior to the Australian Open, an emotional Murray announced that he could possibly retire from professional tennis due to struggling physically for a \"long time\", particularly with his hip injury. He said that he had been suffering with hip pain on a daily basis, and that it caused him to struggle with tasks like putting his shoes and socks on. He spoke of the possibility of a second hip surgery, but expressed doubt this would be a viable option to prolong his career, merely allowing him to \"have a better quality of life, and be out of pain\". He hoped to make it through to Wimbledon, but that the Australian Open could be his final tournament if he was not able to last until the", "", "Novak Djokovic and Murray have met 36 times with Djokovic leading 25–11. Djokovic leads 5–1 on clay, 20–8 on hard courts, and Murray leads 2–0 on grass. The two are almost exactly the same age, with Murray being only a week older than Djokovic. They went to training camp together, and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers. The pair have met 19 times in finals, with Djokovic leading 11–8. Ten of the finals were at ATP Masters 1000 events, and they are tied at 5–5. They have met in seven major finals: The 2011 Australian Open, the 2012 US Open, the 2013 Australian Open, the 2013 Wimbledon Championships, the 2015 Australian Open, the 2016 Australian Open, and the 2016 French Open. Djokovic has won in Australia four times and their single French open final, Murray emerged as the victor at the US Open and Wimbledon. The former of Murray's victories was the longest ever final at the US Open, tying with the 1988 final played between Ivan Lendl and Mats Wilander at 4 hours and 53 minutes, while the latter was notable for being the first home triumph", "Murray and Roger Federer have met 25 times with Federer leading 14–11. Federer leads 12–10 on hard courts, 2–1 on grass, and they have never met on clay. They have met six times at the Grand Slam tournament level, with Federer leading 5–1. After Federer won the first professional match they played, Murray dominated the first half of the rivalry, with an 8–5 lead in 2010. The second half of the rivalry has been dominated by Federer, who leads 9–3 since 2011, and has led their rivalry since the 2014 ATP World Tour Finals. Federer leads 5–3 in finals, having won each of their Grand Slam Final meetings at the 2008 US Open and 2010 Australian Open, both of which Federer won in straight sets, and the 2012 Wimbledon Championships, where Murray took the first set, but ended up losing in 4 sets. Murray", "Murray has played against Rafael Nadal on 24 occasions since 2007, with Nadal leading 17–7. Nadal leads 7–2 on clay, 3–0 on grass and 7–5 on hard courts. The pair regularly meet at Grand Slam level, with nine out of their twenty-four meetings coming in slams, with Nadal leading 7–2 (3–0 at Wimbledon, 2–0 at the French Open, 1–1 at the Australian Open and 1–1 at the US Open). Eight of these nine appearances have been at quarter-final and semi-final level. They have never met in a slam final, however, Murray leads 3–1 in ATP finals, with Nadal winning at Indian Wells in 2009 and Murray winning in Rotterdam the same year,", "Murray and Stan Wawrinka have played 20 times with Murray leading 12–8. Murray leads 8–4 on hard courts and 3–0 on grass courts while Wawrinka leads 4–1 on clay courts. They have also met six times in Grand Slam tournaments with each player winning three matches. They have contested some close matches and one of their most notable meetings was in the 2009 Wimbledon fourth round, which Murray won in five sets; this was the first men's match to be played under the Wimbledon roof, having the latest finish for a Wimbledon match at the time. Wawrinka also ended Murray's title defence at the 2013 US Open quarter-finals with", "Murray plays an all-court game with an emphasis on defensive baseline play, and in 2009 professional tennis coach Paul Annacone stated that Murray \"may be the best counterpuncher on tour today.\" His strengths include groundstrokes with low error rate, the ability to anticipate and react, and his transition from defence to offence with speed, which enables him to hit winners from defensive positions. His playing style has been likened to that of Miloslav Mečíř. Murray also has one of the best two-handed backhands on the tour, with dynamic stroke execution while he primarily uses his forehand, which is more passive, and a sliced backhand to let opponents play into his defensive game before playing more offensively. Tim Henman stated in 2013 that Murray may have the best lob in the game, succeeding Lleyton Hewitt. Murray's tactics often involve passive exchanges from the baseline. He is capable of injecting sudden pace into his groundstrokes to surprise his opponents who are used to the", "In 2009, German manufacturer Adidas and Murray signed a five-year-deal worth £30 million. This included wearing their range of tennis shoes. The contract with Adidas allowed Murray to keep his shirt sleeve sponsors Shiatzy Chen, Royal Bank of Scotland and Highland Spring. Before he was signed by Adidas in late 2009, he wore Fred Perry apparel. At the end of their contract together Adidas decided not to re-sign with Murray, and he began a 4-year partnership with athletic apparel company Under Armour in", "Murray's coaching staff has changed through the years and are as follows: Leon Smith (1998–2004), Pato", "Murray is a founding member of the Malaria No More UK Leadership Council and helped launch the charity in 2009 with David Beckham. Footage from the launch at Wembley Stadium can be seen on YouTube and the charity's website. Murray also made 'Nets Needed', a short public service announcement, for the charity to help raise awareness and funds to help in the fight against malaria. Murray has also taken part in several charity tennis events, including the Rally for Relief events that took place prior to the start of the 2011 Australian Open. In June 2013, Murray teamed up with former British No. 1 Tim Henman for a charity doubles match against Murray's coach and eight-time", "", "Murray identifies himself as Scottish and British. His national identity has often been commented on by the media. While making a cameo appearance on the comedy show \"Outnumbered\", Murray was asked whether he was British or Scottish, to which he responded \"Depends whether I win or not.\" Much of the discussion about Murray's national identity began prior to Wimbledon 2006, when he was quoted as saying he would \"support whoever England is playing\" at the 2006 World Cup. English ex-tennis player Tim Henman confirmed that the remarks had been made in jest", "After defeating Nikolay Davydenko at Wimbledon 2012, Murray pointed upwards with both hands and wagged them back and forth while looking to the sky. Murray declined to reveal the reason, and ever since, he has continued to celebrate his victories with this gesture. Murray marked his first Wimbledon title in 2013 with the same victory salute. Then in his book \"Seventy-Seven; My", "In 2006, there was controversy after a match with Kenneth Carlsen. Having been given a warning for racket abuse, Murray went on in the post-match interview to state that he and Carlsen had \"played like women\" during the first set. Murray was booed for the remark, but said later that the comment had been intended as a jocular response to what Svetlana Kuznetsova had said at the Hopman Cup. A few months later, Murray was fined for swearing at the umpire during a Davis Cup doubles rubber with the Serbia and Montenegro Davis Cup team. Murray refused to shake hands with the umpire at the end of the match. In 2007, Murray suggested that tennis had a match-fixing problem, stating that everyone knows it goes on, in the wake of the investigation surrounding Nikolay Davydenko. Both Davydenko and Rafael Nadal questioned his comments, but Murray responded that his words had been taken out of context.", "", "\"Current through" ] }

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{ "title": [ "IP packets.", "DNS records.", "HTTP." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Under the Internet Protocol, TTL is an 8-bit field. In the IPv4 header, TTL is the 9th octet of 20. In the IPv6 header, it is the 8th octet of 40. The maximum TTL value is 255, the maximum value of a single octet. A recommended initial value is 64. The time-to-live value can be thought of as an upper bound on the time that an IP datagram can exist in an Internet system. The TTL field is set by the sender of the datagram, and reduced by every router on the route to its destination. If the TTL field reaches zero before the datagram arrives at its destination, then the datagram is discarded and an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) error datagram (11 - Time Exceeded) is sent back to the sender. The purpose of the TTL field is to avoid a situation in which an undeliverable datagram keeps circulating on an Internet system, and such a system eventually becoming swamped by such \"immortals\". In theory, under IPv4, time to live is measured in seconds, although every host that passes the datagram must reduce the TTL by at least one unit. In practice, the TTL field is reduced by one on every hop. To reflect this practice, the field is renamed \"hop limit\" in IPv6.", "TTLs also occur in the Domain Name System (DNS), where they are set by an authoritative name server for a particular resource record. When a caching (recursive) nameserver queries the authoritative nameserver for a resource record, it will cache that record for the time (in seconds) specified by the TTL. If a stub resolver queries the caching nameserver for the same record before the TTL has expired, the caching server will simply reply with the already cached resource record rather than retrieve it from the authoritative nameserver again. TTL for NXDOMAIN (non-existent domain) responses is set from the minimum of the MINIMUM field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself, and indicates how long a resolver may cache the negative answer. Shorter TTLs can cause heavier loads on an authoritative name server, but can be useful when changing the address of critical services like web servers or MX records, and therefore are often lowered by the DNS administrator prior to a service being moved, in order to reduce possible disruptions. The units used are seconds. An older common TTL value for DNS was 86400 seconds, which is 24 hours. A TTL value of 86400 would mean that, if a DNS record was changed on the authoritative nameserver, DNS servers around the world could still be showing the old value from their cache for up to 24 hours after the change. Newer DNS methods that are part of a disaster recovery (DR) system may have some records deliberately set extremely low on TTL. For example, a 300-second TTL would help key records expire in 5 minutes to help ensure these records are flushed quickly worldwide. This gives administrators the ability to edit and update records in a timely manner. TTL values are \"per record\" and setting this value on specific records is sometimes honored automatically by all standard DNS systems worldwide. However, a problem persists in that some caching DNS nameservers set their own TTLs regardless of the authoritative records, thus it cannot be guaranteed that all downstream DNS servers have the new records after the TTL has expired.", "Time to live may also be expressed as a date and time on which a record expires. The codice_1 header in HTTP responses, the codice_2 header field in both requests and responses and the codice_3 field in HTTP cookies express time-to-live in this way." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pronunciation.", "Computation of orbit.", "Orbit and origin.", "Structure and composition.", "History.", "Prior to 1066.", "1066.", "1145–1378.", "1456.", "1531–1759, 1835.", "1835.", "1910.", "1986.", "After 1986.", "2061.", "2134.", "Apparitions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Comet Halley is commonly pronounced, rhyming with \"valley\", or, rhyming with \"daily\". Colin Ronan, one of Edmond Halley's biographers, preferred (, similar to", "Halley was the first comet to be recognized as periodic. Until the Renaissance, the philosophical consensus on the nature of comets, promoted by Aristotle, was that they were disturbances in Earth's atmosphere. This idea was disproved in 1577 by Tycho Brahe, who used parallax measurements to show that comets must lie beyond the Moon. Many were still unconvinced that comets orbited the Sun, and assumed instead that they must follow straight paths through the Solar System. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton published his \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\", in which he outlined his laws of gravity and motion. His work on comets was decidedly incomplete. Although he had suspected that two comets that had appeared in succession in 1680 and 1681 were the same comet before and after passing behind the Sun (he was later found to be correct; see Newton's Comet), he was unable to completely reconcile comets into his model. Ultimately, it was Newton's friend, editor and publisher, Edmond Halley, who, in his 1705 \"Synopsis of the Astronomy of Comets\", used Newton's new laws to calculate the gravitational effects of Jupiter and Saturn on cometary orbits. Having compiled a list of 24 comet observations, he calculated that the orbital elements of a second comet that had appeared in 1682 were nearly the same as those of two comets that", "Halley's orbital period has varied between 74–79 years since 240 BC. Its orbit around the Sun is highly elliptical, with an orbital eccentricity of 0.967 (with 0 being a circle and 1 being a parabolic trajectory). The perihelion, the point in the comet's orbit when it is nearest the Sun, is just 0.6 AU. This is between the orbits of Mercury and Venus. Its aphelion, or farthest distance from the Sun, is 35 AU (roughly the distance of Pluto). Unusual for an object in the Solar System, Halley's orbit is retrograde; it orbits the Sun in the opposite direction to the planets, or, clockwise from above the Sun's north pole. The orbit is inclined by 18° to the ecliptic, with much of it lying south of the ecliptic. (Because it is retrograde, the true inclination is 162°.) Due to the retrograde orbit, it has one of the highest velocities relative to the Earth of any object in the Solar System. The 1910 passage was at a relative velocity of 70.56 km/s (157,838 mph or 254,016 km/h). Because its orbit comes close to Earth's in two places, Halley is associated with two meteor showers: the Eta Aquariids in early May, and the Orionids in late October. Halley is the parent body to the Orionids. Observations conducted around the time of Halley's appearance in 1986 suggested that the comet could additionally perturb the Eta Aquariids meteor shower, although it might not be the parent of that shower. Halley is classified as a \"periodic\" or \"short-period comet\"; one with an orbit lasting 200 years or less. This contrasts it with long-period comets, whose orbits last for thousands of years. Periodic comets have an average inclination to the ecliptic of only ten degrees, and an orbital period of just 6.5", "The \"Giotto\" and \"Vega\" missions gave planetary scientists their first view of Halley's surface and structure. Like all comets, as Halley nears the Sun, its volatile compounds (those with low boiling points, such as water, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and other ices) begin to sublimate from the surface of its nucleus. This causes the comet to develop a coma, or atmosphere, up to 100,000 km across. Evaporation of this dirty ice releases dust particles, which travel with the gas away from the nucleus. Gas molecules in the coma absorb solar light and then re-radiate it at different wavelengths, a phenomenon known as fluorescence, whereas dust particles scatter the solar light. Both processes are responsible for making the coma visible. As a fraction of the gas molecules in the coma are ionized by the solar ultraviolet radiation, pressure from the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emitted by the Sun, pulls the coma's ions out into a long tail, which may extend more than 100 million kilometres into space. Changes in the flow of the solar wind can cause disconnection events, in which the tail completely breaks off from the nucleus. Despite the vast size of its coma, Halley's nucleus is relatively small: barely 15 kilometres long, 8 kilometres wide and perhaps 8 kilometres thick. Its shape vaguely resembles that of a peanut shell. Its mass is relatively low (roughly 2.2 kg) and its average density is about 0.6 g/cm, indicating that it is made of a large number of small pieces, held together very loosely, forming a structure known as a rubble pile. Ground-based observations of coma brightness suggested that Halley's rotation period was about 7.4 days. Images taken by the various spacecraft, along with observations of the jets and shell,", "", "Halley may have been recorded as early as 467 BC, but this is uncertain. A comet was recorded in ancient Greece between 468 and 466 BC; its timing, location, duration, and associated meteor shower all suggest it was Halley. According to Pliny the Elder, that same year a meteorite fell in the town of Aegospotami, in Thrace. He described it as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load. Chinese chroniclers also mention a comet in that year. The first certain appearance of Halley's Comet in the historical record is a description from 240 BC, in the Chinese chronicle \"Records of the Grand Historian\" or \"Shiji\", which describes a comet that appeared in the east and moved north. The only surviving record of the 164 BC apparition is found on two fragmentary Babylonian tablets, now owned by the British Museum. The apparition of 87 BC was recorded in Babylonian tablets which state that the comet was seen \"day beyond day\" for a month. This appearance may be recalled in the representation of Tigranes the Great, an Armenian king who is depicted on coins with a crown that features, according to Vahe Gurzadyan and R. Vardanyan, \"a star with a curved tail [that] may represent the passage of Halley's Comet in 87 BC.\" Gurzadyan and Vardanyan argue that \"Tigranes could have seen Halley's Comet when it passed closest to the Sun on August 6 in 87 BC\" as the comet would have been a \"most recordable event\"; for ancient Armenians it could have heralded the New Era of the brilliant King of Kings. The apparition", "In 1066, the comet was seen in England and thought to be an omen: later that year Harold II of England died at the Battle of Hastings; it was a bad omen for Harold, but a good omen for the man who defeated him, William the Conqueror. The comet is represented on the Bayeux Tapestry and described in the tituli as a star. Surviving accounts from the period describe it as appearing to be four times the size of Venus and shining with a light equal to a quarter of that of the Moon. Halley came within 0.10 AU of Earth at that", "The 1145 apparition was recorded by the monk Eadwine. The 1986 apparition exhibited a fan tail similar to Eadwine's drawing. Some claim that Genghis Khan was inspired to turn his conquests toward Europe by the", "In 1456, the year of Halley's next apparition, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Kingdom of Hungary, culminating in the Siege of Belgrade in July of that year. In a papal bull, Pope Callixtus III ordered special prayers be said for the city's protection. In 1470, the humanist scholar Bartolomeo Platina wrote in his \"Lives of the Popes\" that, A hairy and fiery star having then made its appearance for several days, the mathematicians declared that there would follow grievous pestilence, dearth and some great calamity. Calixtus, to avert the wrath of God, ordered supplications that if evils were impending for the human race He would turn all upon the Turks, the enemies of the", "Halley's periodic returns have been subject to scientific investigation since the 16th century. The three apparitions from 1531 to 1682 were noted by Edmond Halley, enabling him to predict it would return. One key breakthrough occurred when Halley talked with Newton about his ideas of the laws of motion. Newton also helped Halley get Flamsteed's data on", "At Markree Observatory in Ireland, a E. J. Cooper used a Cauchoix of Paris lens telescope with an aperture of 13.3 (~34 cm) inches to sketch Halley's comet in 1835. The coma was also sketched by F.W. Bessel. Streams of vapour observed during the comet's 1835 apparition prompted astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel to propose that the jet forces of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit. An interview in 1910, of someone who was a teenager at the time of the 1835 apparition had this to say: They go on to describe the comet's tail as being more broad and not as long as the comet of 1843 they had also witnessed. Famous astronomers across the world made observations starting August 1835, including Struve at Dorpat observatory, and Sir John Herschel, who made of observations from the Cape of Good Hope. In the United States", "The 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April and came to perihelion on 20 April, was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which spectroscopic data were obtained. Furthermore, the comet made a relatively close approach of 0.15 AU, making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet. One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas cyanogen, which led astronomer Camille Flammarion to claim that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas \"would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet.\" His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack \"anti-comet pills\" and \"anti-comet umbrellas\" by the public. In reality, as other astronomers were quick to point out, the gas is so diffused that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail. The comet added to the unrest in China on the eve of the Xinhai Revolution that would end the last dynasty in 1911. As James Hutson, a missionary in Sichuan Province at the time, recorded,", "Halley's 1986 apparition was the least favourable on record. The comet and Earth were on opposite sides of the Sun in February 1986, creating the worst viewing circumstances for Earth observers for the last 2,000 years. Halley's closest approach was 0.42 AU. Additionally, with increased light pollution from urbanization, many people failed to even see the comet. It was possible to observe it in areas outside of cities with the help of binoculars. Further, the comet appeared brightest when it was almost invisible from the northern hemisphere in March and April 1986. Halley's approach was first detected by astronomers David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson on 16 October 1982 using the 5.1 m Hale telescope at Mount Palomar and a CCD camera. The first person to visually observe the comet on its 1986 return was amateur astronomer Stephen James O'Meara on 24 January 1985. O'Meara used a home-built 24-inch telescope on top of Mauna Kea to detect the magnitude 19.6 comet. On 8 November 1985, Stephen Edberg (then serving as the Coordinator for Amateur Observations at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory) and Charles Morris were the first to observe Halley's Comet", "On 12 February 1991, at a distance of from the Sun, Halley displayed an outburst that lasted for several months, releasing a cloud of dust across. The outburst likely started in December 1990, and then the comet brightened from magnitude 24.3 to magnitude 18.9. Halley was most recently observed in", "The next predicted perihelion of Halley's Comet is 28 July 2061 to 28 July 2062, when it is expected to be better positioned for observation than during the 1985–1986 apparition, as it will be on", "In 2134, Halley is expected to pass", "Halley's calculations enabled the comet's earlier appearances to be found in the historical record. The following table sets out the astronomical designations for every apparition of Halley's Comet from 240 BC, the earliest documented widespread sighting. For example, \"1P/1982 U1, 1986 III, 1982i\" indicates that for the perihelion in 1986, Halley was the first period comet known (designated 1P) and this apparition was the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Juniors: 1995, 1997–2000.", "Early career: 2000–2003.", "Breakthrough: 2004–2007.", "Becoming a top 10 player: 2008–2010.", "Keep in form: 2011–2013.", "Later career: 2014–2017.", "Retirement in 2018.", "Coaching.", "National representation.", "Davis Cup.", "Summer Olympics.", "Playing style, equipment and team.", "Personal life.", "Career statistics.", "Singles performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Youzhny was born on 25 June 1982 to Mikhail, a Soviet army colonel and Lubov, a professional tennis player. 25 June is also his father's birthday. His father sacrificed his career in the Soviet army to steer Youzhny and his older brother Andrei into becoming tennis players. It was because of his father that Boris Sobkin became his coach. He was very talented. At 13, he was a ballboy for a Russia – United States Davis Cup final in Moscow. Youzhny's father was recommended that Mikhail and his brother should join the tennis club \"Spartak Club\" if they wanted to become professional players. Mikhail and Andrei had to travel on an underground metro train and then on two buses to reach their destination, taking well over an hour to reach the club. His mother had to take a", "", "Youzhny played in his first junior tournament in April 1995 at the 8th Sochi International Junior Tournament, but lost in the first round to Andrei Stoliarov. He next played in a junior tournamentthe Ozerov Cupin 1997, where he reached the semifinals but lost to Belorussian Maxim Belski. In the quarterfinals, Youzhny beat Nikolay Davydenko. He also played doubles at the tournament, partnering with Davydenko; he reached the finals but lost to Belski", "Youzhny began 2000 ranked 288 in the world. He reached his first ATP Challenger final in Cherbourg, France, but lost to Julien Boutter, then ranked 162 in the world. In May that year, Youzhny won his first ATP Challenger title in Samarkand, Uzbekistan, by defeating Jan Frode Andersen from Norway. His good form continued and he won his first ATP tour-level match at the 2000 edition of the Rosmalen Grass Court Championships by defeating 154-ranked Canadian Daniel Nestor. He lost to the runner-up Nicolas Escudé. At the Kremlin Cup tournament in Moscow, Youzhny reached his first ATP tour-level quarterfinals, beating 36-ranked Frenchman Fabrice Santoro and 60-ranked Swede Thomas Johansson, but lost to Marc Rosset, 35th in the world. He ended the year ranked 113 in the world. 2001 saw Youzhny's grand slam debut; at the Australian Open. he reached the third round, where he lost to 49th-ranked Australian Andrew Ilie, who had beaten number nine", "Youzhny started the 2004 season with a second round defeat by Sargis Sargsian at the Qatar Open in Doha. At the Australian Open, Youzhny lost in the first round to Sébastien Grosjean, but then reached his first quarterfinals of the season at the Indesit ATP Milan Indoor, where he lost to Antony Dupuis. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, he reached his first semifinal of the season after defeating world No. 3 Guillermo Coria in the first round, but lost to Feliciano Lopez in three sets. At the Indian Wells Masters Youzhny beat Mark Philippoussis in the second round, but lost to world No. 5 Andre Agassi in straight sets in round four. At the Hamburg Masters, Youzhny reached his first quarterfinals at an ATP Masters 1000 event. He lost to Ivan Ljubičić in a three setter. His good form continued into the French Open, where he had wins over Dennis van Scheppingen and Andrei Pavel, but was eliminated in the third round by Nicolas Escude in four sets. Coming to Wimbledon, Youzhny had won only 2 grass matches and he was upset in the first round by 415 ranked Goran Ivanisevic. At the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens,", "Youzhny started the 2008 season by defeating world number two Rafael Nadal in under an hour at the final of the Chennai Open in India. However, the scoreline did not reflect the circumstances, Nadal's semi-final finished mere hours beforehand and he had little rest. Youzhny admitted as much, and said; \"This victory is a present from Rafael\", but Nadal responded by saying \"I was a bit tired, but I must admit Mikhail played unbelievable tennis and deserved to win. There is nothing wrong with me.\" As the 14th-seed at the Australian Open Youzhny reached his first quarterfinals there by defeating world number four Nikolay Davydenko in straight sets. However, in the quarterfinals he lost to unseeded Frenchman Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, ranked world number thirty-eight and the eventual runner-up, in three sets. At the Open 13 in Marseille, France, Youzhny reached the quarterfinals, losing in straight sets to world number seventeen Marcos Baghdatis. At the Miami Masters, Youzhny was 4–5 down with Spain's Nicolás Almagro serving in the final set, he hit a relatively easy return into the net. He gestured angrily towards his own temple, and then hit his head strongly with the edge of frame of his tennis racket three times, drawing blood. Despite this—and after receiving", "Youzhny began the 2011 season at the Australian Open where he reached the third round, losing to Canadian qualifier Milos Raonic in four sets. He made his next appearance at the 2011 ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam, but failed in protecting his points from the previous year, and lost to world number four Robin Söderling. He responded to his early loss with a semifinal showing at the Open 13 in Marseille, France, and lost to world number twenty-eight Marin Čilić. At the Dubai Tennis Championships he again failed to defend his ranking points, and recorded his first loss to Gilles Simon. In doubles, he and Sergiy Stakhovsky went on to defeat Feliciano López and Jérémy Chardy in the final to win their second title as a team and Youzhny's eighth career doubles title. From his defeat by Simon in Dubai to the French Open, with the exception of one third round defeat, he lost either in the first or second round. Youzhny was seeded 12th at the French Open, and lost in the third round to world number thirty-eight Albert Montañés, a Spanish clay-court specialist, in straight sets. At Wimbledon Youzhny, seeded 18th, reached the fourth round where he was defeated by world number three Roger Federer in four", "Youzhny began his 2014 season at the Australian Open where he reached the second round before losing to Florian Mayer. At the French Open, Youzhny again made the second round, but lost to Radek Štěpánek. At Wimbledon, he reached the second round of a major for the third time, only to lose to qualifier Jimmy Wang. At the US Open, Youzhny was upset in the first round to world No. 60, Nick Kyrgios in four sets. Mikhail signs to Hyderabad Aces to play first season of Champions Tennis League India. Youzhny's 2015 season saw a number of first round loses. His best result", "At the 2018 Atlanta Open, Youzhny announced his retirement from professional tennis, with the 2018 St. Petersburg Open marking his", "Youzhny was sighted working with Denis Shapovalov at the Winston-Salem Open in 2019", "", "Youzhny played his first Davis Cup match in the World Group first round against Belgium in a dead rubber. He defeated Olivier Rochus in the fourth match. Youzhny would go on to lose four matches in a row. At the 2002 World Group final, Youzhny played the deciding match against Paul-Henri Mathieu and came back from two sets down to win. In 2003, in Russia's first round match against Belarus, Youzhny played the fifth and decisive match and lost to Vladimir Voltchkov. In the 2006 World Group Youzhny participated in the first round, quarterfinals and in the semifinals, but did not play in the final against Argentina. However, he did participate in the 2007 final against the United States, but he lost in the second match to James Blake in four sets. The defeat gave the United States a 2–0 lead over Russia, with the United States winning the final 4–1. At the 2008 World Group Youzhny only participated in the first round against Serbia, winning his singles match against Nenad Zimonjić. In the third match he partnered with Dmitry Tursunov against Novak Djokovic and Nenad Zimonjić but", "Youzhny participated in three Summer Olympics; Athens 2004, Beijing 2008 and London 2012. In Athens he reached the quarterfinals and ended up losing to silver medalist Mardy Fish. He also played doubles in Athens, partnering up with Marat Safin, but ended up losing to Bob and Mike Bryan in the first round. In Beijing, Youzhny reached the third round, but lost to", "Youzhny had powerful groundstrokes on both sides. Former professional tennis player and now coach Peter Lundgren stated that Youzhny's \"backhand slice is one of the best in the world. His slice had a lot of variety and he can neutralise an opponent's offence quickly with it.\" However, while his backhand slice was a good defensive weapon, his main attacking weapon was his one-handed backhand hit with topspin. Youzhny used a backhand grip around 3/4 of the way from Continental toward Modified Eastern. His grip is close enough to Modified Eastern to allow him to hit topspin with reasonable comfort, but most players would hit stronger topspin with a grip right on Modified Eastern or closer to Full Eastern. Youzhny's backhand grip would work well for slice, but he changes to an Eastern forehand grip for his slice. When asked at the 2014 Dubai Tennis Championships about Youzhny, Novak Djokovic, then world no. 2, replied; Mikhail [...] has one of the nicest and most efficient one handed backhands on the tour. It seems a little bit unorthodox the way he holds his racquet, then [he] releases with two hands and in the end with one hand. But he's a very talented player. According to \"The New York Times\" columnist Christopher Clarley, Youzhny's one-handed backhand was one of the more unusual ones on tour, hit with a", "The Russian government awarded Youzhny the title Honoured Master of Sports in 2003 for his participation in Russia's Davis Cup victory the previous year. Youzhny began studying for a degree in philosophy at the University of Moscow in 2005, specializing in the philosophy and attitudes of tennis. He obtained his PhD in December 2010. His thesis was entitled \"Professional Tennis Players on the", "", "\"*\" \"At the 2010 Australian" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Juniors.", "Pro tour.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "As a junior, Grosjean posted a 90-20 singles record and a 58-12 doubles record, winning the 1996 French Open boys' doubles. He reached No. 1 in the world in both singles and doubles in December 1996.", "Grosjean joined the professional tour in 1996. In 2003 and 2004, he reached the final of the Queen's London Tournament. In the same two years, he also reached the semifinals of Wimbledon. He finished 2001 as the No. 1 player from his country and for the first time in the top 10 becoming the first Frenchman to finish a year in the top 10 since Cédric Pioline in 1993. In 2001, Grosjean won the Davis Cup with the French team. Grosjean is known for his extreme forehand, his best shot, he utilizes something of a western grip, which is hit at high velocities. He has appeared in four Grand Slam semifinal matches. As well as his two Wimbledon runs, he also reached the French Open semifinals in 2001. His most famous chance was at the 2001 Australian Open against Arnaud Clément. Grosjean led two sets to love and had a match point in the fourth set before Clément prevailed. This was long considered the worst 'choke' in five-set history, until the 2004 French Open final. He won his fourth singles title at the 2007 Grand Prix de Tennis de Lyon, with a victory over countryman Marc Gicquel. He also won the doubles final with Jo-Wilfried Tsonga as a wildcard team, where they upset the first and third seeds. Considered one of the more popular players on the circuit, he is lauded for his attractive, graceful style and classical skills. He is affectionately nicknamed 'Big John' by fans, a literal translation of his surname into English.", "Grosjean married his wife Marie-Pierre on 16 November 1998 and has a daughter named Lola (born 11 October 1998), a son named Tom (2002), and a daughter named Sam (2006). The family resides in Boca Raton, Florida (U.S.), where Grosjean trains at the Evert Tennis Academy. He is sponsored by Lacoste in apparel and Head rackets. He used the Head Radical Tour TwinTube 630 XL under various paint jobs throughout his career." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Acasuso began playing tennis at the age of two, when his father took his brother and sister to his grandfather's tennis club. Reportedly, he got the nickname of \"Chucho\" from the fact that, when he was a child, he used to say his name was \"José Acachucho.\" Acasuso played both basketball and tennis up until the age of 12, and then gave up basketball for tennis. Like Carlos Moyà, Acasuso is a natural left-hander, but plays tennis right-handed. Acasuso turned professional in 2000, playing futures and challenger events. In 2001, he made an immediate impact in his first ATP tournament in Buenos Aires, where he defeated former No. 10 player Félix Mantilla in the last round of the qualifying to make the main draw, and then defeated compatriots Franco Squillari in the quarter-finals and Gastón Gaudio in the semi-finals. However, he lost to then-number-1 player Gustavo Kuerten 6–1, 6–3. Later in the year, he won his first challenger event in Bermuda and finished the year ranked at 86 in the world an improvement of 89 places from the previous year. In 2002, he was on the Argentine team that won the World Team Cup in Düsseldorf. He won his first ATP title in Sopot, defeating Franco Squillari in three sets. He was also a finalist in Bucharest, losing to David Ferrer, and in Palermo to the Chilean Fernando González. He ended the year ranked 41st in the world. After the previous two successful years, Acasuso's results began to decline and he ended up spending more time out due to injuries. He did not win a title in 2003. In 2004, however, he reached the final of Sopot again, this time losing to Rafael Nadal. Acasuso then went on to win his second career title in Bucharest by beating Russian Igor Andreev in two sets. Acasuso reached the fourth round of the 2005 French Open, his best ever result in any of the Grand Slam events. He defeated number-2-seeded Andy Roddick in five sets, coming back from 2 sets to love down and a break of serve to win. He then lost to fellow Argentine Mariano Puerta for the second time in the year. He also improved his results away from his favoured clay surface by making the quarter finals on hard courts in Cincinnati and on carpet in Basel. In 2006, Acasuso won his third ATP title in Viña del Mar over Nicolás Massú and also made his debut for Argentina in the Davis Cup against Sweden in the singles. He then played against Croatia in the doubles with David Nalbandian. They won their match and the tie to play against Australia in the semi-finals. After reaching his first Tennis Masters Series semi-final in Hamburg, where Acasuso defeated Simon Greul, Ivan Ljubičić, Sébastien Grosjean, and Fernando Verdasco, before losing to Radek Štěpánek in straight sets, he was ranked inside the top 30 for the first time in his career. Acasuso lost in the final of Stuttgart to David Ferrer in five sets, after having a 5–1 lead in the fourth set and served for the match twice. In the 2006 Davis Cup tie between Argentina and Australia, Acasuso ended the run of 11 consecutive wins that Lleyton Hewitt was on of winning in 5 set matches, when he defeated him 1–6, 6–4, 4–6, 6–2, 6–1 in a match that was completed over two days. Of the win Acasuso said \"I've beaten higher-ranked players in the past but to win at home in a Davis Cup semi-final with 14,000 people watching me here makes it one of the most important wins of my career\". Acasuso was a late substitute for Juan Ignacio Chela in the deciding fifth rubber of the 2006 Davis Cup Final against Marat Safin of Russia. Safin won 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 7–6 to win the Davis Cup for Russia. Acasuso, together with Sebastián Prieto, has won three doubles titles: in 2005 in Stuttgart and Bucharest, and in 2006 in Viña del Mar. Prior to that Acasuso won a doubles title partnering Flávio Saretta at Umag in 2004. He was previously coached by Horacio de la Peña, Daniel Orsanic and later worked with Gabriel Markus. In the 2008 Davis Cup final, Acasuso was once again a late substitute in what turned out to be the tie-deciding fourth rubber. He replaced an injured Juan Martín del Potro and was defeated by Fernando Verdasco of Spain in a five-set match. Acasuso made the final of the 2009 Viña del Mar event, where he lost to Fernando González 6–1, 6–3. His most notable match in 2009 was his second round match at French Open 2009 against the eventual champion Roger Federer in which he lost in four sets. In this match he missed four set points in the first set and three set points in the third set while leading that set by 5–1 On 24 February 2012, Acasuso officially announced his retirement from professional tennis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early years.", "2003.", "2004: First ATP title.", "2005: Further progress.", "2006: 100 wins.", "2007.", "2008: Third & fourth ATP titles.", "2009: Australian Open semifinal.", "2010: First masters final & second ATP 500 title.", "2011: Tenth ATP title.", "2012: Four doubles titles.", "2013: World tour finals doubles title.", "2014: 400 career wins & twelfth ATP title.", "2015: Return to top 30.", "2016: Thirteenth & fourteenth ATP titles.", "2017 French Open Men's Double semi-finals.", "Playing style and equipment.", "Personal life.", "Career statistics.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "He turned professional in 2001, finishing as world No. 464. 2002 was a good year for him, as he won his first Futures category title in Spain F1 and was runner-up in Spain F3. He played his pond career challenger", "In 2003, Verdasco played his first Masters Series tournament (Miami Masters). He joined the main draw as a qualifier, and after defeating Karol Kučera and Max Mirnyi, he lost to countryman Carlos Moyà in the third round. After this good performance, he had a poor season on clay, and then he lost in the", "After finishing 2003 as No. 109 in the world (with a 15–8 record in Challengers), he had a breakthrough in 2004 when he won his first ATP title in Valencia. He defeated defending champion Juan Carlos Ferrero in the semifinals and Albert Montañés in the final.", "In 2005, he defeated Andy Roddick twice, in Miami and in Rome. In Rome, the match was famous for Roddick being matchpoint up on Verdasco's serve and having the match end with a double fault from Verdasco, but Roddick claimed that the serve was not out and the", "Fernando reached the fourth round at Wimbledon, after beating Vince Spadea and German Benjamin Becker, and also upsetting third seed and former runner-up David Nalbandian in straight sets in the third round. Verdasco then lost to Czech Radek Štěpánek in five sets. At the US Open, Fernando reached the third round but lost to eventual runner-up Andy Roddick in five sets. In previous rounds,", "In 2007, Verdasco lost in the first round in the three Masters Series tournaments on clay. He lost to Frenchman Richard Gasquet in both Monte Carlo Masters and Rome Masters, and to Czech Tomáš Berdych in the Hamburg Masters. He lost to Novak Djokovic in the fourth round of the French Open. In the previous rounds, he beat Jérôme Haehnel in the first round, Dmitry Tursunov in the second round, and David Ferrer in the third round. In the grass season, he lost in the first round in Queen's, and he reached the third", "Fernando entered the Australian Open as the 25th seed. He won his opening match with a strong performance against Thierry Ascione. He lost his second-round match in a close battle with Serbian Janko Tipsarević, who later went on to take Roger Federer to 5 sets. Fernando entered the Dubai Tennis Championships with a possible second-round opponent of either Roger Federer or Andy Murray, his opponent would be Murray after he beat Federer in three sets. Fernando managed to take Murray to three sets but after a good performance, he lost the match. In Berlin, Fernando and doubles partner Feliciano López clinched Spain's spot in the Davis Cup semifinals after defeating Germany's Philipp Kohlschreiber and Philipp Petzschner in a four-hour and 45-minute marathon match. At the Monte Carlo Masters in Monaco, Fernando lost to Gaël Monfils in straight sets in the first round. In Barcelona the following week he also lost his first-round match in straight sets to Nicolás Lapentti. His form improved dramatically for the Rome Masters where he reached the third round, en route he got the better of Carlos Moyà", "Verdasco started his season by reaching the final of the Brisbane International losing to Radek Štěpánek in three sets. Partnering Mischa Zverev, he was also the runner-up in the doubles final. At the 2009 Australian Open Verdasco defeated Andy Murray in the fourth round to reach his first Grand Slam quarterfinal, where he defeated Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Verdasco then lost to World No. 1 Rafael Nadal in what was at the time the longest match in Australian Open history, lasting 5 hours, 14 minutes. Verdasco's semi-final run earned him No. 9 ranking, lifting the Spaniard into the top 10 for the first time. After being sidelined by injury since the Australian Open, he reached the quarterfinals at Indian Wells, where he", "Verdasco started his 2010 season at the exhibition tournament AAMI Kooyong Classic in Melbourne, in preparation for the upcoming Australian Open. He beat Jo-Wilfried Tsonga in the final. His first official tournament for the year was in the Australian Open. As the 9th seed, he lost in the fourth round against Nikolay Davydenko in a five-set match. His next tournament was the SAP Open in San Jose, California. Before his first-round match, he won an exhibition match against Pete Sampras in straight sets. In the tournament final, he defeated Andy Roddick to capture his fourth ATP singles title. This was his first win over a Top", "Verdasco started the year losing in the first round of the Brisbane International to Benjamin Becker. He then failed to defend his title at the exhibition tournament, the 2011 Kooyong Classic, losing to Gaël Monfils in the first round. Seeded 9th at the 2011 Australian Open, Verdasco lost in the fourth round to sixth seed Tomáš Berdych, saying after the match he had a long-time injury in his foot. He had MRI scans on his foot and is confirmed that he had a fractured foot (where a broken bone was detected). He has claimed he has sustained this since late 2009. His next tournament was the SAP Open in San Jose, California where was defending champion and top seed. He advanced to the final without losing a set against Rajeev Ram, Ivo Karlović, Denis Istomin and Juan Martín del Potro. His opponent in the final was young Canadian first-time finalist Milos Raonic. Verdasco held four set points in a first-set tiebreak but lost the next six points and the set. He eventually lost the match. Verdasco faced off against Raonic in the first round of Memphis. For the second time in two weeks, he", "Verdasco started the year with a first-time participation at the Hopman Cup partnering Anabel Medina Garrigues representing Spain. He reached the quarterfinals in Auckland, where he lost to David Ferrer in straight sets. Verdasco lost in the first round of the 2012 Australian Open to Australian Bernard Tomic in five sets. Verdasco then traveled to Brazil, where he reached the quarterfinals, only to be defeated by compatriot Albert Ramos. He reached the final in Acapulco, but was defeated again by David Ferrer. In Barcelona, he was defeated in the semifinals by eventual champion Rafael Nadal. At the Masters 1000 event in Madrid, Verdasco defeated Nadal in", "Verdasco was playing with significant pain in 2012, starting before the US Open. In 2013, he was healthy again and achieved significantly better results. He reached the third round of the 2013 Australian Open, falling to Kevin Anderson, and of the Masters 1000 in Madrid, succumbing to Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Unseeded at the French Open, he lost in the second round to Janko Tipsarević in five sets. Also unseeded at Wimbledon, Verdasco progressed to the quarterfinals where he met tournament favourite Andy Murray. Verdasco", "At the 2014 Indian Wells Masters, Verdasco defeated eight-seeded Richard Gasquet to reach quarterfinals, where he lost to John Isner. The Spaniard won his sixth career title at the 2014 U.S. Men's", "Verdasco began the year at the 2015 Qatar ExxonMobil Open defeating Teymuraz Gabashvili in the first round before losing to eventual champion David Ferrer in straight sets. Verdasco then participated in the 2015 AAMI Classic exhibition tournament where he defeated Gilles Simon in straight sets. He then won the title for the second time by defeating Aleksandr Dolgopolov, Jr. in the final after Dolgopolov retired citing a knee injury. At the Australian Open, Verdasco defeated James Ward and Go Soeda and then lost to eventual champion Novak Djokovic in straight sets despite serving for the first set during the tiebreaker. At the Dubai Championships, he reached the second round to face the eventual champion Roger Federer", "At the Australian Open, Verdasco defeated world No. 5, 2009 champion and compatriot Rafael Nadal in the first round in five sets, thus marking just his", "In singles, Verdasco began the year in 42nd place, played in 25 tournaments, won 29 matches and lost 25. Among these wins, 11 were against players ranked higher than him, including 2 wins against top 10 players Dominic Thiem (6th) and Alexander Zverev (10th) while 9 of his losses were against lower ranked players. He ended his year in 34th place, having reached as high as 29th in March and as low as 43rd in August. He reached 1 final in Dubai, an ATP 500 event, where he lost to first seeded Andy Murray in straight sets. He reached 3 semifinals in Doha, Stockholm, and Båstad: In the semifinal of Doha, against second seeded and defending champion Novak Djokovic, Verdasco won the first set 6–4, and at 4–4 in the second set had 3", "Verdasco is an offensive baseliner who is comfortable on all surfaces, with fast hard courts being his best. Verdasco is good at backhand but considers his best shot to be his forehand, a shot that commentator Brad Gilbert often refers to as his \"Fearhand\". His serve is characteristic of a left-handed player predominantly using slice to create a lot of spin, and is capable of speeds exceeding 230 km/h. Verdasco", "Verdasco began playing tennis when he was four years old, practicing with his father on the two hard courts in the backyard of their family home. He stopped school at the age of 11, and his father took over his son's academic training. His parents own a restaurant in Madrid. He has two younger sisters. Verdasco was diagnosed with ADHD when he was a child, but did not receive treatment in order not to have problems with doping. Verdasco supports Real Madrid. Verdasco has often spoken of his love", "", "\"Current through" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Tennis career.", "1998: Top 150.", "1999: Top 70.", "2000: Top 25.", "2001.", "2002: First ATP title.", "2003: Top 20.", "2004: French Open title & top 10.", "2005: Top 5.", "2006: 250 career wins.", "2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "2010." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Gaudio learned the game at the Temperley Lawn Tennis Club, and his first coach was Roberto Carruthers. He was the youngest of 3 children in his family. In addition to tennis Gaudio played football and rugby as a child and chose tennis to help out his parents financially when their business ran into economic problems.", "Gaudio started playing tennis at the age of six. He finished as No. 2 in Argentine juniors in 1996 and turned professional the same year.", "In 1998 he reached four ATP Challenger finals during the second half of the year and won three of them. He won in Elche with a victory over fellow Argentine Diego Hipperdinger in July. He lost in Belo Horizonte to Brazilian Francisco Costa, and won in Santa Cruz with a victory over Ecuadorian Luis Morejón, both in August. He finished the year by winning in Santiago defeating Karim Alami and ranked world No. 138.", "Gaudio won two consecutive Challengers in Nice and Espinho defeating Jacobo Díaz and Markus Hipfl, respectively. Gaudio's first notable performance was when he reached the third round at the French Open as a qualifier, so he won five matches total at the event, including coming back from two sets to love down in the second round against Bernd Karbacher to win, 6–7, 4–6, 6–3, 6–1, 6–4, then losing to world No. 6 Àlex Corretja. He finished the year ranked No. 73.", "2000 saw Gaudio establish himself on the main tour and win his only Challenger of the year in Braunschweig over countryman Franco Squillari, 6–4, 6–7, 6–4. In addition to his Challenger title, Gaudio made the semifinals in Auckland, Santiago and, in his most impressive performance of the season, the Monte Carlo Masters, where he defeated Marat Safin, Félix Mantilla, Julien Boutter, and Juan Carlos Ferrero without dropping a set, before losing to Slovakia's Dominik Hrbatý in a tough three-set match, 4–6, 7–5, 6–2. Gaudio also made the final of Stuttgart, again playing against fellow-Argentine Franco Squillari. Gaudio lost the final, 2–6, 6–3, 6–4, 4–6, 2–6, despite having beaten his opponent soundly in the Gstaad quarterfinals and in the Braunschweig finals earlier in the year (both on clay) and leading Squillari 2 sets to 1 in Stuttgart. Gaudio also represented Argentina in his first Olympic Games, losing to Vladimir Voltchkov of Belarus, 6–7, 6–4, 1–6, in the first round. He finished the year ranked No. 34.", "Gaudio started his 2001 in poor fashion, losing his first four matches of the season to Vladimir Voltchkov, former French Open finalist Andrei Medvedev, three-time French Open winner Gustavo Kuerten, and, in his Davis Cup debut, Mexican Bruno Echagaray. Gaudio soon went back to his winning ways, however, reaching the final of Viña del Mar, losing to bitter rival and countryman Guillermo Coria, 6–4, 5–7, 2–6. Gaudio would avenge that defeat to Coria in a hard-fought victory in the quarterfinals of Buenos Aires, which involved both players making rude gestures and insulting each other regularly. After this victory, Gaudio lost in the semifinals to José Acasuso, 3–6, 6–7. In the American hard-court swing after the 2001 Australian Open, he made the quarterfinals of the Miami Masters, losing to 19th seed Jan-Michael Gambill, 6–3, 5–7, 4–6. Along the way, Gaudio dismantled fifth seed Russian Yevgeny Kafelnikov, 6–4, 6–1, and toughed out a three-set slugfest against future French Open winner and 12th seed Juan Carlos Ferrero, 6–0, 3–6, 6–3. Although he did not manage to win his first title in 2001, Gaudio had some success, making a final, a semifinal and four quarterfinals (one of them at the prestigious Miami Masters). In addition to this, he helped Argentina return to the World Group with a perfect 5–0 record in his singles matches, which were all played in Argentina on clay courts. The year was not great though; Gaudio lost a lot of early-round matches and an astounding 12 first-round matches, never making it past the first round of a Grand Slam. Because of his inability to win these early-round matches, Gaudio's ranking slipped from No. 34 at the beginning of the year to No. 48 at the end of 2001.", "Gaudio had a decent start to his 2002 campaign, making the third round of the Australian Open and the quarterfinals of Indian Wells Masters as well as the round of 16 at Miami Masters. Continuing on from his successful Davis Cup debut, in 2002 Gaudio defeated Ivo Karlović in the fifth match to secure a semifinal place for Argentina. Gaudio also won the first tournament of his career in Barcelona without dropping a set. Gaudio defeated world No. 1 and US Open champion Lleyton Hewitt in the semifinals, and then dismissed Spaniard and French Open winner of the same year Albert Costa, 6–4, 6–0, 6–2, in the final. Gaudio followed up his maiden title with another in Mallorca a week later. Gaudio made the fourth round of the French Open, losing to Juan Carlos Ferrero, 7–6, 1–6, 7–6, 2–6, 4–6, while leading 4–1 in the final set. After Roland Garros, Gaudio made the final in Gstaad and the semifinals in Kitzbühel, losing on both occasions to Àlex Corretja. In the Davis Cup semifinals against Russia, Gaudio was leading 5–1 in the fifth set against Yevgeny Kafelnikov and had a match point, which was overruled by umpire Jorge Dias in Kafelnikov's favour, who then went on to take the set 8–6 and the match. He finished the year ranked No. 21.", "There were no titles for Gaudio in 2003, but he was involved in two controversies, the first of them involved compatriot Guillermo Coria in the Hamburg Masters. They were part of an all-Argentine semifinal lineup, the others being David Nalbandian and Agustín Calleri. Gaudio and Coria played in one semifinal, and Coria won the first set and Gaudio the second. Coria took an injury timeout for cramps. After the timeout, Coria, after breaking serve at the change of ends beat his left breast while staring at his opponent, which Gaudio took as an insult. Coria proceeded to win the last set 6–0, and there was allegedly a confrontation after the match in the locker room. The other was the Davis Cup in the semifinals against Spain in Málaga, where the two top Argentine players Guillermo Coria and David Nalbandian were unavailable due to injury. An out-of-form Gaudio was called up along with Agustín Calleri, Mariano Zabaleta, and Lucas Arnold. Although Gaudio had a 4–0 singles record from the first round and quarterfinals coming into the semifinals, Spain won 3–2, with Gaudio Gaudio losing both of his singles matches. In the first rubber against Juan Carlos Ferrero, he lost 14 games in a row in a 4–6, 0–6, 0–6 defeat. In the fifth and deciding rubber against Carlos Moyà, he lost, 1–6, 4–6, 2–6, and was roundly criticized back in Argentina for these performances. \"When I returned to Buenos Aires after playing Davis Cup in Moscow and Málaga, you had the impression it was my fault and that hurt me,\" he said. He finished the year ranked No. 34.", "2004 started slowly for Gaudio, but he eventually reached the final in Barcelona, losing to Tommy Robredo in five sets, then posted two victories in the World Team Cup over Martin Verkerk and Lleyton Hewitt. Gaudio came into the French Open ranked 44th and was unseeded for the tournament. In the first round, he upset top-10 player and compatriot Guillermo Cañas over two days in five sets. Then he won another five-set match against Jiří Novák. Gaudio dropped only one more set en route to the final, as he defeated Thomas Enqvist, Igor Andreev, Lleyton Hewitt, and David Nalbandian to set up an unprecedented all-Argentine final with world No. 3, then-reigning \"King of Clay\", and pre-tournament favourite Guillermo Coria. In the final, Gaudio defeated Coria, 0–6, 3–6, 6–4, 6–1, 8–6. Gaudio became the first Argentine to win a Grand Slam since Guillermo Vilas in 1979, and the first man ever to win a Grand Slam after losing the first set 6–0. He became the fifth-lowest-ranked player to win a Grand Slam, the first man in the open era to win a Grand Slam having saved match points in the final, and, as of 2019, the most recent man in the Open Era to win a Grand Slam title after being two sets to love down in the championship match. Gaudio reached the top 10 in the ATP Entry rankings for the first time. Gaudio had achieved his childhood dream by winning at Roland Garros. He stated that his father, Norberto, who overcame a life-threatening illness, as the biggest inspiration for him. Gaudio would not reach another Grand Slam quarterfinal for the remainder of his career. Gaudio did not play Wimbledon and returned to the tour in July. He made 3 finals in 3 weeks: in Båstad losing to his friend Mariano Zabaleta, in Stuttgart losing to compatriot Guillermo Cañas in 5 sets, and in Kitzbühel losing to Nicolás Massú. He also made his first appearance at the Tennis Masters Cup, where he lost all 3 matches in the Round Robin stage. He finished the year ranked world No. 10. It was also a golden age in tennis for Argentina as an unprecedented 3 Argentine players finished in top 10 (Guillermo Coria finished No. 7, David Nalbandian finished No. 9).", "Gaudio consolidated his top-10 ranking in 2005, by winning five tournaments and his record of 42–8 on clay is second only to Nadal. He also reached his career-high ranking of No. 5 in April. Gaudio and Coria were at the centre of another dispute at the World Team Cup where Gaudio said, \"Let's be truthful, this isn't a team, because there's someone who makes decisions choosing the best for himself. I can understand that a player gets tired and decides to rest before Paris. I also did so on Tuesday against the Czechs but not in the most important match of all. Coria and I were the best team and if we were a real team this wouldn't have happened.\" He lost in the fourth round of Roland Garros to David Ferrer after leading 4–0 in the fifth set and losing six consecutive games. When leading in the fifth set, Gaudio said to Ferrer's coach at one point, \"Don't worry; I'm not going to win today.\" Gaudio also qualified again for the Tennis Masters Cup, where he made the semifinals, defeating Mariano Puerta and Fernando González, but losing to Nikolay Davydenko in the round-robin stage, before losing to Roger Federer, 0–6, 0–6, in the semifinals. He finished the year ranked world No. 10 for the second consecutive year. For the second consecutive year, 3 Argentines finished in the top 10 (Nalbandian finished No. 6, Coria finished No. 8).", "Gaudio was not able to keep up his level of play to the standards he set from mid-2004 to 2005. His best performances for 2006 included semifinals in Acapulco and the Monte Carlo Masters. He finished the year ranked at No. 34. Ranked in the top 10, Gaudio started 2006 off well at the French Open, where he lost in the fourth round in four sets to Russia's Nikolay Davydenko. Gaudio lost at the second round in Wimbledon to Irakli Labadze (a qualifier) and lost his 2006 US Open third-round match to Marc Gicquel.", "Gaudio started 2007 poorly and lost eight consecutive matches stretching back to 2006, before recording a victory over Luis Horna, who retired from the match with a strained hamstring. Gaudio followed up with a conventional win against Juan Pablo Guzmán, before losing to former world No. 1 Juan Carlos Ferrero in the quarterfinals of Acapulco. At the French Open, he won his first-round match against Marc Gicquel (he lost to him the previous year) in five sets. He was to face former world No. 1, Lleyton Hewitt, seeded 14th for the tournament, and won the first two sets, 6–4, 6–3. Despite the lead, however, Hewitt fought back and won the next three sets, thus the match. As a result, Gaudio's ranking dropped to No. 99. In late 2007, Gaudio's ATP ranking had fallen to No. 180. During the second part of the year, he started to play clay-court Challenger events in Europe to attempt to rebuild his career, but he suffered an ankle injury while playing in the Napoli Challenger.", "Gaudio only played two matches during the entire season. He came back in January 2008 at a Challenger event in Miami, Florida. He lost in the opening round, 0–6, 3–6, to Kei Nishikori. Later in the month, Gaudio continued his comeback attempt at the Movistar Open in Viña del Mar, Chile. Granted a wild card into the main draw of the tournament, Gaudio lost to Santiago Ventura, 0–6, 3–6, in the first round. He did not play another match for the remainder of the 2008 season. Gaudio finished the 2008 season unranked as a result of not winning a single match over a period of 12 months, causing his ranking points to fall to 0 by September 22, 2008.", "In January, Gaudio reached the quarterfinals of Iquique Challenger, where he retired without completing a single game. It was his first match played after a few days short of an entire year. In February 2009, he received a wild card into the main draw for the Buenos Aires tournament, an ATP World Tour 250 event in his home country. Gaudio lost to Daniel Gimeno Traver of Spain in the first round, 2–6, 6–4, 2–6. He received another wild card into the main draw in the Barcelona tournament, an ATP World Tour 500 event, where he won his first match on the world tour since the 2007 French Open by defeating Diego Junqueira of Argentina, 6–4, 3–6, 6–4, before losing his second-round match to Tommy Robredo, 6–7, 1–6. Gaudio won a tournament after almost four years at the Tunis Challenger. He beat Portuguese Frederico Gil, 6–2, 1–6, 6–3, in the final. Gaudio was awarded a wild card into the 2009 French Open, where he was beaten by Czech Radek Štěpánek in the first round, 3–6, 4–6, 1–6. In October, he made the final of the Buenos Aires Challenger, losing to training partner Horacio Zeballos. Gaudio finished the 2009 season ranked at No. 167.", "In an interview on the Argentine program Vertigo, Gaudio revealed that he had received psychiatric treatment for clinical depression during his time away from tennis. After a poor start in 2010, he won the San Remo Challenger, defeating countryman Martín Vassallo Argüello, 7–5, 6–0. In an unlikely turn of events, Gaudio returned to the French Open to play in the qualifying. He posted an impressive victory over American Lester Cook in the first round but was taken out by Thiago Alves in straight sets in his next match. Gaudio announced his retirement from tennis on 30 August 2011, although his last match played was in 2 August 2010 at the Kitzbühel Challenger where he lost in the first round, more than a year prior." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tennis career.", "1995–2005.", "2006–2007.", "2008.", "2009.", "Record against No. 1 players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kiefer was taken notice of as an outstanding junior. He won the Junior Australian Open, the US Open, and was a finalist and semifinalist at Wimbledon and the French Open finishing as the No. 2 junior behind Mariano Zabaleta when he was 18 in 1995. On 10 January 2000, he reached his second quarterfinal at the Australian Open and afterwards was ranked world No. 4, his highest position. Kiefer was known to have some tennis superstitions. He was sometimes seen tapping his racquet on the corners of the court after a point, and, when serving, frequently asked for the ball with which he had just won a point to re-use it for the next one.", "Kiefer became infamous for an incident on 25 January 2006, during the quarterfinals of the Australian Open. While facing Sébastien Grosjean late in the fifth set of a marathon match, Kiefer threw his racquet midpoint. Grosjean lost the point, hitting the ball into the net. Grosjean protested that the racquet distracted his shot. The umpire Carlos Bernardes said he did not believe the act was intentional and noted Grosjean had already hit the ball before the flying racquet could have had any effect on his shot. Grosjean eventually lost the fifth and final set to Kiefer. Kiefer went through to the semi-finals where he was defeated by the 2004 champion Roger Federer. Kiefer injured his wrist while playing at the 2006 French Open, and announced his return on 5 July 2007, having fallen to the 404th position on ATP. He announced that he was \"tired of waiting and anxious to start traveling again and to see his name on scoreboards\". Kiefer returned at the 2007 Gerry Weber Open, losing in the first round to eventual champion Tomáš Berdych. At Wimbledon, he made the third round after defeating No.30 seed Filippo Volandri and Fabrice Santoro, both in straight sets, before losing in 4 sets (3 of which were tiebreakers) to Novak Djoković. At Newport, however, he ended up losing in round 1. At Los Angeles, he reached the semifinals in only his 4th tournament since coming back from injury; he had to default against Radek Štěpánek, another player coming back from injury, because of an injury sustained during his quarter-final win. He also made an impressive showing at the 2007 Madrid Masters, where he beat number five seed Fernando González in the quarterfinals before losing in the semifinals to world number one Roger Federer 6–4, 6–4.", "His 2008 season did not start out well: he lost in the first round of the Australian Open to former world No.1 Juan Carlos Ferrero, first round of 2008 Indian Wells Masters to Dudi Sela, third round of 2008 Miami Masters to world No.2 Rafael Nadal, second round of 2008 Monte Carlo Masters to Philipp Kohlschreiber, first round of 2008 Rome Masters to Ferrero. His first notable result was the quarterfinals of the 2008 Hamburg Masters with victories over world No.10 Stanislas Wawrinka and world No.4 Nikolay Davydenko before losing to Andreas Seppi in three sets. He would lose in the third round of 2008 Wimbledon Championships to Nadal. During the 2008 Canada Masters, at age 31 and ranked No. 37, he made his first Masters final after 73 previous tries, previously finishing as a semifinalist at the 1999 and 2004 Canada Masters (lost to Thomas Johansson and Andy Roddick respectively) and 2007 Madrid Masters (lost to Federer). Along the way, he defeated Mardy Fish, 15th seed Mikhail Youzhny, fourth seed Nikolay Davydenko, seventh seed James Blake, and Gilles Simon; the win over Simon was especially notable because Simon had defeated world No. 1 Roger Federer in the second round. He lost to Nadal in the final in straight sets. Because of his run, he broke back into the top 20 at No. 19.", "In 2009, he represented Germany in the 2009 Hopman Cup with 19-year-old Sabine Lisicki. In the first match, he lost against Australia's Lleyton Hewitt, who had been six months inactive due to an injury. In the second singles match, Kiefer lost again, this time to USA's James Blake. Nevertheless, Kiefer won both of the doubles matches with Sabine Lisicki against both Australia and the United States. In the third singles match, Kiefer twisted his ankle against Slovakia's Dominik Hrbatý in the first set when Kiefer was up 3–1 and serving. This injury prevented him from participating in the 2009 Australian Open. He re-appeared in the 2009 Davis Cup match against Austria in which he won in the doubles match with Philipp Kohlschreiber against Julian Knowle and Alexander Peya in four sets. Kiefer also played a singles match, the fourth match, against Jürgen Melzer in which Kiefer won in straight sets and gave Germany the victory against Austria. Kiefer then participated in the 2009 BNP Paribas Open at Indian Wells in which he beat Bobby Reynolds in straight sets in the second round, but he then lost in the third round to Andy Roddick. In the 2009 Sony Ericsson Open in Miami, Kiefer beat \"the magician\" Fabrice Santoro in the second round. In the third round Kiefer was defeated by world No. 2 Roger Federer. At the 2009 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters, Kiefer lost in his first match against qualifier Andreas Beck. At the 2009 Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome, Kiefer lost again in his first match against Juan Mónaco in straight sets. In the 2009 BMW Open Kiefer was down against Ernests Gulbis 2–6, 0–2 but eventually won in three sets. Kiefer said after the match, \"Clay and me, we will never be the best of friends\". Kiefer suffered from back problems which eventually made him lose against Jérémy Chardy in the next round. At the 2009 Mutua Madrileña Madrid Open he lost against Tommy Robredo. Kiefer then played the 2009 ARAG World Team Cup, in which he played the doubles matches with Mischa Zverev. They won all of their matches, and Germany reached the final, but lost against Serbia. Despite Germany losing, Kiefer won the doubles match in the final against Viktor Troicki and doubles world No. 1 Nenad Zimonjić. Kiefer then participated at the 2009 French Open in which he beat qualifier Ilija Bozoljac in four sets. However, Kiefer lost in the second round against world No. 14 David Ferrer in five sets. Despite this loss, Kiefer claimed that he was proud that he had played up to a fifth set against one of the best tennis players of the world on clay, since clay is Kiefer's least favourite surface. The clay season had now ended, and the grass season started with Kiefer's participation in his favourite tournament, the 2009 Gerry Weber Open. In the first match, he thrashed Viktor Troicki, but retired in the second round against Jürgen Melzer when he was down 1–6 with a muscular strain in his abdomen which forced him to retire from singles and doubles, where he had reached the semifinals with Mischa Zverev. Kiefer participated in the Wimbledon as the 33rd seed but having not fully recovered from his abdomen injury. This was reflected in his match against Fabrice Santoro, where Kiefer lost in straight sets. Kiefer then played for Germany in the 2009 Davis Cup quarterfinals against Spain. He did so in the doubles match with Mischa Zverev against Spain's Fernando Verdasco and Feliciano López. Kiefer and Zverev lost the match. In the first round of the U.S Open, he beat Michaël Llodra in straight sets, but in the second round he lost to world No. 3 Rafael Nadal.", "Kiefer's match record against players who have been ranked world No. 1." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Impact.", "Applications.", "Instrument control.", "Composition.", "Use with computers.", "Standard files.", "Other applications.", "Devices.", "Connectors.", "Management devices.", "Interfaces.", "Controllers.", "Instruments.", "Synthesizers.", "Samplers.", "Drum machines.", "Workstations and hardware sequencers.", "Effects devices.", "Technical specifications.", "Messages.", "System Exclusive messages.", "Implementation chart.", "Electrical specifications.", "Extensions.", "General MIDI.", "GS, XG, and GM2.", "Tuning standard.", "Time code.", "Machine control.", "Show control.", "Timestamping.", "Sample dump standard.", "Downloadable sounds.", "MIDI Polyphonic Expression.", "Alternative hardware transports.", "USB and FireWire.", "XLR connectors.", "Serial parallel, and joystick port.", "mLAN.", "Ethernet and Internet.", "Wireless.", "TRS minijack.", "MIDI 2.0.", "MIDI Capability Inquiry.", "Universal MIDI Packet.", "New protocol.", "Data transfer formats." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the early 1980s, there was no standardized means of synchronizing electronic musical instruments manufactured by different companies. Manufacturers had their own proprietary standards to synchronize instruments, such as CV/gate and Digital Control Bus (DCB). Roland founder Ikutaro Kakehashi felt the lack of standardization was limiting the growth of the electronic music industry. In June 1981, he proposed developing a standard to Oberheim Electronics founder Tom Oberheim, who had developed his own proprietary interface, the Oberheim System. Kakehashi felt the Oberheim System was too cumbersome, and spoke to Sequential Circuits president Dave Smith about creating a simpler, cheaper alternative. While Smith discussed the concept with American companies, Kakehashi discussed it with Japanese companies Yamaha, Korg and Kawai. Representatives from all companies met to discuss the idea in October. Initially, only Sequential Circuits and the Japanese companies were interested.Using Roland's DCB as a basis, Smith and Sequential Circuits engineer Chet Wood devised a universal synthesizer interface to allow communication between equipment from different manufacturers. Smith and Wood proposed this standard in a paper, \"Universal Synthesizer Interface,\" at the Audio Engineering", "MIDI's appeal was originally limited to professional musicians and record producers who wanted to use electronic instruments in the production of popular music. The standard allowed different instruments to communicate with each other and with computers, and this spurred a rapid expansion of the sales and production of electronic instruments and music software. This interoperability allowed one device to be controlled from another, which reduced the amount of hardware musicians needed. MIDI's introduction coincided with the dawn of the personal computer era and the introduction of samplers and digital synthesizers. The creative", "", "MIDI was invented so that electronic or digital musical instruments could communicate with each other and so that one instrument can control another. For example, a MIDI-compatible sequencer can trigger beats produced by a drum sound module. Analog synthesizers that have no digital component and were built prior to MIDI's development can be retrofit with kits that convert MIDI messages into analog control voltages. When a note is played on a MIDI instrument, it generates a digital MIDI message that can be used to trigger a note on another instrument. The capability for remote control allows full-sized instruments to be replaced with smaller sound modules, and allows musicians to combine instruments to achieve a fuller sound,", "MIDI events can be sequenced with computer software, or in specialized hardware music workstations. Many digital audio workstations (DAWs) are specifically designed to work with MIDI as an integral component. MIDI piano rolls have been developed in many DAWs so that the recorded MIDI messages can be easily modified. These tools allow composers to audition and edit their work much more quickly and efficiently than did older solutions, such as multitrack recording. Because MIDI is a set of commands that create sound, MIDI sequences can be manipulated in", "The personal computer market stabilized at the same time that MIDI appeared, and computers became a viable option for music production. In 1983 computers started to play a role in mainstream music production. In the years immediately after the 1983 ratification of the MIDI specification, MIDI features were adapted to several early computer platforms. NEC's PC-88 and PC-98 began supporting MIDI as early as 1982. The Yamaha CX5M introduced MIDI support and sequencing in an MSX system in 1984. The spread of MIDI on personal computers was largely facilitated by Roland Corporation's MPU-401, released in 1984, as the first MIDI-equipped PC sound card, capable of MIDI sound processing and sequencing.", "The Standard MIDI File (SMF) is a file format that provides a standardized way for music sequences to be saved, transported, and opened in other systems. The standard was developed and is maintained by the MMA, and usually uses a codice_1 extension.The compact size of these files led to their widespread use in computers, mobile phone ringtones, webpage authoring and musical greeting cards. These files are intended for universal use and include such information as note values, timing and track names. Lyrics may be included as metadata, and can be displayed by karaoke machines. SMFs are created as an export format of software sequencers or hardware workstations. They organize MIDI messages into one or more parallel tracks, and timestamp the events so that they can be played back in sequence. A header contains the arrangement's track count, tempo and which of three SMF formats the file is in. A type 0 file contains the entire performance, merged onto a single track, while type 1 files may contain any number of tracks that are performed in synchrony. Type 2 files are rarely used and store multiple arrangements, with each arrangement having its", "MIDI has been adopted as a control protocol in a number of non-musical applications. MIDI Show Control uses MIDI commands to direct stage lighting systems and to trigger cued events in theatrical productions. VJs and turntablists use it to cue clips, and to synchronize equipment, and recording systems use it for synchronization and automation. Apple Motion allows control of animation parameters through MIDI. The 1987 first-person shooter game \"MIDI Maze\"", "", "The cables terminate in a 180° five-pin DIN connector. Standard applications use only three of the five conductors: a ground wire, and a balanced pair of conductors that carry a +5 volt signal. This connector configuration can only carry messages in one direction, so a second cable is necessary for two-way communication. Some proprietary applications, such as phantom-powered footswitch controllers, use the spare pins for direct current (DC) power transmission. Opto-isolators keep MIDI devices electrically separated from their connectors, which prevents the occurrence of ground loops and protects equipment from voltage spikes. There is no error detection capability in MIDI, so the maximum cable length is set at 15 meters (50 feet) to limit interference. Most devices do not copy messages from their input to their output port. A third type of port, the \"thru\" port, emits a copy of everything received at the input port, allowing data to be forwarded to another instrument in a \"daisy chain\" arrangement. Not all devices contain thru ports, and devices that lack the ability to generate MIDI data, such as effects units and sound modules, may not include out ports.", "Each device in a daisy chain adds delay to the system. This is avoided with a MIDI thru box, which contains several outputs that provide an exact copy of the box's input signal. A MIDI merger is able to combine the input from multiple devices into a single stream, and allows multiple controllers to be connected to a single device. A MIDI switcher allows switching between multiple devices, and eliminates the need to physically repatch cables. MIDI patch bays combine", "A computer MIDI interface's main function is to match clock speeds between the MIDI device and the computer. Some computer sound cards include a standard MIDI connector, whereas others connect by any of various means that include the D-subminiature DA-15 game port, USB, FireWire, Ethernet or a proprietary connection. The increasing use of USB connectors in the 2000s has led to the availability of MIDI-to-USB data interfaces that can transfer MIDI channels to USB-equipped computers. Some MIDI keyboard controllers are equipped with USB jacks, and can be plugged into computers that", "There are two types of MIDI controllers: performance controllers that generate notes and are used to perform music, and controllers that may not send notes, but transmit other types of real-time events. Many devices are some combination of the two types. Keyboards are by far the most common type of MIDI controller. MIDI was designed with keyboards in mind, and any controller that is not a keyboard is considered an \"alternative\" controller. This was seen as a limitation by composers who were not interested in keyboard-based music, but the standard proved flexible, and MIDI compatibility was introduced to other types of controllers, including guitars, stringed and wind instruments, drums and specialized and experimental controllers. Other controllers include drum controllers and wind controllers, which can emulate the playing of drum kit and wind instruments, respectively. Nevertheless,", "A MIDI instrument contains ports to send and receive MIDI signals, a CPU to process those signals, an interface that allows user programming, audio circuitry to generate sound, and controllers. The operating system and factory sounds are often stored in a Read-only memory (ROM) unit. A MIDI instrument can also be a stand-alone module (without a piano style keyboard) consisting of a General MIDI soundboard (GM, GS and XG), onboard editing, including transposing/pitch changes, MIDI instrument changes and adjusting volume, pan, reverb levels and other MIDI controllers. Typically, the MIDI Module includes a large screen, so the user can view information for the currently selected function. Features can include scrolling lyrics, usually embedded in a MIDI file or karaoke MIDI, playlists, song library and editing screens. Some MIDI Modules include a Harmonizer and the ability to playback and transpose MP3 audio files.", "Synthesizers may employ any of a variety of sound generation techniques. They may include an integrated keyboard, or may exist as \"sound modules\" or \"expanders\" that generate sounds when", "A sampler can record and digitize audio, store it in random-access memory (RAM), and play it back. Samplers typically allow a user to edit a sample and save it to a hard disk, apply effects to it, and shape it with the same tools that synthesizers use. They also may be available in either keyboard or", "Drum machines typically are sample playback devices that specialize in drum and percussion sounds. They commonly contain a sequencer that allows the creation of drum patterns, and allows", "Sequencer technology predates MIDI. Analog sequencers use CV/Gate signals to control pre-MIDI analog synthesizers. MIDI sequencers typically are operated by transport features modeled after those of tape decks. They are capable of recording MIDI performances, and arranging them into individual tracks along a multitrack recording concept. Music workstations combine controller keyboards with an internal sound generator and a sequencer. These can be used to build complete arrangements and play them back using their own internal sounds, and function as self-contained music production studios. They commonly include file storage and transfer capabilities.", "Some effects units can be remotely controlled via MIDI. For example,", "MIDI messages are made up of 8-bit \"words\" (commonly called \"bytes\") that are transmitted serially at a rate of 31.25 kbit/s. This rate was chosen because it is an exact division of 1 MHz, the operational speed of many early microprocessors. The first bit of each word identifies whether the word is a status byte or a data byte, and is followed by seven bits of information. A start bit and a stop bit are added to each byte for framing purposes, so a MIDI byte requires ten bits for transmission. A MIDI link can carry sixteen independent channels of information. The channels are numbered 1–16, but their actual corresponding binary encoding is 0–15. A device can be configured to only listen to specific channels and to ignore the messages sent on other channels (\"Omni Off\" mode), or it can listen to all channels, effectively ignoring the channel address (\"Omni On\"). An individual device may be monophonic (the start of a new \"note-on\" MIDI command implies the termination of the previous note), or polyphonic (multiple notes may be sounding at once, until the polyphony limit of the instrument is reached, or the notes reach the end of their decay envelope, or explicit \"note-off\" MIDI commands are received). Receiving devices can typically be set to all four combinations of \"omni off/on\" versus \"mono/poly\" modes.", "A MIDI message is an instruction that controls some aspect of the receiving device. A MIDI message consists of a status byte, which indicates the type of the message, followed by up to two data bytes that contain the parameters. MIDI messages can be \"channel messages\" sent on only one of the 16 channels and monitored only by devices on that channel, or \"system messages\" that all devices receive. Each receiving device ignores data not relevant to its function. There are", "System Exclusive (SysEx) messages are a major reason for the flexibility and longevity of the MIDI standard. Manufacturers use them to create proprietary messages that control their equipment more thoroughly than standard MIDI messages could. SysEx messages are addressed to a specific device in a system. Each manufacturer has", "Devices typically do not respond to every type of message defined by the MIDI specification. The MIDI implementation chart was standardized by the MMA as a way for users to see what specific capabilities an instrument has, and how it responds to messages. A specific MIDI Implementation Chart is usually published for each MIDI device within the device documentation.", "The MIDI 1.0 specification for the electrical interface is based on a fully isolated current loop. The MIDI out port nominally sources a +5 volt source through a 220 ohm resistor out through pin 4 on the MIDI out DIN connector, in on pin 4 of the receiving device's MIDI in DIN connector, through a 220 ohm protection resistor and the LED of an opto-isolator. The current then returns via pin 5 on the MIDI in port to the originating device's MIDI out port pin 5, again with a 220 ohm resistor in the path, giving a nominal current of about 5", "MIDI's flexibility and widespread adoption have led to many refinements of the standard, and have enabled its application to purposes beyond those for which it was originally intended.", "MIDI allows selection of an instrument's sounds through program change messages, but there is no guarantee that any two instruments have the same sound at a given program location. Program #0 may be a piano on one instrument, or a flute on another. The General MIDI (GM) standard was established in 1991, and provides a standardized sound bank that allows a Standard MIDI File created on one device to sound similar when played back on another. GM specifies a bank of 128 sounds arranged into 16 families of eight related instruments, and assigns a specific program number to each instrument. Percussion instruments are placed on channel 10, and a specific MIDI note value is mapped to each percussion sound. GM-compliant", "A general opinion quickly formed that the GM's 128-instrument sound set was not large enough. Roland's General Standard, or GS, system included additional sounds, drumkits and effects, provided a \"bank select\" command that could be used to access them, and used MIDI Non-Registered Parameter Numbers (NRPNs) to access its new features. Yamaha's Extended General MIDI, or XG, followed in 1994. XG similarly offered extra sounds, drumkits and effects, but used standard controllers instead of NRPNs for editing, and increased polyphony", "Most MIDI synthesizers use equal temperament tuning. The MIDI tuning standard (MTS), ratified in 1992, allows alternate tunings. MTS allows microtunings that can be", "A sequencer can drive a MIDI system with its internal clock, but when a system contains multiple sequencers, they must synchronize to a common clock. MIDI Time Code (MTC), developed by Digidesign, implements SysEx messages that have been developed specifically for timing purposes, and", "MIDI Machine Control (MMC) consists of a set of SysEx commands that operate the transport controls of hardware recording devices. MMC lets a sequencer send \"Start\", \"Stop\", and", "MIDI Show Control (MSC) is a set of SysEx commands for sequencing and remotely cueing show control", "One solution to MIDI timing problems is to mark MIDI events with the times they are to be played, and store them in a buffer in the MIDI interface ahead of time. Sending data beforehand reduces the likelihood that a busy passage can send a large amount of information that overwhelms the transmission link. Once stored in the", "An unforeseen capability of SysEx messages was their use for transporting audio samples between instruments. This led to the development of the sample dump standard", "The Downloadable Sounds (DLS) specification, ratified in 1997, allows mobile devices and computer sound cards to expand their wave tables with downloadable", "MIDI Polyphonic Expression (MPE) is a method of using MIDI that enables pitch bend, and other dimensions of expressive control, to be adjusted continuously for individual notes. MPE works by assigning each note to its own MIDI channel so that particular messages can be applied to each note individually. The specifications", "In addition to the original 31.25 kbit/s current-loop transported on 5-pin DIN, other connectors have been used for the same electrical data, and transmission of MIDI streams in different forms over USB, IEEE 1394 a.k.a. FireWire, and Ethernet is now common. Some samplers and hard drive recorders can also pass MIDI data between each other over SCSI.", "Members of the USB-IF in 1999 developed a standard for MIDI over USB, the \"Universal Serial Bus Device Class Definition for MIDI Devices\" MIDI over USB has become increasingly common as other interfaces that had been used for MIDI connections (serial, joystick, etc.) disappeared from personal computers. Linux, Microsoft Windows, Macintosh OS X, and Apple iOS operating systems include standard class drivers to support devices that use the \"Universal", "The Octave-Plateau Voyetra-8 synthesizer was an early MIDI implementation using XLR3 connectors in place of the 5-pin DIN. It was released in the pre-MIDI years and later retrofitted with a MIDI interface but keeping its XLR connector.", "As computer-based studio setups became common, MIDI devices that could connect directly to a computer became available. These typically used the 8-pin mini-DIN connector that was used by Apple for serial and printer ports prior to the introduction of the Blue & White G3 models. MIDI interfaces intended for use as the", "Yamaha introduced the mLAN protocol in 1999. It was conceived as a Local Area Network for musical instruments using FireWire as the transport, and was designed to carry multiple MIDI channels together with multichannel digital audio, data file transfers, and time code. mLan was used in a number of Yamaha products, notably digital mixing consoles and the Motif synthesizer, and in third-party products such as the PreSonus FIREstation and the Korg Triton Studio. No new mLan products have been released since 2007.", "Computer network implementations of MIDI provide network routing capabilities, and the high-bandwidth channel that earlier alternatives to MIDI, such as ZIPI, were intended to bring. Proprietary implementations have existed since the 1980s,", "Systems for wireless MIDI transmission have been available since the 1980s. Several commercially available transmitters allow wireless transmission of MIDI and OSC signals over Wi-Fi and Bluetooth. iOS devices are", "Some devices use standard 3.5 mm TRS audio minijack connectors for MIDI data, including the Korg Electribe 2 and the Arturia Beatstep Pro. Both come with adaptors that", "The MIDI 2.0 standard was presented on 17 January 2020 at the Winter NAMM Show in Anaheim, California at a session titled \"Strategic Overview and Introduction to MIDI 2.0\" by representatives Yamaha, Roli, Microsoft, Google, and the MIDI Association. This significant update adds bidirectional communication while maintaining backwards compatibility. The new protocol has been researched since 2005. Prototype devices have been shown privately at NAMM using wired and wireless connections and licensing and product certification policies have been developed, however no projected release date was announced. Proposed physical layer and transport layer included Ethernet-based protocols such as RTP MIDI and Audio Video Bridging/Time-Sensitive Networking, as well as User Datagram Protocol (UDP)-based transport. AMEI and MMA announced that complete specifications will be published following interoperability testing of prototype implementations from major manufacturers such as Google, Yamaha, Steinberg, Roland, Ableton, Native Instruments, and ROLI, among others. In January 2020, Roland announced the A-88mkII controller keyboard that supports MIDI 2.0. MIDI 2.0 includes MIDI Capability Inquiry specification for property exchange and profiles, and the new Universal MIDI Packet format for high-speed transports which supports both MIDI 1.0 and MIDI 2.0 voice messages.", "MIDI Capability Inquiry (MIDI-CI) specifies Universal SysEx messages to implement device profiles, parameter exchange, and MIDI protocol negotiation. The specifications were released in November 2017 by AMEI and in January 2018 by the MMA. Parameter exchange defines methods to inquiry device capabilities, such as supported controllers,", "MIDI 2.0 defines a new Universal MIDI Packet format, which contains messages of varying length (32, 64, 96 or 128 bits) depending on the payload type. This new packet format supports a total of 256 MIDI channels, organized in 16 groups of 16 channels; each group can carry either a MIDI 1.0", "As of January 2019, the draft specification of the new protocol supports all core messages that also exist in MIDI 1.0, but extends their precision and resolution; it also", "System Exclusive 8 messages use a new 8-bit data format, based on Universal System Exclusive" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Prelude.", "Opposing forces.", "Air raids.", "First raid.", "Second raid.", "Aftermath.", "Consequences.", "Casualties and damage.", "Myths and inaccuracies.", "Further Japanese raids.", "Commemoration and depictions in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1942, Darwin – whilst it was the capital of the Northern Territory – was a small town with limited civil and military infrastructure. Due to its strategic position in northern Australia, the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) had constructed bases near the town in the 1930s and the early years of World War II. Darwin's pre-war population was 5,800. As early as August 1941, Darwin had been a key in the South Pacific air ferry route designed to avoid routes through the Japanese mandate in the central Pacific for bomber reinforcement of the Philippines. The first flight to use the route occurred when nine B-17D bombers of the 14th Bombardment Squadron (H) left Hawaii on 5 September and passed through Darwin 10–12 September. By October 1941 plans were underway to position fuel and supplies with two ships, including, being chartered and actively engaged in that purpose when war came. By November 1941 Australia had agreed to allow the establishment of training bases, maintenance facilities, munitions storage, communications, and improvement of airfields, including at Darwin, to meet the needs of the B-17 bombers in Australia. Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in early December 1941, Darwin's defences were strengthened. In line with plans developed before the war, several Australian Army and RAAF units stationed in the town were sent to the Netherlands East Indies (Dutch East Indies; NEI) to strengthen the defences of the islands of Ambon and Timor. An improvised plan for support of the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies was completed in Washington on 20 December 1941 by the U.S. Army General Staff. It envisioned Darwin as the hub of transshipment efforts to supply those forces by landing supplies at Brisbane, shipping overland to Darwin, and onward by air and blockade-running ships. In reality, transport to Darwin by sea was necessary. Supplies and shipping intended both to build the Darwin base and to support the Java and Philippine forces were gathered in Darwin and the vicinity. In the two months before the air raids, all but 2,000 civilians were evacuated from the town. Japanese submarines I-121 and I-123 laid mines off Darwin in January 1942. By mid-February 1942 Darwin had become an important Allied base for the defence of the NEI. The Japanese had captured Ambon, Borneo, and Celebes between December 1941 and early-February 1942. Landings on Timor were scheduled for 20 February, and an invasion of Java was planned to take place shortly afterwards. In order to protect these landings from Allied interference, the Japanese military command decided to conduct a major air raid on Darwin. On 10 February a Japanese reconnaissance aircraft overflew the town, and identified an aircraft carrier (actually the seaplane tender ), five destroyers, and 21 merchant ships in Darwin Harbour, as well as 30 aircraft at the town's two airfields. Among the ships in harbour were those returned the morning before the attack from the convoy escorted by involved in the failed effort to reinforce Timor. \"Houston\" had departed for Java but left \"Mauna Loa\" and the \"Meigs\" which had attempted to transport Australian troops to Timor and the U.S. Army transports \"Portmar\" and \"Tulagi\" which had embarked a U.S. infantry regiment at Darwin.", "", "Despite Darwin's strategic importance to the defence of Australia, the city was poorly defended. The Australian Army's anti-aircraft defences comprised sixteen QF 3.7-inch AA guns and two 3-inch AA guns to counter aircraft flying at high altitude and a small number of Lewis Guns for use against low-flying raiders. The crews of these guns had conducted little recent training due to ammunition shortages. The air forces stationed in and near the town comprised No. 12 Squadron, which was equipped with CAC Wirraway advanced trainers (which had been pressed into service as fighters), and No. 13 Squadron which operated Lockheed Hudson light bombers. Six Hudsons, 3 from No. 2 Squadron and 3 from No. 13 Squadron also arrived at Darwin on 19 February after having been evacuated from Timor. None of the six Wirraways at Darwin on the day of the raid were serviceable. At the time of the event, there were no radars functioning to provide early warning of air raids, and the town's civil defences were dysfunctional. The Lowe Commission, which was appointed to investigate the raids shortly after they occurred, was informed that the Australian military estimated that Darwin would have needed 36 heavy anti-aircraft guns and 250 fighter aircraft to defend it against a raid of the scale which occurred on 19 February. In addition to the Australian forces, ten United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Curtiss P-40 Warhawks were passing through Darwin en route to Java on the day of the attack. The P-40 pilots were in the main little experienced in combat. A total of 65 Allied warships and merchant vessels were in Darwin harbour at the time of the raids. The warships included the United States Navy (USN) destroyer and seaplane tender. The RAN ships in port were the sloops and, corvettes and, auxiliary minesweepers and, patrol boat \"Coongoola\", depot ship, examination vessel, lugger, and four boom-net ships. Several USN and Australian troop ships were in the harbour along with a number of merchant vessels of varying sizes. Most of the ships in the harbour were anchored near each other, making them an easy target for air attack. Moreover, no plans had been prepared for how the ships should respond to an air raid. In addition to the vessels in port, the American Army supply ships \"Don Isidro\" and \"Florence D.\", former Philippine vessels acquired as part of the South West Pacific Area command's permanent Army fleet earlier in February, were near Bathurst Island bound for the Philippines on the morning of the raid. Darwin was attacked by aircraft flying from aircraft carriers and land bases in the NEI. The main force involved in the raid was the 1st Carrier Air Fleet which was commanded by Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo. This force comprised the aircraft carriers,,, and and a powerful force of escorting surface ships. All four carriers had participated in the attack on Pearl Harbor at the start of the Pacific War. In addition to the carrier-based aircraft, 54 land-based bombers also struck Darwin in a high-level bombing raid nearly two hours after the first one struck at 0956. These comprised 27 G3M \"Nell\" bombers flying from Ambon and another 27 G4M \"Betty\" bombers operating from Kendari in Celebes.", "", "The four Japanese aircraft carriers launched 188 aircraft on the morning of 19 February. The main objective of their crews was attacking ships and port facilities in Darwin Harbour. Their aircraft comprised 81 Nakajima B5N (\"Kate\") light bombers, 71 Aichi D3A (\"Val\") dive bombers, and an escort of 36 Mitsubishi A6M (\"Zero\") fighters. While the B5N was a purpose-built torpedo bomber, it could instead carry up to of bombs and there is no evidence of torpedoes being used on this occasion; the D3A could carry up to of bombs. All of these aircraft were launched by 8.45 am. This wave was led by Commander Mitsuo Fuchida, who had also commanded the first wave of attackers during the raid on Pearl Harbor. On their way to Darwin, Zeros shot down a US Navy PBY Catalina and strafed a USAAF C-47 Skytrain on the ground, near Melville Island. At 9.35 am Father McGrath of the Sacred Heart mission on Bathurst Island, who was also an Australian coastwatcher, sent a message using a pedal radio to the Amalgamated Wireless Postal Radio Station at Darwin that a large number of aircraft were flying overhead and proceeding southward. The message was then relayed to the Royal Australian Air Force Operations at 9.37 am. No general alarm was given until about 10 am as the RAAF officers there wrongly judged that the aircraft which had been sighted were the ten USAAF P-40s, which were returning to Darwin at the time after reports of bad weather forced them to abort a flight to Java via Kupang, West Timor. As a result, the air raid sirens at Darwin were not sounded before the raid. Flying escort in a Zero fighter, Petty Officer Yoshikazu Nagahama was separated from his squadron while he was attacking the PBY flying boat and arrived over the city alone ahead of the strike force, which was making a turn to attack from the south. He engaged five US Army Air Force P-40 Warhawk fighters and single-handedly shot down four of them. The Japanese raiders began to arrive over Darwin at 9:58 am. HMAS \"Gunbar\" was the first ship to be attacked, being strafed by several Zero fighters. At about this time, the town's air raid sirens were belatedly sounded. The Japanese bombers then conducted dive bombing and level bombing attacks on the ships in Darwin Harbour. These attacks lasted for 30 minutes, and resulted in the sinking of three warships and six merchant vessels, and damage to another ten ships. The ships sunk were the USS \"Peary\", HMAS \"Mavie\",, (which exploded while docked at Darwin's main wharf),,,. The oil tanker \"Karalee\" and the coal storage hulk \"Kelat\" sank later. At least 21 labourers working on the wharf were killed when it was bombed. All but one of the P-40s was shot down or destroyed on the ground at RAAF Darwin. Japanese aircraft bombed and strafed the base and civil airfield, as well as the town's army barracks and oil store. All of these facilities were seriously damaged. The bombers began to leave the Darwin area at about 10:10. On their way back to the carriers, their crews noted two Philippine-registered freighters lying just outside the port:\"Florence D.\" and \"Don Isidro\". This information contributed to planning for the second raid that afternoon (which sank both vessels). Japanese losses may have been as few as five aircraft and three crew. However, another 34 Japanese aircraft landed safely with battle damage. Warrant Officer Katsuyoshi Tsuru and First Petty Officer (1st class) Takezo Uchikado were killed when their Aichi dive bomber (bu. no. \"3304\"; tail no. AII-254) crashed near RAAF Darwin. Sergeant Hajime Toyoshima (a.k.a. Tadao Minami) was taken prisoner after crash-landing his damaged Zero (bu. no. b. n.\"5349\"; tail no. BII-124) on Melville Island. Those who ditched near the Japanese fleet and were rescued included Flyer 1st class Yoshio Egawa and the Aichi crew of Flyer 1st class Takeshi Yamada and Flyer 1st class Kinji Funazaki. In 2013, a reference was discovered in Japanese records to a Nakajima torpedo bomber suffering wheel damage from a \"gunshot\" and both crew (names unknown) being rescued after ditching (by the destroyer \"Tanikaze\"). Allied ground fire was relatively intense and may have claimed all but two of the Japanese aircraft lost. Only one of the USAAF P-40 pilots remained airborne throughout the first attack, 1st Lieutenant Robert Oestreicher, who has also been credited by US and Japanese sources with one Aichi shot down and one damaged. Toyoshima's Zero is considered to have been brought down by small arms fire from Sappers Tom Lamb and Len O'Shea of the 19th Battalion. Most aviation historians consider that Tsuru and Uchikado's Aichi was brought down by ground fire, possibly from a major Australian Army camp at Winnellie. Egawa reported that the damage to his Zero came from hitting a tree at Darwin.", "The second wave, made up of 54 land-based medium bombers (27 Mitsubishi G3M and 27 Mitsubishi G4M) arrived over Darwin just before midday. The town's air raid sirens were sounded at 11:58 am when the bombers were sighted. The Japanese force separated into two groups flying at. One of these formations attacked RAAF Base Darwin from the south-west while the other approached from the north-east. The two formations arrived over the base at the same time, and dropped their bombs simultaneously. The Japanese bombers then turned, and made a second attack on the base. Due to defective fuses, the Australian heavy anti-aircraft flak gunners were unable to shoot down or damage any of the high-flying Japanese aircraft. The bombers left the Darwin area at about 12:20 pm. This raid inflicted extensive damage on the RAAF base, though casualties were light. Of the RAAF aircraft at the base, six Hudson light bombers were destroyed and another Hudson and a Wirraway were badly damaged. Two American P-40s and a B-24 Liberator bomber were also destroyed. Six RAAF personnel were killed. Lewis and Ingman list 30 aircraft destroyed. The Japanese carrier force launched a small number of D3A dive bombers during the afternoon of 19 February to attack the \"Florence D.\" and \"Don Isidro\". \"Don Isidro\" was the first of these two ships to be attacked, and was rapidly sunk north of Melville Island. Eleven of her 84-strong crew were killed. The dive bombers also attacked \"Florence D.\" and sank her off Bathurst Island with the loss of four crewmen. All of the survivors from \"Don Isidro\" were rescued by the corvette on 20 February. Some of \"Florence D.\"s survivors landed on Bathurst and Melville Islands while the remainder were rescued by \"Warrnambool\" on 23 February. Among the survivors of \"Florence D.\" were the rescued crew of a U.S. Navy PBY piloted by then Lt Thomas H. Moorer (later to become Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff). \"Admiral Halstead\", strafed and with plates damaged by near misses, was brought to the pier where U.S. Army volunteers along with survivors of the U.S. and Philippine vessels helped unload her 14,000 drums of aviation gasoline.", "", "Of major military consequence was the loss of most of the cargo shipping available to support efforts in Java and the Philippines with Java being effectively sealed off from further surface shipments from Australia. The air raids caused chaos in Darwin, with most essential services including water and electricity being badly damaged or destroyed. Fears of an imminent invasion spread and there was a wave of refugees, as some of the town's civilian population fled inland. There were reports of looting, with Provost Marshals being among the accused. According to official figures, 278 personnel belonging to RAAF North-Western Area Command (NWA) were considered to have deserted as a result of the raids, although it has been argued that the \"desertions\" were mostly the result of ambiguous orders given to RAAF ground staff after the attacks. In the words of journalist Douglas Lockwood, after the second Japanese air raid, the commander of RAAF Darwin, Wing Commander Stuart Griffith While the NWA staff could see what was happening and issued countermanding orders \"the damage was done and hundreds of men were already beyond recall\". The Australian Army also faced difficulty controlling some of its own troops from looting private property, including \"furniture, refrigerators, stoves, pianos, clothes[,] [and] even children's toys\" due to the breakdown of law and order after the bombing and the ensuing chaos. Many civilian refugees never returned, or did not return for many years, and in the post-war years some land they owned in Darwin had been expropriated by government bodies in their absence, made legal by the \"Darwin Lands Acquisition Act 1945\". The bombing of Darwin resulted in the destruction of 7 of the 11 above ground storage tanks, located on Stokes Hill, in raids on 19 February 16 March and 16 June 1942. This led to the construction of underground oil storage tunnels in Darwin in 1943.", "The number of people killed during 19 February raids is disputed. The Lowe Commission, which investigated them in March 1942, estimated 243 victims but, assuming a few were unidentified, concluded \"I am satisfied that the number is approximately 250 and I doubt whether any further investigation will result in ascertaining a more precise figure.\" Some researchers and government officials, including John Bradford (author of \"In the Highest Traditions – RAN Heroism Darwin 19 February 1942\"), Dr. Peter Stanley (the Australian War Memorial's Principal Historian and author of several books about Australian military history), Tom Womack (author of \"The Dutch Naval Air Force against Japan\"), Paul Rosenzweig (author of \"Darwin 1942: a reassessment of the first raid casualties\"), and Rear Admiral Kevin Scarce (governor of South Australia) have said there were 250–262 fatalities. However, a plaque unveiled in Darwin in 2001 gave the total as 292. The plaque indicated 10 sailors had been killed aboard the USS \"William B. Preston\" but the US Navy said there were 13 fatalities and Peter Grose, author of \"An Awkward Truth\", said fifteen – he wrote: \"With the William B. Preston total corrected to 15, a figure of 297 known dead is the best count anyone is likely to achieve...the full death toll is likely to be a little over 300, perhaps as many as 310 or 320.\" Lewis and Ingman have revised that to 14 in their 2013 book \"Carrier Attack\". In 2000, Darwin historian Peter Forrest, who spoke to survivors and researched the attacks for an unpublished book, said (as paraphrased by a journalist), \"the first Japanese air raids on Darwin probably killed more than double the official figure of 243\", but by 2002 had lowered his estimate to \"anything up to double that 243\". Other estimates put the toll far higher: one soldier who was there claimed to have seen barges filled with bodies towed out to sea, a member of one of the burial teams recounted seeing uncounted bodies \"shoved in a large hole dug by a bulldozer\" (paraphrased), according to some sources, former Darwin Mayor (1921–1922) Jack Burton estimated 900 people were killed; Harry Macredie, who helped rescue survivors and recover bodies in the harbour said, \"we definitely estimate over 1,000\", Rex Ruwoldt, one of the soldiers attacked that day, says that a few days after the raid he was told over the field telephone that Army Intelligence estimated 1,100 were killed. According to an AP article about the 50th anniversary of the attacks \"some estimates say as many as 1,000 died\". Bradford and Forrest said they spoke to survivors who estimated as many as 1,500 people died. Stanley, Grose, Rosenzweig, and Tom Lewis rejected such numbers. The former said \"it was certainly not the 1,024 claimed recently in unsubstantiated reports\" and Grose wrote \"numbers such as 1,100 are fancifully high\". By contrast, there is less dispute over the number of injured during the attacks. The Lowe Commission estimated \"between 300 and 400\" people were wounded. Lewis said the number was over 400, about 200 of which were seriously injured. Womack wrote that 311 were wounded. Australian military historian Chris Coulthard-Clark put the total between 250 and 320. Grose wrote: \"if 900 or 1100 died, why were the numbers of injured so low? The count of the injured is more accurate, because they were treated in hospital or shipped out aboard the Manunda [a hospital ship]. The hospitals and Manunda noted names and numbers of those they treated.\"", "The Japanese raid was unlike the attack on Pearl Harbor in that it was launched against a nation that had already declared war on Japan (on 8 December 1941). It was similar in that it was a successful aerial surprise attack on a naval target that came as a great shock to the attacked nation. While the number of bombs dropped on Darwin (681 bombs weighing by 205 bombers) exceeded those dropped on Pearl Harbor (457 bombs [including 40 torpedoes]) weighing by 273), loss of life was much greater at Pearl Harbor (more than 2,400 people) than Darwin (236 people) due to the presence of capital ships and the catastrophic loss of a single battleship, the USS \"Arizona\", and its 1,177 men. A frequently repeated myth is that the Australian government downplayed the damage from the bombing raids on Darwin, in a \"cover-up\". The newspapers of the day disprove this claim. On the day of the attack the Prime Minister is quoted on the front pages of most newspapers: \"Damage to property was considerable\", he said, \"but reports so far to hand do not give precise particulars about the loss of life.\" \"The Government regards the attacks as most grave, and makes it quite clear that a severe blow has been struck on Australian soil.\"", "After the 19 February 1942 Japanese raid, the Northern Territory and parts of Western Australia's north were bombed approximately 100 times between 4 March 1942 and 12 November 1943. One of the heaviest attacks took place on 16 June 1942 when a Japanese force set fire to the oil fuel tanks around the harbour and inflicted severe damage to the vacant banks, stores and railway yards. The Allied navies largely abandoned the naval base at Darwin after the initial 19 February attack, dispersing most of their forces to Brisbane, Fremantle, and other, smaller, seaports. Conversely, Allied air commanders launched a build-up in the Darwin area, building more airfields and deploying many squadrons. The four IJN aircraft carriers (\"Akagi\", \"Kaga\", \"Hiryū\", and \"Sōryū\") that participated in the Bombing of Darwin were later sunk during the Battle of Midway in June 1942.", "A memorial ceremony has been held every year since at least 2009. On 19 February at the Cenotaph in Darwin, at 9:58 am, a World War II Air Raid Siren sounds to mark the precise time of the first attack. A fictionalised version of the raid features prominently in the 2008 film \"Australia\". Prior to this, much of the rest of the country had been unaware that Australia had ever been attacked. Indigenous people of the Tiwi Islands have always commemorated the bombings through dance from the 1940s up to the current day." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career overview.", "Juniors.", "Pro tour.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After having lost in the early rounds of the 1988 Jr French Open and 1988 Jr US Open, Santoro won the 1989 Jr French Open. He also had a semifinal appearance in the 1989 Jr US Open.", "When Santoro successfully defended his 2007 title by winning the 2008 Newport tournament at the age of 35, he became the oldest tennis player to win back-to-back championships at an ATP singles event. In addition, Santoro won what was, at the time, the longest singles match in the open era: at the 2004 French Open, he beat fellow Frenchman Arnaud Clément in a 6-hour 33 minute first-round match (6–4, 6–3, 6–7(5), 3–6, 16–14). The record stood until John Isner defeated Nicolas Mahut at Wimbledon in 2010, but still remains the French Open record. As a singles tennis player, the 2006 Australian Open was Santoro's only Grand Slam quarterfinal appearance. In singles play, Santoro defeated 18 players who were ranked world no. 1 at some time during their careers: Novak Djokovic, Jimmy Connors, Mats Wilander, Boris Becker, Stefan Edberg, Jim Courier, Andre Agassi, Pete Sampras, Thomas Muster, Marcelo Ríos, Gustavo Kuerten, Carlos Moyá, Pat Rafter, Juan Carlos Ferrero, Marat Safin, Lleyton Hewitt, Andy Roddick, and Roger Federer (against whom he has a 2–9 record). Against other former world no. 1 players, Santoro is 0–6 against Yevgeny Kafelnikov, 0–1 against Ivan Lendl, 0–1 against Rafael Nadal, and 0-2 against Andy Murray. Santoro is famous for his winning record against Marat Safin (7–2); Safin himself has said, \"Being told I would play Santoro was being told I was to die.\" Santoro won the 2003 and 2004 Australian Opens doubles titles, partnering Michaël Llodra, a French compatriot, and was runner-up at the 2002 Australian Open, 2004 French Open and 2006 Wimbledon Championships. He also won the 2005 French Open mixed doubles title with Daniela Hantuchová. Santoro teamed with Michaël Llodra again to win the 2005 Tennis Masters Cup in Shanghai, a competition that included the top eight doubles teams in the world. In addition to his doubles prowess, Fabrice is noted for his cheery attitude on court and his vast arsenal of trick shots, making him a crowd favorite and gaining him the admiration of his peers. In recognition of Santoro's varied and innovative style of play, Pete Sampras has nicknamed him \"The Magician\". Santoro plays with two hands on forehand and backhand, and though he is right-handed, often slices his forehand with his left hand. He attributes this to having used racquets of the same weight throughout his career, which were too heavy for a six-year-old starting off a career to hold with one hand. Santoro was fast around the court and was a skilled defensive player. With his participation in the 2008 Australian Open, he broke Andre Agassi's record in Grand Slam appearances over his career with a total of 62. Santoro retired at the end of the 2009 season at his hometown tournament at the 2009 BNP Paribas Masters in Paris (Bercy), losing his final singles match against James Blake and final doubles match against Johan Brunström and Jean-Julien Rojer while partnering compatriot Sébastien Grosjean. Santoro came out of retirement for one tournament at the 2010 Australian Open in order to obtain the record for having played in Grand Slam tournaments in four different decades, logging a total of 70 appearances in Grand Slam tournaments. At 37, he was the oldest player in the ATP top 100, being ranked 68 when he entered this last tournament. He lost in the first round of the tournament – to Marin Čilić – ending his professional tennis career. He was the first leader of the ATP Champions Race, winning the first tournament of the year in Doha in the year the race was introduced (2000). According to the ATP website after the 2019 Davis Cup Finals, Feliciano López has lost more singles matches (449) than any other professional player (active or not), surpassing the record previously held by Santoro. Overall, however, Santoro has won more than half of his matches, with a career record of 470–444.", "Santoro is a big fan of the late French comedian Michel Colucci, better known as Coluche. Santoro has a daughter named Djenae. Since 2012, Santoro has featured as part of the television commentary and analysis team for British television channel ITV, at the French Open." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Conceptual roots of the tank.", "The Landship Committee.", "First Deployments.", "French developments.", "German developments.", "Battle of Cambrai.", "Whippet.", "Villers-Bretonneux: Tank against tank." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The conceptual roots of the tank go back to ancient times, with siege engines which were able to provide protection for troops moving up against stone walls or other fortifications. With the coming of the Industrial Revolution and the demonstrable power of steam, James Cowan presented a proposal for a Steam Powered Land Ram in 1855, towards the end of the Crimean War. Looking like a helmet on 'footed' Boydell wheels, early forerunners of the Pedrail wheel, it was essentially an armoured steam tractor equipped with cannon and rotating scythes sprouting from the sides. Lord Palmerston is said to have dismissed it as 'barbaric'. From 1904 to 1909, David Roberts, the engineer and managing director of Hornsby & Sons of Grantham, built a series of tractors using his patented 'chain-track' which were put through their paces by the British Army, a (small) section of which wanted to evaluate artillery tractors. At one point in 1908, Major William E. Donohue of the Mechanical Transport Committee remarked to Roberts that he should design a new machine with armour, capable of carrying its own gun. But, disheartened by years of ultimately fruitless tinkering for the Army, Roberts did not take up the idea. In later years he expressed regret at not having pursued it. An engineer in the Austro-Hungarian Army, Lieutenant Gunther Burstyn, inspired by Holt tractors, designed a tracked armoured vehicle in 1911 carrying a light gun in a rotating turret; equipped also with hinged 'arms', two in front and two at the rear, carrying wheels on the ends to assist with obstacles and trenches, it was a very forward-looking design, if rather small. The Austrian government said it would be interested in evaluating it if Burstyn could secure commercial backing to produce a prototype. Lacking the requisite contacts, he let it drop. An approach to the German government was similarly fruitless. In 1912, a South Australian, Lancelot De Mole, submitted a proposal to the British War Office for a \"chain-rail vehicle which could be easily steered and carry heavy loads over rough ground and trenches\". De Mole made more proposals to the War Office in 1914 and 1916, with a culminating proposal in late 1917, accompanied by a huge one-eighth scale model, yet all fell on substantially deaf ears. De Mole's proposal already had the climbing face, so typical of the later World War I British tanks, but it is unknown whether there was some connection. Inquiries to the government of Australia, after the war, yielded polite responses that Mr. De Mole's ideas had unfortunately been too advanced for the time to be properly recognised at their just value. The Commission on Awards to Inventors in 1919, which adjudicated all the competing claims to the development of the tank, recognised the brilliance of De Mole's design, even considering that it was superior to the machines actually developed, but due to its narrow remit, could only make a payment of £987 to De Mole to cover his expenses. De Mole noted in 1919 that he was urged by friends before the war to approach the Germans with his design, but declined to do so for patriotic reasons. Before World War I, motorized vehicles were still relatively uncommon, and their use on the battlefield was initially limited, especially of heavier vehicles. Armoured cars soon became more commonplace with most belligerents, especially in more open terrain. On August 23, 1914, the French Colonel Jean Baptiste Eugène Estienne, later a major proponent of tanks, declared: \"Messieurs, la victoire appartiendra dans cette guerre à celui des deux belligérants qui parviendra le premier à placer un canon de 75 sur une voiture capable de se mouvoir en tout terrain\" (\"Gentlemen, the victory will belong, in this war, to the one of the two belligerents who will be the first to succeed in mounting a 75 mm gun on a vehicle capable of moving in all types of terrain\"). Armored cars did indeed prove useful in open land such as in deserts, but were not very good at crossing obstacles (e.g. trenches, barriers) or in more challenging terrain. The other issue was that it was very hard to add much protection or armament. The main limitation was the wheels, which gave a high ground pressure for the vehicle's weight. This could be solved by adding more wheels, but unless they also were driven, the effect was to reduce traction on the powered wheels. Driving extra wheels meant more drive train weight, in turn requiring a larger and heavier engine to maintain performance. Even worse, none of this extra weight was put into an improvement of armor or armament carried, and the vehicles were still incapable of crossing very rough terrain. The adoption of caterpillar tracks offered a new solution to the problem. The tracks spread the weight of the vehicles over a much greater area, which was all used for traction to move the vehicle. The limitation on armor and firepower was no longer ground pressure but the power and weight of the power-plant. The remaining issue was how to utilise and configure a vehicle. Major Ernest Dunlop Swinton RE, was the official British war correspondent serving in France in 1914. He recounts in his book \"Eyewitness\" how the idea of using caterpillar tracks to drive an armoured fighting vehicle came to him on October 19, 1914, while he was driving through northern France. In July 1914 he had received a letter from a friend, Hugh Marriott, a mining engineer, drawing his attention to a Holt caterpillar tractor that Marriott had seen in Belgium. Marriott thought it might be useful for transport over difficult ground, and Swinton had passed the information on to the appropriate departments. Now Swinton suggested the idea of an armoured tracked vehicle to the military authorities, by sending a proposal to Lieutenant-Colonel Maurice Hankey. Hankey in turn tried to interest Lord Kitchener in the idea; when this failed he sent a memorandum in December to the Committee of Imperial Defence, of which he was himself the secretary; Winston Churchill the First Lord of the Admiralty was one of the members of the committee. Hankey proposed to build a gigantic steel roller, pushed by tracked tractors, to shield the advancing infantry. Churchill in turn wrote a note on January 5 to the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, in which he warned that the Germans might any moment introduce a comparable system. A worried Asquith now ordered Kitchener to form a committee, headed by General Scott-Moncrieff, to study the feasibility of Swinton's idea; however, after trials with a Holt 75 h.p. machine the committee concluded in February 1915 that the idea was impractical.", "Winston Churchill however decided that if the Army wouldn't take up the idea, the Navy should proceed independently, even if it were to exceed the limits of his authority. He created the Landship Committee in February 1915, initially to investigate designs for a massive troop transporter. As a truer picture of front-line conditions was developed the aims of the investigation changed. A requirement was formulated for an armoured vehicle capable of 4 mph (6 km/h), climbing a 5 feet (1.5 m) high parapet, crossing an 8 feet (2.4 m) wide gap, and armed with machine guns and a light artillery piece. A similar proposal was working its way through the Army GHQ in France, and in June the Landships Committee was made a joint service venture between the War Office and the Admiralty. The Naval involvement in Armoured Fighting Vehicle (AFV) design had originally come about through the Royal Naval Air Service Armoured Car Division, the only British unit fielding AFVs in 1914; surprisingly, until the end of the war most experimentation on heavy land vehicles was conducted by Royal Naval Air Service Squadron 20. At first, protecting heavy gun tractors with armour appeared the most promising line of development. Alternative early 'big wheel' designs on the lines of the Russian tsar tank of 1915 were soon understood to be impractical. However, adapting the existing Holt Company caterpillar designs — the only robust tracked tractors available in 1915 — into a fighting machine, as France and Germany did, was decided against. While armour and weapon systems were easy to acquire, other existing caterpillar and suspension units were too weak, existing engines were underpowered for the vehicles that the designers had in mind, and trench-crossing ability was poor because of the shortness of the wheelbase. The with three tracks was used for the first experiments in June but was much too small to be developed further. The large Pedrail monotrack vehicle was proposed in a number of different configurations, but non were adopted. Trials to couple two American Bullock tractors failed. There also were considerable differences of opinion between the several committee members. Col R.E.B. Crompton, a veteran military engineer and electrical pioneer, drafted numerous designs with Lucien Legros for armoured troop carrying vehicles and gun-armed vehicles, to have used either Bullock tracks or variants of the Pedrail. At the same time, Lt Robert Macfie, of the RNAS, and Albert Nesfield, an Ealing-based engineer, devised a number of armoured tracked vehicles, which incorporated an angled front 'climbing face' to the tracks. The two men fell out bitterly as their plans came to nought; Macfie in particular pursued a vendetta against the other members of the Landships Committee after the war. To resolve the threatened dissipation of effort, it was ordered in late July that a contract was to be placed with William Foster & Co. Ltd, a company having done some prewar design work on heavy tractors and known to Churchill from an earlier experiment with a trench-crossing supply vehicle, to produce a proof-of-concept vehicle with two tracks, based on a lengthened Bullock tractor chassis. Construction work began three weeks later. Fosters of Lincoln built the 14 ton \"Little Willie\", which first ran on 8 September. Powered by a 105 hp (78 kW) Daimler engine, the armoured box was initially fitted with a low Bullock caterpillar. A rotating top turret was planned with a 40 mm gun but abandoned due to weight problems, leaving the final vehicle unarmed and little more than a test-bed for the difficult track system. Difficulties with the commercial tracks supplied led to Tritton designing a completely new track system different from, and vastly more robust than, any other system then in use. The next design by Lieutenant Walter Gordon Wilson RNAS, a pre-war motor engineer, added a larger track frame to the hull of \"Little Willie\". In order to achieve the demanded gap clearance a rhomboidal shape was chosen—stretching the form to improve the track footprint and climbing capacity. To keep a low centre of gravity the rotating turret design was dropped in favour of sponsons on the sides of the hull fitted with naval 6-pounder (57 mm) guns. A final specification was agreed on in late September for trials in early 1916, and the resulting 30 ton \"Big Willie\" (later called \"Mother\") together with \"Little Willie\" underwent trials at Hatfield Park on 29 January and 2 February. Attendees at the second trial included Lord Kitchener, Lloyd George, Reginald McKenna and other political luminaries. On 12 February an initial order for 100 \"Mother\" type vehicles was made, later expanded to 150. Crews never called tanks \"Willies\"; at first they referred to them as \"landships\", and later informally \"buses\". Although \"landship\" was a natural term coming from an Admiralty committee, it was considered too descriptive and could give away British intentions. The committee, therefore, looked for an appropriate code term for the vehicles. Factory workers assembling the vehicles had been told they were producing \"mobile water tanks\" for desert warfare in Mesopotamia. \"Water Container\" was therefore considered but rejected because the committee would inevitably be known as the WC Committee (WC meaning \"water closet\" was a common British term for a toilet). The term \"tank\", as in water tank, was in December 1915 finally accepted as its official designation. From then on, the term \"tank\" was established among British and also German soldiers. While in German \"Tank\" specifically refers to the World War I type (as opposed to modern \"Panzer\"), in English, Russian and other languages the name even for contemporary armored vehicles is still based on the word \"tank\". It is sometimes mistakenly stated that, after completion, the tanks were shipped to France in large wooden crates. For secrecy and in order to not arouse any curiosity, the crates and the tanks themselves were then each labeled with a destination in Russian, \"With Care to Petrograd\". In fact, the tanks were never shipped in crates: the inscription in Russian was applied on the hull for their transport from the factory to the first training centre at Thetford. The first fifty had been delivered to France on 30 August. They were'male' or 'female', depending upon whether their armament comprised two 6-pounder cannon and three Hotchkiss machine guns or four Vickers machine guns and one Hotchkiss. It had a crew of eight, four of whom were needed to handle the steering and drive gears. The tanks were capable of, at best, 6 km/h (4 mph), matching the speed of marching infantry with whom they were to be integrated to aid in the destruction of enemy machine guns. In practice, their speed on the broken ground could be as little as 1 mph. After the war the \"Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors\" decided that the principal inventors of the Tank were Sir William Tritton, managing director of Fosters, and Major Walter Gordon Wilson. Fosters returned to manufacturing Traction engines and steam lorries, but incorporated a small trademark outline image of a tank on the front smokebox door of their postwar road locomotives. During WWII, Tritton and Wilson were called upon to design a Heavy tank, which was known as TOG1, (named for \"The Old Gang\"), but this was not a success. However Lincoln City erected a full-size outline Mk 1 as a memorial to the invention of the tank in 2015, and placed it on the Tritton Road roundabout..", "The first use of tanks on the battlefield was the use of British Mark I tanks at the Battle of Flers-Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on 15 September 1916, with mixed results; many broke down, but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Of the forty-nine tanks shipped to the Somme, only thirty-two were able to begin the first attack in which they were used and only nine made it across \"no man's land\" to the German lines. The tanks had been rushed into combat before the design was mature enough (against Churchill's and Ernest Swinton's wishes) and the number was small but their use gave important feedback on how to design newer tanks, the soundness of the concept, and their potential to affect the course of the war. On the other hand, the French Army was critical of the British employment of small numbers of tanks at this battle. They felt the British had sacrificed the secrecy of the weapon while employing it in numbers too small to be decisive. Considering that the British attack was part of an Anglo-French offensive while the Russians were also attacking at the same time, Haig felt justified in making a maximum effort, regardless of the limitations of the tank force. The Mark Is were capable of performing on the real battlefield of World War I, one of the most difficult battlefield terrains ever. They did have reliability problems, but when they were working they could cross trenches or craters of 9 feet (2.7 m) and drive right through barbed wire. It was still common for them to get stuck, especially in larger bomb craters, but overall the rhomboid shape allowed for extreme terrain mobility. Tank crews who had read press reports depicting the new weapon driving through buildings and trees, and crossing wide rivers, were disappointed. Most World War I tanks could travel only at about a walking pace at best. Their steel armour could stop small arms fire and fragments from high-explosive artillery shells. However they were vulnerable to a direct hit from artillery and mortar shells. The environment inside was extremely unpleasant; as ventilation was inadequate the atmosphere was heavy with poisonous carbon monoxide from the engine and firing the weapons, fuel and oil vapours from the engine and cordite fumes from the weapons. Temperatures inside could reach 50°C (122°F). Entire crews lost consciousness inside the tanks, or collapsed when again exposed to fresh air. Crews learned how to create and leave behind supply dumps of fuel, motor oil, and tread grease, and converted obsolete models into supply vehicles for newer ones. To counter the danger of bullet splash or fragments knocked off the inside of the hull, the crew wore helmets with goggles and chainmail masks. Fragments were not as dangerous as fire, because of explosive fumes and the large amount of fuel aboard; smoking was prohibited inside and within 20 yards outside tanks. Gas masks were also standard issue, as they were to all soldiers at this point in the war due to the use of chemical warfare. The side armour of 8 mm initially made them largely immune to small arms fire, but could be penetrated by the recently developed armour-piercing K bullets. There was also the danger of being overrun by infantry and attacked with grenades. The next generation had thicker armour, making them nearly immune to the K bullets. In response, the Germans developed a larger purpose-made anti-tank rifle, the 3.7 cm TAK 1918 anti-tank gun, and also a \"Geballte Ladung\" (\"Bunched Charge\")—several regular stick grenades bundled together for a much bigger explosion. Engine power was a primary limitation on the tanks; the roughly one hundred horsepower engines gave a power-to-weight ratio of 3.3 hp/ton (2.5 kW/ton). By the end of the 20th century, power-to-weight ratios exceeded 20 hp/ton (15 kW/ton). Many feel that because the British Commander Field Marshal Douglas Haig was himself a horse cavalryman, his command failed to appreciate the value of tanks. In fact, horse cavalry doctrine in World War I was to \"follow up a breakthrough with harassing attacks in the rear\", but there were no breakthroughs on the Western Front until the tanks came along. Despite these supposed views of Haig, he made an order for 1,000 tanks shortly after the failure at the Somme and always remained firmly in favour of further production. In 1919, Major General Sir Louis Jackson said: \"The tank was a freak. The circumstances which called it into existence were exceptional and not likely to recur. If they do, they can be dealt with by other means.\"", "France at the same time developed its own tracked AFVs, but the situation there was very different. In Britain a single committee had coordinated design, and had to overcome the initial resistance of the Army, while the major industries remained passive. Almost all production effort was thus concentrated into the Mark I and its direct successors, all very similar in shape. In France, on the other hand, there were multiple and conflicting lines of development which were badly integrated, resulting in three major and quite disparate production types. A major arms producer, Schneider, took the lead in January 1915 and tried to build a first armoured vehicle based on the \"Baby Holt\" tractor but initially the development process was slow until in July they received political, even presidential, support by combining their project with that of a mechanical wire cutter devised by engineer and politician Jean-Louis Bréton. In December 1915, the influential Colonel Estienne made the Supreme Command very enthusiastic about the idea of creating an armoured force based on these vehicles; strong Army support for tanks was a constant during the decades that followed. Already in January and February 1916 quite substantial orders were made, at that moment with a total number of 800 much larger than the British ones. Army enthusiasm and haste had its immediate drawbacks however. As a result of the involvement of inexperienced army officers ordered to devise a new tank based on the larger 75 hp Holt chassis in a very short period of time, the first French tanks were poorly designed with respect to the need to cross trenches and did not take the sponson-mounting route of the British tanks. The first, the \"Char\" Schneider CA equipped with a short 75 mm howitzer, had poor mobility due to a short track length combined with a hull that overhung front and rear. It was unreliable as well; a maximum of only about 130 of the 400 built were ever operational at the same time. Then industrial rivalry began to play a detrimental role: it created the heavy Char St Chamond, a parallel development not ordered by the Army but approved by government through industrial lobby, which mounted much more impressive weaponry — its 75 mm was the most powerful gun fielded by any operational tank up till 1941 — but also combined many of the Schneider CA's faults with an even larger overhanging body. Its innovative petro-electrical transmission, while allowing for easy steering, was insufficiently developed and led to a large number of breakdowns. But industrial initiative also led to swift advances. The car industry, already used to vehicle mass production and having much more experience in vehicle layout, in 1916 designed the first practical light tanks, a class largely neglected by the British. It was Renault's excellent small tank design, the FT, incorporating a proper climbing face for the tracks, that was the first tank to incorporate a top-mounted turret with a full 360° traverse capability. In fact the FT was in many respects the first truly'modern' tank having a layout that has been followed by almost all designs ever since: driver at the front; main armament in a fully rotating turret on top; engine at the rear. Previous models had been \"box tanks\", with a single crowded space combining the role of engine room, fighting compartment, ammunition stock and driver's cabin. (A very similar Peugeot prototype, with a fixed casemate mounting a short 75mm cannon, was trialled in 1918 but the idea was not pursued). The FT had the largest production run of any tank of the war, with over 3700 built, more numerous than all British tanks combined. That this would happen was at first far from certain; some in the French army lobbied for the alternative mass production of super-heavy tanks. Much design effort was put in this line of development resulting in the gigantic Char 2C, the most complex and technologically advanced tank of its day. Its very complexity ensured it being produced too late to participate in World War I and in the very small number of just ten, but it was the first tank with a three-man turret; the heaviest to enter service until late in World War II and still the largest ever operational. French production at first lagged behind the British. After August 1916 however, British tank manufacture was temporarily halted to wait for better designs, allowing the French to overtake their allies in numbers. When the French used tanks for the first time on 16 April 1917, during the Nivelle Offensive, they had four times more tanks available. But that did not last long as the offensive was a major failure; the Schneiders were badly deployed and suffered 50% losses from German long-range artillery. The Saint-Chamond tanks, first deployed on 5 May, proved to be so badly designed that they were unable to cross the first line of German trenches.", "Germany concentrated more on the development of anti-tank weapons than on development of tanks themselves. They only developed one type of tank which saw combat in the war. The A7V \"Sturmpanzerwagen\" was designed in 1917 and was used in battle from March 1918. It was manned by a crew of 18, and had eight machine guns and a 57-millimetre cannon. Only 20 A7Vs were produced during the war. The Germans did, however, capture Allied tanks and re-purpose them for their own uses.", "The first battle in which tanks made a great impact was the Battle of Cambrai in 1917. British Colonel J.F.C. Fuller, chief of staff of the Tank Corps, was responsible for the tanks' role in the battle. They made an unprecedented breakthrough but, as ever on the Western front, the opportunity was not exploited. Ironically, it was the soon-to-be-supplanted horse cavalry that had been assigned the task of following up the motorised tank attack. Tanks became more effective as the lesson of the early tanks was absorbed. The British produced the Mark IV in 1917. Similar to the early Marks in appearance, its construction was considered to produce a more reliable machine, the long-barrelled naval guns were shortened (the barrels of the earlier, longer guns were prone to digging in the mud when negotiating obstacles) and armour was increased just enough to defeat the standard German armour-piercing bullet. The continued need for four men to drive the tank was solved with the Mark V which used Wilson's epicyclic gearing in 1918. Also in 1918 the French produced the Renault FT, the result of a co-operation between Estienne and Louis Renault. As mentioned before, it had the innovative turret position, and was operated by two men. At just 8 tons it was half the weight of the Medium A \"Whippet\" but the version with the cannon had more firepower. It was conceived for mass production, and the FT became the most produced tank of World War I by a wide margin, with over 3,000 delivered to the French Army. Large numbers were used by the Americans and several were also lent to the British. In July 1918, the French used 480 tanks (mostly FTs) at the Battle of Soissons, and there were even larger assaults planned for the next year. In Plan 1919, the Entente hoped to commit over 30,000 tanks to battle in that year.", "Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the Whippet. This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front with its relatively higher speed (around 8 mph vs 3-4 mph for the British heavy tanks). The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machine gun armament, meaning it was not suited to combat with armoured vehicles but instead with infantry. Postwar tank designs reflected this trend towards greater tactical mobility.", "The German General Staff did not have enthusiasm for the tanks, but allowed the development of anti-tank weapons. Regardless, development of a German tank was under way. The only project to be produced and fielded was the A7V, although only twenty were built. The majority of the fifty or so tanks fielded by Germany were captured British vehicles. A7Vs were captured by the Allies, but they were not used, and most ended up being scrapped. The first tank-versus-tank battles took place 24 April 1918. It was an unexpected engagement between three German A7Vs and three British Mk. IVs at Villers-Bretonneux. Fuller's Plan 1919, involving massive use of tanks for an offensive, was never used because the blockade of Germany and the entry of the US brought an end to the war." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lyrics.", "History.", "Early history.", "Modern China." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "<score sound=\"1\">{ \\set Staff.midiInstrument = #\"harmonica\" \\addlyrics {Dōng- fāng hóng, tài- yáng shēng, Zhōng- guó chū liǎo ge Máo Zé- dōng. Tā wèi rén- mín móu xìng- fú, Hū' ěr- hai- yo, tā shì rén- mín dà jiù- xīng!}</score>", "", "The lyrics to \"The East Is Red\" were adapted from an old Shaanxi folk song about love. The lyrics were often changed depending on the singer. The modern lyrics were produced in 1942, during the Second Sino-Japanese War, attributed to a farmer from northern Shaanxi, Li Youyuan. It is possible there was an earlier version which referred to Liu Zhidan, a local communist hero, who was killed in Shanxi in 1936. Later, Mao's name replaced Liu's in the lyrics. The song was popular in the Communist base-area of Yan'an, but became less popular after the Chinese Communist Party won the Chinese Civil War and established the People's Republic of China in 1949, possibly because some senior Party leaders disagreed with the song's portrayal of Mao Zedong as \"China's savior\". The lyrics of \"The East Is Red\" idealize Mao Zedong, and Mao's popularization of \"The East Is Red\" was one of his earliest efforts to promote his image as a perfect hero in Chinese popular culture after the Korean War. In 1956, a political commissar suggested to China's defense minister, Peng Dehuai, that the song be taught to Chinese troops, but Peng opposed Mao's propaganda, saying \"That is a personality cult! That is idealism!\" Peng's opposition to \"The East Is Red\", and to Mao's incipient personality cult in general, contributed to Mao purging Peng in 1959. After Peng was purged, Mao accelerated his efforts to build his personality cult, and by 1966 succeeded in having \"The East Is Red\" sung in place of China's national anthem in an unofficial capacity. In 1964 Zhou Enlai used \"The East Is Red\" as the central chorus for a play he created to promote the personality cult of Mao Zedong, with \"March Forward under the Banner of Mao Zedong Thought\" as the original title. Zhou also served as co-producer, head writer and director of the play. The central theme of the play was that Mao was the only person capable of leading the Chinese Communist Party to victory. The play was performed by 2,000 artists, and was accompanied by a 1,000-strong chorus and orchestra. It was staged repeatedly in Beijing at the Great Hall of the People in order to ensure that all residents would be able to see it - this was in time for the 15th National Day of the People's Republic of China, and was later adapted to film that was shown all over China - both by then under the title \"The East Is Red\". It was in this play that the definite version of the song was heard for the first time, this would be the version used during events during the Cultural Revolution years until 1969. During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) Tian Han, the author of the China's official national anthem, \"The March of the Volunteers\", was purged, so his song was rarely used. \"The East Is Red\" was used as China's unofficial national anthem during this time. The song was played through PA systems in towns and villages across China at dawn and at dusk. The Shanghai Customs House on the Bund still plays the song in place of the Westminster Chimes originally played by the British, and the Central People's Broadcasting Station began every day by playing the song on a set of bronze bells that had been cast over 2,000 years earlier, during the Warring States period. Radio and television broadcasts nationwide usually began with the song \"The East Is Red\" in the morning or at early evening, and ended with the song \"The Internationale\". However, some careful listeners found out that the lyrics of these two songs made a paradox: \"The East is Red\" praises Mao as a \"people's great savior\", while \"The Internationale\" declares that \"there are no supreme saviors\". Students were obliged to sing the song in unison every morning at the very beginning of the first class of the day. In 1969 the tune was used in the \"Yellow River Piano Concerto\". The \"Concerto\" was produced by Jiang Qing and adapted from the \"Yellow River Cantata\" by Xian Xinghai. When she adapted the \"Cantata\", Jiang added the tune to \"The East Is Red\" in order to connect the \"Concerto\" with the themes of the Cultural Revolution. After China launched its first satellite, in 1970, \"The East Is Red\" was the first signal the craft sent back to Earth. But its place as the unofficial national anthem was finished that same year, for in commemoration of the 21st anniversary of the founding of the People's Republic, The March of the Volunteers began to be played, albeit only in its instrumental version, once again in all national events.", "Because of its associations with the Cultural Revolution, the song was rarely heard after the rise of Deng Xiaoping in the late 1970s. Today in China the song is considered by some to be a somewhat unseemly reminder of the cult of personality associated with Mao. Its official use has largely been replaced by the \"March of the Volunteers\", whose lyrics mention neither the Communist Party nor Mao. \"The East Is Red\" is still commonly heard in recordings played by electronic cigarette lighters bearing Mao's face that are popular with tourists. The tune of \"The East Is Red\" remains popular in Chinese popular culture. In 2009 it was voted as the most popular patriotic song in a Chinese government-run internet poll. It was being used as the belling melody for striking clocks like Beijing railway station and the Beijing Telegraph Building, Custom House, Shanghai as well as the Drum Tower in Xi'an. Some radio stations in China have used \"The East Is Red\" as an interval signal, including China Radio International (Indonesian Service) and Xinjiang People's Radio Station." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military career.", "World War I.", "Artillery ranging.", "Fighter pilot.", "The Flying Circus.", "Inter-war period.", "World War II.", "Building the \"Luftwaffe\".", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Ernst Udet was born on 26 April 1896, in Frankfurt am Main, German Empire. Udet grew up in Munich, and was known from his early childhood for his sunny temperament and fascination with aviation. In his youth he hung out at a nearby airplane factory and an army airship detachment. In 1909, he helped found the Munich Aero-Club. After crashing a glider he and a friend constructed, he finally flew in 1913 with a test pilot in the nearby Otto Works owned by Gustav Otto, which he often visited.", "", "Shortly after the beginning of World War I, Udet attempted to enlist in the Imperial German Army on 2 August 1914, but at only tall he did not then qualify for enlistment. Later that month, when the \"Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club\" appealed for volunteers with motorcycles, Udet applied and was accepted. Udet's father had given him a motorcycle when he had passed his first year examination, and along with four friends, Udet was posted to the 26. \"Württembergischen\" Reserve Division as a \"messenger rider.\" After injuring his shoulder when his motorcycle hit a crater from an artillery shell explosion, he was sent to a military hospital, and his motorcycle was sent for repairs. When Udet tried to track down the 26th Division, he was unable to find it and decided to serve in the vehicle depot in Namur. During this time, he met officers from the Chauny flying sector, who advised him to transfer as an aerial observer. However, before he received his orders, the army dispensed with the volunteer motorcyclists, and Udet was sent back to the recruiting officials. Udet tried to return to the fighting, but he was unable to get into either the pilot or aircraft mechanic training the army offered. However, he learned that if he were a trained pilot, he would be immediately accepted into army aviation. Through a family friend, Gustav Otto, owner of the aircraft factory he had hung out around in his youth, Udet received private flight training. This cost him 2,000 Deutsche Marks (about $400 in 1915 U.S. dollars) and new bathroom equipment from his father's firm. Udet received his civilian pilot's license at the end of April 1915 and was immediately accepted by the Imperial German Air Service.", "Udet at first flew in \"Feld Flieger-Abteilung\" 206 (FFA 206)—an observation unit—as an \"Unteroffizier\" (non-commissioned) pilot with observer \"Leutnant\" Justinius. He and his observer won the Iron Cross (2nd class for Udet and 1st class for his lieutenant) for nursing their damaged Aviatik B.I two-seater back to German lines after a shackle on a wing-cable snapped. Justinius had climbed out to hold the wing and balance it rather than landing behind the enemy lines and being captured. After the structural failure of the Aviatik that caused Udet and Justinius to go down, and a similar incident in which \"Leutnant\" Winter and \"Vizefeldwebel\" Preiss lost their lives, the Aviatik B was retired from active service. Later, Udet was court-martialed for losing an aircraft in an incident the flying corps considered a result of bad judgement. Overloaded with fuel and bombs, the aircraft stalled after a sharp bank and plunged to the ground. Miraculously, both Udet and Justinius survived with only minor injuries. Udet was placed under arrest in the guardhouse for seven days. On his way out of the guardhouse, he was asked to fly \"Leutnant\" Hartmann to observe a bombing raid on Belfort. A bomb thrown by hand by the \"leutnant\" became stuck in the landing gear, but Udet performed aerobatics and managed to shake it loose. As soon as the Air Staff Officer heard about Udet's performance during the incident, he ordered Udet transferred to the fighter command.", "Udet was assigned a new Fokker to fly to his new fighter unit—FFA 68—at Habsheim. Mechanically defective, the plane crashed into a hangar when he took off, and was then given an older Fokker to fly. In this aircraft he experienced his first aerial combat, which almost ended in disaster. While lining up on a French Caudron, Udet found he could not bring himself to fire on another person and was subsequently fired on by the Frenchman. A bullet grazed his cheek and smashed his flying goggles. Udet survived the encounter but from then on learned to attack aggressively and began scoring victories, downing his first French opponent on 18 March 1916. On that occasion, he had scrambled to attack two French aircraft, instead finding himself faced with a formation of 23 enemy aircraft. He dived from above and behind, giving his Fokker E.III full throttle, and opened fire on a Farman F.40 from close range. Udet pulled away, leaving the flaming bomber trailing smoke, only to see the observer fall from the rear seat of the stricken craft. The victory won Udet the Iron Cross First Class, later describing it: \"The fuselage of the Farman dives down past me like a giant torch... A man, his arms and legs spread out like a frog's, falls past--the observer. At the moment, I don't think of them as human beings. I feel only one thing--victory, triumph, victory.\" That year, FFA 68 was renamed \"Kampfeinsitzer Kommando\" Habsheim before becoming \"Jagdstaffel\" 15 on 28 September 1916. Udet would claim five more victories, before transferring to \"Jasta\" 37 in June 1917. In the first of his victories on 12 October 1916, Udet forced a French Breguet to land safely in German territory, then landed nearby to prevent its destruction by its crew. The bullet-punctured tires on Udet's Fokker flipped the plane forward onto its top wings and fuselage. Udet and the French pilot eventually shook hands next to the Frenchman's aircraft. In January 1917, Udet was commissioned as a \"Leutnant der Reserve\" (lieutenant of reserves). The same month, \"Jasta\" 15 re-equipped with the Albatros D.III, a new fighter with twin synchronized Maschinengewehr 08 machine guns. During his service with \"Jasta\" 15, Udet later wrote he had encountered Georges Guynemer, a notable French ace, in single combat at. Guynemer, who preferred to hunt enemy planes alone, by this time was the leading French ace with more than 30 victories. Udet saw Guynemer and they circled each other, looking for an opening and testing each other's turning abilities. They were close enough for Udet to read the \"\"Vieux\"\" of \"\"Vieux Charles\"\" written on Guynemer's Spad S.VII. The opponents tried every aerobatic trick they knew and Guynemer fired a burst through Udet's upper wing, however maneuvered for advantage. Once Udet had Guynemer in his sights, his machine guns jammed and while pretending to dogfight he pounded on them with his fists, desperate to unjam them. Guynemer realized his predicament and instead of taking advantage of it, simply waved a farewell and flew away. Udet wrote of the fight, \"For seconds, I forgot that the man across from me was Guynemer, my enemy. It seems as though I were sparring with an older comrade over our own airfield.\" Udet felt that Guynemer had spared him because he wanted a fair fight, while others have suggested that the French ace was impressed with Udet's skills and hoped they might meet again on equal terms. Eventually, every pilot in \"Jasta\" 15 was killed except Udet and his commander, Heinrich Gontermann, who said to Udet: \"The bullets fall from the hand of God... Sooner or later they will hit us.\" Udet applied for a transfer to \"Jasta\" 37, and Gontermann was killed three months later when the upper wing of his new Fokker Dr. 1 tore off as he was flying it for the first time. Gontermann lingered for twenty four hours without awakening and Udet later remarked, \"It was a good death.\" By late November, Udet was a triple ace and \"Jastaführer\", modelling his attacks after those of Guynemer, coming in high out of the sun to pick off the rear aircraft in a squadron before the others knew what was happening. Having witnessed one of these attacks, his commander in \"Jasta\" 37 Kurt Grasshoff, on being transferred, selected Udet for command over more senior men. Udet's ascension to command on 7 November 1917, was followed six days later by award of the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern. Despite his seemingly frivolous nature, drinking late into the night, and womanizing lifestyle, Udet proved an excellent squadron commander. He spent many hours coaching new fighter pilots, with an emphasis on marksmanship as being essential for success.", "Udet's success attracted attention for his skill, earning him an invitation to join the \"Flying Circus\", \"Jagdgeschwader\" 1 (JG 1), an elite unit of German fighter aces under the command of Manfred von Richthofen, popularly known as the Red Baron. Richthofen drove up to Udet one day as he was trying to pitch a tent in Flanders in the rain, pointing out that Udet had 20 kills, Richthofen said, \"Then you would actually seem ripe for us. Would you like to?\", which Udet accepted. After watching him shoot down an artillery spotter by frontal attack, Richthofen gave Udet command of \"Jasta\" 11, von Richthofen's former squadron command. The group commanded by Richthofen also contained \"Jastas\" 4, 6 and 10. Udet's enthusiasm for Richthofen was unbounded, who demanded total loyalty and dedication from his pilots, immediately cashiering anyone who fell out of line. At the same time, Richthofen treated them with every consideration and when it came time to requisition supplies he traded favors for autographed photos of himself that read: \"Dedicated to my esteemed fighting companion.\" Udet remarked that because of the signed photographs, \"... sausage and ham never ran out.\" One night, the squadron invited a captured English flyer for dinner, treating him as a guest. When he excused himself for the bathroom, the Germans secretly watched to see if he would try to escape. On his return the Englishman said, \"I would never forgive myself for disappointing such hosts\"; the English flyer did escape later from another unit. Richthofen was killed in April 1918 in France, where Udet was not at the front as he had been sent on leave due to a painful ear infection which he avoided having treated as long as he could. Udet said about Richthofen: \"He was the least complicated man I ever knew. Entirely Prussian and the greatest of soldiers.\" before returning to JG 1 against the doctor's advice and remained there to the end of the war, commanding \"Jasta\" 4. While at home, Udet had reacquainted himself with his childhood sweetheart, Eleanor \"Lo\" Zink. Notified that he had received the \"Pour le Mérite\", he had one made up in advance so that he could impress her, and painted her name on the side of his Albatros fighters and Fokker D VII. Also on the tail of his Fokker D VII was the message \"\"Du doch nicht\"\" - \"Definitely not you.\" Udet scored 20 victories in August 1918 alone, mainly against British aircraft and would become a national hero with 62 confirmed kills to his credit. On 29 June 1918, Udet was one of the early fliers to be saved by parachuting from a disabled aircraft, when he jumped after a clash with a French Breguet. His harness caught on the rudder and he had to break off the rudder tip to escape. His parachute did not open until he was from the ground, causing him to sprain his ankle on landing. On 28 September 1918, Udet was wounded in the thigh, for which he was still recovering on Armistice Day, 11 November 1918, when the war ended in Germany's defeat.", "The adventure of Udet's life continued without pause after the war: on his way home from the military hospital, he had to defend himself against a Communist who wished to rip the medals off his chest. Udet and Robert Ritter von Greim performed mock dogfights at weekends for the POW Relief Organization, using surplus aircraft in Bavaria. He was invited to start the first International Air Service between Germany and Austria, but after the first flight the Entente Commission confiscated his aircraft. Udet married Eleanor \"Lo\" Zink on 25 February 1920, however the marriage lasted less than three years and they were divorced on 16 February 1923. The marriage is believed to have ended due to Udet having had many affairs. His talents were numerous - among these were juggling, drawing cartoons, and party entertainment. During the inter-war period, Udet was known primarily for his work as a stunt pilot and for playboy-like behavior. He flew for movies and for airshows (e.g. picking a cloth from the ground with his wingtip, flying under low bridges and completing loops only several meters from the ground). One stunt only Udet performed was successive loops with the last complete after turning off the engine mid air and landing the aircraft in a sideways glide. He appeared with Leni Riefenstahl in three films: \"The White Hell of Pitz Palu\" (1929), \"Stürme über dem Mont Blanc\" (1930), and \"S.O.S. Eisberg\" (1933). Udet's stunt pilot work in films took him to California. In the October 1933 issue of \"New Movie Magazine\", there is a photo of Carl Laemmle, Jr.'s party for Udet in Hollywood. Laemmle was head of Universal Studios which made \"SOS Eisberg,\" a US-German co-production. Udet was invited to attend the National Air Races at Cleveland, Ohio. In 1935 he appeared in \"Wunder des Fliegens: Der Film eines deutschen Fliegers\" (1935; 79 mins.) directed by Heinz Paul. His co-star Jürgen Ohlsen, who had previously starred (uncredited) in the extremely popular Nazi propaganda film \"\", played a youth who lost his pilot father in World War I and was befriended and encouraged by Udet, his idol. These efforts were good publicity for Udet. An American, William Pohl of Milwaukee, telephoned him with an offer to back an aircraft manufacturing company. Udet Flugzeugbau was born in a shed in Milbertshofen. Its intent was to build small aircraft that the general public could fly. It soon ran into trouble with the Entente Commission and transferred its operations to a beehive and chicken coop factory. The first aeroplane that Udet's company produced was the \"U2\". Udet took the second model, the U4, to the Wilbur Cup race in Buenos Aires at the expense of Aero Club Aleman. It was outclassed, and the club wanted him to do cigarette commercials to reimburse them for the expense, but he refused. He was rescued by the Chief of the Argentinian Railways, a man of Swedish descent named Tornquist, who settled the debt. In 1924, Udet left Udet Flugzeugbau when they decided to build a four-engine aircraft, which was larger and not for the general population. He and another friend from the war, Angermund, started an exhibition flying enterprise in Germany, which was also successful, but Udet remarked, \"In time this too begins to get tiresome.... We stand in the present, fighting for a living. It isn't always easy.... But the thoughts wander back to the times when it was worthwhile to fight for your life.\" Udet and another wartime comrade—Suchocky—became pilots to an African filming expedition. The cameraman was another veteran, Schneeberger, whom Udet called \"Flea,\" and the guide was Siedentopf, a former East African estate owner. Udet described one incident in Africa in which lions jumped up to claw at the low-flying aircraft, one of them removing a strip of Suchocky's wing surface. Udet engaged in hunting while in Africa.", "", "Though not interested in politics, Udet joined the Nazi party in 1933 when Hermann Göring promised to buy him two new U.S.-built Curtiss Hawk II biplanes (export designation of the F11C-2 Goshawk Helldiver). The planes were used for evaluation purposes and thus indirectly influenced the German idea of dive bombing aeroplanes, such as the Junkers Ju 87 (\"Stuka\") dive bombers. They were also used for aerobatic shows held during the 1936 Summer Olympics. Udet piloted one of them, which survived the war and is now on display in the Polish Aviation Museum. After the trials of the Ju 87, a confidential directive issued on 9 June 1936 by \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Wolfram von Richthofen called for the cessation of all further Ju 87 development, although the Ju 87 had been awarded top marks and was about to be accepted. However, Udet immediately rejected von Richthofen's instructions and Ju 87 development continued. Udet became a major proponent of the dive bomber, taking credit for having introduced it to the \"Luftwaffe\". By 1936 he had, through his political connections, been placed in command of the \"T-Amt\" (the development wing of the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" of the \"Reich\" Air Ministry). Udet had no real interest in this job, especially the bureaucracy of it, and the pressure led to him developing an addiction to alcohol, drinking large amounts of brandy and cognac. In January 1939, Udet visited Italian North Africa (\"Africa Settentrionale Italiana\", or ASI), accompanying \"Maresciallo dellAria\" (Marshal of the Air Force) Italo Balbo on a flight, because at the time there were distinct signs of German military and diplomatic co-operation with the Italians. In February 1939 Udet became \"Generalluftzeugmeister\" (\"Luftwaffe\" Director-General of Equipment). When World War II began, his internal conflicts grew more intense as aircraft production requirements were much more than the German industry could supply, given limited access to raw materials such as aluminium. Hermann Göring responded to this problem by simply lying about it to Adolf Hitler, and after the \"Luftwaffe\"s defeat in the Battle of Britain, Göring tried to deflect Hitler's ire by blaming Udet. On 22 June 1941, the launch of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union, drove Udet further into despair. In April and May 1941, Udet had led a German delegation inspecting Soviet aviation industry in accordance with he Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Udet informed Göring that the Soviet air force and aviation industry were very strong and technically advanced. Göring decided not to report this to Hitler, hoping that a surprise attack would quickly destroy Russia. Udet realized that the upcoming war on Russia might destroy Germany. He tried to explain this to Hitler but, torn between truth and loyalty, suffered a psychological breakdown. Göring kept Udet under control by giving him drugs at drinking parties and hunting trips. Udet's drinking and psychological condition became a problem, and Göring used Udet's dependency to manipulate him.", "On 17 November 1941, Ernst Udet committed suicide by shooting himself in the head while on the phone with his girlfriend, Inge Bleyle. Udet's suicide was concealed from the public, and at his funeral he was lauded as a hero who had died in flight while testing a new weapon. On their way to attend Udet's funeral, the World War II fighter ace Werner Mölders died in a plane crash in Breslau, and high \"Luftwaffe\" executive \"General der Flieger\" Helmuth Wilberg died in another plane crash near Dresden. Udet was buried next to Manfred von Richthofen in the Invalidenfriedhof Cemetery in Berlin. Mölders was buried next to Udet. According to Udet's biography, \"The Fall of an Eagle\", he wrote a suicide note in red pencil which included: \"Ingelein, why have you left me?\" and \"Iron One, you are responsible for my death.\" \"Ingelein\" referred to his girlfriend, Inge Bleyle, and \"Iron One\" to Hermann Göring. The book \"The Luftwaffe War Diaries\" similarly states that Udet wrote \"\"Reichsmarschall\", why have you deserted me?\" in red on the headboard of his bed. It is possible that an affair Udet had with Martha Dodd, daughter of the U.S. ambassador to Germany and Soviet sympathizer during the 1930s might have had some importance in these events. Records made public in the 1990s confirm Soviet security involvement with Dodd's activities. Evidence indicates that Udet's unhappy relationship with Göring, Erhard Milch, and the Nazi Party in general was the cause of a mental breakdown." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Themes.", "TV adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As with many of the Discworld novels, the story takes place in Ankh-Morpork, a powerful city-state based on the historical and modern settings of various metropolises like London or New York City. The protagonist of the story is Moist von Lipwig, a skilled con artist who was to be hanged for his crimes, but saved at the very last moment by the cunning and manipulative Patrician Havelock Vetinari, who has Moist's death on the scaffold faked. In his office, Vetinari then presents Moist with two options: he may accept a job offer to become Postmaster of the city's rundown Postal Service or he may choose to walk out of the door and never hear from Vetinari again. As exiting through the door in question would lead to a fatal drop, Moist decides to accept the job. After a thwarted attempt at escape, Moist is brought to the Post Office by his parole officer Mr Pump, a golem. It turns out that the Post Office has not functioned for decades, and the building is full of undelivered mail, concealed under a layer of pigeon dung. Only two employees remain: the aged Junior Postman Tolliver Groat and his assistant Stanley Howler. Meanwhile, Vetinari is holding a meeting with the board executives of the Grand Trunk Company, a company that owns and operates a system of visual telegraph towers known as \"clacks\". He notes that since they have taken full control, the quality of service had gone down considerably. Despite unnerving most of the board, Vetinari fails to make headway, especially with its chairman, Reacher Gilt. It's rumored that, from his penthouse office in Tump Tower, Reacher Gilt plans to usurp Vetinari as Patrician. As Moist attempts to revitalise the service, he discovers that a few months before taking the job, a number of his predecessors have predeceased in the building within weeks of each other in unusual circumstances. He also discovers that the mail inside the building has taken on a life of its own, and is nearly suffocated as a result. Moist introduces postage stamps to Ankh-Morpork, hires golems to deliver the mail, and finds himself competing against the Grand Trunk Clacks line. He meets and falls in love with the chain-smoking, golem-rights activist, Adora Belle Dearheart, and the two begin a relationship by the end of the book. Dearheart is the daughter of the Clacks founder Robert Dearheart, though the company was taken away from her father and the other founders by tricky financial manoeuvring. Because of this, she still has useful contacts amongst the clacks operators. The unscrupulous Clacks chairman, Reacher Gilt, sets a banshee assassin (Mr Gryle) on the Postmaster, but only manages to burn down much of the Post Office building. The banshee dies when he gets flipped onto the space-warping sorting machine. Lipwig makes an outrageous wager that he can deliver a message to Genua, 2000 miles from Ankh-Morpork, faster than the Grand Trunk can. \"The Smoking Gnu\", a group of clacks-crackers, sets up a plan to send a Discworld equivalent to a killer poke into the clacks system that will destroy the machinery, halting the message that Lipwig will race against. Lipwig talks the Gnu out of it, and opts for a more psychological attack on the Grand Trunk, leaving the semaphore towers standing. This plan succeeds. Gilt is soon arrested and finds himself in front of the Patrician, offered a similar choice to the one Moist faced in the beginning of the book: run the mint or exit the room. Gilt, however, ends up walking through the door to his death. Characters", "The post office building is modelled on New York's monumental James Farley Post Office Building, which carries the inscription from Herodotus \"\"Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds.\"\"—in the novel this becomes \"\"NEITHER RAIN NOR SNOW NOR GLOM OF NIT CAN STAY THESE MESENGERS ABOT THEIR DUTY\"\" (some letters having been stolen).", "Sky One produced a two-part television film, \"Terry Pratchett's Going Postal\", which aired on 30–31 May 2010." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Strategic situation.", "Japanese preparations.", "British preparations.", "Raid.", "First moves.", "Attack on Colombo.", "Loss of \"Dorsetshire\" and \"Cornwall\".", "Nagumo evades Somerville.", "Trincomalee and Batticaloa.", "Aftermath.", "British reaction.", "Japanese reaction.", "Criticism of Nagumo.", "Problems with Japanese carrier operations.", "Criticism of Somerville." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The island of Ceylon was strategically important, since it commanded the Indian Ocean. Thus it controlled access to India, the vital Allied shipping routes to the Middle East and the oilfields of the Persian Gulf. Ceylon held most of the British Empire's resources of rubber. An important harbour and naval base, Trincomalee, was located on the island’s eastern coast. Japanese propaganda had an effect on some of the Sinhalese population, who now awaited their arrival. The fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942 broke the United Kingdom's eastern defensive perimeter of the Bay of Bengal; and Japanese occupation of the Andaman Islands on 23 March 1942 gave Japan control of the Andaman Sea enabling ships to resupply Japanese troops in the Burma Campaign for control of India. Both German and British authorities anticipated Japanese capture of Ceylon to solidify control of the Bay of Bengal and disrupt British resupply for defence of India, Australia, and perhaps the Middle East. Ceylon was hastily garrisoned by Australian troops returning from North Africa; and was relieved of naval duties to serve as a high-speed aircraft ferry shuttling available planes to Ceylon. Japanese intentions to mount a major offensive into the Indian Ocean were placed on hold in March 1942; strong naval forces were needed in the western Pacific against the United States, and the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) refused to allocate troops for an invasion of Ceylon. In response, the IJN developed Operation C, a plan for an aggressive raid into the Indian Ocean in early April. Operation C aimed to destroy the British Eastern Fleet, and disrupt British lines of communications in the Bay of Bengal in support of the Burma Campaign. British intelligence correctly assessed the Japanese strategy. The Americans were notified; the Doolittle Raid – which was already in progress – took on the additional role as a diversion.", "Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the initial order to proceed with Operation C to the IJN's southern force, commanded by Admiral Nobutake Kondō, on 9 March 1942. By 16 March, the plan was to depart from Staring Bay, Celebes, on 26 March for an attack on Colombo (\"C day\") on 5 April. The Japanese expected to destroy the British Eastern Fleet in port. Japanese intelligence on the composition of the British Eastern Fleet was reasonably accurate, but overestimated air strength on Ceylon. The Japanese force, commanded by Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, had a core of five aircraft carriers;, and in Carrier Division 5, and and in Carrier Division 2. The carriers were accompanied by all four s, and both s. The Japanese stationed reconnaissance submarines outside of the known British anchorages at Colombo and Trincomalee; their effectiveness was limited. At least one submarine was sent to scout the Maldive Islands but failed to detect Port T at Addu Atoll. At the same time as Operation C, the IJN also dispatched Malay Force, consisting of, six cruisers, and four destroyers to destroy shipping in the Bay of Bengal on 1 April. Malay Force was not part of Operation C.", "The reinforcement of the British Eastern Fleet depended on transfers from Britain and the Mediterranean, a reflection of active warzones and the demands on the Royal Navy's (RN) resources. In late-December 1941, a reassessment of the threat posed by Japan envisioned transferring the majority of the RN's heavy units to the Eastern Fleet. Matters were made urgent by the crippling of the United States Pacific Fleet's battle line at Pearl Harbor, which exposed the weak forces in Malaya to attack. Heavy units were freed up by American reinforcements in the Atlantic. The construction programs of the late-1930s were also starting to yield new heavy units. The Mediterranean yielded far fewer reinforcements than expected due to serious losses in that theatre in 1941. The Eastern Fleet that Vice Admiral Sir James Somerville assumed command of in March 1942 was smaller than what had been envisioned in December 1941. Somerville divided the fleet into two groups, based on speed. The faster \"Force A\" included the aircraft carriers and, the modernized battleship (as flagship), as well as the modern cruisers and destroyers. The slower \"Force B\" was formed around the old carrier, and four unmodernized s. A few submarines were also available. The ships had never operated together before, and both ship and air crews were deficient in training. Allied intelligence accurately assessed the strength of the Japanese force. Sommerville planned to evade the Japanese during the day and close to launch torpedo strikes with radar-equipped Fairey Albacore bombers during the night. However, the plan was based on information provided by the Far East Combined Bureau (FECB), which identified only two carriers in the Japanese force. FECB also believed the Japanese would sail from Staring Bay on 21 March for a \"C day\" of 1 April. Thus, Somerville sailed early expecting to fight a smaller and manageable enemy force, particularly in aircraft strength. As such, Somerville likely did not see his plan as incompatible with his orders from the Admiralty, which were to protect the lines of communications in the Indian Ocean, and to maintain the Eastern Fleet as a fleet in being by avoiding unnecessary risks. Ceylon was defended by three Royal Air Force (RAF) squadrons of Hawker Hurricanes (two at Colombo, and one at Trincomalee), and two squadrons of RN Fleet Air Arm (FAA) Fairey Fulmars.", "", "The Japanese sailed from Staring Bay on 26 March as planned. Somerville sailed on 30 March in expectation of an attack on 1 April, and deployed his fleet in a patrol area south of Ceylon. Force B remained close to Force A, possible to cover the aircraft carriers from fast IJN capital ships attack at night or in poor weather. British land-based aerial reconnaissance was concentrated to the southeast, where the Japanese were expected to approach to launch strikes at Colombo and Trincomalee. Late on 2 April, the British retired toward Port T – southwest of Ceylon – to refuel. Somerville also detached various ships to resume previous commitments; the heavy cruisers and were sent to Columbo, and \"Hermes\" to Trincomalee. On the afternoon of 4 April Nagumo's fleet was detected south-east of Ceylon by a Catalina flying boat on a course that would have entered Somerville's previous patrol area from the south. The Catalina transmitted the sighting, but not the size of the fleet, before being shot down. At this time, Somerville was refuelling at Port T; Force A sailed eastward toward the Japanese upon receiving the sighting; Force B could not be ready until 5 April. Admiral Geoffrey Layton, on Ceylon, ordered ships put to sea to avoid being attacked in harbour. \"Cornwall\" and \"Dorsetshire\", which had just reached Colombo, were sent to rejoin Force A; they sailed late on 4 April. \"Hermes\" sailed from Trincomalee and ordered to hide northeast of Ceylon. The Japanese did not perform an aerial reconnaissance sweep along their intended course on the afternoon of 4 April, and a planned reconnaissance of Colombo harbour by cruiser floatplanes was cancelled.", "At dawn on 5 April 1942, the Japanese launched aerial reconnaissance aircraft to the south-west and north-west; they would fly out to a maximum of over the next few hours. A reconnaissance Fulmar launched from Force A at 0800 spotted one of the Japanese aircraft at the extreme edge of the south-west search area at 0855 about ahead of Force A. Shortly after 0600 the Nagumo's force began launching 91 bombers and 36 fighters for the strike on Colombo; the strike hit at 0800 but the harbour was not put out of action. The armed merchant cruiser (which was due to be released back to trade) and the old destroyer were in the harbour. Eighteen Japanese planes were lost to heavy anti-aircraft fire. The Japanese only admitted to five losses, three of them over land – as only three destroyed planes were discovered on land. The RAF lost at least 27 aircraft. Nagumo changed course to west-southwest at 0830 – unknowingly causing the opposing fleets to steam toward one another – and recovered the Colombo strike from 0945 to 1030. The size of the airstrike on Colombo was Somerville's first concrete evidence that the Japanese force contained more than the two carriers he expected. Nonetheless he continued to steam toward the enemy at 18 knots. Radar-based fighter direction would allow Force A to avoid surprise attack by neutralizing shadowing Japanese aircraft.", "At 1000, an aircraft from \"Tone\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s searching the southwest area spotted and began shadowing \"Dorsetshire\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s force; the aircraft reported that the cruiser was heading southwest and making 24 knots. The cruisers reported the shadower, but had no means to drive it off. Nagumo increased speed from 24 to 28 knots upon receiving the sighting. Carrier Division 5's reserve strike force was ordered rearmed with anti-ship torpedoes, replacing the high explosive bombs intended for a second strike on Colombo. The rearming encountered delays, and the strike was carried out by Carrier Division 2 instead; \"Soryu\" and \"Hiryu\" began flying off dive bombers at 1145. Force A radar detected the air strike on \"Dorsetshire\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s force at 1344, putting the aircraft to the northeast. \"Cornwall\" and \"Dorsetshire\" were sunk at 1400; ultimately 424 officers and crew were lost. The Japanese missed an opportunity to find Force A after sinking the cruisers. The aircraft shadowing the cruisers flew another along the cruisers' course before returning to \"Tone\". It would have detected Force A if it had flown southwest another ten minutes. Nagumo recovered the strike against the cruisers at 1445.", "Somerville launched four Albacores from \"Indomitable\" at 1400 to search an arc to the northeast out to. Nagumo's southeasterly course would have taken the Japanese fleet right through the centre of the arc. However, at 1500 or 1530, Nagumo changed course to the southwest. Carrier Division 2 did not immediately follow; it performed a series of kinking manoeuvres starting at 1500 that initially took it northwest. Carrier Division 2 was spotted by the two northerly Albacores around 1600. \"Hiryū\" launched Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters to intercept the scouts; one Albacore was damaged at 1604, and the other shot down at 1628 without reporting. The two southernmost Albacores missed Nagumo's main body. Somerville did not receive the damaged Albacore's sighting report until 1655; the report gave the position of Carrier Division 2 with reasonable accuracy, placed the Japanese away, but contained no other data. At 1700 he received signals intelligence (SIGINT) from Colombo reporting the Japanese course at 1400 as southwesterly at 24 knots. Somerville ordered a course change to the southwest at 1726, not knowing that Nagumo's main body was away, and that Carrier Division 2 was only away. The course change was presumably to maintain distance between a superior enemy that was believed to be still closing, or to cover Port T from attack, but it also meant the British lost an opportunity to meet the enemy; had Force A continued on its easterly course, Carrier Division 2 would have passed right in front of it at 2100 at range of about. The damaged Albacore landed at 1745, less than a half-hour before sunset, and the crew was debriefed. There were two resulting revisions to the 1600 sighting, which were transmitted to Somerville at 1800 and 1817 respectively, and differed significantly from the other and the original report. The final revision correctly identified the two carriers of Carrier Division 2 – which Somerville likely realized to be only part of the enemy force – but also claimed they were heading toward the northwest at a position or the original sighting. The course heading conflicted with the first revision, which suggested a course toward the southeast. Late on 5 April, FECB decrypted a JN 25B message containing Nagumo's planned movement on 6 April, but this did not aid Somerville as the transmission to the fleet was garbled. Somerville declined to launch a strike based on poor information, and opted to head northwest in pursuit. One radar-equipped aircraft was launched to search a northern arc out to. Later, aircraft were sent to search the easterly arc. By this time it was too late to reestablish contact with the Japanese. For the Japanese, too, there was a lost opportunity to find the British before night fell. Nagumo did not order a search for the British carriers at the appearance of British carrier-based aircraft. Search aircraft might require homing signals from the carriers to return, homing signals which the enemy could use to locate the Japanese. The Japanese continued southeast at 20 knots completely unaware of the presence of Force A. Carrier Division 2 rejoined the main body's track at 1800, and caught up at 2200 due east of Force A. The Japanese circled wide to the south and then east in preparation for striking Trincomalee. Along the way, from 6 to 8 April, they conducted searches for the British carriers, which were by that time far to the west; the dawn search on 6 April was not comprehensive. By 6 April, British SIGINT indicated the Japanese force contained four carriers and three battleships, a force Somerville clearly realized as beyond the Eastern Fleet's capability to engage without undue risk. The declining serviceability of his fighter force also reinforced his caution. Even so, Somerville did not immediately withdraw or return to port. Force B rejoined early on 6 April. In the afternoon 1,122 survivors from \"Dorsetshire\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s force were recovered, while maintaining a look-out for the superior enemy force with all-around air reconnaissance. Intelligence from Ceylon put the Japanese between Port T and Ceylon. Somerville cautiously arrived at Port T from the west at 1100 on 8 April and refuelled. On 6 April heavy cruisers and with destroyer sank the British merchant ships \"Silksworth\", \"Autolycus\", \"Malda\" and \"Shinkuang\" and the American ship \"Exmoor\"..", "On the afternoon of 8 April, a Catalina detected Nagumo's force steaming toward Ceylon, east of the island. The harbour at Trincomalee was cleared that night; \"Hermes\", escorted by, were sent south along the coast; they were away when Trincomalee was attacked. The Japanese air group, about the same size as the one that attacked Colombo, was detected early on 9 April and met by 22 British fighters. The Trincomalee harbour facilities suffered considerable damage. \"Hermes\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s group reversed course at 0900 on 9 April, and detected by Japanese aerial scouts shortly afterwards. At 1030 they were attacked before the arrival of ground-based fighter cover. \"Hermes\" was hit by over 40 bombs in ten minutes and sunk. \"Vampire\", the corvette, and two tankers were also sunk. 600 survivors were rescued by a nearby hospital ship. During the day, nine Bristol Blenheim bombers from RAF No. 11 Squadron attacked Nagumo's force. They were not detected inbound by the combat air patrol (CAP). \"Hiryū\" spotted the aircraft but failed to relay a warning to the other ships. As a result, the attack achieved total surprise. The bombers unloaded at on \"Akagi\"; the bombs fell close to the target with no hits. Four bombers were shot down over the carriers by CAP A6M2 Zeroes (two of which were claimed by Kaname Harada), and another by Japanese aircraft returning from the strike on \"Hermes\". In return, a Zero was shot down near the carriers and another in the returning strike. This was the first time a Japanese carrier force had faced a concerted air attack.", "", "The Japanese inflicted disproportionate damage on the enemy. They damaged port facilities, sank one carrier and two cruisers, destroyed a third of enemy ground-based fighters and nearly all of the enemy ground-based strike aircraft. In addition, 23 merchant ships, totalling 112,312 tons, were sunk, including those by the separate Japanese Malay Force. In return, the Japanese lost only 18 aircraft, with damage to about 31 more. Conversely, they failed to destroy, or even locate, the main bulk of the British Eastern Fleet. The British interpreted their position as precarious. Ceylon and the Eastern Fleet were required to safeguard the sea lines of communications through the Indian Ocean. The British expected the Japanese to continue threatening these lines. SIGINT suggested that the Japanese were preparing a deliberate advance across the Indian Ocean. The raid demonstrated that the RAF was too weak to defend Ceylon and the naval anchorages, and that the navy was ill-prepared to meet a Japanese carrier force. The Eastern Fleet transferred its main base to Kilindini, Kenya, in East Africa, temporarily ceding the eastern Indian Ocean to the Japanese; from there it continued contesting control of the central Indian Ocean on better terms. Force A, including its two aircraft carriers, \"Indomitable\" and \"Formidable\", retired to Bombay, and Somerville regularly deployed a fast carrier force to the central Indian Ocean over the next six months, during which he operated from or near Ceylon for nearly half that time. On 18 April, naval planning accorded the Eastern Fleet the highest priority for reinforcement, which also included transferring most of the carriers from the Home Fleet and the Mediterranean, with the intention of returning to Ceylon in September. By June, Ceylon was defended by three RAF squadrons (64 aircraft, plus reserves), three strike squadrons (including one of Beauforts), and much improved radar and anti-aircraft defences. Ground defences were manned by two Australian army brigades. The invasion scare was short-lived. British intelligence detected the movement of the Japanese carrier force eastward in mid-April, and their deployment in the Pacific in mid-May. After the Battle of Midway in June, it was realized that there was no longer the threat of major Japanese naval activity in the Indian Ocean. In September, British intelligence predicted Japan would go over to the defensive. As a result, the Eastern Fleet was not reinforced as planned and, instead, shrank after early July.", "The Japanese did not exploit their victory as the British feared. The decision to postpone major operations in the Indian Ocean was upheld. The Japanese aircraft carriers required maintenance and replenishment after months of intensive operations, and there was already difficulty in maintaining the strength of frontline air units. Japanese attention also lay elsewhere. In early May, Japanese carriers fought the Battle of the Coral Sea in the southwest Pacific, followed in June by the Battle of Midway. In both cases, losses constrained Japanese options further. In June, the IJA developed a plan for a major offensive in the Indian Ocean, including an invasion of Ceylon. The Germans were advancing in North Africa, which made an Axis link-up in the Middle East attractive. Resource constraints forced the IJN to reject it, especially once the Guadalcanal Campaign started. Subsequently, the limit of Japanese operations in the Indian Ocean was against trade using submarines and armed merchant cruisers. Notably, a submarine group patrolling off East Africa attacked the harbour at Diego-Suarez, Madagascar, while the Allies were capturing the island. Ironically, the Allies were motivated by overblown fears that the Japanese might establish a base there to attack trade. Overall, Japanese attacks on trade enjoyed some success, but after 1942 the presence of major Japanese naval units in the Indian Ocean virtually ceased.", "Nagumo's leadership was criticised as rigid and unimaginative, which contributed to the failure to find and destroy the British Eastern Fleet. The manoeuvring of his fleet was mainly to facilitate strikes on Colombo and Trincomalee; the possibility that the enemy might be at sea was apparently not seriously considered. He failed to appreciate that the direction that \"Dorsetshire\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s force was sailing, and the later appearance of British carrier-based aircraft, were related. Furthermore, aerial reconnaissance was poor. Standard dawn searches were made on 5 and 6 April, but for much of the remainder Nagumo's had little concrete information of what was around him, especially to his front and exposed flanks. He was not served by the confidence that there was nothing else to be found outside of the few searches made.", "The raid also provided early examples of problems with Japanese carrier operations. Inadequate aerial reconnaissance failing to locate the enemy fleet in a timely fashion, the difficulty of rearming aircraft for a different mission at short notice, and the penetration of the CAP by enemy aircraft due to the lack of radar-directed fighter control, would all recur at the Battle of Midway.", "Somerville's leadership was characterized by a willingness to take risks, bordering on recklessness. The initial deployment of the fleet on 30 March endangered the British fleet in multiple ways. Somerville was relying on radar – manned by inexperienced personnel – to locate the enemy and facilitate night strikes. If the Japanese approached as expected from the southeast and the British failed to find the Japanese before dawn, the distance between the two fleets would be no more than ; the British would be detected by Japanese aerial reconnaissance at dawn and be subject to air attack for the entire day. Much the same could have been expected had Somerville still been on station when the Japanese arrived – as they did – from the southwest. Somerville's decision to refuel at Port T – rather than on Ceylon – on 2 April allowed the Eastern Fleet to avoid Nagumo a few days later, likely saved the Eastern Fleet from destruction. The failure of the Japanese fleet to appear on 1–2 April led Somerville to mistakenly believe that the entirety, rather than a part, of Allied intelligence concerning Operation C was flawed. As a result he detached \"Cornwall\", \"Dorsetshire\", and \"Hermes\", which were subsequently lost after being sent into areas overflown by Japanese aerial reconnaissance. Boyd notes: The disquieted Admiralty broadly agreed. Somerville faced challenges not experienced by the RN in the Atlantic or Mediterranean. Japanese air superiority made it difficult to scout, close, and attack during the day. Radar-enabled night attack was the only viable offensive option. This was a high-risk strategy. A combination of careful positioning, luck, and Japanese errors nearly produced the preconditions for a strike on the night of 5 April; the enemy was within – 1-hour flight range in an Albacore – but accurate information on the enemy's vector was missing. Even then, it required experienced air crews to find their targets at night, using radar with a range of just and new tactics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "F.E.2 (1911).", "F.E.2 (1913).", "F.E.2 (1914).", "Operational history.", "Notable appearances in popular fiction.", "Survivors and replicas.", "Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 aces." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Farman Experimental 2 designation refers to three quite distinct designs – all pushers based on the general layout employed by the French aircraft designers, the Farman Brothers – but otherwise completely different aircraft. This \"re-use\" of the F.E.2 designation has caused much confusion.", "The first F.E.2 was designed by Geoffrey de Havilland at the Royal Aircraft Factory in 1911. Although it was claimed to be a rebuild of the F.E.1, a pusher biplane designed and built by de Havilland before he joined the Factory's staff, it was in fact an entirely new aircraft, with construction completed before the F.E.1 was wrecked in a crash in August 1911. The new aircraft resembled the final form of the F.E.1, with no front elevator, but seated a crew of two in a wood and canvas nacelle, and was powered by a 50 hp (37 kW) Gnome rotary engine. It made its maiden flight on 18 August 1911, flown by de Havilland. It was fitted with floats in April 1912, first flying in this form on 12 April 1912, but was underpowered and its engine was therefore replaced by a 70 hp (52 kW) Gnome, this allowed it to take off carrying a passenger while fitted with floats. Later in the year the F.E.2, refitted with a landplane undercarriage, was modified to carry a Maxim machine gun on a flexible mount in the nose.", "The second F.E.2 was officially a rebuild of the first F.E.2, and may indeed have included some components from the earlier aircraft. It was, however, a totally new and much more modern design, larger and heavier than the 1911 aircraft, with the wingspan increased from 33 ft (10.06 m) to 42 ft (12.80 m) and a new, more streamlined nacelle. Loaded weight rose from 1,200 lb (545 kg) to 1,865 lb (848 kg). The new F.E.2 used the outer wings of the B.E.2a, with wing warping instead of ailerons for lateral control, and was powered by a 70 hp Renault engine. It was destroyed when it spun into the ground from 500 ft (150 m) on 23 February 1914, probably because of insufficient fin area. The pilot, R. Kemp, survived the crash, but his passenger was killed.", "Work started on another totally new design in mid-1914, the F.E.2a, specifically intended as a \"fighter\", or machine gun carrier – in the same class as the Vickers FB.5 \"Gunbus\". Apart from the \"Farman\" layout it bore no direct relationship with either of the two earlier designs: the outer wing panels were identical with those of the B.E.2c. It was a two-seater with the observer in the nose of the nacelle and the pilot sitting above and behind. The observer was armed with a.303 in Lewis machine gun firing forward on a specially designed, \"witches broomstick\" mounting that gave it a wide field of fire. The first production order for 12 aircraft was placed \"off the drawing board\" (i.e. prior to first flight) shortly after the outbreak of the First World War. By this time, the \"pusher\" configuration was aerodynamically obsolescent, but was retained to allow a clear forward field of fire. The undercarriage of the \"third\" F.E.2 was particularly well designed – a small nose wheel prevented nose-overs when landing on soft ground, and the oleo type shock absorbers were also appreciated by crews landing in rough, makeshift fields. In order to reduce weight and drag some of the production aircraft were fitted with a normal \"V\" type undercarriage. This was not universally popular and when a method was devised of removing the nose wheel in the field without disturbing the shock absorbers, this became the most common form of the F.E.2 undercarriage. The \"V\" undercarriage remained standard for F.E.2 night bombers, as it permitted the carriage of a large bomb under the nacelle. The first production batch consisted of 12 of the initial F.E.2a variant, with a large air brake under the top centre section, and a Green E.6 engine. The first F.E.2a made its maiden flight on 26 January 1915, but was found to be underpowered, and was re-engined with a Beardmore 120 hp (89 kW) liquid-cooled inline engine, as were the other eleven aircraft. The F.E.2a was quickly followed by the main production model, the F.E.2b, again powered by a Beardmore, initially of 120 hp, although later F.E.2bs received the 160 hp (119 kW) model. The air brake of the \"a\" failed to deliver a worthwhile reduction in the landing run and was omitted to simplify production. The type could also carry an external bomb load, and was routinely fitted with a standard air-photography camera. A total of 1,939 F.E.2bs were built, only a few of them at the Royal Aircraft Factory, as most construction was by private British manufacturers such as G & J Weir, Boulton & Paul Ltd and Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies. Early in the F.E.2b's career, a second Lewis gun was added in front of the pilot's cockpit, on a high telescopic mounting so that the pilot could fire forward, over his observer's head. In practice, this gun was appropriated by the observers, especially when they discovered that by climbing onto the rim of their cockpits they could fire backwards over the top wing – to some extent overcoming the notorious deficiency of pusher types in rear defence, although even this failed to cover a very large blind spot under the tail. The observer's perch was a precarious one, especially when firing the \"rear gun\", and he was liable to be thrown out of his cockpit, although his view was excellent in all directions except directly to the rear. The arrangement was described by Frederick Libby, an American ace who served as an F.E.2b observer in 1916: The Royal Aircraft Factory was primarily a research establishment and other experiments were carried out using F.E.2bs, including the testing of a generator-powered searchlight attached between two.303 inch (7.7 mm) Lewis guns, apparently for night fighting duties. The F.E.2c was an experimental night fighter and bomber variant of the F.E.2b, the main change being the switching of the pilot's and observer's positions so that the pilot had the best view for night landings. Two were built in 1916, with the designation being re-used in 1918 for a similar night bomber version of the F.E.2b, which was used by 100 Squadron. In the end, the observer-first layout was retained for the standard aircraft. The final production model was the F.E.2d (386 built) which was powered by a Rolls-Royce Eagle engine with 250 hp (186 kW). While the more powerful engine made little difference in maximum speed, especially at low altitude, it did improve altitude performance, with an extra 10 mph at 5,000 ft. The Rolls-Royce engine also improved payload, so that in addition to the two observer's guns, an additional one or two Lewis guns could be mounted to fire forward, operated by the pilot. At least two F.E.2bs were fitted with RAF 5 engines (a pusher version of the RAF 4 engine) in 1916 but no production followed. The F.E.2h was an F.E.2 powered by a Siddeley Puma. The prototype (\"A6545\") was converted in February 1918 by Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies, in the hope of producing a night fighter with superior performance. When tested at Martlesham Heath, it proved to be little better than the F.E.2b. Despite this, three more aircraft were converted to F.E.2h standard, these being fitted with a six-pounder (57 mm) Davis gun, mounted to fire downwards for ground attack purposes. While the F.E.2d was replaced by the Bristol Fighter, the older F.E.2b proved an unexpected success as a light tactical night bomber, and remained a standard type in this role for the rest of the war. Its climb rate and ceiling were too poor for it to make a satisfactory night fighter.", "The F.E.2a entered service in May 1915 with No. 6 Squadron RFC, which used the F.E.2 in conjunction with B.E.2s and a single Bristol Scout. The first squadron to be equipped entirely with the F.E.2 was 20 Squadron, deploying to France on 23 January 1916. At this stage it served as a fighter-reconnaissance aircraft – eventually about 2⁄3 of the F.E.2s were built as fighters (816) and 1⁄3 as bombers (395). The F.E.2b and F.E.2d variants remained in day operations well into 1917, while the \"b\" continued as a standard night bomber until August 1918. At its peak, the F.E.2b equipped 16 RFC squadrons in France and six Home Defence squadrons in England. On 18 June 1916, German flying ace Max Immelmann was killed in combat with F.E.2bs of No. 25 Squadron RFC. The squadron claimed the kill, but the German version of the encounter is either that Immelmann's Fokker Eindecker broke up after his synchroniser gear failed and he shot off his own propeller, or that he was hit by friendly fire from German anti-aircraft guns. In any case, by this time the F.E.2b was at least encountering the German monoplane fighters on more or less even terms and the so-called \"Fokker scourge\" had ended. By autumn 1916, the arrival of more modern German fighters such as the Albatros D.I and Halberstadt D.II meant that even the F.E.2d was outperformed and by April 1917, it had been withdrawn from offensive patrols. Despite its obsolescence in 1917, the F.E.2 was still well liked by its crews for its strength and good flight characteristics and it still occasionally proved a difficult opponent for even the best German aces. Rittmeister Baron von Richthofen was badly wounded in the head during combat with F.E.2d aircraft in June 1917 – the Red Baron, like most German pilots of the period, classed the F.E.2 as a \"Vickers\" type, confusing it with the earlier Vickers F.B.5. In combat with single-seater fighters, the pilots of F.E.2b and F.E.2d fighters would form what was probably the first use of what later became known as a Lufbery circle (defensive circle). In the case of the F.E.2, the intention was that the gunner of each aircraft could cover the blind spot under the tail of his neighbour and several gunners could fire on any enemy attacking the group. On occasion formations of F.E.2s fought their way back from far over the lines, while under heavy attack from German fighters, using this tactic. Although outclassed as a day fighter, the F.E.2 proved very suitable for use at night and was used as a night fighter in home defence squadrons on anti-Zeppelin patrols and as a light tactical night bomber. It was first used as a night bomber in November 1916, with the first specialist F.E.2b night bomber squadrons being formed in February 1917. F.E.2bs were used as night bombers in eight bomber squadrons until the end of the First World War, with up to 860 being converted to, or built as bombers. Service as a night fighter was less successful, owing to the type's poor climb and ceiling. F.E.2bs were experimentally fitted with flotation bags for operation over water and were also used to conduct anti-submarine patrols, operating from the Isle of Grain at the mouth of the Thames River. A total of 35 aircraft derived from the F.E.2 were sold to China in 1919 by Vickers as Vickers Instructional Machines (VIM), to be used as advanced trainers, having a redesigned nacelle fitted with dual controls and powered by a Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engine.", "Derek Robinson's novel \"War Story\" is about the fictional Hornet Squadron flying the F.E.2b, and later the F.E.2d, giving an account of flying the fighter in the months leading up to the Battle of the Somme. Robert Radcliffe's novel \"Across the Blood-Red Skies\" is narrated by an F.E.2 pilot, and offers an insight into the skills required to fly the aeroplane. William Stanley's novel \"One Spring in Picardy\" is the story of a night bomber FE2b squadron in France in the spring of 1918. Captain W.E. Johns' character Biggles starts his operational career in the fictional 169 squadron, flying the F.E.2b. Grif Hosker's five book series about Royal Flying Corps air combat in WWI: \"1914\", \"1915-Fokker Scourge\", \"1916-Angels Over the Somme\", \"1917-Eagles Fall\", and \"1918-We Will Remember Them\", vividly depict combat from an F.E.2. The protagonist, (a fictional character) Capt Bill Harsker, begins his flying career as an enlisted gunner in the front of a \"gunbus\" and advances to become a leading ace pilot. By the 1917 book, the F.E.2 suffers badly at the hands of the more advanced German aircraft and Harsker transitions to a Sopwith.", "The Royal Air Force Museum London displays an F.E.2b. The wings and tail struts are replicas but the aircraft's nacelle and engine are original. The nacelle was made in 1918 by Richard Garrett & Sons, who were subcontracted to make the nacelles for Boulton & Paul Ltd, who assembled the complete aircraft. However, this nacelle was unfinished and never built into a complete aircraft. It was retained by Garretts until 1976 when it was passed to the RAF Museum. In 1986, the museum began a restoration project and commissioned the construction of replica wings and tail; a Beardmore engine was bought in New Zealand in 1992. The lengthy restoration was finally completed and the aircraft put on display in 2009. Two reproductions of the F.E.2b, one to full airworthiness standards and fitted with a genuine Beardmore engine, have been manufactured by The Vintage Aviator Ltd of New Zealand.", "During its widespread service, four dozen aces used the FE.2 as their mount. Notable aces flying the FE.2 included: F.E.2b pilot aces F.E.2d pilot aces Ace's honours were not reserved solely for FE.2 pilots. Though slightly in the minority in the listings, a score of observers who manned the guns also became aces. The more notable among them are listed below: F.E.2b observer aces F.E.2d observer aces" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Origins.", "Establishment in Mecca.", "Control of Meccan trade.", "Conflict with Muhammad.", "Islamic leadership." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Sources differ as to the etymology of Quraysh, with one theory holding that it was the diminutive form of \"qirsh\" (shark). The 9th-century genealogist Hisham ibn al-Kalbi asserted that there was no eponymous founder of Quraysh; rather, the name stemmed from \"taqarrush\", an Arabic word meaning \"a coming together\" or \"association\". The \"nisba\" or surname of the Quraysh is \"Qurashī\", though in the early centuries of the Islamic \"Ummah\", most Qurayshi tribesmen were denoted by their specific clan instead of the tribe. Later, particularly after the 13th century, claimants of Qurayshi descent used the \"Qurashī\" surname.", "", "The Quraysh's progenitor was Fihr ibn Malik, whose full genealogy, according to traditional Arab sources, was the following: Fihr ibn Mālik ibn al-Naḍr ibn Kināna ibn Khuzayma ibn Mudrika ibn Ilyās ibn Muḍar ibn Nizār ibn Maʿadd ibn ʿAdnān. Thus, Fihr belonged to the Kinana tribe and his descent is traced to Adnan, the semi-legendary father of the \"northern Arabs\". According to the traditional sources, Fihr led the warriors of Kinana and Khuzayma in defense of the Ka'aba, at the time a major pagan sanctuary in Mecca, against tribes from Yemen; however, the sanctuary and the privileges associated with it continued to be in the hands of the Yemeni Khuza'a tribe. The Quraysh gained their name when Qusayy ibn Kilab, a sixth-generation descendant of Fihr ibn Malik, gathered together his kinsmen and took control of the Ka'aba. Prior to this, Fihr's offspring lived in scattered, nomadic groups among their Kinana relatives.", "All medieval Muslim sources agree that Qusayy unified Fihr's descendants, and established the Quraysh as the dominant power in Mecca. After conquering Mecca, Qusayy assigned quarters to different Qurayshi clans. Those settled around the Ka'aba were known \"Quraysh al-Biṭāḥ\" (), and included all of the descendants of Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy and others. The clans settled in the outskirts of the sanctuary were known as \"Quraysh al-Ẓawāhīr\" (). According to historian Ibn Ishaq, Qusayy's younger son, 'Abd Manaf, had grown prominent during his father's lifetime and was chosen by Qusayy to be his successor as the guardian of the Ka'aba. He also gave other responsibilities related to the Ka'aba to his other sons 'Abd al-'Uzza and 'Abd, while ensuring that all decisions by the Quraysh had to be made in the presence of his eldest son 'Abd al-Dar; the latter was also designated ceremonial privileges such as keeper of the Qurayshi war banner and supervisor of water and provisions to the pilgrims visiting the Ka'bah. According to historian F. E. Peters, Ibn Ishaq's account reveals that Mecca in the time of Qusayy and his immediate offspring was not yet a commercial center; rather, the city's economy was based on pilgrimage to the Ka'bah, and \"what pass[ed] for municipal offices [designated by Qusayy] have to do only with military operations and with control of the shrine\". During that time, the tribesmen of Quraysh were not traders; instead, they were entrusted with religious services, from which they significantly profited. They also profited from taxes collected from incoming pilgrims. Though Qusayy appeared to be the strongman of Quraysh, he was not officially a king of the tribe, but one of many leading sheikhs (tribal chieftains). According to historian Gerald R. Hawting, if the traditional sources are to be believed, Qusayy's children, \"must have lived in the second half of the fifth century\". However, historian W. Montgomery Watt asserts that Qusayy himself likely died in the second half of the 6th century. The issue of succession between Qusayy's natural successor, 'Abd al-Dar, and his chosen successor, 'Abd Manaf, led to the division of Quraysh into two factions; those who backed the 'Abd al-Dar clan, including the clans of Banu Sahm, Banu 'Adi, Banu Makhzum and Banu Jumah, became known as \"al-Aḥlāf\" (the Confederates), while those who backed the 'Abd Manaf clan, including the Banu Taym, Banu Asad, Banu Zuhra and Banu al-Harith ibn Fihr, were known as \"al-Muṭayyabūn\" ().", "Toward the end of the 6th century, the Fijar War broke out between the Quraysh and the Kinana on one side and various Qaysi tribes on the other, including the Hawazin, Banu Thaqif, Banu 'Amir and Banu Sulaym. The war broke out when a Kinani tribesman killed an 'Amiri tribesman escorting a Lakhmid caravan to the Hejaz. The attack took place during the holy season when fighting was typically forbidden. The Kinani tribesman's patron was Harb ibn Umayya, a Qurayshi chief. This patron and other chiefs were ambushed by the Hawazin at Nakhla, but were able to escape. In the battles that occurred in the following two years, the Qays were victorious, but in the fourth year, the tide turned in favor of the Quraysh and Kinana. After a few more clashes, peace was reestablished. According to Watt, the actual aim in the Fijar War was control of the trade routes of Najd. Despite particularly tough resistance by the Quraysh's main trade rivals, the Thaqif of Ta'if, and the Banu Nasr clan of Hawazin, the Quraysh ultimately held sway over western Arabian trade. The Quraysh gained control over Ta'if's trade, and many Qurayshi individuals purchased estates in Ta'if, where the climate was cooler. The sanctuary village of Mecca had become a major Arabian trade hub. According to Watt, by 600 CE, the leaders of Quraysh \"were prosperous merchants who had obtained something like a monopoly of the trade between the Indian Ocean and East Africa on the one hand and the Mediterranean on the other\". Furthermore, the Quraysh commissioned trade caravans to Yemen in the winter and caravans to Gaza, kut, Basra, doha, Damascus and al-Arish in the summer. The Quraysh established networks with merchants in these Syrian cities. They also formed political or economic alliances with many of the Bedouin (nomadic Arab) tribes in the northern and central Arabian deserts to ensure the safety of their trade caravans. The Quraysh invested their revenues in building their trading ventures, and shared profits with tribal allies to translate financial fortune into significant political power in the Hejaz, i.e. western Arabia. In the words of Fred Donner: [By the end of the 6th century,] Meccan commerce was flourishing as never before, and the leaders in this trade [the Quraysh] had developed from mere merchants into true financiers. They were no longer interested in \"buying cheap and selling dear,\" but also with organizing money and men to realize their commercial objectives. There was emerging, in short, a class of men with well-developed managerial and organizational skills. It was a development unheralded, and almost unique, in central Arabia. The Banu Makhzum and Banu Umayya, in particular, acquired vast wealth from trade and held the most influence among the Quraysh in Meccan politics. The Banu Umayya and the Banu Nawfal, another clan descending from 'Abd Manaf that had become wealthy from their commercial enterprise, split from the \"Muṭayyabūn\" faction in 605 and engaged in business with the \"Aḥlāf\". Their financial fortunes had enabled them to become a force of their own. The \"Muṭayyabūn\" was consequently replaced by the \"al-Fuḍūl\" alliance, which consisted of the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib, which, like the Banu Umayya, were descendants of 'Abd Manaf, and the Taym, Asad, Zuhra and al-Harith ibn Fihr clans. The Banu Hashim held the hereditary rights surrounding the pilgrimage to the Ka'aba, though the Banu Umayya were ultimately the strongest Qurayshi clan. According to Watt, \"In all the stories of the pre-Islamic period there is admittedly a legendary element, but the main outline of events appears to be roughly correct, even if most of the dating is uncertain.\"", "The polytheistic Quraysh opposed the monotheistic message preached by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, himself a Qurayshi from the Banu Hashim. The tribe harassed members of the nascent Muslim community, and attempted to harm Muhammad, but he was protected by his uncle Abu Talib. To escape persecution, Muhammad and his companions, including the Qurayshi Abu Bakr, emigrated to Medina. Muhammad then confronted a Qurayshi caravan returning from Palestine and defeated the Quraysh at the ensuing Battle of Badr in 624. The Quraysh later besieged the Muslims at Medina in 627, but were defeated in the Battle of the Trench. The Treaty of Hudaybiyya was then signed between Muhammad and the Quraysh in 628, but was violated because of a dispute between Bedouin tribes from each camp. In January 630, Muhammad moved to finally settle the conflict with Quraysh and returned with his followers to capture Mecca.", "Muhammad entered Mecca victoriously in 630, prompting the rest of Quraysh to embrace Islam. Muhammad sought to consolidate the unity of his expanding Muslim community by \"winning over this powerful group [the Quraysh]\", according to Donner; to that end he guaranteed Qurayshi participation and influence in the nascent Islamic state. Thus, despite their long enmity with Muhammad, the Quraysh were brought in as political and economic partners and became a key component in the Muslim elite. Many leading Qurayshi tribesmen were installed in key government positions and in Muhammad's policy-making circle. According to Donner, the inclusion of Quraysh \"in the ruling elite of the Islamic state was very probably responsible for what appears to be the more carefully organized and systematic approach to statesmanship practiced by Muhammad in the closing years of his life, as the organizational skills of the Quraysh were put to use in the service of Islam\". With Muhammad's death in 632, rivalry emerged between the Quraysh and the two other components of the Muslim elite, the Ansar and the Thaqif, over influence in state matters. The Ansar wanted one of their own to succeed the prophet as caliph, but were persuaded by Umar to agree to Abu Bakr. During the reigns of Abu Bakr (632–634) and Umar (r. 634–644), some of the Ansar were concerned about their political stake. The Quraysh apparently held real power during this period marked by the early Muslim conquests. During the First Muslim Civil War, the Ansar, who backed Caliph Ali of the Banu Hashim against two factions representing rival Qurayshi clans, were defeated. They were subsequently left out of the political elite, while the Thaqif maintained a measure of influence by dint of their long relationship with the Quraysh. A \"hadith\" holding that the caliph must be from Quraysh became almost universally accepted by the Muslims, with the exception of the Kharijites. Indeed, control of the Islamic state essentially devolved into a struggle between various factions of the Quraysh. In the first civil war, these factions included the Banu Umayya represented by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the Banu Hashim represented by Ali, and other Qurayshi leaders such as al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam of the Banu Asad and Talha ibn Ubayd Allah of the Banu Taym. Later, during the Second Muslim Civil War, these same factions again fought for control of the caliphate, with the Umayyads victorious at the war's conclusion in 692/93. In 750, the issue of which Qurayshi clan would hold the reins of power was again raised but this time, the Abbasids, a branch of the Banu Hashim, were victorious and slew much of the Banu Umayya. Afterward, Islamic leadership was contested between different branches of the Banu Hashim." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development and production.", "Powerplants.", "Operational history.", "World War I.", "Post-war service.", "Reproductions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Fokker's chief designer, Reinhold Platz, had been working on a series of experimental V-series aircraft, starting in 1916. The aircraft were notable for the use of cantilever wings. Hugo Junkers and his aviation firm had originated the idea in 1915 with the first practical all-metal aircraft, the Junkers J 1 monoplane, nicknamed \"Blechesel\" (Sheet Metal Donkey or Tin Donkey). The wings were thick, with a rounded leading edge. The shape of the wings' airfoil gave greater lift, with its relatively \"blunt\" leading edge (as seen in cross-section) giving it more docile stalling behavior than the thin wings commonly in use. Late in 1917, Fokker built the experimental V 11 biplane, fitted with the standard Mercedes D.IIIa engine. In January 1918, \"Idflieg\" held a fighter competition at Adlershof. For the first time, front line pilots participated in the evaluation and selection of new fighters. Fokker submitted the V 11 along with several other prototypes. Manfred von Richthofen flew the V 11 and found it tricky, unpleasant and directionally unstable in a dive. Platz lengthened the rear fuselage by one structural bay and added a triangular fin in front of the rudder. Richthofen tested the modified V 11 and praised it as the best aircraft of the competition. It offered excellent performance from the outdated Mercedes engine, yet was safe and easy to fly. Richthofen's recommendation virtually decided the competition but he was not alone in recommending it. Fokker immediately received a provisional order for 400 production aircraft, which were named D.VII by \"Idflieg\". Fokker's factory was not up to the task of meeting all D.VII production orders and \"Idflieg\" directed Albatros and AEG to build the D.VII under license, though AEG did not ultimately produce any aircraft. Because the Fokker factory did not use detailed plans as part of its production process, Fokker simply sent a D.VII airframe for Albatros to copy. Albatros paid Fokker a five percent royalty for every D.VII they built under license. Albatros Flugzeugwerke and its subsidiary, Ostdeutsche Albatros Werke (OAW), built the D.VII at factories in Johannisthal [Fokker D.VII (Alb)] and Schneidemühl [Fokker D.VII (OAW)] respectively. Aircraft markings included the type designation and factory suffix, immediately before the individual serial number. Some parts were not interchangeable between aircraft produced at different factories, even between Albatros and OAW. Each manufacturer tended to differ in both nose paint styles and the patterning and layout of their engine compartment cooling louvers on the sides of the nose. OAW produced examples were delivered with distinctive mauve and green splotches on the cowling. All D.VIIs were produced with either the five-color \"Fünffarbiger\" or less often, the four-color \"Vierfarbiger\" lozenge camouflage covering, except for early Fokker-produced D.VIIs, which had a streaked green fuselage. Factory camouflage finishes were often overpainted with colorful paint schemes or insignia for the \"Jasta\" or for a pilot. In September 1918, eight D.VIIs were delivered to Bulgaria. Late in 1918, the Austro-Hungarian company \"Magyar Általános Gépgyár\" (\"MÁG\", Hungarian General Machine Company) commenced licensed production of the D.VII with Austro-Daimler engines. Production continued after the end of the war, with as many as 50 aircraft completed.", "Many sources erroneously state that the D.VII was equipped with the 120 kW (160 hp) Mercedes D.III engine. The Germans used D.III as a generic term to describe later versions of that engine. The earliest production D.VIIs were equipped with 170–180 hp Mercedes D.IIIa. Production quickly switched to the intended standard engine, the higher-compression 134 kW (180–200 hp) Mercedes D.IIIaü. It appears that some early production D.VIIs delivered with the Mercedes D.IIIa were later re-engined with the D.IIIaü. By mid-1918, some D.VIIs received the \"overcompressed\" 138 kW (185 hp) BMW IIIa, the first product of the BMW firm. The BMW IIIa followed the SOHC, straight-six configuration of the Mercedes D.III but incorporated several improvements. Increased displacement, higher compression and an altitude-adjusting carburettor produced a marked increase in speed and climb rate at high altitude. Because the BMW IIIa was overcompressed, using full throttle at altitudes below risked premature detonation in the cylinders and damage to the engine. At low altitudes, full throttle could produce up to 179 kW (240 hp) for a short time. Fokker-built aircraft with the new BMW engine were called D.VII(F), the suffix \"F\" standing for Max Friz, the engine designer. BMW-engined aircraft entered service with \"Jasta\" 11 in late June 1918. Pilots clamored for the D.VII(F), of which about 750 were built. Production of the BMW IIIa was limited and the D.VII continued to be produced with the 134 kW (180 hp) Mercedes D.IIIaü until the end of the war. D.VIIs flew with different propeller designs from different manufacturers. Despite the variations there is no indication these propellers gave disparate performance. Axial, Wolff, Wotan, and Heine propellers have been noted.", "", "The D.VII entered squadron service with \"Jasta\" 10 in early May 1918. When the Fokker D.VII appeared on the Western Front in April 1918, Allied pilots at first underestimated the new fighter because of its squarish, ungainly appearance but quickly revised their view. The type quickly proved to have many important advantages over the Albatros and Pfalz scouts. Unlike the Albatros scouts, the D.VII could dive without any fear of structural failure. The D.VII was also noted for its high manoeuvrability and ability to climb, its remarkably docile stall and reluctance to spin. It could \"hang on its prop\" without stalling for brief periods of time, spraying enemy aircraft from below with machine gun fire. These handling characteristics contrasted with contemporary scouts such as the Camel and SPAD, which stalled sharply and spun vigorously. Several aircraft suffered rib failures and fabric shedding on the upper wing. Heat from the engine sometimes ignited phosphorus ammunition until additional cooling louvers were installed on the metal sides of the engine cowling panels and fuel tanks sometimes broke at the seams. Aircraft built by the Fokker factory at Schwerin were noted for their lower standard of workmanship and materials. Despite faults, the D.VII proved to be a remarkably successful design, leading to the familiar aphorism that it could turn a mediocre pilot into a good one and a good pilot into an ace. Richthofen died days before the D.VII began to reach the \"Jagdstaffeln\" and never flew it in combat. Other pilots, including Erich Löwenhardt and Hermann Göring, quickly racked up victories and generally lauded the design. Aircraft availability was limited at first, but by July there were 407 in service. Larger numbers became available by August, when D.VIIs achieved 565 victories. The D.VII eventually equipped 46 \"Jagdstaffeln\". When the war ended in November, 775 D.VII aircraft were in service.", "The Allies confiscated large numbers of D.VII aircraft after the Armistice. The United States Army and Navy evaluated 142 captured examples. Several of these aircraft were re-engined with American-built Liberty L-6 motors, very similar in appearance to the D.VII's original German power plants. France, Great Britain and Canada also received numbers of war prizes. Other countries used the D.VII operationally. The Polish deployed approximately 50 aircraft during the Polish-Soviet War, using them mainly for ground attack missions. The Hungarian Soviet Republic used a number of D.VIIs, both built by MAG and ex-German aircraft in the Hungarian-Romanian War of 1919. The Dutch, Swiss, and Belgian air forces also operated the D.VII. The aircraft proved so popular that Fokker completed and sold a large number of D.VII airframes that he had smuggled into the Netherlands after the Armistice. As late as 1929, the Alfred Comte company manufactured eight new D.VII airframes under license for the Swiss \"Fliegertruppe\".", "Many modern D.VII reproductions have been built. Most flyable examples are powered by Ranger or Gipsy Queen inverted-six cylinder inline engines. These engines, especially the Ranger units, must be turned upright to produce the correct thrust line, thus requiring a new oiling system. A few flying reproductions, such as the one at New York State's Old Rhinebeck Aerodrome, are equipped with original Mercedes D.IIIa engines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Royal Aircraft Factory.", "Aircraft Factory designs.", "Designs produced.", "Controversy.", "Changes.", "Rockets.", "Current use of the Farnborough site.", "Fictional appearance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1904–1906 the Army Balloon Factory, which was part of the Army School of Ballooning, under the command of Colonel James Templer, relocated from Aldershot to the edge of Farnborough Common in order to have enough space to inflate the new \"dirigible balloon\" or airship which was then under construction. Templer's place was taken by Colonel John Capper and Templer himself retired in 1908. Besides balloons and airships, the factory also experimented with Samuel Franklin Cody's war kites and aeroplanes designed both by Cody and J. W. Dunne. In October 1908 Cody made the first aeroplane flight in Britain at Farnborough. In 1909 Army work on aeroplanes ceased and the Factory was brought under civilian control. Capper was replaced as Superintendent by Mervyn O'Gorman. In 1912 the Balloon Factory was renamed the Royal Aircraft Factory (RAF). Its first new designer was Geoffrey de Havilland who later founded his own company. Later colleagues included John Kenworthy who became chief engineer and designer at the Austin Motor Company in 1918 and who went on to found the Redwing Aircraft Co in 1930 (Flight International) and Henry Folland – later chief designer at Gloster Aircraft Company, and founder of his own company Folland Aircraft. One of the designers in the engine department was Samuel Heron, who later went on to invent the sodium-filled poppet valve, instrumental in achieving greater power levels from piston engines. While at the RAF, Heron designed a radial engine that he was not able to build during his time there, however upon leaving the RAF he then went to Siddeley-Deasy where the design, the RAF.8, was developed as the Jaguar. Heron later moved to the United States where he worked on the design of the Wright Whirlwind. Other engineers included Major F.M. Green, G.S. Wilkinson, James E. \"Jimmy\" Ellor, Prof. A.H. Gibson, and A.A. Griffith. Both Ellor and Griffith would later go on to work for Rolls-Royce Limited. In 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory was once more renamed, becoming the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) to avoid confusion with the Royal Air Force, which was formed on 1 April 1918, and because it had relinquished its manufacturing role to concentrate on research. During WWII the Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment, then based at Helensburgh in Scotland, was under the control of the RAE. In 1946 work began to convert RAF Thurleigh into RAE Bedford. Engineers at the Royal Aircraft Establishment invented high strength carbon fibre in 1963. In 1961, the world's first grooved runway for reduced aquaplaning was constructed. In 1965, a US delegation visited to view the new surfacing practice and initiated a study by the FAA and NASA. On 1 May 1988 the RAE was renamed the Royal Aerospace Establishment. On 1 April 1991 the RAE was merged into the Defence Research Agency (DRA), the MOD's new research organisation. Then, on 1 April 1995 the DRA and other MOD organisations merged to form the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA). The Bedford site was largely shut down in 1994. In 2001 DERA was part-privatised by the MOD, resulting in two separate organisations, the state-owned Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL), and the privatised company QinetiQ.", "", "Between 1911 and 1918 the Royal Aircraft Factory produced a number of aircraft designs. Most of these were essentially research aircraft, but a few actually went into mass production, especially during the war period. Some orders were met by the factory itself, but the bulk of production was by private British companies, some of which had not previously built aircraft. Up to about 1913 the designation letters referred to the general layout of the aircraft, derived from a French manufacturer or designer famous for that type: From 1913/4 onwards this was changed to a designation based on the role for which the aircraft was designed: The B.S.1 of 1913 was a one-off anomaly, combining both systems: Blériot (tractor) Scout (fighter). R.T. & T.E. were also used for strictly one off prototypes.", "Several aircraft were produced during the days as the Army Balloon Factory. These include the airships as well as the Cody and Dunne designs. Subsequent Royal Aircraft Factory type designations are inconsistent and confusing. For instance the \"F.E.2\" designation refers to three quite distinct types, with only the same broad layout in common, the F.E.2 (1911), the F.E.2 (1913), and finally the famous wartime two-seat fighter and general purpose design, the F.E.2 (1914). This last aircraft was the one that went into production, and had three main variants, the F.E.2a, F.E.2b, and the F.E.2d. As if this wasn't enough, there is the F.E.2c; this was a generic description rather than a subtype proper, and refers to several one-off conversions of F.E.2b's that experimentally reversed the seating positions of the pilot and the observer. The B.E.1 was basically the prototype for the early B.E.2 but the B.E.2c was almost a completely new aeroplane, with very little common with the earlier B.E.2 types apart from engine and fuselage. On the other hand, the B.E.3 to the B.E.7 were all effectively working prototypes for the B.E.8 and were all very similar in design, with progressive minor modifications of the kind that many aircraft undergo during a production run. The B.E.8a was at least as different from the B.E.8 as the B.E.7 was. The S.E.4a had nothing in common at all with the S.E.4, while the S.E.5a was simply a late production S.E.5 with a more powerful engine. Several early RAF designs were officially \"reconstructions\" of existing aircraft, because the Factory did not initially have official authority to build aircraft to their own design. In most cases the type in question used no parts whatever from the wreck, in some cases not even the engine.", "At the time of the \"Fokker Scourge\" in 1915, there was a press campaign against the standardisation of Royal Aircraft Factory types in the Royal Flying Corps, allegedly in favour of superior designs available from the design departments of private British firms. This slowly gained currency, especially because of the undeniable fact that the B.E.2c and B.E.2e were kept in production and in service long after they were obsolete and that the B.E.12 and B.E.12a were indisputable failures. Some of this criticism was prejudiced and ill-informed. Some aviation historians continue to perpetuate the resulting belittling of the important experimental work of the Factory during this period, and the exaggeration of the failings of Factory production types, several of which were described in sensationally derogatory terms. A modern, rather more \"pro-factory\" point of view, can be found in several of the volumes of \"War Planes of the First World War\", by J.M. Bruce—MacDonald, London, 1965.", "After the end of the First World War, design and development of aircraft types ended – although work continued on general research, and the development of missiles. Research included wind tunnel testing and other aeronautical research, areas which offered rare opportunities for women in STEM fields at this time with examples including Frances Bradfield who worked at the RAE for her entire career from 1919 to her retirement; Johanna Weber, a German mathematician who joined the RAE after World War II as part of Operation Surgeon to exploit German aeronautical researchers and technicians and bring them to the UK; and Beatrice Shilling who went on to invent Miss Shilling's orifice, to improve the engine performance of RAF Hurricane and Spitfire fighters during the Battle of Britain as part of wider work at the RAE on aircraft engine problems during World War II. In 1930 the RAE developed the Robot Air Pilot, an autopilot that used a gyro and flight controls that functioned by compressed air. Aircraft that were developed or tested at the RAE included the Hawker Siddeley Harrier and Concorde.", "In the late fifties and through the sixties work proceeded at the RAE on several rocket projects – all of which were eventually abandoned", "The former RAE Farnborough site is (as of 2011) occupied by: The National Aerospace Library (NAL), located in the former Weapon Aerodynamics building (Q134 Building) has a collection of over 2,500 technical reports produced by the RAE. The historic Farnborough factory site houses three major wind tunnels, the 24' low speed wind tunnel (Q121 Building), constructed during the early 1930s, the No. 2 11.5' low speed wind tunnel (R136 Building) and the 8' x 6' transonic wind tunnel within R133 Building, which was originally commissioned in the early 1940s as a 10' x 7' high subsonic speed tunnel, but converted during the mid-1950s. A smaller 2' x 1.5' transonic tunnel is housed in R133 Building, while R52 Building contains the remaining 4' x 3' low turbulence wind tunnel. R52 Building had previously housed two early 10' x 7' low speed tunnels in separate bays, which were replaced by the No. 1 11.5' and 4' x 3' tunnels respectively. The former remains in operation at the University of Southampton. R52 building also previously contained a 5' open jet low speed tunnel, originally built as a sub-scale prototype for the larger 24' tunnel, but subsequently modified for use as a noise measurement facility. Both Q121 and R133 are now Grade I listed buildings. To the west of the Farnborough site is the 5 metre pressurised low speed wind tunnel, which was commissioned in the late 1970s. This facility remains in operation by QinetiQ, primarily for the development and testing of aircraft high lift systems.", "The hero of Nevil Shute's 1948 novel \"No Highway\" is an eccentric \"boffin\" at Farnborough who predicts metal fatigue in Britain's new airliner, the fictional \"Rutland Reindeer\". The Comets failed for just this reason in 1954, although in the case of the Comet I the problem was in the metal structure around the squared windows, while the point of failure in the Reindeer aircraft was in the structure of the rear empennage/fuselage joints. A film version of the novel, \"No Highway in the Sky\", appeared in 1951, starring James Stewart as the protagonist. Stewart prepared for the role by shadowing Fred Jones OBE, a co-founder of the RAE Accident Section. Jones later was head of Structures Section (formerly Airworthiness Section) from 1957 to 1980." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Electrical Engineering.", "Electromagnetics.", "Acoustics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In electrical engineering, oscillation is an effect caused by a transient response of a circuit or system. It is a momentary event preceding the steady state (electronics) during a sudden change of a circuit or start-up. Most circuit principles such as inductor volt-second balance, capacitor ampere-second balance ignore transient states and are valid only for steady state. Mathematically, it can be modeled as a damped harmonic oscillator. An example of transient oscillation can be found in digital (pulse) signals in computer networks. Each pulse produces two transients, an oscillation resulting from the sudden rise in voltage and another oscillation from the sudden drop in voltage. This is generally considered an undesirable effect as it introduces variations in the high and low voltages of a signal, causing instability.", "In electrical and electronic engineering such electromagnetic pulses (EMP) occur internally as the result of the operation of switching devices. Engineers use voltage regulators and surge protectors to prevent transients in electricity from affecting delicate equipment. External sources include lightning (LEMP), electrostatic discharge (ESD) and nuclear EMP (NEMP). Within Electromagnetic compatibility testing, transients are deliberately administered to electronic equipment for testing their performance and resilience to transient interference. Many such tests administer the induced fast transient oscillation directly, in the form of a damped sine wave, rather than attempt to reproduce the original source. International standards define the magnitude and methods used to apply them. The European standard for Electrical Fast Transient (EFT) testing is EN-61000-4-4. The U.S. equivalent is IEEE C37.90. Both of these standards are similar. The standard chosen is based on the intended market.", "The typical sound of some musical instruments is also characterized by acoustic transients, which can be heard when striking a percussion instrument or the strings of a string instrument." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and recording.", "Composition.", "Release and reception.", "Music video.", "Title.", "Cover versions.", "Recording and release history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"You Know You're Right\" was written in 1993. For years, it was known only from a bootlegged live version, recorded on October 23, 1993, at the Aragon Ballroom in Chicago, Illinois, and from a performance of the song by the American grunge band Hole (fronted by Cobain's widow, Courtney Love) during the band's \"MTV Unplugged\" set in 1995. A studio version was recorded by Adam Kasper at Nirvana's final session, on January 30, 1994 at Robert Lang Studios in Seattle, Washington. The band had booked the studio for three days, but Cobain had been absent for the first two days, leaving bassist Krist Novoselic and drummer Dave Grohl to work on their own songs. Upon Cobain's arrival on the third day, he suggested they work on \"You Know You're Right,\" which was then untitled and featured unfinished lyrics. The band performed the song twice before recording the final take, and Cobain recorded four vocal takes. It was the only Cobain composition recorded during the session that featured completed vocals. Cobain's final contribution to the recording was a guitar overdub. The studio's owner, Robert Lang, recalls being \"speechless\" first hearing the band perform the song while in the control room with Kasper. The band planned to continue work on a fourth Nirvana album at Lang's studio after their upcoming European tour, but Cobain died in April 1994, before they could return. The recording of \"You Know You're Right\" remained unreleased for years, eventually becoming the centre of a legal dispute between Love, Grohl, and Novoselic. Grohl and Novoselic had wanted the song for a planned Nirvana box set, but Love blocked its release, saying that the song would have been \"wasted\" on a box set, and would be better-suited to a single-disc collection similar to The Beatles' \"1\". Her lawsuit called the song a \"potential 'hit' of extraordinary artistic and commercial value,\" and her manager asserted that a release with the song could sell 15 million copies. Novoselic revealed that he did not necessarily disagree with Love: \"I've always considered everything she said. We've considered it and agreed and said, 'Hey, that's a great idea, Courtney.' I tried to get along with Courtney as best I could, but there's only so much you can do.\" In September 2002, the lawsuit was settled, and it was announced that \"You Know You're Right\" would arrive on \"a one-CD history of the band\" called \"Nirvana\" later that year. An unmastered MP3 of the song was leaked on the Internet almost two months prior to its official release, and the song was put in rotation by a number of alternative rock radio stations, even after being sent cease and desist letters from Nirvana's record label. \"You Know You're Right\" was eventually released as a promo single, and a Chris Hafner-directed music video was made. The song was re-released on the band's second greatest hits compilation, \"Icon\", in 2010.", "\"You Know You're Right\" is an alternative rock song that lasts for a duration of three minutes and thirty-seven seconds. According to the sheet music published at Sheet Music Plus by EMI Music Publishing, it is written in the time signature of common time, with a moderately slow tempo of 84 beats per minute. \"You Know You're Right\" is composed in the key of F minor, while Kurt Cobain's vocal range spans one octave and three notes. The song follows a basic sequence of F–D–E in the verses and pre-chorus and is mainly restricted to a droning chord of F throughout the refrain as its chord progression.", "\"You Know You're Right\" became Nirvana's fourth song to enter the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 45. It was the band's fifth song to reach number one on the \"Billboard Modern Rock Tracks\" chart, where it remained for four consecutive weeks, the longest of any Nirvana song. With an increase of 1,616 spins, Nirvana also broke the record for the largest detected jump by an act already on the chart. It also became Nirvana's first song to top the \"Billboard\" Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, beating their previous peak of number three, achieved by both \"Come as You Are\" in April 1992 and \"About A Girl\" in December 1994. Amy McAuliffe from BBC called the song \"a poignant reminder of what might have been\" and described it as \"listening to a dead man snarling out his last gasp of righteous sarcasm.\" Will Hermes of \"Spin\" remarked that it was \"amazing how a merely good Nirvana song still scorches everything within earshot.\" David Samuels of \"Slate\" wrote that \"unlike most post-mortem rock releases, 'You Know You’re Right' is not B-side material or the result of recording studio wizardry—it’s a real Nirvana song\" that showed that \"Cobain was at the peak of his powers as a vocalist and songwriter—the most gifted and popular writer that rock music had seen since Lennon/McCartney.\" Likewise, Larry Flint from \"Billboard\" stated, \"Unlike most previously unreleased cuts tacked onto best-of sets, 'You Know You're Right' is a potent addition to Nirvana's cache of classic material.\" \"You Know You're Right\" was ranked at the fifth best single of the year by \"Spin\", with Charles Aaron calling it a \"gnarly little heart-shaped box crammed with feedback, bile, and a gut-shredding chorus.\" In 2011, it was ranked at number two on \"NME's\" list of the 10 best Nirvana songs. In 2015, \"Rolling Stone\" listed it at number 21 on their ranking of 102 Nirvana songs. The song's producer, Adam Kasper, called it \"one of their best songs, probably in the Top Ten.\" Grohl reflected on the song in a 2019 interview with \"The Guardian,\" telling interviewer Eve Barlow that “I listened to it for the first time in 10 years. Oh God, it’s hard to listen to. It was not a pleasant time for the band. Kurt was unwell. Then he was well. Then he was unwell. The last year of the band was tough.” In addition to calling the lyrics \"heartbreaking\" in retrospect, Grohl added that \"I used to think it sounded like [Cobain] was singing the chorus. Now I listen to it and it’s like he’s wailing.” In May, 2020, Cameron Crowe revealed to Stereogum that he had hid Nirvana's \"You Know You're Right\" in his 2001 thriller \"Vanilla Sky\" which was a year before the song had been officially released. He said that the song was given to him by Courtney Love who told him that \"This is the only Nirvana song that's never been released. Hide it in your movie somewhere\".", "A music video for \"You Know You're Right\" was released in October 2002. Directed by Chris Hafner, it features a montage of band footage, drawn mostly from live performances and interviews, occasionally edited to give the effect of the song being performed. The video peaked at number two of the \"Billboard\" Video Monitor, a chart of the most-played clips as monitored by the Nielson Broadcast Data Systems, for the week ending October 20, 2002.", "\"You Know You're Right\" did not have an official title at the time of Cobain's death in April 1994. According to a 2004 \"Seattle Times\" article by Gillian G. Gaar, it was listed simply as \"Kurt's Song #1\" on the tracking sheets from the Robert Lang Studios recording session. In 1995, it was performed as \"You've Got No Right\" by Hole at their \"MTV Unplugged\" appearance, and this title was most commonly used by fans prior to the release of the album \"Nirvana\" in 2002. In the liner notes to \"Nirvana\", \"Rolling Stone\" writer David Fricke erroneously states that the song had gone under the previous titles of \"Autopilot\" and \"On a Mountain.\" The latter title was also cited by Charles Cross in his 2001 Cobain biography, \"Heavier Than Heaven\". These names were actually invented by bootleggers who had misheard Dave Grohl's comment at the beginning of the live version. Grohl had announced, \"This is our last song; it's called 'All Apologies'\" unaware that Cobain had already started playing \"You Know You're Right.\" Due to the poor fidelity of the live recording, bootleggers believed Grohl had introduced the new song, and tried to interpret what they thought was its title. Cross also seems to misrepresent the lyrics in \"Heavier Than Heaven\", citing the lyric, \"I am walking in the piss,\" which appears in Hole's 1995 version of the song, but in no known Nirvana recording.", "The song was performed by Hole as \"You've Got No Right\" during their \"MTV Unplugged\" appearance on February 14, 1995. The band's lead singer and Cobain's widow, Courtney Love, introduced it as \"a song that Kurt wrote; [the] last song, almost.\" Seether performed an acoustic version of the song in 2003 and in 2004 a full cover version at Rock in Rio.", "Only three versions of \"You Know You're Right\" are known to exist: the studio version, the live version from the band's show at the Aragon Ballroom in October 1993, and an acoustic demo that was first released in November 2004 on the band's rarities box set, \"With the Lights Out\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Career.", "Coaching." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of tennis coach and mailman Lars Björkman, Jonas began playing tennis at the age of six. At 18, he won the Swedish Junior Championship and was among the top-5 Swede junior players. He married Petra on 2 December 2000 in Stockholm, and they have a son, Max (born 15 January 2003). He plays right-handed and has a particularly good record against left-handed players. He claims it's because his father plays left-handed.", "He turned professional in 1991. In 1993, he won three Challenger singles titles. In 1994, he won seven titles in doubles including the 1994 ATP Tour World Championships in Jakarta. In 1995, he reached his first career ATP singles final in Hong Kong. In 1997, he became the ninth ever Swedish tennis player to finish in ATP top 10 at No. 4. He advanced to his first Grand Slam semifinal at the US Open, defeating Francisco Clavet, Todd Martin, Gustavo Kuerten, Scott Draper and Petr Korda before losing to Greg Rusedski. At the 1998 Australian Open, he won his first career doubles Grand Slam title. 2000 saw him finishing in the singles top 50 for the fifth time in seven years. In his ATP career, he won six singles titles and 54 titles in doubles, including nine Grand Slam titles in doubles. He made his Davis Cup debut in 1994 and has played regularly for Sweden ever since. He has compiled a 21–14 record in doubles and a 14–9 record in live singles rubbers. He was a member of Sweden's Davis Cup championship teams in 1994, 1997, and 1998. In 2002, Björkman won the Nottingham Open by defeating Wayne Arthurs in the final, however, at Wimbledon, he found himself drawn against top seed Lleyton Hewitt in the first round. Björkman was defeated in straight sets, as Hewitt went on to win the tournament. In the 2006 Wimbledon, he unexpectedly made it into the singles semifinals at the age of 34, making him the oldest player to get there since Jimmy Connors in 1987. He had only made it into the singles quarterfinals once in 2003. He was unseeded, but defeated 14th-seeded Radek Štěpánek in a match which included saving a match point. He had previously ousted his doubles partner Max Mirnyi and another Swede, Thomas Johansson, and Lukáš Dlouhý and Daniele Bracciali to make the quarterfinals. In the semifinal he found world No. 1 and defending champion Roger Federer too good and was overpowered in straight sets, 6–2, 6–0, 6–2. When John McEnroe announced his official return to the ATP Pro Tour in 2006, he teamed up with Björkman to win the doubles title at the SAP Open in San Jose. During Wimbledon in 2008, he announced that he would be playing in his final Wimbledon as he was planning on retiring at the end of the season. Although being knocked out in the first round of singles, Björkman and Kevin Ullyett made it to the final, being defeated by second seeds Daniel Nestor and Nenad Zimonjić, though receiving a hero's farewell to his extensive career at Wimbledon. Björkman retired from professional tennis, after the Swede and his partner Ullyett failed to qualify for the doubles semifinal at the 2008 Maters Cup. On 2 October 2013, he announced a comeback on tour in If Stockholm Open doubles draw, receiving a wild card in pair with fellow countryman Robert Lindstedt. He competed as a celebrity dancer in Let's Dance 2015.", "Andy Murray added Björkman to his coaching staff in March initially on a five-week trial to help out in periods when Amélie Mauresmo was unavailable as she only agreed to work with him for 25 weeks. However, at the end of the Australian Open, Mauresmo had informed Murray that she was pregnant and he announced at the end of April, that Björkman would be his main coach for all of the grass-court season and all of the US hard-court swing, while Mauresmo would only be with the team for Wimbledon. Jonas Björkman joined Murray's team in April 2015, helping Murray win the BMW Open in Munich; his first clay-court title. This was followed by Murray winning his first Masters 1000 title on clay in Madrid. In June 2015, Björkman coached Andy Murray through Queen's where he ended up winning his fourth Queen's Club title at the Aegon Championships. In the middle of December 2015, Murray decided not to renew Bjorkman’s contract. The Swede, who joined the world No. 2’s entourage earlier in 2015, took charge of his coaching for the last four months of the season in the absence of Amélie Mauresmo but will not be part of the team in future." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Juniors.", "1999–2008.", "2009.", "2010.", "2011.", "2012–13.", "Performance timelines.", "Singles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Rochus was a partner of Roger Federer on the junior circuit, winning the boys' doubles title at Wimbledon in 1998. As a junior, he compiled a singles win/loss record of 81–30 (42–20 in doubles), reaching as high as No. 11 in the world in 1997 (and No. 16 in doubles the following year). Rochus reached at least the quarterfinals of all four junior Grand Slam tournaments (including the semifinals of the French Open and Wimbledon).", "He won his first title in Palermo in 2000, defeating his brother in the semifinals and Diego Nargiso in the final. In 2003, he achieved his greatest Master Series result, reaching the quarter-finals of the Hamburg Masters. He has represented Belgium at two Olympic Games in both the singles and the doubles competitions at Athens and Beijing. In May 2006, he reached the final of the ATP tournament in Munich, setting up the first ever all-Belgian men's singles final against Kristof Vliegen. He won that final in straight sets. In June, Rochus faced world No. 1, Roger Federer, in the quarterfinals of the Gerry Weber Open. Rochus held four match points in the second set at 5–6 and in the tie-break. He could not close out the match and eventually lost in three tiebreaks.", "He reached the final of the Stockholm Open, after winning to Swede Andreas Vinciguerra in the first round, eighth seed Feliciano López, and Jarkko Nieminen. In the semifinals, he beat best Brazilian Thomaz Bellucci. In the final, he met former Australian Open finalist Marcos Baghdatis, but lost in two sets. One week later at the Grand Prix de Lyon, he won his first match against French qualifier Vincent Millot. He faced world No. 8, Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, but lost in two short sets. His next tournament was the Swiss Indoors, where he first won his three qualifying matches. In the first round of the tournament, he lost to his former double partner and world No. 1, Roger Federer. The last tournament of his tennis season was the AXA Belgian Masters (Challenger), where he met compatriot Steve Darcis in the semifinal.", "At the Sony Ericsson Open he defeated Richard Gasquet and the 2007 titlist and second seed Novak Djokovic. In the Nice tournament, one week prior to Roland Garros, he pulled off another upset, defeating 2009 French Open finalist Robin Söderling. He defeated Raven Klaasen of South Africa at the Hall of Fame Tennis Championship, but lost to Mardy Fish in the final in three sets.", "In March, Rochus lost in the fourth round in Miami to Federer, after defeating Blaž Kavčič, Marcos Baghdatis, and Mikhail Youzhny in the first three rounds. In July, he made it to the final in Newport, where he was defeated by John Isner in straight sets.", "Rochus had his best success earlier in 2012, reaching the final in Auckland. He lost to Nicolás Almagro in the first round of Wimbledon. In 2013, he played mostly on the Challenger Tour, never advancing beyond the second round of an ATP event.", "", "Held as Hamburg Masters (outdoor clay) until 2008, Madrid Masters (outdoor clay) 2009–present.<br> Held as Stuttgart Masters (indoor hard) until 2001, Madrid Masters (indoor hard) from 2002–08, and Shanghai Masters (outdoor hard) 2009–present." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Tennis career.", "Playing style.", "Equipment.", "Place in history.", "Post-retirement career.", "Poker.", "Coaching Novak Djokovic.", "Bankruptcy.", "Personal life.", "Relationships." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Boris Becker was born in Leimen, a town in the German State Baden-Württemberg, as son of Elvira and Karl-Heinz Becker. His mother was Catholic, and they raised him as a Catholic. His father Karl-Heinz, an architect, founded a tennis centre in Leimen, where Boris learned the game. He received his secondary education at Helmholtz-Gymnasium in Heidelberg.", "In 1974, Becker joined TC Blau-Weiß Leimen tennis club and began training under Boris Breskvar. By 1977, he was a member of the junior team of the Baden Tennis Association. He went on to win the South German championship and the first German Youth Tennis Tournament. In 1978, he was chosen for the German Tennis Federation’s top junior team by Richard Schönborn. According to Schönborn, the funding for Becker’s training was put up by the German Tennis Federation at an expense of over 1.3 million DM. In 1981, he was included in the Federation’s first men's team. In 1982, he won the doubles at the Orange Bowl International Tennis Championships. Becker turned professional in 1984, under the guidance of Romanian-born coach Günther Bosch and Romanian manager Ion Ţiriac, and won his first professional doubles title that year in Munich. As a German teenager, Becker won the Tennis World Young Masters at the NEC in Birmingham in 1985, before taking his first top-level singles title in June that year at Queen's Club. Two weeks later, on 7 July, he became the first unseeded player and the first German to win the Wimbledon singles title, defeating Kevin Curren in four sets. Becker was at that time ranked 20th in ATP ranking, and was unseeded, as at that time Wimbledon did not seed players beyond the top 16. He was the youngest ever male Grand Slam singles champion at (a record later broken by Michael Chang in 1989, who won the French Open when he was ). Two months after his triumph, Becker became the youngest winner of the Cincinnati Open. Becker has since said that \"the plan from my parents for me was to finish school, go to university, get a proper degree and learn something respectful. The last thing on everyone's mind was me becoming a tennis professional.\" In 1986, Becker successfully defended his Wimbledon title, defeating No. 1 Ivan Lendl in straight sets in the final. In 1987 Becker, then ranked No. 2, was upset in the second round of Wimbledon by No. 70, Peter Doohan. In the Davis Cup that year, Becker and John McEnroe played one of the longest matches in tennis history. Becker won 4–6, 15–13, 8–10, 6–2, 6–2 (at that time, there were no tiebreaks in the Davis Cup). The match lasted 6 hours and 22 minutes. Becker was back in the Wimbledon final in 1988, where he lost in four sets to Stefan Edberg in a match that marked the start of one of Wimbledon's great rivalries. Becker also helped West Germany win its first Davis Cup in 1988. He won the year-end Masters title in New York City, defeating five-time champion Lendl in the final. The same year he also won season ending WCT Finals for the rival World Championship Tennis tour, defeating Edberg in four sets. In 1989, Becker won two Grand Slam singles titles, the only year he won more than one. After losing to Edberg in the French Open semifinals, he defeated Edberg in the Wimbledon final, and then beat Lendl in the US Open final. He also helped West Germany retain the Davis Cup, defeating Andre Agassi in the semifinal round. As a result, Becker was named Player of The Year by the ATP Tour. The No. 1 ranking, however, still eluded him. In 1990, Becker met Edberg for the third consecutive year in the Wimbledon final, but this time was on the losing end of a long five-set match. He failed to defend his US Open title, losing against Agassi in the semifinals. Becker reached the final of the Australian Open for the first time in his career in 1991, where he defeated Lendl to claim the No. 1 ranking. Another loss to Agassi in the French Open semifinals kept him from winning the first two Grand Slam tournaments of the year. He was ranked No. 1 for 12 weeks during 1991, though he never managed to finish a year with that ranking. Becker was ranked No. 2 during Wimbledon in 1991 and reached his fourth consecutive final there. However, he lost in straight sets to fellow German compatriot and No. 7 Michael Stich. Becker and Stich developed a fierce rivalry, with the media often comparing a passionate Becker to a more stoic Stich. However, Becker and Stich teamed up in 1992 to win the men's doubles gold medal at the Olympic Games in Barcelona. In 1992, Becker won seven tour titles including his second ATP Tour World Championships defeating Jim Courier in four sets. By 1993, issues back home over his courtship of and marriage to Barbara Feltus, whose mother was German and father was African-American, and tax problems with the German government, had caused Becker to slide into a severe mid-career decline. By 1995 Becker had been in continual decline for half a decade. That year though, Becker reached the Wimbledon final for the seventh time, by defeating Agassi in the semifinals. In the final however, Becker, further fatigued after grueling baseline contests with Cédric Pioline and then with Agassi, lost in four sets to Pete Sampras. He won the year-end ATP Tour World Championships for the third and last time in Frankfurt with a straight-set win over Michael Chang in the final. Becker's sixth and final Grand Slam title came in 1996 when he defeated Chang in the final of the Australian Open. After winning the Queen's Club Championships for the fourth time, Becker was widely expected to mount a serious challenge for the Wimbledon title in 1996, but his bid ended abruptly when he damaged his right wrist during a third-round match against Neville Godwin and was forced to withdraw. Becker defeated Sampras in October 1996 in a five-set final in Stuttgart Masters. \"Becker is the best indoor player I've ever played\", said Sampras after the match. Becker lost to Sampras in the final of the 1996 ATP Tour World Championships in Hanover. Becker saved two match points in the fourth set and held serve 27 consecutive times until he was broken in the penultimate game. Later that year he won the Grand Slam Cup defeating Goran Ivanisevic in the final. In 1997, Becker lost to Sampras in the quarterfinals at Wimbledon. After that match, he vowed that he would never play at Wimbledon again. However, Becker played Wimbledon one more time in 1999, this time losing in the fourth round to Patrick Rafter. Becker was most comfortable playing on fast-playing surfaces, particularly grass courts and indoor carpet (on which he won 26 titles). He reached a few finals playing on clay courts, but never won a clay-court tournament in his professional career. His best performances at the French Open were when he reached the semifinals in 1987, 1989, and 1991. Becker was close to winning a clay court tournament in his last final on the surface, when he led Thomas Muster by two sets to love in the 1995 Monte Carlo Open final, and double-faulted on match point in the fourth-set tiebreaker. Over the course of his career, Becker won 49 singles titles and 15 doubles titles. Besides his six Grand Slam titles, he was also a singles winner in the year-end Masters / ATP Tour World Championships in 1988, 1992, and 1995, the WCT Finals in 1988 and at the Grand Slam Cup in 1996. He won a record-equalling four singles titles at London's Queen's Club. In Davis Cup, his career win-loss record was 54–12, including 38–3 in singles. He also won the other two major international team titles playing for Germany, the Hopman Cup (in 1995) and the World Team Cup (in 1989 and 1998). He is the first male player to appear in seven Wimbledon finals, tied with Sampras (7) and behind record 11 Wimbledon finals appearances by Federer. Becker won singles titles in 14 different countries: Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Qatar, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States. In 2003, he was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. He occasionally plays on the senior tour and in World Team Tennis. He is also sometimes a commentator at Wimbledon for the BBC.", "Becker's game was based on a fast and well-placed serve, that earned him the nicknames \"Boom Boom\", \"Der Bomber\" and \"Baron von Slam\", and great volleying skills at the net. He could supplement his pure serve-and-volley game with brilliant athleticism at the net, which included the diving volley that was considered a trademark of the young German, and which endeared him to his fans. His heavy forehand and return of serve were also very significant factors in his game. Becker occasionally deviated from his serve-and-volley style to try to out-hit, from the baseline, opponents who normally were at their best while remaining near the baseline. Even though Becker possessed powerful shots from both wings, this strategy was often criticized by commentators. Becker had frequent emotional outbursts on court. Whenever he considered himself to be playing badly, he often swore at himself and occasionally smashed his rackets. In 1987, he was fined $2000 following a series of outbursts during the Australian Open in Melbourne, including breaking three rackets, \"twice throwing the ball in an offensive manner at the umpire, hitting the umpire's chair on one occasion, spitting water in the direction of the umpire, and hitting three balls out of the court.\" Becker's highly dramatic play spawned new expressions such as the \"Becker Blocker\" (his trademark early return shot), the \"Becker Hecht\" (a flying lunge), the \"Becker Faust\" (\"Becker Fist\"), the \"Becker Shuffle\" (the dance he sometimes performed after making important points), and \"Becker Säge\" (\"Becker Saw\" – referring to the way in which he pumped his fists in a sawing motion). Becker, one of the most effective players in his era on grass courts and carpet courts, had less success on clay. He never won a top-level singles title on clay, coming closest when holding two match points against Thomas Muster in the final of the 1995 Monte Carlo Open. Becker did, however, team up with Michael Stich to win the 1992 men's doubles Olympic gold medal on clay.", "Becker played most of his career with racquets from the German company Puma. After production of this racquet was discontinued, he bought the moulds and had them produced by the American company Estusa. He now has his own personal line of racquets and apparel.", "\"Tennis\" magazine ranked Becker the 11th best male player of the period 1965–2005.", "In 2012, Becker described his approach to retirement. \"I had won so much by 22, a number of Wimbledon titles, US Open, Davis Cup, World number one. You look for the next big thing and that isn't in tennis.\" Since 2000, Becker has been the principal owner of the tennis division of Völkl Inc., a tennis racquet and clothing manufacturer. Becker published his autobiography, \"Augenblick, verweile doch...\" (en: \"The Player\") in 2003. From October 2005 to June 2006, Becker was a team captain on the British TV sports quiz show \"They Think It's All Over\". Becker is a noted poker player and has appeared in the European Poker Tour and the World Poker Tour; by 2013 he had won more than €90,000 in career earnings from poker. In May 2009, Becker announced the launch of online media platform \"Boris Becker TV\". The website, in English and German, features clips from his career and footage of his daily life. Since 2003, Becker has been a commentator for the BBC at Wimbledon. Becker appeared on the second episode of series 16 of the BBC's car show \"Top Gear\" as the Star in a Reasonably Priced Car. Becker is a patron of the Elton John AIDS Foundation.", "From November 2007 to mid-May 2013, Becker was a member of the celebrity team for the online poker platform PokerStars, where he participated in professional poker tournaments. Becker made his first appearance as a poker amateur at a tournament in Monte Carlo in April 2008. In mid-April, he reached the Main Event of the World Poker Tour at the Bellagio and finished the tournament in 40th place, winning more than $40,000 in prize money. In August 2011, he came 97th at the European Poker Tour in Barcelona, winning 8000 euros. In April 2013 he again took part in the EPT Main Event, this time in Berlin, coming 49th with a win of 15,000 euros. Overall, Becker has made tournament earnings of over $100,000 and ranks 132,133rd in the Global Poker Index. He has become an ambassador for the partypoker online poker platform, playing under the nickname Boris__Becker.", "In December 2013, Novak Djokovic announced on his website that Boris Becker would become his head coach for the 2014 season. As a result, Becker gave up his commentating job with the BBC. In December 2016, Djokovic and Becker parted ways. Over the three seasons they worked together, Becker contributed to Djokovic's six Grand Slam titles and 14 Masters 1000 titles. On 23 August 2017, Becker was named the head of men's tennis of the German Tennis Federation. As of 2017, Becker is also an analyst on Fox Sports Australia's Wimbledon magazine program \"The Daily Serve\".", "On 21 June 2017, Becker was declared bankrupt by the Bankruptcy and Companies Court. The order arose when a 2015 debt owed to private bank Arbuthnot Latham for nearly $14 million was not paid in full before an assigned deadline, and there was no realistic expectation that it would be paid. Becker denied to the \"Neue Zürcher Zeitung\" that he is \"broke\" or that he owes former business adviser Hans-Dieter Cleven any money; Cleven filed suit in a Switzerland court claiming he is owed $41 million. In June 2018, Becker's lawyers claimed their client had diplomatic immunity in the bankruptcy case due to his appointment as the Central African Republic's (CAR) \"Attache for Sports/Humanitarian/Cultural Affairs in the European Union.\" Charles-Armel Doubane, the CAR's Foreign Minister, countered that Becker was \"not an official diplomat for the Central African Republic\", that the role of attache for sports \"does not exist\", and that the CAR passport produced by Becker was one of a batch that had been stolen in 2014. In September 2019, the German businessman Stephan Welk who provided the passport was detained for possible fraud. On May 21, 2019, Smith & Williamson announced that it has instructed its agent Wyles Hardy to auction Becker's trophies and memorabilia on July 11, 2019. On 24 June 2019, media reported that Becker was forced to auction off 82 collectables from his personal collection, including a \"Goldene Kamera\" award and his trophy from the 1989 US Open, in order to pay out creditors. On July 11, 2019, an online auction was held selling off Becker's memorabilia, which raised £687,000 ($860,000), according to the company dealing with his bankruptcy. On 5 November 2019, the bankruptcy restrictions were extended for an additional 12 years, until the 16 October 2031, after hiding assets and transactions worth over £4.5m.", "Becker lives in Wimbledon, within walking distance of the championship grounds. In addition to Munich, Monaco, and Schwyz, Becker has an apartment in Wimbledon, and possibly still maintains a residence in Miami, to be near his children. Becker is not related to fellow German professional tennis players Benjamin Becker and Richard Becker.", "After Becker lost to Peter Doohan in the second round of the 1987 Wimbledon Championships, it was rumoured that he had been too distracted by his girlfriend, Benedicte Courtin, the daughter of the Chief of Police of Monaco. As a result, the British tabloids dubbed him \"Bonking Boris\". On 17 December 1993, Becker married model Barbara Feltus, then eight months pregnant, at the registry office of his hometown of Leimen. On 18 January 1994, their son Noah Gabriel, named after Becker's friends Yannick Noah and Peter Gabriel, was born. Their second child, Elias Balthasar, was born on 4 September 1999. Before the marriage, they shocked some in Germany by posing nude for the cover of \"Stern\" in a picture taken by her father. After Becker asked Barbara for a separation in December 2000, she flew to Miami, Florida, with Noah and Elias and filed a divorce petition in Miami-Dade County Court, sidestepping their prenuptial agreement which had entitled her to a single $2.5 million payoff. Barbara left for Florida after being contacted by a woman claiming to be pregnant with Becker's child. In his autobiography, Becker stated that he admitted to his wife that he had a one-night stand with another woman while Barbara was pregnant with their second child. He wrote that Barbara struck him during an argument that occurred after he flew to Florida to meet with her and discuss the break up of their marriage. The pretrial hearing in January 2001 was broadcast live to Germany. When Becker testified, Barbara's lawyers, for whom he was paying, made him out to be a cad. Incredibly, the couple had dinner every night during the hearing. Becker was granted a divorce on 15 January 2001: Barbara received a $14.4 million settlement, their condominium on exclusive Fisher Island, Florida, and custody of their children. In February 2001, Becker acknowledged paternity of a daughter, Anna, with Russian waitress Angela Ermakova, after media reported that he had a child as a result of a sexual encounter in 1999. The episode allegedly took place at London's Nobu restaurant. He had allegedly been drinking following his loss to Pat Rafter in the fourth round of the 1999 Wimbledon Championships. Becker initially denied paternity, claiming he only had oral sex with Ermakova. Subsequently, he reversed his stance and accepted fatherhood. Some time after that, a DNA test confirmed he was the father. In November 2007, he obtained joint custody of Anna after expressing concerns over how Ermakova was raising her. Becker was briefly engaged to in 2008. Her father, Axel Meyer-Wölden, was Becker's former adviser and manager. The couple broke up in November 2008. In February 2009, on the German ZDF TV show \"Wetten, dass..?\", Becker announced that he and Dutch model Sharlely \"Lilly\" Kerssenberg were to be married on 12 June 2009 in St Moritz, Switzerland. In August they announced that they were expecting a child. Their son, Amadeus Benedict Edley Luis Becker, was born in London on 10 February 2010. The child is named after Becker's wife's uncle Edley, and his friend, Mexican-Cuban millionaire Luis Garcia Fanjul, who is also the child's godfather. In May 2018, Lilly and Becker announced that they had separated after nine years of marriage. Since July 2019, reports appeared that Becker is dating British model Layla Powell." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1972/73 – Davis Cup debut and first year on the tour.", "1974 – First French Open title.", "1975 – Retained French Open title.", "1976 – First Wimbledon title.", "1977 – Second Wimbledon title and world No.1 ranking.", "1978 – French and Wimbledon titles.", "1979 – French and Wimbledon titles and year-end No.1 ranking.", "1980 – French and Fifth consecutive Wimbledon title.", "1981 – Sixth and final French Open title.", "1982–1984 - Retirement.", "Retirement.", "Failed comeback.", "Playing style.", "Mental approach.", "Personal life.", "Film.", "Memorabilia preserved.", "Recognition.", "Laver Cup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Björn Borg was born in Stockholm, Sweden, on 6 June 1956, as the only child of Rune (1932-2008) and Margaretha Borg (b. 1934). He grew up in nearby Södertälje. As a child, Borg became fascinated with a golden tennis racket that his father won at a table-tennis tournament. His father gave him the racket, beginning his tennis career. A player of great athleticism and endurance, he had a distinctive style and appearance—bowlegged and very fast. His muscularity allowed him to put heavy topspin on both his forehand and two-handed backhand. He followed Jimmy Connors in using the two-handed backhand. By the time he was 13 he was beating the best of Sweden's under-18 players, and Davis Cup captain Lennart Bergelin (who served as Borg's primary coach throughout his professional career) cautioned against anyone trying to change Borg's rough-looking, jerky strokes.", "", "At the age of 15 Borg represented Sweden in the 1972 Davis Cup and won his debut singles rubber in five sets against veteran Onny Parun of New Zealand. Later that year, he won the Wimbledon junior singles title, recovering from a 5–2 deficit in the final set to overcome Britain's Buster Mottram. Then in December he won the Orange Bowl Junior Championship for boys 18 and under after a straight-sets victory in the final over Vitas Gerulaitis. Borg joined the professional circuit in 1973, and reached his first singles final in April at the Monte Carlo Open which he lost to Ilie Năstase. He was unseeded at his first French Open and reached the fourth round where he lost in four sets to eight-seeded Adriano Panatta. Borg was seeded sixth at his first Wimbledon Championships, in large part due to a boycott by the ATP, and reached the quarterfinal where he was defeated in a five-set match by Roger Taylor. In the second half of 1973 he was runner-up in San Francisco, Stockholm and Buenos Aires and finished the year ranked No. 18.", "Borg made his only appearance at the Australian Open, at the age of 17, and reached the third round where he lost in straight sets to eventual finalist Phil Dent. In January he won his first career singles title at the New Zealand Open, followed by titles in London and São Paulo in February and March respectively. Just before his 18th birthday in June 1974, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the Italian Open, defeating defending champion and top-seeded Ilie Năstase in the final and becoming its youngest winner. Two weeks later he won the singles title at the French Open, his first Grand Slam tournament title, defeating Manuel Orantes in the final in five sets. Barely 18, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion up to that point.", "In early 1975, Borg defeated Rod Laver, then 36 years old, in a semifinal of the World Championship Tennis (WCT) finals in Dallas, Texas, in five sets. Borg subsequently lost to Arthur Ashe in the final. Borg retained his French Open title in 1975, beating Guillermo Vilas in the final in straight sets. Borg then reached the Wimbledon quarterfinals, where he lost to eventual champion Ashe. Borg did not lose another match at Wimbledon until 1981. Borg won two singles and one doubles rubber in the 1975 Davis Cup final, as Sweden beat Czechoslovakia 3–2. With these singles wins, Borg had won 19 consecutive Davis Cup singles rubbers since 1973. That was already a record at the time. However, Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and, by the end of his career, he had stretched that winning streak to 33.", "In early 1976, Borg won the World Championship Tennis year-end WCT Finals in Dallas, Texas, with a four-set victory over Guillermo Vilas in the final. At the 1976 French Open, Borg lost to the Italian Adriano Panatta, who remains the only player to defeat Borg at this tournament. Panatta did it twice: in the fourth round in 1973, and in the 1976 quarterfinals. Borg won Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the favored Ilie Năstase in the final. Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record subsequently broken by Boris Becker, who won Wimbledon aged 17 in 1985). It would be the last time Borg played Wimbledon as an underdog. Năstase later exclaimed, \"We're playing tennis, he's playing something else.\" Borg also reached the final of the 1976 U.S. Open, which was then being played on clay courts. Borg lost in four sets to world no. 1 Jimmy Connors.", "In February 1977 World Championship Tennis (WCT) sued Borg and his management company IMG claiming that Borg had committed a breach of contract by electing to participate in the competing 1977 Grand Prix circuit instead of the WCT circuit. Borg eventually played, and won, a single WCT event, the Monte Carlo WCT. An out-of-court settlement was reached whereby Borg committed to play six or eight WCT events in 1978 which were then part of the Grand Prix circuit. Borg skipped the French Open in 1977 because he was under contract with WTT, but he repeated his Wimbledon triumph, although this time he was pushed much harder. He defeated his good friend Vitas Gerulaitis in a semifinal in five sets. In the 1977 final Borg was pushed to five sets for the third time in the tournament, this time by Connors. The win propelled Borg to the No. 1 ranking in the ATP point system, albeit for just one week in August. Prior to the 1977 US Open, Borg aggravated a shoulder injury while waterskiing with Vitas Gerulaitis. This injury ultimately forced him to retire from the Open during a Round of 16 match vs Dick Stockton. The majority of tennis authorities considered Borg to be the No. 1 player in the world for 1977. Through 1977, he had never lost to a player younger than himself.", "Borg was at the height of his career from 1978 through 1980, completing the French Open-Wimbledon double all three years. In 1978, Borg won the French Open with a win over Vilas in the final. Borg did not drop a set during the tournament, a feat only he, Năstase (in 1973), and Rafael Nadal (in 2008, 2010 and 2017) have accomplished at the French Open during the open era. Borg defeated Connors in straight sets in the 1978 Wimbledon final. At the 1978 US Open, now held on hard courts in Flushing Meadow, New York, he lost the final in straight sets to Connors. Borg was suffering from a bad blister on his thumb that required pre-match injections. That autumn, Borg faced John McEnroe for the first time in a semifinal of the Stockholm Open, and lost. Borg was considered the No. 1 male tennis player in the world for 1978 by most tennis authorities.", "Borg lost to McEnroe again in four sets in the final of the 1979 WCT Finals but was now overtaking Connors for the top ranking. Borg established himself firmly in the top spot with his fourth French Open singles title and fourth straight Wimbledon singles title, defeating Connors in a straight-set semifinal at the latter tournament. At the 1979 French Open, Borg defeated big-serving Victor Pecci in a four-set final, and in the 1979 Wimbledon final Borg came from behind to overcome an even bigger server, Roscoe Tanner. Borg was upset by Tanner at the US Open, in a four-set quarterfinal played under the lights. At the season-ending Masters tournament in January 1980, Borg survived a close semifinal against McEnroe. He then beat Gerulaitis in straight sets, winning his first Masters and first title in New York. Borg finished the year at No. 1 in the ATP Point rankings and was considered the No. 1 player in the world by most authorities.", "In June 1980 he overcame Gerulaitis, again in straight sets, for his fifth French Open title. Again, he did not drop a set. Borg won his fifth consecutive Wimbledon singles title, the 1980 Wimbledon Men's Singles final, by defeating McEnroe in a five-set match, often cited as the best Wimbledon final ever played – the only comparable match being the 2008 Federer – Nadal final. Having lost the opening set to an all-out McEnroe assault, Borg took the next two and had two championship points at 5–4 in the fourth. However, McEnroe averted disaster and went on to level the match in Wimbledon's most memorable 34-point tiebreaker, which he won 18–16. In the fourth-set tiebreak, McEnroe saved five match points, and Borg six set points, before McEnroe won the set. Björn served first to begin the 5th set and fell behind 15–40. Borg then won 19 straight points on serve in the deciding set and prevailed after 3 hours, 53 minutes. Borg himself commented years later that this was the first time that he was afraid that he would lose, as well as feeling that it was the beginning of the end of his dominance. In September, 1980 Borg reached the final of the U.S. Open for the third time, losing to John McEnroe in five sets in a match that cemented what had become the greatest contemporary rivalry, albeit short-lived, in men's tennis. He defeated McEnroe in the final of the 1980 Stockholm Open, and faced him one more time that year, in the round-robin portion of the year-end Masters, actually played in January 1981. With 19,103 fans in attendance, Borg won a deciding third-set tie-break for the second year in a row. Borg then defeated Ivan Lendl for his second Masters title. Borg again finished the year at No. 1 in the ATP Point Rankings and was considered the No. 1 player in the world by most tennis authorities.", "Borg won his last Grand Slam title at the French Open in 1981, defeating Lendl in a five-set final. Borg's six French Open Grand Slam titles was a record bettered only by Rafael Nadal in 2012. In reaching the Wimbledon final in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the All England Club to a record 41 matches. In a semifinal, Borg was down to Connors by two sets to love, before coming back to win the match. However, Borg's streak was brought to an end by McEnroe, who defeated him in four sets. Years afterward, Borg remarked \"And when I lost what shocked me was I wasn't even upset. That was not me: losing a Wimbledon final and not upset. I hate to lose.\" Borg around that time felt that his desire to play was gone, despite McEnroe's desperate efforts to persuade him not to retire and continue their rivalry. Borg went on to lose to McEnroe at the 1981 US Open. After that defeat, Borg walked off the court and out of the stadium before the ceremonies and press conference had begun, and headed straight for the airport. There are reports that Borg received threats after his semifinal win over Connors. In later years, Borg apologized to McEnroe. The 1981 US Open would be the Swede's last Grand Slam final. Major tournaments and tour organizers were enforcing a new rule; by 1982, that players had to play at least 10 official tournaments per year. However, Borg wanted to curtail his schedule after many years of winning so often. Although he felt in good condition physically, he recognized that the relentless drive to win and defy tour organizers had begun to fade. Borg failed to win the US Open in nine tries, losing four finals, 1976 (the surface was clay that year) and 1978 to Jimmy Connors, and 1980 and 1981 to John McEnroe. The surface was hard court from 1978 onward and Borg reached the final there on hard court on three occasions, in 1978, 1980 and 1981. He led 3–2 in the fifth set of the 1980 final, before losing. That match followed Borg's classic encounter with McEnroe at the 1980 Wimbledon. In 1978, 1979 and 1980, Borg was halfway to a Grand Slam after victories at the French and Wimbledon (the Australian Open being the last Grand Slam tournament of each year at the time) only to falter at Flushing Meadows, lefty Tanner his conqueror in 1979.", "In 1982, Borg played only one tournament, losing to Yannick Noah in the quarterfinals of Monte Carlo in April. Nevertheless, Borg's announcement in January 1983 that he was retiring from the game at the age of 26 was a shock to the tennis world. McEnroe tried unsuccessfully to persuade Borg to continue. He did, however, play Monte Carlo again in March 1983, reaching the second round, and Stuttgart in July 1984.", "Upon retirement, Borg had three residences: a penthouse in Monte Carlo, not far from his pro shop; a mansion on Long Island, New York and a small island off the Swedish coast. Borg later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label. In Sweden, his label has become very successful, second only to Calvin Klein.", "In 1991–1993, Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour, coached by Welsh karate expert Ron Thatcher. Before his 1991 return, Borg grew his hair out as it had been during his previous professional tennis career and he returned to using a wooden racket; he had kept his hair cut and used modern graphite rackets in exhibitions he played during the late 1980s. Borg, however, failed to win a single match. He faced Jordi Arrese in his first match back, again at Monte Carlo but without practising or playing any exhibition matches, and fell in two sets. In his first nine matches, played in 1991 and 1992, Borg failed to win a single set. He fared slightly better in 1993, taking a set off his opponent in each of the three matches he played. He came closest to getting a win in what turned out to be his final tour match, falling to Alexander Volkov. In 1992 Borg, aged 35, using a graphite racket, defeated John Lloyd, 37, at the Inglewood Forum Tennis Challenge. Borg later joined the Champions tour, returning to shorter hair and using modern rackets.", "Borg had one of the most distinctive playing styles in the Open Era. He played from the baseline, with powerful ground-strokes. His highly unorthodox backhand involved taking his racket back with both hands but actually generating his power with his dominant right hand, letting go of the grip with his left hand around point of contact, and following through with his swing as a one-hander. He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with considerable topspin, which made his ground strokes very consistent. There had been other players, particularly Rod Laver and Arthur Ashe, who played with topspin on both the forehand and backhand, yet Laver and Ashe used topspin only as a way to mix up their shots to pass their opponents at the net easily. Borg was one of the first top players to use heavy topspin on his shots consistently. Complementing his consistent ground-strokes was his fitness. Both of these factors allowed Borg to be dominant at the French Open. One of the factors that made Borg unique was his dominance on the grass courts of Wimbledon, where, since World War II, baseliners did not usually succeed. Some experts attributed his dominance on this surface to his consistency, an underrated serve, equally underrated volleys, and his adaptation to grass courts. Against the best players, he almost always served-and-volleyed on his first serves, while he naturally played from the baseline after his second serves. Another trait usually associated with Borg was his grace under pressure. His calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the \"Ice Man\" or \"Ice-Borg.\" Borg's physical conditioning was unrivalled by contemporaries. He could outlast most of his opponents under the most grueling conditions. Contrary to popular belief, however, this was not due to his exceptionally low resting heart rate, often reported to be near 35 beats per minute. In his introduction to Borg's autobiography \"My Life and Game\", Eugene Scott relates that this rumor arose from a medical exam the 18-year-old Borg once took for military service, where his pulse was recorded as 38. Scott goes on to reveal Borg's true pulse rate as \"about 50 when he wakes up and around 60 in the afternoon.\" Borg is credited with helping to develop the style of play that has come to dominate the game today.", "Borg's first wife has said that he was \"always very placid and calm, except if he lost a match – he wouldn’t talk for at least three days. He couldn't stand losing.\" This mental approach changed by 1981, when he has said that when he lost the Wimbledon final \"what shocked me was I wasn't even upset.\"", "Borg and Romanian tennis pro Mariana Simionescu began their relationship in 1976 and married in Bucharest on 24 July 1980. The marriage ended in divorce in 1984. He fathered a child, Robin, in 1985, by the Swedish model, and he was married to the Italian singer Loredana Bertè from 1989 to 1993. On 8 June 2002, Borg married for a third time; his new wife being Patricia Östfeld. Together they have a son, Leo, born in 2003. He narrowly avoided personal bankruptcy when business ventures failed.", "In 2017, \"Borg vs McEnroe\", a biographical film focusing on the rivalry between Borg and McEnroe and the 1980 Wimbledon final, was released.", "In March 2006, Bonhams Auction House in London announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on 21 June 2006. Several players then called Borg in an attempt to make him reconsider, including Jimmy Connors and Andre Agassi, who volunteered to buy them to keep them together. According to \"Dagens Nyheter\" – who had talked to Borg – McEnroe called Borg from New York and asked, \"What's up? Have you gone mad?\" and said \"What the hell are you doing?\" The conversation with McEnroe, paired with pleas from Connors and Agassi, eventually persuaded Borg to buy out the trophies from Bonhams for an undisclosed amount.", "With 11 Grand Slam titles, Borg ranks sixth in the list of male tennis players who have won the most Grand Slam singles titles behind Roger Federer (20), Rafael Nadal (19), Novak Djokovic (17), Pete Sampras (14) and Roy Emerson (12). The French Open—Wimbledon double he achieved three times consecutively was called by Wimbledon officials \"the most difficult double in tennis\" and \"a feat considered impossible among today's players.\" Only Nadal (in 2008 and 2010) and Federer (in 2009) have managed to achieve this double since, and Andre Agassi, Nadal, Federer and Djokovic are the only male players since Borg to have won the French Open and Wimbledon men's singles titles over their career. Ilie Năstase once said about Borg, \"We're playing tennis, and he's playing something else\". Borg is widely considered to be one of the greatest players in the history of the sport. In his 1979 autobiography, Jack Kramer, the long-time tennis promoter and great player himself, had already included Borg in his list of the 21 greatest players of all time. And in 2003, Bud Collins chose Borg as one of his top-five male players of all time. In 2008, ESPN.com asked tennis analysts, writers, and former players to build the perfect open era player. Borg was the only player mentioned in four categories: defense, footwork, intangibles, and mental toughness—with his mental game and footwork singled out as the best in open era history. Borg famously never won the US Open, losing in the final four times. Borg also never won the Australian Open, although he only played in the event once, in 1974 as a 17-year-old. The only players to defeat Borg in a Grand Slam final were fellow World No. 1 tennis players John McEnroe and Jimmy Connors. Even though it was then played on grass, a surface where he enjoyed much success, Borg chose to play the Australian Open only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round. Phil Dent, a contemporary of Borg, has pointed out that skipping Grand Slam tournaments—especially the Australian Open—was not unusual then, before counting Grand Slam titles became the norm. Additionally, another contemporary Arthur Ashe told \"Sports Illustrated\", \"I think Bjorn could have won the US Open. I think he could have won the Grand Slam, but by the time he left, the historical challenge didn't mean anything. He was bigger than the game. He was like Elvis or Liz Taylor or somebody.\"", "From 22–24 September 2017, Borg was the victorious captain of Team Europe in the first ever edition of the Laver Cup, held in Prague, Czech Republic. Borg's Team Europe defeated a rest of the world team, known as Team World, who were coached by Borg's old rival, John McEnroe. Europe won the contest 15 points to 9, with Roger Federer achieving a narrow vital victory over Nick Kyrgios in the last match played. Borg returned as the coach of Team Europe for the second edition in Chicago, Illinois from September 21–23, 2018. McEnroe also returned as the coach for Team World. Borg again lead Europe to victory as Alexander Zverev defeated Kevin Anderson to secure the title 13–8, after trailing Anderson in the match tiebreak until the last few points." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1979–83.", "1984: best season.", "Taking time out.", "World No. 1 ranking.", "Success in doubles.", "Davis Cup.", "Final years on the tour.", "After retirement from the tour.", "Return to the tour.", "Personal life.", "Place in history.", "Pop-culture appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "McEnroe was born in Wiesbaden, West Germany (present-day Wiesbaden, Germany) to American parents, John Patrick McEnroe and his wife Kay, \"née\" Tresham. His father, the son of Irish immigrants, was at the time stationed with the United States Air Force. McEnroe's Irish paternal grandfather was from Ballyjamesduff in County Cavan and his maternal grandmother was from County Westmeath. When he was about nine months old, the family moved to the Stewart Air Force Base in Newburgh, New York when his father was transferred back to the US. In 1961, they moved to Flushing, Queens, then to Douglaston in 1963. After leaving the Air Force, McEnroe's father worked daytime as an advertising agent while attending Fordham Law School by night. John has two younger brothers: Mark (born 1964) and former professional tennis player Patrick (born 1966). McEnroe grew up in Douglaston, Queens, New York City. He started playing tennis when he was eight, at the nearby Douglaston Club. When he was nine, his parents enrolled him in the Eastern Lawn Tennis Association, and he soon started playing regional tournaments. He then began competing in national juniors tournaments, and at twelve—when he was ranked seventh in his age group—he joined the Port Washington Tennis Academy, Long Island, New York. McEnroe attended Trinity School and graduated in 1977.", "As an 18-year-old amateur in 1977, McEnroe won the mixed doubles at the French Open with Mary Carillo, and then made it through the qualifying tournament at Wimbledon and into the main draw, where he lost in the semifinals to Jimmy Connors in four sets. It was the best performance by a qualifier at a Grand Slam tournament and a record performance by an amateur in the open era. After Wimbledon in 1977, McEnroe was recruited by Coach Dick Gould and entered Stanford University, where, in 1978, he led the Stanford team to an NCAA championship, and also won the NCAA singles title. Later in 1978, he joined the ATP tour and signed his first professional endorsement deal, with Sergio Tacchini. He again advanced to the semifinals at a Grand Slam, this time the US Open, losing to Connors. Following which, he proceeded to win five titles that year, including his first Masters Grand Prix, beating Arthur Ashe in straight sets, as well as Grand Prix events at Stockholm and Wembley. His late-season success allowed him to finish as the number four ranked player for the year.", "In 1979, McEnroe and partner Peter Fleming won the Wimbledon Doubles title, followed shortly by a win in the US Open Doubles. That same week, McEnroe won the men's singles US Open title, his first Grand Slam singles title. He defeated his friend Vitas Gerulaitis in straight sets in the final to become the youngest male winner of the singles title at the US Open since Pancho Gonzales, who was also 20 in 1948. He also won the prestigious season-ending WCT Finals, beating Björn Borg in four sets. McEnroe won 10 singles and 17 doubles titles that year (for a total of 27 titles, which marked an open-era record) finishing at number 3 in the ATP year-end rankings. At Wimbledon, McEnroe reached the 1980 Wimbledon Men's Singles final—his first final at Wimbledon—where he faced Björn Borg, who was gunning for his fifth consecutive Wimbledon title. At the start of the final, McEnroe was booed by the crowd as he entered Centre Court following heated exchanges with officials during his semifinal victory over Jimmy Connors. In a fourth-set tiebreaker that lasted 20 minutes, McEnroe saved five match points and eventually won 18–16. McEnroe, however, could not break Borg's serve in the fifth set, which the Swede won 8–6. This match was called the best Wimbledon final by ESPN's countdown show \"Who's Number One?\" McEnroe exacted revenge two months later, beating Björn Borg in the five-set final of the 1980 US Open. He was a finalist at the season-ending WCT Finals and finished as the number 2 ranked player for the year behind only Borg. McEnroe remained controversial when he returned to Wimbledon in 1981. Following his first-round match against Tom Gullikson, McEnroe was fined U.S. $1,500 and came close to being thrown out after he called umpire Ted James \"the pits of the world\" and then swore at tournament referee Fred Hoyles. He also made famous the phrase \"you cannot be serious\", which years later became the title of McEnroe's autobiography, by shouting it after several umpires' calls during his matches. This behavior was in sharp contrast to that of Borg, who was painted by the press as an unflappable \"Ice Man.\" Nevertheless, in matches played between the two, McEnroe never lost his temper. After the controversy and criticism from the British press (Ian Barnes of the \"Daily Express\" nicknamed him \"SuperBrat\"), McEnroe again reached the Wimbledon men's singles final in 1981 against Borg. This time, McEnroe prevailed in four sets to end the Swede's run of 41 consecutive match victories at the All England Club. TV commentator Bud Collins quipped after the Independence Day battle, paraphrasing \"Yankee Doodle\", \"Stick a feather in his cap and call it 'McEnroe-ni'!\". The controversy, however, did not end there. In response to McEnroe's on-court outbursts during the Championships, the All England Club did not accord McEnroe honorary club membership, an honor normally given to singles champions after their first victory. McEnroe responded by not attending the traditional champions' dinner that evening. The honor was eventually accorded to McEnroe after he won the championship again. Borg and McEnroe had their final confrontation in the final of the 1981 US Open. McEnroe won in four sets, becoming the first male player since the 1920s to win three consecutive US Open singles titles. Borg never played another Grand Slam event. McEnroe also won his second WCT Final, beating Johan Kriek in straight sets and finished the year as the number one ranked player. He was named the Associated Press Athlete of the Year, the second men's tennis player ever after Don Budge in the 1930s. McEnroe lost to Jimmy Connors in the 1982 Wimbledon final. McEnroe lost only one set (to Johan Kriek) going into the final; however, Connors won the fourth-set tiebreak and the fifth set. He fell in the semi-finals at the US Open that year and was a finalist at the WCT Finals. He was able to retain the ATP's number 1 ranking based on points at the end of the year on the basis of having won significant events at Philadelphia, Wembley, and Tokyo, but due to Connors' victories at the two most important events of the year (Wimbledon and the US Open), Connors was named the player of the year by the ATP and most other tennis authorities. In 1983, McEnroe reached his fourth consecutive Wimbledon final, dropping only one set throughout the tournament (to Florin Segărceanu) and sweeping aside the unheralded New Zealander Chris Lewis in straight-sets. At the US Open, he was defeated in the fourth round, his earliest exit since 1977. He played at the Australian Open for the first time, making it to the semifinals before being defeated in four sets by Mats Wilander. He made the WCT Final for the third time and beat Ivan Lendl in an epic five-setter. He took the Masters Grand Prix title for the second time, again beating Lendl in straight sets. He also won major events at Philadelphia, Forest Hills, and Wembley, enabling him to capture the year-end number one ranking once again.", "McEnroe's best season came in 1984, as he compiled an 82–3 match record that remains the highest single-season win rate of the Open Era. He won a career-high 13 singles tournaments, including Wimbledon and the US Open, capturing the year-end number one ranking. He also played on the winning US World Team Cup and runner-up Davis Cup teams. He began the year with a 42-match win streak, winning his first six events of the year and reaching his first French Open final, where his opponent was Ivan Lendl. McEnroe won the first two sets, but Lendl's adjustments of using more topspin lobs and cross-court backhand passing shots, as well as McEnroe's fatigue and temperamental outbursts, resulted in a demoralizing five-set loss. In his autobiography, McEnroe described this as his most bitter defeat and implied that he's never quite gotten over it. He rebounded at Wimbledon, losing just one set en route to his third Wimbledon singles title. This included a straight-set rout over Jimmy Connors in the final. He then won his fourth US Open title by defeating Lendl in straight sets in the final, after defeating Connors in a five-set semifinal. He also won his fourth WCT Final, defeating Connors in straight sets, and took his third Masters Grand Prix, beating Lendl in straight sets. His combined record against the number 2 and 3 ranked players for the year, Jimmy Connors and Ivan Lendl, respectively, was 11-1, including going undefeated versus Connors in 5 matches. The year did not end without controversy. While playing and winning the tournament in Stockholm, McEnroe had an on-court outburst that soon became notorious. After questioning a call made by the chair umpire, McEnroe demanded, \"Answer my question! The question, jerk!\" McEnroe then slammed his racquet into a juice cart beside the court in anger, and the stadium crowd booed him. He was suspended for 3 weeks (21 days) for exceeding a $7,500 limit on fines that had been created because of his behavior. As a result, he was disqualified from competing in the following week's significant Wembley (London) Indoor tournament, at which he was supposed to be the number one seed, with Connors and Lendl (the eventual winner) as the second and third seeds. During his suspension, he injured his left wrist in practice causing him to withdraw from the Australian Open, the fourth major of the year.", "In 1985, having reached the semi-finals at the French Open, McEnroe was beaten in straight sets by Kevin Curren in the quarter-finals of Wimbledon. He reached his last Grand Slam singles final at the US Open; this time, he was beaten in straight sets by Lendl. He did not advance past the quarter-finals at the WCT Finals or the Masters Grand Prix. He did win major events at Philadelphia (his 4th straight there), Canada (2nd straight) and Stockholm (2nd straight and 4th overall) and finished the year as the number two ranked player. By 1986, the pressures of playing at the top had become too much for McEnroe to handle, and he took a six-month break from the tour. It was during this sabbatical that on August 1, 1986, he married actress Tatum O'Neal, with whom he had already had a son, Kevin (1986). They had two more children, Sean (1987) and Emily (1991), before divorcing in 1994. When he returned to the tour later in 1986, he won three ATP tournaments, but in 1987 he failed to win a title for the first time since turning pro. He took a seven-month break from the game following the US Open, where he was suspended for two months and fined US$17,500 for misconduct and verbal abuse.", "McEnroe became the top-ranked singles player in the world on March 3, 1980. He was the top-ranked player on 14 separate occasions between 1980 and 1985 and finished the year ranked No. 1 four straight years from 1981 through 1984. He spent a total of 170 weeks at the top of the rankings.", "It has been written about McEnroe that he might have been \"the greatest doubles player of all time\" and \"possibly the greatest team player never to have played a team sport.\" He was ranked No. 1 in doubles for 270 weeks. He formed a powerful partnership with Peter Fleming, with whom he won 57 men's doubles titles, including four at Wimbledon and three at the US Open. Fleming was always very modest about his own contribution to the partnership – he once said: \"the best doubles partnership in the world is McEnroe and anybody.\" McEnroe won a fourth US Open men's doubles title in 1989 with Mark Woodforde, and a fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title in 1992 with Michael Stich. He also won the 1977 French Open mixed doubles title with childhood friend Mary Carillo.", "More than any other player in his era, McEnroe was responsible for reviving U.S. interest in the Davis Cup, which had been shunned by Jimmy Connors and other leading U.S. players, and had not seen a top U.S. player regularly compete since Arthur Ashe. Connors's refusal to play Davis Cup instead of lucrative exhibitions became a source of enmity between him and Ashe. In 1978, McEnroe won two singles rubbers in the final as the U.S. captured the cup for the first time since 1972, beating Great Britain in the final. McEnroe continued to be a mainstay of U.S. Davis Cup teams for the next 14 years and was part of U.S. winning teams in 1978, 1979, 1981, 1982, and 1992. He set numerous U.S. Davis Cup records, including years played (12), ties (30), singles wins (41), and total wins in singles and doubles (59). He played both singles and doubles in 13 series, and he and Peter Fleming won 14 of 15 Davis Cup doubles matches together. An epic performance was McEnroe's 6-hour, 22-minute victory over Mats Wilander in the deciding rubber of the 3–2 quarterfinal win over Sweden in 1982, played in St. Louis, Missouri. McEnroe won the match, at the time the longest in Davis Cup history, 9–7, 6–2, 15–17, 3–6, 8–6. McEnroe nearly broke that record in a 6-hour, 20-minute loss to Boris Becker five years later. Becker won their match, the second rubber in a 3–2 loss to West Germany in World Group Relegation play, 4–6, 15–13, 8–10, 6–2, 6–2. McEnroe also helped the U.S. win the World Team Cup in 1984 and 1985, in both cases defeating Czechoslovakia in the final.", "McEnroe struggled to regain his form after his 1986 sabbatical. He lost three times in Grand Slam tournaments to Ivan Lendl, losing straight-set quarterfinals at both the 1987 US Open and the 1989 Australian Open and a long four-set match, played over two days, in the fourth round of the 1988 French Open. Rumors of drug abuse had begun during his second sabbatical. McEnroe denied them at the time, but acknowledged that he had used cocaine during his career in a 2000 interview that implied that the use occurred during this period, although he denied that the drug affected his play. Nevertheless, McEnroe had multiple notable victories in the final years of his career. In the 1988 French Open, McEnroe beat 16-year-old Michael Chang 6–0, 6–3, 6–1 in the third round; Chang went on to win the title the next year. In 1989, McEnroe won a record fifth title at the World Championship Tennis Finals (the championship tournament of the WCT tour, which was being staged for the last time), defeating top-ranked Lendl in the semifinals. At Wimbledon, he defeated Mats Wilander in a four-set quarterfinal before losing to Stefan Edberg in a semifinal. He won the RCA Championships in Indianapolis and reached the final of the Canadian Open, where he lost to Lendl. He also won both of his singles rubbers in the quarterfinal Davis Cup tie with Sweden. Controversy was never far from McEnroe, however; in his fourth-round match against Mikael Pernfors at the 1990 Australian Open, McEnroe was ejected from the tournament for swearing at the umpire, supervisor, and referee. He was warned by the umpire for intimidating a lineswoman, and then docked a point for smashing a racket. McEnroe was apparently unaware that a new Code of Conduct, which had been introduced just before the tournament, meant that a third code violation would not lead to the deduction of a game but instead would result in immediate disqualification; therefore, when McEnroe unleashed a volley of abuse at umpire Gerry Armstrong, he was defaulted. He was also fined $6,500 for the incidents. Later that year, McEnroe reached the semifinals of the US Open, losing to the eventual champion, Pete Sampras, in four sets. He also won the Davidoff Swiss Indoors in Basel, defeating Goran Ivanišević in a five-set final. The last time McEnroe was ranked in the top ten was on October 22, 1990, when he was ranked 9th. His end-of-year singles ranking was 13th. In 1991, McEnroe won the last edition of the Volvo Tennis-Chicago tournament by defeating his brother Patrick in the final. He won both of his singles rubbers in the quarterfinal Davis Cup tie with Spain. He reached the fourth round at Wimbledon (losing to Edberg) and the third round at the US Open (losing to Chang in a five-set night match). His end-of-year singles ranking was No. 28. In 1992, McEnroe defeated third-ranked and defending champion Boris Becker in the third round of the Australian Open 6–4, 6–3, 7–5 before a sell-out crowd. In the fourth round, McEnroe needed 4 hours 42 minutes to defeat ninth-ranked Emilio Sánchez 8–6 in the fifth set. He lost to Wayne Ferreira in the quarterfinals. At Wimbledon, McEnroe reached the semifinals where he lost in straight sets to the eventual champion Andre Agassi. McEnroe teamed with Michael Stich to win his fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title in a record-length 5-hour-1-minute final, which the pair won 5–7, 7–6, 3–6, 7–6, 19–17. At the end of the year, he teamed with Sampras to win the doubles rubber in the Davis Cup final, where the U.S. defeated Switzerland 3–1. McEnroe retired from the professional tour at the end of 1992. He ended his singles career ranked No. 20. He played in one tournament in 1994 as a wildcard at the Rotterdam Open, losing in the first round. This was his last singles match on the ATP Tour. After Steffi Graf won the French Open in 1999, McEnroe suggested to her that they play mixed doubles at Wimbledon. He and Graf reached the semi-finals of the 1999 Wimbledon mixed doubles but withdrew at that stage because Graf, who was the losing finalist to Lindsay Davenport, decided to focus on her singles draw.", "After retiring, McEnroe pursued his post-tour goal of becoming a working musician. He had learned to play guitar with the help of friends like Eddie Van Halen and Eric Clapton. During his divorce, McEnroe formed The Johnny Smyth Band with himself as lead singer and guitarist, began writing songs, and played small gigs in cities where he played with the senior tour. Although Lars Ulrich complimented his \"natural instinct for music\", a bar owner where McEnroe's band played said that \"he couldn't sing to save his life.\" The band toured for two years, but McEnroe suddenly quit in 1997 just before finishing his first album. McEnroe was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1999. He is now a sports commentator at Wimbledon for the BBC in the UK. He also provides commentary at the Australian Open, US Open and lesser ATP tennis tournaments in the US on networks such as CBS, NBC, USA, and ESPN, as does his brother Patrick. McEnroe became the U.S. Davis Cup captain in September 1999. His team barely escaped defeat in their first two outings in 2000, beating Zimbabwe and the Czech Republic in tight 3–2 encounters. They were then defeated 5–0 by Spain in the semifinals. McEnroe resigned in November 2000 after 14 months as captain, citing frustration with the Davis Cup schedule and format as two of his primary reasons. His brother Patrick took over the job. In 2002, McEnroe played himself in \"Mr. Deeds\" and again in 2008 in \"You Don't Mess with the Zohan\". McEnroe played himself in the 2004 movie \"Wimbledon\". In July 2004, McEnroe began a CNBC talk show titled \"McEnroe\". The show, however, was unsuccessful, twice earning a 0.0 Nielsen rating, and was canceled within five months. In 2002, he hosted the American game show \"The Chair\" on ABC as well as the British version on BBC One, but this venture also was unsuccessful. In 2004, McEnroe said that during much of his career he had unwittingly taken steroids. He said that he had been administered these drugs without his knowledge, stating: \"For six years I was unaware I was being given a form of steroid of the legal kind they used to give horses until they decided it was too strong even for horses.\" McEnroe is active in philanthropy and tennis development. For years he has co-chaired the City Parks Foundation's annual CityParks Tennis fundraiser. The charitable benefit raises crucial funds for New York City's largest municipal youth tennis programs. He collects American contemporary art, and opened a gallery in Manhattan in 1993. McEnroe still plays regularly on the ATP Champions Tour. One victory came at the Jean-Luc Lagardere Trophy in Paris in 2010, where he defeated Guy Forget in the final. Playing on the Champions Tour allows him to continue his most iconic rivalries with old adversaries Ivan Lendl and Björn Borg. His last and 26th win (a record for the ATP Champions Tour) was his 2016 win at Stockholm against Thomas Muster. In charity events and World Team Tennis, he has beaten many top players, including Mardy Fish and Mark Philippoussis. In 2007, McEnroe appeared on the NBC comedy \"30 Rock\" as the host of a game show called \"Gold Case\" in which he uttered his famous line \"You cannot be serious!\" when a taping went awry. McEnroe also appeared on the HBO comedy \"Curb Your Enthusiasm\". In 2009, McEnroe appeared on \"30 Rock\" again, in the episode \"Gavin Volure\", where the title character, a mysterious, reclusive businessman (played by Steve Martin) invites him to dinner because he bridges the worlds of \"art collecting and yelling.\" In 2010, he founded the John McEnroe Tennis Academy on Randall's Island in New York City. In 2012, McEnroe, commentating for ESPN, heavily criticized Australian tennis player Bernard Tomic for \"tanking\" against Andy Roddick at the US Open. However, Tomic was cleared of any wrongdoing, saying that he was \"simply overwhelmed by the occasion\" (this was the first time that he had played at Arthur Ashe Stadium). McEnroe was the subject of a book \"Facing McEnroe\" published in 2016, featuring fifty interviews with tennis players who competed against the former ATP world No. 1. McEnroe was part of Milos Raonic's coaching team from May to August 2016. In addition to his other commentary roles, McEnroe was a central figure for Australian television network Nine's coverage of the 2019/2020 Australian Open.", "McEnroe returned to the ATP Tour in 2006 to play two doubles tournaments. In his first tournament, he teamed with Jonas Björkman to win the title at the SAP Open in San Jose. This was McEnroe's 78th doubles title (No. 5 in history) and his first title since capturing the Paris Indoor doubles title in November 1992 with his brother Patrick. The win meant that McEnroe had won doubles titles in four different decades. In his second tournament, McEnroe and Björkman lost in the quarterfinals of the tournament in Stockholm. McEnroe won the over-45 legends doubles competition at the French Open in 2012. He was partnered with his brother Patrick. They beat Guy Forget and Henri Leconte 7–6, 6–3. McEnroe and his brother Patrick won again at the 2014 French Open in the over-45 legends doubles competition. They beat Andres Gomez and Mark Woodforde 4–6, 7–5, 1–0 (10–7)", "McEnroe was married to Tatum O'Neal, the daughter of actor Ryan O'Neal, from 1986 to 1994 and the two had three children, Kevin, Sean and Emily. After their divorce, they were originally awarded joint custody of the children, but in 1998 McEnroe was awarded sole custody. In 1997, McEnroe married rock singer Patty Smyth with whom he has two daughters, Anna and Ava. He and his wife live on the Upper West Side of Manhattan.", "McEnroe's achievements have led to many considering him among the greatest tennis players in history.", "McEnroe's fiery temper led to him being parodied in pop culture." ] }

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{ "title": [ "East Renfrewshire Council.", "Wards.", "Readers Digest Poll.", "Demographics.", "Business.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The leader of East Renfrewshire Council is Cllr Tony Buchanan (SNP) and the Civic Leader is Provost Jim Fletcher (Labour). As of August 2019, the political composition of East Renfrewshire Council is as follows:", "Six multi-member wards (20 seats) were created for the 2007 election, replacing 20 single-member wards which had been in place since the creation of the council in 1995. This representation decreased to 18 seats across five re-named and re-drawn wards for the 2017 election:", "In a 2007 Reader's Digest poll, \"East Renfrewshire\" was voted the second best place in Britain to raise a family, ranking just behind East Dunbartonshire on the northwest side of Glasgow. In January 2008, East Renfrewshire became the first Scottish local authority to create a Facebook page to publicise its services.", "The results of the 2001 census were as follows: A 2011 survey showed that 41% of Scotland's Jewish population live in East Renfrewshire, making up 2.4% of the population.", "East Renfrewshire is home to many small to medium businesses. The interests of these businesses are looked after by the East Renfrewshire Chamber of Trade & Commerce. The local newspapers are the Barrhead News, covering the local authority with emphasis on the western half of the area, which primarily includes the town of Barrhead and the villages of Neilston and Uplawmoor, and the Glasgow South and Eastwood Extra, which is delivered free to homes and businesses, which has its emphasis on the eastern half of the local authority, but also covers news across the western half as well as the south of Glasgow.", "The earliest evidence of human activity in the area is traces of an iron-age fort in the Busby area and a pre-Roman settlement in Overlee, which is part of Clarkston. These early buildings that predate any maps show the land around would have been suitable for farming, which retained its importance thousands of years later, when the earliest documentation of habituation was of the 230 residents of Muirend in 1435, when the village was surrounded by farmland. It would have been mainly across the modern border with Glasgow, where modern Muirend is today but did go slightly into modern day Netherlee, in East Renfrewshire. The villagers however, were predominantly Irish and worked at the paper mill on the nearby White Cart Water. The farmlands were owned by the Maxwells, a rich and influential family who owned land and important buildings all over Glasgow, growing and building more with each generation, including the building of the Pollok House in Pollok Park in C.1700. The surrounding lands were known collectively under the name “Lee”, but separated into the smaller districts as they are today in 1678, when John Maxwell, owner of the lands was found guilty of assisting the covenanting cause and forced to give up his lands, and his servants were sent as slaves to the West Indies. The areas around his house were named ‘Williamwood’ after the mansion itself and the lower parts of the lands of ‘Lee’ were adequately renamed ‘Netherlee’. Today parts of the Williamwood area lie within the towns of Netherlee and Clarkston. Giffnock expanded rapidly when many of the workers of the Giffnock Quarries (opened in 1835 and whose honey-coloured stones can be found in Glasgow University, Central Station, the old Co-op building on Morrison St, and many buildings worldwide) moved there due to the linking of the two sites by rail in 1866. Around this time the area around the border with Glasgow (East Renfrewshire's Netherlee and most of Glasgow's Muirend and Cathcart) remained farmlands, dominated by the massive ‘Bogton’s Farm & Dairy’ building on the Glasgow side (situated at what used to be the first Safeway supermarket in Scotland, but is now the Muirend Sainsbury's supermarket) owned by John M. Hamilton, dairy farmer and horse enthusiast. The lands to the left of his farm were a training ground for his horses, and his favourite was a Spanish horse by the name of “Toledo”, which cinema builder William Beresford Inglis took as the name of his Toledo Cinema which was built on that spot in 1933. The cinema was closed on 21 October 2001 to make way for 30 new 2 bedroom flats, but the art-deco façade was kept and restored. The building of the cinema was in response to the need for entertainment in the area, which had since grown to a population of around 4,000. New stone residential buildings had been built over the period of 15 years due to resource shortage during the war, the last house not being finished until 1925, at first being used to house evacuees during World War I. In 1941, Rudolf Hess, one of Adolf Hitler's top deputies within the Nazi Party, parachuted into Floors Farm in Waterfoot on a secret mission to meet the Duke of Hamilton and Brandon for peace negotiations. The botched landing led to his capture and arrest. Growth continued slowly during the second half of the 20th century, however tragedy struck when at around 3pm on 21 October 1971, a huge gas explosion tore out the heart of the Clarkston shopping area. The blast killed 20, and injured more than 100, as the blast caught a passing bus and forced the upper-level car park to collapse. A plaque mourning the event can be found at the entrance to the train station, together with an anniversary plaque and tree in the car park of nearby Clarkston Library/Halls. East Renfrewshire has a strong legacy in education and in 2007, St. Mark's RC Primary in Barrhead received an outstanding HMIe report with 11 'excellents', making St. Mark's the highest ranked school in Scotland. The second highest ranked school in Scotland is also in East Renfrewshire; Our Lady of the Missions Primary School in Giffnock achieved nine \"excellents\" in its HMIE report in October 2006. However, the reputation for excellence in education was damaged in 2011 when East Renfrewshire Council opted to close Robslee Primary School and to give the Robslee building over to Our Lady of The Missions Primary from August 2014. This was a hugely unpopular local decision and the consultation met with strong local objection. Despite this, Director of Education, John Wilson OBE, recommended to the council that Robslee should close to give their accommodation to Our Lady of The Missions Primary School." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Demographics.", "Political composition.", "Education.", "Closed schools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "East Dunbartonshire council area has low levels of deprivation, with relatively low unemployment and low levels of crime. The population is both declining and ageing. In a 2007 Reader's Digest poll, East Dunbartonshire was voted the best place in Britain to raise a family. The area continually tops the Halifax Bank Quality of Life list. In 2010 East Dunbartonshire ranked 3rd in Scotland and was the only Scottish area in the British Top 20 in 2008 A Legatum Prosperity Index published by the Legatum Institute in October 2016 showed East Dunbartonshire as the most prosperous council area in Scotland and the ninth most prosperous in the United Kingdom.", "At the first election to East Dunbartonshire Council in April 1995, 26 councillors were elected for a four-year term. Labour gained an outright majority and formed a single-party administration, headed by Charles Kennedy and Michael McCarron as leader and depute leader, with John Dempsey and Ann Cameron taking the civic posts of Provost and Depute Provost. Cllr Kennedy was the then leader of Strathkelvin District Council, and continued to hold that post during the shadow year of East Dunbartonshire until the final abolition of the district council in April 1996. The Liberal Democrats and Conservatives were the only other parties represented on East Dunbartonshire Council and sat in opposition for the next four years. The number of councillors was reduced to 24 at the May 1999 election, when the Labour Party was again returned as the largest group, but without an overall majority. At the statutory meeting, Charles Kennedy and Rhondda Geekie were appointed as leader and depute leader of a minority Labour administration, but the Provost and Depute Provost roles were taken by Lib Dem councillor Robin McSkimming and Conservative councillor Anne Jarvis. Within a few months, the Labour administration fell, and with support from the Conservatives, the Lib Dem councillors Keith Moody and John Morrison took over as leader and depute leader of a new administration in which members of both the Lib Dem and Conservative groups held the various convenerships. At the May 2003 election, the Liberal Democrats further increased their representation on the council, securing 12 out of the 24 seats. With the reduced Labour group declining to put forward nominations, Lib Dem councillors Pat Steel and Cathy McInnes became Provost and Depute Provost, and John Morrison and Fiona Risk leader and depute leader. For the next four years the Lib Dems ran a single party administration that relied, when necessary, on the casting vote of the chair. June 2004 saw the emergence of the East Dunbartonshire Independent Alliance, when Jack Young and former council leader Charles Kennedy, who had been elected as Labour councillors the previous year, formed a fourth group on East Dunbartonshire Council. As a result of the 2007 election, the Scottish Liberal Democrats were reduced to three councillors and lost control of East Dunbartonshire Council, with one of the primary grievances amongst the electorate being fortnightly waste collection, after the introduction of kerbside collections for recycling plastics, glass, metals and paper. Although the SNP were elected as the largest group (winning their first ever councillors on East Dunbartonshire Council), the administration became a Labour/Conservative coalition due to no single party having overall control. The leader of the council was Labour councillor Rhondda Geekie and the position of provost (initially Labour councillor Alex Hannah) was subsequently held by Lib Dem councillor Eric Gotts. The depute leader and depute provost were the Conservative councillors Billy Hendry and Anne Jarvis. In December 2009, Lib Dem representation increased briefly to 4, following Ashay Ghai's win in the Bearsden South by-election caused by the resignation of the Conservatives' Simon Hutchison. However, their numbers reverted to 3 in June 2011, when Lib Dem councillor Duncan Cumming resigned from the party citing issues relating to the Liberal Democrats' role in the UK coalition government, sitting thereafter as an independent. The 2012 election, again returned a council where no single party had overall control, and the administration became a three-way Labour/Lib-Dem/Conservative coalition. The leader of the council remained Rhondda Geekie, but Labour councillor Una Walker became provost. The depute leader and depute provost were the Lib Dem councillor Ashay Ghai and the Conservative councillor Anne Jarvis. EDIA councillor Charles Kennedy, of the Campsie and Kirkintilloch North ward, died on 13 July 2012. The subsequent by-election took place on 13 September, where Gemma Welsh (Scottish Labour) was elected. Thereafter the EDIA was voluntarily deregistered, its remaining councillor, Jack Young, continuing as an independent for the remainder of his term, finally retiring from the council in May 2017. Following a disagreement between the Liberal Democrats and their administration colleagues, the ruling three-party coalition reverted to a minority two-party Labour/Conservative coalition in January 2016, and the Conservatives' Billy Hendry resumed the role of depute council leader. The number of seats on the local council was reduced to 22 at the 2017 election, where a number of long-standing councillors from all parties announced their intention to stand down. No single party gained overall control, with the SNP being elected as the largest group and the Conservatives gaining their highest ever number of councillors. Rhondda Geekie, former Labour councillor and leader of the council since 2007, and Ian Mackay, former SNP Group Leader, lost their seats.", "", "Bishopbriggs High School Thomas Muir High School Auchinairn Primary School Gask House Primary School Lenzie Primary School Lenzie Moss Primary School St Agatha's Primary School St Flannan's Primary School St Joseph's Primary School Woodhill Primary School" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and career.", "Awards and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nešetřil received his Ph.D. from Charles University in 1973 under the supervision of Aleš Pultr and Gert Sabidussi. He is responsible for more than 300 publications. Since 2006, he is chairman of the Committee of Mathematics of Czech Republic (the Czech partner of IMU). Jaroslav Nešetřil is Editor in Chief of \"Computer Science Review\" and \"INTEGERS: the Electronic Journal of Combinatorial Number Theory\". He is also honorary editor of \"Electronic Journal of Graph Theory and Applications\". Since 2008, Jaroslav Nešetřil belongs to the Advisory Board of the Academia Sinica.", "He was awarded the state prize (1985 jointly with Vojtěch Rödl) for a collection of papers in Ramsey theory. The book \"Sparsity - Graphs, Structures, and Algorithms\" he co-authored with Patrice Ossona de Mendez was included in ACM Computing Reviews list of \"Notable Books and Articles of 2012\". Nešetřil is a corresponding member of the German Academy of Sciences since 1996 and has been declared Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Alaska (Fairbanks) in 2002. He has also been declared Doctor Honoris Causa of the University of Bordeaux 1 in 2009; the speech he made in French at this occasion attracted a great deal of attention. He received in 2010 the Medal of Merit of Czech Republic and the Gold medal of Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University in 2011. In 2012, he has been elected to the Academia Europaea. Also, he has been elected honorary member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences in 2013. He was an invited speaker of the European Congress of Mathematics, in Amsterdam, 2008, and invited speaker (by both the Logic and Foundations and Combinatorics sections) at the Combinatorics session of the International Congress of Mathematicians, in Hyderabad, 2010. In 2018, on the occasion of the 670th anniversary of the establishment of Charles University, Nešetřil has received from the rector of Charles university the Donatio Universitatis Carolinae prize “for his contribution to mathematics and for his leading role in establishing a world-renowned group in discrete mathematics at Charles University”." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Central nervous system.", "Long-term effects.", "Causes.", "Serious illness.", "Hormone deficiency.", "Pathophysiology.", "Diagnosis.", "Method of measurement.", "Age.", "Other tests.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Treatment.", "History.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hypoglycemic symptoms and manifestations can be divided into those produced by the counterregulatory hormones (epinephrine/adrenaline and glucagon) triggered by the falling glucose, and the neuroglycopenic effects produced by the reduced brain sugar.", "Not all of the above manifestations occur in every case of hypoglycemia. There is no consistent order to the appearance of the symptoms, if symptoms even occur. Specific manifestations may also vary by age, by severity of the hypoglycemia and the speed of the decline. In young children, vomiting can sometimes accompany morning hypoglycemia with ketosis. In older children and adults, moderately severe hypoglycemia can resemble mania, mental illness, drug intoxication, or drunkenness. In the elderly, hypoglycemia can produce focal stroke-like effects or a hard-to-define malaise. The symptoms of a single person may be similar from episode to episode, but are not necessarily so and may be influenced by the speed at which glucose levels are dropping, as well as previous incidents. In newborns, hypoglycemia can produce irritability, jitters, myoclonic jerks, cyanosis, respiratory distress, apneic episodes, sweating, hypothermia, somnolence, hypotonia, refusal to feed, and seizures or \"spells.\" Hypoglycemia can resemble asphyxia, hypocalcemia, sepsis, or heart failure. In both young and old people with hypoglycemia, the brain may habituate to low glucose levels, with a reduction of noticeable symptoms despite neuroglycopenic impairment. In insulin-dependent diabetic people this phenomenon is termed \"hypoglycemia unawareness\" and is a significant clinical problem when improved glycemic control is attempted. Another aspect of this phenomenon occurs in type I glycogenosis, when chronic hypoglycemia before diagnosis may be better tolerated than acute hypoglycemia after treatment is underway. Hypoglycemic symptoms can also occur when one is sleeping. Examples of symptoms during sleep can include damp bed sheets or clothes from perspiration. Having nightmares or the act of crying out can be a sign of hypoglycemia. Once the individual is awake they may feel tired, irritable, or confused and these may be signs of hypoglycemia as well. In nearly all cases, hypoglycemia that is severe enough to cause seizures or unconsciousness can be reversed without obvious harm to the brain. Cases of death or permanent neurological damage occurring with a single episode have usually involved prolonged, untreated unconsciousness, interference with breathing, severe concurrent disease, or some other type of vulnerability. Nevertheless, brain damage or death has occasionally resulted from severe hypoglycemia. Research in healthy adults shows that mental efficiency declines slightly but measurably as blood glucose falls below 3.6 mM (65 mg/dL). Hormonal defense mechanisms (adrenaline and glucagon) are normally activated as it drops below a threshold level (about 55 mg/dL (3.0 mM) for most people), producing the typical hypoglycemic symptoms of shakiness and dysphoria. Obvious impairment may not occur until the glucose falls below 40 mg/dL (2.2 mM), and many healthy people may occasionally have glucose levels below 65 in the morning without apparent effects. Since the brain effects of hypoglycemia, termed neuroglycopenia, determine whether a given low glucose is a \"problem\" for that person, most doctors use the term \"hypoglycemia\" only when a moderately low glucose level is accompanied by symptoms or brain effects. Determining the presence of both parts of this definition is not always straightforward, as hypoglycemic symptoms and effects are vague and can be produced by other conditions; people with recurrently low glucose levels can lose their threshold symptoms so that severe neuroglycopenic impairment can occur without much warning, and many measurement methods (especially glucose meters) are imprecise at low levels. It may take longer to recover from severe hypoglycemia with unconsciousness or seizure even after restoration of normal blood glucose. When a person has not been unconscious, failure of carbohydrate to reverse the symptoms in 10–15 minutes increases the likelihood that hypoglycemia was not the cause of the symptoms. When severe hypoglycemia has persisted in a hospitalized person, the amount of glucose required to maintain satisfactory blood glucose levels becomes an important clue to the underlying cause. Glucose requirements above 10 mg/kg/minute in infants, or 6 mg/kg/minute in children and adults are strong evidence for hyperinsulinism. In this context this is referred to as the \"glucose infusion rate\" (GIR). Finally, the blood glucose response to glucagon given when the glucose is low can also help distinguish among various types of hypoglycemia. A rise of blood glucose by more than 30 mg/dL (1.70 mmol/l) suggests insulin excess as the probable cause of the hypoglycemia.", "Significant hypoglycemia appears to increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.", "The most common cause of hypoglycemia is medications used to treat diabetes mellitus such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and biguanides. Risk is greater in diabetics who have eaten less than usual, exercised more than usual, or drunk alcohol. Other causes of hypoglycemia include kidney failure, certain tumors, liver disease, hypothyroidism, starvation, inborn errors of metabolism, severe infections, reactive hypoglycemia, and a number of drugs including alcohol. Low blood sugar may occur in babies who are otherwise healthy who have not eaten for a few hours. Inborn errors of metabolism may include the lack of an enzyme to make glycogen (glycogen storage type 0).", "Serious illness may result in low blood sugar. Severe disease of nearly all major organ systems can cause hypoglycemia as a secondary problem. Hospitalized persons, especially in intensive care units or those prevented from eating, can develop hypoglycemia from a variety of circumstances related to the care of their primary disease. Hypoglycemia in these circumstances is often multifactorial or caused by the healthcare. Once identified, these types of hypoglycemia are readily reversed and prevented, and the underlying disease becomes the primary problem.", "Not enough cortisol, such as in Addison's disease, not enough glucagon, or not enough epinephrine can result in low blood sugar. This is a more common cause in children.", "Like most animal tissues, brain metabolism depends primarily on glucose for fuel in most circumstances. A limited amount of glucose can be derived from glycogen stored in astrocytes, but it is consumed within minutes. For most practical purposes, the brain is dependent on a continual supply of glucose diffusing from the blood into the interstitial tissue within the central nervous system and into the neurons themselves. Therefore, if the amount of glucose supplied by the blood falls, the brain is one of the first organs affected. In most people, subtle reduction of mental efficiency can be observed when the glucose falls below 65 mg/dL (3.6 mM). Impairment of action and judgment usually becomes obvious below 40 mg/dL (2.2 mM). Seizures may occur as the glucose falls further. As blood glucose levels fall below 10 mg/dL (0.55 mM), most neurons become electrically silent and nonfunctional, resulting in coma. These brain effects are collectively referred to as neuroglycopenia. The importance of an adequate supply of glucose to the brain is apparent from the number of nervous, hormonal and metabolic responses to a falling glucose level. Most of these are defensive or adaptive, tending to raise the blood sugar by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis or provide alternative fuels. If the blood sugar level falls too low, the liver converts a storage of glycogen into glucose and releases it into the bloodstream, to prevent the person going into a diabetic coma, for a short time. Brief or mild hypoglycemia produces no lasting effects on the brain, though it can temporarily alter brain responses to additional hypoglycemia. Prolonged, severe hypoglycemia can produce lasting damage of a wide range. This can include impairment of cognitive function, motor control, or even consciousness. The likelihood of permanent brain damage from any given instance of severe hypoglycemia is difficult to estimate and depends on a multitude of factors such as age, recent blood and brain glucose experience, concurrent problems such as hypoxia, and availability of alternative fuels. Prior hypoglycemia also blunts the counterregulatory response to future hypoglycemia. While the mechanism leading to blunted counterregulation is unknown several have been proposed. It has been frequently found that those type 1 diabetics found \"dead in bed\" in the morning after suspected severe hypoglycemia had some underlying coronary pathology that led to an induced fatal heart attack. In 2010, a case report was published demonstrating the first known case of an individual found \"dead in bed\" whilst wearing a continuous glucose monitor (CGM), which provided a history of glucose levels before the fatal event; the person had suffered a severe hypoglycemic incident, and while the authors described only a \"minimal counter-regulatory response\" they stated no \"anatomic abnormalities\" were observed during autopsy. The vast majority of symptomatic hypoglycemic episodes result in no detectable permanent harm.", "The glucose level that defines hypoglycemia is variable. In diabetics a level below 3.9 mmol/L (70 mg/dL) is diagnostic. In adults without diabetes, symptoms related to low blood sugar, low blood sugar at the time of symptoms, and improvement when blood sugar is restored to normal confirm the diagnosis. This is known as the Whipple's triad. Otherwise a level below 2.8 mmol/L (50 mg/dL) after not eating or following exercise may be used. In newborns a level below 2.2 mmol/L (40 mg/dL) or less than 3.3 mmol/L (60 mg/dL) if symptoms are present indicates hypoglycemia. Other tests that may be useful in determining the cause include insulin and C peptide levels in the blood. Hyperglycemia, a high blood sugar, is the opposite condition. Throughout a 24‐hour period blood plasma glucose levels are generally maintained between 4–8 mmol/L (72 and 144 mg/dL). Although 3.3 or 3.9 mmol/L (60 or 70 mg/dL) is commonly cited as the lower limit of normal glucose, symptoms of hypoglycemia usually do not occur until 2.8 to 3.0 mmol/L (50 to 54 mg/dL). In cases of recurrent hypoglycemia with severe symptoms, the best method of excluding dangerous conditions is often a \"diagnostic fast\". This is usually conducted in the hospital, and the duration depends on the age of the person and response to the fast. A healthy adult can usually maintain a glucose level above 50 mg/dL (2.8 mM) for 72 hours, a child for 36 hours, and an infant for 24 hours. The purpose of the fast is to determine whether the person can maintain his or her blood glucose as long as normal, and can respond to fasting with the appropriate metabolic changes. At the end of the fast the insulin should be nearly undetectable and ketosis should be fully established. The person's blood glucose levels are monitored and a critical specimen is obtained if the glucose falls. Despite its unpleasantness and expense, a diagnostic fast may be the only effective way to confirm or refute a number of serious forms of hypoglycemia, especially those involving excessive insulin. The precise level of glucose considered low enough to define hypoglycemia is dependent on (1) the measurement method, (2) the age of the person, (3) presence or absence of effects, and (4) the purpose of the definition. While there is no disagreement as to the normal range of blood sugar, debate continues as to what degree of hypoglycemia warrants medical evaluation or treatment, or can cause harm. Deciding whether a blood glucose in the borderline range of 45–75 mg/dL (2.5–4.2 mM) represents clinically problematic hypoglycemia is not always simple. This leads people to use different \"cutoff levels\" of glucose in different contexts and for different purposes. Because of all the variations, the Endocrine Society recommends that a diagnosis of hypoglycemia as a problem for an individual be based on the combination of a low glucose level and evidence of adverse effects. Glucose concentrations are expressed as milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL or mg/100 mL) in Lebanon, the United States, Japan, Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Egypt, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Colombia, India and Israel, while millimoles per liter (mmol/L or mM) are the units used in most of the rest of the world. Glucose concentrations expressed as mg/dL can be converted to mmol/L by dividing by 18.0 g/dmol (the molar mass of glucose). For example, a glucose concentration of 90 mg/dL is 5.0 mmol/L or 5.0 mM. The circumstances of hypoglycemia provide most of the clues to diagnosis. Circumstances include the age of the person, time of day, time since last meal, previous episodes, nutritional status, physical and mental development, drugs or toxins (especially insulin or other diabetes drugs), diseases of other organ systems, family history, and response to treatment. When hypoglycemia occurs repeatedly, a record or \"diary\" of the spells over several months, noting the circumstances of each spell (time of day, relation to last meal, nature of last meal, response to carbohydrate, and so forth) may be useful in recognizing the nature and cause of the hypoglycemia.", "Blood glucose levels discussed in this article are venous plasma or serum levels measured by standard, automated glucose oxidase methods used in medical laboratories. For clinical purposes, plasma and serum levels are similar enough to be interchangeable. Arterial plasma or serum levels are slightly higher than venous levels, and capillary levels are typically in between. This difference between arterial and venous levels is small in the fasting state but is amplified and can be greater than 10% in the postprandial state. On the other hand, whole blood glucose levels (e.g., by fingerprick meters) are about 10–15% lower than venous plasma levels. Furthermore, available fingerstick glucose meters are only warranted to be accurate to within 15% of a simultaneous laboratory value under optimal conditions, and home use in the investigation of hypoglycemia is fraught with misleading low numbers. In other words, a meter glucose reading of 39 mg/dL could be properly obtained from a person whose laboratory serum glucose was 53 mg/dL; even wider variations can occur with \"real world\" home use. Two other factors significantly affect glucose measurement: hematocrit and delay after blood drawing. The disparity between venous and whole blood concentrations is greater when the hematocrit is high, as in newborn infants, or adults with polycythemia. High neonatal hematocrits are particularly likely to confound glucose measurement by meter. Second, unless the specimen is drawn into a fluoride tube or processed immediately to separate the serum or plasma from the cells, the measurable glucose will be gradually lowered by \"in vitro\" metabolism of the glucose at a rate of approximately 7 mg/dL/h, or even more in the presence of leukocytosis. The delay that occurs when blood is drawn at a satellite site and transported to a central laboratory hours later for routine processing is a common cause of mildly low glucose levels in general chemistry panels.", "Children's blood sugar levels are often slightly lower than adults'. Overnight fasting glucose levels are below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mM) in 5% of healthy adults, but up to 5% of children can be below 60 mg/dL (3.3 mM) in the morning fasting state. As the duration of fasting is extended, a higher percentage of infants and children will have mildly low plasma glucose levels, typically without symptoms. The normal range of newborn blood sugars continues to be debated. It has been proposed that newborn brains are able to use alternate fuels when glucose levels are low more readily than adults. Experts continue to debate the significance and risk of such levels, though the trend has been to recommend maintenance of glucose levels above 60–70 mg/dL the first day after birth. Diabetic hypoglycemia represents a special case with respect to the relationship of measured glucose and hypoglycemic symptoms for several reasons. First, although home glucose meter readings are often misleading, the probability that a low reading, whether accompanied by symptoms or not, represents real hypoglycemia is much higher in a person who takes insulin than in someone who does not.", "The following is a brief list of hormones and metabolites which may be measured in a critical sample. Not all tests are checked on every person. A \"basic version\" would include insulin, cortisol, and electrolytes, with C-peptide and drug screen for adults and growth hormone in children. The value of additional specific tests depends on the most likely diagnoses for an individual person, based on the circumstances described above. Many of these levels change within minutes, especially if glucose is given, and there is no value in measuring them after the hypoglycemia is reversed. Others, especially those lower in the list, remain abnormal even after hypoglycemia is reversed, and can be usefully measured even if a critical specimen is missed. Part of the value of the critical sample may simply be the proof that the symptoms are indeed due to hypoglycemia. More often, measurement of certain hormones and metabolites at the time of hypoglycemia indicates which organs and body systems are responding appropriately and which are functioning abnormally. For example, when the blood glucose is low, hormones which raise the glucose should be rising and insulin secretion should be completely suppressed.", "It can also be mistaken for alcohol intoxication.", "The most effective means of preventing further episodes of hypoglycemia depends on the cause. The risk of further episodes of diabetic hypoglycemia can often (but not always) be reduced by lowering the dose of insulin or other medications, or by more meticulous attention to blood sugar balance during unusual hours, higher levels of exercise, or decreasing alcohol intake. Many of the inborn errors of metabolism require avoidance or shortening of fasting intervals, or extra carbohydrates. For the more severe disorders, such as type 1 glycogen storage disease, this may be supplied in the form of cornstarch every few hours or by continuous gastric infusion. Several treatments are used for hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia, depending on the exact form and severity. Some forms of congenital hyperinsulinism respond to diazoxide or octreotide. Surgical removal of the overactive part of the pancreas is curative with minimal risk when hyperinsulinism is focal or due to a benign insulin-producing tumor of the pancreas. When congenital hyperinsulinism is diffuse and refractory to medications, near-total pancreatectomy may be the treatment of last resort, but in this condition is less consistently effective and fraught with more complications. Hypoglycemia due to hormone deficiencies such as hypopituitarism or adrenal insufficiency usually ceases when the appropriate hormone is replaced. Hypoglycemia due to dumping syndrome and other post-surgical conditions is best dealt with by altering diet. Including fat and protein with carbohydrates may slow digestion and reduce early insulin secretion. Some forms of this respond to treatment with an alpha-glucosidase inhibitor, which slows starch digestion. Reactive hypoglycemia with demonstrably low blood glucose levels is most often a predictable nuisance which can be avoided by consuming fat and protein with carbohydrates, by adding morning or afternoon snacks, and reducing alcohol intake. Idiopathic postprandial syndrome without demonstrably low glucose levels at the time of symptoms can be more of a management challenge. Many people find improvement by changing eating patterns (smaller meals, avoiding excessive sugar, mixed meals rather than carbohydrates by themselves), reducing intake of stimulants such as caffeine, or by making lifestyle changes to reduce stress. See the following section of this article.", "Treatment of some forms of hypoglycemia, such as in diabetes, involves immediately raising the blood sugar to normal through the eating of carbohydrates such as sugars, determining the cause, and taking measures to hopefully prevent future episodes. However, this treatment is not optimal in other forms such as reactive hypoglycemia, where rapid carbohydrate ingestion may lead to a further hypoglycemic episode. Blood glucose can be raised to normal within minutes by taking (or receiving) 10–20 grams of carbohydrate. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3–4 ounces (100–120 ml) of orange, apple, or grape juice although fruit juices contain a higher proportion of fructose which is more slowly metabolized than pure dextrose. Alternatively, about 4–5 ounces (120–150 ml) of regular (non-diet) soda may also work, as will about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. Starch is quickly digested to glucose (unless the person is taking acarbose), but adding fat or protein retards digestion. Symptoms should begin to improve within 5 minutes, though full recovery may take 10–20 minutes. Overfeeding does not speed recovery and if the person has diabetes will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards. A mnemonic used by the American Diabetes Association and others is the \"rule of 15\" – consuming 15 grams of carbohydrate followed by a 15-minute wait, repeated if glucose remains low (variable by individual, sometimes 70 mg/dL). If a person has such severe effects of hypoglycemia that they cannot (due to combativeness) or should not (due to seizures or unconsciousness) be given anything by mouth, medical personnel such as paramedics, or in-hospital personnel can establish IV access and give intravenous dextrose, concentrations varying depending on age (infants are given 2 ml/kg dextrose 10%, children are given dextrose 25%, and adults are given dextrose 50%). Care must be taken in giving these solutions because they can cause skin necrosis if the IV is infiltrated, sclerosis of veins, and many other fluid and electrolyte disturbances if administered incorrectly. If IV access cannot be established, the person can be given 1 to 2 milligrams of glucagon in an intramuscular injection. More treatment information can be found in the article diabetic hypoglycemia. If a person has less severe effects, and is conscious with the ability to swallow, medical personal may administer gelatinous oral glucose. The soft drink Lucozade has been used for hypoglycemia in the United Kingdom, however it has recently replaced much of its glucose with the artificial sugars, which do not treat hypoglycemia. One situation where starch may be less effective than glucose or sucrose is when a person is taking acarbose. Since acarbose and other alpha-glucosidase inhibitors prevents starch and other sugars from being broken down into monosaccharides that can be absorbed by the body, people taking these medications should consume monosaccharide-containing foods such as glucose tablets, honey, or juice to reverse hypoglycemia.", "Hypoglycemia was first discovered by James Collip when he was working with Frederick Banting on purifying insulin in 1922. Collip was tasked with developing an assay to measure the activity of insulin. He first injected insulin into a rabbit, and then measured the reduction in blood glucose levels. Measuring blood glucose was a time consuming step. Collip observed that if he injected rabbits with a too large a dose of insulin, the rabbits began convulsing, went into a coma, and then died. This observation simplified his assay. He defined one unit of insulin as the amount necessary to induce this convulsing hypoglycemic reaction in a rabbit. Collip later found he could save money, and rabbits, by injecting them with glucose once they were convulsing.", "The word \"hypoglycemia\" is also spelled \"hypoglycaemia\" or \"hypoglycæmia\". The term means low blood sugar in Greek. \"ὑπογλυκαιμία\", from \"hypo-\", \"glykys\", \"haima\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early years.", "Peak years.", "Contemporaries and rivalries.", "Björn Borg.", "Ilie Năstase.", "Manuel Orantes and Guillermo Vilas.", "Rod Laver and John Newcombe.", "Later years.", "John McEnroe.", "Ivan Lendl.", "Other matches.", "Maverick.", "Distinctions and honors.", "Playing style.", "Racket evolution.", "Commentating.", "Coaching.", "Author.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Connors grew up in East St. Louis, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, and was raised Catholic. During his childhood he was coached and trained by his mother and grandmother. He played in his first U.S. Championship, the U.S. boys' 11-and-under of 1961, when he was nine years old. Connors' mother, Gloria, took him to Southern California to be coached by Pancho Segura, starting at age 16, in 1968. He and his brother, John \"Johnny\" Connors, attended St. Phillip's grade school. Connors won the Junior Orange Bowl in both the 12- and the 14-year categories, and is one of only nine tennis players to win the Junior Orange Bowl championship twice in its 70-year history, which list includes Andy Murray, Jennifer Capriati, Monica Seles, and Yshai Oliel. In 1970, Connors recorded his first victory in the first round of the Pacific Southwest Open in Los Angeles, defeating Roy Emerson. In 1971, Connors won the NCAA singles title as a Freshman while attending UCLA and attained All-American status. He turned professional in 1972 and won his first tournament, the Jacksonville Open. Connors was acquiring a reputation as a maverick in 1972 when he refused to join the newly formed Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP), the union that was embraced by most male professional players, in order to play in and dominate a series of smaller tournaments organized by Bill Riordan, his manager. However, Connors played in other tournaments and won the 1973 U.S. Pro Singles, his first significant title, toppling Arthur Ashe in a five-set final, 6–3, 4–6, 6–4, 3–6, 6–2.", "Connors won eight Grand Slam singles championships: five US Opens, two Wimbledons, and one Australian Open. He did not participate in the French Open during his peak years (1974–78), as he was banned from playing by the event in 1974 due to his association with World Team Tennis (WTT). and in the other four years was either banned or chose not to participate. He only played in two Australian Opens in his entire career, winning it in 1974 and reaching the final in 1975. Few highly ranked players, aside from Australians, travelled to Australia for that event up until the mid-1980s. In 1974, Connors was the dominant player and held the ATP No. 1 ranking at the end of the year. He had a 99–4 record that year and won 15 tournaments of the 21 he entered, including three of the four Grand Slam singles titles. As noted, the French Open did not allow Connors to participate due to his association with World Team Tennis (WTT), but he won the Australian Open, which began in late December 1973 and concluded on January 1, 1974, defeating Phil Dent in four sets, and beat Ken Rosewall in straight sets in the finals of both Wimbledon and the US Open losing only 6 and 2 games, respectively, in those finals. His exclusion from the French Open denied him the opportunity to become the second male player of the Open Era, after Rod Laver, to win all four Major singles titles in a calendar year. He chose not to participate in the season-ending Masters Cup between the top eight players of the world and was not eligible for the World Championship Tennis (WCT) finals because he did not compete in the WCT's regular tournaments. In the open era, Connors is one of only six men to win three or more Grand Slam singles titles in a calendar year. The others are: Rod Laver who won the Grand Slam in 1969; Mats Wilander won the Australian, French and US Open in 1988; Roger Federer won the Australian, Wimbledon and US Open in 2004, 2006 and 2007; Rafael Nadal won the French, Wimbledon, and US Open in 2010; and Novak Djokovic won the Australian, Wimbledon, and US Open in 2011 and 2015. Connors reached the final of the US Open in five straight years from 1974 through 1978, winning three times with each win being on a different surface (1974 on grass, 1976 on clay and 1978 on hard). He reached the final of Wimbledon four out of five years during his peak (1974, 1975, 1977 and 1978). Despite not being allowed to play or choosing not to participate in the French Open from 1974 to 1978, he was still able to reach the semifinals four times in the later years of his career. In 1975, Connors reached the finals of Wimbledon, the US Open and Australia, he but did not win any of them, although his loss to John Newcombe was close as Connors lost 9-7 in a fourth set tiebreak. He won nine of the tournaments he entered achieving an 82–8 record. While he achieved enough points to retain the ATP No. 1 ranking the entire year, most tennis authorities, including the ATP, named Arthur Ashe, who solidly defeated Connors at Wimbledon, as the Player of the Year. He once again did not participate in the Masters Cup or the WCT Finals. In 1976, Connors captured the US Open once again (defeating Björn Borg) while losing in the quarter-finals at Wimbledon. While winning 12 events, including the U.S. Pro Indoor in Philadelphia, Palm Springs and Las Vegas, he achieved a record of 90–8 and defeated Borg all four times they played. He was ranked No. 1 by the ATP for the entire year and was named the player of the year by most tennis sources, but not by the ATP, which named Björn Borg as its player of the year. In 1977, Connors lost in the Wimbledon finals to Borg 6-4 in the fifth set and in the US Open finals to Guillermo Vilas, but Connors captured both the Masters, beating Borg, and the WCT Finals. While holding onto the ATP No. 1 ranking, the World Tennis Magazine and most tennis authorities ranked Borg or Vilas No. 1 with Connors rated as No. 3 behind Borg. In 1978, Borg defeated Connors in the Wimbledon final, but Connors defeated Borg at the US Open (played on hard court for the inaugural time) with both of their victories being dominating. Connors also won the U.S. Pro Indoor. While he retained the ATP No. 1 ranking at the end of the year, the ATP and most tennis authorities rated Borg, who also won the French Open, as the player of the year. Connors reached the ATP world No. 1 ranking on July 29, 1974 and held it for 160 consecutive weeks, a record until it was surpassed by Roger Federer on February 26, 2007. He was the ATP year-end no. 1 player from 1974 through 1978 and held the No. 1 ranking for a total of 268 weeks during his career. In 1979 through 1981, Connors generally reached the semi-finals of the three top Grand Slam events and the Masters each year, but he did win the WCT Finals in 1980. He was generally ranked third in the world those years. In 1982 Connors experienced a resurgence as he defeated John McEnroe in five close sets to win Wimbledon and Ivan Lendl to win the US Open after which he reclaimed the ATP No. 1 ranking. He also reached the semi-final of the Masters Cup and won five other tournaments. After trading the No. 1 ranking with back and forth with McEnroe, he finished the year ranked No. 2 in points earned, but he was named Player of the Year by the ATP and most other authorities due to his victories at Wimbledon and the US Open. In 1983, Connors, McEnroe and Lendl traded the No. 1 ranking several times with Connors winning the US Open for a record fifth time (beating Lendl in the final) and finishing the year as the No. 3 ranked player.", "Prominent contemporary players with Connors included Phil Dent, Brian Gottfried, Raul Ramírez, Harold Solomon, Dick Stockton, Roscoe Tanner, and Guillermo Vilas. His older rivals included Arthur Ashe, Rod Laver, Ilie Năstase, John Newcombe, Manuel Orantes, Ken Rosewall, and Stan Smith. His prominent younger opponents included Björn Borg, Vitas Gerulaitis, Ivan Lendl, and John McEnroe.", "During his best years of 1974 through 1978, Connors was challenged the most by Borg, with twelve matches on tour during that time frame. Borg won only four of those meetings, but two of those wins were in the Wimbledon finals of 1977 and 1978. Connors lost his stranglehold on the top ranking to Borg in early 1979 and wound up with an official tour record of 8–15 against Borg as Borg is four years younger and won the last ten times they met. Head to head in major championship finals, they split their four meetings, Borg winning two Wimbledons (1977 & 1978) and Connors winning two US Opens (1976 & 1978).", "Nastase was another rival in Connors' prime. Though six years older than Connors, Nastase won ten of their first eleven meetings. However, Connors won 11 of their final 14 meetings. The two would team up to win the doubles championships at the 1973 Wimbledon and the 1975 US Open.", "Orantes upset Connors in the final of the 1975 US Open, but Connors was 11–3 overall against Orantes in tour events. On the other hand, Vilas wore down Connors in the final of the 1977 US Open and was much more competitive in all of their meetings. Connors was only able to manage a 5–4 record against Vilas in tour events.", "In 1975, Connors won two highly touted \"Challenge Matches\", both arranged by the Riordan company and televised nationally by CBS Sports from Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. The first match, in February and billed as $100,000 ($ today) winner-takes-all, was against Laver. Connors won that match, 6–4, 6–2, 3–6, 7–5. In April, Connors met Newcombe in a match billed as a $250,000 winner-takes-all. Connors won the match, 6–3, 4–6, 6–2, 6–4. Connors ended his business relationship with Riordan later in 1975. Connors played Newcombe in four tour events, with Newcombe winning the first two meetings on grass (1973 US Open quarterfinal and 1975 Australian Open final) and Connors winning the last two on hard courts (1978 Sydney Indoor quarterfinal and 1979 Hong Kong round of 16). Connors won all three meetings with Rod Laver in tour events.", "In 1984 Connors had made both the finals of Wimbledon and the WCT finals with semifinal appearances at the French Open, the US Open, and the Masters Cup. He finished the year as the No. 2 ranked player after McEnroe. In 1985 he made the semi-finals of the big 4 four events and finished number No. 4 for the year, a ranking he would again obtain in 1987 at the age of 35. Connors had shining moments against John McEnroe and Ivan Lendl, both of whom rose to prominence after Connors peaked in the mid-1970s. He would continue to compete against much younger players and had one of the most remarkable comebacks for any athlete when he reached the semifinals of the 1991 US Open at the age of 39.", "In the 1980 WCT Finals, Connors defeated the defending champion, John McEnroe. McEnroe and Borg were battling for the top spot in that year, while Connors played the role of the spoiler. However, in 1982, at age 29, Connors was back in the Wimbledon singles final, where he faced McEnroe, who by then was established firmly as the world's top player. Connors recovered from being three points away from defeat in a fourth-set tie-break (at 3–4) to win the match, 3–6, 6–3, 6–7, 7–6, 6–4, and claimed his second Wimbledon title, eight years after his first. Although Connors' tour record against McEnroe was 14–20, McEnroe is six years younger than Connors and had a losing record against Connors until he won 12 out of their last 14 meetings. Head to head in major championship finals, they split their two meetings, Connors winning the 1982 Wimbledon in five sets, and McEnroe winning the 1984 Wimbledon in straight sets. McEnroe won six of their nine meetings in Grand Slam events.", "Connors defeated another of the next generation of tennis stars, Ivan Lendl, in the 1982 US Open final and soon regained the No. 1 ranking. Connors had a tour record of 13–22 against Lendl, but Lendl is seven years younger than Connors and had a losing record against Connors until he won their last 17 matches from 1984 through 1992, after Connors' prime. Head to head in major championship finals, Connors defeated Lendl in both meetings, winning the 1982 and 1983 US Open.", "Connors continued to compete against younger men well into his 41st year. In the fourth round of the 1987 Wimbledon Championships, Connors defeated Mikael Pernfors, ten years his junior, 1–6, 1–6, 7–5, 6–4, 6–2, after having trailed 4–1 in the third set and 3–0 in the fourth set. In July 1988, Connors ended a four-year title drought by winning the Sovran Bank Tennis Classic in Washington, D.C. It was the 106th title of his career. Connors had played in 56 tournaments and lost 11 finals since his previous victory in the Tokyo Indoors against Lendl in October 1984. At the 1989 US Open, Connors defeated the third seed (and future two-time champion), Stefan Edberg, in straight sets in the fourth round and pushed sixth-seeded Andre Agassi to five sets in a quarterfinal. His career seemed to be at an end in 1990, when he played only three tournament matches and lost all three, dropping to No. 936 in the world rankings. However, after surgery on his deteriorating left wrist, he came back to play 14 tournaments in 1991. An ailing back forced him to retire from a five-sets match in the third round of the French Open against Michael Chang, the 1989 champion. Connors walked off the court after hitting a winner against Chang. Connors recuperated and made an improbable run to the 1991 US Open semifinals which he later said were \"the best 11 days of my tennis career\". On his 39th birthday he defeated 24-year-old Aaron Krickstein, 3–6, 7–6, 1–6, 6–3, 7–6, in 4 hours and 41 minutes, coming back from a 2–5 deficit in the final set. Connors then defeated Paul Haarhuis in the quarterfinals before losing to Jim Courier. 22 years later ESPN aired a documentary commemorating Connors' run. Connors participated in his last major tournament, in the 1992 US Open, where he beat Jaime Oncins, 6–1, 6–2, 6–3 in the first round, before losing to Lendl (then ranked No. 7), 6–3, 3–6, 2–6, 0–6 in the second round. In September 1992, Connors played Martina Navratilova in the third Battle of the Sexes tennis match at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. Connors was allowed only one serve per point and Navratilova was allowed to hit into half the doubles court. Connors won, 7–5, 6–2. However, this would not be the end of his playing career. As late as June 1995, three months shy of his 43rd birthday Connors beat Sébastien Lareau, 6–4, 7–6, and Martin Sinner, 7–6, 6–0, to progress to the quarterfinals of the Halle event in Germany. Connors lost this quarterfinal, 6–7, 3–6 to Marc Rosset. Connors' last match on the main ATP tour came in April 1996, when he lost, 2–6, 6–3, 1–6, to Richey Reneberg in Atlanta.", "In 1974, Connors and Riordan began filing lawsuits, amounting to $10 million, against the ATP and its president, Arthur Ashe, for allegedly restricting his freedom in the game. The lawsuits stemmed from the French Open banning Connors in 1974 after he had signed a contract to play World Team Tennis (WTT) for the Baltimore Banners. Connors was seeking to enter the French Open, but the ATP and French officials opposed WTT because of scheduling conflicts, so the entries of WTT players were refused between 1974 and 1978. Connors dropped Riordan and eventually the lawsuits after losing to Ashe in the 1975 Wimbledon final (according to the official film produced by Wimbledon 1975, his $2 million suit against Ashe was still outstanding when the two met in the 1975 Wimbledon final). At Wimbledon in 1977, he declined to participate in a parade of former champions to celebrate the tournament's centenary, choosing instead to practice in the grounds with Ilie Nastase while the parade took place. In 2000, he also declined to join a gathering of 58 former champions held to mark the millennium. In his 2013 autobiography, Connors blamed his missing the 1977 parade on the All England Club for not letting his doctor onto the grounds so that Connors could try on a customized splint for a thumb injury. Connors explained that this necessitated his rushing to meet the doctor at the entrance to the grounds, and then convincing Nastase to help him try out the splint on a practice court. By Connors' account, he then rushed to Centre Court for the parade, but was too late. He was booed when he played his first round match the next day. Reaching the final, he lost in five sets to Borg, who a month later was able briefly to interrupt Connors's long hold on the world No. 1 ranking. Connors also irritated sponsors and tennis officials by shunning the end-of-year Masters championship from 1974 through 1976. However, he entered this round-robin competition in 1977 when it moved to New York City. Although Connors lost a celebrated late-night match to Vilas, 4–6, 6–3, 5–7, he took the title by defeating Borg in the final, 6–4, 1–6, 6–4.", "Connors is often considered among the greatest tennis players in the history of the sport. Connors won a male record 109 singles titles. He also won 16 doubles titles (including the men's doubles titles at Wimbledon in 1973 and the US Open in 1975). Connors has won more matches (1,274) than any other male professional tennis player in the open era. His career win-loss record was 1,274–282 for a winning percentage of 82.4. He played 401 tournaments, a record until Fabrice Santoro overtook it in 2008. In Grand Slam Singles events, Connors reached the semifinals or better a total of 31 times and the quarterfinals or better a total of 41 times, despite entering the Australian Open Men's Singles only twice and not entering the French Open Men's Singles for five of his peak career years. The 31 semifinals stood as a record until surpassed by Roger Federer at Wimbledon 2012. The 41 quarterfinals remained a record until Roger Federer surpassed it at Wimbledon 2014. Connors was the only player to win the US Open on three different surfaces: grass, clay, and hard. He was also the first male tennis player to win Grand Slam singles titles on three different surfaces: grass (1974), clay (1976), and hard (1978). Connors was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1998 and Intercollegiate Tennis Association (ITA) Hall of Fame in 1986. He also has a star on the St. Louis Walk of Fame. In his 1979 autobiography, tennis promoter and Grand Slam winning player Jack Kramer ranked Connors as one of the 21 best players of all time. Because of his fiery competitiveness and acrimonious relationships with a number of peers, he has been likened to baseball player Pete Rose.", "In the modern era of power tennis, Connors's style of play has often been cited as highly influential, especially in the development of the flat backhand. Larry Schwartz on ESPN.com said about Connors, \"His biggest weapons were an indomitable spirit, a two-handed backhand and the best service return in the game. It is difficult to say which was more instrumental in Connors becoming a champion.... Though smaller than most of his competitors, Connors didn't let it bother him, making up for a lack of size with determination.\" Of his own competitive nature Connors has said, \"[T]here's always somebody out there who's willing to push it that extra inch, or mile, and that was me. (Laughter) I didn't care if it took me 30 minutes or five hours. If you beat me, you had to be the best, or the best you had that day. But that was my passion for the game. If I won, I won, and if I lost, well, I didn't take it so well.\" His on-court antics, designed to get the crowd involved, both helped and hurt his play. Schwartz said, \"While tennis fans enjoyed Connors's gritty style and his never-say-die attitude, they often were shocked by his antics. His sometimes vulgar on-court behavior—like giving the finger to a linesman after disagreeing with a call or strutting about the court with the tennis racket handle between his legs; sometimes he would yank on the handle in a grotesque manner and his fans would go wild or groan in disapproval—did not help his approval rating. During the early part of his career, Connors frequently argued with umpires, linesmen, the players union, Davis Cup officials and other players. He was even booed at Wimbledon—a rare show of disapproval there—for snubbing the Parade of Champions on the first day of the Centenary in 1977.\" His brash behavior both on and off the court earned him a reputation as the brat of the tennis world. Tennis commentator Bud Collins nicknamed Connors the \"Brash Basher of Belleville\" after the St Louis suburb where he grew up. Connors himself thrived on the energy of the crowd, positive or negative, and manipulated and exploited it to his advantage in many of the greatest matches of his career. Connors was taught to hit the ball on the rise by his teaching-pro mother, Gloria Connors, a technique he used to defeat the opposition in the early years of his career. Gloria sent her son to Southern California to work with Pancho Segura at the age of 16. Segura advanced Connors' game of hitting the ball on the rise which enabled Connors to reflect the power and velocity of his opponents back at them. Segura was the master strategist in developing Jimmy's complete game. In the 1975 Wimbledon final, Arthur Ashe countered this strategy by taking the pace off the ball, giving Connors only soft junk shots (dinks, drop shots, and lobs) to hit. In an era when the serve and volley was the norm, Björn Borg excepted, Connors was one of the few players to hit the ball flat, low, and predominantly from the baseline. Connors hit his forehand with a semi-Western grip and with little net clearance. Contemporaries such as Arthur Ashe and commentators such as Joel Drucker characterized his forehand as his greatest weakness, especially on extreme pressure points, as it lacked the safety margin of hard forehands hit with topspin. His serve, while accurate and capable, was never a great weapon for him as it did not reach the velocity and power of his opponents. His lack of a dominating serve and net game, combined with his individualist style and maverick tendencies, meant that he was not as successful in doubles as he was in singles, although he did win Grand Slam titles with Ilie Năstase, reached a final with Chris Evert, and accumulated 16 doubles titles during his career.", "At a time when most other tennis pros played with wooden rackets, Connors used the \"Wilson T2000\" steel racket, which utilized a method for stringing that had been devised and patented by Lacoste in 1953. He played with this chrome tubular steel racket until 1984, when most other pros had shifted to new racket technologies, materials, and designs. At the Tokyo Indoor in October 1983, Connors switched to a new mid-size graphite racket, the Wilson ProStaff, that had been designed especially for him and he used it on the 1984 tour. But 1985 again found Connors playing with the T2000. In 1987, he finally switched to a graphite racket when he signed a contract with Slazenger to play their Panther Pro Ceramic. In 1990, Connors signed with Estusa. Connors used lead tape which he would wind around the racket head to provide the proper \"feel\" for his style of game.", "Connors did commentary with NBC-TV in 1990 and 1991, during its coverage of the French Open and Wimbledon tournaments. During the Wimbledon tournaments of 2005, 2006, and 2007, Connors commentated for the BBC alongside John McEnroe (among others), providing moments of heated discussion between two former archrivals. Connors returned to BBC commentary at Wimbledon in 2014. Connors has also served as a commentator and analyst for the Tennis Channel since the US Open tournament of 2009.", "On July 24, 2006, at the start of the Countrywide Classic tournament in Los Angeles, American tennis player Andy Roddick announced his partnership with Connors as his coach. In September, 2006 Roddick reached the final of the U.S. Open, where he lost to Roger Federer. On March 6, 2008, Roddick announced the end of that 19-month relationship. In July 2013 former women's world No. 1 Maria Sharapova announced on her website that Connors was her new coach. On August 15, 2013 Sharapova confirmed that she had ended the partnership with Connors after just one match together.", "In 2013, Connors published his autobiography \"The Outsider\". It won the British Sports Book Awards in the \"Best Autobiography/Biography\" category.", "Connors was engaged to fellow tennis pro Chris Evert from 1974 to 1975, and they each triumphed in the singles events at the 1974 Wimbledon Championships; a feat labelled \"The Lovebird Double\" by the media. Their engagement was broken off shortly before the 1975 Wimbledon championship. Connors and Evert briefly reconciled in 1976 and 1978, before parting for good. In May 2013, Connors wrote his autobiography in which he alleged that Evert was pregnant with their child and that she unilaterally made the decision to have an abortion. Former Miss World Marjorie Wallace was engaged to Connors from 1976 to 1977, but in 1979 Connors married \"Playboy\" model Patti McGuire. They have two children, son Brett and daughter Aubree, and live in the Santa Barbara, California area. In the fall of 1988, Connors auditioned to host the NBC daytime version of \"Wheel of Fortune\", a show he and his wife \"never missed an episode\" of. However, the job went to Rolf Benirschke. According to show creator Merv Griffin, many news outlets tried to get their hands on Connors' audition tape, but Griffin refused to release it because he said \"it wouldn't have been fair to Jimmy.\" In the 1990s, he joined his brother John as investors in the Argosy Gaming Company which owned riverboat casinos on the Mississippi River. The two owned 19 percent of the company which was headquartered in the St. Louis metropolitan area of East Alton, Illinois. Argosy narrowly averted bankruptcy in the late 1990s and Connors' brother John personally sought Chapter 7 bankruptcy. In the liquidation, Connors, through his company, Smooth Swing, acquired the Alystra Casino in Henderson, Nevada, for $1.9 million from Union Planters Bank, which had foreclosed on John. In 1995, John Connors had opened the casino with announced plans to include a Jimmy Connors theme area. It was shuttered in 1998 and became a magnet for the homeless and thieves who stripped its copper piping. The casino never reopened under Connors' ownership and it was destroyed in a May 2008 fire. In October 2005, Connors had successful hip-replacement surgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. On January 8, 2007, Connors' mother Gloria died at age 82. On November 21, 2008, Connors was arrested outside an NCAA basketball game between the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of California at Santa Barbara after refusing to comply with an order to leave an area near the entrance to the stadium. The charges were dismissed by a judge on February 10, 2009. On July 24, 2018, LiveWire Ergogenics, Inc. announced that Connors joined the firm as a spokesman and advisor. The company focuses on special purpose real estate acquisitions and the licensing and management of fully compliant turnkey production facilities for cannabis-based products and services. In December 2019, Connors appeared as himself on season 18 episode 9 of Family Guy entitled \"Christmas is Coming\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Style.", "Career.", "Later career.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Funke was born in Skuteč to a wealthy family of a Bohemian-German lawyer father and a Czech mother. He studied medicine, law, and philosophy at the Charles University in Prague and the University of Bratislava but did not graduate and instead turned to photography.", "Funke was recognized for his play of “photographic games” with mirrors, lights, and insignificant objects, such as plates, bottles, or glasses, to create unique works. His still life's created abstract forms and played with shadows looking similar to photograms. His work was thought to be logical, original and expressive in nature. A typical feature of Funke's work would be the “dynamic diagonal.\"", "", "During his photography profession, Funke published editorials and critiques about photography. By 1922, Funke had become a skilled freelance photographer and two years later he, Josef Sudek and Adolf Schneeberger created the Czech Photographic Society. From 1931-1935, Funke headed the photography department at the School of Arts and Crafts in Bratislava. Soon after, Funke taught at the School of Graphic Art in Prague until 1944. Alongside Ladislav Sutha, the director of the previous school, Funke published \"Fotografie vidí povrch\" in 1935. While travelling, Funke became interested in politically engaged photography. \"Bad living\" was created during the time period of 1930-1931 and was a photographic series that dealt with the issues of poverty. Funke later became an editor of the journal \"Fotografický obzor\" (\"Photographic Horizons\") for several years. He published a number of works including \"Od fotogrameuk emoci\" which is understood to be his manifesto.", "As travelling was limited during World War II in 1939, Funke photographed close to home in Louny, Prague and sometimes Kolín. On March 22, 1945 in Kolin, Funke required an immediate operation for intestine damage but the procedure could not be executed as it was during an air raid alarm and he died." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Hardware emulation.", "OS emulation.", "Commands.", "Ports.", "DOSBox and the Wine compatibility layer.", "Usage.", "Commercial deployment.", "Non-commercial notable uses.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "DOSBox is free software written primarily in C++ and distributed under the GNU General Public License. DOSBox has been downloaded more than 34 million times since its release on SourceForge in 2002. A number of usability enhancements have been added to DOSBox beyond the core function of emulating DOS. The added features include virtual hard drives, peer-to-peer networking, screen capture and screencasting from the emulated screen. More than nine years have passed between 2010's 0.74 and the 2019's latest version 0.74-3, \"a security release\" made in the absence of version 0.75, which \"should have been released by now, but some bugs took a lot longer than expected\". But throughout these years development has been ongoing in the SVN version. Forks such as DOSBox SVN Daum and DOSBox SVN-lfn provide additional features, which include support for save states and long filenames (LFN), while others such as DosBox-X add emulation for Japanese systems like the NEC PC-98 and increase compatibility with various Demoscene productions. A number of vintage DOS games have been commercially re-released to run on modern operating systems by encapsulating them inside DOSBox.", "DOSBox is a command-line program, configured either by a set of command-line arguments or by editing a plain text configuration file. For ease of use, several graphical front-ends have been developed by the user community. A popular feature of DOSBox is its ability to capture screenshots and record gameplay footage. The video is compressed using the lossless \"Zip Motion Block Video\" codec. In its uncompressed state the footage is almost an exact replica of the actual program. The video recording feature was added in version 0.65. In earlier versions, one had to rely on custom modifications and a third-party screen recorder to record video, but the quality and emulator performance was generally very poor. The DOSBox project has a policy of not adding features that aren't used by DOS games if they take significant effort to implement, are likely to be a source of bugs or portability problems or impact performance. Perhaps the most common hardware feature of DOS-era PCs that the official version of DOSBox doesn't emulate is the parallel port that was used to connect printers. As an alternative, the PrintScreen function of modern OSs can be used to capture the output of DOSBox. For similar reasons, no support for long filenames and Ctrl-Break is added into official versions, though support for them is available in some unofficial enhanced SVN builds.", "DOSBox is a full CPU emulator, capable of running DOS programs that require the CPU to be in real mode or protected mode. Other similar programs, such as DOSEMU or VDMs for Windows and OS/2, provide compatibility layers and rely on virtualization capabilities of the 386 family processors. Since DOSBox can emulate its CPU by interpretation, the environment it emulates is completely independent of the host CPU. On systems which provide the i386 instruction set, however, DOSBox can use dynamic instruction translation to accelerate execution several times faster than interpretive CPU emulation. The emulated CPU speed of DOSBox is also manually adjustable by the user to accommodate the speed of the systems for which DOS programs were originally written. DOSBox can emulate a wide range of graphics and sound hardware. Graphics emulation includes text mode, Hercules, CGA (including some composite modes and the 160x100x16 tweaked modes), Tandy, EGA, VGA (including Mode X and other tweaks), VESA, and full S3 Trio 64 emulation. Sound hardware that can be emulated includes the PC speaker (played back through the host's standard sound output, not its physical internal PC speaker), AdLib, Gravis Ultrasound, Tandy, Creative Music System/GameBlaster, Sound Blaster 1.x/2.0/Pro/16, and Disney Sound Source. MIDI output through an emulated MPU-401 interface is available if the host is equipped with a physical MIDI-Out connector or a suitable software MIDI synthesizer. (MT-32/CM-32L emulation is included in unofficial enhanced builds, but not in the official source code repository due to need for copyrighted ROM images.) Storage is handled by mapping (either through the configuration file or through a command within the emulator) a drive letter in the emulator to a directory, image file, floppy disk drive, or CDROM drive on the host. A permanently mapped Z: drive stores DOSBox commands and startup scripts. Emulation of Voodoo cards is in development. This should give not only support for games that use the Glide API, but also provide Direct3D support to Win9x guests. DOSBox, unlike many other emulators, can simulate peer-to-peer or Internet/Intranet networking. This includes modem simulation over TCP/IP, allowing for DOS modem games to be played over modern LANs or the Internet, and IPX network tunneling, which allows for old IPX DOS multiplayer games to be played as UDP/IP over modern LANs or the Internet. Win32 and Linux specific builds support direct serial port access. Some third-party patches also allow DOSBox to emulate an NE2000-class network interface card as a passthrough to the host computer's own network card, essentially allowing full internet connectivity (for example, using Windows 3.1 and Trumpet Winsock) and web browsing using programs such as Netscape Navigator, although this is more of a curiosity than a useful feature. DOSBox is capable of timing-compatible implementation of the serial ports, which can allow older hardware and software dependent on serial port timing to function; however, some USB devices that are supported by the host OS can act as a replacement for older serial port devices when using the emulator.", "DOSBox provides a high level emulation of the DOS and BIOS interrupts, and contains its own internal DOS-like shell. This means that it can be used without owning a license to any real DOS operating system. Most commands that are typically used in installer batch files are supported, but many of the more advanced commands of later DOS versions (e.g. post-Windows 98 DOS shells) are not. In addition to its internal shell, it also supports running image files of games and software originally intended to start without any operating system. The DOS emulation enables DOSBox to mount folders of the host OS as virtual drives. It can also boot disk images with real DOS environments (e.g. MS-DOS, PC DOS, DR-DOS or FreeDOS) as well as other operating systems. Since DOSBox is not optimized for this mode of operation, booting any real OS inside DOSBox entails the loss of the use of directory-based virtual hard drives and some other enhancements that aren't directly compatible with the way real operating systems access hardware. For the kinds of hardware (such as disk drive controllers and computer mice) that are almost always accessed by DOS-based games through DOS, the BIOS or a software driver rather than through direct access to hardware registers, DOSBox generally provides no hardware-level emulation. This means that the direct use of copy-protected physical media or of floppy disks in non-standard formats is generally not possible within DOSBox.", "The following list of commands is supported by DOSBox: DOSBox has no MOVE command. The REN command can be used to move files.", "DOSBox uses the SDL library and has been ported to many operating systems. A port for Microsoft Xbox (called DosXbox) was released in 2004. Using the HX DOS Extender, it can even run in DOS. The source code has also been forked to provide compatibility on a number of non-x86 PC computer platforms, including the Palm OS, PlayStation Portable, Android, iOS, Symbian, Maemo, BlackBerry PlayBook, Wii(Require Homebrew Channel with Homebrew Browser installed), Amiga, and the GP2X, on various computing architectures including PowerPC, SPARC, MIPS and ARM. DOSBox is included in the software repositories of many Linux distributions such as Fedora, Debian, and Ubuntu. There is also a port to Google Native Client called NaClBox, a port to Java applets called jDosbox, and a port of jDosBox to GWT (using the Canvas element) called jsDOSBox. There is a port of DOSBox that can run in a modern browser called Em-DOSBox. It uses Emscripten to compile its C/C++ source code to JavaScript or WebAssembly, and Emscripten's port of SDL 2 so graphics, input, and sound work in a browser.", "Starting with version 1.3.12, the developers of the Wine compatibility layer have begun the process of integrating DOSBox into Wine to facilitate running DOS programs that are not supported natively by the Wine Virtual DOS machine (winevdm).", "", "id Software has used DOSBox to re-release vintage games such as \"Wolfenstein 3D\" and \"Commander Keen\" on Valve's Steam. In the process, it was reported they violated the program's license, the GNU GPL; the breach, which was reported as an oversight, was promptly resolved. Activision Blizzard has also used it to re-release Sierra Entertainment's DOS games. LucasArts used it to re-release \"\" for modern machines on Steam. 2K Games producer Jason Bergman stated the company used DOSBox for Steam re-releases of certain parts of the \"X-Com\" series. GOG.com uses DOSBox for some of their DOS releases. Bethesda Softworks recommends DOSBox and provides a link to the DOSBox website on the downloads page for \"\" and \"\". Bethesda also included DOSBox with both games in The Elder Scrolls Anthology release. 3D Realms also recommends DOSBox and, like Bethesda Softworks, provides a link to the DOSBox website on their downloads page. Electronic Arts uses DOSBox for some of their classic games on their Origin client like \"Wing Commander III\", \"\", and \"SimCity 2000\". dBase LLC utilizes DOSBox in their dbDOS product since 2012.", "As of 23 December 2014, the Internet Archive hosts thousands of PC games that can be played in a browser, using the Em-DOSBox port. The collection is provided for \"scholarship and research purposes only\".", "Similar software Misc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "In modern languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cacus lived in a cave in Italy on the future site of Rome. To the horror of nearby inhabitants, Cacus lived on human flesh and would nail the heads of victims to the doors of his cave. He was eventually overcome by Hercules. According to Solinus, Cacus lived in a place called Salinae, which later became was the location of the Porta Trigemina. According to Evander, Hercules stopped to pasture the cattle he had stolen from Geryon near Cacus' lair. As Hercules slept, the monster took a liking to the cattle and slyly stole eight of them – four bulls and four cows – by dragging them by their tails, so as to leave a trail in the wrong direction. When Hercules awoke and made to leave, the remaining herd made plaintive noises towards the cave, and a single cow lowed in reply. Angered, Hercules stormed towards the cave. A terrified Cacus blocked the entrance with a vast, immoveable boulder (though some incarnations have Hercules himself block the entrance) forcing Hercules to tear at the top of the mountain to reach his adversary. Cacus attacked Hercules by spewing fire and smoke, while Hercules responded with tree branches and rocks the size of millstones. Eventually losing patience, Hercules leapt into the cave, aiming for the area where the smoke was heaviest. Hercules grabbed Cacus and strangled the monster, and was praised throughout the land for his act. According to Virgil in Book VIII of the \"Aeneid\", Hercules grasped Cacus so tightly that Cacus' eyes popped out and there was no blood left in his throat: \"et angit inhaerens elisos oculos et siccum sanguine guttur\". Another version of the myth states that Cacus made the cattle walk backwards so they left a false trail. Hercules drove his remaining cattle past a cave, where Cacus was hiding the stolen ones, and they began calling out to each other. Alternatively, Caca, Cacus' sister, told Hercules where he was. According to the Dionysius of Halicarnassus, when the Aborigines and the Arcadians who lived at Pallantium learned of the death of Cacus and saw Hercules, they thought themselves very fortunate in being rid of the former, they were plucking branches of laurel, crowned both him and themselves with it and their kings invite Hercules to be their guest. In the Roman tradition, Hercules founded an altar after he killed Cacus. Eusebius write that Heracles erected an altar in the Forum Boarium, to commemorate his killing of Cacus. In the \"Aeneid\", the Arcadian King Evander recounts this story to Aeneas to explain the rites the people perform yearly to Hercules. This was the Ara Maxima, where later the Forum Boarium, the cattle market of Rome, was held. Hercules had temples in the area, including the still extant Temple of Hercules Victor.", "In the Spanish language, the derived form \"caco\" is a colloquial word for \"thief\" and a disused word for a very cowardly man." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Content.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"In Praise of Folly\" starts off with a satirical learned encomium, in which Folly praises herself, after the manner of the Greek satirist Lucian, whose work Erasmus and Sir Thomas More had recently translated into Latin, a piece of virtuoso foolery; it then takes a darker tone in a series of orations, as Folly praises self-deception and madness and moves to a satirical examination of pious but superstitious abuses of Catholic doctrine and corrupt practices in parts of the Roman Catholic Church—to which Erasmus was ever faithful—and the folly of pedants. Erasmus had recently returned disappointed from Rome, where he had turned down offers of advancement in the curia, and Folly increasingly takes on Erasmus' own chastising voice. The essay ends with a straightforward statement of Christian ideal: \"No Man is wise at all Times, or is without his blind Side.\" Erasmus was a good friend of More, with whom he shared a taste for dry humor and other intellectual pursuits. The title \"Morias Encomium\" can also be read as meaning \"In praise of More\". The double or triple meanings go on throughout the text. The essay is filled with classical allusions delivered in a style typical of the learned humanists of the Renaissance. Folly parades as a goddess, offspring of Plutus, the god of wealth and a nymph, Freshness. She was nursed by two other nymphs, Inebriation and Ignorance. Her faithful companions include Philautia (self-love), Kolakia (flattery), Lethe (forgetfulness), Misoponia (laziness), Hedone (pleasure), Anoia (dementia), Tryphe (wantonness), and two gods, Komos (intemperance) and Nigretos Hypnos (heavy sleep). Folly praises herself endlessly, arguing that life would be dull and distasteful without her. Of earthly existence, Folly pompously states, \"you'll find nothing frolic or fortunate that it owes not to me.\"", "\"Moriae Encomium\" was hugely popular, to Erasmus' astonishment and sometimes his dismay. Even Erasmus' close friends had been initially skeptical and warned him of possible dangers to himself from thus attacking the established religion. Even Leo X and Cardinal Cisneros are said to have found it amusing. Before Erasmus' death it had already passed into numerous editions and had been translated into Czech, French, and German. An English edition soon followed. It influenced the teaching of rhetoric during the later sixteenth century, and the art of adoxography or praise of worthless subjects became a popular exercise in Elizabethan grammar schools: see Charles O. McDonald, \"The Rhetoric of Tragedy\" (Amherst, 1966). A copy of the Basel edition of 1515/16 was illustrated with pen and ink drawings by Hans Holbein the Younger. These are the most famous illustrations of \"In Praise of Folly\". Its role in the beginnings of the Protestant Reformation stem from the foundation of critique which the essay laid against the practices of the Church and its political allies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Years with Carl von Clausewitz.", "Later years and death.", "Family.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Brühl was born in Warsaw, a daughter of Count Carl Adolph von Brühl by his marriage to Sophie Gomm, an aunt of the British Field Marshal Sir William Maynard Gomm. Her parents had named her Maria Sophia, but she was called Marie by her family. She was the oldest child, but many of her siblings died as infants. Therefore, Marie was protective of her sister Fanny, who had survived the smallpox epidemic. When Fanny died in March 1804 due to complications during childbirth, Marie was left to care for the orphaned daughter. Brühl also treated her younger brother Fitz more like a son than her sibling. Her education began at home under her father's guidance. He taught Marie how to write and read in French, and how to compose letters in a manner appropriate for a \"lady of high society.\" Her mother taught her English, which Marie spoke fluently and later taught to her friends' children. Marie and Fanny also took lessons in painting, music, and history. It was their mother's intention to create \"true phenomena\" out of her daughters. She was a talented painter and patron of the arts. She was a close friend of the novelist Bettina von Arnim and her husband Ludwig Achim von Arnim, and of Sophie von Schwerin. At the age of 18, Brühl became a lady-in-waiting to queen dowager Frederika Louisa of Hesse-Darmstadt. This position was terminated in February 1805 by the queen dowager's death. Later, she became the chief lady-in-waiting to Princess Charlotte, who was only eleven years old at the time. After the death of her husband, Brühl assumed the role of chief lady-in-waiting to Princess Augusta in Berlin. One of her duties was to look after and educate Prince Frederick, who would later be known as Emperor Frederick III. In 1813, in the closing stages of the Napoleonic Wars, Brühl was a volunteer nurse in a military hospital.", "Brühl met Carl von Clausewitz in December 1803 through their mutual friends, Princess Louise and her husband Prince Antoni Radziwiłł. Their meeting came less than a year after Brühl's father's unexpected death due to complications from liver disease in July 1802. The two had a lengthy courtship for various reasons; one being her mother's disapproval of the relationship with a man of lesser social standing. Clausewitz had no inheritance and would have to rely solely on his lieutenant's pay, which was not enough to support a family. To marry without her mother's blessing would not have been legally possible. Marie, herself, was hesitant to commit to the relationship and had to consider all the circumstances surrounding the courtship. She was in her late twenties when the correspondence began between Carl and herself. This was considered past high society's \"marrying age.\" Yet Brühl was one of the few unmarried women during that time who earned an income on her own. She did not want to lose, what she referred to as, her \"inner freedom.\" The two made their relationship official in May 1806. In August 1810, Clausewitz received an important letter from Friedrich Wilhelm that promoted him to the rank of major, and gave him official permission to marry. On 17 December 1810, Brühl married Clausewitz. The two frequently discussed politics, literature, current events together. They considered each other equals, which was rare for a man to think of regarding his own wife. Carl and Marie were unable to conceive children. Present day theories point to Carl's chronic illness as the culprit. The two were married for a total of 21 years, up until Clausewitz's death. From 1832 to 1834, following Clausewitz's unexpected death from cholera in 1831, she edited and published several of his books, including his most famous one, \"On War\". Throughout their correspondence, Marie insisted that Carl send her his drafts and notes for safekeeping. He was known to have an unorganized writing process that would often lead to lost papers and unfinished ideas. In fact, when Carl was writing \"On War\", Marie acted as the researcher and copywriter for the book. Marie's handwriting can be found on some of the pages of the \"On War\" manuscript, listing notes and references. Additionally, Brühl wrote a preface to \"On War\". In the summer of 1832, less than a year after Carl's death, a publishing house in Berlin had put out announcements advertising the upcoming publication of \"On War\". With the help of her brother, Marie transcribed drafts and inserted changes for \"On War\" in a manner of months.", "Toward the end of her life, Brühl complained of tightness in her chest and ringing in her ears. She lived a busy life with an irregular and hectic schedule. Along with her responsibilities as chief lady-in-waiting, von Brühl also put pressure on herself to publish her deceased husband's works. Those around her were concerned about her health, mood swings, and frequent restlessness. Marie suffered a psychological breakdown after an intense fight with her mother. After the episode, doctors prescribed various treatments and medications including, \"bloodletting, laxatives, and nauseant.\" These seemed to be making Marie sicker and less lucid; she sometimes even spoke of herself in the third person. Her cousin Carl von Brühl insisted on moving her to Dresden to salvage what was left of her health. According to one of her nurses, Marie's arm seemed to have become infected due to the practice of bloodletting. She may have also contracted hepatitis from the bloodletting instruments. Due to the lack of knowledge about modern medicine and infections, the doctor in Dresden simply diagnosed Marie with damaged nerves and ceased treatment. On January 28, 1836, Brühl died at the age of 56.", "Her paternal grandfather was Heinrich von Brühl, a Polish-Saxon statesman.", "Her portrait of Prussian Field marshal August Neidhardt von Gneisenau is in the collection of Deutsches Historisches Museum. \"\" is a biography on Marie von Brühl, written by journalist and military historian Vanya Eftimova Bellinger." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Geography.", "Politics and government.", "Administrative divisions.", "Tourism.", "Infrastructure.", "Transportation.", "Road." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Nangan Township is named for Nangan Island (Nankan Island), the main island in the township. Nangan was also known Nangantang (; Nàng-găng-dòng). Because Lin Moniang's (who later became the goddess Matsu) corpse was washed ashore here, Nangan was also known as Matsu Island / Ma-tsu Island / Matsu Shan / Matsu-Shan (Matsoo/ Matsoo shan) (; Mā-cū-dō̤). In Song and Ming records, Nangan Island (Matsu Island) was called \"Shanggantang\"/\"Shanggantangshan\" (//) as opposed to Beigan Island, which was called \"Xiagantang\"/\"Xiagantangshan\" (//).", "In 1935, a baojia was created including Nangan Island. In 1949, ROC forces were stationed on Nangan Island. At 3 AM on January 9, 1966, three seamen from the PRC defected to the ROC at Nangan (Nankan) Island. They were ambushed and killed in transit to Taipei. In 2000, as part of the Three Links, transportation between Nangan Island's Fuao and Mawei District in Fuzhou was established. In 2003, Nangan Airport was opened. On the morning of May 4, 2016, Jiaonan Village (in Tailu, Lianjiang County, Fuzhou, Fujian, China (PRC)) Branch Chinese Communist Party Secretary Liu Wenjian () and Niujiao Community Assistant Manager Tsao Erh-Chang () met in Nangan Township and signed a memorandum of mutual exchange and cooperation. Others present included the Magistrate of Lienchiang County, ROC Liu Cheng-ying, Tailu Party Secretary Huang Duanming (), Nangan Township Mayor Chen Chen-Ko () and others.", "The island of Nangan is not only the largest island of its township, but also the largest island of Matsu. Nangan Township is also the largest township in Lienchiang County, with a population of about 4,000. The highest point of the island is the Yuntai Mountain peak at 250m. Nangan's climate is classified as subtropical, with distinct seasons. The average year-round temperature is 20C, with July and August reaching 34C and January temperatures as low as 1.8C. There is an intense fog period during March and April which often affects the scheduled flights at Nangan Airport. Other islets in Nangan Township include Huangguan Yu (), Xie Jiao (), Beiquan Jiao (), and Liuquan Jiao ().", "", "There are 10 villages located on Nangan. At the eastern end of the island is Jieshou (介壽村), the seat of the county government and the largest village. Following the coastal road west from Jieshou, there are Fuxing (復興村), Fuao (福澳村), Qingshui (清水村), Zhuluo (珠螺村) and Mazu (馬祖村). Following the mountain road west, there are Meishi (梅石村), Renai (仁愛村) and Jinsha (津沙聚落), before once again reaching Mazu. Located to the north of Mazu is Siwei (四維村). In addition to these, there are two smaller villages or clusters of homes. These are Furen (夫人村) and Ketiao (科蹄澳), they are located near Siwei. Many villages on Nangan have two names. In some cases, this was the result of politics, as one is the traditional name and the second has a political connotation. These instances are paired as follows with the traditional name first: Shanlong (山隴): Jieshou (介壽), Niujiao (牛角(聚落)): Fuxing (復興), Tieban (鐵板): Renai (仁愛), and Fuao (福澳): Jingze (經澤). These names are often used interchangeably by residents, except for Jingze. Residents objected to this latter name, and so it never came into popular use. The reference to Shanlong is also important as there is a neighborhood there called Zhonglong (中隴). Mazu is also referred to as Magang (馬港) and Siwei as Xiwei (西尾). As for Mazu and Magang, Magang is the preferred name. This could be in order to distinguish the village and its harbor from Mazu (媽祖), the goddess, and Mazu (馬祖) the island chain. Xiwei was derived from the local Fuzhou dialect's pronunciation of Siwei. The nine rural villages of Nangan Township are:", "The Palace of Heavenly Empress (天后宮) in Matsu Village contains the coffin of Lin Moniang. The temple also contains statues of the guards, Thousand-li Eye (千里眼) and Wind-following Ear (順風耳). There is an annual celebration on March 3. Matsu Distillery on Wujiao Hill (午角嶺) in Fusing Village produces \"daqu\" wine (大麴酒) and sorghum wine (高梁酒). Shengli Water Reservoir (勝利水庫 \"Victory\") and a museum are located in Cingshuei Village. The museum contains four cannons from Jyuguang which were used to guide boats. Another museum is the Matsu Folk Culture Museum and Ching-Kuo Memorial Hall. There are two abandoned military tunnels on the island: Tunnel 88 and Beihai Tunnel. Former military stronghold is Dahan Stronghold. Nature in the township is Shengtian Park.", "The electricity for the township is supplied by Zhushan Power Plant.", "", "The township has bus services connecting its villages, which consists of coastal line and mountain line." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Influences, musical style, and performance style.", "Personal life.", "Musical equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gers began his career as the lead guitarist of the New Wave of British Heavy Metal band White Spirit, before joining Gillan, a group formed by then-former Deep Purple vocalist Ian Gillan. After Gillan disbanded, Gers undertook a Humanities degree before joining Gogmagog, which included former Iron Maiden vocalist Paul Di'Anno and drummer Clive Burr. The project came to nothing; however, Gers went on to play guitar for former Marillion vocalist Fish on his first solo album, \"Vigil in a Wilderness of Mirrors\", and was asked to record a song called \"Bring Your Daughter... to the Slaughter\" with Iron Maiden vocalist Bruce Dickinson for a soundtrack. The project expanded into an album, \"Tattooed Millionaire\", and during its recording Gers was asked to join Iron Maiden in place of Adrian Smith. He has remained with the band ever since, even after Smith rejoined the band in 1999, contributing to a total of nine studio albums.", "Gers' main influences are Ritchie Blackmore, Jeff Beck and Rory Gallagher. He is noted for his energetic stage presence, which often involves dancing, prancing, and performing tricks with his guitar, such as throwing it into the air and catching it. However, his on-stage flamboyancy has drawn criticism from some. He is also left-handed although he plays guitar right-handed; he can be seen signing autographs with his left hand in the \"Rock in Rio\" DVD.", "He has two children with his wife Sandra, Sian and Dylan Gers, and lives in Yarm, Teesside. His father, Bolesław, was an able seaman of the Polish Navy and served on ORP Burza and ORP Blyskawica on which he came to England and later joined the Royal Navy. Gers has relatives in the Bydgoszcz area and Sosno village in Poland and visited them regularly as a teenager until 1977. Gers bought his first guitar during one of those visits, in a music store in Zlotów close to Pila Gers met his Polish family again after 34 years at a 2011 concert in Warsaw Gers is a fan of Hartlepool United and used to stand in the Millhouse Terrace (he will return if they get out the conference ) at Victoria Park on match-days. Gers is a graduate of the English Martyrs School and Sixth Form College. Gers had an uncredited part in the BBC drama \"The Paradise Club\" in 1990, appearing as the lead guitarist of a band called Fraud Squad. He appeared in the 2010 fan-made Iron Maiden documentary \"Maiden Heaven\".", "Gers is a long-time proponent of the Fender Stratocaster. His guitars are typically black or white with rosewood fingerboards and Seymour Duncan JB Jr. and Hot Rails pick-ups. His favourite guitar over the years has been a black Stratocaster, equipped with JB Jr. pick-ups, which was given to him by Ian Gillan. Gers uses four different Fender Stratocasters, as well as a Gibson Chet Atkins semi-acoustic model for songs such as \"Dance of Death\". Gers is currently endorsed by Sandberg Guitars, and he uses a California ST-S tobacco hc-aged and a California ST-S creme hc-aged model on stage. Like his bandmates, Dave Murray and Adrian Smith, Gers currently uses the Marshall JMP-1 preamp through a Marshall 9200 power amp. Preferring not to use foot-switches while playing, Gers' roadie operates his MIDI Foot Controller offstage. Favouring cables, Gers only uses a Shure UR4D wireless system when he throws his guitar around. He uses Ernie Ball Regular Slinky nickel-wound guitar strings, although he does not use the B string." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Title.", "Contents.", "Preliminary matter.", "Book 1: Dialogue of Counsel.", "Book 2: Discourse on Utopia.", "Framework.", "Tone.", "Interpretation.", "Reception.", "Cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The title \"De optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia\" literally translates, \"Of a republic's best state and of the new island Utopia\". It is variously rendered as any of the following: The original name was even longer: \"Libellus vere aureus, nec minus salutaris quam festivus, de optimo rei publicae statu deque nova insula Utopia\". This translates, \"A truly golden little book, no less beneficial than entertaining, of a republic's best state and of the new island Utopia\". \"Utopia\" is derived from the Greek prefix \"ou-\" (), meaning \"not\", and \"topos\" (), \"place\", with the suffix \"-iā\" () that is typical of toponyms; hence the name literally means \"nowhere\", emphasizing its fictionality. In early modern English, \"Utopia\" was spelled \"Utopie\", which is today rendered Utopy in some editions. In English, \"Utopia\" is pronounced exactly as \"Eutopia\" (the latter word, in Greek [\"Eutopiā\"], meaning “good place,” contains the prefix [\"eu-\"], \"good\", with which the of \"Utopia\" has come to be confused in the English pronunciation). This is something that More himself addresses in an addendum to his book \"Wherfore not Utopie, but rather rightely my name is Eutopie, a place of felicitie\".", "", "The first edition contained a woodcut map of the island of Utopia, the Utopian alphabet, verses by Pieter Gillis, Gerard Geldenhouwer, and Cornelius Grapheus, and Thomas More's epistle dedicating the work to Gillis.", "The work begins with written correspondence between Thomas More and several people he had met in Europe: Peter Gilles, town clerk of Antwerp, and Hieronymus van Busleyden, counselor to Charles V. More chose these letters, which are communications between actual people, to further the plausibility of his fictional land. In the same spirit, these letters also include a specimen of the Utopian alphabet and its poetry. The letters also explain the lack of widespread travel to Utopia; during the first mention of the land, someone had coughed during announcement of the exact longitude and latitude. The first book tells of the traveller Raphael Hythlodaeus, to whom More is introduced in Antwerp, and it also explores the subject of how best to counsel a prince, a popular topic at the time. The first discussions with Raphael allow him to discuss some of the modern ills affecting Europe such as the tendency of kings to start wars and the subsequent loss of money on fruitless endeavours. He also criticises the use of execution to punish theft, saying thieves might as well murder whom they rob, to remove witnesses, if the punishment is going to be the same. He lays most of the problems of theft on the practice of enclosure—the enclosing of common land—and the subsequent poverty and starvation of people who are denied access to land because of sheep farming. More tries to convince Raphael that he could find a good job in a royal court, advising monarchs, but Raphael says that his views are too radical and would not be listened to. Raphael sees himself in the tradition of Plato: he knows that for good governance, kings must act philosophically. He, however, points out that: More seems to contemplate the duty of philosophers to work around and in real situations and, for the sake of political expediency, work within flawed systems to make them better, rather than hoping to start again from first principles.", "Utopia is placed in the New World and More links Raphael's travels in with Amerigo Vespucci's real life voyages of discovery. He suggests that Raphael is one of the 24 men Vespucci, in his \"Four Voyages\" of 1507, says he left for six months at Cabo Frio, Brazil. Raphael then travels farther and finds the island of Utopia, where he spends five years observing the customs of the natives. According to More, the island of Utopia is The island was originally a peninsula but a 15-mile wide channel was dug by the community's founder King Utopos to separate it from the mainland. The island contains 54 cities. Each city is divided into four equal parts. The capital city, Amaurot, is located directly in the middle of the crescent island. Each city has not more than 6000 households, each family consisting of between 10 and 16 adults. Thirty households are grouped together and elect a \"Syphograntus\" (whom More says is now called a \"phylarchus\"). Every ten Syphogranti have an elected \"Traniborus\" (more recently called a \"protophylarchus\") ruling over them. The 200 Syphogranti of a city elect a Prince in a secret ballot. The Prince stays for life unless he is deposed or removed for suspicion of tyranny. People are re-distributed around the households and towns to keep numbers even. If the island suffers from overpopulation, colonies are set up on the mainland. Alternatively, the natives of the mainland are invited to be part of these Utopian colonies, but if they dislike them and no longer wish to stay they may return. In the case of under-population the colonists are re-called. There is no private property on Utopia, with goods being stored in warehouses and people requesting what they need. There are also no locks on the doors of the houses, and the houses are rotated between the citizens every ten years. Agriculture provides the most important occupation on the island. Every person is taught it and must live in the countryside, farming for two years at a time, with women doing the same work as men. Parallel to this, every citizen must learn at least one of the other essential trades: weaving (mainly done by the women), carpentry, metalsmithing and masonry. There is deliberate simplicity about these trades; for instance, all people wear the same types of simple clothes and there are no dressmakers making fine apparel. All able-bodied citizens must work; thus unemployment is eradicated, and the length of the working day can be minimized: the people only have to work six hours a day (although many willingly work for longer). More does allow scholars in his society to become the ruling officials or priests, people picked during their primary education for their ability to learn. All other citizens, however, are encouraged to apply themselves to learning in their leisure time. Slavery is a feature of Utopian life and it is reported that every household has two slaves. The slaves are either from other countries (prisoners of war, people condemned to die, or poor people) or are the Utopian criminals. These criminals are weighed down with chains made out of gold. The gold is part of the community wealth of the country, and fettering criminals with it or using it for shameful things like chamber pots gives the citizens a healthy dislike of it. It also makes it difficult to steal as it is in plain view. The wealth, though, is of little importance and is only good for buying commodities from foreign nations or bribing these nations to fight each other. Slaves are periodically released for good behaviour. Jewels are worn by children, who finally give them up as they mature. Other significant innovations of Utopia include: a welfare state with free hospitals, euthanasia permissible by the state, priests being allowed to marry, divorce permitted, premarital sex punished by a lifetime of enforced celibacy and adultery being punished by enslavement. Meals are taken in community dining halls and the job of feeding the population is given to a different household in turn. Although all are fed the same, Raphael explains that the old and the administrators are given the best of the food. Travel on the island is only permitted with an internal passport and any people found without a passport are, on a first occasion, returned in disgrace, but after a second offence they are placed in slavery. In addition, there are no lawyers and the law is made deliberately simple, as all should understand it and not leave people in any doubt of what is right and wrong. There are several religions on the island: moon-worshipers, sun-worshipers, planet-worshipers, ancestor-worshipers and monotheists, but each is tolerant of the others. Only atheists are despised (but allowed) in Utopia, as they are seen as representing a danger to the state: since they do not believe in any punishment or reward after this life, they have no reason to share the communistic life of Utopia, and will break the laws for their own gain. They are not banished, but are encouraged to talk out their erroneous beliefs with the priests until they are convinced of their error. Raphael says that through his teachings Christianity was beginning to take hold in Utopia. The toleration of all other religious ideas is enshrined in a universal prayer all the Utopians recite. Wives are subject to their husbands and husbands are subject to their wives although women are restricted to conducting household tasks for the most part. Only few widowed women become priests. While all are trained in military arts, women confess their sins to their husbands once a month. Gambling, hunting, makeup and astrology are all discouraged in Utopia. The role allocated to women in Utopia might, however, have been seen as being more liberal from a contemporary point of view. Utopians do not like to engage in war. If they feel countries friendly to them have been wronged, they will send military aid, but they try to capture, rather than kill, enemies. They are upset if they achieve victory through bloodshed. The main purpose of war is to achieve that which, if they had achieved already, they would not have gone to war over. Privacy is not regarded as freedom in Utopia; taverns, ale-houses and places for private gatherings are non-existent for the effect of keeping all men in full view, so that they are obliged to behave well.", "The story is written from the perspective of More himself. This was common at the time, and More uses his own name and background to create the narrator. The book is written in two parts: “Book one: Dialogue of Council,” and “Book two: Discourse on Utopia.” The first book is told from the perspective of More, the narrator, who is introduced by his friend Peter Giles to a fellow traveller named Raphael Hythloday, whose name translates as “expert of nonsense” in Greek. In an amical dialogue with More and Giles, Hythloday expresses strong criticism of then-modern practices in England and other Catholicism-dominated countries, such as the crime of theft being punishable by death, and the over-willingness of kings to start wars (Getty, 321). Book two has Hythloday tell his interlocutors about Utopia, where he has lived for five years, with the aim of convincing them about its superior state of affairs. Utopia turns out to be a socialist state. Interpretations about this important part of the book vary. Gilbert notes that while some experts believe that More supports socialism, others believe that he shows how socialism is impractical. The former would argue that More used book two to show how socialism would work in practice. Individual cities are run by privately elected princes and families are made up of ten to sixteen adults living in a single household. It is unknown if More truly believed in socialism, or if he printed Utopia as a way to show that true socialism was impractical (Gilbert). More printed many writings involving socialism, some seemingly in defense of the practices, and others seemingly scathing satires against it. Some scholars believe that More uses this structure to show the perspective of something as an idea against something put into practice. Hythloday describes the city as perfect and ideal. He believes the society thrives and is perfect. As such, he is used to represent the more fanatic socialists and radical reformists of his day. When More arrives he describes the social and cultural norms put into practice, citing a city thriving and idealistic. While some believe this is More's ideal society, some believe the book's title, which translates to “Nowhere” from Greek, is a way to describe that the practices used in Utopia are impractical and could not be used in a modern world successfully (Gilbert). Either way, Utopia has become one of the most talked about works both in defense of socialism and against it.", "Utopia has a more playful tone than one might think. While More's world is illustrating whatever point he is trying to get across, he is having fun engaging in creating his own world, as is demonstrated in the way he phrases \"Then let me implore you, my dear Raphael,' said I, 'describe that island [Utopia] to us!\"(Getty 323). He also says \"When Raphael had finished his story, I was left thinking that quite a few of the laws and customs he had described as existing among the Utopians were really absurd.\" This demonstrates that he realizes his world is bizarre, and wants others to realize how out of place it was in their society. More is quite anxious to create his world, and pieces it together in great detail, taking pleasure in what makes his world different from our own. However, he wants the reader to take his story seriously, which is why he bases it in reality, saying it is a part of the “New World”, this being the parts of America and its surrounding islands discovered by Amerigo Vespucci in 1497.", "One of the most troublesome questions about \"Utopia\" is Thomas More's reason for writing it. Most scholars see it as a comment on or criticism of 16th-century Catholicism, for the evils of More's day are laid out in Book I and in many ways apparently solved in Book II. Indeed, Utopia has many of the characteristics of satire, and there are many jokes and satirical asides such as how honest people are in Europe, but these are usually contrasted with the simple, uncomplicated society of the Utopians. Yet, the puzzle is that some of the practices and institutions of the Utopians, such as the ease of divorce, euthanasia and both married priests and female priests, seem to be polar opposites of More's beliefs and the teachings of the Catholic Church of which he was a devout member. Another often cited apparent contradiction is that of the religious tolerance of Utopia contrasted with his persecution of Protestants as Lord Chancellor. Similarly, the criticism of lawyers comes from a writer who, as Lord Chancellor, was arguably the most influential lawyer in England. It can be answered, however, that as a pagan society Utopians had the best ethics that could be reached through reason alone, or that More changed from his early life to his later when he was Lord Chancellor. One highly influential interpretation of Utopia is that of intellectual historian Quentin Skinner. He has argued that More was taking part in the Renaissance humanist debate over true nobility, and that he was writing to prove the perfect commonwealth could not occur with private property. Crucially, Skinner sees Raphael Hythlodaeus as embodying the Platonic view that philosophers should not get involved in politics, while the character of More embodies the more pragmatic Ciceronian view. Thus the society Raphael proposes is the ideal More would want. But without communism, which he saw no possibility of occurring, it was wiser to take a more pragmatic view. Quentin Skinner's interpretation of Utopia is consistent with the speculation that Stephen Greenblatt made in \"\". There, Greenblatt argued that More was under the Epicurean influence of Lucretius's \"On the Nature of Things\" and the people that live in Utopia were an example of how pleasure has become their guiding principle of life. Although Greenblatt acknowledged that More's insistence on the existence of an afterlife and punishment for people holding contrary views were inconsistent with the essentially materialist view of Epicureanism, Greenblatt contended that it was the minimum conditions for what the pious More would have considered as necessary to live a happy life. Another complication comes from the Greek meanings of the names of people and places in the work. Apart from Utopia, meaning \"Noplace,\" several other lands are mentioned: \"Achora\" meaning \"Nolandia\", \"Polyleritae\" meaning \"Muchnonsense\", \"Macarenses\" meaning \"Happiland,\" and the river \"Anydrus\" meaning \"Nowater\". Raphael's last name, Hythlodaeus means \"dispenser of nonsense\" surely implying that the whole of the Utopian text is 'nonsense'. Additionally the Latin rendering of More's name, Morus, is similar to the word for a fool in Greek (μωρός). It is unclear whether More is simply being ironic, an in-joke for those who know Greek, seeing as the place he is talking about does not actually exist or whether there is actually a sense of distancing of Hythlodaeus' and the More's (\"Morus\") views in the text from his own. The name Raphael, though, may have been chosen by More to remind his readers of the archangel Raphael who is mentioned in the Book of Tobit (3:17; 5:4, 16; 6:11, 14, 16, 18; also in chs. 7, 8, 9, 11, 12). In that book the angel guides Tobias and later cures his father of his blindness. While Hythlodaeus may suggest his words are not to be trusted, Raphael meaning (in Hebrew) \"God has healed\" suggests that Raphael may be opening the eyes of the reader to what is true. The suggestion that More may have agreed with the views of Raphael is given weight by the way he dressed; with \"his cloak... hanging carelessly about him\"; a style which Roger Ascham reports that More himself was wont to adopt. Furthermore, more recent criticism has questioned the reliability of both Gile's annotations and the character of \"More\" in the text itself. Claims that the book only subverts Utopia and Hythlodaeus are possibly oversimplistic.", "Utopia was begun while More was an envoy in the Low Country in May 1515. More started by writing the introduction and the description of the society which would become the second half of the work and on his return to England he wrote the \"dialogue of counsel\", completing the work in 1516. In the same year, it was printed in Leuven under Erasmus's editorship and after revisions by More it was printed in Basel in November 1518. It was not until 1551, sixteen years after More's execution, that it was first published in England as an English translation by Ralph Robinson. Gilbert Burnet's translation of 1684 is probably the most commonly cited version. The work seems to have been popular, if misunderstood: the introduction of More's \"Epigrams\" of 1518 mentions a man who did not regard More as a good writer. The title of the book has since eclipsed More's original story and the term is now commonly used to describe an idyllic, imaginary society. Although he may not have directly founded the contemporary notion of what has since become known as Utopian and dystopian fiction, More certainly popularised the idea of imagined parallel realities, and some of the early works which owe a debt to \"Utopia\" must include \"The City of the Sun\" by Tommaso Campanella, \"Description of the Republic of Christianopolis\" by Johannes Valentinus Andreae, \"New Atlantis\" by Francis Bacon and \"Candide\" by Voltaire. The politics of \"Utopia\" have been seen as influential to the ideas of Anabaptism and communism. While utopian socialism was used to describe the first concepts of socialism, later Marxist theorists tended to see the ideas as too simplistic and not grounded on realistic principles. The religious message in the work and its uncertain, possibly satiric, tone has also alienated some theorists from the work. An applied example of More's Utopia can be seen in Vasco de Quiroga's implemented society in Michoacán, Mexico, which was directly inspired by More's work. During the opening scene in the film \"A Man for all Seasons\", Utopia is referenced in a conversation. The alleged amorality of England's priests is compared to that of the more highly principled behaviour of the fictional priests in More's Utopia, when a character observes wryly that \"every second person born in England is fathered by a priest.\"", "In 1998, the film \"\" made references to the work in multiple scenes. In 2006, artist Rory Macbeth inscribed all 40,000 words on the side of an old electricity factory in Norwich, England. In 2019, the video game \"Final Fantasy XIV\" made significant reference to the work in its expansion \"Shadowbringers\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Systems.", "Importance in cancer.", "The proteome in bacterial systems.", "History.", "Size and contents.", "Methods to study the proteome.", "Separation techniques and electrophoresis.", "Mass spectrometry.", "Chromatography.", "Blotting.", "Protein complementation assays and interaction screens." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term has been applied to several different types of biological systems. A cellular proteome is the collection of proteins found in a particular cell type under a particular set of environmental conditions such as exposure to hormone stimulation. It can also be useful to consider an organism's complete proteome, which can be conceptualized as the complete set of proteins from all of the various cellular proteomes. This is very roughly the protein equivalent of the genome. The term \"proteome\" has also been used to refer to the collection of proteins in certain sub-cellular biological systems. For example, all of the proteins in a virus can be called a viral proteome. All of the proteins in a mitochondrion make up the mitochondrial proteome which has generated its own field of study \"mitoproteomics\".", "The proteome can be used in order to comparatively analyze different cancer cell lines. Proteomic studies have been used in order to identify the likelihood of metastasis in bladder cancer cell lines KK47 and YTS1 and were found to have 36 unregulated and 74 down regulated proteins. The differences in protein expression can help identify novel cancer signaling mechanisms. Biomarkers of cancer have been found by Mass spectrometry based proteomic analyses. The use of proteomics or the study of the proteome is a step forward in personalized medicine to tailor drug cocktails to the patients specific proteomic and genomic profile. The analysis of ovarian cancer cell lines showed that putative biomarkers for ovarian cancer include \"α-enolase (ENOA), elongation factor Tu, mitochondrial (EFTU), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (G3P), stress-70 protein, mitochondrial (GRP75), apolipoprotein A-1 (APOA1), peroxiredoxin (PRDX2) and annexin A (ANXA)\". Comparative proteomic analyses of 11 cell lines demonstrated the similarity between the metabolic processes of each cell line; 11,731 proteins were completely identified from this study. Housekeeping proteins tend to show greater variability between cell lines. Resistance to certain cancer drugs is still not well understood. Proteomic analysis has been used in order to identify proteins that may have anti-cancer drug properties, specifically for the colon cancer drug irinotecan. Studies of adenocarcinoma cell line LoVo demonstrated that 8 proteins were unregulated and 7 proteins were down-regulated. Proteins that showed a differential expression were involved in processes such as transcription, apoptosis and cell proliferation/differentiation among others.", "Proteomic analyses have been performed in different kinds of bacteria to assess their metabolic reactions to different conditions. For example, in bacteria such as Clostridium and Bacillus, proteomic analyses were used in order to investigate how different proteins help each of these bacteria spores germinate after a prolonged period of dormancy. In order to better understand how to properly eliminate spores, proteomic analysis must be performed.", "Marc Wilkins coined the term \"proteome\" in 1994 in a symposium on \"2D Electrophoresis: from protein maps to genomes\" held in Siena in Italy. It appeared in print in 1995, with the publication of part of his PhD thesis. Wilkins used the term to describe the entire complement of proteins expressed by a genome, cell, tissue or organism.", "Assuming one gene=protein would mean that there are at least 20,000 proteins corresponding to roughly 20,000 genes for humans. The proteome can be larger than the genome, especially in eukaryotes, as more than one protein can be produced from one gene due to alternative splicing (e.g. human proteome consists 92,179 proteins out of which 71,173 are splicing variants). On the other hand, not all genes are translated to proteins, and many known genes encode only RNA which is the final functional product. Moreover, complete proteome size vary depending the kingdom of life. For instance, eukaryotes, bacteria, archaea and viruses have on average 15,145, 3,200, 2,358 and 42 proteins respectively encoded in their genomes. The Plasma Proteome database contains information on 10,500 blood plasma proteins. Because the range in protein contents in plasma is very large, it is difficult to detect proteins that tend to be scarce when compared to abundant proteins. There is an analytical limit that may possibly be a barrier for the detections of proteins with ultra low concentrations. There are different factors that are used to analyze the proteome. First, the protein width is determined by the different protein types and the protein depth is determined by the number of protein copies in particular tissues. There are different factors that can add variability to proteins. SAPs (single amino acid polymorphisms) and nsSNPs non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphisms are key elements that can lead to different \"protein species\" or \"proteomorphs\". The term dark proteome coined by Perdigão and colleagues, defines regions of proteins that have no detectable sequence homology to other proteins of known three-dimensional structure and therefore cannot be modeled by homology. For 546,000 Swiss-Prot proteins, 44–54% of the proteome in eukaryotes and viruses was found to be \"dark\", compared with only ∼14% in archaea and bacteria. Currently, there is a project called the Human Proteome Map. Much like the human genome project, the human proteome map seeks to publish all protein sequencing data onto one database. Currently the data base has proteins coded by more than 17,000 human genes. The database contains proteomic analysis from different fetal and adult tissues along with different types of hematopoietic cells. Additionally, the databases neXtprot and UniProt contain human proteomic data and ways to analyze specific profiles.", "Analyzing proteins proves to be more difficult than analyzing nucleic acid sequences. While there are only 4 nucleotides that make up DNA, there are at least 20 different amino acids that can make up a protein. Additionally, there is currently no known high throughput technology to make copies of a single protein. Numerous methods are available to study proteins, sets of proteins, or the whole proteome. In fact, proteins are often studied indirectly, e.g. using computational methods and analyses of genomes. Only a few examples are given below.", "Proteomics, the study of the proteome, has largely been practiced through the separation of proteins by two dimensional gel electrophoresis. In the first dimension, the proteins are separated by isoelectric focusing, which resolves proteins on the basis of charge. In the second dimension, proteins are separated by molecular weight using SDS-PAGE. The gel is stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue or silver to visualize the proteins. Spots on the gel are proteins that have migrated to specific locations.", "Mass spectrometry is one of the key methods to study the proteome. Some important mass spectrometry methods include LTQ Orbit-Trap Mass Spectrometry, MALDI (Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization), and ESI (Electrospray Ionization). Peptide mass fingerprinting identifies a protein by cleaving it into short peptides and then deduces the protein's identity by matching the observed peptide masses against a sequence database. Tandem mass spectrometry, on the other hand, can get sequence information from individual peptides by isolating them, colliding them with a non-reactive gas, and then cataloguing the fragment ions produced. In May 2014, a draft map of the human proteome was published in \"Nature\". This map was generated using high-resolution Fourier-transform mass spectrometry. This study profiled 30 histologically normal human samples resulting in the identification of proteins coded by 17,294 genes. This accounts for around 84% of the total annotated protein-coding genes.", "Liquid Chromatography is an important tool in the study of the proteome. It allows for very sensitive separation of different kinds of proteins based on their affinity for a matrix. Some newer methods for the separation and identification of proteins include the use of monolithic capillary columns, high temperature chromatography and capillary electrochromatography.", "Western blotting can be used in order to quantify the abundance of certain proteins. By using antibodies specific to the protein of interest, it is possible to probe for the presence of specific proteins from a mixture of proteins.", "Protein-fragment complementation assays are often used to detect protein–protein interactions. The yeast two-hybrid assay is the most popular of them but there are numerous variations, both used \"in vitro\" and \"in vivo\". Pull-down assays are a method to determine what kinds of proteins a protein interacts with." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Bug Wars takes place an unspecified length of time before the present, in an unspecified part of the galaxy. The song \"Reminder,\" would suggest that it is at least one million years. Opening with the main character, Rahm, waking from stasis, the book covers his campaigns as part of the Tzen Warrior caste against a coalition of large Insect species; the Wasps, Leapers, and Ants, in that order. After a mission to destroy the Wasp nests and queens on a planet, the Tzen intend to colonize. However, because of Tzen military practices, that a task force leaves after a predicted proportion of units return, assuming that all others are casualties, Rahm's flight group was stranded on the planet. The Tzen would return in a year to eliminate the Leapers, insects not unlike a praying mantis. While stranded, the team made a number of discoveries, chief among which was the fact that the Tzen needed to find a natural predator of the Leapers to defeat them. The standard practice for the Tzen is to kill the next generation of insects before it is born, then return later to kill any remaining adults. The Leapers are immune to this, however, because they are all capable of reproduction, and bury their eggs, making them impossible to eradicate without levying resources unavailable to the Tzen Empire. After the Empire returns as planned to eradicate the leapers, they retreat and begin looking for a creature that eats insect eggs. Rahm is selected to lead a team of Tzen from each caste to find such a creature. When they set up a pre-fabricated building as their base, they soon discover a number of hostile flora and fauna, including a plant with toxic thorns, Spiders, and a colony of Ants near their base. Several of the team are captured by the Ants, and learn that they are intelligent and capable of telepathic communication. When the team discovers a suitable creature, they round up as many as they can, but are hounded by the insects. The mission culminates in a battle between the Tzen and Insects at the base. After the leapers have been defeated, Rahm is selected to lead a campaign against the Ants as a Planetary Commander. The mission is considered almost suicidal, with a casualty estimate of at least seventy percent. In the middle of the battle, Rahm discovers that, while they have eliminated the Ants primary power source, they had a reserve strong enough for one use of a power-consuming device. One colony used theirs for cold-beam lasers, another used it to launch an escape shuttle, which was promptly destroyed. After defeating the Ants, Rahm returned to stasis, to be reawakened whenever the empire needed him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Administration.", "Usage of.nu.", "Internationalised domains.", "Domain revocation policy.", "Pricing.", "Litigation.", "McAfee SiteAdvisor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The government of Niue was recognized as the holder of legal rights to administer the.nu domain until 2003, when it signed the rights away to the IUSN Foundation, a Massachusetts-based non-profit organization created for the purpose of funding free unlimited internet access and wifi in Niue through revenue from the domain name. The administration and technical operation of the domain were transferred to The Internet Foundation in Sweden (IIS) in September 2013. The IIS said that 66.7 percent of \"active\".nu domains at the time were registered to Swedish users. As of 2020, the IUSN Foundation states on its website that it still provides free internet access to Niue through a partnership with IIS, which funds IUSN's entire budget with a portion of the revenues from the.nu domain. In November 2018, the government of Niue initiated a lawsuit against the IIS in the Stockholm District Court to obtain control over the domain. It stated that the Foundation had \"taken over Niue's.nu domain without consent in 2013\", resulting in a significant loss of revenue for the country. Niue's government stated that the.nu domain was a \"national asset of Niue\" and had been taken over \"unfairly\", estimating that it had earned between $27 million and $37 million for the IIS. A later estimate by Niue's legal team stated that the country had missed out on a total of during the combined time that the domain had been administered by IUSN and the IIS. The IIS responded by saying that \"It was and is essential for the Swedish internet infrastructure that.nu works in a stable and secure way\", and that it had \"done the necessary investigations before deciding to become the registry in 2013, involving several leading legal specialists and a direct contact with the relevant governmental institutions\". On April 23, 2020, it was reported the Stockholm District Court had dismissed the complaint, stating that Niue \"lacked the legal capacity to be a complainant\" and ordering its government to pay in legal costs to the Swedish Internet Foundation.", "The.nu domain is particularly popular in Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium, as is the word for \"now\" in Swedish, Danish and Dutch – an example of a domain hack. Although in Norwegian is an archaic word for \"now\", with being used instead,.nu was initially more popular than.no, with 43,000.nu addresses being registered in Norway in 1999 compared to 30,000.no ones. Partially owing to restrictive domain rules for the ccTLD assigned to Sweden,.se,.nu was used for creative marketing of websites such as \"www.tv.nu\" to show what is currently showing on TV, and in the Netherlands for websites like \"waarbenjij.nu\", Dutch for \"whereareyou.now\".", "In March 2000,.NU Domain Ltd became the first TLD to offer registration of Internationalized domain names, supporting the full Unicode character set. Unlike other TLDs, no browser plugin or punycode capable browser was required on the client side for use of these names, as.NU Domain's web servers converted and redirected any web queries issued in a variety of international character encodings. However, in March 2010,.NU Domain announced at ICANN that they had recently disabled their general wildcard domain name resolution technology, and thus were implementing IDNs only by the now standard punycode implementation, and were reducing the accepted set of IDN characters for.NU Domain names to a subset of the ISO-8859-1 western European characters.", ".NU domain names are revoked without refund for displaying images of child pornography, being involved with phishing, spamming, email theft, search engine abuse, or any unlawful purpose. In February 2012, library.nu, a site listing links to scanned books, a substantial number of which are claimed to be pirated copyrighted material, went offline after a coalition of the world's largest book publishers obtained an injunction against the site. A few days later the site also had its domain name revoked by domain registrar Nunames. The domain revocation was recorded in screenshots taken at the time.", "Domain names can be as short as one character. A premium of €500/yr applies to name registrations of one character in length, €250 for domain names of two-character length, and €30 per year for domain names of any other length, although alternate registrars have two-letter domain names available for the price of normal length names. In June, 2008,.NU Domain began permitting registration of all-numeric domain names.", "A 2005 UDRP case regarding nudomain.com made the assertion under \"Factual background\" that \"The Complainants [WorldNames, Inc. and NU Domain Ltd] own and operate the.NU ccTLD\". The companies in question are operating the registry for.nu on behalf of the Internet Users Society, but it is incorrect to state that they \"own\" the TLD, as TLDs in general are delegated and managed rather than \"owned\". The case does, however, point out that these companies own a registered trademark to \".nudomain\" in several countries.", "In March 2007, McAfee SiteAdvisor issued a report explaining the functionality of SiteAdvisor. As part of that report,.nu domain websites were stated to be among the highest-risk TLDs for browser exploits. However, in most other respects,.nu sites were ranked overall as a low to moderate risk. Shortly thereafter,.NU Domain issued a press release stating that SiteAdvisor had ranked.nu sites among the lowest for risk. In 2008 McAfee reported that.net and.com had become the riskiest TLDs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "1920s: Roots.", "Early swing.", "1935–1946: The swing era.", "1940s: Decline.", "1950s–1960s.", "Swingin' pop.", "Big band jazz.", "Cross-genre swing.", "1960s–2000: Big Band nostalgia and swing revival.", "1990s to present: swing house, electro swing and swing pop." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Developments in dance orchestra and jazz music during the 1920s both contributed to the development of the 1930s swing style. Starting in 1923, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra featured innovative arrangements by Don Redman that featured call-response interplay between brass and reed sections, and interludes arranged to back up soloists. The arrangements also had a smoother rhythmic sense than the ragtime-influenced arrangements that were the more typical \"hot\" dance music of the day. In 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Henderson band, lending impetus to an even greater emphasis on soloists. The Henderson band also featured Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and Buster Bailey as soloists, who all were influential in the development of swing era instrumental styles. During the Henderson band's extended residency at the Roseland Ballroom in New York, it became influential on other big bands. Duke Ellington credited the Henderson band with being an early influence when he was developing the sound for his own band. In 1925 Armstrong left the Henderson band and would add his innovations to New Orleans style jazz to develop Chicago style jazz, another step towards swing. Traditional New Orleans style jazz was based on a two-beat meter and contrapuntal improvisation led by a trumpet or cornet, typically followed by a clarinet and trombone in a call-response pattern. The rhythm section consisted of a sousaphone and drums, and sometimes a banjo. By the early 1920s guitars and pianos sometimes substituted for the banjo and a string bass sometimes substituted for the sousaphone. Use of the string bass opened possibilities for 4/4 instead of 2/4 time at faster tempos, which increased rhythmic freedom. The Chicago style released the soloist from the constraints of contrapuntal improvisation with other front-line instruments, lending greater freedom in creating melodic lines. Louis Armstrong used the additional freedom of the new format with 4/4 time, accenting the second and fourth beats and anticipating the main beats with lead-in notes in his solos to create a sense of rhythmic pulse that happened between the beats as well as on them, i.e. swing. In 1927 Armstrong worked with pianist Earl Hines, who had a similar impact on his instrument as Armstrong had on trumpet. Hines' melodic, horn-like conception of playing deviated from the contemporary conventions in jazz piano centered on building rhythmic patterns around \"pivot notes.\" His approaches to rhythm and phrasing were also free and daring, exploring ideas that would define swing playing. His approach to rhythm often used accents on the lead-in instead of the main beat, and mixed meters, to build a sense of anticipation to the rhythm and make his playing swing. He also used \"stops\" or musical silences to build tension in his phrasing. Hines' style was a seminal influence on the styles of swing-era pianists Teddy Wilson, Art Tatum, Jess Stacy, Nat \"King\" Cole, Erroll Garner, Mary Lou Williams, and Jay McShann. Black territory dance bands in the southwest were developing dynamic styles that often went in the direction of blues-based simplicity, using riffs in a call-response pattern to build a strong, danceable rhythm and provide a musical platform for extended solos. The rhythm-heavy tunes for dancing were called \"stomps.\" The requirement for volume led to continued use of the sousaphone over the string bass with the larger ensembles, which dictated a more conservative approach to rhythm based on 2/4 time signatures. Meanwhile, string bass players such as Walter Page were developing their technique to the point where they could hold down the bottom end of a full-sized dance orchestra. The growth of radio broadcasting and the recording industry in the 1920s allowed some of the more popular dance bands to gain national exposure. The most popular style of dance orchestra was the \"sweet\" style, often with strings. Paul Whiteman developed a style he called \"symphonic jazz,\" grafting a classical approach over his interpretation of jazz rhythms in an approach he hoped would be the future of jazz. Whiteman's Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success and was a major influence on the sweet bands. Jean Goldkette's Victor Recording Orchestra featured many of the top white jazz musicians of the day including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Frank Trumbauer, Pee Wee Russell, Eddie Lang, and Joe Venuti. The Victor Recording Orchestra won the respect of the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in a Battle of the Bands; Henderson's cornetist Rex Stewart credited the Goldkette band with being the most influential white band in the development of swing music before Benny Goodman's. As a dance music promoter and agent, Goldkette also helped organize and promote McKinney's Cotton Pickers and Glen Gray's Orange Blossoms (later the Casa Loma Orchestra), two other Detroit-area bands that were influential in the early swing era.", "As the 1920s turned to the 1930s, the new concepts in rhythm and ensemble playing that comprised the swing style were transforming the sounds of large and small bands. Starting in 1928, The Earl Hines Orchestra was broadcast throughout much of the midwest from the Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago, where Hines had the opportunity to expound upon his new approaches to rhythm and phrasing with a big band. Hines' arranger Jimmy Mundy would later contribute to the catalog of the Benny Goodman Orchestra. The Duke Ellington Orchestra had its new sounds broadcast nationally from New York's Cotton Club, followed by the Cab Calloway Orchestra and the Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra. Also in New York, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra featured the new style at the Roseland Ballroom and the swing powerhouse Chick Webb Orchestra started its extended stay at the Savoy Ballroom in 1931. Bennie Moten and the Kansas City Orchestra showcased the riff-propelled, solo-oriented form of swing that had been developing in the hothouse of Kansas City. Emblematic of the evolving music was the change in the name of Moten's signature tune, from \"Moten Stomp\" to \"Moten Swing.\" Moten's orchestra had a highly successful tour in late 1932. Audiences raved about the new music, and at the Pearl Theatre in Philadelphia in December 1932, the doors were let open to the public who crammed into the theatre to hear the new sound, demanding seven encores from Moten's orchestra. With the early 1930s came the financial difficulties of the Great Depression that curtailed recording of the new music and drove some bands out of business, including the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra and McKinney's Cotton Pickers in 1934. Henderson's next business was selling arrangements to up-and-coming bandleader Benny Goodman. \"Sweet\" dance music remained most popular with white audiences but the Casa Loma Orchestra and the Benny Goodman Orchestra went against that grain, targeting the new swing style to younger audiences.", "In 1935 the Benny Goodman Orchestra had won a spot on the radio show \"Let's Dance\" and started showcasing an updated repertoire featuring Fletcher Henderson arrangements. Goodman's slot was on after midnight in the East, and few people heard it. It was on earlier on the West Coast and developed the audience that later led to Goodman's Palomar Ballroom triumph. At the Palomar engagement starting on August 21, 1935, audiences of young white dancers favored Goodman's rhythm and daring arrangements. The sudden success of the Goodman orchestra transformed the landscape of popular music in America. Goodman's success with \"hot\" swing brought forth imitators and enthusiasts of the new style throughout the world of dance bands, which launched the \"swing era\" that lasted until 1946. A typical song played in swing style would feature a strong, anchoring rhythm section in support of more loosely-tied woodwind and brass sections playing call-response to each other. The level of improvisation that the audience might expect varied with the arrangement, song, band, and band-leader. Typically included in big band swing arrangements were an introductory chorus that stated the theme, choruses arranged for soloists, and climactic out-choruses. Some arrangements were built entirely around a featured soloist or vocalist. Some bands used string or vocal sections, or both. Swing-era repertoire included the Great American Songbook of Tin Pan Alley standards, band originals, traditional jazz tunes such as the “King Porter Stomp”, with which the Goodman orchestra had a smash hit, and blues. Hot swing music is strongly associated with the jitterbug dancing that became a national craze accompanying the swing craze. Swing dancing originated in the late 1920s as the \"Lindy Hop,\" and would later incorporate other styles including The Suzie Q, Truckin', Peckin' Jive, The Big Apple, and The Shag in various combinations of moves. A subculture of jitterbuggers, sometimes growing quite competitive, congregated around ballrooms that featured hot swing music. A dance floor full of jitterbuggers had cinematic appeal; they were sometimes featured in newsreels and movies. Some of the top jitterbuggers gathered in professional dance troupes such as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers (featured in \"A Day At the Races\", \"Everybody Dance\", and \"Hellzapoppin'\"). Swing dancing would outlive the swing era, becoming associated with R&B and early Rock&Roll. As with many new popular musical styles, swing met with some resistance because of its improvisation, tempo, occasionally risqué lyrics, and frenetic dancing. Audiences used to traditional \"sweet\" arrangements, such as those offered by Guy Lombardo, Sammy Kaye, Kay Kyser and Shep Fields, were taken aback by the rambunctiousness of swing music. Swing was sometimes regarded as light entertainment, more of an industry to sell records to the masses than a form of art, among fans of both jazz and \"serious\" music. Some jazz critics such as Hugues Panassié held the polyphonic improvisation of New Orleans jazz to be the pure form of jazz, with swing a form corrupted by regimentation and commercialism. Panassié was also an advocate of the theory that jazz was a primal expression of the black American experience and that white musicians, or black musicians who became interested in more sophisticated musical ideas, were generally incapable of expressing its core values. In his 1941 autobiography, W. C. Handy wrote that \"prominent white orchestra leaders, concert singers and others are making commercial use of Negro music in its various phases. That's why they introduced \"swing\" which is not a musical form\" (no comment on Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Duke Ellington, or Count Basie). The Dixieland revival started in the late 1930s as a self-conscious re-creation of New Orleans jazz in reaction against the orchestrated style of big band swing. Some swing bandleaders saw opportunities in the Dixieland revival. Tommy Dorsey's Clambake Seven and Bob Crosby's Bobcats were examples of Dixieland ensembles within big swing bands. Between the poles of hot and sweet, middlebrow interpretations of swing led to great commercial success for bands such as those led by Artie Shaw, Glenn Miller and Tommy Dorsey. Miller's trademark clarinet-led reed section was decidedly \"sweet,\" but the Miller catalog had no shortage of bouncy, medium-tempo dance tunes and some up-tempo tunes such as \"Mission to Moscow\" and the Lionel Hampton composition “Flying Home”. \"The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing\" Tommy Dorsey made a nod to the hot side by hiring jazz trumpeter and Goodman alumnus Bunny Berigan, then hiring Jimmie Lunceford's arranger Sy Oliver to spice up his catalog in 1939. New York became a touchstone for national success of big bands, with nationally broadcast engagements at the Roseland and Savoy ballrooms a sign that a swing band had arrived on the national scene. With its Savoy engagement in 1937, the Count Basie Orchestra brought the riff-and-solo oriented Kansas City style of swing to national attention. The Basie orchestra collectively and individually would influence later styles that would give rise to the smaller \"jump\" bands and bebop. The Chick Webb Orchestra remained closely identified with the Savoy Ballroom, having originated the tune “Stompin' at the Savoy,” and became feared in the Savoy's Battles of the Bands. It humiliated Goodman's band, and had memorable encounters with the Ellington and Basie bands. The Goodman band's 1938 Carnegie Hall Concert turned into a summit of swing, with guests from the Basie and Ellington bands invited for a jam session after the Goodman band's performance. Coleman Hawkins arrived back from an extended stay in Europe to New York in 1939, recorded his famous version of “Body and Soul”, and fronted his own big band. 1940 saw top-flight musicians such as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Don Byas, Charlie Christian, and Gene Ramey, whose careers in swing had brought them to New York, beginning to coalesce and develop the ideas that would become bebop.", "The early 1940s saw emerging trends in popular music and jazz that would, once they had run their course, result in the end of the swing era. Vocalists were becoming the star attractions of the big bands. Vocalist Ella Fitzgerald, after joining the Chick Webb Orchestra in 1936, propelled the band to great popularity and the band continued under her name after Webb's death in 1939. In 1940 vocalist Vaughn Monroe was leading his own big band and Frank Sinatra was becoming the star attraction of the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, inciting mass hysteria among bobby-soxers. Vocalist Peggy Lee joined the Goodman Orchestra in 1941 for a two-year stint, quickly becoming its star attraction on its biggest hits. Some big bands were moving away from the swing styles that dominated the late 1930s, for both commercial and creative reasons. Some of the more commercial big bands catered to more \"sweet\" sensibilities with string sections. Some bandleaders such as John Kirby, Raymond Scott, and Claude Thornhill were fusing swing with classical repertoire. Lower manpower requirements and simplicity favored the rise of small band swing. The Savoy Sultans and other smaller bands led by Louis Jordan, Lucky Millinder, Louis Prima, and Tony Pastor were showcasing an exuberant \"jump swing\" style that would lead to the postwar rise of R&B. In a 1939 \"Downbeat\" interview, Duke Ellington expressed dissatisfaction with the creative state of swing music; within a few years he and other bandleaders would be delving into more ambitious, and less danceable, forms of orchestral jazz and the creative forefront for soloists would be moving into smaller ensembles and bebop. The Earl Hines Orchestra in 1943 featured a collection of young, forward-looking musicians who were at the core of the bebop movement and would in the following year be in the Billy Eckstine Orchestra, the first big band to showcase bebop. As the swing era went into decline, it secured legacies in vocalist-centered popular music, \"progressive\" big band jazz, R&B, and bebop. The trend away from big band swing was accelerated by wartime conditions and royalty conflicts. In 1941 the American Society of Composers and Producers (ASCAP) demanded bigger royalties from broadcasters and the broadcasters refused. Consequently, ASCAP banned the large repertoire they controlled from airplay, severely restricting what the radio audience could hear. ASCAP also demanded pre-approval of set lists and even written solos for live broadcasts, to assure that not even a quoted fragment of ASCAP repertoire was broadcast. Those restrictions made broadcast swing much less appealing for the year in which the ban was in place. Big band swing remained popular during the war years, but the resources required to support it became problematic. Wartime restriction on travel, coupled with rising expenses, curtailed road touring. The manpower requirements for big swing bands placed a burden on the scarce resources available for touring and were impacted by the military draft. In July 1942 the American Federation of Musicians called a ban on recording until record labels agreed to pay royalties to musicians. That stopped recording of instrumental music for major labels for over a year, with the last labels agreeing to new contract terms in November 1944. In the meantime, vocalists continued to record backed by vocal groups and the recording industry released earlier swing recordings from their vaults, increasingly reflecting the popularity of big band vocalists. In 1943 Columbia Records re-released the 1939 recording of “All or Nothing at All” by the Harry James Orchestra with Frank Sinatra, giving Sinatra top billing (\"Acc. Harry James and his Orchestra\"). The recording found the commercial success that had eluded its original release. Small band swing was recorded for small specialty labels not affected by the ban. These labels had limited distribution centered in large urban markets, which tended to limit the size of the ensembles with which recording could be a money-making proposition. Another blow fell on the market for dance-oriented swing in 1944 when the federal government levied a 30% excise tax on \"dancing\" nightclubs, undercutting the market for dance music in smaller venues. The war's end saw the elements that had been unified under big band swing scattered into separate styles and markets. Some \"progressive\" big bands such as those led by Stan Kenton and Boyd Raeburn stayed oriented towards jazz, but not jazz for dancing. Much of the top instrumental talent of the period were performing in small band formats ranging from R&B to bebop. The hard core dancing niche formerly occupied by hot big band swing was occupied by small \"jump\" bands and R&B. Popular music was centered on vocalists, and a full-time big band to back up a vocalist was increasingly seen as an unnecessary expense. By 1947 the economics of popular music led to the disbanding of many established big bands. Big band music would experience a resurgence during the 1950s, but the connection between the later big band music and the swing era was tenuous.", "", "Swing bands and sales continued to decline from 1953 to 1954. In 1955, a list of top recording artists from the previous year was publicly released. The list revealed that big band sales have decreased since the early 1950s. However, big band music saw a revival in the 1950s and 1960s. One impetus was the demand for studio and stage orchestras as backups for popular vocalists, and in radio and television broadcasts. Ability to adapt performing styles to various situations was an essential skill among these bands-for-hire, with a somewhat sedated version of swing in common use for backing up vocalists. The resurgent commercial success of Frank Sinatra with a mildly swinging backup during the mid-1950s solidified the trend. It became a sound associated with pop vocalists such as Bobby Darin, Dean Martin, Judy Garland, and Nat King Cole, as well as jazz-oriented vocalists like Ella Fitzgerald and Keely Smith. Many of these singers were also involved in the \"less swinging\" vocal pop music of this period. The bands in these contexts performed in relative anonymity, receiving secondary credit beneath the top billing. Some, such as the Nelson Riddle and Gordon Jenkins Orchestras, became well known in their own right. Swingin' pop remained popular into the mid-1960s, becoming one current of the \"easy listening\" genre including Johnny Mathis, Andy Williams, Burt Bacharach, Dionne Warwick, Ray Conniff, and Henry Mancini.", "Big band jazz made a comeback as well. The Stan Kenton and Woody Herman bands maintained their popularity during lean years of the late 1940s and beyond, making their mark with innovative arrangements and high-level jazz soloists (Shorty Rogers, Art Pepper, Kai Winding, Stan Getz, Al Cohn, Zoot Sims, Serge Chaloff, Gene Ammons, Sal Nistico). Lionel Hampton was a leader in the R&B genre during the late 1940s then re-entered big band jazz in the early 1950s, remaining a popular attraction through the 1960s. Count Basie and Duke Ellington had both downsized their big bands during the first half of the 1950s, then reconstituted them by 1956. Ellington's venture back into big band jazz was encouraged by its reception at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival. The Basie and Ellington bands flourished creatively and commercially through the 1960s and beyond, with both veteran leaders receiving high acclaim for their contemporary work and performing until they were physically unable. Drummer Buddy Rich, after briefly leading one big band during the late 1940s and performing in various jazz and big band gigs, formed his definitive big band in 1966. His name became synonymous with the dynamic, exuberant style of his big band. Other big jazz bands that drove the 1950s–60s revival include those led by Thad Jones, Mel Lewis, Quincy Jones, and Oliver Nelson. Big band jazz remains a major component of college jazz instruction curricula.", "In country music Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, and Bob Wills combined elements of swing and blues to create a western swing. Mullican left the Cliff Bruner band to pursue solo career that included many songs that maintained a swing structure. Artists like Willie Nelson and Asleep at the Wheel have continued the swing elements of country music. Asleep at the Wheel has also recorded the Count Basie tunes “One O'Clock Jump”, “Jumpin' at the Woodside”, and “Song of the Wanderer” using a steel guitar as a stand-in for a horn section. Nat King Cole followed Sinatra into pop music, bringing with him a similar combination of swing and ballads. Like Mullican, he was important in bringing piano to the fore of popular music. Gypsy swing is an outgrowth of the jazz violin swing of Joe Venuti and Eddie Lang. In Europe it was heard in the music of guitarist Django Reinhardt and violinist Stéphane Grappelli. Their repertoire overlaps 1930s swing, including French popular music, gypsy songs, and compositions by Reinhardt, but gypsy swing bands are formulated differently. There is no brass or percussion; guitars and bass form the backbone, with violin, accordion, clarinet or guitar taking the lead. Gypsy swing groups generally have no more than five players. Although they originated in different continents, similarities have often been noted between gypsy swing and western swing, leading to various fusions. Rock music hitmakers like Fats Domino, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry, Gene Vincent and Elvis Presley included swing-era standards in their repertoire. Presley and Domino made the crooning ballads “Are You Lonesome Tonight” and “My Blue Heaven” into a rock and roll-era hits. The doo-wop vocal group The Marcels had a big hit with their lively version of the swing-era ballad “Blue Moon”.", "Though swing music was no longer mainstream, fans could attend \"Big Band Nostalgia\" tours from the 1970s into the 1980s. The tours featured bandleaders and vocalists of the swing era who were semi-retired, such as Harry James and vocalist Dick Haymes. Historically-themed radio broadcasts featuring period comedy, melodrama, and music also played a role in sustaining interest in the music of the swing era. Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks, and later David Grisman, presented adaptations of Gypsy Swing, rekindling interest in the musical form. Other swing revivals occurred during the 1970s. The jazz, R&B, and swing revival vocal group Manhattan Transfer and Bette Midler included swing era hits on albums during the early 1970s. In Seattle the New Deal Rhythm Band and the Horns O Plenty Orchestra revived 1930s swing with a dose of comedy behind vocalists Phil \"De Basket\" Shallat, Cheryl \"Benzene\" Bentyne, and six-foot-tall \"Little Janie\" Lambert. Bentyne would leave the New Deal Rhythm Band in 1978 for her long career with Manhattan Transfer. Founding leader of the New Deal Rhythm Band John Holte led swing revival bands in the Seattle area until 2003. A Swing Revival occurred during the 1990s and 2000s led by Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, The Cherry Poppin' Daddies, Squirrel Nut Zippers, Lavay Smith, and Brian Setzer. Many of the bands played neo-swing which combined swing with rockabilly, ska, and rock. The music brought a revival in swing dancing. In 2001 Robbie Williams's album \"Swing When You're Winning\" consisted mainly of popular swing covers. The album sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. In November 2013, Robbie Williams released \"Swings Both Ways\".", "Another modern development consists of fusing swing (original, or remixes of classics) with hip hop and house techniques. \"Swing house\" was particularly popular during the late 1980s and early 1990s. Influences incorporated into it include Louis Jordan and Louis Prima. Electro swing is mainly popular in Europe, and electro swing artists incorporate influences such as tango and Django Reinhardt's gypsy swing. Leading artists include Caravan Palace and Parov Stelar. Both genres are connected with a revival of swing dances, such as the Lindy hop." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early and personal life.", "Tennis career.", "Juniors.", "Start of professional career.", "2006: First ATP titles.", "2007: Top 10 and first Masters title.", "2008: First Major title.", "2009: Ten finals, five titles.", "2010: Davis Cup title & US Open runner-up.", "2011: Three Majors and No. 1 ranking.", "2012: Third Australian Open title and year-end No. 1.", "2013: Fourth Australian Open title.", "2014: Second Wimbledon title and return to No. 1.", "2015: One of the greatest tennis seasons of all time.", "2016: 'Nole' Slam and ranking points record.", "2017: Split with team and long injury hiatus.", "2018: Surgery, two Majors, back to No. 1, Career Golden Masters.", "2019: 7th Australian Open title and 5th Wimbledon title.", "2020: ATP Cup champion, 8th Australian Open title.", "Rivalries.", "Djokovic vs. Nadal.", "Djokovic vs. Federer.", "Djokovic vs. Murray.", "Djokovic vs. Wawrinka.", "Djokovic vs. Tsonga.", "Djokovic vs. del Potro.", "Place among the all-time greats.", "Playing style and equipment.", "Off the court.", "Philanthropy.", "Sponsorships and business ventures.", "In popular culture.", "Career statistics.", "Grand Slam tournament performance timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Novak Djokovic (Nole) was born on 22 May 1987 in Belgrade, SR Serbia, Yugoslavia, to parents Srđan and Dijana (née Žagar). He is of paternal Serbian and maternal Croatian descent. His two younger brothers, Marko and Djordje, have also played professional tennis. A resident of Monte Carlo, Djokovic was coached by former Slovak tennis player Marián Vajda from 2006 until Boris Becker took over the role of head coach in December 2013. Djokovic is a self-described fan of languages, speaking Serbian, English, French, German, and Italian. He met his future wife, Jelena Ristić, in high school, and began dating her in 2005. The two became engaged in September 2013, and on 10 July 2014 the couple got married on Sveti Stefan in Montenegro, while a church wedding was held in the same place, on 12 July 2014, in the Church of Saint Stephen () which belongs to Praskvica Monastery. On 24 April 2014, Djokovic announced that he and Ristić were expecting their first child. Their son, Stefan, was born on 21 October 2014 in Nice, France. Their daughter, Tara, was born on 2 September 2017. Djokovic began playing tennis at the age of four. In the summer", "", "As a member of the Yugoslav national team, Djokovic reached the final of the 2001 Junior Davis Cup for players under 14, in which he lost his match in singles. In juniors, Djokovic compiled a singles", "Djokovic turned professional in 2003 by entering the ATP World Tour. At the beginning of his professional career, he mainly played in Futures and Challenger tournaments, winning three of each type from 2003 to 2005. His first tour-level tournament was Umag in 2004, where he lost to Filippo Volandri in the round of 32. Djokovic made his first Grand Slam tournament appearance by qualifying for", "Djokovic reached the top 40 in the world singles rankings after making his first quarterfinal appearance at a Grand Slam event, coming at the French Open, and also by reaching the fourth round at Wimbledon that year. Three weeks after Wimbledon, Djokovic won his first ATP title at the Dutch Open in Amersfoort without losing a set, defeating Nicolás Massú in the final. He won his second career title at the Moselle Open in Metz, and moved into the top 20. Djokovic also reached his first career Masters quarterfinal at Madrid during the indoor hardcourt season. On 9 April 2006, Djokovic", "Djokovic began 2007 by defeating Australian Chris Guccione in the final of the tournament in Adelaide, before losing in the fourth round of the Australian Open to eventual champion Roger Federer in straight sets. His performances at the Masters Series events in Indian Wells, and Key Biscayne, where he was the runner-up and champion respectively, pushed him into the world's top 10. Djokovic lost the Indian Wells final to Rafael Nadal, but defeated Nadal in Key Biscayne in the quarterfinals before defeating Guillermo Cañas for the title in the", "Djokovic started the year by playing the Hopman Cup with fellow Serbian world No. 3 Jelena Janković. While he won all his round-robin matches, the team lost 1–2 in the final to the second-seeded American team of Serena Williams and Mardy Fish. At the Australian Open, Djokovic reached his second consecutive Grand Slam final without dropping a set, including a victory over two-time defending champion Federer in the semi-finals. By reaching the semi-finals, Djokovic became the youngest player to have reached the semi-finals in all four Grand Slam events. In the", "Djokovic started the year at the Brisbane International, where he was upset by Ernests Gulbis in the first round. At the Sydney International, he lost to Jarkko Nieminen in the semi-finals. As defending champion at the Australian Open, Djokovic retired from his quarterfinal match with former world No. 1 Andy Roddick. After losing in the semi-finals of the Open 13 tournament in Marseille to Tsonga, Djokovic won the singles title at the Dubai Tennis Championships, defeating Ferrer to claim his twelfth career title. The following week, Djokovic was the defending champion at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, but lost to Roddick in the quarterfinals. At the Sony", "Djokovic started his year by playing in the AAMI Classic, an exhibition event. In his first match, he defeated Haas before losing to Fernando Verdasco in his second. At the 2010 Australian Open, Djokovic lost a five-setter to Tsonga in the quarterfinals. Despite the loss, he attained a career-high ranking of No. 2 and went on to reach the semi-finals of the ABN AMRO World Tennis Tournament in Rotterdam, where he lost to Youzhny. At the Dubai Tennis Championships, Djokovic reached the final, this time defeating Youzhny to win his first title of the year. Djokovic then took part in Serbia's Davis Cup tie against the United States on clay in Belgrade and helped his country reach its first quarterfinal in the Davis Cup with a 3–2 victory, defeating", "Djokovic won ten tournaments in 2011, including Grand Slam tournament victories at the Australian Open, Wimbledon and the US Open. Djokovic also captured a record-breaking five ATP World Tour Masters 1000 titles, and set a new record for the most prize money won in a single season on the ATP World Tour ($12 million). His level dropped at season's end beginning with a back injury and ended with a poor showing at the ATP World Tour Finals. Djokovic finished the season with a 70–6 record and a year-end ranking of No. 1. Pete Sampras declared Djokovic's 2011 season as the best he has ever seen in his lifetime, calling it \"one", "Djokovic began his season by winning the 2012 Australian Open. He won his first four rounds against Paolo Lorenzi, Santiago Giraldo, Nicolas Mahut and Lleyton Hewitt, respectively. In the quarterfinals he defeated David Ferrer in three sets. In the semi-final, Djokovic beat Murray in five sets after 4 hours and 50 minutes, coming back from a two-sets-to-one deficit and fending off break points at 5-all in the fifth set. In the final, Djokovic beat Nadal in five sets, coming from", "Djokovic began the 2013 season by defeating Murray in the final of the 2013 Australian Open to win a record third consecutive Australian Open trophy and the sixth major of his career. A week later, he participated in a Davis Cup match against Belgium, where he defeated Olivier Rochus in straight sets to give the Serbian team a 2–0 lead. On 2 March 2013, Djokovic won the thirty-sixth professional single's title of his career by defeating Tomáš Berdych in the final of the Dubai Tennis Championships. Another solid week of tennis saw Djokovic reach the semi-finals at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, before losing to del Potro, bringing an end to his twenty-two match winning streak. The following week, Djokovic went into the Miami Masters as defending champion, but lost in the fourth round to Tommy Haas in straight sets. In April, Djokovic played for Serbia as the country faced the United States in the Davis Cup quarterfinals. Djokovic clinched the tie for his team by defeating John Isner and Sam Querrey. Later that month, he defeated eight-time champion Nadal in straight sets in the final of the Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters to clinch his first", "Djokovic began the year with a warmup tournament win, the 2013 Mubadala World Tennis Championship. At the Australian Open, he won his first four matches in straight sets, against Lukáš Lacko, Leonardo Mayer, Denis Istomin and No. 15 seed Fabio Fognini respectively. He met Wawrinka in the quarterfinals of the tournament, the second consecutive year the two had met at the event. Despite coming back from two sets to one down, Djokovic fell 9–7 in the fifth set, ending his 25–match winning streak in Melbourne, as well as his streak of 14 consecutive Grand Slam tournament semi-finals. The week of 27 January marked the first time since 2011 that Djokovic has not been a Grand Slam title holder. Djokovic also would play in the Dubai Tennis Championships but lost to eventual champion Roger Federer in the semi-finals. However, Djokovic would avenge his loss to Federer, winning his third Indian Wells Masters title, beating Federer in the final. Continuing his good run, he beat No. 1 Nadal in the final of the Miami Masters in straight sets. Suffering from a wrist injury which hampered him throughout the Monte-Carlo Masters, Djokovic lost the semi-finals", "Djokovic began the season at the Qatar Open in Doha, where he won his first two rounds for the loss of just 6 games, however lost in the quarterfinals against Ivo Karlović in three tight sets. He rebounded from this defeat well at the Australian Open, where he made it through the first five rounds without dropping a set. In the semi-finals he faced defending champion Stan Wawrinka, the man who beat him the previous year. He twice lost a set lead, however came roaring back in the fifth to take it to love, and set up a third final against Andy Murray. After splitting the first two sets in tiebreakers, Djokovic suddenly found his form after dropping his serve at the start of the third set,", "Djokovic collected his 60th career title in Doha, defeating Nadal in two sets in a final that lasted 73 minutes. He broke his own ATP ranking points record, bringing it up to 16,790. Djokovic then proceeded to win his sixth Australian Open. On his road to his Open Era record sixth title in Melbourne, he defeated Roger Federer in four sets in the semi-finals, and in a rematch of the 2015 final, he defeated Andy Murray, in three straight sets. He quickly rebounded from an eye infection at the Dubai open to collect a fifth", "In January, Djokovic defended his title in Doha defeating new world No. 1 Andy Murray in three sets. At the 2017 Australian Open, he was upset in the second round by No. 117 Denis Istomin of Uzbekistan. This was the first time since 2007 that Djokovic had failed to reach the quarterfinals at the Australian Open, and the first time ever in his career that he had lost to a player ranked outside of the top 100 in a Grand Slam tournament. In February and March, Djokovic played at the Mexican Open and the Indian Well Masters, but in both events was eliminated by Nick Kyrgios, in the third and fourth rounds, respectively. In April, Djokovic reached the quarterfinals of the Monte-Carlo Masters, losing to David Goffin. After the tournament, he decided", "In January he won against Dominic Thiem in straight sets at the Kooyong Classic exhibition tournament. At the 2018 Australian Open, the Serbian won in the second round against Gael Monfils and then in the third round eliminated Albert Ramos Viñolas in straight sets, before bowing out in close straight sets against Chung Hyeon from South Korea. In late January, he underwent surgery on his elbow. On 3 March, he announced on Twitter he was back on the practice courts, and with a little over one week practice, he surprisingly played Indian Wells, losing in the second round to Taro Daniel. He later had another second-round loss in the Miami Open, this time to Benoît Paire. Reuniting with Marián Vajda, at the Monte Carlo Masters, he collected victories over Dusan Lajovic and Borna Coric, followed by a loss to world no. 7 Dominic Thiem. In a press conference, he stated, \"After two years finally I can play without pain.\" After another early exit, this time in Barcelona to Martin Klizan, Djokovic's gradual return to form would show itself", "Djokovic's first tournament of the year was at the Qatar Open. He defeated Damir Džumhur, Márton Fucsovics, and fifth seed Nikoloz Basilashvili before being defeated by seventh seed Roberto Bautista Agut in the semifinals. Djokovic entered the Australian Open as the top seed. He defeated qualifier Mitchell Krueger, 2008 finalist Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, 25th seed Denis Shapovalov, 15th seed Daniil Medvedev, 8th seed Kei Nishikori, and 28th seed Lucas Pouille to reach the final, in which he beat 2nd seed Rafael Nadal in straight sets to win his 15th Grand Slam and a record 7th Australian Open. Djokovic then played at the 2019 Indian Wells Masters and", "At the 2020 ATP Cup, Djokovic helped Serbia win its first title by scoring six victories including wins over Medvedev in the semifinal and Nadal in the final. At the 2020 Australian Open, he defeated long time rival Roger Federer in straight sets en route to", "", "Novak Djokovic and Rafael Nadal have met 55 times on the tennis court, an Open Era record for head-to-head meetings between male players, and Djokovic leads 29–26. Djokovic leads on hard courts 20–7, while Nadal leads on clay 17–7, and they are tied on grass 2–2. This rivalry is listed as the third greatest rivalry in the last decade by ATPworldtour.com. Djokovic is the first player to have at least ten match wins against Nadal and the only person to defeat Nadal seven times consecutively (which he did twice). The two share the record for the longest Grand Slam final match ever played (5 hours and 53", "Novak Djokovic and Roger Federer have faced each other 50 times (not including one occasion when there was a walkover in favour of Djokovic), and Djokovic currently leads 27–23. Djokovic leads on hard courts 20–18 as well as grass 3–1, whereas they are split 4–4 on clay. Djokovic is the only player other than Nadal who has defeated Federer in consecutive Grand Slam tournament matches. Federer ended Djokovic's 41-match winning start to the 2011 season at the 2011 French Open semi-finals. However, Federer would lose to Djokovic in the following year in straight sets. Djokovic played Federer in his first Major final at the 2007 US Open and lost in three sets. Djokovic has more wins against Federer than any other player. The two had three encounters at the Australian Open (in 2007, 2008, and 2011), which Federer won in straight sets in 2007 and Djokovic won in straight sets in the other two. The two have met five years in a row at the US Open with", "Djokovic and Andy Murray have met 36 times with Djokovic leading 25–11. Djokovic leads 5–1 on clay, 20–8 on hard courts, and Murray leads 2–0 on grass. The two are almost exactly the same age, with Murray being a week older than Djokovic. They went to training camp together, and Murray won the first match they ever played as teenagers. The pair have met 19 times in finals, and Djokovic leads 11–8. Ten of the finals were ATP Masters 1000 finals, and", "Djokovic and Stan Wawrinka have met 25 times with Djokovic leading 19–6, however the two have contested numerous close matches, including four five-setters at Grand Slam level. Wawrinka and Djokovic have played three consecutive Australian Open years, each match going to five sets, and a five-setter in the US Open: in the 2013 Australian Open fourth round, which Djokovic won 12–10 in a fifth set; at the 2013 US Open semi-finals, which Djokovic won 6–4 in a fifth set; and at the 2014 Australian Open quarterfinals, which Wawrinka won 9–7 in a close fifth set. Wawrinka's win broke Djokovic's impressive run of 14 consecutive semi-finals in Grand Slam play, ended a 28-match winning streak, and prevented Djokovic from capturing a record fifth Australian Open crown. Djokovic", "Djokovic and Jo-Wilfried Tsonga have met 24 times with Djokovic leading 18–6. Their first meeting was in the final of the 2008 Australian Open; Djokovic and Tsonga had defeated the top two players, Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal in their respective semi-finals in straight sets. Djokovic won this match in 4 sets to win his first Grand Slam singles title. Their next meeting at a Grand Slam event was again at the Australian Open, in the 2010 quarterfinals, exactly two years to the day since Djokovic defeated Tsonga to win his first Grand Slam singles title. However, this time it was Tsonga who prevailed, winning in five sets after Djokovic fell ill during the match. It would be another year-and-a-half until they met", "Djokovic and Juan Martín del Potro have met 20 times with Djokovic leading 16–4. Djokovic won their first four meetings, before back to back victories for del Potro at the 2011 Davis Cup and their Bronze medal match at the 2012 Summer Olympics in straight sets. However, in 2013, Djokovic got the upper hand on the rivalry again and won two of the most important matches between them to date; an epic five-setter", "Djokovic is considered to be one of the greatest tennis players of all time. Following his tremendous success in the 2011 season, he began to feature on all-time greatest lists and, in late 2011, Rod Laver listed Djokovic number six in his top ten male players of the Open Era. According to Tim Henman's June 2012 statement, Djokovic is \"probably a top eight player in tennis history\". Andre Agassi stated in September 2012 that Federer, Nadal, and Djokovic \"may very well be the greatest three players to ever play tennis\". In March 2012, contemporary competitor Andy Murray described Djokovic as 'one of the greatest players ever'. Following the 2013 US Open, in his September 2013 men's greatest players of all-time list, \"International Business Times\"' writer Jason Le Miere put the then six-time Grand Slam-winning Serb in seventh place, behind Federer, Nadal, Sampras, Laver, Borg, and Agassi. In January 2014, ESPN writer Howard Bryant called him 'arguably the best pure tennis player in the world'. In April 2015, Henman offered another comment on Djokovic's standing among the all-time greats, saying \"it's only a matter of time before he is considered alongside Federer and Nadal as one of the greatest players of all time\". Having proclaimed him \"one of the all-time greats\" in November 2014, John McEnroe put Djokovic in all-time top five following his 2015 Wimbledon win, Djokovic's ninth Grand Slam tournament title: \"My top four are Laver, Sampras, Roger and Nadal but Novak is at number five and rising\". Andrew Castle stated in January 2016 that Djokovic is \"undoubtedly moving towards being considered the sport's all-time greatest player\". In June 2016, a panel of more", "Djokovic is an aggressive baseline player. His groundstrokes from both wings are consistent, deep, and penetrating. His backhand is widely regarded as one of the best in today's game, due to its effectiveness on both sides of the court. His best shot is his backhand down the line, with great pace and precision. He is also known as one of the greatest movers on the court with high agility, court coverage and defensive ability, which allows him to hit winners from seemingly defensive positions. After great technical difficulties during the 2009 season (coinciding with his switch to the Head racket series), his serve is one of his major weapons again, winning him many free points; his first serve is typically hit flat, while he prefers to slice and kick his second serves wide. Djokovic's return of serve is a powerful weapon for him, with which he can be both offensive and defensive. Djokovic is rarely aced because of his flexibility, length and balance. Djokovic is highly efficient off both the forehand and backhand return, often getting the return in play deep with pace, neutralizing the advantage the server usually has in a point. John McEnroe considers Djokovic to be the greatest returner of serve in the history of the men's game. Occasionally, Djokovic employs a well-disguised backhand underspin drop shot and sliced backhand. His smash is considered to be one of his biggest weaknesses, being prone to making mistakes on the shot in big moments such as the 2008 Olympics. Djokovic commented on the modern style of play, including his own, in interview with Jim Courier after his semi-final win against Andy Murray in the 2012 Australian Open tournament: Entering the pro circuit, Djokovic used the Head Liquidmetal Radical, but changed sponsors to Wilson in 2005. He couldn't find a Wilson racquet he liked, so Wilson agreed to make him a custom racquet to match his previous one with Head. After the 2008 season, Djokovic re-signed with Head, and debuted a new paint job of the Head YouTek Speed Pro at the 2009 Australian Open. He then switched to the Head YouTek IG Speed (18x20) paint job in 2011, and in 2013, he again updated his paint job to the Head Graphene Speed Pro, which included an extensive promotional campaign. Djokovic uses a hybrid of Head Natural Gut (gauge 16) in the mains and Luxilon Big Banger ALU Power Rough (gauge 16L) in the crosses. He also uses Head Synthetic Leather Grip as a replacement grip. In 2012, Djokovic appeared in a television commercial with Maria Sharapova promoting the use of Head rackets for many techniques such as golf and ten-pin bowling. In assessing Djokovic's 2011 season, Jimmy Connors said that Djokovic gives his opponents problems by playing \"a little bit old-school, taking the ball earlier, catching the ball on the rise, (and) driving the ball flat.\" Connors adds that a lot of the topspin that Djokovic's opponents drive at him comes right into his zone, thus his ability to turn defense into offense well.", "", "In 2007, Djokovic founded the Novak Djokovic Foundation. The organization's mission is to help children from disadvantaged communities to grow up and develop in stimulating and safe environments. The foundation partnered with the World Bank in August 2015 to promote early childhood education in Serbia. His foundation has built 43 schools and supported almost 20,800 children and a thousand families. He participated in charity matches with the aim of raising funds for the reconstruction of the Avala Tower, as well as to aid victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake and 2010–11 Queensland floods. Djokovic was selected as the", "Djokovic endorses Serbian telecommunications company Telekom Srbija and German nutritional supplement brand FitLine. Since turning professional in 2003, Djokovic has been wearing Adidas clothing. At the end of 2009, Djokovic signed a 10-year deal with the Italian clothing company Sergio Tacchini after Adidas refused to extend his clothing contract (choosing instead to sign Andy Murray). Tacchini doesn't make shoes so Djokovic continued with Adidas as his choice of footwear. His sponsorship contract with Tacchini was incentive heavy, and due to Djokovic's disproportionate success and dominance in 2011, the company fell behind on bonus payments, leading to the termination of the sponsorship contract. From 2011, Djokovic began to wear custom Red and Blue Adidas Barricade 6.0's shoes, referring to the colours of the Serbian national flag. By April 2012, the Tacchini deal had fallen first short and then apart. At that point, he was set to join forces with Nike, Inc., but instead, on 23 May 2012, Uniqlo appointed Djokovic as its global brand ambassador. The five-year sponsorship, reportedly worth €8 million per year, began on 27 May 2012 in Paris' Roland-Garros French Open Tennis Tournament. A year later, Djokovic's long-term footwear deal with Adidas was announced ahead of 2013 French Open. In August 2011, Djokovic became the brand ambassador", "Throughout the latter part of the 2007 season, most notably before Wimbledon and during US Open, his comedic impressions of fellow contemporary tennis players got a lot of media play. It began when a BBC camera crew recorded some footage of the twenty-year-old impersonating Maria Sharapova, Rafael Nadal, Goran Ivanišević, and Lleyton Hewitt on a practice court at London's Queen's Club Championships just before Wimbledon. The material — consisting of Djokovic imitating the said players by exaggerating their trademark physical gestures or nervous tics for the entertainment of his coaching team Marián Vajda and Mark Woodforde — aired during BBC's coverage of the tournament and subsequently became popular online. Two months later at the US Open, a phone video shot by Argentine players of Djokovic", "", "\"Current through" ] }