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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Early history.", "Dutch Formosa.", "Ching empire.", "Japanese rule.", "Post-war.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Ethnic composition.", "Han People.", "Indigenous peoples.", "Other ethnicities.", "Economy.", "Agriculture.", "Culture.", "Tourism.", "Natural attractions.", "Historical sites.", "Museums.", "Parks and Zoos.", "Other.", "Languages.", "Arts.", "Religion.", "Buddhism.", "Taoism.", "Christianity.", "Islam.", "Politics.", "Government.", "Subdivisions.", "Transportation.", "Port of Kaohsiung.", "Kaohsiung International Airport.", "Rapid transit.", "Circular Light Rail.", "Railway.", "Sports.", "Education.", "Conferences and events.", "Sister cities and twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hoklo immigrants to the area during the 16th and 17th centuries called the region \"Takau\" (). The surface meaning of the associated Chinese characters was \"beat the dog\". According to one theory, the name Takau originates from the aboriginal Siraya language and translates as \"bamboo forest\". According to another theory, the name evolved via metathesis from the name of the Makatao tribe, who inhabited the area at the time of European and Hoklo settlement. The Makatao are considered to be part of the Siraya tribe. During the Dutch colonization of southern Taiwan, the area was known as \"Tancoia\" to the western world for a period of about three decades. In 1662, the Dutch were expelled by the Kingdom of Tungning, founded by Ming loyalists of Koxinga. His son, Zheng Jing, renamed the village \"Banlian-chiu\" () in 1664. The name of \"Takau\" was restored in the late 1670s, when the town expanded drastically with immigrants from mainland China, and was kept through Taiwan's cession to the Japanese Empire in 1895. In his 1903 general history of Taiwan, US Consul to Formosa James W. Davidson relates that \"Takow\" was already a well-known name in English. In 1920, the name was changed to and administered the area under Takao Prefecture. While the new name had quite a different surface meaning, its pronunciation in Japanese sounded more or less the same as the old name spoken in Hokkien. After Taiwan was handed to the Republic of China, the name did not change, but the official romanization became Kaohsiung (), derived from the Wade-Giles romanization of the Mandarin Chinese pronunciation for. The name \"Takau\" remains the official name of the city in Austronesian languages of Taiwan such as Rukai, although these are not widely spoken in the city. The name also remains popular locally in the naming of businesses, associations, and events.", "The written history of Kaohsiung can be traced back to the early 17th century, through archaeological studies have found signs of human activity in the region from as long as 7,000 years ago. Prior to the 17th century, the region was inhabited by the Makatao people of the Siraya tribe, who settled on what they named Takau Isle (translated to 打狗嶼 by Ming Chinese explorers); \"Takau\" meaning \"bamboo forest\" in the aboriginal language.", "The earliest evidence of human activity in the Kaohsiung area dates back to roughly 4,700–5,200 years ago. Most of the discovered remnants were located in the hills surrounding Kaohsiung Harbor. Artifacts were found at Shoushan, Longquan Temple, Taoziyuan, Zuoying, Houjing, Fudingjin and Fengbitou. The prehistoric Dapenkeng, Niuchouzi, Dahu, and Niaosong civilizations were known to inhabit the region. Studies of the prehistoric ruins at Longquan Temple have shown that that civilization occurred at roughly the same times as the beginnings of the aboriginal Makatao civilization, suggesting a possible origin for the latter. Unlike some other archaeological sites in the area, the Longquan Temple ruins are relatively well preserved. Prehistoric artifacts discovered have suggested that the ancient Kaohsiung Harbor was originally a lagoon, with early civilizations functioning primarily as Hunter-gatherer societies. Some agricultural tools have also been discovered, suggesting that some agricultural activity was also present. The first Chinese records of the region were written in 1603 by Chen Di, a member of Ming admiral Shen You-rong's expedition to rid the waters around Taiwan and Penghu of pirates. In his report on the \"Eastern Barbarian Lands\" (Dong Fan Ji), Chen Di referred to a Ta-kau Isle:", "Taiwan became a Dutch colony in 1624, after the Dutch East India Company was ejected from Penghu by Ming forces. At the time, Takau was already one of the most important fishing ports in southern Taiwan. The Dutch named the place \"Tankoya\", and the harbor \"Tancoia\". The Dutch missionary François Valentijn named Takau Mountain \"Ape Berg\", a name that would find its way onto European navigational charts well into the 18th century. \"Tankoia\" was located north of Ape's Hill and a few hours south from Tayouan (modern-day Anping, Tainan) by sail. At the time, a wide shallow bay existed there, sufficient for small vessels. However, constant silting changed the coastline. During this time, Taiwan was divided into five administrative districts, with Takau belonging to the southernmost district. In 1630, the first large scale immigration of Han Chinese to Taiwan began due to famine in Fujian, with merchants and traders from China seeking to purchase hunting licenses from the Dutch or hide out in aboriginal villages to escape authorities in China.", "In 1684, the Ching empire annexed Taiwan and renamed the town Fengshan County (), considering it a part of Taiwan Prefecture. It was first opened as a port during the 1680s and subsequently prospered fairly for generations.", "In 1895, Taiwan was ceded to Japan as part of the Treaty of Shimonoseki. Administrative control of the city was moved from New Fongshan Castle to the Fongshan Sub-District of. In November 1901, twenty \"chō\" were established in total; was established nearby. In 1909, Hōzan Chō was abolished, and Takow was merged into Tainan Chō. In 1920, during the tenure of 8th Governor-General Den Kenjirō, districts were abolished in favor of prefectures. Thus the city was administered as under Takao Prefecture. The Japanese developed Takao, especially the harbor that became the foundation of Kaohsiung to be a port city. Takao was then systematically modernized and connected to the end of North-South Railway. Forming a north-south regional economic corridor from Taipei to Kaohsiung in the 1930s, Japan's Southward Policy set Kaohsiung to become an industrial center. Kaohsiung Harbor was also developed starting from 1894. The city center was relocated several times during the period due to the government's development strategy. Development was initially centered on \"Ki-au\" () region but the government began laying railways, upgrading the harbor, and passing new urban plans. New industries such as refinery, machinery, shipbuilding and cementing were also introduced. Before and during World War II it handled a growing share of Taiwan's agricultural exports to Japan, and was also a major base for Japan's campaigns in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. Extremely ambitious plans for the construction of a massive modern port were drawn up. Toward the end of the war, the Japanese promoted some industrial development at Kaohsiung, establishing an aluminum industry based on the abundant hydroelectric power produced by the Sun Moon Lake project in the mountains. The city was heavily bombed by Task Force 38 and FEAF during World War II between 1944 and 1945.", "After control of Taiwan was handed over from Japan to the government of the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Kaohsiung City and Kaohsiung County were established as a provincial city and a county of Taiwan Province respectively on 25 December 1945. The official romanization of the name came to be \"Kaohsiung\", based on the Wade–Giles romanization of the Mandarin reading of the kanji name. Kaohsiung City then consisted of 10 districts, which were Gushan, Lianya (renamed \"Lingya\" in 1952), Nanzi, Cianjin, Cianjhen, Cijin, Sanmin, Sinsing, Yancheng, and Zuoying. During this time, Kaohsiung developed rapidly. The port, badly damaged in World War II, was restored. It also became a fishing port for boats sailing to Philippine and Indonesian waters. Largely because of its climate, Kaohsiung overtook Keelung as Taiwan's major port. Kaohsiung also surpassed Tainan to become the second largest city of Taiwan in the late 1970s and Kaohsiung City was upgraded from a provincial city to special municipality on 1 July 1979, by the Executive Yuan with a total of 11 districts. The additional district is Siaogang District, which was annexed from Siaogang Township of Kaohsiung County. The Kaohsiung Incident, where the government suppressed a commemoration of International Human Rights Day, occurred on 10 December 1979. Since then, Kaohsiung gradually grew into a political center of the Pan-Green population of Taiwan, in opposition to Taipei where the majority population is Kuomintang supporters. On 25 December 2010, Kaohsiung City merged with Kaohsiung County to form a larger special municipality with administrative centers in Lingya District and Fengshan District. On 31 July 2014, a series of gas explosions occurred in the Cianjhen and Lingya Districts of the city, killing 31 and injuring more than 300. Five roads were destroyed in an area of nearly near the city center. It was the largest gas explosion in Taiwan's modern history.", "The city sits on the southwestern coast of Taiwan facing the Taiwan Strait, bordering Tainan City to the north, Chiayi and Nantou County to the northwest, Taitung County to its northeast and Pingtung County to the south and southeast. The downtown areas are centered on Kaohsiung Harbor with Cijin Island on the other side of the harbor acting as a natural breakwater. The Love River (Ai River) flows into the harbor through the Old City and downtown. Zuoying Military Harbor lies to the north of Kaohsiung Harbor and the city center. Kaohsiung's natural landmarks include Ape Hill and Mount Banping.", "Located about a degree south of the Tropic of Cancer, Kaohsiung has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen \"Aw\"), with monthly mean temperatures between and relative humidity ranging between 71 and 81%. Kaohsiung's warm climate is very much dictated by its low latitude and its exposure to warm sea temperatures year-round, with the Kuroshio Current passing by the coast of southern Taiwan, and the Central Mountain Range on the northeast blocking out the cool northeastern winds during the winter. The city, therefore, has a noticeably warmer climate than nearby cities located at similar latitudes such as Hong Kong, Guangzhou as well as various cities further south in northern Vietnam, such as Hanoi. Although the climate is classified as tropical, Kaohsiung has a defined cooler season unlike most other cities in Asia classified with this climate but located closer to the equator such as Singapore or Manila. Daily maximum temperature typically exceeds during the warmer season (April to November) and during the cooler season (December to March), with the exception when cold fronts strikes during the winter months, when the daily mean temperature of the city can drop between 10~12 °C depending on the strength of the cold front. Also, besides the high temperatures occurring during the usual summer months, daytime temperatures of inland districts of the city can often exceed above from mid-March to late April before the onset of the monsoon season, with clear skies and southwesterly airflows. Average annual rainfall is around, focused primarily from June to August. At more than 2,210 hours of bright sunshine, the city is one of the sunniest areas in Taiwan. The sea temperature of Kaohsiung Harbor remains above year-round, the second highest of Southern Taiwan after Liuqiu island. According to recent records, the average temperature of the city has risen around 1 degree Celsius over the past 3 decades, from about in 1983 to around by 2012.", "As of December 2018, Kaohsiung city has a population of 2,773,533 people, making it the third-largest city after New Taipei and Taichung, and a population density of 939.59 people per square kilometer. Within the city, Fongshan District is the most populated district with a population of 359,519 people, while Xinxing District is the most densely populated district with a population density of 25,820 people per square kilometer.", "", "As in most Taiwanese cities or counties, the majority of the population are Han Chinese. The Hans are then divided into 3 subgroups, Hoklo, Hakka, and Waishengren. The Hoklo and Waishengren mostly live in flatland townships and the city centre, while the majority of the Hakka population live in the suburbs or rural townships of the northeastern hills.", "The indigenous peoples of Kaohsiung, who belong to various ethnic groups that speak languages belonging to the Austronesian language family, live mostly in the mountain townships such as Taoyuan or Namasia. The main indigenous groups in the city include the Bunun, Rukai, Saaroa and the Kanakanavu.", "As of December 2010, Kaohsiung city hosts around 21,000 foreign spouses. Around 12,353 are People's Republican Chinese, 4,244 are Vietnamese, around 800 Japanese and Indonesians and around 4,000 other Asians or foreigners from Europe or the Americas. As of April 2013, Kaohsiung hosts 35,074 foreign workers who mainly work as factory workers or foreign maids (not including foreign specialists such as teachers and other professionals). Within around half of which are Indonesians, and the other half being workers from other Southeast Asian countries mainly from Vietnam, the Philippines or Thailand.", "Kaohsiung is a major international port and industrial city in the southwest of Taiwan. As an exporting center, Kaohsiung serves the agricultural interior of southern Taiwan, as well as the mountains of the southeast. Major raw material exports include rice, sugar, bananas, pineapples, peanuts (groundnuts) and citrus fruits. The Linhai Industrial Park, on the waterfront, was completed in the mid-1970s and includes a steel mill, shipyard, petrochemical complex, and other industries. The city has an oil refinery, aluminum and cement works, fertilizer factories, sugar refineries, brick and tile works, canning factories, salt-manufacturing factories, and papermaking plants. Designated an export-processing zone in the late 1970s, Kaohsiung also attracted foreign investment to process locally purchased raw materials for export. The ongoing Nansing Project is a plan to reclaim of land along the coast by 2011. The Kaohsiung Harbor Bureau plans to buy 49 hectares of the reclaimed land to establish a solar energy industrial district that would be in the harbor's free trade zone. The gross domestic product (GDP) in nominal terms of Kaohsiung City is estimated to be around US$45 billion, and US$90 billion for the metropolitan region., the GDP per capita in nominal terms was approximately US$24,000. Despite early success and heavy governmental investment, the city suffers from the economic north–south divide in Taiwan, which continues to be the centre of political debate. There has been public aims to shift the local economy towards tourism and cultural industries, with projects such as Pier-2 Art Center, National Kaohsiung Center for the Arts and Kaohsiung Music Center.", "The main agricultural produce in Kaohsiung are vegetables, fruits and rice with a total arable land of 473 km, which accounts to 16% of the total area of the municipality. Kaohsiung has the highest production of guava, jujube and lychee in Taiwan. The main animal husbandry are chicken, dairy cattle, deer, duck, goose, pigs and sheep. The total annual agricultural outcome in Kaohsiung is NT$24.15 billion.", "", "Main landmarks of Kaohsiung city include the 85 Sky Tower, the ferris wheel of the Kaohsiung Dream Mall, the Kaohsiung Arena and Kaohsiung Harbor. The newly developed city is also known for having a large number of shopping streets, organized night markets and newly developed leisure parks such as the Pier-2 Art Center, E-DA Theme Park, Metropolitan Park, the Kaohsiung Museum of Fine Arts and Taroko Park. Natural attractions of the city include Shoushan (Monkey mountain), the Love River, Cijin Island, Sizihwan, the Dapingding Tropical Botanical Garden and Yushan National Park at the northeastern tip of the city. The city also features various historical attractions such as the Old City of Zuoying, a historical town built during the early 17th century, the Former British Consulate at Takao built during the late 19th century, and various sugar and crop factories built during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan.", "Kaohsiung city includes a wide range of different natural attractions due to its large size and geographical variation, as it is bordered by the Central Mountain Range in the northeast and the warm South China Sea to the west and southwest. The year-round warm climate allows coral reefs to grow along the coasts around Kaohsiung Harbor, with Shoushan Mountain being a small mountain completely made up of coral reefs and calcium carbonate, while the mountainous districts in the northeast include Taiwan's highest mountain, Yushan. Other notable natural attractions include the Mount Banping, Lotus Lake, and Dongsha Atoll National Park, which is currently inaccessible by the public due to military occupation.", "A large number of historical sites and monuments were left in the city after the colonization of the Dutch in the 17th century, the Qing dynasty during the 18th and 19th century and the Japanese empire from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century. The city government has protected various sites and monuments from further damage and many have been opened to the public since the early 1980s. Notable historical sites include the Cemetery of Zhenghaijun, Fengshan Longshan Temple, Former British Consulate at Takao, Former Dinglinzihbian Police Station, Meinong Cultural and Creative Center, Former Sanhe Bank, and the Cihou Lighthouse, one of the oldest lighthouses of the city.", "Kaohsiung is home to many museums, including the Chung Li-he Museum, Cijin Shell Museum, Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum, Jiasian Petrified Fossil Museum, Kaohsiung Astronomical Museum, Kaohsiung Hakka Cultural Museum, Kaohsiung Harbor Museum, Kaohsiung Museum of Fine Arts, Kaohsiung Museum of History, Kaohsiung Museum of Labor, Kaohsiung Vision Museum, Meinong Hakka Culture Museum, National Science and Technology Museum, Republic of China Air Force Museum, Soya-Mixed Meat Museum, Taiwan Sugar Museum, Takao Railway Museum and YM Museum of Marine Exploration Kaohsiung.", "As the largest municipality in Taiwan, Kaohsiung has a number of newly built leisure areas and parks. Notable parks or pavilions in the city include the Central Park, Siaogangshan Skywalk Park, Fo Guang Shan Monastery, the Dragon and Tiger Pagodas, Spring and Autumn Pavilions, the Love Pier, Singuang Ferry Wharf and Kaohsiung Fisherman's Wharf. Notable zoo in the city includes the Kaohsiung City Shousan Zoo.", "Kaohsiung is home to many night markets, such as Jin-Zuan Night Market, Liuhe Night Market Ruifeng Night Market and Zhonghua Street Night Market, and the Kaisyuan Night Market. Other attractions include the Chi Jin Mazu Temple, Dome of Light of Kaohsiung MRT's Formosa Boulevard Station, the Kaohsiung Mosque and the Tower of Light of Sanmin District. Traditional \"wet\" markets have long been the source of meat, fish, and produce for many residents. With the arrival of western-style supermarkets in the 1980s and 1990s, such markets have encountered fierce competition. In 1989, the global leader in hypermarkets, Carrefour, entered Asia, opening its first store in Kaohsiung. Due to the success of its Taiwan operation, the French retailer expanded throughout the country and Asia. Jean-Luc Chéreau, the general manager in Taiwan from 1993 to 1999, used this newfound understanding of Chinese culture and ways of doing business with Chinese customers to lead its China expansion starting in 1999. As of February 2020, Carrefour has opened 137 hypermarkets and supermarkets in Taiwan. Despite the fierce competition from \"westernized\" supermarkets, Taiwan's traditional markets and mom-and-pop stores remain \"one of the most popular retail formats for many Asian families when they purchase daily food items and basic household goods.\"", "The majority of those living in Kaohsiung can communicate in both Taiwanese Hokkien and Standard Chinese. Some of the elderly who grew up during the Japanese colonization of Taiwan can communicate in Japanese, while most of the younger population has basic English skills. Since the spread of Standard Chinese after the Nationalist Government retreated to Taiwan in 1949, Hakka Chinese and various Formosan languages are gradually no longer spoken with the new generation and many Formosan languages are therefore classified as moribund or endangered languages by the United Nations. Nowadays, only elder Hakka people mostly living in Meinong, Liouguei, Shanlin and Jiasian districts can communicate in Hakka and elder Taiwanese aborigines living mostly in the rural districts of Namasia and Taoyuan can communicate with the aboriginal languages. The Taiwanese government has established special affairs committees for both the Aboriginals and the Hakkas to protect their language, culture, and minority rights.", "Kaohsiung has rich resources of ocean, mountains and forests which shape a unique and active multi-faceted art and cultural aesthetic in public infrastructure and transport, public art, and city architecture, from MRT stations and city space to art galleries. The \"Dome light\" in the concourse of Formosa Boulevard Station of Kaohsiung MRT is one of the world's largest public glass works of art. The city also has the Urban Spotlight Arcade spanning along the street in Cianjin District. In October 2018, Weiwuying (the National Kaohsiung Centre for the Arts), designed by Mecanoo, opened.", "The religious population of Kaohsiung is mainly divided into five main religious groups: Buddhist, Taoist, Muslim and Christian (Catholicism and Protestantism)., Kaohsiung City has 1,481 temples, the second highest in Taiwan after Tainan. Kaohsiung has also 306 churches.", "Buddhism is one of the major religions in Taiwan, with over 35% of Taiwan's population identifying as Buddhist. The same applies to Kaohsiung city. Kaohsiung also hosts the largest Buddhist temple in Taiwan, the Fo Guang Shan Monastery with its Fo Guang Shan Buddha Museum. There are also other Buddhist temples such as Fengshan Longshan Temple and Hong Fa Temple.", "Around 33% of the Taiwanese population are Taoists, making it the second largest religion of Taiwan. Most people who believe in Taoism also ascribe to Buddhism at the same time, as the differences and boundaries between the two religions are not always clear. Many residents of the area also worship the sea goddess known as Tian Shang Sheng Mu () or Mazu, who is variously syncretized as a Taoist immortal or embodiment of the bodhisattva Guanyin. Her temple on Cijin Island, Chi Jin Mazu Temple, is the oldest in the city, with its original bamboo-and-thatch structure first opened in 1673. The area surrounding it formed the center of the city's early settlement. There are also other prominent Taoist temples such as Fengshan Tiangong Temple, dedicated to the Jade Emperor, Cih Ji Palace, dedicated to Bao Sheng Da Di, Qing Shui Temple, dedicated to Qing Shui Zu Shi and Gushan Daitian Temple dedicated to Wang Ye worship.", "Christianity is a growing religion in Taiwan. It was first brought onto the island when the Dutch and Spanish colonized Taiwan during the 17th century, mostly to the aboriginals. Kaohsiung currently hosts around 56,000 Christians.", "Besides the majority population of Buddhists and Taoists, Kaohsiung also includes a rather small population of Muslims. During the Chinese Civil War, some 20,000 Muslims, mostly soldiers and civil servants, fled mainland China with the Kuomintang to Taiwan. During the 1980s, another few thousand Muslims from Myanmar and Thailand, whom are mostly descendants of Nationalist soldiers who fled Yunnan as a result of the communist takeover, migrated to Taiwan in search of a better life, resulting in an increase of Muslim population within the country. More recently, with the rise of Indonesian workers working in Taiwan, an estimated number of 88,000 Indonesian Muslims currently live in the country, in addition to the existing 53,000 Taiwanese Muslims. Combining all demographics, Taiwan hosts around 140,000 Muslims, with around 25,000 living in Kaohsiung. Kaohsiung Mosque is the largest mosque in Kaohsiung and the main gathering site of Muslims within the city.", "", "Sometimes Kaohsiung used to be seen as the political opposite Taipei. While northern Taiwan leans towards the Pan-Blue Coalition in the state-level elections, southern Taiwan, including Kaohsiung, leaned towards the Pan-Green Coalition since the late 1990s. Frank Hsieh of the Democratic Progressive Party was reelected twice as Mayor of Kaohsiung, where he was widely credited for transforming the city from an industrial sprawl into an attractive modern metropolis. Hsieh resigned from the office of mayor to take up the office of Premier of the Republic of China in 2005. The municipal election, held on 9 December 2006, resulted in a victory for the Democratic Progressive Party's candidate Chen Chu, the first elected female mayor of special municipality in Taiwan, defeating her Kuomintang rival and former deputy mayor, Huang Chun-ying. The current mayor of Kaohsiung City is Yang Ming-jou.", "Kaohsiung is divided into 38 districts, three of which are mountain indigenous districts. There are a total of 651 villages in which each village is subdivided into neighborhoods (鄰). There are 18,584 neighborhoods in Kaohsiung City. Lingya and Fengsha districts are the administrative centers of the city while Lingya and Xinxing Districts are the two most densely populated districts of the city. Kaohsiung has the most numbers of districts among other special municipalities in Taiwan.", "", "A major port, through which pass most of Taiwan's marine imports and exports, is located in the city but is not managed by the city government. Also known as the \"Harbour Capital\" of Taiwan, Kaohsiung has always had a strong link with the ocean and maritime transportation. Ferries play a key role in everyday transportation, especially for transportation across the harbor. With five terminals and 23 berths, the \"Port of Kaohsiung\" is Taiwan's largest container port and the 13th largest in the world. In 2007 the port reached its handling capacity with a record trade volume of. A new container terminal is under construction, increasing future handling capacity by by 2013. The Port of Kaohsiung is not officially a part of Kaohsiung City, instead, it is administrated by Kaohsiung Port Authority, under the Ministry of Transportation. There is a push for Kaohsiung City to annex the Port of Kaohsiung to facilitate better regional planning. Kaohsiung is one of the biggest ports in the world for importing shark fins, sold at high prices in the restaurants and shops of Taiwan and China. They are brought in from overseas and are placed out to dry in the sun on residential rooftops near the port.", "Kaohsiung City is also home to Taiwan's second largest international airport, the Kaohsiung International Airport, located in Siaogang District near the city's center. It one of the three major international airports of Taiwan, serving passengers of the entire southern and southeastern part of the country. However, the size of the airport is relatively small with short runways compared to other major airports of Taiwan due to its age and its location near the city center, making it impossible for large aircraft such as the Airbus A380 to land at the airport. As a result, plans for runway expansion or building a new airport in replacement have been proposed.", "Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit opened for service in March 2008. The MRT is made up of two lines with 37 stations covering a distance of Notably, two of Kaohsiung's MRT stations, Formosa Boulevard Station and Central Park Station, were ranked among the top 50 most beautiful subway systems in the world by Metrobits.org in 2011. In 2012, the two stations respectively are ranked as the 2nd and the 4th among the top 15 most beautiful subway stops in the world by BootsnAll.", "The Circular Light Rail Line (also known as the Kaohsiung LRT, Kaohsiung Tram) for Kaohsiung City is a planned light rail line. Construction of Phase 1, known as the Waterside Light Rail began in June 2013 and is in full operation since September 2017. To combat air pollution, usage of the light rail, was well as buses, was made free of charge for electronic ticket holders from December to February, when air pollution is at its peak.", "The city is served by the Taiwan Railways Administration's Western Line and Pingtung Line. Kaohsiung Main Station is an underground station, replacing the old ground level station. Taiwan High Speed Rail also serves Kaohsiung City at Zuoying Station in northern Kaohsiung City.", "Kaohsiung is home to Taiwan's largest stadium, the National Stadium, and Kaohsiung Arena. National Stadium is Taiwan's largest international-class stadium with a maximum capacity of 55,000 seats. Kaohsiung hosted the 2009 World Games at the National Stadium. Nearly 6,000 athletes, officials, coaches, referees and others from 103 countries participated in the 2009 Kaohsiung World Games. Kaohsiung was also home to the Kaohsiung Truth of the ASEAN Basketball League. They were the first team in the history of the league that was based outside Southeast Asia. The team folded in 2017.", "Kaohsiung has a number of colleges and junior colleges offering training in commerce, education, maritime technology, medicine, modern languages, nursing, and technology, as well as various international schools and eight national military schools, including the three major military academies of the country, the Republic of China Military Academy, Republic of China Naval Academy and Republic of China Air Force Academy. Universities High Schools and Junior High Schools International Schools Military Schools", "The Kaohsiung Exhibition Center, built by the Kaohsiung City Government, was opened on 14 April 2014. It includes an exhibition space for 1,500 booths, and a convention hall for 2,000 pax. The center hosted the Taiwan International Boat Show in May 2014. Another conference and event-related venue is the newly renovated International Convention Center Kaohsiung in 2013.", "Kaohsiung is twinned with the following locations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Crystallography.", "French Revolution.", "Recognition.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "René-Just Haüy was born at Saint-Just-en-Chaussée on February 28, 1743, in the province of Île-de-France (later the \"département\" of Oise). His parents were Just Haüy, a poor linen-weaver, and his wife Magdeleine Candelot. Haüy's interest in the services and music of the local church brought him to the attention of the prior of a nearby abbey of Premonstrants. Through him, Haüy was introduced to a colleague in Paris and obtained a scholarship to the College of Navarre. Haüy eventually became an usher, and in 1764, was appointed regent (master) of the fourth class. Haüy also progressed in his religious training. He was tonsured in 1762, took minor orders in 1765, was appointed a subdeacon in 1767, became a deacon in 1769, and was ordained as a Roman Catholic priest in 1770. After his ordination, Haüy became regent (teacher) of the second class at the Collège du Cardinal-Lemoine. Through his friendship with his spiritual director, Abbé Lhomond, Haüy became interested first in botany, and after hearing a lecture by Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton, in mineralogy. His brother Valentin Haüy was the founder of the first school for the blind, the Institution des Jeunes Aveugles (Institute for Blind Youth) in Paris.", "An accident apparently directed René-Just Haüy's attention to what became a new field in natural history, crystallography. Haüy was examining a broken specimen of calcareous spar in the collection of Jacques de France de Croisset. (According to some accounts, Haüy dropped the specimen and caused it to break.) He became intrigued by the perfectly smooth plane of the fracture. Studying the fragments inspired Haüy to make further experiments in crystal cutting. Breaking down crystals to the smallest pieces possible, Haüy concluded that each type of crystal has a fundamental primitive, nucleus or “integrant molecule” of a particular shape, that could not be broken further without destroying both the physical and chemical nature of the crystal. He further argued that crystal structures are made up of orderly arrangements of these integrant molecules in successive layers, according to geometrical laws of crystallization. Crystals that had been classed together previously were identified as being of separate mineral species if their fundamental structure differed. Heavyspar, for example, was differentiated into specimens containing barium and strontium. The value of Haüy's discovery was immediately recognized. Haüy and his contemporaries worked with limited evidence. They could observe a crystal's habit and cleavage planes and measure interfacial angles with an instrument called a goniometer. The internal structure underlying the crystal's integrant molecule would not be determinable until the development of X-Ray diffraction technology many years later, in 1902. Haüy was not the only researcher to observe that calcite crystals could be composed of smaller rhombohedra, but it was he who introduced the idea of triple periodicity in crystals. This idea was fundamental to later developments in the field on crystal lattices. Between 1784 and 1822, Haüy published more than 100 reports discussing his theories and their application to the structure of crystalline substances. Haüy first stated his laws of decrement in \"Essai d'une théorie sur la structure des crystaux\" (1784). It was a radical departure from his previous works, introducing his theory of \"molé constituantes\" or constituent molecules. By 1792, he had identified a number of parallelepipeds as possible primitive crystal forms. Haüy worked out the mathematical theory of his work in his \"Traité de minéralogie\" (1801), which became a classic in the field. By then, Haüy had applied his ideas to the differentiation of different species. He systematically described all the known minerals, sorting them into classes, and giving their chemical and geometrical properties. His work, in four volumes, including an atlas of plates, was accounted among the most wonderful of the 19th century. It has been described as \"a work of comprehensive insight, and much of it, written with literary fluency\". A second updated edition appeared as \"Traité de cristallographie\" in 1822. Haüy created comprehensive collections containing hundreds of pear-wood models of crystal models for education and demonstrations. One such set was acquired by Martin van Marum, curator of the Teylers Museum and a director of the Hollandsche Maatschappij der Wetenschappen. Haüy is also known for his observations on pyroelectricity. He detected pyroelectricity in calamine, an oxide of zinc, as early as 1785. He studied pyroelectricity in a number of other minerals including tourmaline and related them to crystalline structure. He showed that electricity in tourmaline was strongest at the poles of the crystal and became imperceptible at the middle. Haüy published a book on electricity and magnetism, \"Exposition raisonné de la théorie de l'électricité et du magnétisme, d'après les principes d'Æpinus\", in 1787. On February 12, 1783, Haüy was elected to the Académie royale des sciences de Paris (French Academy of Sciences) with the rank of an adjoint in botany, there being no vacancy in either physics or mineralogy. In 1788, he became as an associate in natural history and mineralogy.", "During the French Revolution, Haüy refused to take an oath accepting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, and became a non-juring priest. He was thrown into prison after the monarchy was overthrown on August 10, 1792. Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire interceded on his behalf. Haüy was released just a few days before the September Massacres of September 2–7, 1792 in which many of the clergy were killed. On August 8, 1793, in spite of the efforts of Antoine Lavoisier, the Académie royale des sciences de Paris was dissolved by the National Convention. It was not restored until August 22, 1795, when it became known as the Institut National des Sciences et des Arts (National Institute of Sciences and Arts). Before its suppression, the Academy of Sciences had formed a working group to develop a uniform system of weights and measures for use throughout France. Lavoisier was a major proponent, and on March 30, 1791, he submitted a plan on behalf of the Commission on Weights and Measures, which was adopted by the Constituent Assembly. Lavoisier and Haüy were tasked with determining the density of water. As of January 4, 1793, they determined the weight of a cubic decimeter of distilled water at the temperature of melting ice, the kilogram. On August 1, 1793, the National Convention passed a decree, in favor of developing uniform weights and measures across France. On September 11, 1793, they established a Temporary Commission of Weights and Measures made up of twelve scientists, including Haüy, whose task was to carry out the decree. The work of the commission was disrupted by political events. In November 1793, Lavoisier and several others were arrested and removed from the Commission. On May 8, 1794 Lavoisier was guillotined. Nonetheless, Haüy remained secretary of the Commission through this turmoil. The law of 18 Germinal an III was enacted on April 7, 1795, formally establishing the metric system in France. On July 12, 1794, a public decree reorganized the École des Mines (School of Mines) in Paris and specified the establishment of a Cabinet of Mineralogy, a collection of all Earth materials. In October 1794, René Just Haüy was appointed the first curator of the Cabinet of Mineralogy, later known as the Musée de Minéralogie. He may therefore be considered a founder of the Musée de Minéralogie. On November 9, 1794, Haüy also became a professor of physics at the École normale supérieure. In 1802, Haüy became a professor of mineralogy at the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (National Museum of Natural History). Haüy's work was appreciated by Napoleon, who made Haüy an Honorary Canon of the Eglise Métropolitain de Paris (Notre Dame) on April 5, 1802. On November 28, 1803, Haüy became one of the first recipients of the Order of the Légion d'Honneur. Napoleon encouraged Haüy to write \"Traité élémentaire de physique\" (1803), and is reported to have read it during his incarceration on Elba in 1814. During his brief return to power in 1815, Napoleon promoted Haüy to officer of the Légion d'Honneur. After 1814 Haüy was deprived of his appointments by the Restoration government. He spent his final days in poverty, dying in Paris on June 3, 1822.", "In 1817, René-Just Haüy was elected an honorary member of the New York Academy of Sciences. In 1821, Haüy was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His name is the thirteenth inscribed on the south-east side of the Eiffel Tower. The mineral Haüyne was named for Haüy in 1807 by Thomas-Christophe Bruun-Neergaard. It occurs in silica-deficient igneous rocks in a wide variety of locations.", "The following are Haüy's principal works: He also contributed papers, of which 100 are enumerated in the Royal Society's catalogue, to various scientific journals, especially the \"Journal de physique\" and the \"Annales du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Examples.", "Spheres.", "Cones and pyramids.", "The napkin ring problem.", "Cycloids." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Cavalieri's principle was originally called the method of indivisibles, the name it was known by in Renaissance Europe. Cavalieri developed a complete theory of indivisibles, elaborated in his \"Geometria indivisibilibus continuorum nova quadam ratione promota\" (\"Geometry, advanced in a new way by the indivisibles of the continua\", 1635) and his \"Exercitationes geometricae sex\" (\"Six geometrical exercises\", 1647). While Cavalieri's work established the principle, in his publications he denied that the continuum was composed of indivisibles in an effort to avoid the associated paradoxes and religious controversies, and he did not use it to find previously unknown results. In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes, using a method resembling Cavalieri's principle, was able to find the volume of a sphere given the volumes of a cone and cylinder in his work \"The Method of Mechanical Theorems\". In the 5th century AD, Zu Chongzhi and his son Zu Gengzhi established a similar method to find a sphere's volume. The transition from Cavalieri's indivisibles to Evangelista Torricelli's and John Wallis's infinitesimals was a major advance in the history of the calculus. The indivisibles were entities of codimension 1, so that a plane figure was thought as made out of an infinity of 1-dimensional lines. Meanwhile, infinitesimals were entities of the same dimension as the figure they make up; thus, a plane figure would be made out of \"parallelograms\" of infinitesimal width. Applying the formula for the sum of an arithmetic progression, Wallis computed the area of a triangle by partitioning it into infinitesimal parallelograms of width 1/∞.", "", "If one knows that the volume of a cone is formula_1, then one can use Cavalieri's principle to derive the fact that the volume of a sphere is formula_2, where formula_3 is the radius. That is done as follows: Consider a sphere of radius formula_3 and a cylinder of radius formula_3 and height formula_3. Within the cylinder is the cone whose apex is at the center of one base of the cylinder and whose base is the other base of the cylinder. By the Pythagorean theorem, the plane located formula_7 units above the \"equator\" intersects the sphere in a circle of area formula_8. The area of the plane's intersection with the part of the cylinder that is \"outside\" of the cone is also formula_8. As we can see, the area of every intersection of the circle with the horizontal plane located at any height formula_7 equals the area of the intersection of the plane with the part of the cylinder that is \"outside\" of the cone; thus, applying Cavalieri's principle, we could say that the volume of the half sphere equals the volume of the part of the cylinder that is \"outside\" the cone. The aforementioned volume of the cone is formula_11 of the volume of the cylinder, thus the volume \"outside\" of the cone is formula_12 the volume of the cylinder. Therefore the volume of the upper half of the sphere is formula_12 of the volume of the cylinder. The volume of the cylinder is Therefore the volume of the upper half-sphere is formula_15 and that of the whole sphere is formula_16.", "The fact that the volume of any pyramid, regardless of the shape of the base, whether circular as in the case of a cone, or square as in the case of the Egyptian pyramids, or any other shape, is (1/3) × base × height, can be established by Cavalieri's principle if one knows only that it is true in one case. One may initially establish it in a single case by partitioning the interior of a triangular prism into three pyramidal components of equal volumes. One may show the equality of those three volumes by means of Cavalieri's principle. In fact, Cavalieri's principle or similar infinitesimal argument is \"necessary\" to compute the volume of cones and even pyramids, which is essentially the content of Hilbert's third problem – polyhedral pyramids and cones cannot be cut and rearranged into a standard shape, and instead must be compared by infinite (infinitesimal) means. The ancient Greeks used various precursor techniques such as Archimedes's mechanical arguments or method of exhaustion to compute these volumes.", "In what is called the napkin ring problem, one shows by Cavalieri's principle that when a hole is drilled straight through the centre of a sphere where the remaining band has height \"h\", the volume of the remaining material surprisingly does not depend on the size of the sphere. The cross-section of the remaining ring is a plane annulus, whose area is the difference between the areas of two circles. By the Pythagorean theorem, the area of one of the two circles is \"π\" times \"r\" − \"y\", where \"r\" is the sphere's radius and \"y\" is the distance from the plane of the equator to the cutting plane, and that of the other is \"π\" times \"r\" − (\"h\"/2). When these are subtracted, the \"r\" cancels; hence the lack of dependence of the bottom-line answer upon \"r\".", "N. Reed has shown how to find the area bounded by a cycloid by using Cavalieri's principle. A circle of radius \"r\" can roll in a clockwise direction upon a line below it, or in a counterclockwise direction upon a line above it. A point on the circle thereby traces out two cycloids. When the circle has rolled any particular distance, the angle through which it would have turned clockwise and that through which it would have turned counterclockwise are the same. The two points tracing the cycloids are therefore at equal heights. The line through them is therefore horizontal (i.e. parallel to the two lines on which the circle rolls). Consequently each horizontal cross-section of the circle has the same length as the corresponding horizontal cross-section of the region bounded by the two arcs of cyloids. By Cavalieri's principle, the circle therefore has the same area as that region. Consider the rectangle bounding a single cycloid arch. From the definition of a cycloid, it has width and height, so its area is four times the area of the circle. Calculate the area within this rectangle that lies above the cycloid arch by bisecting the rectangle at the midpoint where the arch meets the rectangle, rotate one piece by 180° and overlay the other half of the rectangle with it. The new rectangle, of area twice that of the circle, consists of the \"lens\" region between two cycloids, whose area was calculated above to be the same as that of the circle, and the two regions that formed the region above the cycloid arch in the original rectangle. Thus, the area bounded by a rectangle above a single complete arch of the cycloid has area equal to the area of the circle, and so, the area bounded by the arch is three times the area of the circle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Middle Ages.", "16th and 17th century.", "18th and 19th century.", "The Battle of Arnhem.", "Liberation.", "Geography.", "Neighbourhoods.", "Neighbouring villages.", "Proximity of border with Germany.", "Climate.", "Places of interest.", "Sport.", "Transport.", "Notable residents.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The oldest archeological findings of human activity around Arnhem are two firestones of about 70,000 years ago. These come from the Stone Age, when the Neanderthals lived in this part of Europe. In Schuytgraaf, remnants of a hunters camp from around 5000 BC have been discovered. In Schaarsbergen, twelve grave mounds were found from 2400 BC, which brought the so-called Neolithic Revolution to the area of Arnhem, which meant the rise of the farmers. The earliest settlement in Arnhem dates from 1500 BC, of which traces have been found on the Hoogkamp, where the Van Goyenstraat is currently located. In the inner city, around the Sint-Jansbeek, traces of settlement have been found from around 700 BC, while the first traces south of the Rhine have been found dating to around 500 BC, in the \"Schuytgraaf\". Though the early tracks of settlements did show that the early residents of Arnhem descended from the forests on the hills, Arnhem was not built on the banks of the river Rhine, but a little higher along the Sint-Jansbeek. Arnhem arose on the location where the road between Nijmegen and Utrecht and Zutphen split. Seven streams provided the city with water, and only when the flow of the Rhine was changed in 1530, was the city located on the river.", "Arnhem was first mentioned as such in 893 as \"Arneym\" or \"Arentheym\". In 1233, Count Otto II of Guelders from Zutphen, conferred city rights on the town, which had belonged to the abbey of Prüm, settled in, and fortified it. Arnhem entered the Hanseatic League in 1443. In 1473, it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy.", "In 1514, Charles of Egmond, duke of Guelders, took it from the dukes of Burgundy; in 1543, it fell to the emperor Charles V. As capital of the so-called \"Kwartier van Veluwe\" it joined the Union of Utrecht during the Eighty Years' War in 1579. After its capture from the Spanish forces by Dutch and English troops in 1585 the city became part of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands. The French occupied the town from 1672 to 1674.", "From 1795 to 1813, it was reoccupied by the French, by both revolutionary and imperial forces. In the early 19th century, the former fortifications were almost completely dismantled, to give space for town expansion. The \"Sabelspoort\" (Sabresgate) is the only remaining part of the medieval walls. In the 19th century, Arnhem was a genteel resort town famous for its picturesque beauty. It was known as \"het Haagje van het oosten\" (The Little Hague of the East), mainly because a number of rich former sugar barons or planters from the Indies settled there, as they did in The Hague. Even now the city is famous for its parks and greenery. The urbanization in the north on hilly terrain is also quite unusual for the Netherlands.", "In the Second World War (1939–1945), during Operation Market Garden (September 1944), the British 1st Airborne Division, under the command of Major-General Roy Urquhart, and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were given the task of securing the bridge at Arnhem. Glider infantry and paratrooper units were landed into the area on 17 September and later. The bulk of the force was dropped rather far from the bridge and never met their objective. A small element of the British 1st Airborne, the 2nd Parachute Battalion under Lieutenant Colonel John D. Frost, managed to make its way as far as the bridge but was unable to secure both sides. The British troops encountered stiff resistance from the German 9th and 10th SS Panzer Divisions, which had been stationed in and around the city. The British force at the bridge eventually ran out of ammunition and was captured on 21 September, and a full withdrawal of the remaining forces was made on 26 September. These events were dramatized in the 1977 movie \"A Bridge Too Far\". (The bridge scenes in the movie were shot in Deventer, where a similar bridge over the IJssel was available, as the area around Arnhem bridge had changed too much to represent WWII-era Arnhem). As a tribute, the rebuilt bridge was renamed 'John Frost Bridge' after the commander of the paratroopers. The official commemoration is 17 September. The current bridge is the third almost-identical bridge built at the same spot. The Dutch Army destroyed the first bridge when the German Army invaded the Netherlands in 1940. The second bridge was destroyed by the United States Army Air Forces shortly after the 1944 battle.", "A second battle of Arnhem took place in April 1945 when the city was liberated by the British 49th (West Riding) Infantry Division fighting as part of the First Canadian Army. Just outside Arnhem, in the town of Oosterbeek the Commonwealth War Graves Commission built the Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery which contains the graves of most of those killed during the September landings, and many of those killed in later fighting in the area. The city also hosted the 1980 Summer Paralympics.", "", "The municipality of Arnhem consists of the city of Arnhem and the following surrounding suburbs and former villages: Arnhem consists of three districts (\"stadsdelen\") and 24 neighbourhoods (\"wijken\"). Each neighbourhood has a number which corresponds to its postal code.", "The outlying areas of the following villages are bordering the municipality of Arnhem directly, which means among others that in many a case a considerable number of their inhabitants originate from Arnhem.", "The city lies a few kilometers from the border with Germany, and to some extent the westernmost villages in the municipality of Elten, Germany, function as dormitories for people who work in the Dutch city of Arnhem in part due to the immigration of Dutch people from the region that were attracted by the lower house pricing just across the border.", "Arnhem features the same climate (Cfb, oceanic climate) as all of the Netherlands, however, its location on the foothills of the Veluwe, the largest forest in the Netherlands, contributes to some higher precipitation values.", "The \"Grote Kerk\" (St. Eusebius' Church), built 1452–1560, lost most of its tower during World War II, of which a part has been reconstructed to a modern design and opened in 1964. Officially the tower is not part of the church and is owned by the municipality. The house of Maarten van Rossum, a general serving Duke Charles van Gelre, has been the town hall since 1830: The satyrs in its Renaissance ornamentation earned it the name \"Duivelshuis\" (devil's house). The Netherlands Open Air Museum is located outside the city. It includes antique houses, farms, factories, and windmills from different parts of the Netherlands. Two other windmills stand in Arnhem itself, De Hoop and De Kroon. The Royal Burgers' Zoo in Arnhem is one of the biggest and most-visited zoos in the Netherlands, featuring an underwater walkthrough, desert, mangrove, and rainforest. The GelreDome, the home of Vitesse Arnhem, the city's Eredivisie team in football, is a unique facility that features a retractable roof and a slide-out grass pitch. The concept has been fully duplicated since then by the Veltins-Arena in Gelsenkirchen, Germany, and State Farm Stadium in Glendale, Arizona, U.S., and partially by the Sapporo Dome in Japan (which has a sliding pitch but a fixed roof). The KEMA Toren (formerly known as \"SEP Control Tower\") is the highest structure of the town. It is a 140-m-high TV tower.", "The National Sports Centre Papendal is the national sports development centre of the Netherlands, located in Arnhem. The first event held at Papendal was the 1980 Summer Paralympics, from June 21 to July 5. However the site was formally adopted and developed from 1993, after the merger of the Dutch National Olympic Committee (NOC) and the Nederlandse Sport Federatie (NSF). NOC*NSF have 90 affiliated national sports organizations, representing about 2700 individual sports clubs. Papendal is also the training location of football club Vitesse Arnhem, and the club's youth development system. Supporting facilities include a conference centre and hotel. In preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics, in 2011 the facility built a replica of the proposed BMX racing track at the London Velopark venue. The track will host the second event on the 2011 UCI BMX World Championships, on the 27 and 28 May 2011. Since January 2013 Sports Centre Papendal officially split from NOC * NSF and thus as organization demerges. This split offers Sports Centre Papendal many commercial benefits. There are facilities for various sports, including athletics, cycling and more. Sport in the city is principally focussed on its association football club Vitesse Arnhem and its stadium the GelreDome built for the UEFA Euro 2000. The club has enjoyed some success in the Eredivisie and has featured in the UEFA Cup competition. Their best result in the Eredivisie was third place in 1997–98. The club won the KNVB Cup in 2016–17. Introdans is a dance company based in the city of Arnhem. In 2009 the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated Introdans part of the basic national infrastructure. In 2016 was the Giro d'Italia in Arnhem.", "Arnhem has had a main central railway station since 1845 – Arnhem Centraal railway station, which is serviced by several intercity lines and the Intercity-Express to Düsseldorf and further on to Frankfurt. Until 2016, there were also NS International trains to other destinations abroad, with some coaches going as far as Moscow. The intercity lines provide direct connections to Utrecht, Nijmegen and Zutphen. It is also the terminus for several local railway services. Arnhem has three other stations, namely Arnhem Velperpoort (since 1953), Arnhem Presikhaaf (since 1969) and Arnhem Zuid (since 2005). KLM Royal Dutch Airlines operates a bus from the train station to Schiphol Airport for KLM customers. Arnhem is unique in the Netherlands with its trolleybus system.", "Notable people born in Arnhem include:", "", "Arnhem is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Design.", "Cmdlets.", "Pipeline.", "Scripting.", "Hosting.", "Desired State Configuration.", "Versions.", "Windows PowerShell 1.0.", "Windows PowerShell 2.0.", "Windows PowerShell 3.0.", "Windows PowerShell 4.0.", "Windows PowerShell 5.0.", "Windows PowerShell 5.1.", "PowerShell Core 6.0.", "PowerShell Core 6.1.", "PowerShell Core 6.2.", "PowerShell 7.", "Comparison of cmdlets with similar commands.", "Alternative implementation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Every version of Microsoft Windows for personal computers has included a command line interpreter (CLI) for managing the operating system. Its predecessor, MS-DOS, relied exclusively on a CLI. These are codice_5 in MS-DOS and Windows 9x, and codice_6 in the Windows NT family of operating systems. Both support a few basic internal commands. For other purposes, a separate console application must be written. They also include a basic scripting language (batch files), which can be used to automate various tasks. However, they cannot be used to automate all facets of graphical user interface (GUI) functionality, in part because command-line equivalents of operations are limited, and the scripting language is elementary. In Windows Server 2003, the situation was improved, but scripting support was still unsatisfactory. Microsoft attempted to address some of these shortcomings by introducing the Windows Script Host in 1998 with Windows 98, and its command-line based host: codice_7. It integrates with the Active Script engine and allows scripts to be written in compatible languages, such as JScript and VBScript, leveraging the APIs exposed by applications via the component object model (COM). However, it has its own deficiencies: its documentation is not very accessible, and it quickly gained a reputation as a system vulnerability vector after several high-profile computer viruses exploited weaknesses in its security provisions. Different versions of Windows provided various special-purpose command line interpreters (such as netsh and WMIC) with their own command sets but they were not interoperable. In an interview published 2017 September 13, Jeffrey Snover explained the motivation for the project: I'd been driving a bunch of managing changes, and then I originally took the UNIX tools and made them available on Windows, and then it just didn't work. Right? Because there's a core architectural difference between Windows and Linux. On Linux, everything's an ASCII text file, so anything that can manipulate that is a managing tool. AWK, grep, sed? Happy days! I brought those tools available on Windows, and then they didn't help manage Windows because in Windows, everything's an API that returns structured data. So, that didn't help. [...] I came up with this idea of PowerShell, and I said, \"Hey, we can do this better.\" By 2002, Microsoft had started to develop a new approach to command line management, including a CLI called Monad (also known as Microsoft Shell or MSH). The ideas behind it were published in August 2002 in a white paper titled Monad Manifesto. Monad was to be a new extensible CLI with a fresh design that would be capable of automating a full range of core administrative tasks. Microsoft first showed off Monad at the Professional Development Conference in Los Angeles in October 2003. A private beta program began a few months later which eventually led to a public beta program. Microsoft published the first Monad public beta release on June 17, 2005, Beta 2 on September 11, 2005, and Beta 3 on January 10, 2006. Not much later, on April 25, 2006 Microsoft formally announced that Monad had been renamed \"Windows PowerShell\", positioning it as a significant part of their management technology offerings. Release Candidate 1 of PowerShell was released at the same time. A significant aspect of both the name change and the RC was that this was now a component of Windows, and not an add-on product. Release Candidate 2 of PowerShell version 1 was released on September 26, 2006 with final Release to the web (RTW) on November 14, 2006 and announced at TechEd Barcelona. PowerShell for earlier versions of Windows was released on January 30, 2007. PowerShell v2.0 development began before PowerShell v1.0 shipped. During the development, Microsoft shipped three community technology previews (CTP). Microsoft made these releases available to the public. The last CTP release of Windows PowerShell v2.0 was made available in December 2008. PowerShell v2.0 was completed and released to manufacturing in August 2009, as an integral part of Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2. Versions of PowerShell for Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 were released in October 2009 and are available for download for both 32-bit and 64-bit platforms. Windows 10 shipped a testing framework for PowerShell. On 18 August 2016, Microsoft announced that they had made PowerShell open-source and cross-platform with support for Windows, macOS, CentOS and Ubuntu. The source code was published on GitHub. The move to open source created a second incarnation of PowerShell called \"PowerShell Core\", which runs on.NET Core. It is distinct from \"Windows PowerShell\", which runs on the full.NET Framework. Starting with version 5.1, PowerShell Core is bundled with Windows Server 2016 Nano Server.", "PowerShell's developers based the core grammar of the tool on that of the POSIX 1003.2 Korn shell. Windows PowerShell can execute four kinds of named commands: If a command is a standalone executable program, PowerShell launches it in a separate process; if it is a cmdlet, it executes in the PowerShell process. PowerShell provides an interactive command-line interface, wherein the commands can be entered and their output displayed. The user interface offers customizable tab completion. PowerShell enables the creation of \"aliases\" for cmdlets, which PowerShell textually translates into invocations of the original commands. PowerShell supports both named and positional parameters for commands. In executing a cmdlet, the job of binding the argument value to the parameter is done by PowerShell itself, but for external executables, arguments are parsed by the external executable independently of PowerShell interpretation. The PowerShell \"Extended Type System\" (\"ETS\") is based on the.NET type system, but with extended semantics (for example, propertySets and third-party extensibility). For example, it enables the creation of different views of objects by exposing only a subset of the data fields, properties, and methods, as well as specifying custom formatting and sorting behavior. These views are mapped to the original object using XML-based configuration files.", "Cmdlets are specialized commands in the PowerShell environment that implement specific functions. These are the native commands in the PowerShell stack. Cmdlets follow a \"Verb\"-\"Noun\" naming pattern, such as \"Get-ChildItem\", helping to make them self-descriptive. Cmdlets output their results as objects and can also receive objects as input, making them suitable for use as recipients in a pipeline. If a cmdlet outputs multiple objects, each object in the collection is passed down through the entire pipeline before the next object is processed. Cmdlets are specialized.NET classes, which the PowerShell runtime instantiates and invokes at run-time. Cmdlets derive either from codice_9 or from codice_10, the latter being used when the cmdlet needs to interact with the PowerShell runtime. These base classes specify certain methods – codice_11, codice_12 and codice_13 – which the cmdlet's implementation overrides to provide the functionality. Whenever a cmdlet runs, PowerShell invokes these methods in sequence, with codice_12 being called if it receives pipeline input. If a collection of objects is piped, the method is invoked for each object in the collection. The class implementing the cmdlet must have one.NET attribute – codice_15 – which specifies the verb and the noun that make up the name of the cmdlet. Common verbs are provided as an enum. If a cmdlet receives either pipeline input or command-line parameter input, there must be a corresponding property in the class, with a mutator implementation. PowerShell invokes the mutator with the parameter value or pipeline input, which is saved by the mutator implementation in class variables. These values are then referred to by the methods which implement the functionality. Properties that map to command-line parameters are marked by codice_16 and are set before the call to codice_11. Those which map to pipeline input are also flanked by codice_16, but with the codice_19 attribute parameter set. The implementation of these cmdlet classes can refer to any.NET API and may be in any.NET language. In addition, PowerShell makes certain APIs available, such as codice_20, which is used to access PowerShell-specific functionality, such as writing resultant objects to the pipeline. Cmdlets can use.NET data access APIs directly or use the PowerShell infrastructure of PowerShell \"Providers\", which make data stores addressable using unique paths. Data stores are exposed using drive letters, and hierarchies within them, addressed as directories. Windows PowerShell ships with providers for the file system, registry, the certificate store, as well as the namespaces for command aliases, variables, and functions. Windows PowerShell also includes various cmdlets for managing various Windows systems, including the file system, or using Windows Management Instrumentation to control Windows components. Other applications can register cmdlets with PowerShell, thus allowing it to manage them, and, if they enclose any datastore (such as databases), they can add specific providers as well. PowerShell V2 added a more portable version of cmdlets called Modules. The PowerShell V2 release notes state: The number of cmdlets has generally increased with each version:", "PowerShell implements the concept of a \"pipeline\", which enables piping the output of one cmdlet to another cmdlet as input. For example, the output of the codice_21 cmdlet could be piped to the codice_22 to filter any process that has less than 1 MB of paged memory, and then to the codice_23 cmdlet (e.g., to sort the objects by handle count), and then finally to the codice_24 cmdlet to select just the first 10 (i.e., the 10 processes based on handle count). As with Unix pipelines, PowerShell pipelines can construct complex commands, using the codice_25 operator to connect stages. However, the PowerShell pipeline differs from Unix pipelines in that stages execute within the PowerShell runtime rather than as a set of processes coordinated by the operating system, and structured.NET objects, rather than byte streams, are passed from one stage to the next. Using objects and executing stages within the PowerShell runtime eliminates the need to serialize data structures, or to extract them by explicitly parsing text output. An object can also encapsulate certain functions that work on the contained data, which become available to the recipient command for use. For the last cmdlet in a pipeline, PowerShell automatically pipes its output object to the codice_26 cmdlet, which transforms the objects into a stream of format objects and then renders those to the screen. Because all PowerShell objects are.NET objects, they share a codice_27 method, which retrieves the text representation of the data in an object. In addition, PowerShell allows formatting definitions to be specified, so the text representation of objects can be customized by choosing which data elements to display, and in what manner. However, in order to maintain backwards compatibility, if an external executable is used in a pipeline, it receives a text stream representing the object, instead of directly integrating with the PowerShell type system.", "Windows PowerShell includes a dynamically typed scripting language which can implement complex operations using cmdlets imperatively. The scripting language supports variables, functions, branching (codice_28), loops (codice_29, codice_30, codice_31, and codice_32), structured error/exception handling and closures/lambda expressions, as well as integration with.NET. Variables in PowerShell scripts are prefixed with codice_33. Variables can be assigned any value, including the output of cmdlets. Strings can be enclosed either in single quotes or in double quotes: when using double quotes, variables will be expanded even if they are inside the quotation marks. Enclosing the path to a file in braces preceded by a dollar sign (as in codice_34) creates a reference to the contents of the file. If it is used as an L-value, anything assigned to it will be written to the file. When used as an R-value, the contents of the file will be read. If an object is assigned, it is serialized before being stored. Object members can be accessed using codice_35 notation, as in C# syntax. PowerShell provides special variables, such as codice_36, which is an array of all the command line arguments passed to a function from the command line, and codice_37, which refers to the current object in the pipeline. PowerShell also provides arrays and associative arrays. The PowerShell scripting language also evaluates arithmetic expressions entered on the command line immediately, and it parses common abbreviations, such as GB, MB, and KB. Using the codice_38 keyword, PowerShell provides for the creation of functions, the following general form: function name ($Param1, $Param2) The defined function is invoked in either of the following forms: name value1 value2 name -Param1 value1 -Param2 value2 PowerShell supports named parameters, positional parameters, switch parameters and dynamic parameters. PowerShell allows any.NET methods to be called by providing their namespaces enclosed in brackets (codice_39), and then using a pair of colons (codice_40) to indicate the static method. For example, codice_41. Objects are created using the codice_42 cmdlet. Calling methods of.NET objects is accomplished by using the regular codice_35 notation. PowerShell accepts strings, both raw and escaped. A string enclosed between single quotation marks is a raw string while a string enclosed between double quotation marks is an escaped string. PowerShell treats straight and curly quotes as equivalent. The following list of special characters is supported by PowerShell: For error handling, PowerShell provides a.NET-based exception-handling mechanism. In case of errors, objects containing information about the error (codice_44 object) are thrown, which are caught using the codice_45 construct (although a codice_46 construct is supported as well). PowerShell can be configured to silently resume execution, without actually throwing the exception; this can be done either on a single command, a single session or perpetually. Scripts written using PowerShell can be made to persist across sessions in either a codice_8 file or a codice_48 file (the latter is used to implement a module). Later, either the entire script or individual functions in the script can be used. Scripts and functions operate analogously with cmdlets, in that they can be used as commands in pipelines, and parameters can be bound to them. Pipeline objects can be passed between functions, scripts, and cmdlets seamlessly. To prevent unintentional running of scripts, script execution is disabled by default and must be enabled explicitly. Enabling of scripts can be performed either at system, user or session level. PowerShell scripts can be signed to verify their integrity, and are subject to Code Access Security. The PowerShell scripting language supports binary prefix notation similar to the scientific notation supported by many programming languages in the C-family.", "One can also use PowerShell embedded in a management application, which uses the PowerShell runtime to implement the management functionality. For this, PowerShell provides a managed hosting API. Via the APIs, the application can instantiate a \"runspace\" (one instantiation of the PowerShell runtime), which runs in the application's process and is exposed as a codice_49 object. The state of the runspace is encased in a codice_50 object. When the runspace is created, the Windows PowerShell runtime initializes the instantiation, including initializing the providers and enumerating the cmdlets, and updates the codice_50 object accordingly. The Runspace then must be opened for either synchronous processing or asynchronous processing. After that it can be used to execute commands. To execute a command, a pipeline (represented by a codice_52 object) must be created and associated with the runspace. The pipeline object is then populated with the cmdlets that make up the pipeline. For sequential operations (as in a PowerShell script), a Pipeline object is created for each statement and nested inside another Pipeline object. When a pipeline is created, Windows PowerShell invokes the pipeline processor, which resolves the cmdlets into their respective assemblies (the \"command processor\") and adds a reference to them to the pipeline, and associates them with codice_53, codice_54 and codice_55 objects, to represent the connection with the pipeline. The types are verified and parameters bound using reflection. Once the pipeline is set up, the host calls the codice_56 method to run the commands, or its asynchronous equivalent – codice_57. If the pipeline has the codice_58 cmdlet at the end of the pipeline, it writes the result onto the console screen. If not, the results are handed over to the host, which might either apply further processing or display the output itself. Microsoft Exchange Server 2007 uses the hosting APIs to provide its management GUI. Each operation exposed in the GUI is mapped to a sequence of PowerShell commands (or pipelines). The host creates the pipeline and executes them. In fact, the interactive PowerShell console itself is a PowerShell host, which interprets the scripts entered at command line and creates the necessary codice_52 objects and invokes them.", "DSC allows for declaratively specifying how a software environment should be configured. Upon running a \"configuration\", DSC will ensure that the system gets the state described in the configuration. DSC configurations are idempotent. The \"Local Configuration Manager\" (LCM) periodically polls the system using the control flow described by \"resources\" (imperative pieces of DSC) to make sure that the state of a configuration is maintained.", "Initially using the code name \"Monad\", PowerShell was first shown publicly at the Professional Developers Conference in September 2003. All major releases are still supported, and each major release has featured backwards compatibility with preceding versions.", "PowerShell 1.0 was released in November 2006 for Windows XP SP2, Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Vista. It is an optional component of Windows Server 2008.", "PowerShell 2.0 is integrated with Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 and is released for Windows XP with Service Pack 3, Windows Server 2003 with Service Pack 2, and Windows Vista with Service Pack 1. PowerShell v2 includes changes to the scripting language and hosting API, in addition to including more than 240 new cmdlets. New features of PowerShell 2.0 include:", "PowerShell 3.0 is integrated with Windows 8 and with Windows Server 2012. Microsoft has also made PowerShell 3.0 available for Windows 7 with Service Pack 1, for Windows Server 2008 with Service Pack 1, and for Windows Server 2008 R2 with Service Pack 1. PowerShell 3.0 is part of a larger package, Windows Management Framework 3.0 (WMF3), which also contains the WinRM service to support remoting. Microsoft made several Community Technology Preview releases of WMF3. An early community technology preview 2 (CTP 2) version of Windows Management Framework 3.0 was released on 2 December 2011. Windows Management Framework 3.0 was released for general availability in December 2012 and is included with Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 by default. New features in PowerShell 3.0 include:", "PowerShell 4.0 is integrated with Windows 8.1 and with Windows Server 2012 R2. Microsoft has also made PowerShell 4.0 available for Windows 7 SP1, Windows Server 2008 R2 SP1 and Windows Server 2012. New features in PowerShell 4.0 include:", "Windows Management Framework (WMF) 5.0 RTM which includes PowerShell 5.0 was re-released to web on February 24, 2016, following an initial release with a severe bug. Key features include OneGet PowerShell cmdlets to support Chocolatey's repository-based package management and extending support for switch management to layer 2 network switches. New features in PowerShell 5.0 include:", "It was released along with the Windows 10 Anniversary Update on August 2, 2016, and in Windows Server 2016. PackageManagement now supports proxies, PSReadLine now has ViMode support, and two new cmdlets were added: Get-TimeZone and Set-TimeZone. The LocalAccounts module allows for adding/removing local user accounts. A preview for PowerShell 5.1 was released for Windows 7, Windows Server 2008, Windows Server 2008 R2, Windows Server 2012, and Windows Server 2012 R2 on July 16, 2016, and was released on January 19, 2017. PowerShell 5.1 is the first version to come in two editions of \"Desktop\" and \"Core\". The \"Desktop\" edition is the continuation of the traditional Windows PowerShell that runs on full.NET Framework stack. The \"Core\" edition runs on.NET Core and is bundled with Windows Server 2016 Nano Server. In exchange for smaller footprint, the latter lacks some features such as the cmdlets to manage clipboard or join a computer to a domain, WMI version 1 cmdlets, Event Log cmdlets and profiles. This was the final version of PowerShell made exclusively for Windows.", "PowerShell Core 6.0 was first announced on 18 August 2016, when Microsoft unveiled PowerShell Core and its decision to make the product cross-platform, independent of Windows, free and open source. It achieved general availability on 10 January 2018 for Windows, macOS and Linux. It has its own support lifecycle and adheres to the Microsoft lifecycle policy that is introduced with Windows 10: Only the latest version of PowerShell Core is supported. Microsoft expects to release one minor version for PowerShell Core 6.0 every six months. The most significant change in this version of PowerShell is the expansion to the other platforms. For Windows administrators, this version of PowerShell is devoid of any major new features. In an interview with the community on 11 January 2018, the PowerShell team was asked to list the top 10 most exciting things that would happen for a Windows IT professional who would migrate from Windows PowerShell 5.1 to PowerShell Core 6.0; in response, Angel Calvo of Microsoft could only name two: cross-platform and open-source.", "New features in PowerShell Core 6.1 include:", "The PowerShell Core 6.2 release is focused primarily on performance improvements, bug fixes, and smaller cmdlet/language enhancements that improve the quality of life for users.", "PowerShell 7 is the replacement product for PowerShell Core 6.x products as well as Windows PowerShell 5.1, which is the last supported Windows PowerShell version. In order for PowerShell 7 to be a viable replacement for Windows PowerShell 5.1 it must have near parity with Windows PowerShell in terms of compatibility with modules that ship with Windows. New features in PowerShell 7 include:", "The following table contains a selection of the cmdlets that ship with PowerShell, noting similar commands in other well-known command-line interpreters. Many of these similar commands come out-of-the-box defined as aliases within PowerShell, making it easy for people familiar with other common shells to start working. Notes", "A project named \"Pash\" (the name is a pun on the well-known \"bash\" Unix shell) has been an open source and cross-platform re-implementation of PowerShell via the Mono framework. Pash was created by Igor Moochnick, written in C# and was released under the GNU General Public License. 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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Antiquity.", "Medieval Period.", "Early modern sultanates (1800s–1900s).", "Italian Somaliland (late 1800s–1960).", "Somali Republic (1960–1991).", "Civil war.", "Reconstruction.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Government.", "Federal.", "Municipal.", "Diplomatic missions.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Landmarks.", "Places of worship.", "Palaces.", "Museums, libraries and theatres.", "Markets.", "Institutes.", "Hotels.", "Education.", "Culture.", "General.", "Sport.", "Transportation.", "Road.", "Air.", "Sea.", "Railway.", "Media.", "Notable Mogadishans.", "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of the name Mogadishu has many theories including from the Somali word \"Muuq Disho\" meaning \"sight-killer\", or the Persian word \"Maq'ad-i-Shāh\" (), which means \"the", "", "Tradition and old records assert that southern Somalia, including the Mogadishu area, was inhabited very early by hunter-gatherers of Khoisan descent. Although most of these early inhabitants are believed to have been either overwhelmed, driven away or, in some cases, assimilated by later migrants to the area, physical traces of their occupation survive in certain ethnic minority groups inhabiting modern-day Jubaland and other parts of the south. The latter descendants include relict populations such as the Eile, Aweer, the Wa-Ribi, and especially the Wa-Boni. By the time of the arrival of peoples from the Cushitic Rahanweyn (Digil and Mirifle) clan confederacy,", "Mogadishu Sultanate The city is laid out in five distinct sectors which illustrate different parts of the city's history, from its founding to present day. The original city, Xamar Weyne was founded by Arab settlers around the 9th century AD, and is located on a small spit of land at the Indian Ocean. This portion of the city is constructed from locally available coral blocks, bleached white and built in traditional Arab architecture with archways, latticeworks, and ornate wooden doors and shutters. The streets are narrow, maze-like, sandy or made of block, and are made for walking only. The buildings are several stories tall, and the interconnected passageways, doorways, and walls make navigating Xamar very difficult for the non-resident. The occasional open spaces were used for different kinds of markets and commerce. Another nearby section of the city, just to the north, called Shangani, also features a similar arrangement in street irregularity and structure. Numerous mosques of varying age and size and elaborateness dot this", "By 1892, Mogadishu was under the joint control of the Somali Sultanate of the Geledi and the Omani Sultanate of Zanzibar. The Geledi Sultans were at the height of their power. They dominated the southern ivory trade, and also held sway over the Jubba and Shebelle valleys in the hinterland.", "In 1905, Italy made Mogadishu the capital of the newly established Italian Somaliland. The Italians subsequently referred to the city as \"Mogadiscio\". After World War I, the surrounding territory came under Italian control with some resistance. Thousands of Italians settled in Mogadishu and founded small manufacturing companies. They also developed some agricultural areas in the south near the capital, such as Janale and the \"Villaggio duca degli Abruzzi\" (present-day Jowhar). In", "British Somaliland became independent on 26 June 1960 as the State of Somaliland, and the Trust Territory of Somalia (the former Italian Somaliland) followed suit five days later. On 1 July 1960, the two territories united to form the Somali Republic, with Mogadishu serving as the nation's capital. A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa and other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Haji Bashir Ismail Yusuf as President of the Somali National Assembly, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic, and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become President from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through a popular referendum, the people of Somalia ratified a new constitution, which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister, a position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod, Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated by one of his", "By the late 1980s, Barre's regime had become increasingly unpopular. The authorities became ever more totalitarian, and resistance movements, encouraged by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration, sprang up across the country. This eventually led in 1991 to the outbreak of the civil war, the toppling of Barre's government, and the disbandment of the Somali National Army. Many of the opposition groups subsequently began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed the ouster of Barre's regime. Armed factions led by United Somali Congress commanders General Mohamed Farah Aidid and Ali Mahdi Mohamed, in particular, clashed as each sought to exert authority over the capital. UN Security Council Resolution 733 and UN Security Council Resolution 746", "In August 2011, militant group al Shabaab made a strategic withdrawal from Mogadishu to return to hit-and-run tactics. Mayor Mohamed Nur recognized the opportunity as critical to stabilizing and rebuilding the city by any means necessary. Working closely with the UN, USAID, and DRC, Nur's administration also started large-scale rehabilitation of roads and general infrastructure, with residents closely cooperating with the civil and police authorities to tighten up on security. Nur recognized the opportunity to transform Mogadishu although resources were limited. Working closely with", "Mogadishu is situated on the Somali Sea coast of the Horn of Africa, in the Banaadir administrative region (\"gobol\") in southeastern Somalia. The region itself is coextensive with the city and is much smaller than the historical province of Benadir. The city is administratively divided into the districts of Abdiaziz, Bondhere, Daynile, Dharkenley, Hamar-Jajab, Hamar-Weyne, Heliwa, Hodan, Howl-Wadag, Karan, Shangani, Shibis, Waberi, Wadajir, Wardhigley and Yaqshid. Features of the city include the Hamarwein old town, the Bakaara Market, and Gezira Beach. The sandy beaches of Mogadishu have vibrant coral reefs, and are prime real estate for the first tourist resorts in many years. The Shebelle River (\"Webiga Shabelle\") rises in central Ethiopia and comes within of the Indian Ocean near Mogadishu before turning southwestward. Usually dry during February and March, the river provides water essential for the cultivation of sugarcane, cotton, and bananas.", "For a city situated so near the equator, Mogadishu has a relatively dry climate. It is classified as hot and semi-arid (Köppen climate classification \"\"BSh\"\"), as with much of southeastern Somalia. By contrast, towns in northern Somalia generally have a hot arid climate (Köppen \"BWh\"). Mogadishu is located in or near the tropical thorn woodland biome of the Holdridge global bioclimatic scheme. The mean temperature in the city year round is", "", "The Transitional Federal Government (TFG) was the internationally recognized central government of Somalia between 2004 and 2012. Based in Mogadishu, it constituted the executive branch of government. The Federal", "Mogadishu's municipal government is currently led by Yusuf Hussein Jimaale, who succeeded Mayor Hassan Mohamed Hussein Mungab, a former military court chairman. Among the administration's development initiatives are a US$100 million urban renewal project, the creation of garbage disposal and incineration plants, the launch of a citywide cleanup project, the creation of asphalt and cement plants, rehabilitation of the Town Hall and parliament buildings, reconstruction of the former Defence Ministry offices, reconstruction of correctional facilities, rehabilitation and construction of health facilities, establishment of a Police Training Center and a permanent base in Jasiira for the new Somali Armed Forces, rebuilding of the Somali Postal Service headquarters, and rehabilitation of public playgrounds in several districts. In", "A number of countries maintain foreign embassies and consulates in Mogadishu. As of January 2014, these diplomatic missions include the embassies of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Sudan, Libya, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Iran, Uganda, Nigeria, the United Kingdom, Japan, China, and Qatar. Embassies that are scheduled to reopen in the city include those of Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Italy and South Korea. In May 2015, in recognition of the sociopolitical progress made in Somalia and its return to effective governance, US Secretary of State John Kerry announced a preliminary plan to reestablish the US embassy in Mogadishu. He indicated that although there was no set timetable for", "Mogadishu traditionally served as a commercial and financial centre. Before the importation of mass-produced cloth from Europe and America, the city's textiles were forwarded far and wide throughout the interior of the continent, as well as to the Arabian peninsula and as far as the Persian coast. Mogadishu's economy has grown rapidly since the city's pacification in mid 2011. The SomalFruit processing factory was reopened, as was the local Coca-Cola factory, which was also refurbished. In May 2012, the First Somali Bank was established in the capital, representing the first commercial bank to open in southern Somalia since 1991. The Somali civil engineer and entrepreneur Nasra Agil also opened the city's first dollar store. Additionally, the Historic Central Bank was regenerated, with the Moumin Business Center likewise under construction. The galvanization of Mogadishu's real estate sector was in part facilitated by the establishment of a local construction yard in November 2012 by the Municipality of Istanbul and the Turkish Red Crescent. With 50 construction trucks and machines imported from Turkey, the yard produces concrete, asphalt and paving stones for building projects. The Istanbul Municipality was also scheduled to bring in 100 specialists to accelerate the construction initiative, which ultimately aims to modernize the capital's infrastructure and serve it over the long-term. In mid-2012, Mogadishu concurrently held its first ever Technology, Entertainment, Design (TEDx) conference. The event was organized by the First Somali Bank to showcase improvements in business, development and security to potential Somali and international investors. A second consecutive TEDx entrepreneurial conference was held the following year in the capital, highlighting new enterprises and commercial opportunities, including", "Apart from the Somalis, several minorities had historically lived in the city. With the beginning of Islam, Arab and Persian migrants began to settle; forming the first immigrants. Centuries of intermarriage between the various ethnic groups, which also include Bantus, produced a minority people called ‘Ad’ad. In the colonial period, European expatriates, primarily Italians, would also contribute to the city's cosmopolitan populace. Following a greatly improved security situation in the city in 2012, many Somali expatriates began returning to Mogadishu for investment opportunities and to take part in the ongoing", "", "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples : Roman Catholic Diocese of Mogadishu (Catholic Church), Protestant churches, Evangelical Churches. Arba'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital. It was built circa 667 (1268/9 AD), concurrently with the Fakr ad-Din Mosque. Arba'a Rukun's mihrab contains an inscription dated from the same year, which commemorates the masjid's late founder, Khusra ibn Mubarak al-Shirazi (Khusrau ibn Muhammed). The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity was constructed in 1987 with financial support from the Saudi Fahd bin Abdul Aziz Al Saud Foundation. It", "Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed. It sits on high ground that overlooks", "The National Museum of Somalia was established after independence in 1960, when the old Garesa Museum was turned into a National Museum. The National Museum was later moved in 1985, renamed to the Garesa Museum, and converted to a regional museum. After shutting down, the National Museum later reopened. As of January 2014, it holds many culturally important artefacts, including old coins, bartering tools, traditional artwork, ancient weaponry and pottery items. The National Library of Somalia was established in 1975, and came under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Higher Education. In 1983, it held approximately 7,000 books, little in the way of historical and cultural archival material, and was open to the general public. The National Library later", "Bakaara Market was created in late 1972 by the Barre administration. It served as an open market for the sale of goods and services, including produce and clothing. After the start of the civil war, the market was controlled by various militant groups, who used it as a base for their operations. Following Mogadishu's pacification in 2011, renovations resumed at the market. Shops were rehabilitated, selling everything from fruit and garments to building materials. As in", "The Regional Somali Language Academy is an intergovernmental regulating body for the Somali language in the Horn region. In January 2015, President of Somalia Hassan Sheikh Mohamud announced that the institute was slated to be finalized in conjunction with the governments", "Mogadishu has a number of hotels, most of which were recently constructed. The city's many returning expatriates, investors and foreign workers are among these establishments' main customers. To meet the growing demand, hotel representatives have also begun participating in international industry conferences, such as the Africa Hotel Investment Forum. Among the new hotels is the six floor Jazeera Palace Hotel. It was built in 2010 and officially opened in 2012. Situated within a 300m radius of the Aden Adde", "Mogadishu is home to a number of scholastic institutions. As part of the government's urban renewal program, 100 schools across the capital are scheduled to be refurbished and reopened. The Somali National University (SNU) was established in the 1950s, during the trusteeship period. In 1973, its programmes and facilities were expanded. The SNU developed over the next 20 years into an expansive institution of higher learning, with 13 departments, 700 staff and over 15,000 students. On 14 November 2013, the Cabinet unanimously approved a federal government plan to reopen the Somali National University, which had been closed down in the early 1990s. The refurbishing initiative cost US$3.6 million, and was completed in August 2014. Mogadishu University (MU) is a non-governmental university that is governed by a Board of Trustees and a University Council. It is the brainchild of a number of professors from the Somali National University as well as other Somali intellectuals. Financed by the Islamic Development Bank in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, as well as other donor institutions, the university counts hundreds of graduates from its seven faculties, some of whom continue on to pursue Master's degrees abroad thanks to a scholarship programme. Mogadishu University has established partnerships with several other academic institutions,", "", "As Somalia's capital city, many important national institutions are based in Mogadishu. It is the seat of the Federal Government of Somalia established in August 2012, with the Somalia Federal Parliament serving as the government's legislative branch. Abdirahman Omar Osman has been the Mayor of Mogadishu since January 2018. Villa Somalia is the official residential palace and principal workplace of the President of Somalia, Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed. In May 2012, the First Somali Bank was established in the capital, which organized Mogadishu's first ever Technology, Entertainment, Design (TEDx) conference. The establishment of a local construction yard has also galvanized the city's real-estate sector. Arba'a Rukun Mosque is one of the oldest Islamic places of worship in the capital, built circa AH 667 (1268–69 CE). The Mosque of Islamic Solidarity in Mogadishu is the largest masjid in the Horn region. Mogadishu", "Mogadishu Stadium was constructed in 1978 during the Barre administration, with the assistance of Chinese engineers. The facility was mainly used for hosting sporting activities, such as the Somalia Cup and for football matches with teams from the Somalia League. Presidential addresses and political rallies, among other events, were also held there. In September 2013, the Somali federal government and its Chinese counterpart signed an official cooperation agreement in Mogadishu as part of a five-year national recovery plan in Somalia. The pact will see the Chinese", "", "Roads leading out of Mogadishu connect the city to other localities in Somalia as well as to neighbouring countries. The capital itself is cut into several grid layouts by an extensive road network, with streets supporting the flow of both vehicular and pedestrian traffic. In October 2013, major construction began on the 23 kilometer road leading to the airport. Overseen by Somali and Turkish engineers, the upgrade was completed in November and included lane demarcation. The road construction initiative was part", "During the post-independence period, Mogadishu International Airport offered flights to numerous global destinations. In the mid-1960s, the airport was enlarged to accommodate more international carriers, with the state-owned Somali Airlines providing regular trips to all major cities. By 1969, the airport's many landing grounds could also host small jets and DC 6B-type aircraft. The facility grew considerably in size in the post-independence period after successive renovation projects. With the outbreak of the civil war in the early 1990s, Mogadishu International Airport's flight services experienced routine disruptions and", "The Port of Mogadishu, also known as the Mogadishu International Port, is the official seaport of Mogadishu. Classified as a major class port, it is the largest harbour in the country. After incurring some damage during the civil war, the federal government launched the Mogadishu Port Rehabilitation Project, an initiative to rebuild, develop and modernize the port. The renovations included the installation of Alpha Logistics technology. A joint international delegation consisting of the Director of the Port of Djibouti and Chinese officials specializing in infrastructure reconstruction concurrently visited the facility in June 2013. According to Mogadishu", "There were projects during the 1980s to reactivate the railway between Mogadishu and Jowhar, built by the Italians in 1926 but", "Mogadishu has historically served as a media hub. In 1975, the Somali Film Agency (SFA), the nation's film regulatory body, was established in Mogadishu. The SFA also organized the annual Mogadishu Pan-African and Arab Film Symposium (Mogpaafis), which brought together an array of prominent filmmakers and movie experts from across the globe, including other parts of Northeast Africa and the Arab world, as well as Asia and Europe. In addition, there are a number of radio news agencies based in Mogadishu. Radio Mogadishu is the federal government-run public broadcaster. Established in 1951 in Italian Somaliland, it initially aired news items in both Somali and Italian. The station was modernized with Russian assistance following independence in 1960, and began offering home service in Somali, Amharic and Oromo. After closing down operations in", "Notable Somali citizens from", "Mogadishu", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Club career.", "Arsenal: 1999–2006.", "Transfer saga: 2005–2006.", "Chelsea: 2006–2014.", "Roma.", "LA Galaxy.", "Derby County.", "International career.", "Style of play.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cole's father, Ron Callender, is from Barbados. He left the family after seven years of marriage and later moved to Australia. Cole and his younger brother Matthew were brought up by their mother Sue Cole, going to Bow School in Tower Hamlets.", "", "Cole started his career by joining his local club, Arsenal, whom he had supported as a child. At the age of 18, on 30 November 1999, he made his first team debut in the League Cup fourth round against Middlesbrough; Arsenal lost 1–3 on penalties after the match ended 2–2 at the end of extra time at the Riverside Stadium. On 25 February 2000, he signed his first professional contract. His Premier League debut came on 14 May 2000 against Newcastle United, as part of an experimental side that lost 4–2 away on the final day of the season. Before he fully broke into the Arsenal side, he spent part of the 1999–2000 season on loan at Crystal Palace, where he played 14 league matches and scored one goal, a long-range half-volley against Blackburn Rovers. When Sylvinho, Arsenal's established left-back, suffered an injury in the autumn of the 2000–01 season, Cole took the opportunity to establish himself in the first team and remained first-choice even after the Brazilian's recovery. With Arsenal, he won the FA Premier League twice (in 2002 and 2004), and the FA Cup three times (in 2002, 2003 and 2005, scoring in the penalty shootout in the final of the latter). Although injured for much of the 2005–06 season, he recovered in time to play in Arsenal's UEFA Champions League Final defeat to Barcelona at the end of the season. In total he made 228 first-team appearances for the \"Gunners\", scoring nine goals. Cole had a very good season in 2004–05. He was a regular at left-back for both England and Arsenal despite Gaël Clichy's claim for a place in the first team squad. Cole scored his first goal of the season in the seventh game in a tough trip to Manchester City in which he scored the opening and only goal to give Arsenal an important win. He scored his second goal in a 3–1 away win to Aston Villa, scoring Arsenal's third in only the 28th minute.", "Cole was found guilty of making contact with league rivals Chelsea over a possible move, without informing Arsenal. He was fined £100,000 by the Premier League on 2 June 2005 for a tapping-up meeting at a hotel in January 2005. Cole, his agent Jonathan Barnett, the Chelsea manager José Mourinho and chief executive Peter Kenyon were present at the meeting. An appeal in August 2005 did not reject the guilty verdict, but his fine was reduced to £75,000. Chelsea were also fined £300,000 and Mourinho was fined £200,000, reduced on appeal in August 2005 to £75,000. Barnett's licence was suspended for 18 months and he was also fined £100,000. On 18 July 2005, Cole signed a one-year extension to his contract with Arsenal, but just a year later departed from the club in acrimonious circumstances. On 15 July 2006, Cole launched a verbal attack on Arsenal; in his autobiography, he claimed that the Arsenal board had treated him as a \"scapegoat\" and that they had \"fed him to the sharks\" over the tapping-up affair while Arsenal, from their part, insisted that they were legally obliged to punish Cole for his illegal contact with Chelsea. Cole was deliberately left out of Arsenal's 2006–07 team photograph, fuelling press speculation that he would leave. On 28 July 2006, Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein confirmed that Arsenal and Chelsea had been in \"civil talks\" about the player. Chelsea insisted they would not raise their £16million bid for Cole, but Arsenal held out for at a higher valuation of £25 million. Negotiations continued throughout August and looked to be heading for deadlock, but eventually Cole signed for Chelsea on 31 August for a fee of £5 million, with William Gallas being transferred from Chelsea to Arsenal as part of the same deal. The deal was closed after the transfer window had officially ended, and was not confirmed until an hour and a half after the deadline had passed. The move angered Arsenal fans, who dubbed him \"Cashley\" and waved fake £20 notes with Cole's face on them at him when the two clubs faced each other on 10 December 2006. Arsenal had offered Cole a longer contract to stay at the club, but he had been left \"trembling with anger\" when they offered him wages of £55,000 per week. His wage increased to £120,000 a week when he signed a new contract in September 2009.", "Cole was given the number 3 shirt at Chelsea, and made his first appearance for the club as a substitute for Wayne Bridge in their 2–1 win over Charlton Athletic on 9 September. He issued a public statement concerning his transfer saying he \"forgave\" Arsenal for how he felt he was treated during his time there. On 31 January 2007, Cole suffered a serious knee injury in the 3–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers in a Premier League game at Stamford Bridge, although after a scan it was revealed to be not as bad as first thought, with Chelsea optimistic that he would return before the end of the 2006–07 season. Cole did indeed make a return at the end of the season, playing in the last twelve minutes of the 2007 FA Cup Final at the new Wembley Stadium against Manchester United. Chelsea emerged victorious 1–0 after extra-time with a goal scored by Didier Drogba, to win the 2007 FA Cup. Cole was reportedly one of the players upset when José Mourinho was relieved of his position as Chelsea manager. He was dropped in favour of Wayne Bridge for the 2008 Football League Cup Final, which Chelsea lost 2–1 to Tottenham Hotspur. However, Cole scored his first Chelsea goal in Chelsea's very next game, on 1 March 2008, the fourth goal in a 4–0 away victory against West Ham United. On 19 March 2008, Cole was involved in a controversial incident in a Premier League game against Tottenham at White Hart Lane where he performed a high tackle on Tottenham's Alan Hutton. Referee Mike Riley gave Cole a yellow card, a decision which was judged as too lenient by some analysts. Cole allegedly also \"turned his back on the referee\" and the episode renewed debate in the media over the game's rules on dissent towards officials. After starting Chelsea's first six games in the league, Cole scored his third, fourth and fifth Chelsea goals at home to Burnley, Tottenham Hotspur and Sunderland respectively. On 2 September 2009, he signed a new four-year deal which will contract him to Chelsea until 2013. On 10 February 2010, he suffered a fractured left ankle in the 2–1 defeat against Everton that kept him out of action for three months. He eventually made his return against Stoke City, a game which Chelsea won 7–0. Cole scored a goal against Wigan Athletic on the last day of the Premier League in an 8–0 win as Chelsea claimed the title. He then played in the 2010 FA Cup Final, where Chelsea beat Portsmouth to give Cole the second league and cup double of his career. He started all 38 league games for Chelsea in the 2010–11 season, and was awarded the Chelsea F.C. Player's Player of the Year award for the second time. In the 2011–12 season, Cole won the seventh FA Cup of his career after Chelsea beat Liverpool 2–1 in the 2012 FA Cup Final. In the Champions League semi-finals against Barcelona, Cole was pivotal in Chelsea's 1–0 victory which included a goal-line clearance that denied \"Barça\" an away goal. Cole also received praise for his role in the final against Bayern Munich on 19 May 2012, both for his defending, and for scoring in the decisive penalty shoot-out as Chelsea won the club's first European Cup. Cole scored his first goal for over two years against Stoke City on 22 September 2012, proving to be the winner. On 1 December 2012, Cole made his 350th Premier League appearance, in a 3–1 away loss to West Ham United. On 22 January 2013, Cole signed a one-year extension to his contract with Chelsea. Cole again helped the club win a European title during the 2012–13 season, playing in a 2–1 victory over Benfica in the 2013 UEFA Europa League Final on 15 May. During the 2013–14 season, Cole was dropped from the Chelsea team, with César Azpilicueta replacing him as the club's first choice left-back in the month of November. Cole captained the team on the last match day against Cardiff City in a 2–1 away win which turned out to be his last in a Chelsea shirt. On 23 May 2014, after the end of the season, he was included on the list of players released by Chelsea. Cole's contract expired on 30 June 2014.", "On 7 July 2014, Cole signed a two-year deal with Roma. He made his competitive debut on 30 August in their first game of the Serie A season, playing the full 90 minutes of a 2–0 win over Fiorentina at the Stadio Olimpico. On 19 January 2016, Cole terminated his contract with Roma with one year of his contract remaining.", "Cole signed with LA Galaxy of Major League Soccer on 27 January 2016. On 24 February, he made his debut in a goalless home draw against Santos Laguna in the CONCACAF Champions League; on 6 March, he made his league debut in the first game of the 2016 season, playing the full 90 minutes of a 4–1 win over D.C. United at the StubHub Center. Manager Bruce Arena praised Cole and fellow veteran new signing Nigel de Jong after the result. On 1 May, he was sent off for a second booking in a 1–1 draw at Sporting Kansas City. Cole was ejected following a clumsy tackle on Benny Feilhaber after being cautioned just 32 seconds earlier. He received his second dismissal of the season on 25 June in the match against San Jose Earthquakes. Cole had been booked for a reckless tackle and as emotions were high, a melee ensued. The referee deemed Cole's reaction worthy of another booking and as a result he received his marching orders for the second time in eight league games. On 7 August 2016, Cole scored his first goal for the Galaxy, a last-minute equaliser in a 2–2 home draw against the New York Red Bulls. His team qualified for the 2016 MLS Cup Playoffs, where they lost the Western Conference semi-finals to the Colorado Rapids on penalties. Cole's attempt was saved by Colorado goalkeeper Tim Howard, and after the game he apologised publicly to his long-time England teammate Steven Gerrard, who was playing his final professional match for the Galaxy that night. In his second season in California, Cole saw another red card on 23 August 2017 after 18 minutes of a 2–0 loss at Columbus Crew SC for a foul on Pedro Santos. He played 29 matches for the Galaxy, scoring once in a 6–2 home loss to Real Salt Lake, as the team came dead last and missed out on the play-offs for the first time since 2008. Head coach Sigi Schmid named Cole as captain ahead of the 2018 season. The Galaxy missed the play-offs again. He was released by LA Galaxy at the end of their 2018 season.", "On 21 January 2019, Cole joined Championship side Derby County, reuniting with manager Frank Lampard who was his teammate at Chelsea and with England. He signed a contract until the end of the 2018–19 season. He was released at the end of the season. On 18 August 2019, Cole officially announced his retirement.", "Cole has played for England at youth and senior levels. He was capped for the England U-20 team at the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship alongside Stuart Taylor, Peter Crouch, Andrew Johnson and Matthew Etherington. However, the team finished bottom of their group, suffering three defeats without scoring any goals. He also made four appearances for England under-21s, scoring once. After just four appearances for the Under-21s, Cole was fast-tracked into the England senior team and Sven-Göran Eriksson handed Cole his senior international debut against Albania, on 28 March 2001. He played for England at the 2002, 2006 and 2010 FIFA World Cups, UEFA Euro 2004 (where he was named as one of four England players in the all-star squad for the tournament) and UEFA Euro 2012. Cole was also an ever-present for England in the 2006 World Cup; in their second round match against Ecuador he made a crucial block, deflecting Carlos Tenorio's shot onto the crossbar. The match ended with England winning 1–0, but the team were knocked out on penalties by Portugal in the quarter-finals. By the end of 2008, Cole had achieved 68 caps for England, all of which were starting appearances. He made his 79th appearance for England on 12 June 2010 in the 1–1 draw against the United States in the 2010 World Cup Group stage match. He beat the record of 79 caps by a black English international (John Barnes, who appeared for England from 1983 to 1995) when he played against Algeria later that month. He has played more internationals without scoring than any other outfield player in England history. He won his 86th cap against Montenegro in October 2010, and alongside Kenny Sansom, Cole is now England's most-capped full-back in history, an achievement which helped him pick up the England Player of the Year award for 2010, as voted for by fans. On 6 February 2013, he earned his 100th cap as England beat Brazil 2–1 at Wembley. On 11 May 2014, he announced his retirement from international football after being omitted from the England squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup.", "Cole's game incorporates an attacking approach to his play, which supports his teams' forward play. As a youth, he \"always liked scoring goals and attacking\", but grew to love the role of defending, as being a left-back was the only opportunity of breaking into the seniors. Prior to his inclusion in the Arsenal first team, Cole studied the conduct of fellow defender Nigel Winterburn to improve his play; Winterburn concurrently offered pointers to improve his positioning. He modelled his game on Brazilian Roberto Carlos: \"He's got natural talent, but I think if you train hard enough you can be nearly as good as that.\" Liam Brady described Cole as a player with \"great character and determination\" and his former teammate Sylvinho noted that one of Cole's qualities was being competent: \"Ashley does not need people saying, 'Do this' or 'Go there'. He knows, he knows.\" The rapid progress made by Cole in his debut season for Arsenal \"surprised\" Wenger and prompted him to make the defender his first pick. Sylvinho, the player displaced, commented that Wenger's belief in Cole helped him to develop as a player: \"He spoke to [Cole] and said: 'After Silvinho you can play left-back. You are one of the best left-backs at the club and one day will be one of the best in the world.'\" Cole's link-up play with winger Robert Pires and main striker Thierry Henry in a 4–4–2 formation effectively made him \"a wing-back or winger playing in a back four\" because Arsenal's game emphasised attacking football. Under José Mourinho at Chelsea, Cole's attacking threat was restrained, meaning it allowed the player to focus more on defending and marking. This was a \"side of his game\" Cole improved the most according to Winterburn, given he was criticised in the past for being caught out of position. The arrival of Luiz Felipe Scolari however ensured Cole made forward runs in the opposition's half; Aston Villa manager Martin O'Neill believed the liberation of Cole was a sign that he was \"back playing to his very best\". Cole is renowned for making timed goal-line clearances and \"cutting out danger\". In a league match against Tottenham Hotspur in December 2002, he made two notable clearances, which demonstrated to him that his defensive game had improved. He also made two goal line clearances in Chelsea's 2011–12 Champions League winning campaign. The first was against Napoli, in a 3–1 round-of-16 first leg defeat, and the second in Chelsea's semi-final first leg 1–0 win against Barcelona. Both were vital as Chelsea went on to win the ties with a margin of one goal on aggregate, eventually lifting the Champions League. Cole is said to have a \"mean streak\", and has been labelled a \"dirty player\", something which he himself and his former coaches have strongly denied.", "Cole began a relationship with Girls Aloud singer Cheryl Tweedy in September 2004, when they were living in the same block of flats in London; they married on 15 July 2006 in Wrotham Park, Hertfordshire. In January 2008, the couple almost separated after allegations were made that Cole had affairs with three other women. He, however, disputed the allegations and the couple stayed together. It was announced on 23 February 2010 that the couple would separate following new allegations of adultery. Three months later, it was announced that Cheryl was filing for divorce. They officially divorced on 3 September 2010. Cole has a son (born 2016) and a daughter (born 2018) with the Italian model Sharon Canu. In 2006, Cole sued the \"News of the World\" and \"The Sun\" newspapers for libel after they printed allegations that he was involved in a \"homosexual orgy\". Both papers retracted the allegations. That same year, Cole released an autobiography titled, \"My Defence\", which sold 4,000 copies in the first six weeks of release. Cole's former teammate, Jens Lehmann, criticised Cole for writing an autobiography when he was 25. Cole has had a couple of minor brushes with the police. On 4 March 2009 he was held after swearing in front of a police officer outside a South Kensington nightclub. He was taken to a police station and issued with an £80 Fixed Penalty Notice before being released. On 4 January 2010, Cole was convicted of a speeding offence committed on 17 November 2009. He was recorded exceeding the speed limit by doing 104 mph in a 50 mph zone on the A3 road in Kingston upon Thames, a residential stretch. His defence at Kingston Magistrates Court, opposing the charge in his absence, argued unsuccessfully that the police speed gun was faulty. Cole also claimed that his actions were excuseable because he was trying to evade the paparazzi. On 29 January he was fined £1000 and disqualified from driving for four months. On 27 February 2011, Cole accidentally shot Tom Cowan, a 21-year-old sports science student on work experience at Chelsea, with a.22 calibre air rifle from only five feet away at the club's Cobham Training Centre, apparently unaware that the rifle was loaded. Cole formally apologised to Cowan, and discussed the incident with Chelsea officials.", "Arsenal Chelsea Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Taxonomy.", "Phylogeny.", "Hybrid.", "Characteristics.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction.", "Threats.", "Conservation.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"serval\" is a Portuguese name used by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon in 1765 for a spotted cat that was kept at the time in the Royal Menagerie in Versailles. The name \"Leptailurus\" may have been derived from the medieval Greek λεπταλέος or λεπτός meaning \"fine, delicate\".", "\"Felis serval\" was first described by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1776. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the following serval zoological specimens were described: The generic name \"Leptailurus\" was proposed by Nikolai Severtzov in 1858. The serval is the sole member of this genus. In 1944, Pocock recognised three serval races in North Africa. Three subspecies are recognised as valid since 2017:", "The phylogenetic relationships of the serval have remained in dispute; in 1997, palaeontologists M. C. McKenna and S. K. Bell classified \"Leptailurus\" as a subgenus of \"Felis\", while others like O. R. P. Bininda-Edmonds (of the Technical University of Munich) have grouped it with \"Felis\", \"Lynx\" and \"Caracal\". Studies in the 2000s and the 2010s show that the serval, along with the caracal and the African golden cat, forms one of the eight lineages of Felidae. According to a 2006 genetic study, the \"Caracal\" lineage came into existence 8.5 million years ago, and the ancestor of this lineage arrived in Africa 8.5–5.6 mya. The phylogenetic relationships of the serval are as follows:", "In April 1986, the first savannah cat, a hybrid between a male serval and a female domestic cat, was born; it was larger than a typical domestic kitten and resembled its father in its coat pattern. It appeared to have inherited a few domestic cat traits, such as tameness, from its mother. This cat breed may have a dog-like habit of following its owner about, and can be a good swimmer. Over the years it has gained popularity as a pet.", "The serval is a slender, medium-sized cat; it stands at the shoulder and weighs, but females tend to be lighter. The head-and-body length is typically between. Males tend to be sturdier than females. Prominent characteristics include the small head, large ears, spotted and striped coat, long legs and a black-tipped tail that is around long. The serval has the longest legs of any cat relative to its body size, largely due to the greatly elongated metatarsal bones in the feet. The toes are elongated as well, and unusually mobile. The coat is basically golden-yellow to buff, and extensively marked with black spots and stripes. The spots show great variation in size. Melanistic servals are also known. Facial features include the brownish or greenish eyes, white whiskers on the snout and near the ears, ears as large as those of a domestic cat (but large relative to the size of the head) and black on the back with a white horizontal band in the middle, whitish chin, and spots and streaks on the cheeks and the forehead. Three to four black stripes run from the back of the head onto the shoulders, and then break into rows of spots. The white underbelly has dense and fluffy basal fur, and the soft guard hairs (the layer of fur protecting the basal fur) are long. Guard hairs are up to long on the neck, back and the flanks, and are merely long on the face. The closely set ears are black on the back with a horizontal white band; the ears can rotate up to 180 degrees independently of each other. The serval has a good sense of smell, hearing and vision. The serval is similar to the sympatric caracal, but has a narrower spoor, a rounder skull, and lacks its prominent ear tufts. The African golden cat is darker, with different cranial features. It resembles the cheetah in its build and coat pattern, though not in size. The serval shares its adaptations to its marshy habitat with the jungle cat; both cats have large and sharp ears that help in locating the prey efficiently, and their long legs raise them above muddy ground and water.", "In North Africa, the serval is known only from Morocco and has been reintroduced in Tunisia, but is feared to be extinct in Algeria. It inhabits semi-arid areas and cork oak forests close to the Mediterranean Sea, but avoids rainforests and arid areas. It occurs in the Sahel, and is widespread in Southern Africa. It inhabits grasslands, moorlands and bamboo thickets at high altitudes up to on Mount Kilimanjaro. It prefers areas close to water bodies such as wetland and savanna, which provide cover such as reeds and tall grasses. In 2014 and 2015, it was recorded in the floodplains and gallery forests of Benin’s Pendjari National Park by camera-traps. In the East Sudanian Savanna, it was recorded in the transboundary Dinder–Alatash protected area complex during surveys between 2015 and 2018. In Zambia's Luambe National Park, the population density was recorded as in 2011. In South Africa, the serval was recorded in Free State, eastern Northern Cape, and southern North West. In Namibia, it is present in Khaudum and Mudumu National Parks.", "The serval is active in the day as well as at night; activity might peak in early morning, around twilight and at midnight. Servals might be active for a longer time on cool or rainy days. During the hot midday, they rest or groom themselves in the shade of bushes and grasses. Servals remain cautious of their vicinity, though they may be less alert when no large carnivores or prey animals are around. Servals walk as much as every night. Servals will often use special trails to reach certain hunting areas. A solitary animal, there is little social interaction among servals except in the mating season, when pairs of opposite sexes may stay together. The only long-lasting bond appears to be of the mother and her cubs, which leave their mother only when they are a year old. Both males and females establish home ranges, and are most active only in certain regions ('core areas') within them. The area of these ranges can vary from ; prey density, availability of cover and human interference could be significant factors in determining their size. Home ranges might overlap extensively, but occupants show minimal interaction. Aggressive encounters are rare, as servals appear to mutually avoid one another rather than fight and defend their ranges. Agonistic behaviour involves vertical movement of the head (contrary to the horizontal movement observed in other cats), raising the hair and the tail, displaying the teeth and the white band on the ears, and yowling. Individuals mark their ranges and preferred paths by spraying urine on nearby vegetation, dropping scats along the way, and rubbing their mouth on grasses or the ground while releasing saliva. Servals tend to be sedentary, shifting only a few kilometres away even if they leave their range. The serval is vulnerable to hyaenas and wild dogs. It will seek cover to escape their view, and, if the predator is very close, immediately flee in long leaps, changing its direction frequently and with the tail raised. The serval is an efficient, though not frequent, climber; an individual was observed to have climbed a tree to a height of more than to escape dogs. Like many cats, the serval is able to purr; it also has a high-pitched chirp, and can hiss, cackle, growl, grunt and meow.", "The serval is a carnivore that preys on rodents, particularly vlei rats, small birds, frogs, insects and reptiles, and also feeds on grass that can facilitate digestion or act as an emetic. Up to 90% of the preyed animals weigh less than ; occasionally it also hunts larger prey such as duikers, hares, flamingoes and young antelopes. The percentage of rodents in the diet has been estimated at 80-97%. Apart from vlei rats, other rodents recorded frequently in the diet include the African grass rat, African pygmy mouse and multimammate mice. Servals locate prey by their strong sense of hearing. To kill small prey, the serval will slowly stalk it, then pounce on it with the forefeet directed toward the chest, and finally land on it with its forelegs outstretched. The prey, receiving a blow from one or both of the serval's forepaws, is incapacitated, and the serval gives it a bite on the head or the neck and immediately swallows it. Snakes are dealt more blows and even bites, and may be consumed even as they are moving. Larger prey, such as larger birds, are killed by a sprint followed by a leap to catch them as they are trying to flee, and are eaten slowly. Servals have been observed caching large kills to be consumed later by concealing them in dead leaves and grasses. Servals typically get rid of the internal organs of rodents while eating, and pluck feathers from birds before consuming them. During a leap, a serval can reach more than above the ground and cover a horizontal distance of up to. Servals appear to be efficient hunters; a study in Ngorongoro showed that servals were successful in half of their hunting attempts, regardless of the time of hunting, and a mother serval was found to have a success rate of 62%. The number of kills in a 24-hour period averaged 15 to 16. Scavenging has been observed, but very rarely.", "Both sexes become sexually mature when they are one to two years old. Oestrus in females lasts one to four days; it typically occurs once or twice a year, though it can occur three or four times a year if the mother loses her litters. Observations of captive servals suggest that when a female enters oestrus, the rate of urine-marking increases in her as well as the males in her vicinity. Zoologist Jonathan Kingdon described the behaviour of a female serval in oestrus in his 1997 book \"East African Mammals\". He noted that she would roam restlessly, spray urine frequently holding her vibrating tail in a vertical manner, rub her head near the place she has marked, salivate continuously, give out sharp and short \"miaow\"s that can be heard for quite a distance, and rub her mouth and cheeks against the face of an approaching male. The time when mating takes place varies geographically; births peak in winter in Botswana, and toward the end of the dry season in the Ngorongoro Crater. A trend generally observed across the range is that births precede the breeding season of murid rodents. Gestation lasts for two to three months, following which a litter of one to four kittens is born. Births take place in secluded areas, for example in dense vegetation or burrows abandoned by aardvarks and porcupines. Blind at birth, newborn weigh nearly and have soft, woolly hair (greyer than in adults) and unclear markings. The eyes open after nine to thirteen days. Weaning begins a month after birth; the mother brings small kills to her kittens and calls out to them as she approaches the \"den\". A mother with young kittens rests for a notably lesser time and has to spend almost twice the time and energy for hunting than do other servals. If disturbed, the mother shifts her kittens one by one to a more secure place. Kittens eventually start accompanying their mother to hunts. At around six months, they acquire their permanent canines and begin to hunt themselves; they leave their mother at about 12 months of age. They may reach sexual maturity from 12 to 25 months of age. Life expectancy is about 10 years in the wild, and up to 20 years in captivity.", "A major threat to the survival of the serval include the degradation of wetlands and grasslands. Trade of serval skins, though on the decline, still occurs in countries such as Benin and Senegal. In West Africa, the serval has significance in traditional medicine. Pastoralists often kill servals to protect their livestock, though servals generally do not prey on livestock.", "The serval is listed as least concern on the IUCN Red List, and is included in CITES Appendix II. It occurs in several protected areas across its range. Hunting of servals is prohibited in Algeria, Botswana, Congo, Kenya, Liberia, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda, Tunisia and South Africa's Cape Province; hunting regulations apply in Angola, Burkina Faso, Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ghana, Malawi, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Tanzania, Togo and Zambia.", "The association of servals with human beings dates to the time of Ancient Egypt. Servals are depicted as gifts or traded objects from Nubia in Egyptian art. Like many other species of felid, servals are occasionally kept as pets, although their wild nature means that ownership of servals is regulated in most countries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Club career.", "Bastia.", "Lyon.", "Chelsea.", "Real Madrid (loan).", "Milan.", "Panathinaikos.", "Persib Bandung.", "Sabail.", "International career.", "Style of play.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born in Accra to Aba Gyandoh and James Essien, Essien attended Gomoa Nyanyano DC Primary and JSS. He began his football career after graduating from St. Augustine's College in Cape Coast, playing at a local club called Liberty Professionals. Essien broke through when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand. European scouts began to take notice, and Essien had a trial at Manchester United on April 2000. He played in the club's under-17 team's defeat to Derby County. Manchester United offered him a contract, but he was ineligible to obtain a work permit in the United Kingdom. He, therefore, considered joining Belgian feeder club Royal Antwerp until he was eligible to move to England. However, his mother meanwhile preferred a move to France instead.", "", "In July 2000, Essien was signed by Division 1 club Bastia and made his debut for the club on 30 September 2000 in a league match against Metz, appearing as a substitute for captain Laurent Casanova. Essien did not immediately command a consistent place in the team, being deployed in various positions in the back four. He ultimately finished the 2000–01 campaign with only 13 league appearances and one goal, which came in the return leg against Metz in a 3–2 defeat. The following season, Essien was given an opportunity by manager Robert Nouzaret to play in central midfield and flourished in this new role. Essien formed midfield partnerships with Nicolas Dieuze and Cyril Jeunechamp and scored vital goals in victories over Nantes, Lorient and Guingamp. On 12 January 2002, Essien scored the equalising goal against Marseille at the Stade Vélodrome to even the match at 2–2. He also scored a goal in the Coupe de la Ligue against Le Mans. Future Chelsea teammate Didier Drogba converted a goal for Le Mans in the match. In the 2002–03 season, Essien developed into an undisputed starter under new manager Gérard Gili. However, his tenacious and physical style of play also began to take form as he collected a staggering 12 yellow cards in league play. He opened the new campaign by scoring on his season debut against Lens in a 1–1 draw and converted five more league goals, which included one in a surprising 2–0 victory over the defending champions Lyon. Following the campaign, in which Bastia finished mid-table for the third consecutive season, Essien drew interest from Paris Saint-Germain, Lyon and Marseille.", "Paris Saint-Germain made Bastia the best offer and it was accepted. However, Essien rejected PSG's contract offer, instead of agreeing to terms with the two-time defending champions Lyon, who paid Bastia €7.8 million for the transfer. Upon his arrival, Essien was assigned the number 4 shirt and played as a box-to-box midfielder, which allowed him the freedom to protect and assist playmaker Juninho while defensive midfielders Edmílson and Mahamadou Diarra assisted the defence and directed the distribution. Essien made his club debut in the team's 2003 Trophée des champions match against Auxerre on 27 July 2003. In just the fifth minute of play, Essien scored his first goal for the club, and four minutes later, Diarra scored a goal. Lyon won the match 2–1, giving Essien his first club honour as a player. In just the third match of the campaign, Essien scored his first league goal for the club in a 3–1 victory over Monaco. He featured regularly for the rest of the campaign, making 33 more league appearances and scoring two more goals, against Bordeaux and Rennes respectively. On 23 May 2004, Lyon sealed their third consecutive league title by defeating Lille 3–0 at the Stade Gerland. Essien appeared as a substitute in the match. In the UEFA Champions League, Essien appeared in eight of the ten matches Lyon contested and the club was ultimately eliminated by eventual champions, Porto. In his final season at Lyon, Essien appeared in all but one league match as Lyon were crowned champions for the fourth straight season. The match he missed was as a result of a red card endured in the previous league match. Essien also scored three goals and collected 11 yellow cards, tied for second-worst in the league. His performances in the league resulted in him being voted the 2005 Player of the Year by France's National Union of Professional Footballers (UNFP). Essien also helped Lyon to reach the quarter-finals of the 2004–05 UEFA Champions League where he put in dynamic performances and scored five goals in the tournament. Lyon was eventually eliminated from the tournament in a penalty shoot-out against PSV. At the end of the season, he was named Ligue 1 Player of the Year. His honour started a record streak of UNFP Player of the Year awards for Lyon players, with the streak coming to an end in 2008 following Karim Benzema's victory. He was also nominated for the 2005 FIFA World Player of the Year Award. He placed 22nd in 2005. His acclaim drew attention from Chelsea which he eventually signed for.", "On 14 August 2005, Lyon and Chelsea agreed a £24.4 million fee for Essien, ending one of the longest-running transfer sagas. At the time, the fee made Essien Chelsea's most expensive signing of all-time, surpassing the £24 million Chelsea paid for Didier Drogba the previous summer. The transfer went through on 19 August. The transfer came under scrutiny in the Stevens inquiry report, which expressed concerns because of the lack of co-operation from agents Pini Zahavi and Barry Silkman. Essien made his debut as a second-half substitute against Arsenal on 21 August 2005, wearing the number 5 on his shirt. The match ended in a 1–0 victory to Chelsea. He made an assist in his full debut against West Bromwich Albion, and he replaced the injured Claude Makelele in the defensive midfield role against Sunderland in the 2–0 win on 10 September 2005. He soon cemented his place in José Mourinho's side, starting in 31 domestic league matches, as well as 11 appearances in other cup competitions. On 15 December 2005, Essien was handed a two-match ban by UEFA for a controversial tackle on Dietmar Hamann, which resulted in his suspension from Chelsea's Champions League second round tie with eventual European champions Barcelona. Essien apologised to Hamann for the challenge, stating that while he desires to be perceived as a player who \"unsettles\" opponents, he was not a malicious or an unsporting player; Hamann publicly accepted Essien's apology. In January 2006, Essien was himself stretchered off the field after a challenge from West Ham United captain Nigel Reo-Coker, and was sidelined for three weeks. Essien scored his first goal for Chelsea from a low cross from Shaun Wright-Phillips on 11 March 2006, in a 2–1 victory over Tottenham Hotspur. His second goal came on 17 April 2006, against Everton with a powerful strike after an assertive burst through the defensive line. Essien ended his maiden season in England with two goals, both in the Premier League. Essien was nominated for the 2006 FIFA World Player of the Year Award on 12 October 2006, where he placed 22nd. One week later, he was nominated for the 2006 Ballon d'Or. He was voted as the third Best African Footballer of the Year in 2006, a feat he also achieved in 2005. He won the 2006 BBC African footballer of the year award. The following season, Essien scored several important goals, including his first Champions League goal for Chelsea in a 2–0 victory over Werder Bremen on 12 September 2006. Later in the competition, Essien scored a late winner in the quarter-final second leg against Valencia at the Mestalla Stadium to send Chelsea through to the semifinals with a 2–1 victory on the night and a 3–2 win on aggregate. It was his first match back in the team after several weeks out with a knee injury. Essien also scored a stunning late equaliser at home against Arsenal on 10 December 2006, as the match was going to end Chelsea's long unbeaten run. On 15 May 2007, Chelsea fans voted Essien as Chelsea Player of the Year for his contributions in the 2006–07 season, becoming the first African to receive the honour. His late dramatic equalising goal against Arsenal was also voted as Chelsea Goal of the Season for 2006–07. On 12 August 2007, Essien scored the winner with his first goal of the 2007–08 Premier League campaign, as Chelsea defeated Birmingham City to set an English record for unbeaten league matches at home, eclipsing Liverpool's previous top-flight record of 63 sets between 1978 and 1981. On 10 October 2007, Essien was nominated for the prestigious 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Award for the third consecutive year and on 21 October 2007, he was also nominated for the 2007 Ballon d'Or Award for the third consecutive year. He was voted 15th Best Player in the World at the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year Awards. On 12 December 2007, he was nominated for the 2007 African Footballer of the Year, the third consecutive time he had been nominated. He was runner-up to that year's winner, Frédéric Kanouté. On 22 July 2008, Essien signed a new five-year deal with Chelsea, keeping him at the club until 2013. He also extended his contract on 12 March 2007. It was feared Essien would miss the 2008–09 Premier League season after sustaining anterior cruciate ligament damage on 5 September while playing for Ghana. However, on 7 March 2009, he came on as a substitute in the second half of the FA Cup match against Coventry City. In his second match back from the knee injury, Essien scored just before half-time to give Chelsea a vital away goal against Juventus in the Champions League first knockout round. Chelsea went on the draw the match 2–2 and through to the quarter-finals 3–2 on aggregate. He made his first league start from injury against Manchester City, scoring the only goal in the match. On 6 May 2009, Essien scored a stunning left-footed volley in the second leg of the Champions League semifinal against Barcelona, a tie that Chelsea ultimately lost due to the away goal rule. The goal was later voted as Chelsea's Goal of the Season by the club's fans. In the 2009–10 Premier League season, Essien put in an excellent performance against Blackburn Rovers on 24 October 2009 and scored his first goal of the season with a swerving 35-yard shot on 52 minutes in a 5–0 victory at Stamford Bridge. He scored his first brace for Chelsea against Wolverhampton Wanderers with a header and a low shot from outside the box and came close to completing his first hat-trick for the club with a flurry of second-half shots, one of which was tipped onto the bar by Wolves goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey. Essien was injured on international duty during the 2010 African Nations Cup and missed the remainder of the English domestic season. On 4 June 2010, he signed a two-year extension to his existing contract which would have kept him at the club until 2015. Essien returned to action on 17 July 2010 in a friendly against Crystal Palace and scored the only goal of the match to give Chelsea the win. After missing the 2010 FIFA World Cup through injury, Essien had a bright start to the season for Chelsea. He scored the only goal in a pre-season friendly win against Crystal Palace and was an ever-present in Chelsea's unbeaten month of August. He scored a brace against West Ham United and he scored against MŠK Žilina in the UEFA Champions League. Essien also put in impressive performances against Marseille, Blackburn Rovers and Fulham, the latter a match in which he scored the only goal and received a red card. However, Essien would again incur an injury and missed two months of the season, during which Chelsea won just one out of nine matches. He returned to score in the penalty shoot-out loss in the FA Cup against Everton but ultimately had a poor second half of the season. After Chelsea's final match, the Ghana Football Association announced Essien had returned to the international squad. In pre-season training for the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus, undergoing surgery on 11 July 2011. His recovery was said to take up to six months. However, he began training lightly in late November 2011 and made his comeback on 9 January 2012, playing 75 minutes of the reserves' 3–2 defeat to West Bromwich Albion. He made his 150th Premier League appearance for Chelsea as a substitute in a 1–0 win over Sunderland. On 21 January 2012, Essien featured as late substitute in Chelsea's 0–0 draw with Norwich City at Carrow Road. Due to missing most of the beginning half of the 2011–12 Premier League season, Essien was unable to gain favour with manager André Villas-Boas. On 21 February 2012, during a Champions League match against Napoli, Villas-Boas left Frank Lampard, Essien and Ashley Cole on the substitutes' bench. Chelsea lost 3–1 and the club's technical director asked for an explanation of the team selection on behalf of Chelsea owner Roman Abramovich. On 4 March 2012, following a 1–0 league defeat against West Brom which left Chelsea three points adrift of Arsenal in the battle for fourth place in the Premier League, Villas-Boas' employment was terminated by Chelsea, with assistant manager Roberto Di Matteo being appointed as caretaker manager on an interim basis until the end of the season. Di Matteo immediately showed favour towards veteran Chelsea players like Essien, Lampard and John Terry. Subsequently, Essien started in Chelsea's second leg champions league fixture against Napoli, with Chelsea winning 4–1 – and 5–4 on aggregate – in an entertaining match allowing Chelsea to advance to the quarter-final, where they met Benfica. Essien subsequently remained an unused substitute in Chelsea's Champions League run, culminating in \"the Blues\"' victory over Bayern Munich in the final, making Chelsea the first London-based club to win the title.", "On 31 August 2012, Essien signed a season-long loan deal with Real Madrid, reuniting him with his former manager at Chelsea, José Mourinho. At his introductory press conference with Real Madrid, Mourinho affectionally referred to Essien as \"his son\" while Essien referred to Mourinho as his \"Daddy\". On 3 November, Essien scored his first goal for Real Madrid. During the last match of the season – and Essien's last game as a Madrid player – Essien scored his second goal for Madrid, which he dedicated to Mourinho.", "Essien signed for Italian club Milan on a one-and-a-half-year contract on 27 January 2014.", "On 2 June 2015, Essien signed a two-year contract with Greek club Panathinaikos. The deal made him the club's highest-paid player, with an annual salary of €800,000. He spent the first three months of the season recovering from a leg injury. He was due to make his debut on 21 November 2015 against Panathinaikos' archrivals Olympiacos, but the match was cancelled. He played his first match one week later. On 24 January 2016, he scored his first goal for Panathinaikos in a 2–0 away league win over Levadiakos. After a season in Greece, Essien was omitted from Panathinaikos' squad for the 2016–17 season, with the expectation he would be released from his contract. His termination by the club was confirmed almost three months later after the two parties reached a mutual agreement over his release. After the agreement was reached and Essien was released from his contract, the club failed to remit the money owed to him and Essien appealed to the competent court for football affairs in Greece, which ordered Panathinaikos to pay him the outstanding sum of about €36,000 or face the deduction of three points in the coming 2018/19 competition.", "Essien rejected an offer from Australian A-League club Melbourne Victory in September 2016. On 13 March 2017, Essien joined the Indonesian club side Persib Bandung, signing a one-year contract with an option to extend for an additional year. He took the number 5 shirt for the 2017 Liga 1 season, the same number he wore during his nine years at Chelsea. Speaking about his move to Indonesia, Essien told the club's official website, \"I hope I am the prelude to other world players moving to Indonesia.\" On 22 April, he scored his first goal from the header in a 2–2 draw over PS TNI. On 17 March 2018, Persib's club chief executive, Zainuri Hasyim said that Persib has now released Essien because the club already filling their maximum quota of four foreign players based on the PSSI's regulation.", "On 16 March 2019, Essien signed a one-and-a-half-year contract with Sabail FK of the Azerbaijan Premier League, which will also see him coach their U19 team.", "Essien's international career started with the Ghana under-17 national team, the \"Black Starlets\" when he played in the 1999 FIFA U-17 World Championship in New Zealand and won the bronze medal. In 2001, despite being one of the youngest players in the tournament, Essien participated in the 2001 FIFA World Youth Championship with the \"Black Satellites\" in Argentina, where the nation finished runners-up to Argentina. His exceptional performances captured the attention of many and was widely tipped to be one of Africa's next rising stars. Essien made his competitive senior debut in the 2002 Africa Cup of Nations against Morocco on 21 January 2002. but had played for Ghana in a pre-tournament friendly against Egypt on 4 January 2002. On 16 May 2006, Essien was selected to be part of the team that represented Ghana at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany. He played in midfield with team captain Stephen Appiah and Sulley Muntari. Essien played in Ghana's 0–2 defeat to Italy, their 2–0 victory over the Czech Republic, and the 2–1 victory over the United States, and helped Ghana become the only African team to reach the second-round of the 2006 World Cup. However, he was suspended for Ghana's second round match against Brazil and could only watch as Ghana lost 0–3. Upon the team's return to Ghana, Essien said the team had gained invaluable experience and would be aiming to make the next finals, held in Africa for the first time in the tournament's history at the 2010 World Cup. In the 2008 Africa Cup of Nations, Essien turned in another strong performance, driving the team to the semifinals with his power-packed performances. In the quarter-final against Nigeria, when team captain John Mensah was dismissed on the stroke of the hour for a professional foul on Nigeria's Peter Odemwingie, Essien assumed the captaincy for the remainder of the match as Ghana eventually won 2–1. He was voted as an All-Star Player during the tournament. The Team of the Tournament was decided by the Technical Study Group (TSG) after careful observations of all the tournament's matches. During an international match played against Libya on 5 September 2008, Essien ruptured his anterior cruciate ligament playing for Ghana in the World Cup qualification stage and was out of action for six months, missing the majority of the 2008–09 season, before returning on 4 March to play for Chelsea Reserves against Aston Villa Reserves. He scored the last goal in the 4–3 loss. He still managed to take part in 10 of Ghana's 11 qualification matches, amassing more than 800 minutes of game time as Ghana finished at the top of their group to seal qualification to the 2010 World Cup. However, it was announced on 27 May 2010 that Essien would miss the World Cup after he was told he would not fully recover from his knee injury until the end of July, more than two weeks after the tournament was to end. Since then, Essien has announced that he will be standing down from the Ghana national side for the near future to focus on his career with Chelsea, having suffered two significant injuries while playing for Ghana in recent years. Having recovered from those injuries, Essien subsequently promised his availability to his nation \"very soon\". Essien returned to Ghana's squad in August 2013 for the team's final 2014 World Cup qualifiers. He appeared as a second-half substitute in a 2–1 defeat of Zambia as the \"Black Stars\" secured qualification to the final round. He started in both play-off matches against Egypt and was named in Ghana's squad for the tournament finals. He made one appearance, coming on as a second-half substitute in the opening 2–1 defeat to the United States. In July 2018, Essien has announced his retirement from international football, after over 12 years of active service with Ghana. He said that he even retired before the 2014 FIFA World Cup but he was called back by former Ghana coach, James Kwesi Appiah to come and help the team.", "Essien is a physically strong midfielder, who often plays in a central midfield role. He has often been touted as a box-to-box midfielder for his ability to exert energy in supporting both offensive and defensive play, and for his powerful and tough tackling playing style, which has earned him the nickname \"The Bison\". Essien can also play as a defender, both on the right of defence and in the centre. In addition to his work-rate, physicality, and defensive skills, Essien also possesses good technique, vision, tactical intelligence, and leadership qualities, and is a powerful striker of the ball from distance.", "", "Lyon Chelsea", "Ghana Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Size distribution.", "Physics.", "Terminal velocity of a particle in a fluid.", "Aerodynamic diameter.", "Dynamics.", "Coagulation.", "Dynamics regimes.", "Partitioning.", "Activation.", "Solution to the general dynamic equation.", "Generation and applications.", "Stability of generated aerosol particles.", "Detection.", "In situ observations.", "Remote sensing approach.", "Size selective sampling.", "Atmospheric." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "An aerosol is defined as a suspension system of solid or liquid particles in a gas. An aerosol includes both the particles and the suspending gas, which is usually air. Frederick G. Donnan presumably first used the term \"aerosol\" during World War I to describe an aero-solution, clouds of microscopic particles in air. This term developed analogously to the term hydrosol, a colloid system with water as the dispersed medium. \"Primary aerosols\" contain particles introduced directly into the gas; \"secondary aerosols\" form through gas-to-particle conversion. Various types of aerosol, classified according to physical form and how they were generated, include dust, fume, mist, smoke and fog. There are several measures of aerosol concentration. Environmental science and environmental health often use the \"mass concentration\" (\"M\"), defined as the mass of particulate matter per unit volume, in units such as μg/m. Also commonly used is the \"number concentration\" (\"N\"), the number of particles per unit volume, in units such as number per m or number per cm. Particle size has a major influence on particle properties, and the aerosol particle radius or diameter (\"d\") is a key property used to characterise aerosols. Aerosols vary in their dispersity. A \"monodisperse\" aerosol, producible in the laboratory, contains particles of uniform size. Most aerosols, however, as \"polydisperse\" colloidal systems, exhibit a range of particle sizes. Liquid droplets are almost always nearly spherical, but scientists use an \"equivalent diameter\" to characterize the properties of various shapes of solid particles, some very irregular. The equivalent diameter is the diameter of a spherical particle with the same value of some physical property as the irregular particle. The \"equivalent volume diameter\" (\"d\") is defined as the diameter of a sphere of the same volume as that of the irregular particle. Also commonly used is the aerodynamic diameter, \"d\".", "For a monodisperse aerosol, a single number—the particle diameter—suffices to describe the size of the particles. However, more complicated particle-size distributions describe the sizes of the particles in a polydisperse aerosol. This distribution defines the relative amounts of particles, sorted according to size. One approach to defining the particle size distribution uses a list of the sizes of every particle in a sample. However, this approach proves tedious to ascertain in aerosols with millions of particles and awkward to use. Another approach splits the complete size range into intervals and finds the number (or proportion) of particles in each interval. One then can visualize these data in a histogram with the area of each bar representing the proportion of particles in that size bin, usually normalised by dividing the number of particles in a bin by the width of the interval so that the area of each bar is proportionate to the number of particles in the size range that it represents. If the width of the bins tends to zero, one gets the frequency function: where Therefore, the area under the frequency curve between two sizes a and \"b\" represents the total fraction of the particles in that size range: It can also be formulated in terms of the total number density \"N\": Assuming spherical aerosol particles, the aerosol surface area per unit volume (\"S\") is given by the second moment: And the third moment gives the total volume concentration (\"V\") of the particles: One also usefully can approximate the particle size distribution using a mathematical function. The normal distribution usually does not suitably describe particle size distributions in aerosols because of the skewness associated a long tail of larger particles. Also for a quantity that varies over a large range, as many aerosol sizes do, the width of the distribution implies negative particles sizes, clearly not physically realistic. However, the normal distribution can be suitable for some aerosols, such as test aerosols, certain pollen grains and spores. A more widely chosen log-normal distribution gives the number frequency as: where: The log-normal distribution has no negative values, can cover a wide range of values, and fits many observed size distributions reasonably well. Other distributions sometimes used to characterise particle size include: the Rosin-Rammler distribution, applied to coarsely dispersed dusts and sprays; the Nukiyama-Tanasawa distribution, for sprays of extremely broad size ranges; the power function distribution, occasionally applied to atmospheric aerosols; the exponential distribution, applied to powdered materials; and for cloud droplets, the Khrgian-Mazin distribution.", "", "For low values of the Reynolds number (<1), true for most aerosol motion, Stokes' law describes the force of resistance on a solid spherical particle in a fluid. However, Stokes' law is only valid when the velocity of the gas at the surface of the particle is zero. For small particles (< 1 μm) that characterize aerosols, however, this assumption fails. To account for this failure, one can introduce the Cunningham correction factor, always greater than 1. Including this factor, one finds the relation between the resisting force on a particle and its velocity: where This allows us to calculate the terminal velocity of a particle undergoing gravitational settling in still air. Neglecting buoyancy effects, we find: where The terminal velocity can also be derived for other kinds of forces. If Stokes' law holds, then the resistance to motion is directly proportional to speed. The constant of proportionality is the mechanical mobility (\"B\") of a particle: A particle traveling at any reasonable initial velocity approaches its terminal velocity exponentially with an \"e\"-folding time equal to the relaxation time: where: To account for the effect of the shape of non-spherical particles, a correction factor known as the \"dynamic shape factor\" is applied to Stokes' law. It is defined as the ratio of the resistive force of the irregular particle to that of a spherical particle with the same volume and velocity: where:", "The aerodynamic diameter of an irregular particle is defined as the diameter of the spherical particle with a density of 1000 kg/m and the same settling velocity as the irregular particle. Neglecting the slip correction, the particle settles at the terminal velocity proportional to the square of the aerodynamic diameter, \"d\": where This equation gives the aerodynamic diameter: One can apply the aerodynamic diameter to particulate pollutants or to inhaled drugs to predict where in the respiratory tract such particles deposit. Pharmaceutical companies typically use aerodynamic diameter, not geometric diameter, to characterize particles in inhalable drugs.", "The previous discussion focussed on single aerosol particles. In contrast, \"aerosol dynamics\" explains the evolution of complete aerosol populations. The concentrations of particles will change over time as a result of many processes. External processes that move particles outside a volume of gas under study include diffusion, gravitational settling, and electric charges and other external forces that cause particle migration. A second set of processes internal to a given volume of gas include particle formation (nucleation), evaporation, chemical reaction, and coagulation. A differential equation called the \"Aerosol General Dynamic Equation\" (GDE) characterizes the evolution of the number density of particles in an aerosol due to these processes. Change in time = Convective transport + brownian diffusion + gas-particle interactions + coagulation + migration by external forces Where:", "As particles and droplets in an aerosol collide with one another, they may undergo coalescence or aggregation. This process leads to a change in the aerosol particle-size distribution, with the mode increasing in diameter as total number of particles decreases. On occasion, particles may shatter apart into numerous smaller particles; however, this process usually occurs primarily in particles too large for consideration as aerosols.", "The Knudsen number of the particle define three different dynamical regimes that govern the behaviour of an aerosol: where formula_39 is the mean free path of the suspending gas and formula_40 is the diameter of the particle. For particles in the \"free molecular regime\", \"K\" » 1; particles small compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas. In this regime, particles interact with the suspending gas through a series of \"ballistic\" collisions with gas molecules. As such, they behave similarly to gas molecules, tending to follow streamlines and diffusing rapidly through Brownian motion. The mass flux equation in the free molecular regime is: where \"a\" is the particle radius, \"P\" and \"P\" are the pressures far from the droplet and at the surface of the droplet respectively, \"k\" is the Boltzmann constant, \"T\" is the temperature, \"C\" is mean thermal velocity and \"α\" is mass accommodation coefficient. The derivation of this equation assumes constant pressure and constant diffusion coefficient. Particles are in the \"continuum regime\" when K « 1. In this regime, the particles are big compared to the mean free path of the suspending gas, meaning that the suspending gas acts as a continuous fluid flowing round the particle. The molecular flux in this regime is: where \"a\" is the radius of the particle \"A\", \"M\" is the molecular mass of the particle \"A\", \"D\" is the diffusion coefficient between particles \"A\" and \"B\", \"R\" is the ideal gas constant, \"T\" is the temperature (in absolute units like kelvin), and \"P\" and \"P\" are the pressures at infinite and at the surface respectively. The \"transition regime\" contains all the particles in between the free molecular and continuum regimes or \"K\" ≈ 1. The forces experienced by a particle are a complex combination of interactions with individual gas molecules and macroscopic interactions. The semi-empirical equation describing mass flux is: where \"I\" is the mass flux in the continuum regime. This formula is called the Fuchs-Sutugin interpolation formula. These equations do not take into account the heat release effect.", "Aerosol partitioning theory governs condensation on and evaporation from an aerosol surface, respectively. Condensation of mass causes the mode of the particle-size distributions of the aerosol to increase; conversely, evaporation causes the mode to decrease. Nucleation is the process of forming aerosol mass from the condensation of a gaseous precursor, specifically a vapor. Net condensation of the vapor requires supersaturation, a partial pressure greater than its vapor pressure. This can happen for three reasons: There are two types of nucleation processes. Gases preferentially condense onto surfaces of pre-existing aerosol particles, known as heterogeneous nucleation. This process causes the diameter at the mode of particle-size distribution to increase with constant number concentration. With sufficiently high supersaturation and no suitable surfaces, particles may condense in the absence of a pre-existing surface, known as homogeneous nucleation. This results in the addition of very small, rapidly growing particles to the particle-size distribution.", "Water coats particles in an aerosols, making them \"activated\", usually in the context of forming a cloud droplet. Following the Kelvin equation (based on the curvature of liquid droplets), smaller particles need a higher ambient relative humidity to maintain equilibrium than larger particles do. The following formula gives relative humidity at equilibrium: where formula_45 is the saturation vapor pressure above a particle at equilibrium (around a curved liquid droplet), \"p\" is the saturation vapor pressure (flat surface of the same liquid) and \"S\" is the saturation ratio. Kelvin equation for saturation vapor pressure above a curved surface is: where \"r\" droplet radius, \"σ\" surface tension of droplet, \"ρ\" density of liquid, \"M\" molar mass, \"T\" temperature, and \"R\" molar gas constant.", "There are no general solutions to the general dynamic equation (GDE); common methods used to solve the general dynamic equation include:", "People generate aerosols for various purposes, including: Some devices for generating aerosols are:", "Stability of nanoparticle agglomerates is critical for estimating size distribution of aerosolized particles from nano-powders or other sources. At nanotechnology workplaces, workers can be exposed via inhalation to potentially toxic substances during handling and processing of nanomaterials. Nanoparticles in the air often form agglomerates due to attractive inter-particle forces, such as van der Waals force or electrostatic force if the particles are charged. As a result, aerosol particles are usually observed as agglomerates rather than individual particles. For exposure and risk assessments of airborne nanoparticles, it is important to know about the size distribution of aerosols. When inhaled by humans, particles with different diameters are deposited in varied locations of the central and periphery respiratory system. Particles in nanoscale have been shown to penetrate the air-blood barrier in lungs and be translocated into secondary organs in the human body, such as the brain, heart and liver. Therefore, the knowledge on stability of nanoparticle agglomerates is important for predicting the size of aerosol particles, which helps assess the potential risk of them to human bodies. Different experimental systems have been established to test the stability of airborne particles and their potentials to deagglomerate under various conditions. A comprehensive system recently reported is able to maintain robust aerosolization process and generate aerosols with stable number concentration and mean size from nano-powders. The deagglomeration potential of various airborne nanomaterials can be also studied using critical orifices. In addition, an impact fragmentation device was developed to investigate bonding energies between particles. A standard deagglomeration testing procedure could be foreseen with the developments of the different types of existing systems. The likeliness of deagglomeration of aerosol particles in occupational settings can be possibly ranked for different nanomaterials if a reference method is available. For this purpose, inter-laboratory comparison of testing results from different setups could be launched in order to explore the influences of system characteristics on properties of generated nanomaterials aerosols.", "Aerosol can either be measured in-situ or with remote sensing techniques.", "Some available in situ measurement techniques include:", "Remote sensing approaches include:", "Particles can deposit in the nose, mouth, pharynx and larynx (the head airways region), deeper within the respiratory tract (from the trachea to the terminal bronchioles), or in the alveolar region. The location of deposition of aerosol particles within the respiratory system strongly determines the health effects of exposure to such aerosols. This phenomenon led people to invent aerosol samplers that select a subset of the aerosol particles that reach certain parts of the respiratory system. Examples of these subsets of the particle-size distribution of an aerosol, important in occupational health, include the inhalable, thoracic, and respirable fractions. The fraction that can enter each part of the respiratory system depends on the deposition of particles in the upper parts of the airway. The inhalable fraction of particles, defined as the proportion of particles originally in the air that can enter the nose or mouth, depends on external wind speed and direction and on the particle-size distribution by aerodynamic diameter. The thoracic fraction is the proportion of the particles in ambient aerosol that can reach the thorax or chest region. The respirable fraction is the proportion of particles in the air that can reach the alveolar region. To measure the respirable fraction of particles in air, a pre-collector is used with a sampling filter. The pre-collector excludes particles as the airways remove particles from inhaled air. The sampling filter collects the particles for measurement. It is common to use cyclonic separation for the pre-collector, but other techniques include impactors, horizontal elutriators, and large pore membrane filters. Two alternative size-selective criteria, often used in atmospheric monitoring, are PM and PM. PM is defined by ISO as \"particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 10 μm aerodynamic diameter\" and PM as \"particles which pass through a size-selective inlet with a 50% efficiency cut-off at 2.5 μm aerodynamic diameter\". PM corresponds to the “thoracic convention” as defined in ISO 7708:1995, Clause 6; PM corresponds to the “high-risk respirable convention” as defined in ISO 7708:1995, 7.1. The United States Environmental Protection Agency replaced the older standards for particulate matter based on Total Suspended Particulate with another standard based on PM in 1987 and then introduced standards for PM (also known as fine particulate matter) in 1997.", "Several types of atmospheric aerosol have a significant effect on Earth's climate: volcanic, desert dust, sea-salt, that originating from biogenic sources and human-made. Volcanic aerosol forms in the stratosphere after an eruption as droplets of sulfuric acid that can prevail for up to two years, and reflect sunlight, lowering temperature. Desert dust, mineral particles blown to high altitudes, absorb heat and may be responsible for inhibiting storm cloud formation. Human-made sulfate aerosols, primarily from burning oil and coal, affect the behavior of clouds. Although all hydrometeors, solid and liquid, can be described as aerosols, a distinction is commonly made between such dispersions (i.e. clouds) containing activated drops and crystals, and aerosol particles. The atmosphere of Earth contains aerosols of various types and concentrations, including quantities of: Aerosols can be found in urban ecosystems in various forms, for example: The presence of aerosols in the earth's atmosphere can influence its climate, as well as human health." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy and phylogeny.", "Phylogeny.", "Characteristics.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Hunting and diet.", "Reproduction.", "Threats.", "Conservation.", "In captivity.", "In culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Felis nebulosa\" was proposed by Edward Griffith in 1821 who first described a clouded leopard skin from China. \"Felis macrosceloides\" proposed by Brian Houghton Hodgson in 1841 was a clouded leopard specimen from Nepal. \"Felis brachyura\" proposed by Robert Swinhoe in 1862 was a clouded leopard skin from Taiwan. The generic name \"Neofelis\" was proposed by John Edward Gray in 1867 who subordinated all three to this genus. At present, \"N. nebulosa\" is considered a monotypic species due to lack of evidence for subspeciation.", "The clouded leopard is considered to form an evolutionary link between the Pantherinae and the Felinae. It is the smallest of the pantherine cats, but despite its name, it is not closely related to the leopard (\"Panthera pardus\"). Phylogenetic analysis indicates that it diverged from the \"Panthera\" about six million years ago. The other \"Neofelis\" species is the Sunda clouded leopard, which was considered a subspecies of \"N. nebulosa\" until 2006. Genetic analysis of hair samples of the two \"Neofelis\" species indicates that they diverged 1.4 million years ago. Clouded leopards from mainland Asia reached Borneo and Sumatra several million years ago via a now submerged land bridge.", "The clouded leopard's fur is of a dark grey or ochreous ground-color, often largely obliterated by black and dark dusky-grey blotched pattern. There are black spots on the head, and the ears are black. Partly fused or broken-up stripes run from the corner of the eyes over the cheek, from the corner of the mouth to the neck, and along the nape to the shoulders. Elongated blotches continue down the spine and form a single median stripe on the loins. Two large blotches of dark dusky-grey hair on the side of the shoulders are each emphasized posteriorly by a dark stripe, which passes on to the foreleg and breaks up into irregular spots. The flanks are marked by dark dusky-grey irregular blotches bordered behind by long, oblique, irregularly curved or looped stripes. These blotches yielding the clouded pattern suggest the English name of the cat. The underparts and legs are spotted, and the tail is marked by large, irregular, paired spots. Its legs are short and stout, and paws broad. Females are slightly smaller than males. Its hyoid bone is ossified, making it possible to purr. Its pupils contract into vertical slits. Irises are brownish yellow to grayish green. Melanistic clouded leopards are uncommon. It has rather short limbs compared to the other big cats. Its hind limbs are longer than its front limbs to allow for increased jumping and leaping capabilities. Its ulnae and radii are not fused, which also contributes to a greater range of motion when climbing trees and stalking prey. Clouded leopards weigh between. Females vary in head-to-body length from, with a tail long. Males are larger at with a tail long. Its shoulder height varies from. Its skull is long and low with strong occipital and sagittal crests. The canine teeth are exceptionally long, the upper being about three times as long as the basal width of the socket. The first premolar is usually absent. The upper pair of canines measure or longer. The clouded leopard is often referred to as a \"modern-day sabre-tooth\" because it has the largest canines in proportion to its body size.", "The clouded leopard occurs from the Himalayan foothills in Nepal, Bhutan and India to Myanmar, southeastern Bangladesh, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, to south of the Yangtze River in China. It is regionally extinct in Singapore and Taiwan. The last confirmed record of a Formosan clouded leopard dates to 1989, when the skin of a young individual was found in the Taroko area. It was not recorded during an extensive camera trapping survey conducted from 1997 to 2012 in more than 1,450 sites inside and outside Taiwanese protected areas. In Nepal, the clouded leopard was thought to be extinct since the late 1860s. But in 1987 and 1988, four individuals were found in the central part of the country, close to Chitwan National Park and in the Pokhara Valley. These findings extended the known range westward, suggesting it is able to survive and breed in degraded woodlands that previously harboured moist subtropical semideciduous forest. Since then, individuals have been recorded in the Shivapuri Nagarjun National Park and in the Annapurna Conservation Area. In India, it occurs in Sikkim, northern West Bengal, Meghalaya subtropical forests, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Assam, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. In Pakke Tiger Reserve, a clouded leopard was photographed for the first time in India. In Sikkim, clouded leopards were camera-trapped at altitudes of between April 2008 and May 2010 in the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve. In Manas National Park, 16 individuals were recorded during a survey in November 2010 to February 2011. Between January 2013 and March 2018, clouded leopards were also recorded in Dampa Tiger Reserve, Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Singchung-Bugun Village Community Reserve, in Meghalaya's Nongkhyllem National Park and Balpakram-Baghmara landscape. In Bhutan, it was recorded in Royal Manas National Park, Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park, Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary, Jigme Dorji National Park, Phrumsengla National Park, Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary, and several non-protected areas. In Bangladesh, a few clouded leopards were sighted in the Chittagong Hill Tracts in 2009. In Myanmar, it was recorded by camera-traps for the first time in the hill forests of Karen State in 2015. In Thailand, the species has been reported from relatively open, dry tropical forest in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary and closed-forest habitats in Khao Yai National Park. In Peninsular Malaysia, clouded leopards were recorded in Taman Negara National Park, Ulu Muda Forest, Pasoh Forest Reserve, Royal Belum State Park, Temengor Forest Reserve and a few linkages between 2009 and 2015.", "The clouded leopard is a solitary cat. Early accounts depict it as a rare, secretive, arboreal, and nocturnal inhabitant of dense primary forest. It is one of the most talented climbers among the cats. Captive clouded leopards have been observed to climb down vertical tree trunks head first, and hang on to branches with their hind paws bent around branchings of tree limbs. They are capable of supination and can even hang down from branches only by bending their hind paws and their tail around them. When jumping down, they keep hanging on to a branch this way until the very last moment. They can climb on horizontal branches with their back to the ground, and in this position make short jumps forward. When balancing on thin branches, they use their long tails to steer. They can easily jump up to high. They use trees as daytime rest sites, but also spend time on the ground when hunting at night. Captive clouded leopards have been observed to scent mark by spraying urine and rubbing their heads on prominent objects. Their vocalisations include a short high-pitched meow call, a loud crying call, both emitted when a cat is trying to locate another one over a long or short distance; they prusten and raise their muzzle when meeting each other in a friendly manner; when aggressive, they growl with a low-pitched sound and hiss with exposed teeth and wrinkled nose. Radio-collared clouded leopards were foremost active by night but also showed crepuscular activity peaks. Clouded leopards recorded in northeast India were most active in the late evening after sunset. Home ranges have only been estimated in Thailand:", "When hunting, they stalk their prey or wait for the prey to come to them. After making and feeding on a kill, they usually retreat into trees to digest and rest. Their prey includes both arboreal and terrestrial vertebrates. Pocock presumed they are adapted for preying upon herbivorous mammals of considerable bulk because of their powerful build, long canines and the deep penetration of their bites. In Thailand, clouded leopards have been observed preying on southern pig-tailed macaque (\"Macaca nemestrina\"), Indian hog deer (\"Hyelaphus porcinus\"), Bengal slow loris (\"Nycticebus bengalensis\"), Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (\"Atherurus macrourus\"), Malayan pangolin (\"Manis javanica\") and Berdmore's ground squirrel (\"Menetes berdmorei\"). Known prey species in China include barking deer and pheasants.", "Both males and females average 26 months at first reproduction. Mating usually occurs between December and March. Males tend to be very aggressive during sexual encounters and to bite the female on the neck during courtship, severing her vertebrae. With this in mind, male and female compatibility has been deemed extremely important when attempting breeding in captivity. The pair mates multiple times over the course of several days. The male grasps the female by the neck, and the female responds with vocalization that encourages the male to continue. The male then leaves and is not involved in raising the kittens. Estrus lasts six days on average, estrous cycle averages 30 days. After a gestation period of 93 ± 6 days, females give birth to a litter of one to five, mostly three cubs. Initially, the young are blind and helpless, much like the young of many other cats, and weigh from. Unlike adults, the kittens' spots are \"solid\" — completely dark rather than dark rings. The young can see within about 10 days of birth, are active within five weeks, and are fully weaned at around three months of age. They attain the adult coat pattern at around six months, and probably become independent after around 10 months. Females are able to bear one litter each year. In captivity, they have an average lifespan of 11 years. One individual has lived to be almost 17 years old. Generation length of the clouded leopard is about seven years.", "Many of the remaining forest areas are too small to ensure the long-term persistence of clouded leopard populations. They are threatened by habitat loss following large–scale deforestation and commercial poaching for the wildlife trade. Skins, claws, and teeth are offered for decoration and clothing, bones and meat as substitute for tiger in traditional Asian medicines and tonics, and live animals for the pet trade. Few poaching incidents have been documented, but all range states are believed to have some degree of commercial poaching. In recent years, substantial domestic markets existed in Indonesia, Myanmar, and Vietnam. In Myanmar, 301 body parts of at least 279 clouded leopards, mostly skins and skeletons, were observed in four markets surveyed between 1991 and 2006. Three of the surveyed markets are situated on international borders with China and Thailand, and cater to international buyers, although clouded leopards are completely protected under Myanmar's national legislation. Effective implementation and enforcement of CITES is considered inadequate.", "\"Neofelis nebulosa\" is listed in CITES Appendix I and protected over most of its range. Hunting is banned in Bangladesh, China, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is not legally protected outside Bhutan's protected areas. Hunting is regulated in Laos. No information about its protection status is available from Cambodia. These bans, however, are poorly enforced in India, Malaysia, and Thailand. In the United States, the clouded leopard is listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act, further prohibiting trade in the animals or any parts or products made from them. International Clouded Leopard Day is celebrated each year on 4 August since 2018. Zoos and conservation organisations all over the world celebrate this day.", "Clouded leopards have been kept in zoos since the early 20th century. The international studbook was initiated in the 1970s. Coordinated breeding programs were started in the 1980s and encompass the European Endangered Species Programme, the Species Survival Plan, and the Indian Conservation Breeding Programme. As of 2014, 64 institutions keep clouded leopards, including six zoos in India: Early captive-breeding programs involving clouded leopards were not very successful, largely due to ignorance of courtship activity among them in the wild. Experience has taught keepers that introducing pairs of clouded leopards at a young age gives opportunities for the pair to bond and breed successfully. Males have the reputation of being aggressive towards females. Facilities breeding clouded leopards need to provide the female with a secluded, off-exhibit area. In March 2011, two breeding females at the Nashville Zoo at Grassmere in Nashville, Tennessee, gave birth to three cubs, which were raised by zookeepers. Each cub weighed. In June 2011, two cubs were born at the Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium in Tacoma, Washington. The breeding pair was brought from the Khao Kheow Open Zoo in Thailand in an ongoing education and research exchange program. Four cubs were born at the Nashville Zoo in 2012. In May 2015, four cubs were born in Point Defiance Zoo & Aquarium.", "The Rukai people of Taiwan considered the hunting of clouded leopards a taboo. In the 1970s, the print of Rama Samaraweera's painting \"Clouded leopard\" was a best-seller in the USA." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Predecessors.", "Line-of-battle adoption.", "Evolution of design.", "Steam power.", "Decline.", "Combat.", "Restorations and preservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The heavily armed carrack, first developed in Portugal for either trade or war in the Atlantic Ocean, was the precursor of the \"ship of the line\". Other maritime European states quickly adopted it in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These vessels were developed by fusing aspects of the cog of the North Sea and galley of the Mediterranean Sea. The cogs, which traded in the North Sea, in the Baltic Sea and along the Atlantic coasts, had an advantage over galleys in battle because they had raised platforms called \"castles\" at bow and stern that archers could occupy to fire down on enemy ships or even to drop heavy weights from. Over time these castles became higher and larger, and eventually were built into the structure of the ship, increasing overall strength. This aspect of the cog remained in the newer-style carrack designs and proved its worth in battles like that at Diu in 1509. The \"Mary Rose\" was an early 16th-century English carrack or \"great ship\". She was heavily armed with 78 guns and 91 after an upgrade in the 1530s. Built in Portsmouth in 1510–1512, she was one of the earliest purpose-built men-of-war in the English navy. She was over 500 tons burthen, had a keel of over 32 m (106 ft) and a crew of over 200 sailors, 185 soldiers and 30 gunners. Although the pride of the English fleet, she accidentally sank during the Battle of the Solent, 19 July 1545. \"Henri Grâce à Dieu\" (English: \"Henry Grace of God\"), nicknamed \"Great Harry\", was another early English carrack. Contemporary with \"Mary Rose\", \"Henri Grâce à Dieu\" was 165 feet (50 m) long, weighing 1,000–1,500 tons and having a complement of 700–1,000. It is said that she was ordered by Henry VIII in response to the Scottish ship \"Michael\", launched in 1511. She was originally built at Woolwich Dockyard from 1512 to 1514 and was one of the first vessels to feature gunports and had twenty of the new heavy bronze cannon, allowing for a broadside. In all, she mounted 43 heavy guns and 141 light guns. She was the first English two-decker, and when launched she was the largest and most powerful warship in Europe, but she saw little action. She was present at the Battle of the Solent against Francis I of France in 1545 (in which \"Mary Rose\" sank) but appears to have been more of a diplomatic vessel, sailing on occasion with sails of gold cloth. Indeed, the great ships were almost as well known for their ornamental design (some ships, like the \"Vasa\", were gilded on their stern scrollwork) as they were for the power they possessed. Carracks fitted for war carried large-calibre guns aboard. Because of their higher freeboard and greater load-bearing ability, this type of vessel was better suited than the galley to gunpowder weapons. Because of their development for conditions in the Atlantic, these ships were more weatherly than galleys and better suited to open waters. The lack of oars meant that large crews were unnecessary, making long journeys more feasible. Their disadvantage was that they were entirely reliant on the wind for mobility. Galleys could still overwhelm great ships, especially when there was little wind and they had a numerical advantage, but as great ships increased in size, galleys became less and less useful. Another detriment was the high forecastle, which interfered with the sailing qualities of the ship; the bow would be forced low into the water while sailing before the wind. But as guns were introduced and gunfire replaced boarding as the primary means of naval combat during the 16th century, the medieval forecastle was no longer needed, and later ships such as the galleon had only a low, one-deck-high forecastle. By the time of the 1637 launching of England's \"Sovereign of the Seas\", the forecastle had disappeared altogether. During the 16th century the galleon evolved from the carrack. It was a longer and more manoeuvrable type of ship with all the advantages of the carrack. The main ships of the English and Spanish fleets in the Battle of Gravelines of 1588 were galleons; all of the English and most of the Spanish galleons survived the battle and the following storm even though the Spanish galleons suffered the heaviest attacks from the English while regrouping their scattered fleet. By the 17th century every major European naval power was building ships like these. With the growing importance of colonies and exploration and the need to maintain trade routes across stormy oceans, galleys and galleasses (a larger, higher type of galley with side-mounted guns, but lower than a galleon) were used less and less, and only in ever more restricted purposes and areas, so that by about 1750, with a few notable exceptions, they were of little use in naval battles.", "King Erik XIV of Sweden initiated construction of the ship \"Mars\" in 1563; this might have been the first attempt of this battle tactic, roughly 50 years ahead of widespread adoption of the line of battle strategy. \"Mars\" was likely the largest ship in the world at the time of her build, equipped with 107 guns at a full length of 96 meters. Ironically it became the first ship to be sunk by gunfire from other ships in a naval battle. In the early to mid-17th century, several navies, particularly those of the Netherlands and England, began to use new fighting techniques. Previously battles had usually been fought by great fleets of ships closing with each other and fighting in whatever arrangement they found themselves in, often boarding enemy vessels as opportunities presented themselves. As the use of broadsides (coordinated fire by the battery of cannon on one side of a warship) became increasingly dominant in battle, tactics changed. The evolving \"line-of-battle\" tactic, first used in an ad-hoc way, required ships to form single-file lines and close with the enemy fleet on the same tack, battering the enemy fleet until one side had had enough and retreated. Any manoeuvres would be carried out with the ships remaining in line for mutual protection. In order that this order of battle, this long thin line of guns, may not be injured or broken at some point weaker than the rest, there is at the same time felt the necessity of putting in it only ships which, if not of equal force, have at least equally strong sides. Logically it follows, at the same moment in which the line ahead became definitively the order for battle, there was established the distinction between the ships 'of the line', alone destined for a place therein, and the lighter ships meant for other uses. The lighter ships were used for various functions, including acting as scouts, and relaying signals between the flagship and the rest of the fleet. This was necessary because from the flagship, only a small part of the line would be in clear sight. The adoption of line-of-battle tactics had consequences for ship design. The height advantage given by the castles fore and aft was reduced, now that hand-to-hand combat was less essential. The need to manoeuvre in battle made the top weight of the castles more of a disadvantage. So they shrank, making the ship of the line lighter and more manoeuvrable than its forebears for the same combat power. As an added consequence, the hull itself grew larger, allowing the size and number of guns to increase as well.", "In the 17th century fleets could consist of almost a hundred ships of various sizes, but by the middle of the 18th century, ship-of-the-line design had settled on a few standard types: older two-deckers (i.e., with two complete decks of guns firing through side ports) of 50 guns (which were too weak for the battle line but could be used to escort convoys), two-deckers of between 64 and 90 guns that formed the main part of the fleet, and larger three- or even four-deckers with 98 to 140 guns that served as admirals' command ships. Fleets consisting of perhaps 10 to 25 of these ships, with their attendant supply ships and scouting and messenger frigates, kept control of the sea lanes for major European naval powers whilst restricting the sea-borne trade of enemies. The most common size of sail ship of the line was the \"74\" (named for its 74 guns), originally developed by France in the 1730s, and later adopted by all battleship navies. Until this time the British had 6 sizes of ship of the line, and they found that their smaller 50- and 60-gun ships were becoming too small for the battle line, while their 80s and over were three-deckers and therefore unwieldy and unstable in heavy seas. Their best were 70-gun three-deckers of about 46 metres (150 ft) long on the gundeck, while the new French 74s were around 52 metres (170 ft). In 1747 the British captured a few of these French ships during the War of Austrian Succession. In the next decade Thomas Slade (Surveyor of the navy from 1755, along with co-Surveyor William Bately) broke away from the past and designed several new classes of 51- to 52-metre 74s to compete with these French designs, starting with the \"Dublin\" and \"Bellona\" classes. Their successors gradually improved handling and size through the 1780s. Other navies ended up building 74s also as they had the right balance between offensive power, cost, and manoeuvrability. Eventually around half of Britain's ships of the line were 74s. Larger vessels were still built, as command ships, but they were more useful only if they could definitely get close to an enemy, rather than in a battle involving chasing or manoeuvring. The 74 remained the favoured ship until 1811, when Seppings's method of construction enabled bigger ships to be built with more stability. In a few ships the design was altered long after the ship was launched and in service. In the Royal Navy, smaller two-deck 74- or 64-gun ships of the line that could not be used safely in fleet actions had their upper decks removed (or \"razeed\"), resulting in a very stout, single-gun-deck warship called a \"razee\". The resulting razeed ship could be classed as a frigate and was still much stronger. The most successful razeed ship in the Royal Navy was HMS \"Indefatigable\", commanded by Sir Edward Pellew. \"Mahmudiye\" (1829), ordered by the Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II and built by the Imperial Naval Arsenal on the Golden Horn in Istanbul, was for many years the largest warship in the world. The ship of the line was armed with 128 cannons on three decks and was manned by 1,280 sailors. She participated in the Siege of Sevastopol (1854–1855) during the Crimean War (1854–1856). She was decommissioned in 1874. The second largest sailing three-decker ship of the line ever built in the West and the biggest French ship of the line was the \"Valmy\", launched in 1847. She had right sides, which increased significantly the space available for upper batteries, but reduced the stability of the ship; wooden stabilisers were added under the waterline to address the issue. \"Valmy\" was thought to be the largest sort of sailing ship possible, as larger dimensions made the manoeuvre of riggings impractical with mere manpower. She participated in the Crimean War, and after her return to France later housed the French Naval Academy under the name \"Borda\" from 1864 to 1890.", "The first major change to the ship-of-the-line concept was the introduction of steam power as an auxiliary propulsion system. The first military uses of steamships came in the 1810s, and in the 1820s a number of navies experimented with paddle steamer warships. Their use spread in the 1830s, with paddle-steamer warships participating in conflicts like the First Opium War alongside ships of the line and frigates. Paddle steamers, however, had major disadvantages. The paddle wheel above the waterline was exposed to enemy fire, while itself preventing the ship from firing broadsides effectively. During the 1840s, the screw propeller emerged as the most likely method of steam propulsion, with both Britain and the US launching screw-propelled warships in 1843. Through the 1840s, the British and French navies launched ever larger and more powerful screw ships, alongside sail-powered ships of the line. In 1845, Viscount Palmerston gave an indication of the role of the new steamships in tense Anglo-French relations, describing the English Channel as a \"steam bridge\", rather than a barrier to French invasion. It was partly because of the fear of war with France that the Royal Navy converted several old 74-gun ships of the line into 60-gun steam-powered blockships (following the model of Fulton's \"Demologos\"), starting in 1845. The blockships were \"originally conceived as steam batteries solely for harbour defence, but in September 1845 they were given a reduced [sailing] rig rather than none at all, to make them sea-going ships.... The blockships were to be a cost-effective experiment of great value.\" They subsequently gave good service in the Crimean War. The French Navy, however, developed the first purpose-built steam battleship with the 90-gun \"Le Napoléon\" in 1850. She is also considered the first true steam battleship, and the first screw battleship ever. \"Napoleon\" was armed as a conventional ship of the line, but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots (22 km/h), regardless of the wind conditions—a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement. Eight sister ships to \"Le Napoléon\" were built in France over a period of ten years, but the United Kingdom soon took the lead in production, in number of both purpose-built and converted units. Altogether, France built 10 new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older battleship units, while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41. In the end, France and Britain were the only two countries to develop fleets of wooden steam screw battleships, although several other navies made some use of a mixture of screw battleships and paddle-steamer frigates. These included Russia, Turkey, Sweden, Naples, Prussia, Denmark, and Austria.", "In the Crimean War, six line-of-battle ships and two frigates of the Russian Black Sea Fleet destroyed seven Ottoman frigates and three corvettes with explosive shells at the Battle of Sinop in 1853. In the 1860s unarmoured steam line-of-battle ships were replaced by ironclad warships. In the US civil war, on March 8, 1862, during the first day of the Battle of Hampton Roads, two unarmoured US wooden frigates were sunk and destroyed by the Confederate ironclad CSS \"Virginia\". However, the power implied by the ship of the line would find its way into the ironclad, which would develop during the next few decades into the concept of the battleship. Several navies still use terms equivalent to the \"ship of the line\" for battleships, such as German Navy (\"Linienschiff\") and Russian Navy (\"lineyniy korabl`\" (лине́йный кора́бль) or \"linkor\" (линкор) in short).", "In the North Sea and Atlantic Ocean, the fleets of England and later Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Spain and Portugal fought numerous battles. In the Baltic Sea, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Russia did likewise, while in the Mediterranean Sea, the Ottoman Empire, Venice, Spain, France, Britain and Russia battled. During the Napoleonic Wars, the UK's Royal Navy established itself as the supreme world naval power by defeating a Spanish fleet near Cape St Vincent in 1797, a French fleet at the Bay of Aboukir off the Egyptian coast at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, a combined Franco-Spanish fleet near Cape Trafalgar in Spain at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, and the Danish fleet in the bombardment of Copenhagen in the second Battle of Copenhagen (1807). The UK emerged from the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 with the largest and most professional navy in the world, composed of hundreds of wooden, sail-powered ships of all sizes and classes. The Royal Navy demonstrated this naval supremacy again during the Crimean War in the 1850s. Nonetheless, the Napoleonic Wars, as well as the American War of 1812, had illustrated the shortcomings of ships of the line when an enemy resorted to tactics including the large-scale use of privateers. Both the French and the Americans had demonstrated what a menace small, lightly armed, but fast, nimble, and, most especially, numerous vessels like sloops and schooners could be when they spread across the wide oceans, operating singly or in small groups. They targeted the merchant shipping that was Britain's economic lifeblood, and ships of the line were too few, too slow, and too clumsy to be employed against them. Overwhelming firepower was of no use if it could not be brought to bear: the Royal Navy's initial response to Napoleon's privateers, which operated from French New World territories, was to buy Bermuda sloops. Similarly, the East India Company's merchant vessels became lightly armed and quite competent in combat during this period, operating a convoy system under an armed merchantman, instead of depending on small numbers of more heavily armed ships.", "The only original ship of the line remaining today is HMS \"Victory\", preserved as a museum in Portsmouth to appear as she was while under Admiral Horatio Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. Although \"Victory\" is in drydock, she is still a fully commissioned warship in the Royal Navy and is the oldest commissioned warship in any navy worldwide. \"Regalskeppet Vasa\" sank in the Baltic in 1628 and was lost until 1956. She was then raised intact, in remarkably good condition, in 1961 and is presently on display at the Vasa Museum in Stockholm, Sweden. At the time she was the largest Swedish warship ever built. Today the \"Vasa\" Museum is the most visited museum in Sweden." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Antiquity and Middle Ages.", "Modern times.", "Canadian friendship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Several archeological finds indicate that the area was already inhabited before the Romans built villas there and named the town \"Vertunum\". In the early 5th century, the Romans had to flee the Germanic invasions. Their settlement was destroyed and rebuilt by the Franks somewhat north of its original site. Virton was mentioned for the first time in Pope Lucius III's bull of 1183 as a fiefdom of the House of Chiny. As overlords of Virton, the Counts of Chiny could levy taxes (the \"tonlieu\") on the various goods sold at the local market, which is attested as early as 1270. In 1441, the Duchy of Luxembourg was sold to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy. From that date, Virton, like many other Walloon cities, became embroiled in more than two centuries of wars between France, Spain, and the Netherlands, with all the fighting, famine, epidemics (including plague), and economic disasters that ensued. The city fared better under the rule of Maria Theresa of Austria in the 18th century, thanks in part to the development of Lorraine's steel industry.", "The French Revolution shattered those advances. Virton had to wait until the departure of Napoleon in 1815 to see prosperous times again. Virton enthusiastically participated in the Belgian Revolution and even in the French Revolution of 1848. On August 22, 1914, at the onset of World War I, hundreds of inhabitants were summarily executed by the invading German army, while mass deportations occurred during World War II. Virton is now the centre of commerce and tourism for the Gaume region. The town became an icon in Israeli sports history after Maccabi Tel Aviv defeated CSKA Moscow 91:79 in a European Basketball Champions' Cup game on 17 February 1977, in the town's sports arena. CSKA hosted the game in Virton due to lack of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Israel at the time. The victory is widely considered as pivotal in Maccabi's history, thus making the town's name widely known among Israeli sports fans.", "Virton, Florenville, and many other neighbouring villages were the homes of many Canadian families whose fathers/husbands were stationed nearby at RCAF Station No. 1 (F) Wing, in Marville, France. Prior to moving the base to Lahr, Germany, there were ceremonies in these towns and in Longuyon, France (Permanent Married Quarters), where the Canadians left three small 'thunderbird' totem poles. These totems are still there and were rededicated in September 2005 on the 50th anniversary of the opening of the base." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery.", "Name.", "Lamellae formation mechanism.", "Use.", "Preparation.", "Shape and orientation.", "Structures in non-meteoritic materials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1808, these figures were named after Count Alois von Beckh Widmanstätten, the director of the Imperial Porcelain works in Vienna. While flame heating iron meteorites, Widmanstätten noticed color and luster zone differentiation as the various iron alloys oxidized at different rates. He did not publish his findings, claiming them only via oral communication with his colleagues. The discovery was acknowledged by Carl von Schreibers, director of the Vienna Mineral and Zoology Cabinet, who named the structure after Widmanstätten. However, it is now believed that the discovery of the metal crystal pattern should actually be assigned to the English mineralogist William (\"Guglielmo\") Thomson, as he published the same findings four years earlier. Working in Naples in 1804, Thomson treated a Krasnojarsk meteorite with nitric acid in an effort to remove the dull patina caused by oxidation. Shortly after the acid made contact with the metal, strange figures appeared on the surface, which he detailed as described above. Civil wars and political instability in southern Italy made it difficult for Thomson to maintain contact with his colleagues in England. This was demonstrated in his loss of important correspondence when its carrier was murdered. As a result, in 1804, his findings were only published in French in the \"Bibliothèque Britannique\". At the beginning of 1806, Napoleon invaded the Kingdom of Naples and Thomson was forced to flee to Sicily and in November of that year, he died in Palermo at the age of 46. In 1808, Thomson's work was again published posthumously in Italian (translated from the original English manuscript) in \"Atti dell'Accademia Delle Scienze di Siena\". The Napoleonic wars obstructed Thomson's contacts with the scientific community and his travels across Europe, in addition to his early death, obscured his contributions for many years.", "The most common names for these figures are \"Widmanstätten pattern\" and \"Widmanstätten structure\", however there are some spelling variations: Moreover, due the discover priority of G. Thomson, several authors suggested to call these figures \"Thomson structure\" or \"Thomson-Widmanstätten structure\".", "Iron and nickel form homogeneous alloys at temperatures below the melting point; these alloys are taenite. At temperatures below 900 to 600 °C (depending on the Ni content), two alloys with different nickel content are stable: kamacite with lower Ni-content (5 to 15% Ni) and taenite with high Ni (up to 50%). Octahedrite meteorites have a nickel content intermediate between the norm for kamacite and taenite; this leads under slow cooling conditions to the precipitation of kamacite and growth of kamacite plates along certain crystallographic planes in the taenite crystal lattice. The formation of Ni-poor kamacite proceeds by diffusion of Ni in the solid alloy at temperatures between 700 and 450 °C, and can only take place during very slow cooling, about 100 to 10,000 °C/Myr, with total cooling times of 10 Myr or less. This explains why this structure cannot be reproduced in the laboratory. The crystalline patterns become visible when the meteorites are cut, polished, and acid etched, because taenite is more resistant to the acid. The dimension of kamacite lamellae ranges from \"coarsest\" to \"finest\" (upon their size) as the nickel content increases. This classification is called \"structural classification\".", "Since nickel-iron crystals grow to lengths of some centimeters only when the solid metal cools down at an exceptionally slow rate (over several million years), the presence of these patterns is the proof of the extraterrestrial origin of the material and can be used to easily determine if a piece of iron comes from a meteorite.", "The methods used to reveal the Widmanstätten pattern on iron meteorites vary. Most commonly, the slice is ground and polished, cleaned, etched with a chemical such as nitric acid or ferric chloride, washed, and dried.", "Cutting the meteorite along different planes affects the shape and direction of Widmanstätten figures because kamacite lamellae in octahedrites are precisely arranged. Octahedrites derive their name from the crystal structure paralleling an octahedron. Opposite faces are parallel so, although an octahedron has 8 faces, there are only 4 sets of kamacite plates. Iron and nickel-iron form crystals with an external octahedral structure only very rarely, but these orientations are still plainly detectable crystallographically without the external habit. Cutting an octahedrite meteorite along different planes (or any other material with octahedral symmetry, which is a sub-class of cubic symmetry) will result in one of these cases:", "The term is also used on non-meteoritic material to indicate a structure with a geometrical pattern resulting from the formation of a new phase along certain crystallographic planes of the parent phase, such as the basketweave structure in some zirconium alloys. The Widmanstätten structures form due to the growth of new phases within the grain boundaries of the parent metals, generally increasing the hardness and brittleness of the metal. The structures form due to the precipitation of a single crystal-phase into two separate phases. In this way, the Widmanstätten transformation differs from other transformations, such as a martensite or ferrite transformation. The structures form at very precise angles, which may vary depending on the arrangement of the crystal lattices. These are usually very small structures that must be viewed through a microscope, because a very long cooling rate is generally needed to produce structures visible to the naked eye. However, they usually have a great and often an undesirable effect on the properties of the alloy. Widmanstätten structures tend to form within a certain temperature range, growing larger over time. In carbon steel, for example, Widmanstätten structures form during tempering if the steel is held within a range around for long periods of time. These structures form as needle or plate-like growths of cementite within the crystal boundaries of the martensite. This increases the brittleness of the steel in a way that can only be relieved by recrystallizing. Widmanstätten structures made from ferrite sometimes occur in carbon steel, if the carbon content is below but near the eutectoid composition (~ 0.8% carbon). This occurs as long needles of ferrite within the pearlite. Widmanstätten structures form in many other metals as well. They will form in brass, especially if the alloy has a very high zinc content, becoming needles of zinc in the copper matrix. The needles will usually form when the brass cools from the recrystallization temperature, and will become very coarse if the brass is annealed to for long periods of time. Telluric iron, which is an iron-nickel alloy very similar to meteorites, also displays very coarse Widmanstätten structures. Telluric iron is metallic iron, rather than an ore (in which iron is usually found), and it originated from the Earth rather than from space. Telluric iron is an extremely rare metal, found only in a few places in the world. Like meteorites, the very coarse Widmanstätten structures most likely develop through very slow cooling, except that the cooling occurred in the Earth's mantle and crust rather than in the vacuum and microgravity of space. Such patterns have also been seen in mulberry, a ternary uranium alloy, after aging at or below for periods of minutes to hours produces a monoclinic ɑ phase. However, the appearance, the composition and the formation process of these terrestrial Widmanstätten structures are different from the characteristic structure of iron meteorites. When an iron meteorite is forged into a tool or weapon, the Widmanstätten patterns remain, but become stretched and distorted. The patterns usually cannot be fully eliminated by blacksmithing, even through extensive working. When a knife or tool is forged from meteoric iron and then polished, the patterns appear in the surface of the metal, albeit distorted, but they tend to retain some of the original octahedral shape and the appearance of thin lamellae criss-crossing each other. Pattern-welded steels such as Damascus steel also bear patterns, but they are easily discernible from any Widmanstätten pattern." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Variations.", "Quarter nelson.", "Half nelson.", "Countering the half nelson.", "Three-quarter nelson.", "Full nelson." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The quarter nelson involves putting one hand on the opponent's neck, passing the free arm under the arm of the opponent, and locking the free arm to the other arm by clasping the wrist. In amateur wrestling a strong quarter nelson can be used to secure a pin, or to control the opponent and advance into a more dominant position.", "The half nelson is referred to by most coaches as being the easiest, but most effective move in folkstyle wrestling, and is very commonly used. The half nelson is done using only one hand, by passing it under the arm of the opponent and locking the hand on the opponent's neck. In addition, the hand not being used should be holding the opponent's other wrist in so that they can not post the hand or peel the half nelson off. A power half nelson is a type of half nelson. The hand not performing the nelson is placed on the opponent's head to increase the overall power of the half nelson. When the half nelson has been put into place, it is used to turn the opponent over onto his back. This is accomplished by using the hand to press the opponent's neck down, while using the arm under the opponent's shoulder to lift the shoulder and drive it perpendicularly to the opponent's body. When the opponent has been turned over onto his back, the aggressor attempts to pin him by tightening the grip on the neck, putting the nelson in more deeply so that the aggressor's elbow is hooking the opponent's neck. Often the aggressor remains perpendicular to the opponent, chest on chest. The aggressor's free hand is used to minimize struggling by hooking the opponent's near or far leg or crotch.", "When the aggressor is in the process of putting the half nelson in, the opponent can attempt to prevent it from going in deeply by using his affected arm to clamp down on the intruding arm. This is especially effective if the opponent is on his knees instead of lying flat, which is why the half nelson should not be attempted until the opponent's stomach is on the ground. When the aggressor is driving forward perpendicularly to the opponent's body, the opponent can try to avoid being flipped over onto his back by extending his opposite foot in the direction of the undesired movement, and planting it. Once the opponent is on his back, he can attempt to avoid having his shoulders pinned to the mat, and to get off his back, by planting his feet and pushing the mat with them, allowing him to roll his head back so the top of his head is on the mat, rather than the back of his neck being on the aggressor's arm. From this position he can try to turn over either toward or away from the aggressor.", "The three-quarter nelson is done by performing a half nelson using one hand and passing the other hand underneath the opponent from the same side. The passing hand goes under the opponent's neck and around the far side to the top of the neck, where it is locked with the other hand around the neck at the wrist or using a palm-to-palm or interlacing fingers grip. The three-quarter nelson can be used in amateur wrestling to pin the opponent and is more secure than a half-nelson.", "The full nelson (sometimes called a double nelson or a double shoulder lock) is done by performing half nelsons with both arms. In collegiate, high school, middle school or junior high school, and most other forms of amateur wrestling, the move is illegal because of possibility of injury. The holder is on the back side of the opponent, and has his or her hands extended upwards under the opponents armpits, holding the neck with a palm-to-palm grip or with interlaced fingers. By cranking the hands forward, pressure can be applied to the neck of the opponent. The usage of the full nelson in combat sports is very limited. It is a secure hold which can be used to control the opponent, but does not allow for finishing action, such as pinning the opponent, executing a reliable submission hold, or allowing for effective striking. Because it can be used as a limited neck crank, it is considered dangerous in some grappling arts, and is banned, for instance, in amateur wrestling." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Guerrilla and army years.", "First presidential term.", "Second term.", "2016 delayed election and extension of presidency.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Joseph Kabila Kabange and his twin sister Jaynet Kabila were born on 4 June 1971. According to official accounts, the twins were born at Hewabora, a small village in the Fizi territory of the South Kivu province, in eastern Congo. Rumors have abounded that Kabila was actually born in Tanzania, which would make him a citizen of that country. He is the son of long time rebel, former AFDL leader and president of the Congo Laurent-Désiré Kabila and Sifa Mahanya. Kabila's childhood coincided with the low point of his father's political and military career. He was raised in relative remoteness, with few records of his early days. Kabila attended a primary school organized by his father's rebel forces, before moving to Tanzania where he completed primary and secondary school. Due to his father's status as an enemy of Zairean strongman Mobutu Sese Seko, Kabila posed as a Tanzanian in his school years to avoid detection by Zairean intelligence agents.", "", "Following high school, Kabila followed a military curriculum in Tanzania, then at Makerere University in Uganda. In October 1996, Laurent-Désiré Kabila launched the campaign in Zaire to oust the Mobutu regime with his newly formed army, the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Joseph Kabila became the commander of an AFDL unit that included \"kadogos\" (child soldiers) and likely played a key role in major battles on the road to Kinshasa, but his exact whereabouts during the war have been difficult to establish. Joseph Kabila appears to have been present at the liberation of Kisangani where media reports identified him as commander of the rebel force that took the city after four days of intense fighting. Following the AFDL's victory, and Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rise to the presidency, Joseph Kabila went on to get further training at the PLA National Defense University, in Beijing, China. When he returned from China, Kabila was awarded the rank of major-general, and appointed Deputy Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in 1998. He was later, in 2000, appointed Chief of Staff of the Land Forces, a position he held until the elder President Kabila's assassination in January 2001. As chief of staff, he was one of the main military leaders in charge of government troops during the time of the Second Congo War (1998–2003).", "Kabila rose to the presidency on 26 January 2001 after the assassination of Laurent-Désiré Kabila, becoming the world's first head of government born in the 1970s. Aged 29, he was considered young and inexperienced. He subsequently attempted to end the ongoing civil war by negotiating peace agreements with rebel groups backed by Rwanda and Uganda, the same regional armies who had brought Laurent-Désiré Kabila's rebel group to power three years before. The 2002 peace agreement signed at the Inter-Congolese Dialogue in Sun City, South Africa, which nominally ended the Second Congo War, maintained Joseph Kabila as President and head of state of the Congo. An interim administration was set up under him, including the leaders of the country's two main rebel groups as vice-presidents (two other vice-presidents were representatives of the civilian opposition and government supporters respectively). On 28 March 2004, an apparent coup attempt or mutiny around the capital Kinshasa, allegedly by members of the former guard of former president Mobutu Sese Seko (who had been ousted by Kabila's father in 1997 and died in the same year), failed. On 11 June 2004, coup plotters led by Major Eric Lenge allegedly attempted to take power and announced on state radio that the transitional government was suspended, but were defeated by loyalist troops. In December 2005, a partial referendum approved a new constitution, and a presidential election was held on 30 July 2006, having been delayed from an earlier date in June. The new constitution lowered the minimum age of presidential candidates from 35 to 30; Kabila turned 35 shortly before the election. In March 2006, he registered as a candidate. Although Kabila registered as an independent, he is the \"initiator\" of the People's Party for Reconstruction and Democracy (PPRD), which chose him as their candidate in the election. Although the new constitution stipulates that a debate be held between the two remaining candidates for the presidency, no debates took place and many declared this unconstitutional. According to widely disputed provisional results announced on 20 August, Kabila won 45% of the vote; his main opponent, vice-president and former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba, won 20%. The irregularities surrounding the elections results prompted a run-off vote between Kabila and Bemba which was held on 29 October. On 15 November, the electoral commission announced the official results and Kabila was declared the winner, with 58.05% of the vote. These results were confirmed by the Supreme Court on 27 November 2006, and Kabila was inaugurated on 6 December 2006 as the country's newly elected President. He named Antoine Gizenga, who placed third in the first round of the presidential election (and then backed Kabila in the second round) as prime minister on 30 December. In 2006, Kabila responded to evidence of widespread sex crimes committed by the Congolese military by describing the acts as \"simply unforgivable\". He pointed out that 300 soldiers had been convicted of sex crimes, although he added that this was not enough.", "In December 2011, Kabila was re-elected for a second term as president. After the results were announced on 9 December, there was violent unrest in Kinshasa and Mbuji-Mayi, where official tallies showed that a strong majority had voted for the opposition candidate Etienne Tshisekedi. Official observers from the Carter Center reported that returns from almost 2,000 polling stations in areas where support for Tshisekedi was strong had been lost and not included in the official results. They described the election as lacking credibility. On 20 December, Kabila was sworn in for a second term, promising to invest in infrastructure and public services. However, Tshisekedi maintained that the result of the election was illegitimate and said that he intended also to \"swear himself in\" as president. In January 2012, Catholic bishops in DR Congo also condemned the elections, complaining of \"treachery, lies and terror\", and calling on the election commission to correct \"serious errors\". On 17 January 2015, Congo's parliament passed an electoral law requiring a census before the next elections. On 19 January protests led by students at the University of Kinshasa broke out. The protests began following the announcement of a proposed law that would allow Kabila to remain in power until a national census could be conducted (elections had been planned for 2016). By Wednesday 21 January clashes between police and protesters had claimed at least 42 lives, although the government claimed only 15 people had been killed. The Senate responded to protests by striking the census requirement from its law. Moïse Katumbi announced in October 2015 that he would leave the ruling party due to disagreements over the scheduled election. Jaynet Kabila, the sister of Kabila, was named in the Panama Papers. Document leaks in 2016 revealed that she is a part-owner of a major Congolese television company,, through offshore subsidiaries. Kabila is vastly unpopular, partly because of the conflicts in the Congo, but also because of the widespread belief that he has enriched himself and his family while ignoring millions of poor Congolese. There have been protests against his attempts to change term limits and extend his rule. Harsh demonstrations erupted on 20 April 2016 in Lubumbashi, one of Congo's biggest cities. When Moise Katumbi, the former governor of Katanga Province in the Democratic Republic of Congo and now an opposition figure, announced that he is running for president in an election that was supposed to be held by the end of 2016, his house was surrounded by security forces wanting to arrest him. Although Kabila's forces have scored an important victory against one large rebel group, the M23, in 2013, many other armed groups have splintered into dangerous movements. And by 2016 new ones had risen, like militias in the Nyunzu area that have killed hundreds of people.", "According to the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, President Kabila should not be allowed to serve more than two terms. On 19 September 2016, massive protests rocked Kinshasa calling for him to step down as legally mandated. Seventeen people were killed. Elections to determine a successor to Kabila were originally scheduled to be held on 27 November 2016. On 29 September 2016, the nation's electoral authority announced that the election would not be held until early 2018. According to the electoral commission's vice president, the commission \"hasn't called elections in 2016 because the number of voters isn't known.\" However, the opposition alleges that Kabila had intentionally delayed the election to remain in power. Partially in response to the delayed election, the United States issued sanctions against two members of Kabila's inner circle, John Numbi and Gabriel Amisi Kumba, on 28 September. These actions were seen as a warning to President Kabila to respect his country's constitution. More demonstrations were planned to mark the passing of the end of the presidential mandate. Opposition groups claim that the outcome of late elections would be civil war. Maman Sidikou, the Secretary-General's Special Representative for DR Congo and head of MONUSCO, said that a tipping point into uncontrollable violence could come about very quickly if the political situation is not normalised. Kabila's second term as president of the Democratic Republic of Congo was due to end on 20 December 2016. A statement issued by his spokesperson on 19 December 2016, stated that Joseph Kabila would remain in post until a new president is in place following elections which will not be held until at least April 2018. Kabila subsequently installed a new cabinet led by prime minister Samy Badibanga, resulting in protests in which at least 40 people were killed. Under articles 75 and 76 of the Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Congo, should the office of the president become vacant, the Chairman of the Senate, presently Léon Kengo would assume the presidency in an acting capacity. On 23 December, an agreement was proposed between the main opposition group and the Kabila government under which the latter agreed not to alter the constitution and to leave office before the end of 2017. Under the agreement opposition leader Étienne Tshisekedi will oversee that the deal is implemented and the country's Prime Minister will be appointed by the opposition. In late February 2018 the ministry of international affairs of Botswana told Kabila that it was time to go and said the \"worsening humanitarian situation\" in DRC is compounded by the fact that \"its leader has persistently delayed holding elections, and has lost control over the security of his country\". On December 30, 2018 the presidential election to determine the successor to Kabila was held. Kabila endorsed Emmanuel Ramazani Shadary, his former interior minister. On January 10, 2019, the electoral commission announced opposition candidate Félix Tshisekedi as the winner of the vote.", "Kabila married Olive Lembe di Sita, on 1 June 2006. The wedding ceremonies took place on 17 June 2006. Kabila and his spouse have a daughter, born in 2001, named Sifa, after Kabila's mother. As Kabila is Protestant and Lembe di Sita is Catholic, the wedding ceremonies were ecumenical; they were officiated by both the Catholic Archbishop of Kinshasa, Cardinal Frederic Etsou Bamungwabi, and Pierre Marini Bodho – presiding bishop of the Church of Christ in Congo, the umbrella church for most denominations in the Congo, known within the country simply as \"The Protestant Church\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biological membranes.", "Reverse osmosis.", "Role in cellular communication.", "Other types." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An example of a biological semi-permeable membrane is the lipid bilayer, on which is based on the plasma membrane that surrounds all biological cells. A group of phospholipids (consisting of a phosphate head and two fatty acid tails) arranged into a double layer, the phospholipid bilayer is a semipermeable membrane that is very specific in its permeability. The hydrophilic phosphate heads are in the outside layer and exposed to the water content outside and within the cell. The hydrophobic tails are the layer hidden in the inside of the membrane. The phospholipid bilayer is most permeable to small, uncharged solutes. Protein channels float through the phospholipids, and, collectively, this model is known as the fluid mosaic model. Aquaporins are protein channel pores permeable to HO water.", "The diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane is called osmosis. This allows only certain particles to go through including water and leaving behind the solutes including salt and other contaminants. In the process of reverse osmosis, thin film composite membranes (TFC or TFM) are used. These are semipermeable membranes manufactured principally for use in water purification or desalination systems. They also have use in chemical applications such as batteries and fuel cells. In essence, a TFC material is a molecular sieve constructed in the form of a film from two or more layered materials. Prof. Sidney Loeb and Srinivasa Sourirajan invented the first practical synthetic semi-permeable membrane. Membranes used in reverse osmosis are, in general, made out of polyamide, chosen primarily for its permeability to water and relative impermeability to various dissolved impurities including salt ions and other small molecules that cannot be filtered. Another example of a semipermeable membrane is dialysis tubing.", "The semipermeable membrane is pertinent to cellular communication. A cell membrane consists of proteins and phospholipids. Signaling molecules send chemical messages to the proteins in the cell membrane. The signaling molecules bind to proteins, which alters the protein structure. A change in the protein structure initiates a signalling cascade. An example of a technique that leverages membrane-based are tissue & cellular preservation technologies which show that adherent cells such as stem cells and myoblasts have better outcomes than non-adherent cells due to persistent signalling before and after preservation.", "Other types of semipermeable membranes are cation exchange membrane (CEM), charge mosaic membrane (CMM), bipolar membrane (BPM), anion exchange membrane (AEM) alkali anion exchange membrane (AAEM) and proton exchange membrane (PEM)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Industrialisation.", "Independence, war, and after.", "Geography.", "Topography.", "Climate.", "Cityscape and architecture.", "Government.", "Demographics.", "Crime.", "Culture.", "Entertainment.", "Music.", "Media and literature.", "Sports.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Healthcare.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first settlement in the Enugu area was the small Nike village of Ogui, which was present since the era of the Atlantic Slave Trade. \"Nike\" in the Igbo language means \"with strength or power.\" It was through slave raiding that the Nike people acquired most of their lands, which were mostly unsettled. The Nike used slaves for a defence strategy, placing slave camps at the edge of their territories so that it was harder for an enemy to access the free born. The Nike people were allied to the Aro people who formed the Aro Confederacy (1690—1901) which was an Igbo organisation that controlled slave trading in the Enugu area. Along with the Aro people who came to trade from Arochukwu in the south were the Hausa people who came to trade from the north. The Hausa traders provided horses to the Nike which were used for rituals by the Igbo. Both the Aro and Hausa migrated back and forth to what is now the city of Enugu and were considered foreigners to the area.", "A British campaign to invade Arochukwu and open up the hinterland for British military and political rule was carried out in 1901. A war between the British and Aro officially started on 1 December 1901 lasting till 24 March 1902 when the Aro were defeated. The Aro Confederacy ended and the rest of Aro dominated areas was added to The Colony and Protectorate of Southern Nigeria, declared in 1900. Europeans first arrived in the Enugu area in 1903 when the British/Australian geologist Albert Ernest Kitson led an exploration of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate to search for especially valued mineral resources under the supervision of the Imperial Institute, London. By 1909 coal was found under the village of Enugwu Ngwo in the Udi and Okoga areas and by 1913 the coal was confirmed to be in quantities that would be viable commercially. By 1914 the colonial government had already merged the Northern and Southern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. In 1915 the British began talks with the indigenous people of the land that would become Enugu about its acquisition in order to lay the Eastern Line railway and to build a colliery. The first houses built in the area were in a temporary settlement consisting of Igbo traditional mud housing inhabited by a W.J. Leck and some other Europeans on Hill-top, the only plain on the escarpment rolling before the jungled Milliken Hill. Antiques of the old residence of the colonialists called the \" Europeans quarters\" still abound on the Hill-top, an outskirt of Enugwu-Ngwo town. Another settlement known as \"Ugwu Alfred\" (Igbo: Alfred's Hill) or \"Alfred's Camp\", inhabited by an Alfred Inoma (a leader of indigenous labourers from Onitsha) and his labourers, was located on a hillside. After the land acquisition by the British, Frederick Lugard, the Governor-General of Nigeria at the time, named the colliery built at the bottom of the Udi Hills \"Enugu Coal Camp\" to distinguish it from Enugwu Ngwo which overlooks the city from atop a scarp on Enugu's west. The first coal mine in the Enugu area was the Udi mine opened in 1915 which was shut down two years later and replaced with the Iva Valley mine. Enugu became a major coal mining area and the only significant one in West Africa. The Eastern Line railway connecting Enugu with Port Harcourt was completed in 1916 in order to export the coal through its seaport of which the city was created for this purpose. Enugu became one of the few cities in West Africa created out of contact with Europeans. By 1916 parts of Enugu reserved for Europeans were set up by the colonial government. The area now known as the Government Reserved Area (GRA) became the European Quarters located north of the Ogbete River; alongside this was a section developed for African residents located south of the river. The built-up area of Enugu comprised these two areas, and by 1917 the city officially gained township status. On the African side of the city a rapid influx of migrant workers sparked the development of squatter camps on the Udi Hills near the coal mines and the Iva Valley. In 1938 Enugu became the administrative capital of the Eastern Region. The number of employed coal miners in Enugu grew from 6,000 (of mostly Udi men) in 1948 to 8,000 in 1958. Enugu's population rose sharply with its industrialisation; the population of the city reached 62,000 in 1952. Mining in Enugu was sometimes turbulent, as demonstrated by the events of 18 November 1949 when 21 striking miners were shot and killed and 51 wounded by police under British governance. The massacre that came to be known as \"The Iva Valley Shooting\" fuelled nationalist or \"Zikist\" sentiments among most Nigerians, and especially amongst Eastern Nigerians. \"Zikisim\" was a post World War II movement that was created out of admiration for Nnamdi Azikiwe who was a prominent nationalist of the National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC). The shooting was right after a period of unrest when miners were angered by the belief that their full pay was being held back by the colliery management, a belief that was pushed by the nationalist press. Many of the Zikists tried to use the Iva Valley shooting to fuel their nationalistic agenda and push the British imperial administration, out of Nigeria.", "Enugu became a municipality in 1956 with Umaru Altine its first mayor. After four years passed, Nigeria gained its independence in 1960. On 27 May 1967 the Nigerian government divided the Western, Northern and Eastern Region into 12 states and Enugu was made the capital of the new East Central State. On 30 May 1967 Enugu was declared the capital of the short-lived Republic of Biafra, the latter created out of the eastern Nigerian states of East Central, Cross River and Rivers. Biafra was declared by Ojukwu because of Eastern Nigeria after their members were attacked injured and killed in a series of ethnic attacks launched by some other ethnic groups in other parts of the country following the first military coup executed by mostly Igbo generals, in which top northern Nigerian leaders among others were terminated. The main rivals of the mostly Igbo Eastern Nigerians were the Hausa/Fulani people of Northern Nigeria. A northern headed war on the secession (1967—1970) and continuous attacks on the Igbos in other part of Nigeria lead Igbos from northern and western Nigeria to return to their \"native\" areas in eastern Nigeria and Enugu became a destination. Radio Biafra, alternatively the Voice of Biafra (formerly the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service), was based in Enugu; it was from here that the Biafran leader, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, broadcast speeches and propaganda to Biafrans and Nigeria. Because of the war, Enugu witnessed a decrease in the number of non-Igbo, specifically non-eastern Nigerian residents. On 4 October 1967 the Nigerian military bombarded Enugu with artillery just outside its boundaries before capturing it a week later, shortly after this Umuahia became the new capital of the republic. Years after the Republic of Biafra reverted to Nigeria, Enugu is still regarded as the \"Capital of Igboland.\" Enugu resumed in 1970 as the capital of the East Central State after the republic was dissolved. On 3 February 1976 the East Central State was made into two new states, Imo and Anambra; there were then 19 states in Nigeria; Enugu was the capital of Anambra. On 27 August 1991 the military dictatorship of Ibrahim Babangida divided the old Anambra State into two new states, Enugu State and Anambra State. Enugu remained as the capital of the newly created Enugu State, while Awka became the capital of the new Anambra State.", "", "Despite its name meaning \"hill top\" in the Igbo language, Enugu lies at the foot of an escarpment and not a hill. Enugu is located in the Cross River basin and the Benue trough and has the best developed coal in this area. Precambrian basement rock in this region is overlaid with sediments bearing coal from the Cretaceous and Tertiary age. Coal seams in the Enugu coal district measure between in thickness and the reserves have been estimated to be more than 300 million tonnes. Enugu's hills at the extreme may reach an elevation of. Highlands surrounding Enugu for the most part are underlain by sandstone, while lowlands are underlain by shale. Much of the escarpment stretching from Enugu to Orlu has been ravaged by soil and gully erosion. Other geological features in Enugu include the Nike Lake near which the Nike Lake Hotel has been built. The Ekulu, Asata, Ogbete, Aria, Idaw and Nyaba rivers are the six largest rivers located in the city. The Ekulu River is the largest body of water in Enugu urban and its reservoir contributes to part of the city's domestic water supply.", "Enugu is located in a tropical rain forest zone with a derived savannah. The city has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: \"Aw\"). Enugu's climate is humid and this humidity is at its highest between March and November. For the whole of Enugu State the mean daily temperature is. As in the rest of West Africa, the rainy season and dry season are the only weather periods that recur in Enugu. The average annual rainfall in Enugu is around, which arrives intermittently and becomes very heavy during the rainy season. Other weather conditions affecting the city include Harmattan, a dusty trade wind lasting a few weeks of December and January. Like the rest of Nigeria, Enugu is hot all year round.", "The tallest building in Enugu's Central Business District (CBD) is the African Continental Bank (ACB) tower with six stories. The tower was built in the late 50s for the African Continental Bank Limited which was founded by Nnamdi Azikiwe who became the first president of Nigeria after the country's independence from the United Kingdom in October 1960. The opening of the building took place on 30 April 1959. Other tall buildings include the Hotel Presidential opened in August 1963. The seven story building contains 100 rooms and is located in the Independence Layout. Hotel Presidential cost $2.5 million to build and was commissioned by the government of what was then the Eastern Region to serve visiting businessmen, officials and tourists. In the middle of Enugu is the Michael Okpara Square, dedicated to the premier of the former Eastern Region Michael Okpara. Beside the square is located the Enugu State Government House, Enugu State House of Assembly and Enugu State Judiciary Complex. Enugu's coal mines are dotted around on the outskirts of the city, a majority of which are closed. The Colliery Camp mines are located in the Iva Valley which is near the neighbouring town of Ngwo and Hilltop of Enugu. The Iva Valley coal mine is accessed through the Iva Valley road linking Enugu with Ngwo. Other coal mines are located in the Ogbete and Coal Camp layouts; these mines are located on the periphery of the city near the Iva Valley as well. Architectural design in Enugu's early years was in the hands of the British colonial administration; Enugu's architecture was consequently very European. English cottage housing and Victorian houses were used for housing Europeans and Nigerian colonial civil servants in the early 20th century until Europeans started trying to adapt their architecture to the tropical climate. Some other examples of these European styles are visible in churches of the colonial era, such as the Holy Ghost Cathedral with its Greco-Roman stained glass windows depicting Europeans. Enugu's roads were reflective of its British rule; much of the city's narrow roads in the GRA have been preserved dating back to the incorporation of the city itself. Low rent one bedroom flats in Enugu and other Nigerian cities are known as \"face-me-I-face-you\" for the way a group of flats face each other and form a square where a compound entrance is led into.", "Enugu city covers three local government areas: Enugu East, Enugu North and Enugu South. A Local Government Council exists for each of these seats that manages sectors including primary education and health; an elected Executive Chairman and a group of elected Councillors form the Local Government Council that heads each Local Government Area. Enugu South is split between its rural and urban parts when electing an Executive Chairman. The Executive Chairmen include Paul Ogbe for Enugu South Urban, Theresa Egbo for Enugu South Rural, Emma Onoh for Enugu North, and Christopher Ugwu for Enugu East; these chairmen represent their LGA's in the Enugu State House of Assembly. The Ministry of Lands, Survey and Town Planning (at the state level) and the Local Planning Authority (at the local government level) are responsible for the administration of urban lands and town planning. Government House, Enugu is where the government of the state is based. On the federal level, the city of Enugu is split between two congressional areas; Enugu North/South represented by Chukwuegbo Ofor and Enugu East represented by Gilbert Nnaji; both representatives are in the People's Democratic Party (PDP) as is Ifeanyichukwu Ugwuanyi (GBURU-GBURU), the governor of Enugu State.", "According to the 2006 Nigerian census, the Enugu metropolitan area has an estimated population of 722,664. This estimate along with population estimates of other Nigerian cities have been disputed with accusations of population inflation and deflation in favour of the northern part of the country. The population of Enugu is predominantly Christian, as is the rest of southeastern Nigeria. Like the rest of Nigeria most people in Enugu speak Nigerian English alongside the dominant language in the region. In this case the dominant language is Igbo. Nigerian English, or \"pidgin\" (a mix of English and indigenous words) is often used because of ethnic diversity and sometimes because of the diversity of dialects in the Igbo language. In cultural and linguistic terms Enugu is within the Northern cluster of the Igbo region which includes other towns and cities like Awka and Nsukka. The indigenous people of Enugu include Enugwu-Ngwo people who live on the aged Hill-Top plain towards the Milliken Hills on the west, with their farm lands sprawling all over the valley, the Ogui Nike who live in the areas surrounding Hotel Presidential, Obiagu, Ama-Igbo, Ihewuzi and Onu-Asata. Other groups include the Awkunanaw people, who live mainly in the Achara Layout and Uwani areas. Other Nike people live around the Abakpa, Iji-Nike, and Emene areas of the city. Most of the non-indigenous people of Enugu are migrants from other parts of the Igbo cultural area. After the majority Igbo, the Yoruba people are another significant ethnic group found present in Enugu; other groups include the Hausa, Kanuri, Ijaw, and Fulani people.", "Enugu's crime rate rose in 2009 as kidnapping and armed robbery rates increased in southeastern Nigeria specifically between September and December. The Enugu State government sought to check the high kidnapping rates by passing a bill in February 2009 that made kidnapping by the use of a weapon a capital offence; the bill was passed by the Enugu House of Assembly unanimously. 1,088 arrests were made in the city between September and December 2009; 270 of these were in September, 303 were in October, 295 in November and 220 were in December. 477 of these detainees were accused of committing capital offences which included kidnapping. The motives of kidnappers in Enugu are primarily financial and some ransoms went into the millions of Naira. The Chief Press Secretary to the Governor of Enugu State, Dan Nwomeh, had his ransom set as high as ₦500 million (3.3 million US Dollars ), dropping to ₦200 million and then ₦50 million before he was released without a ransom being paid because of the refusal of the government to negotiate with the kidnappers. Much of the crime in Enugu and the rest of Nigeria has been attributed to unemployment.", "As a Northern Igbo city, Enugu shares cultural traits with its neighbouring towns. Two important Igbo traditional festivals take place in Enugu annually; the Mmanwu festival and the New yam festival. The Mmanwu festival takes place in November and features various types of masquerades that each have a name. This festival is held at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium as a parade of carnival-like masquerades that are accompanied by music and it is supported by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture. The second important Igbo festival, the New yam festival known as 'iwa ji', is held between August and October marking the harvesting and feasting of the new yam. The yam is a root vegetable that is the staple crop and a cultural symbol for the Igbo people. Recently created festivals include the Enugu Festival of Arts which is managed by the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture. The festival highlights African culture and traditions and it is here that the Enugu Council of Arts and Culture included the Mmanwu parade as part of the events. The Enugu Festival of Arts was started in 1986; it has modernised the Mmanwu festival by transferring it from its traditional village surroundings to the urban setting of Enugu. Diana, Princess of Wales was a notable spectator of Enugu's cultural shows when she visited the city in 1990. The tourism industry in Enugu, managed by the Enugu State Tourism Board (ESTB), is small; however, the state government recognises a variety of historic and recreational sites. These sites include places like the Udi Hills, from which the majority of Enugu city can be viewed. The Polo amusement park is a funfair that is among the first generation of public parks in the city; other parks in the city include the Murtala Muhammed Park. Enugu's former coal mines, Onyeama and Okpara, are open to public visits. Some other spots include: The Institute of Management and Technology (IMT) Sculptural Garden and Art Gallery, the Eastern Region Parliamentary Building, the Old Government Lodge, and Enugu Golf course. Enugu Zoo is another attraction in the city. It is divided into the botanical garden and the zoological section. A National Museum is located near Enugu at its north, although it receives few visitors. It is managed by National Commission for Museums and Monuments (NCMM). Other galleries include the Bona Gallery.", "", "Enugu rose as an important centre for Highlife music in Nigeria in the 1950s. The Igbo dominated version of the genre grew out of earlier \"Igbo blues\" or \"palm wine music\" and further spread in popularity to the Southern Cameroons where Enugu had considerable influence in arts and culture in towns such as Limbe, Tiko and Douala. Some prominent musicians with origins in Enugu include Sonny Okosun, an afrobeat musician who was born and raised in Enugu and joined his first band The Postmen that was based in the city in 1965; Celestine Ukwu joined Michael Ejeagha's Enugu based Paradise Rhythm Orchestra in 1962 before creating his own band and had a recreational club in the city after the Nigeria Civil War; other musicians include 2Face Idibia; a Hip hop/R&B musician who partly grew up and studied music in the city. Other notable musicians originating from Enugu include rapper Phyno, Slowdog, William Onyeabor, and highlife musician Flavour N'abania.", "English-language newspapers published and sold in Enugu include the \"Daily Star\", \"Evening Star\", \"The Renaissance\" and \"New Renaissance\". One of the earliest newspapers published in Enugu was the \"Eastern Sentinel\" published by Nnamdi Azikiwe's Zik Group in 1955, but failed in 1960. Among the city's television and radio stations are the Nigerian Television Authority's network affiliate (NTA Enugu) headquarters located at Independence Layout; and the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) network affiliate station (Radio Enugu) which broadcasts in English, Igbo, Efik, Ijaw and Tiv. Enugu State Broadcasting Service Television (ESBS-TV) is a state owned television broadcasting company which offers 18 hours of continuous broadcasting on weekends. Enugu, after Lagos is the preferred city for shooting films in Nigeria and a film production centre in the East. In 2007, Enugu hosted the first-ever film festival in the state, the Enugu International Film Festival. Held at Hotel Presidential, the festival's intent was to highlight Enugu as a \"film making hub\" in Africa including movie premiers and prizes for different film categories. Some of Nigeria's well-known writers were born and have lived in the city of Enugu. Chinua Achebe, writer of Things Fall Apart lived in Enugu in 1958, the year the book was published. He again moved to the city during the Nigerian Civil War after escaping Lagos with his family. It was at this time that he met and became friends with Nigerian poet Christopher Okigbo where they started the publishing house Citadel Press, among its titles \"How the Dog was Domesticated\" and \"How the Leopard Got His Claws\". Okigbo lived in Enugu during the early months of the Nigerian Civil War. His home in Hilltop contained many of his unpublished writings which were mostly destroyed by bombing early in the war. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, writer of Half of a Yellow Sun, a winner of the Orange Prize for Fiction in 2007, was born in Enugu in 1977 and grew up in Nsukka.", "The Enugu Rangers, a first-division professional league association football team, is Enugu's home team that plays in the Nigerian Premier League and are based in the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium. Former Rangers players include Jay-Jay Okocha and Taribo West. Enugu's main sports centre is the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium, named after Nnamdi Azikiwe, the first president of Nigeria. The stadium remained the centre of sports for the whole of the Eastern Region until the Nigerian Civil War broke out. At the war's end the stadium was refurbished. Enugu was a host for the 2009 FIFA U-17 World Cup games (24 October – 15 November) alongside Calabar and five other Nigerian cities with matches taking place at the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium. Its hosting of the FIFA U-17 World Cup benefited Enugu through the renovation of the Nnamdi Azikiwe Stadium, having had such things as a new artificial surface laid.", "Nicknamed the \"Coal City\", Enugu's economy in the early 20th century depended on coal mining in the Udi plateau; this industry was the pushing force towards the city's growth. The Nigerian Coal Corporation has been based in Enugu since its creation in 1950 where it controlled coal mining. With the creation of the Eastern Line, Enugu was connected with the sea via Port Harcourt to its south and later connected to the city of Kaduna to Enugu's north. The Nigerian Civil War brought widespread devastation that forced a decline in coal production from damage or destruction of equipment. coal mining is no longer the major source of income and mines lay unused. Other minerals mined in Enugu include iron ore, limestone, fine clay, marble, and silica sand. In Enugu most goods are sold in open markets or by street hawkers; a significant number of street hawkers in Nigeria are children., around 44 under-16-year-olds (equally boys and girls) hawk on every street on every hour in Enugu. There are three main urban markets in Enugu: Ogbete Market, Awkunanaw Market and New Market. New Market is a major market for the sale of garri. Ogbete market is patronised by merchants from all over the surrounding area, including merchants from cities like Onitsha, Aguleri, Abakaliki and Aba. In Ogebete market non-food goods are also sold. Brewing and soft-drink bottling are among other industries in the city; there is also a Mercedes assembly plant as well as the production and manufacturing of machinery, pottery, tiles, steel, cement, asbestos, petroleum, and pharmaceuticals. For a period of time Sosoliso Airlines had its head office on the grounds of Akanu Ibiam International Airport in Enugu. The former Eastern Region was once famed for producing half the world's total output of palm kernels. Since the Nigerian Civil War production has markedly declined largely because the plantations and processing equipment were either damaged or destroyed. The production of other important cash crops such as cocoa, groundnut and groundnut oil, rubber, cassava, cotton and cotton seed and timber tumbled after the civil war and the subsequent oil boom years. Consequently, the area called Enugu State as well as the rest of Nigeria, which was once a self-sufficient net exporter in agricultural produce, must import food.", "Enugu has three main tertiary institutions: the Enugu State University of Science & Technology (ESUT); the University of Nigeria,Nsukka Campus (UNN)and Enugu Campus (UNEC); and the Institute of Management & Technology (IMT). Another notable tertiary institution in Enugu State is the Federal Cooperative College, Oji River (FCCO). The city is also home to Our Saviour Institute of Science and Technology, a polytechnic. Some notable secondary schools in Enugu include the College of the Immaculate Conception (CIC) built in 1940, Holy Rosary College (HRC) built in 1943, Colliery Comprehensive Secondary school, Queen's Secondary School, Federal Government College, Royal Crown Academy, Nsukka and the University of Nigeria Secondary school. University Teaching Hospital (UNTH) Enugu, under the university of Nigeria, is another university located in the city.", "In Enugu, health care services can be obtained at several institutions including the ESUT (Enugu State University of Science and Technology) Teaching Hospital; University of Nigeria, Enugu, Teaching Hospital; Park Lane General Hospital in the GRA; PMC (Peenok Medical Center) located on Ziks Avenue in Uwani; Hansa Clinic on Awolowo Street in Uwani; Niger Foundation Hospital and Diagnostic Centre on Presidential Close in the Independence Layout; and the Ntasi Obi Ndi no n'Afufu Hospital organization located on Enuguabor Street in the Trans-Ekulu layout, among others. Some of the specialist hospitals in Enugu include the Psychiatric Hospital Enugu and the National Orthopaedic Hospital Enugu (NOHE). Many of the hospitals in Enugu are privately run. The UNTH and the National Orthopaedic Hospital are among some of the government controlled hospitals in the city. The medical equipment for the UNTH was upgraded in 2009 as well as parts of the hospital which were renovated in the same year. Most hospitals in the city suffer from a poor standard of medical facilities available to them; many of the city's citizens travel abroad for medical care. However, hospitals have been aided by foreign organisations and by Enugu's community at home and abroad who have donated medicine and other medical equipment. The most developed government hospital in Enugu is the Park Lane Hospital. The governor has said that the state has bought some ambulance service vehicles in March 2010. Enugu State has established free medical care for pregnant women and for all children under 5 years of age in the state. The child healthcare programme, founded under the District Health System (DHS), was added to the states 2008 budget. Enugu State has a HIV/AIDS prevalence of 6.5%, one of the highest in the country.", "Enugu is located on the narrow-gauge Eastern Line railway linked to the city of Port Harcourt; the Enugu train station is by the side of the National Stadium; dating back to its coal-mining origins, it is located on Ogui Street. The main forms of transportation in the city are buses, taxi cabs and buses., \"Okada\" (motorcycles) once served as public transportation in the city until the state government banned them from this use in April 2009. Most transport enters and leaves the city through Enugu's Ogbete Motor Park, Garki Motor Park serves as a transport pick-up point as well. Unregistered taxis are known as \"Kabu Kabu\" and are differentiated with registered ones through the lack of yellow paint on the unregistered vehicles. In 2009, Enugu introduced a taxi job scheme under 'Coal City Cabs' to help in the eradication of poverty in the city. 200 registered Nissan Sunny taxis, provided by the state government; and 200 registered Suzuki taxis, provided by the Umuchinemere Pro-Credit Micro Finance Bank, were given out on loan to unemployed citizens in the city who will operate as taxi drivers and will own the vehicles after payments are completed. 20 buses with the capacity for 82 passengers seated and standing were introduced as Coal City Shuttle buses on 13 March 2009 to run as public transport for Enugu urban. The main airport in the state is the Akanu Ibiam International Airport which can be accessed by buses and taxis. Renovations began on 30 November 2009 to upgrade it to accommodate wide-bodied aircraft. These plans include extending the runway by to make it long; the runway will be widened from. It is estimated that the project will cost ₦4.13bn (27.3 million US Dollars ). The A3, or the Enugu-Port Harcourt highway, was opened in the 1970s and links the two cities together by passing through Aba, a major urban settlement. The A3 goes further on past Enugu's north to link to the city of Jos via Makurdi. Two more highways, the A232 from Benin City, Asaba and Onitsha to Enugu's east and the A343 from Abakaliki to Enugu's west, makes Enugu the site of a major junction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Production.", "Culinary uses.", "Nutrition.", "Health risks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Originally, the term \"nori\" was generic and referred to seaweeds, including \"hijiki\". One of the oldest descriptions of nori is dated to around the 8th century. In the Taihō Code enacted in 701, \"nori\" was already included in the form of taxation. Local people have been described as drying nori in Hitachi Province fudoki (721–721), and harvesting of nori was mentioned in Izumo Province fudoki (713–733), showing that nori was used as food from ancient times. In \"Utsubo Monogatari\", written around 987, \"nori\" was recognized as a common food. Nori had been consumed as paste form until the sheet form was invented in Asakusa, Edo (contemporary Tokyo), around 1750 in the Edo period through the method of Japanese paper-making. The word \"\"nori\"\" first appeared in an English-language publication in \"C. P. Thunberg's Trav.\", published in 1796. It was used in conjugation as \"\"Awa nori\"\", probably referring to what is now called aonori. The Japanese nori industry was in decline after WWII, when Japan was in need of all food that could be produced. The decline was due to a lack of understanding of nori's three-stage life cycle, such that local people did not understand why traditional cultivation methods were not effective. The industry was rescued by knowledge deriving from the work of British phycologist Kathleen Mary Drew-Baker, who had been researching the organism \"Porphyria umbilicalis\", which grew in the seas around Wales and was harvested for food (bara lafwr or bara lawr), as in Japan. Her work was discovered by Japanese scientists who applied it to artificial methods of seeding and growing the nori, rescuing the industry. Kathleen Baker was hailed as the \"Mother of the Sea\" in Japan and a statue erected in her memory; she is still revered as the savior of the Japanese nori industry. In the 21st century, the Japanese nori industry faces a new decline due to increased competition from seaweed producers in China and Korea and domestic sales tax hikes. The word \"nori\" started to be used widely in the United States, and the product (imported in dry form from Japan) became widely available at natural food stores and Asian-American grocery stores in the 1960s due to the macrobiotic movement and in the 1970s with the increase of sushi bars and Japanese restaurants.", "Production and processing of \"nori\" is an advanced form of agriculture. The biology of \"Pyropia\", although complicated, is well understood, and this knowledge is used to control the production process. Farming takes place in the sea where the \"Pyropia\" plants grow attached to nets suspended at the sea surface and where the farmers operate from boats. The plants grow rapidly, requiring about 45 days from \"seeding\" until the first harvest. Multiple harvests can be taken from a single seeding, typically at about ten-day intervals. Harvesting is accomplished using mechanical harvesters of a variety of configurations. Processing of raw product is mostly accomplished by highly automated machines that accurately duplicate traditional manual processing steps, but with much improved efficiency and consistency. The final product is a paper-thin, black, dried sheet of approximately and in weight. Several grades of \"nori\" are available in the United States. The most common, and least expensive, grades are imported from China, costing about six cents per sheet. At the high end, ranging up to 90 cents per sheet, are \"delicate \"shin-nori\"\" (\"nori\" from the first of the year's several harvests) cultivated in Ariake Sea, off the island of Kyushu in Japan. In Japan, over of coastal waters are given to producing of \"nori\", worth over a billion dollars. China produces about a third of this amount.", "\"Nori\" is commonly used as a wrap for sushi and \"onigiri\". It is also a garnish or flavoring in noodle preparations and soups. It is most typically toasted prior to consumption (\"yaki-nori\"). A common secondary product is toasted and flavored \"nori\" (\"ajitsuke-nori\"), in which a flavoring mixture (variable, but typically soy sauce, sugar, sake, mirin, and seasonings) is applied in combination with the toasting process. It is also eaten by making it into a soy sauce-flavored paste, \"nori no tsukudani\" (). \"Nori\" is sometimes also used as a form of food decoration. A related product, prepared from the unrelated green algae \"Monostroma\" and \"Enteromorpha\", is called \"aonori\" ( literally blue/green \"nori\") and is used like herbs on everyday meals, such as \"okonomiyaki\" and \"yakisoba\".", "Raw seaweed is 85% water, 6% protein, 5% carbohydrates, and has negligible fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, seaweed is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of vitamin A, vitamin C, riboflavin, and folate (table). Seaweed is a moderate source (less than 20% DV) of niacin, iron, and zinc. Seaweed has a high content of iodine, providing a substantial amount in just one gram. A 2014 study reported that dried purple laver (\"nori\") contains vitamin B12 in sufficient quantities to meet the RDA requirement (Vitamin B12 content: 77.6 μg /100 g dry weight). By contrast, a 2017 review concluded that vitamin B12 may be destroyed during metabolism or is converted into inactive B12 analogs during drying and storage. The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics established in 2016 that nori is not an adequate source of vitamin B12 for humans.", "Nori contains toxic metals (arsenic and cadmium), whose levels are highly variable among nori products. It also contains amphipod allergens that can cause serious allergic reactions, especially in highly sensitized crustacean-allergic people. Therefore, daily consumption of high amounts of dried nori is discouraged." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Variations.", "Properties.", "Applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A polygonal chain may also be called a polygonal curve, polygonal path, polyline, piecewise linear curve, broken line or, in geographic information systems, a linestring or linear ring.", "A simple polygonal chain is one in which only consecutive (or the first and the last) segments intersect and only at their endpoints. A closed polygonal chain is one in which the first vertex coincides with the last one, or, alternatively, the first and the last vertices are also connected by a line segment. A simple closed polygonal chain in the plane is the boundary of a simple polygon. Often the term \"polygon\" is used in the meaning of \"closed polygonal chain\", but in some cases it is important to draw a distinction between a polygonal area and a polygonal chain. A polygonal chain is called monotone, if there is a straight line \"L\" such that every line perpendicular to \"L\" intersects the chain at most once. Every nontrivial monotone polygonal chain is open. In comparison, a monotone polygon is a polygon (a closed chain) that can be partitioned into exactly two monotone chains. The graphs of piecewise linear functions form monotone chains with respect to a horizontal line.", "Every set of at least formula_2 points contains a polygonal path of at least formula_3 edges in which all slopes have the same sign. This is a corollary of the Erdős–Szekeres theorem.", "Polygonal chains can often be used to approximate more complex curves. In this context, the Ramer–Douglas–Peucker algorithm can be used to find a polygonal chain with few segments that serves as an accurate approximation. In graph drawing, polygonal chains are often used to represent the edges of graphs, in drawing styles where drawing the edges as straight line segments would cause crossings, edge-vertex collisions, or other undesired features. In this context, it is often desired to draw edges with as few segments and bends as possible, to reduce the visual clutter in the drawing; the problem of minimizing the number of bends is called bend minimization. Polygonal chains are also a fundamental data type in computational geometry. For instance, a point location algorithm of Lee and Preparata operates by decomposing arbitrary planar subdivisions into an ordered sequence of monotone chains, in which a point location query problem may be solved by binary search; this method was later refined to give optimal time bounds for the point location problem. With geographic information system, linestrings may represent any linear geometry, and can be described using the well-known text markup as a LineString or MultiLineString. Linear rings (or LinearRing) are closed and simple polygonal chains used to build polygon geometries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Black Cross emblem.", "Medal and ribbon design.", "Original awards of the Wars of Liberation.", "The recommissioned Iron Cross for the Franco-Prussian War.", "World War I.", "Allied Propaganda versions.", "World War II.", "Iron Cross.", "Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross.", "Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (1939).", "Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (1939).", "Side features of the Iron Cross and entitlements.", "Post–World War II." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Black Cross (') is the emblem used by the Prussian Army, and by the army of Germany from 1871 to present. It was designed on the occasion of the German Campaign of 1813, when Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia commissioned the Iron Cross as the first military decoration open to all ranks, including enlisted men. From this time, the Black Cross was featured on the Prussian war flag alongside the Black Eagle. It was designed by neoclassical architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel, based on a sketch by Friedrich Wilhelm III The design is ultimately derivative of the black cross used by the Teutonic Order. This heraldic cross took various forms throughout the order's history, including a simple Latin cross, a cross potent, cross fleury and occasionally also a cross pattée. When the Quadriga of the Goddess of Peace was retrieved from Paris at Napoleon's fall, it was re-established atop Berlin's Brandenburg Gate. An Iron Cross was inserted into Peace's laurel wreath, making her into a Goddess of Victory. In 1821 Schinkel crowned the top of his design of the National Monument for the Liberation Wars with an Iron Cross, becoming name-giving as Kreuzberg (cross mountain) for the hill it stands on and – 100 years later – for the homonymous quarter adjacent to it. The Black Cross was used on the naval and combat flags of the German Empire. The Black Cross was used as the symbol of the German Army until 1915, when it was replaced by a simpler \". The of the Weimar Republic (1921–35), the of Nazi Germany (1935–46) and the (1 October 1956 to present) also inherited use of the emblem in various forms. The traditional design in black is used on armored vehicles and aircraft, while after German reunification, a new design in blue and silver was introduced for use in other contexts.", "The ribbon for the 1813, 1870 and 1914 Iron Cross (2nd Class) was black with two thin white bands, the colors of Prussia. The non-combatant version of this award had the same medal, but the black and white colors on the ribbon were reversed. The ribbon color for the 1939 EKII was black/white/red/white/black. Since the Iron Cross was issued over several different periods of German history, it was annotated with the year indicating the era in which it was issued. For example, an Iron Cross from World War I bears the year \"1914\", while the same decoration from World War II is annotated \"1939\". The reverse of the 1870, 1914 and 1939 series of Iron Crosses have the year \"1813\" appearing on the lower arm, symbolizing the year the award was created. The 1813 decoration also has the initials \"FW\" for King Friedrich Wilhelm III, while the next two have a \"W\" for the respective kaisers, Wilhelm I and Wilhelm II. The final version shows a swastika. There was also the \"1957\" issue, a replacement medal for holders of the 1939 series which substituted an oak-leaf cluster for the banned swastika. When the Iron Cross was reauthorized for World War I in 1914, it was possible for individuals who had previously been awarded one in 1870 to be subsequently granted another. These recipients were recognized with the award of a clasp featuring a miniaturized 1914 Iron Cross on a metal bar. The award was quite rare, since by this time there were few in service who held the 1870 Iron Cross. In World War II it was also possible for a holder of the 1914 Iron Cross to be awarded a second or higher grade of the 1939 Iron Cross. In such cases, a \"1939 Clasp\" (\") would be worn on the original 1914 Iron Cross. For the 1st Class award, the Spange appears as an eagle with the date \"1939\". This was pinned to the uniform above the original medal. Although they were two separate awards in some cases the holders soldered them together. A cross has been the symbol of Germany's armed forces (now the \"\") since 1871.", "On 17 March 1813 King Frederick William III of Prussia – who had fled to non-occupied Breslau (today Wrocław) – established the military decoration of the Iron Cross, backdated to 10 March (the late Queen Louise's birthday). The Iron Cross was awarded to soldiers during the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon. Before a soldier could be awarded with the Iron Cross 1st Class, he needed to have been decorated with the Iron Cross 2nd Class. It was first awarded to Karl August Ferdinand von Borcke on 21 April 1813. The first form of the Iron Crosses 1st Class were stitched in ribbon to the left uniform breast. By order of 1 June 1813, the 2nd form was created in cast iron with silver borders, and 8 loops on the reverse, to be fixed to the left uniform breast. In 1817 a total of 670 chevaliers had received the Iron Cross 1st Class.", "King Wilhelm I of Prussia authorized further awards on 19 July 1870, during the Franco-Prussian War. Recipients of the 1870 Iron Cross who were still in service in 1895 were authorized to purchase and wear above the cross a \" (\"Jubilee clip\"), a 25-year clasp consisting of the numerals \"25\" on three oak leaves.", "Emperor Wilhelm II reauthorized the Iron Cross on 5 August 1914, at the start of World War I. During these three periods, the Iron Cross was an award of the Kingdom of Prussia, although—given Prussia's pre-eminent place in the German Empire formed in 1871—it tended to be treated as a generic German decoration. The 1813, 1870, and 1914 Iron Crosses had three grades: Although the obverse of the medals of each class was identical, the manner in which each was worn differed. The Iron Cross 1st Class employed a pin or screw posts on the back of the medal, and was worn on the left side of the recipient's uniform, like the original 1813 version. The Iron Cross 2nd Class, and the larger Grand Cross, were suspended from different ribbons: the Grand Cross from a neck ribbon, the 2nd Class from a ribbon on the chest. The usual display of the 2nd Class version was as a ribbon through one of the button holes in the recipient's tunic. The Grand Cross was intended for senior generals of the Prussian or (later) the German Army. An even higher decoration, the Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called the \"Blücher Star\"), was awarded only twice, to Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher in 1813 and to Paul von Hindenburg in 1918. A third award was planned for the most successful German general during World War II, but was not made after the defeat of Germany in 1945. The Iron Cross 1st Class and the Iron Cross 2nd Class were awarded without regard to rank. One had to possess the 2nd Class already in order to receive the 1st Class (though in some cases both could be awarded simultaneously). The egalitarian nature of this award contrasted with those of most other German states (and indeed of many other European monarchies), where military decorations were awarded based on the rank of the recipient. For example, Bavarian officers received various grades of that Kingdom's Military Merit Order ('), while enlisted men received various grades of the Military Merit Cross ('). Prussia did have other orders and medals which it awarded on the basis of rank, and even though the Iron Cross was intended to be awarded without regard to rank, officers and NCOs were more likely to receive it than junior enlisted soldiers. During World War I, approximately 218,000 EKIs, 5,196,000 EKIIs and 13,000 non-combatant EKIIs were awarded. Exact numbers of awards are not known, since the Prussian military archives were destroyed during World War II. The multitude of awards reduced the status and reputation of the decoration. Among the holders of the 1914 Iron Cross 2nd Class and 1st Class was Adolf Hitler, who served as an Austrian citizen in the Bavarian Army with the rank of \" (lance-corporal), he received these medals for showing bravery on the field of battle. Most photographs of Hitler show him wearing his EKI in standard fashion on his left breast.", "In 1914, a variety of very crude anti-German propaganda versions of the Iron Cross were created by the Allies, and sold to raise money for the War effort and the relief of Belgian refugees. One was inscribed \"FOR KULTUR\" in raised letters, another \"FOR BRUTALITY\". Yet another showed the names of French and Belgian towns attacked or destroyed during the retreat from Mons on the ends of the upper arms of the cross; these included Rheims, Louvain and Amiens on one side, and Antwerp, Dinant and Ghent on the other, with the date 1914 on the lower arm, and a central W for Kaiser Wilhelm as on the original. Another commemorated the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby, showing the names of these \"war atrocities\" on the arms of the cross.", "Adolf Hitler restored the Iron Cross in 1939 as a German decoration (rather than Prussian), and continued the tradition of issuing it in various classes. Legally, it is based on the \"Enactment for the re-introduction of the Iron Cross\" (') of 1 September 1939. The Iron Cross of World War II was divided into three main series of decorations with an intermediate category, the Knight's Cross, instituted between the lowest, the Iron Cross, and the highest, the Grand Cross. The Knight's Cross replaced the Prussian'or \"Blue Max\". Hitler did not care for the \", as it was a Prussian order that could be awarded only to officers. The ribbon of the medal (2nd class and Knight's Cross) was different from the earlier Iron Crosses as the color red was used in addition to the traditional black and white (black and white were the colors of Prussia, while black, white, and red were the colors of Nazi Germany). Hitler also created the War Merit Cross as a replacement for the non-combatant version of the Iron Cross. It also appeared on certain Nazi flags in the upper left corner. The sides of the cross were curved, like most original iron crosses.", "The standard 1939 Iron Cross was issued in the following two grades: The Iron Cross was awarded for bravery in battle as well as other military contributions in a battlefield environment. The Iron Cross 2nd Class came with a ribbon and the cross itself was worn in one of two different ways: Note that for everyday wear, only the ribbon itself was worn from the second buttonhole in the tunic. The Iron Cross 1st Class was a pin-on medal with no ribbon and was worn centered on a uniform breast pocket, either on dress uniforms or everyday outfit. It was a progressive award, with the second class having to be earned before the first class and so on for the higher degrees. It is estimated that some four and a half million 2nd Class Iron Crosses were awarded during World War II, and 300,000 of the 1st Class. Two Iron Cross 1st Class recipients were women, one of whom was test pilot Hanna Reitsch. One of the Muslim SS members to receive the award, SS \" Imam Halim Malkoć, was granted the Iron Cross (2nd Class) in October 1943 for his role in suppressing the Villefranche-de-Rouergue mutiny. He, together with several other Bosnian Muslims, was decorated with the EK. II personally by Himmler in the days after the mutiny. Because of his Muslim faith, he only wore the ribbon, and not the cross. Two Jewish officers of the Finnish Army, including Major Leo Skurnik, and one female Lotta Svärd member were awarded Iron Crosses, but they would not accept them. The Spanish double-agent Juan Pujol García, known to the Germans as and the British as received the 2nd Class Iron Cross, and an MBE from King George VI four months later. William Manley is possibly the only recipient of both the Iron Cross and the Victoria Cross. He was awarded the Iron Cross for service with an ambulance unit in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71.", "The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (', often simply ') recognized military valour or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five degrees: In total, 7,313 awards of the Knight's Cross were made. Only 883 received the Oak Leaves; 160 both the Oak Leaves and Swords (including Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (posthumously)); 27 with Oak Leaves, Swords and Diamonds; and one with the Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds (\" Hans-Ulrich Rudel).", "Like the Knight's Cross, the Grand Cross (') was worn suspended from the collar. It was reserved for general officers for \"the most outstanding strategic decisions affecting the course of the war\". The only recipient during the Second World War was'Hermann Göring, who was awarded the decoration on 19 July 1940 for his command of the \", after the Battle of France in 1940. The medal is a larger version of the Knight's Cross, measuring wide as opposed to about for the Iron Cross and for the Knight's Cross. It was originally intended to have outer edges lined in gold, but this was changed to silver before the award was presented. It was worn with a wide ribbon bearing the same colors as the Knight's Cross and 2nd Class ribbons. The award case was in red leather with the eagle and the swastika outlined in gold. The original Grand Cross presented to Göring (personally by Hitler) was destroyed during an air raid on his Berlin home. Göring had extra copies made, one of them with a platinum frame that he was wearing at the time of his surrender to the allies in 1945.", "The Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross (also called Iron Cross with Golden Rays) was pinned to the left breast, above the Iron Cross 1st Class. Like the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross, it was for bestowal upon successful general officers. The Star of the Grand Cross was awarded only twice, both to Field Marshals who already held the Grand Cross: in 1815 to Gebhard von Blücher for his part in the Battle of Waterloo, and in March 1918 to Paul von Hindenburg for his conduct of the 1918 Spring Offensive on the Western Front. It is often called the Blücher Star \"()\", after its first recipient. A Star of the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross was manufactured in World War II, but never formally instituted or awarded. The only known example, based on the World War I version but with the 1939 Iron Cross centerpiece, was found by Allied forces at the end of the war, and it is now in the museum at West Point. It is likely that \" Göring was the intended eventual recipient. He was the only holder of the World War II Iron Cross Grand Cross, and both the previous recipients of the Star had already received the Grand Cross.", "Officers awarded the Iron Cross were given entitlements and often wore signifying articles, such as an Iron Cross signet ring or cloth Iron Cross which could be affixed to clothing. Also, during the Nazi period, those attaining more than one award, for example, an officer who had attained an Iron Cross 1st Class, an Iron Cross 2nd Class and the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with the Oak Leaves, were entitled to wear a pin which exhibited three Iron Crosses with an exaggerated swastika, thereby consolidating the awards. In some cases, Minox miniature cameras were given to people together with an Iron Cross.", "As modern German law prohibits the production of items containing Nazi insignia, the West German government authorized replacement Iron Crosses in 1957 with an Oak Leaf Cluster in place of the ', similar to the Iron Crosses of 1813, 1870, and 1914, which could be worn by World War II Iron Cross recipients. The 1957 law also authorized de-Nazified versions of most other World War II–era decorations (except those specifically associated with Nazi Party organizations, such as SS Long Service medals, or with the expansion of the German ', such as the medals for the annexation of Austria, the Sudetenland, and the Memel region). After post-war German armed forces began seeing active service, first in Kosovo and then in Afghanistan, a campaign began to revive the Iron Cross and other military medals, since Germany had no awards specifically for active military service. In 2007, a petition to the German parliament to revive the Iron Cross decoration was initiated, quickly receiving over 5,000 signatures. On 13 December 2007 parliament decided to let the Ministry of Defence decide the matter. On 6 March 2008, President Horst Köhler approved a proposal by Minister of Defense Franz Josef Jung to institute a new award for bravery. The'(Badge of Honor of the German Armed Forces) series was instituted on 10 October 2008. However, it does not have the traditional form of the Iron Cross (instead more closely resembling the Prussian Military Merit Cross), but is seen as a supplement of existing awards of the '. In the United States, the Iron Cross also became adopted by outlaw bikers, more to signify rebellion or to shock than for any white nationalist ideology. By the early 2000s, this other use of the Iron Cross had spread from bikers to skateboarders and many extreme sports enthusiasts and became part of the logo of several different clothing companies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Theory of operation.", "Types.", "Jet engines.", "Turboprop engines.", "Aeroderivative gas turbines.", "Amateur gas turbines.", "Auxiliary power units.", "Industrial gas turbines for power generation.", "Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive.", "Compressed air energy storage.", "Turboshaft engines.", "Radial gas turbines.", "Scale jet engines.", "Microturbines.", "External combustion.", "In surface vehicles.", "Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses).", "Concept cars.", "Racing cars.", "Buses.", "Motorcycles.", "Trains.", "Tanks.", "Marine applications.", "Naval.", "Civilian maritime.", "Advances in technology.", "Advantages and disadvantages.", "Testing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes: an isentropic compression, an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat rejection. Together, these make up the Brayton cycle. In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed (in either a centrifugal or axial compressor). Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific volume of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure. During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection. If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust. For a turboprop engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical operation. In a turbojet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high-pressure gases are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft. The smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be to attain the required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example, large jet engines operate around 10,000-25,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm. Mechanically, gas turbines \"can\" be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one main moving part, the compressor/shaft/turbine rotor assembly (see image above), with other moving parts in the fuel system. This, in turn, can translate into price. For instance, costing for materials, the Jumo 004 proved cheaper than the Junkers 213 piston engine, which was, and needed only 375 hours of lower-skill labor to complete (including manufacture, assembly, and shipping), compared to 1,400 for the BMW 801. This, however, also translated into poor efficiency and reliability. More advanced gas turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines or combined cycle power plants) may have 2 or 3 shafts (spools), hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable stator blades, and extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems; they use temperature resistant alloys, and are made with tight specifications requiring precision manufacture. All this often makes the construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston engine. Moreover, to reach optimum performance in modern gas turbine power plants the gas needs to be prepared to exact fuel specifications. Fuel gas conditioning systems treat the natural gas to reach the exact fuel specification prior to entering the turbine in terms of pressure, temperature, gas composition, and the related wobbe-index. The primary advantage of a gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio. Since significant useful work can be generated by a relatively lightweight engine, gas turbines are perfectly suited for aircraft propulsion. Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of a design. They are hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil-cooled rolling-element bearings. Foil bearings are used in some small machines such as micro turbines and also have strong potential for use in small gas turbines/auxiliary power units", "", "Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often", "A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear. Turboprop engines are used on small aircraft such as", "Aeroderivatives are also used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more quickly", "Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs. In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting. In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the land speed record. The", "Small gas turbines are used as auxiliary power units (APUs)", "Industrial gas turbines differ from aeronautical designs in that the frames, bearings, and blading are of heavier construction. They are also much more closely integrated with the devices they power— often an electric generator—and the secondary-energy equipment that is used to recover residual energy (largely heat). They range in size from portable mobile plants to large, complex systems weighing more than a hundred tonnes housed in purpose-built buildings. When the gas turbine is used solely for shaft power, its thermal efficiency is about 30%. However, it may be cheaper to buy electricity than to generate it. Therefore, many engines are used in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) configurations that can be small enough to be integrated into portable container configurations. Gas turbines can be particularly efficient when waste heat from the turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration. The 605 MW General Electric 9HA achieved", "Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from power generating sets in that they are often smaller and feature a dual shaft design as opposed to a single shaft. The power range varies from 1 megawatt up to 50 megawatts. These engines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly. The majority of installations are used within the oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%. Oil and gas platforms require these engines to drive compressors to inject gas into the wells to force oil up via another bore, or to compress the gas for transportation. They are also often used to provide power for the platform. These platforms do not need to use the engine in collaboration with a CHP system due to getting the gas at an extremely reduced cost (often free from burn off gas). The same companies use pump sets to drive the fluids to land and across pipelines in various intervals.", "One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required.", "Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. The primary shaft bears the compressor and the high-speed turbine (often referred to as the \"Gas Generator\"),", "In 1963, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk in Norway. Various successors have made good progress in the refinement", "Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets. With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of", "Evolved from piston engine turbochargers, aircraft APUs or small jet engines, microturbines are 25 to 500 kilowatt turbines", "Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine. Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine). External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a heat", "Gas turbines are often used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, tanks, and to a lesser extent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles. A key advantage of jets and turboprops for airplane propulsion - their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones - is irrelevant in most automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important. Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem. Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in the closely related form of the turbocharger. The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine's exhaust gas. The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying the turbine housing's geometry (as in a variable geometry turbocharger). It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost. Turbo-compound engines (actually employed on some semi-trailer trucks) are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine's crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one.", "A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles, the largest by Chrysler. More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company Bladon Jets has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next-generation electric vehicles. The objective of the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world's first commercially viable - and environmentally friendly - gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications. The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.", "The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in \"Popular Science\", there was no further work, beyond the paper stage. In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air", "The first race car (in concept only) fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone Tire & Rubber company. The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce the Rover-BRM, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. It averaged and had a top speed of. American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas", "The arrival of the Capstone Turbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and DesignLine Corporation in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids", "The MTT Turbine Superbike appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine - specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.", "Several locomotive classes have been powered", "The Third Reich \"Wehrmacht Heer\"'s development division, the Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Board), studied a number of gas turbine engine designs for use in tanks starting in mid-1944. The first gas turbine engine design intended for use in armored fighting vehicle propulsion, the BMW 003-based GT 101, was meant for installation in the Panther tank. The second use of a gas turbine in an armored fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit, PU2979, specifically developed for tanks by C. A. Parsons and Company, was installed and trialed in a British Conqueror tank. The Stridsvagn 103 was developed in the 1950s and was the first mass-produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine, the Boeing T50. Since then, gas turbine engines have been used as auxiliary power units in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-80s and U.S. M1 Abrams tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than diesel engines at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. Successive models of M1", "", "Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly. The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat \"MGB 2009\" (formerly \"MGB 509\") converted in 1947. Metropolitan-Vickers fitted their F2/3 jet engine with a power turbine. The Steam Gun Boat \"Grey Goose\" was converted to Rolls-Royce gas turbines in 1952 and operated as such from 1953. The Bold class Fast Patrol Boats \"Bold Pioneer\" and", "Up to the late 1940s, much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took place in design offices and engine builder's workshops and development work was led by the British Royal Navy and other Navies. While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes, both naval and mercantile, continued to increase, the lack of availability of the results of operating experience on early gas turbine projects limited the number of new ventures on seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon. In 1951, the Diesel-electric oil tanker \"Auris\", 12,290 deadweight tonnage (DWT) was used to obtain operating experience with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first ocean-going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine. Built by Hawthorn Leslie at Hebburn-on-Tyne, UK, in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company and launched on the UK's Princess Elizabeth's 21st birthday in 1947, the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the experimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high-speed engines, as well as the future substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine. The \"Auris\" operated commercially as a tanker for three-and-a-half years with a diesel-electric propulsion unit as originally commissioned, but in 1951 one of its four diesel engines – which were known as \"Faith\", \"Hope\", \"Charity\" and \"Prudence\" - was replaced by the world's first marine gas turbine engine, a open-cycle gas turbo-alternator built by British Thompson-Houston Company in Rugby. Following successful sea trials off the Northumbrian coast, the \"Auris\" set sail from Hebburn-on-Tyne in October 1951 bound for Port Arthur in the US and then Curacao in the southern Caribbean returning to Avonmouth after 44 days at sea, successfully completing her historic trans-Atlantic crossing. During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind. She subsequently visited Swansea, Hull, Rotterdam, Oslo and Southampton covering a total of 13,211 nautical miles. The \"Auris\" then had all of its power plants replaced with a directly coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power. Despite the success of this early experimental voyage the gas turbine did not replace the diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships. At constant cruising speeds the diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy. The gas turbine did have more success in Royal Navy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and rapid changes of speed are required by warships in action. The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options", "Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve. Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient engines. Aiding in these advances are computer-based design (specifically computational fluid dynamics and finite element analysis) and the development of advanced materials: Base materials with superior high-temperature strength (e.g., single-crystal superalloys that exhibit yield strength anomaly) or thermal barrier coatings that protect the structural material from ever-higher temperatures. These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of gas turbine engine components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this reason, CFD is one of the key computational tool used in design and development of", "The following are advantages", "British, German, other national and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test gas turbines. Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the turbine and associated systems. In the United States, ASME has produced several performance test codes on gas turbines. This includes ASME PTC 22-2014. These ASME performance test codes have gained international recognition and acceptance for testing gas turbines. The single most important and differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes, including PTC 22, is that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the test and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "IUPAC definition.", "Qualifiers used to describe extent of solubility.", "Molecular view.", "Factors affecting solubility.", "Temperature.", "Pressure.", "Solubility of gases.", "Polarity.", "Rate of dissolution.", "Quantification of solubility.", "Applications.", "Differential solubility.", "Solubility of ionic compounds in water.", "Solubility of organic compounds.", "Solid solution.", "Incongruent dissolution.", "Solubility prediction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the IUPAC definition, solubility is the analytical composition of a saturated solution expressed as a proportion of a designated solute in a designated solvent. Solubility may be stated in various units of concentration such as molarity, molality, mole fraction, mole ratio, mass (solute) per volume (solvent) and other units.", "The extent of solubility ranges widely, from infinitely soluble (without limit) (miscible) such as ethanol in water, to poorly soluble, such as silver chloride in water. The term \"insoluble\" is often applied to poorly or very poorly soluble compounds. A number of other descriptive terms are also used to qualify the extent of solubility for a given application. For example, U.S. Pharmacopoeia gives the following terms: The thresholds to describe something as insoluble, or similar terms, may depend on the application. For example, one source states that substances are described as \"insoluble\" when their solubility is less than 0.1 g per 100 mL of solvent.", "Solubility occurs under dynamic equilibrium, which means that solubility results from the simultaneous and opposing processes of dissolution and phase joining (e.g. precipitation of solids). The solubility equilibrium occurs when the two processes proceed at a constant rate. The term \"solubility\" is also used in some fields where the solute is altered by solvolysis. For example, many metals and their oxides are said to be \"soluble in hydrochloric acid\", although in fact the aqueous acid irreversibly degrades the solid to give soluble products. It is also true that most ionic solids are dissolved by polar solvents, but such processes are reversible. In those cases where the solute is not recovered upon evaporation of the solvent, the process is referred to as solvolysis. The thermodynamic concept of solubility does not apply straightforwardly to solvolysis. When a solute dissolves, it may form several species in the solution. For example, an aqueous suspension of ferrous hydroxide,, will contain the series [(OH)] as well as other species. Furthermore, the solubility of ferrous hydroxide and the composition of its soluble components depend on pH. In general, solubility in the solvent phase can be given only for a specific solute that is thermodynamically stable, and the value of the solubility will include all the species in the solution (in the example above, all the iron-containing complexes).", "Solubility is defined for specific phases. For example, the solubility of aragonite and calcite in water are expected to differ, even though they are both polymorphs of calcium carbonate and have the same chemical formula. The solubility of one substance in another is determined by the balance of intermolecular forces between the solvent and solute, and the entropy change that accompanies the solvation. Factors such as temperature and pressure will alter this balance, thus changing the solubility. Solubility may also strongly depend on the presence of other species dissolved in the solvent, for example, complex-forming anions (ligands) in liquids. Solubility will also depend on the excess or deficiency of a common ion in the solution, a phenomenon known as the common-ion effect. To a lesser extent, solubility will depend on the ionic strength of solutions. The last two effects can be quantified using the equation for solubility equilibrium. For a solid that dissolves in a redox reaction, solubility is expected to depend on the potential (within the range of potentials under which the solid remains the thermodynamically stable phase). For example, solubility of gold in high-temperature water is observed to be almost an order of magnitude higher (i.e. about ten times higher) when the redox potential is controlled using a highly oxidizing FeO-FeO redox buffer than with a moderately oxidizing Ni-NiO buffer. Solubility (metastable, at concentrations approaching saturation) also depends on the physical size of the crystal or droplet of solute (or, strictly speaking, on the specific surface area or molar surface area of the solute). For quantification, see the equation in the article on solubility equilibrium. For highly defective crystals, solubility may increase with the increasing degree of disorder. Both of these effects occur because of the dependence of solubility constant on the Gibbs energy of the crystal. The last two effects, although often difficult to measure, are of practical importance. For example, they provide the driving force for precipitate aging (the crystal size spontaneously increasing with time).", "The solubility of a given solute in a given solvent is function of temperature. Depending on the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG) of the dissolution reaction, \"i.e.\", on the endothermic (ΔG > 0) or exothermic (ΔG < 0) character of the dissolution reaction, the solubility of a given compound may increase or decrease with temperature. The van 't Hoff equation relates the change of solubility equilibrium constant (K) to temperature change and to reaction enthalpy change (ΔH). For most solids and liquids, their solubility increases with temperature because their dissolution reaction is endothermic (ΔG > 0). In liquid water at high temperatures, (e.g. that approaching the critical temperature), the solubility of ionic solutes tends to decrease due to the change of properties and structure of liquid water; the lower dielectric constant results in a less polar solvent and in a change of hydration energy affecting the ΔG of the dissolution reaction. Gaseous solutes exhibit more complex behavior with temperature. As the temperature is raised, gases usually become less soluble in water (exothermic dissolution reaction related to their hydration) (to minimum, which is below 120 °C for most permanent gases), but more soluble in organic solvents (endothermic dissolution reaction related to their solvatation). The chart shows solubility curves for some typical solid inorganic salts (temperature is in degrees Celsius i.e. kelvins minus 273.15). Many salts behave like barium nitrate and disodium hydrogen arsenate, and show a large increase in solubility with temperature (ΔG > 0). Some solutes (e.g. sodium chloride in water) exhibit solubility that is fairly independent of temperature (ΔG ≈ 0). A few, such as calcium sulfate (gypsum) and cerium(III) sulfate, become less soluble in water as temperature increases (ΔG < 0). This is also the case for calcium hydroxide (portlandite), whose solubility at 70 °C is about half of its value at 25 °C. The dissolution of calcium hydroxide in water is also an exothermic process (ΔG < 0) and obeys the van 't Hoff equation and Le Chatelier's principle. A lowering of temperature favors the removal of dissolution heat from the system and thus favors dissolution of Ca(OH): so portlandite solubility increases at low temperature. This temperature dependence is sometimes referred to as \"retrograde\" or \"inverse\" solubility. Occasionally, a more complex pattern is observed, as with sodium sulfate, where the less soluble decahydrate crystal (mirabilite) loses water of crystallization at 32 °C to form a more soluble anhydrous phase (thenardite) because the change in Gibbs free energy (ΔG), of the dissolution reaction. The solubility of organic compounds nearly always increases with temperature. The technique of recrystallization, used for purification of solids, depends on a solute's different solubilities in hot and cold solvent. A few exceptions exist, such as certain cyclodextrins.", "For condensed phases (solids and liquids), the pressure dependence of solubility is typically weak and usually neglected in practice. Assuming an ideal solution, the dependence can be quantified as: where the index i iterates the components, N is the mole fraction of the i component in the solution, P is the pressure, the index T refers to constant temperature, V is the partial molar volume of the i component in the solution, V is the partial molar volume of the i component in the dissolving solid, and R is the universal gas constant. The pressure dependence of solubility does occasionally have practical significance. For example, precipitation fouling of oil fields and wells by calcium sulfate (which decreases its solubility with decreasing pressure) can result in decreased productivity with time.", "Henry's law is used to quantify the solubility of gases in solvents. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the solvent. This relationship is similar to the Raoult's law and can be written as: where \"k\" is a temperature-dependent constant (for example, 769.2 L·atm/mol for dioxygen (O) in water at 298 K), \"p\" is the partial pressure (atm), and \"c\" is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid (mol/L). The solubility of gases is sometimes also quantified using Bunsen solubility coefficient. In the presence of small bubbles, the solubility of the gas does not depend on the bubble radius in any other way than through the effect of the radius on pressure (i.e. the solubility of gas in the liquid in contact with small bubbles is increased due to pressure increase by Δp = 2γ/r; see Young–Laplace equation). Henry's law is valid for gases that do not undergo change of chemical speciation on dissolution. Sieverts' law shows a case when this assumption does not hold. The carbon dioxide solubility in seawater is also affected by temperature, pH of the solution, and by the carbonate buffer. The decrease of solubility of carbon dioxide in seawater when temperature increases is also an important retroaction factor (positive feedback) exacerbating past and future climate changes as observed in ice cores from the Vostok site in Antarctica. At the geological time scale, because of the Milankovich cycles, when the astronomical parameters of the Earth orbit and its rotation axis progressively change and modify the solar irradiance at the Earth surface, temperature starts to increase. When a deglaciation period is initiated, the progressive warming of the oceans releases CO in the atmosphere because of its lower solubility in warmer sea water. On its turn, higher levels of CO in the atmosphere increase the greenhouse effect and carbon dioxide acts as an amplifier of the general warming.", "A popular aphorism used for predicting solubility is \"\"like dissolves like\"\" also expressed in the \"Latin\" language as \"\"Similia similibus solventur\"\". This statement indicates that a solute will dissolve best in a solvent that has a similar chemical structure to itself. This view is simplistic, but it is a useful rule of thumb. The overall solvation capacity of a solvent depends primarily on its polarity. For example, a very polar (hydrophilic) solute such as urea is very soluble in highly polar water, less soluble in fairly polar methanol, and practically insoluble in non-polar solvents such as benzene. In contrast, a non-polar or lipophilic solute such as naphthalene is insoluble in water, fairly soluble in methanol, and highly soluble in non-polar benzene. In even more simple terms a simple ionic compound (with positive and negative ions) such as sodium chloride (common salt) is easily soluble in a highly polar solvent (with some separation of positive (δ+) and negative (δ-) charges in the covalent molecule) such as water, as thus the sea is salty as it accumulates dissolved salts since early geological ages. The solubility is favored by entropy of mixing (Δ\"S\") and depends on enthalpy of dissolution (Δ\"H\") and the hydrophobic effect. The free energy of dissolution (Gibbs energy) depends on temperature and is given by the relationship: Δ\"G\" = Δ\"H\" – TΔ\"S\". Chemists often exploit differences in solubilities to separate and purify compounds from reaction mixtures, using the technique of liquid-liquid extraction. This applies in vast areas of chemistry from drug synthesis to spent nuclear fuel reprocessing.", "Dissolution is not an instantaneous process. The rate of solubilization (in kg/s) is related to the solubility product and the surface area of the material. The speed at which a solid dissolves may depend on its crystallinity or lack thereof in the case of amorphous solids and the surface area (crystallite size) and the presence of polymorphism. Many practical systems illustrate this effect, for example in designing methods for controlled drug delivery. In some cases, solubility equilibria can take a long time to establish (hours, days, months, or many years; depending on the nature of the solute and other factors). The rate of dissolution can be often expressed by the Noyes–Whitney equation or the Nernst and Brunner equation of the form: where: For dissolution limited by diffusion (or mass transfer if mixing is present), \"C\" is equal to the solubility of the substance. When the dissolution rate of a pure substance is normalized to the surface area of the solid (which usually changes with time during the dissolution process), then it is expressed in kg/ms and referred to as \"intrinsic dissolution rate\". The intrinsic dissolution rate is defined by the United States Pharmacopeia. Dissolution rates vary by orders of magnitude between different systems. Typically, very low dissolution rates parallel low solubilities, and substances with high solubilities exhibit high dissolution rates, as suggested by the Noyes-Whitney equation.", "Solubility is commonly expressed as a concentration; for example, as g of solute per kg of solvent, g per dL (100mL) of solvent, molarity, molality, mole fraction, etc. The maximum equilibrium amount of solute that can dissolve per amount of solvent is the solubility of that solute in that solvent under the specified conditions. The advantage of expressing solubility in this manner is its simplicity, while the disadvantage is that it can strongly depend on the presence of other species in the solvent (for example, the common ion effect). Solubility constants are used to describe saturated solutions of ionic compounds of relatively low solubility (see solubility equilibrium). The solubility constant is a special case of an equilibrium constant. It describes the balance between dissolved ions from the salt and undissolved salt. The solubility constant is also \"applicable\" (i.e. useful) to precipitation, the reverse of the dissolving reaction. As with other equilibrium constants, temperature can affect the numerical value of solubility constant. The solubility constant is not as simple as solubility, however the value of this constant is generally independent of the presence of other species in the solvent. The Flory–Huggins solution theory is a theoretical model describing the solubility of polymers. The Hansen solubility parameters and the Hildebrand solubility parameters are empirical methods for the prediction of solubility. It is also possible to predict solubility from other physical constants such as the enthalpy of fusion. The octanol-water partition coefficient, usually expressed as its logarithm (Log P) is a measure of differential solubility of a compound in a hydrophobic solvent (1-octanol) and a hydrophilic solvent (water). The logarithm of these two values enables compounds to be ranked in terms of hydrophilicity (or hydrophobicity). The energy change associated with dissolving is usually given per mole of solute as the enthalpy of solution.", "Solubility is of fundamental importance in a large number of scientific disciplines and practical applications, ranging from ore processing and nuclear reprocessing to the use of medicines, and the transport of pollutants. Solubility is often said to be one of the \"characteristic properties of a substance\", which means that solubility is commonly used to describe the substance, to indicate a substance's polarity, to help to distinguish it from other substances, and as a guide to applications of the substance. For example, indigo is described as \"insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether but soluble in chloroform, nitrobenzene, or concentrated sulfuric acid\". Solubility of a substance is useful when separating mixtures. For example, a mixture of salt (sodium chloride) and silica may be separated by dissolving the salt in water, and filtering off the undissolved silica. The synthesis of chemical compounds, by the milligram in a laboratory, or by the ton in industry, both make use of the relative solubilities of the desired product, as well as unreacted starting materials, byproducts, and side products to achieve separation. Another example of this is the synthesis of benzoic acid from phenylmagnesium bromide and dry ice. Benzoic acid is more soluble in an organic solvent such as dichloromethane or diethyl ether, and when shaken with this organic solvent in a separatory funnel, will preferentially dissolve in the organic layer. The other reaction products, including the magnesium bromide, will remain in the aqueous layer, clearly showing that separation based on solubility is achieved. This process, known as liquid–liquid extraction, is an important technique in synthetic chemistry. Recycling is used to ensure maximum extraction.", "In flowing systems, differences in solubility often determine the dissolution-precipitation driven transport of species. This happens when different parts of the system experience different conditions. Even slightly different conditions can result in significant effects, given sufficient time. For example, relatively low solubility compounds are found to be soluble in more extreme environments, resulting in geochemical and geological effects of the activity of hydrothermal fluids in the Earth's crust. These are often the source of high quality economic mineral deposits and precious or semi-precious gems. In the same way, compounds with low solubility will dissolve over extended time (geological time), resulting in significant effects such as extensive cave systems or Karstic land surfaces.", "Some ionic compounds (salts) dissolve in water, which arises because of the attraction between positive and negative charges (see: solvation). For example, the salt's positive ions (e.g. Ag) attract the partially negative oxygens in HO. Likewise, the salt's negative ions (e.g. Cl) attract the partially positive hydrogens in HO. Note: oxygen is partially negative because it is more electronegative than hydrogen, and vice versa (see: chemical polarity). However, there is a limit to how much salt can be dissolved in a given volume of water. This amount is given by the solubility product, K. This value depends on the type of salt (AgCl vs. NaCl, for example), temperature, and the common ion effect. One can calculate the amount of AgCl that will dissolve in 1 liter of water, some algebra is required. [Ag] = [Cl], in the absence of other silver or chloride salts, The result: 1 liter of water can dissolve 1.34 × 10 moles of AgCl at room temperature. Compared with other types of salts, AgCl is poorly soluble in water. In contrast, table salt (NaCl) has a higher K and is, therefore, more soluble.", "The principle outlined above under polarity, that \"like dissolves like\", is the usual guide to solubility with organic systems. For example, petroleum jelly will dissolve in gasoline because both petroleum jelly and gasoline are non-polar hydrocarbons. It will not, on the other hand, dissolve in ethyl alcohol or water, since the polarity of these solvents is too high. Sugar will not dissolve in gasoline, since sugar is too polar in comparison with gasoline. A mixture of gasoline and sugar can therefore be separated by filtration or extraction with water.", "This term is often used in the field of metallurgy to refer to the extent that an alloying element will dissolve into the base metal without forming a separate phase. The solvus or solubility line (or curve) is the line (or lines) on a phase diagram that give the limits of solute addition. That is, the lines show the maximum amount of a component that can be added to another component and still be in solid solution. In the solid's crystalline structure, the'solute' element can either take the place of the matrix within the lattice (a substitutional position; for example, chromium in iron) or take a place in a space between the lattice points (an interstitial position; for example, carbon in iron). In microelectronic fabrication, solid solubility refers to the maximum concentration of impurities one can place into the substrate.", "Many substances dissolve congruently (i.e. the composition of the solid and the dissolved solute stoichiometrically match). However, some substances may dissolve incongruently, whereby the composition of the solute in solution does not match that of the solid. This solubilization is accompanied by alteration of the \"primary solid\" and possibly formation of a secondary solid phase. However, in general, some primary solid also remains and a complex solubility equilibrium establishes. For example, dissolution of albite may result in formation of gibbsite. In this case, the solubility of albite is expected to depend on the solid-to-solvent ratio. This kind of solubility is of great importance in geology, where it results in formation of metamorphic rocks.", "Solubility is a property of interest in many aspects of science, including but not limited to: environmental predictions, biochemistry, pharmacy, drug-design, agrochemical design, and protein ligand binding. Aqueous solubility is of fundamental interest owing to the vital biological and transportation functions played by water. In addition, to this clear scientific interest in water solubility and solvent effects; accurate predictions of solubility are important industrially. The ability to accurately predict a molecule's solubility represents potentially large financial savings in many chemical product development processes, such as pharmaceuticals. In the pharmaceutical industry, solubility predictions form part of the early stage lead optimisation process of drug candidates. Solubility remains a concern all the way to formulation. A number of methods have been applied to such predictions including quantitative structure–activity relationships (QSAR), quantitative structure–property relationships (QSPR) and data mining. These models provide efficient predictions of solubility and represent the current standard. The draw back such models is that they can lack physical insight. A method founded in physical theory, capable of achieving similar levels of accuracy at an sensible cost, would be a powerful tool scientifically and industrially. Methods founded in physical theory tend to use thermodynamic cycles, a concept from classical thermodynamics. The two common thermodynamic cycles used involve either the calculation of the free energy of sublimation (solid to gas without going through a liquid state) and the free energy of solvating a gaseous molecule (gas to solution), or the free energy of fusion (solid to a molten phase) and the free energy of mixing (molten to solution). These two process are represented in the following diagrams. These cycles have been used for attempts at first principles predictions (solving using the fundamental physical equations) using physically motivated solvent models, to create parametric equations and QSPR models and combinations of the two. The use of these cycles enables the calculation of the solvation free energy indirectly via either gas (in the sublimation cycle) or a melt (fusion cycle). This is helpful as calculating the free energy of solvation directly is extremely difficult. The free energy of solvation can be converted to a solubility value using various formulae, the most general case being shown below, where the numerator is the free energy of solvation, R is the gas constant and T is the temperature in kelvins. Well known fitted equations for solubility prediction are the general solubility equations. These equations stem from the work of Yalkowsky \"et al\". The original formula is given first followed by a revised formula which takes a different assumption of complete miscibility in octanol. These equations are founded on the principles of the fusion cycle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "Examples.", "United States.", "Post World War II.", "Propaganda term.", "Causation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"plutocracy\" is generally used as a pejorative to describe or warn against an undesirable condition. Throughout history, political thinkers such as Winston Churchill, 19th-century French sociologist and historian Alexis de Tocqueville, 19th-century Spanish monarchist Juan Donoso Cortés and today Noam Chomsky have condemned plutocrats for ignoring their social responsibilities, using their power to serve their own purposes and thereby increasing poverty and nurturing class conflict, corrupting societies with greed and hedonism.", "Historic examples of plutocracies include the Roman Empire, some city-states in Ancient Greece, the civilization of Carthage, the Italian city-states/merchant republics of Venice, Florence, pre-French Revolution Kingdom of France, Genoa, and the pre-World War II Empire of Japan (the \"zaibatsu\"). According to Noam Chomsky and Jimmy Carter, the modern United States resembles a plutocracy though with democratic forms. A former chairman of the Federal Reserve, Paul Volcker, also believed the US to be developing into a plutocracy. One modern, formal example of a plutocracy, according to some critics, is the City of London. The City (also called the Square Mile of ancient London, corresponding to the modern financial district, an area of about 2.5 km) has a unique electoral system for its local administration, separate from London proper. More than two-thirds of voters are not residents, but rather representatives of businesses and other bodies that occupy premises in the City, with votes distributed according to their numbers of employees. The principal justification for this arrangement is that most of the services provided by the City of London Corporation are used by the businesses in the City. In fact about 450,000 non-residents constitute the city's day-time population, far outnumbering the City's 7,000 residents.", "Some modern historians, politicians, and economists argue that the United States was effectively plutocratic for at least part of the \"Gilded Age\" and \"Progressive Era\" periods between the end of the Civil War until the beginning of the Great Depression. President Theodore Roosevelt became known as the \"trust-buster\" for his aggressive use of United States antitrust law, through which he managed to break up such major combinations as the largest railroad and Standard Oil, the largest oil company. According to historian David Burton, \"When it came to domestic political concerns TR's bête noire was the plutocracy.\" In his autobiographical account of taking on monopolistic corporations as president, TR recounted...we had come to the stage where for our people what was needed was a real democracy; and of all forms of tyranny the least attractive and the most vulgar is the tyranny of mere wealth, the tyranny of a plutocracy. The Sherman Antitrust Act had been enacted in 1890, with large industries reaching monopolistic or near-monopolistic levels of market concentration and financial capital increasingly integrating corporations, a handful of very wealthy heads of large corporations began to exert increasing influence over industry, public opinion and politics after the Civil War. Money, according to contemporary progressive and journalist Walter Weyl, was \"the mortar of this edifice\", with ideological differences among politicians fading and the political realm becoming \"\"a mere branch\" in a still larger, integrated business. The state, which through the party formally sold favors to the large corporations, became one of their departments.\" In his book \"The Conscience of a Liberal\", in a section entitled The Politics of Plutocracy, economist Paul Krugman says plutocracy took hold because of three factors: at that time, the poorest quarter of American residents (African-Americans and non-naturalized immigrants) were ineligible to vote, the wealthy funded the campaigns of politicians they preferred, and vote buying was \"feasible, easy and widespread\", as were other forms of electoral fraud such as ballot-box stuffing and intimidation of the other party's voters. The U.S. instituted progressive taxation in 1913, but according to Shamus Khan, in the 1970s, elites used their increasing political power to lower their taxes, and today successfully employ what political scientist Jeffrey Winters calls \"the income defense industry\" to greatly reduce their taxes. In 1998, Bob Herbert of \"The New York Times\" referred to modern American plutocrats as \"The Donor Class\" (list of top donors) and defined the class, for the first time, as \"a tiny group – just one-quarter of 1 percent of the population – and it is not representative of the rest of the nation. But its money buys plenty of access.\"", "In modern times, the term is sometimes used pejoratively to refer to societies rooted in state-corporate capitalism or which prioritize the accumulation of wealth over other interests. According to Kevin Phillips, author and political strategist to Richard Nixon, the United States is a plutocracy in which there is a \"fusion of money and government.\" Chrystia Freeland, author of \"Plutocrats: The Rise of the New Global Super-Rich and the Fall of Everyone Else\", says that the present trend towards plutocracy occurs because the rich feel that their interests are shared by society. When the Nobel-Prize winning economist Joseph Stiglitz wrote the 2011 \"Vanity Fair\" magazine article entitled \"Of the 1%, by the 1%, for the 1%\", the title and content supported Stiglitz's claim that the United States is increasingly ruled by the wealthiest 1%. Some researchers have said the US may be drifting towards a form of oligarchy, as individual citizens have less impact than economic elites and organized interest groups upon public policy. A study conducted by political scientists Martin Gilens (Princeton University) and Benjamin Page (Northwestern University), which was released in April 2014, stated that their \"analyses suggest that majorities of the American public actually have little influence over the policies our government adopts\". Gilens and Page do not characterize the U. S. as an \"oligarchy\" or \"plutocracy\" per se; however, they do apply the concept of \"civil oligarchy\" as used by Jeffrey A. Winters with respect to the US.", "In the political jargon and propaganda of Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany and the Communist International, Western democratic states were referred to as plutocracies, with the implication being that a small number of extremely wealthy individuals were controlling the countries and holding them to ransom. Plutocracy replaced democracy and capitalism as the principal fascist term for the United States and Great Britain during the Second World War. For the Nazis, the term was often a code word for \"the Jews\".", "Reasons why a plutocracy develops are complex. In a nation that is experiencing rapid economic growth, income inequality will tend to increase as the rate of return on innovation increases. In other scenarios, plutocracy may develop when a country is collapsing due to resource depletion as the elites attempt to hoard the diminishing wealth or expand debts to maintain stability, which will tend to enrich creditors and financiers. Economists have also suggested that free market economies tend to drift into monopolies and oligopolies because of the greater efficiency of larger businesses (see economies of scale). Other nations may become plutocratic through kleptocracy or rent-seeking." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Properties.", "Applications.", "Presburger-definable integer relation.", "Muchnik's characterization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The language of Presburger arithmetic contains constants 0 and 1 and a binary function +, interpreted as addition. In this language, the axioms of Presburger arithmetic are the universal closures of the following: (5) is an axiom schema of induction, representing infinitely many axioms. These cannot be replaced by any finite number of axioms, that is, Presburger arithmetic is not finitely axiomatizable in first-order logic. Presburger arithmetic cannot formalize concepts such as divisibility or primality. Generally, any number concept leading to multiplication cannot be defined in Presburger arithmetic, since that leads to incompleteness and undecidability. However, it can formulate individual instances of divisibility; for example, it proves \"for all \"x\", there exists \"y\" : (\"y\" + \"y\" = \"x\") ∨ (\"y\" + \"y\" + 1 = \"x\")\". This states that every number is either even or odd.", "Mojżesz Presburger proved Presburger arithmetic to be: The decidability of Presburger arithmetic can be shown using quantifier elimination, supplemented by reasoning about arithmetical congruence (Enderton 2001, p. 188). Peano arithmetic, which is Presburger arithmetic augmented with multiplication, is not decidable, as a consequence of the negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem. By Gödel's incompleteness theorem, Peano arithmetic is incomplete and its consistency is not internally provable (but see Gentzen's consistency proof). The decision problem for Presburger arithmetic is an interesting example in computational complexity theory and computation. Let \"n\" be the length of a statement in Presburger arithmetic. Then Fischer and Rabin (1974) proved that any decision algorithm for Presburger arithmetic has a worst-case runtime of at least formula_1, for some constant \"c\">0. Hence, the decision problem for Presburger arithmetic is an example of a decision problem that has been proved to require more than exponential run time. Fischer and Rabin also proved that for any reasonable axiomatization (defined precisely in their paper), there exist theorems of length \"n\" which have doubly exponential length proofs. Intuitively, this means there are computational limits on what can be proven by computer programs. Fischer and Rabin's work also implies that Presburger arithmetic can be used to define formulas which correctly calculate any algorithm as long as the inputs are less than relatively large bounds. The bounds can be increased, but only by using new formulas. On the other hand, a triply exponential upper bound on a decision procedure for Presburger Arithmetic was proved by Oppen (1978). A more tight complexity bound was shown using alternating complexity classes by. The set of true statements in Presburger arithmetic (PA) is complete for TimeAlternations(2, n). Thus, its complexity is between double exponential nondeterministic time (2-NEXP) and double exponential space (2-EXPSPACE). Completeness is under polynomial time many-to-one reductions. (Also, note that while Presburger arithmetic is commonly abbreviated PA, in mathematics in general PA usually means Peano arithmetic.) For a more fine-grained result, let PA(i) be the set of true Σ PA statements, and PA(i, j) the set of true Σ PA statements with each quantifier block limited to j variables. '<' is considered to be quantifier-free; here, bounded quantifiers are counted as quantifiers. PA(1, j) is in P, while PA(1) is NP-complete. For i > 0 and j > 2, PA(i + 1, j) is Σ-complete. The hardness result only needs j>2 (as opposed to j=1) in the last quantifier block. For i>0, PA(i+1) is Σ-complete (and is TimeAlternations(2, i)-complete).", "Because Presburger arithmetic is decidable, automatic theorem provers for Presburger arithmetic exist. For example, the Coq proof assistant system features the tactic omega for Presburger arithmetic and the Isabelle proof assistant contains a verified quantifier elimination procedure by Nipkow (2010). The double exponential complexity of the theory makes it infeasible to use the theorem provers on complicated formulas, but this behavior occurs only in the presence of nested quantifiers: Oppen and Nelson (1980) describe an automatic theorem prover which uses the simplex algorithm on an extended Presburger arithmetic without nested quantifiers to prove some of the instances of quantifier-free Presburger arithmetic formulas. More recent satisfiability modulo theories solvers use complete integer programming techniques to handle quantifier-free fragment of Presburger arithmetic theory (King, Barrett, Tinelli 2014). Presburger arithmetic can be extended to include multiplication by constants, since multiplication is repeated addition. Most array subscript calculations then fall within the region of decidable problems. This approach is the basis of at least five proof-of-correctness systems for computer programs, beginning with the Stanford Pascal Verifier in the late 1970s and continuing through to Microsoft's Spec# system of 2005.", "Some properties are now given about integer relations definable in Presburger Arithmetic. For the sake of simplicity, all relations considered in this section are over natural integers. A relation is Presburger-definable if and only if it is a semilinear set. A unary integer relation formula_2, that is, a set of natural integers, is Presburger-definable if and only if it is ultimately periodic. That is, if there exists a threshold formula_3 and a positive period formula_4 such that, for all integer formula_5 such that formula_6, formula_7 if and only if formula_8. By the Cobham–Semenov theorem, a relation is Presburger-definable if and only if it is definable in Büchi arithmetic of base formula_9 for all formula_10. A relation definable in Büchi arithmetic of base formula_9 and formula_12 for formula_9 and formula_12 being multiplicatively independent integers is Presburger definable. An integer relation formula_2 is Presburger-definable if and only if all sets of integers which are definable in first order logic with addition and formula_2 (that is, Presburger Arithmetic plus a predicate for formula_2) are Presburger-definable. Equivalently, for each relation formula_2 which is not Presburger-definable, there exists a first-order formula with addition and formula_2 which defines a set of integers which is not definable using only addition.", "Presburger-definable relations admit another characterization: by Muchnik's theorem. It is more complicated to state, but led to the proof of the two former characterizations. Before Muchnik's theorem can be stated, some additional definitions must be introduced. Let formula_20 be a set, the section formula_21 of formula_2, for formula_23 and formula_24 is defined as Given two sets formula_26 and a formula_27-tuple of integers formula_28, the set formula_2 is called formula_30-periodic in formula_31 if, for all formula_32 such that formula_33 then formula_34 if and only if formula_35. For formula_36, the set formula_2 is said to be formula_38-periodic in formula_31 if it is formula_40-periodic for some formula_41 such that denote the cube of size formula_9 whose lesser corner is formula_45. Intuitively, the integer formula_38 represents the length of a shift, the integer formula_9 is the size of the cubes and formula_59 is the threshold before the periodicity. This result remains true when the condition is replaced either by formula_61 or by formula_62. This characterization led to the so-called \"definable criterion for definability in Presburger arithmetic\", that is: there exists a first-order formula with addition and a formula_27-ary predicate formula_2 which holds if and only if formula_2 is interpreted by a Presburger-definable relation. Muchnik's theorem also allows one to prove that it is decidable whether an automatic sequence accepts a Presburger-definable set." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The Aare rises in the great Aargletschers (Aare Glaciers) of the Bernese Alps, in the canton of Bern and west of the Grimsel Pass. The Finsteraargletscher and Lauteraargletscher come together to form the Unteraargletscher (Lower Aar Glacier), which is the main source of water for the Grimselsee (Lake of Grimsel). The Oberaargletscher (Upper Aar Glacier) feeds the Oberaarsee, which also flows into the Grimselsee. The Aare leaves the Grimselsee just to the east to the Grimsel Hospiz, below the Grimsel Pass, and then flows northwest through the Haslital, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall,, past Guttannen. Right after Innertkirchen it is joined by its first major tributary, the Gamderwasser. Less than later the river carves through a limestone ridge in the Aare Gorge (). It is here that the Aare proves itself to be more than just a river, as it attracts thousands of tourists annually to the causeways through the gorge. A little past Meiringen, near Brienz, the river expands into Lake Brienz. Near the west end of the lake it indirectly receives its first important tributary, the Lütschine, by the Lake of Brienz. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli (Swiss German diminutive for ground) between Interlaken and Unterseen before flowing into Lake Thun. Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river indirectly receives the waters of the Kander, which has just been joined by the Simme, by the Lake of Thun. Lake Thun marks the head of navigation. On flowing out of the lake it passes through Thun, and then flows through the city of Bern, passing beneath eighteen bridges and around the steeply-flanked peninsula on which the Old City of Berne is located. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or La Sarine it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the 19th century, the Jura water correction, the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent flooding, was diverted by the Aare-Hagneck Canal into the Lac de Bienne. From the upper end of the lake, at Nidau, the river issues through the Nidau-Büren Canal, also called the Aare Canal, and then runs east to Büren. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravel and snowmelt that the river brings from the Alps, and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the \"vegetable garden of Switzerland\". From here the Aare flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town Solothurn (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhre, and Wildegg, where the Seetal Aabach falls in on the right. A short distance further, below Brugg it receives first the Reuss, its major tributary, and shortly afterwards the Limmat, its second strongest tributary. It now turns to north, and soon becomes itself a tributary of the Rhine, which it even surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite downstream from Koblenz (Switzerland), opposite Waldshut in Germany. The Rhine, in turn, empties into the North Sea after crossing into the Netherlands." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "History.", "World War II.", "Hoxha era (1945–85).", "Post-Hoxha (1985–91).", "Structure.", "External following.", "Friendship Associations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 1920s, Albania was the only Balkan country without a communist party. The first Albanian communists emerged from the followers of Albanian clergyman and politician Fan S. Noli. Once in Moscow, they formed the National Revolutionary Committee and became affiliated to the Comintern. In August 1928, the first Albanian Communist Party was formed in the Soviet Union. The most prominent figure of the party was Ali Kelmendi who left Albania in 1936, to fight in the Spanish Civil War. He was later regarded as the leader of a small group of Albanian Communists in France. However, no unified organization existed in Albania until 1941.", "", "Following the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito under Comintern directives sent two Yugoslav delegates Miladin Popović and Dušan Mugoša to Albania. These two helped unite the Albanian communist groups in 1941. After intensive work, the Albanian Communist Party was formed on 8 November 1941 by the two Yugoslav delegates with Enver Hoxha from the Korça branch as its leader. Among the founding members, there were 8 Christian members: Koço Tashko, Koçi Xoxe, Pandi Kristo, Gjin Marku, Vasil Shanto, Tuk Jakova, Kristo Themelko and Anastas Lulo; and 5 Muslim members: Enver Hoxha, Qemal Stafa, Ramadan Çitaku, Kadri Hoxha and Sadik Premte. The PKSh was the dominant element of the National Liberation Movement (LNC), formed in 1942. The LNC drove out the German occupiers (who had taken over from the Italians in 1943) on 29 November 1944. From that day onward, Albania was a full-fledged Communist regime. In every other Eastern European country, the Communists were at least nominally part of a coalition government for a few years before seizing power at the helm of out-and-out Communist regimes. King Zog was barred from ever returning to Albania, though the monarchy was not formally abolished until 1946. In the elections for the Constituent Assembly held on 2 December 1945, voters were presented with a single list from the Democratic Front, organized and led by the PKSh. The Front received 93.7% of the vote.", "In a meeting with Joseph Stalin in July 1947 Stalin suggested the party be renamed to the \"Party of Labor of Albania\" because peasants were a majority in the country. Hoxha accepted this suggestion. Under Hoxha, the party became the most rigidly anti-revisionist party in the Soviet Bloc. In 1961, Hoxha broke with Moscow over Nikita Khrushchev's supposed deviations from fundamental principles of Marxism-Leninism, though relations between Tirana and Moscow had begun to chill as early as 1955. Hoxha opted instead to align with the People's Republic of China under Mao Zedong. In 1968, Albania formally withdrew from the Warsaw Pact. The party even went as far as to engineer an Albanian version of China's Cultural Revolution. After Mao's death, the PKSh felt increasing chagrin as Mao's successors moved away from his legacy. In 1978, Hoxha declared that Albania would blaze its own trail to a socialist society. Hoxha led the party and state more or less without resistance until his death in 1985.", "Hoxha's successor, Ramiz Alia, was forced to initiate gradual reforms in order to revive the country's stagnant economy. However, in late 1989, various elements of society began to speak out against the restrictions still in place. The execution of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceauşescu led Alia to fear he would be next. In response, he allowed Albanians to travel abroad, ended the regime's longstanding policy of state atheism, and slightly loosened government control of the economy. However, these measures only served to buy Alia more time. Finally, bowing to the inevitable, on 11 December 1990, Alia announced that the PPSh had abandoned power and legalised opposition parties. The PPSh won the Constitutional Assembly elections of 1991. However, by then it was no longer a Marxist-Leninist party, and was powerless to prevent the adoption of a new interim constitution that formally stripped it of its monopoly of power. In 1991, the PPSh dissolved and refounded itself as the social-democratic Socialist Party of Albania, which is now one of the two major political parties in Albania. A group called \"Volunteers of Enver\", led by Hysni Milloshi, laid claim to the identity of the PPSh as the Communist Party of Albania.", "The ideology of the PPSh was Anti-Revisionist Marxism-Leninism known as Hoxhaism. The party organisation was built up following democratic centralist principles, with Hoxha as its First Secretary. Article 3 of Albania's 1976 Constitution identified the Party as the \"leading political force of the state and of the society.\" To help carry out its ideological activities it had an associated mass organization known as the Democratic Front. Its daily publication was \"Zëri i Popullit\" (Voice of the People) and its monthly theoretical journal was \"Rruga e Partisë\" (Road of the Party). The highest organ of the Party, according to the Party statutes, was the Party Congress, which met for a few days every five years. Delegates to the Congress were elected at conferences held at the regional, district, and city levels. The Congress examined and approved reports submitted by the Central Committee, discussed general Party policies, and elected the Central Committee. The latter was the next-highest level in the Party hierarchy and generally included all key officials in the government, as well as prominent members of the intelligentsia. The Central Committee directed Party activities between Party Congresses and met approximately three times a year. As in the Soviet Union, the Central Committee elected a Politburo and a Secretariat. The Politburo, which usually included key government ministers and Central Committee secretaries, was the main administrative and policy-making body and convened on a weekly basis. Generally, the Central Committee approved Politburo reports and policy decisions. The Secretariat was responsible for guiding the day-to-day affairs of the Party, in particular for organising the execution of Politburo decisions and for selecting Party and government cadres.", "The staunchly orthodox stand of the PPSh attracted many political groupings around the world, particularly among Maoists who were not content with the Communist Party of China's attitude in the late 1970s. A large number of parties declared themselves to be in the \"PPSh line\", especially during the period 1978-1980. However, many of them abandoned this certain affiliation after the fall of the socialist government in Albania. Today, many of the political parties upholding the political line of the PPSh are grouped around the International Conference of Marxist-Leninist Parties and Organisations. The following parties were followers of the PPSh during the Cold War:", "Various friendship associations were also formed by international Communist sympathizers who supported the Party:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymological, ancient and religious descriptions.", "Regional variations.", "Scientific explanations.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"incubus\" is derived from Late Latin \"incubo\" \"a nightmare induced by such a demon\" from \"incubare\" \"to lie upon\". One of the earliest mentions of an incubus comes from Mesopotamia on the Sumerian King List, c. 2400 BC, where the hero Gilgamesh's father is listed as Lilu. It is said that Lilu disturbs and seduces women in their sleep, while Lilitu, a female demon, appears to men in their erotic dreams. Two other corresponding demons appear as well: Ardat lili, who visits men by night and begets ghostly children from them, and Irdu lili, who is known as a male counterpart to Ardat lili and visits women by night and begets from them. These demons were originally storm demons, but they eventually became regarded as night demons because of mistaken etymology. Incubi were thought to be demons who had sexual relations with women, sometimes producing a child by the woman. Succubi, by contrast, were demons thought to have intercourse with men. Debate about these demons began early in the Christian tradition. St. Augustine touched on the topic in \"De Civitate Dei\" (\"The City of God\"); there were too many alleged attacks by incubi to deny them. He stated \"There is also a very general rumor. Many have verified it by their own experience and trustworthy persons have corroborated the experience others told, that sylvans and fauns, commonly called incubi, have often made wicked assaults upon women.\" Questions about the reproductive capabilities of the demons continued. Eight hundred years later, Thomas Aquinas argued against the possibility of children being conceived by intercourse with demons: \"Still, if some are occasionally begotten from demons, it is not from the seed of such demons, nor from their assumed bodies, but from the seed of men, taken for the purpose; as when the demon assumes first the form of a woman, and afterwards of a man; just so they take the seed of other things for other generating purposes\". Such a thoroughly human child–like every human–would have a God-created soul and would live by the power of God, the only one who can give life. About three hundred years later, King James, in his dissertation titled Dæmonologie, suggested that a devil would carry out two methods of impregnating women: the first, to steal the sperm out of a dead man and deliver it into a woman. If a demon could extract the semen quickly, the transportation of the substance could not be instantly transported to a female host, causing it to go cold. This explains his view that Succubae and Incubi were the same demonic entity only to be described differently based on the sexes being conversed with. Being abused in such a way caused women at nunneries to be burned if they were found pregnant. The second method was the idea that a dead body could be possessed by a devil, causing it to rise and have sexual relations with others. This is similar to depictions of revenants or vampires and a spirit taking deceased corpse to cause some mischief. It became generally accepted that incubi and succubi were the same demon, able to switch between male and female forms. A succubus would be able to sleep with a man and collect his sperm, and then transform into an incubus and use that seed on women. Even though sperm and egg came from humans originally, the spirits' offspring were often thought of as supernatural. Some sources indicate that it may be identified by its unnaturally large or cold penis. Though many tales claim that the incubus is bisexual, others indicate that it is strictly heterosexual and finds attacking a male victim either unpleasant or detrimental. Incubi are sometimes said to be able to conceive children. The half-human offspring of such a union is sometimes referred to as a cambion. An incubus may pursue sexual relations with a woman in order to father a child, as in the legend of Merlin. According to the \"Malleus Maleficarum\", exorcism is one of the five ways to overcome the attacks of incubi, the others being Sacramental Confession, the Sign of the Cross (or recital of the Angelic Salutation), moving the afflicted to another location, and by excommunication of the attacking entity, \"which is perhaps the same as exorcism\". On the other hand, the Franciscan friar Ludovico Maria Sinistrari stated that incubi \"do not obey exorcists, have no dread of exorcisms, show no reverence for holy things, at the approach of which they are not in the least overawed\".", "There are a number of variations on the incubus theme around the world. The alp of Teutonic or German folklore is one of the better known. In Zanzibar, Popo Bawa primarily attacks men and generally behind closed doors. \"The Trauco\", according to the traditional mythology of the Chiloé Province of Chile, is a hideous deformed dwarf who lulls nubile young women and seduces them. The Trauco is said to be responsible for unwanted pregnancies, especially in unmarried women. Perhaps another variation of this conception is the \"Tintín\" in Ecuador, a dwarf who is fond of abundant haired women and seduces them at night by playing the guitar outside their windows — a myth that researchers believe was created during the Colonial period of time to explain pregnancies in women who never left their houses without a chaperone. In Hungary, a \"lidérc\" can be a Satanic lover that flies at night and appears as a fiery light (an \"ignis fatuus\" or will o' the wisp) or, in its more benign form as a featherless chicken. In Brazil and the rainforests of the Amazon basin, the Amazon river dolphin (or \"boto\") is believed to be a combination of siren and incubus that shape-shifts into a very charming and handsome man who seduces young women and takes them into the river. It is said to be responsible for disappearances and unwanted pregnancies. According to legend, a boto always wears a hat to disguise the breathing hole at the top of its head while in human form, metamorphosing back into a dolphin during the day. The Southern African incubus demon is the Tokolosh. Chaste women place their beds upon bricks to deter the rather short fellows from attaining their sleeping forms. They also share the hole in the head detail and water dwelling habits of the boto. In Swedish folklore, there is the mara or mare, a spirit or goblin that rides on the chests of humans while they sleep, giving them bad dreams (or \"nightmares\"). Belief in the mare goes back to the Norse Ynglinga saga from the 13th century, but the belief is probably even older. The mare was likely inspired by sleep paralysis. In Assam, a north-eastern province of India it is mostly known as \"pori\" (Assamese: পৰী, meaning \"angel\"). According to the mythology, Pori comes to a man at night in his dreams and seduces him. Gradually the victim's health deteriorates and in some cases develops suicidal tendencies. In Turkish culture, incubus is known as Karabasan. It is an evil being that descends upon some sleepers at night. These beings are thought to be spirits or jinns. It can be seen or heard in the nightmare and a heavy weight is felt on the chest. Yet, people cannot wake up from that state. Some of the causes are sleeping without adequately covering the body (especially women) and eating in bed.", "Victims may have been experiencing waking dreams or sleep paralysis. The phenomenon of sleep paralysis is well-established. During the fourth phase of sleep (also known as REM sleep), motor centers in the brain are inhibited, producing paralysis. The reason for this is ultimately unknown but the most common explanation is that this prevents one from acting out one's dreams. Malfunctions of this process can either result in somnambulism (sleepwalking) or, conversely, sleep paralysis—where one remains partially or wholly paralysed for a short time after waking. Additional to sleep paralysis is hypnagogia. In a near-dream state, it is common to experience auditory and visual hallucinations. Mostly these are forgotten upon fully waking or soon afterwards, in the same manner as dreams. However, most people remember the phenomenon of hearing music or seeing things in near-sleep states at some point in their lives. Typical examples include a feeling of being crushed or suffocated, electric \"tingles\" or \"vibrations\", imagined speech and other noises, the imagined presence of a visible or invisible entity, and sometimes intense emotions of fear or euphoria and orgasmic feelings. These often appear quite real and vivid; especially auditory hallucinations of music which can be quite loud, indistinguishable from music being played in the same room. Humanoid and animal figures, often shadowy or blurry, are often present in hypnagogic hallucinations, more so than other hallucinogenic states. This may be a relic of an ancient instinct to detect predatory animals. The combination of sleep paralysis and hypnagogic hallucination could easily cause someone to believe that a \"demon was holding them down\". Nocturnal arousal etc. could be explained away by creatures causing otherwise guilt-producing behavior. Add to this the common phenomena of nocturnal arousal and nocturnal emission, and all the elements required to believe in an incubus are present. On the other hand, some victims of incubi may have been the victims of real sexual assault. Some authors speculate that rapists may have attributed the rapes of sleeping women to demons in order to escape punishment. Robert Masello asserts that a friend or relative is at the top of the list in such cases and would be kept secret by the intervention of \"spirits\".", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Plot and gameplay.", "Critical reception.", "Sequel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The game was created by Jiří Lábus. The first edition of the game became sold out in less than a year. The title saw three editions, and became a magazine attachment 8 times; it was played by 250,000 players. In 2008, work was being done on a second game, however it was never released. The game is currently available on Steam, and was uploaded on July 12, 2017.", "The player takes control of the good-natured monk Severin, who one day \"escapes\" from the monastery and decides to seek his way of life.", "Gamershell found enjoyment from the game despite its bare sound and visuals, and silly script. Absolute Games offered a mixed assessment of the game. Just Adventure decided that players willing to overlook the game's technical limitations would find enjoyment from its witty sense of humour. Bonusweb.cz felt that if the idea of the game bored players, they could wait another week for Czech adventure game Hot Summer 2 to be released. Bonusweb asserted that the game is likely known by every Czech computer player.", "Cinemax announced works on Ve stínu havrana 2 in 2007. It was scheduled for a release in the second quarter of 2008. It was a collaboration between House of Dragonflies and Cinemax, and contained the work of graphic designers Erik Sille and Boris Sirka. The game's plot would have seen the monk Severin be trapped between medieval Europe, and futuristic world guided by Plato's philosophy of perfect States. The game was inspired by the works of PKDick, W. Gibson, and T. Giliam's film productions. It was a 3D point-and-click adventure with a non-linear story, while featuring limited RPG elements. The game was reported as being make completely in Czech, including its dubbing. It promised to touch on historical themes and insights into philosophy, religion, mathematics, and cybernetics. Development was eventually cancelled. Bonusweb felt it was a shame the project never took off, as it seemed like an \"interesting psychedelic affair\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and politics.", "Political career.", "First Secretary of the Albanian Labour Party.", "Transition to multi-party system and presidency.", "Arrest.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Alia was born on 18 October 1925 in Shkoder to Muslim parents who fled from persecution in Kingdom of Yugoslavia. He grew up and spent his childhood in Tirana. In the early part of World War II Alia was a member of a Fascist youth organization known as the 'Fascist Lictor Youth Organization' but joined the underground Albanian Communist Youth Organization in 1941. In 1943, he became a member of the Albanian Communist Party. He had risen rapidly under Hoxha's patronage and by 1961 was a full member of the ruling Political Bureau (Politburo of the Party of Labour of Albania). Hoxha chose Alia for several reasons. First, Alia had long been a militant follower of Marxism-Leninism and supported Hoxha's policy of national self-reliance. Alia also was favored by Hoxha's wife Nexhmije, who had once been his instructor at the Institute of Marxism-Leninism. His political experience was similar to that of Hoxha; and inasmuch as he appeared to share Hoxha's views on most foreign and domestic issues, he accommodated himself to the totalitarian mode of ruling.", "", "After World War II, Alia resumed his duties in the Communist Youth Organization, and at the First Congress of the Albanian Party of Labour in November 1948, he was elected to its Central Committee and was assigned to the department of agitation and propaganda. When he succeeded Hoxha in 1985, the country was in grave difficulty. Political apathy and cynicism were pervasive, with large segments of the population having rejected the government's values. The economy, which suffered from low productivity and permanent shortages of the most basic foodstuffs, showed no sign of improvement. Social controls and self-discipline had eroded. The intelligentsia was beginning to resist strict party controls and to criticize the government's failure to observe international standards of human rights. Apparently recognizing the depth and extent of the societal malaise, Alia cautiously and slowly began to make changes in the system. His first target was the economic system. In an effort to improve economic efficiency, Alia introduced some economic decentralization and price reform in specific sectors. Alia did not relax censorship, but he did allow public discussions of Albania's societal problems and encouraged debates among writers and artists on cultural issues. In response to international criticism of Albania's record on human rights, the new leadership loosened some political controls and ceased to apply repression on a mass scale. In 1989, general amnesties brought about the release of many long-term prisoners. He strengthened ties with Greece, Italy, Turkey, and Yugoslavia. A loosening of restrictions on travel and tourism resulted in a more promising outlook for Albania's tourist trade.", "Despite Alia's efforts to proceed with change on a limited, cautious basis, reform from above threatened to turn into reform from below, largely because of the increasingly vocal demands of Albania's youth. On 9 December 1990, student demonstrators marched from the Enver Hoxha University (now University of Tirana) at Tirana through the streets of the capital shouting slogans and demanding reforms. By 11 December, the number of participants had reached almost 3,000. In an effort to quell the student unrest, which had led to clashes with riot police, Alia met with the students and agreed to take further steps toward democratization. The students informed Alia that they wanted to create an independent political organization of students and youth. Alia's response was that such an organization had to be registered with the Ministry of Justice. In his traditional New Year's message to the Albanian people, Alia welcomed the changes that had been occurring in the country and claimed that 1991 would be a turning point in terms of the economy. Despite positive signs of change, many Albanians were still trying to leave their country. At the end of 1990, as many as 5,000 Albanians crossed over the mountainous border into Greece. Young people motivated by economic dissatisfaction made up the bulk of the refugees. Alia was a crucial figure in the peaceful political transition of the early 1990s as many believe that he helped the rise to power of the anti-communist opposition forces thus eliminating possible bloodshed. Alia managed to remain a key political figure throughout several political crises. Nonetheless, with Albania in the throes of a grave economic crisis, Alia had to face challenges that he could not surmount. After the collapse of a coalition government in December 1991 and the Democratic Party of Albania's (DPA) landslide victory in the spring 1992 general election, he resigned as president on 3 April 1992. On 9 April the People's Assembly elected DPA leader Sali Berisha as Albania's new head of state.", "On 21 May 1994, senior officials from the Communist government, including Ramiz Alia, went on trial. Alia was charged with abuse of power and misappropriation of state funds, as was prime minister Adil Carçani, deputy prime minister Manush Myftiu, and Rita Marko who was a vice-president. Alia had been placed under house arrest in August 1992 and his detention was converted into imprisonment in August 1993. In court he claimed he was the victim of a political show trial and demanded that the trial be broadcast on television, a request denied by the presiding judge. The trial was monitored by a Human Rights Watch representative and proceeded with only minor due process irregularities. The ten defendants were found guilty as charged and sentenced to between three and nine years in prison; Alia received a nine-year sentence. A court of appeals subsequently reduced some of the sentences, notably Alia's to five years. Alia, Myftiu, Carçani, Stefani and Isai were also ordered to repay various sums to the state. On 30 November, the Court of Cassation reduced Alia's term by an additional three years. On 7 July 1995, Ramiz Alia was freed from jail. However, his freedom was short-lived and in 1996 he was charged with committing crimes against humanity during his term, and was imprisoned anew in March. The trial against him began on 18 February 1997, but he escaped from the prison following the unrest in the country and the desertion of the guards. Amid the unrest he appeared on State TV in an exclusive interview with Blendi Fevziu. In the late 2000s he was sometimes seen travelling to Albania from Dubai to give interviews or publicize his books.", "Ramiz Alia died on 7 October 2011 in Tirana from lung disease, shortly before his 87th birthday, according to a spokesman for President Bamir Topi." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "CAESAR 8x8.", "Operational deployment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "CAESAR was developed in the 1990s as a technology demonstrator by the French state-owned company GIAT Industries, in cooperation with Lohr Industrie. It was first shown in public in 1994. Four years later, a pre-production model underwent trials with the French Army.", "The CAESAR is a wheeled, 155mm 52-caliber self-propelled howitzer. It holds 18 rounds and is typically operated by a crew of five, though if necessary, the CAESAR can be operated by as few as three persons. It can be transported by C-130 or A400M, and has a firing range of approximately 42 km using an Extended Range, Full Bore (ERFB) shell, and more than 50 km using rocket assisted shells. The system is integrated with a fully computerized system, providing automatic control. During Eurosatory 2006, CAESAR was exhibited with an automated laying system based on the SIGMA 30 inertial navigation system. Nexter is developing an armored cab for the CAESAR in response to demand for more protection for the crew. The additional armor will protect against IEDs and roadside bombs, anti-vehicle mines, and 155 mm shells landing as close as five meters (16 feet) away from the vehicle. It can be added to the cabs of existing CAESARs. Heavier armor will increase its weight by 400 kg (880 pounds) and raise the price by 4-5 percent.", "In 16 September 2015 at DSEI 2015, Nexter unveiled the CAESAR 8x8 which features a high level of mobility ensured by a modified Tatra T-815 8x8 chassis. The 8x8 CAESAR is fitted as standard with an unarmoured forward control four-person cab, but one of the options is a fully armour protected cab. Gross vehicle weight would depend on the level of armour protection, but is about 30 tonnes. It is powered by a 410 hp diesel engine.", "In June 2009, the French Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff confirmed that eight CAESAR would be sent to Afghanistan to support French operations. They were deployed during the summer. Three were deployed 1 August 2009 by the 3rd Marine Artillery Regiment (3è RAMa), followed by five others, deployed as a firebase in FOB Tora, Tagab and Nijrab. They are fitted with cabin armor add-ons, with fireport. The French army deployed this system in southern Lebanon as part of the UNIFIL peace keeping force. During Operation Serval in Mali four CAESAR were deployed by the 68 régiment d'artillerie d'Afrique (68th Artillery Regiment of Africa). In April 2011, the Royal Thai Army used the CAESAR against Cambodia's BM-21. The Thai Army claimed that they destroyed more than 2 BM-21 systems. Several CAESAR were deployed in Mali during Operation Serval, in which they saw action in the Battle of Ifoghas, amongst others. Four CAESAR were deployed to Iraq for the Battle of Mosul, where French forces supported the Iraqi Army's operation to reclaim Mosul from ISIL from October 2016 to July 2017. Multiple CAESAR were deployed to Iraq on the border with Syria from 8 November 2018 to April 2019 to support the Syrian Democratic Forces in the Battle of Baghuz Fawqani, the ultimately successful operation to capture the final town held by the Islamic State group. They deployed to Firebase Saham, a base freshly constructed by the U.S. Army to provide fire support during the battle, especially during cloudy days when U.S. aircraft could not see to conduct airstrikes. CAESAR howitzers have been used by Saudi Arabia in the Yemeni war against civilian targets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regional variations.", "Japan.", "Outside Japan.", "China.", "South Korea.", "Taiwan." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "In Nagoya, it may be called and soy sauce is used as a dipping sauce. Miso oden is simmered in Hatchomiso broth, which tastes lightly sweet. Konjac and tofu are common ingredients. In the Kansai area, this dish is sometimes called and tends to be more strongly flavored than the lighter Kantō version. Oden in Shizuoka uses a dark colored broth flavored with beef stock and dark soy sauce, and all ingredients are skewered. Dried and ground fish (sardine, mackerel, or katsuobushi) and aonori powder are sprinkled on top before eating. Udon restaurants in Kagawa Prefecture in Shikoku almost always offer oden as a side dish, to be eaten with sweet miso while waiting for udon.", "", "In China, 7-11 markets oden as \"haodun\" () a word play on \"good pot.\"", "In South Korea, the loanword \"odeng\" () borrowed from Japanese \"oden\" is a synonym of \"eomuk\" (fishcakes). The boiled dish consist of fishcakes are called by the names such as \"odeng-tang\" () or \"eomuk-jeongol\" (), with the words such as \"tang\" (soup) or \"jeongol\" (hot pot) attached to the ingredient name. The street food version is sold from small carts and is usually served with a spicy soup. It is very common on the streets of South Korea and there are many restaurants that have it on the menu or specialize in it.", "Oden was introduced to Taiwanese cuisine during Japanese rule and is referred to in Taiwanese Hokkien as \"olen\" (), which has been further loaned into Taiwanese Mandarin as \"hēilún\" (). \"Tianbula\" () is a common ingredient for oden and is a popular snack at night markets. Tianbula is actually Japanese satsuma-age and was introduced to Taiwan by people from Kyushu (where satsuma-age is commonly known as \"tempura\") when Taiwan was under Japanese rule. Besides the more traditional ingredients, the Taiwanese \"olen\" also uses many local ingredients, such as pork meatballs and blood puddings. More recently, oden is offered in convenience stores where it is sold as \"guāndōngzhǔ\" ()." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Chesterfield coat.", "Greatcoat.", "Examples of overcoats." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In many countries, coats and gowns reaching below the knee have been worn for centuries, often for formal uses, establishing either social status or as part of a professional or military uniform. In the 17th century, the overcoat became widely stylized and available to the different classes. In the Western world, the general profile of overcoats has remained largely unchanged for a long time. During the Regency, the fashion was to have very form-fitting clothes, with sidebodies, waist seams, and a flared skirt. Examples of this included the frock overcoat and paletot.", "The over-frock coat gradually shifted to the looser styles more common now, typified by the Chesterfield coat, which became popular by the end of the Victorian period. Until then, most coats were double-breasted, but Chesterfields and accompanying styles like the guard's coat were worn in both single- and double-breasted varieties. More recently, there is a decline in the wearing of full-length overcoats, and double-breasted ones are much less common.", "Overcoats in various forms have been used by militaries since at least the late 18th century, and were especially associated with winter campaigns, such as Napoleon's Russian campaign. The full-length overcoat was once again popularised by the use during World War I of the trench coat. Stereotypically, overcoats used by the army tended to be single-breasted, while navies often used double-breasted overcoats. Overcoats continued to be used as battle dress until the mid-1940s and 1950s, when they were deemed impractical. However, in colder countries, such as the former Soviet Union, they continue to be issued and used. When more efficient clothing and synthetic fibres became readily available, the overcoat began to be phased out even there.", "Some of the most common historical overcoats, in roughly chronological order." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic operation.", "Steinhart–Hart equation.", "\"B\" or \"β\" parameter equation.", "Conduction model.", "NTC (negative temperature coefficient).", "PTC (positive temperature coefficient).", "Self-heating effects.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is linear, then where Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of formula_4. If formula_4 is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If formula_4 is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a formula_4 as close to 0 as possible, so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range. Instead of the temperature coefficient \"k\", sometimes the \"temperature coefficient of resistance\" formula_9 (\"alpha sub T\") is used. It is defined as This formula_9 coefficient should not be confused with the formula_12 parameter below.", "In practical devices, the linear approximation model (above) is accurate only over a limited temperature range. Over wider temperature ranges, a more complex resistance–temperature transfer function provides a more faithful characterization of the performance. The Steinhart–Hart equation is a widely used third-order approximation: where \"a\", \"b\" and \"c\" are called the Steinhart–Hart parameters and must be specified for each device. \"T\" is the absolute temperature, and \"R\" is the resistance. To give resistance as a function of temperature, the above cubic equation in formula_14 can be solved, the real root of which is given by where The error in the Steinhart–Hart equation is generally less than 0.02 °C in the measurement of temperature over a 200 °C range. As an example, typical values for a thermistor with a resistance of 3 kΩ at room temperature (25 °C = 298.15 K) are:", "NTC thermistors can also be characterised with the \"B\" (or \"β\") parameter equation, which is essentially the Steinhart–Hart equation with formula_18, formula_19 and formula_20, where the temperatures are in kelvins, and \"R\" is the resistance at temperature \"T\" (25 °C = 298.15 K). Solving for \"R\" yields or, alternatively, where formula_24. This can be solved for the temperature: The \"B\"-parameter equation can also be written as formula_26. This can be used to convert the function of resistance vs. temperature of a thermistor into a linear function of formula_27 vs. formula_28. The average slope of this function will then yield an estimate of the value of the \"B\" parameter.", "", "Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc, rod, plate, bead or cast chip of semiconducting material such as sintered metal oxides. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of active charge carriers it promotes them into the \"conduction band\". The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material can conduct. In certain materials like ferric oxide (FeO) with titanium (Ti) doping an \"n-type\" semiconductor is formed and the charge carriers are electrons. In materials such as nickel oxide (NiO) with lithium (Li) doping a \"p-type\" semiconductor is created, where holes are the charge carriers. This is described in the formula where Over large changes in temperature, calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are many different semiconducting thermistors with a range from about 0.01 kelvin to 2,000 kelvins (−273.14 °C to 1,700 °C). The IEC standard symbol for a NTC thermistor includes a \"−t°\" under the rectangle.", "Most PTC thermistors are made from doped polycrystalline ceramic (containing barium titanate (BaTiO) and other compounds) which have the property that their resistance rises suddenly at a certain critical temperature. Barium titanate is ferroelectric and its dielectric constant varies with temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply with temperature. At even higher temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour. Another type of thermistor is a silistor (a thermally sensitive silicon resistor). Silistors employ silicon as the semiconductive component material. Unlike ceramic PTC thermistors, silistors have an almost linear resistance-temperature characteristic. Barium titanate thermistors can be used as self-controlled heaters; for a given voltage, the ceramic will heat to a certain temperature, but the power used will depend on the heat loss from the ceramic. The dynamics of PTC thermistors being powered also is extremely useful. When first connected to a voltage source, a large current corresponding to the low, cold, resistance flows, but as the thermistor self-heats, the current is reduced until a limiting current (and corresponding peak device temperature) is reached. The current-limiting effect can replace fuses. In the degaussing circuits of many CRT monitors and televisions an appropriately chosen thermistor is connected in series with the degaussing coil. This results in a smooth current decrease for an improved degaussing effect. Some of these degaussing circuits have auxiliary heating elements to heat the thermistor (and reduce the resulting current) further. Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such as \"Polyswitch\" \"Semifuse\", and \"Multifuse\". This consists of plastic with carbon grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise, which then causes increased heating and rapid resistance increase. Like the BaTiO thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear resistance/temperature response useful for thermal or circuit control, not for temperature measurement. Besides circuit elements used to limit current, self-limiting heaters can be made in the form of wires or strips, useful for heat tracing. PTC thermistors 'latch' into a hot / high resistance state: once hot, they stay in that high resistance state, until cooled. The effect can be used as a primitive latch/memory circuit, the effect being enhanced by using two PTC thermistors in series, with one thermistor cool, and the other thermistor hot. The IEC standard symbol for a PTC thermistor includes a \"+t°\" under the rectangle.", "When a current flows through a thermistor, it generates heat, which raises the temperature of the thermistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor is being used to measure the temperature of the environment, this electrical heating may introduce a significant error if a correction is not made. Alternatively, this effect itself can be exploited. It can, for example, make a sensitive air-flow device employed in a sailplane rate-of-climb instrument, the electronic variometer, or serve as a timer for a relay as was formerly done in telephone exchanges. The electrical power input to the thermistor is just where \"I\" is current, and \"V\" is the voltage drop across the thermistor. This power is converted to heat, and this heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environment. The rate of transfer is well described by Newton's law of cooling: where \"T\"(\"R\") is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance \"R\", formula_38 is the temperature of the surroundings, and \"K\" is the \"dissipation constant\", usually expressed in units of milliwatts per degree Celsius. At equilibrium, the two rates must be equal: The current and voltage across the thermistor depend on the particular circuit configuration. As a simple example, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed, then by Ohm's law we have formula_40, and the equilibrium equation can be solved for the ambient temperature as a function of the measured resistance of the thermistor: The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal connection of the thermistor to its surroundings. It is generally given for the thermistor in still air and in well-stirred oil. Typical values for a small glass-bead thermistor are 1.5 mW/°C in still air and 6.0 mW/°C in stirred oil. If the temperature of the environment is known beforehand, then a thermistor may be used to measure the value of the dissipation constant. For example, the thermistor may be used as a flow-rate sensor, since the dissipation constant increases with the rate of flow of a fluid past the thermistor. The power dissipated in a thermistor is typically maintained at a very low level to ensure insignificant temperature measurement error due to self-heating. However, some thermistor applications depend upon significant \"self-heating\" to raise the body temperature of the thermistor well above the ambient temperature, so the sensor then detects even subtle changes in the thermal conductivity of the environment. Some of these applications include liquid-level detection, liquid-flow measurement and air-flow measurement.", "The first NTC thermistor was discovered in 1833 by Michael Faraday, who reported on the semiconducting behavior of silver sulfide. Faraday noticed that the resistance of silver sulfide decreased dramatically as temperature increased. (This was also the first documented observation of a semiconducting material.) Because early thermistors were difficult to produce and applications for the technology were limited, commercial production of thermistors did not begin until the 1930s. A commercially viable thermistor was invented by Samuel Ruben in 1930." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career.", "Television career.", "Performance poetry.", "\"Red Dwarf\".", "\"Robot Wars\".", "\"Takeshi's Castle\".", "\"Coronation Street\".", "Other acting roles.", "Other presenting roles.", "Other appearances.", "Radio.", "Music.", "Stand-up comedy and theatre.", "Film roles.", "Writing.", "Personal life.", "Legal issues and acquittal.", "Drug use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Charles was born in Liverpool to a Guyanese father and Irish mother. He grew up on the Cantril Farm housing estate with his older brother, Dean (who died in 2014) and his 2 other brothers Jimmy and Emile. He attended West Derby Comprehensive School followed by Childwall Hall College of Further Education, studying A-levels in History, Government and Politics, English Literature and General Studies. Charles won a national competition, run by \"The Guardian\" newspaper, for a poem he wrote when he was 12 years old. On leaving school Charles spent time working in a studio at Central Hall, Renshaw Street, Liverpool.", "Charles began his career as a contemporary and urban performance poet on the British cabaret circuit. His performances were considered original, with Charles described as having a natural ironic wit which appealed to talent scouts. In 1981, Charles climbed on stage at a Teardrop Explodes concert and recited a humorous, but derogatory, poem about the band's singer, Julian Cope. He was invited to open subsequent gigs for the group and went on to perform as a support act in pubs and clubs for the following three years, and at events such as the \"Larks in the Park\" music festival at Sefton Park (1982). He performed poetry at Liverpool's Everyman Theatre (1983) with such poets as Roger McGough and Adrian Henri. Charles was involved in the Liverpool music scene, writing and singing lyrics for a number of local rock bands. In 1980, he played keyboards, bass and provided voice in the rock band \"Watt 4\". He performed his political rap lyrics as a 'Wordsmith'. In 1983, Charles was invited to record a session on the John Peel BBC Radio show, performing his poems backed by a band. This was his first professional engagement. He recorded a further Peel Session in 1984. Charles realised he was using poetry as a vehicle for his sense of humour and progressed into stand-up comedy. He was part of the \"Red Wedge\" comedy tour in 1986, which aimed to raise awareness of the social problems of the time, in support of the Labour Party. He also performed his first one-man show in 1986, which premiered in Edinburgh, and then toured internationally. Charles was a guest on programmes including Janice Long's Radio 1 show, and was a regular panellist on Ned Sherrin's chat show \"Loose Ends\" (1987–88) on BBC Radio 4.", "", "Charles first appeared on television as the resident poet on the arts programme \"Riverside\" on BBC2 and on the day-time BBC1 chat show \"Pebble Mill at One\". Charles was the resident poet on the Channel 4 programme \"Black on Black\" (1985) and its entertainment-based successor \"Club Mix\" (1986), and he appeared, weekly, as a John Cooper Clarke-style 'punk poet' on the BBC2 pop music programme \"Oxford Road Show\" (ORS). Charles performed his political poems as stand-up comedy on the late-night show \"Saturday Live\" (1985–87) and on the prime-time BBC1 chat show \"Wogan\" (1986–87), where he performed a topical poem in a weekly feature. He also appeared as a guest on shows including \"Open Air\" (1988). Charles included significant acting in his performance style, enabling him to put the emotion across. In September 2015, Charles performed his \"epic\" poem \"Scary Fairy and the Tales of the Dark Wood\" live with the BBC Philharmonic orchestra, in a concert to be broadcast on BBC Radio 2's \"Friday Night is Music Night\" at Halloween.", "Charles' first television acting role was the Liverpudlian slob Dave Lister in science fiction comedy series \"Red Dwarf\". Charles has appeared in all twelve series. Charles' younger brother, Emile Charles, guest-starred in the Series III episode \"Timeslides\", and the songs \"Bad News\" and \"Cash\" in this episode were written by Charles and performed by his band. The role has involved Charles playing a variety of alternative characters, including a gangster, a cowboy and angelic and evil versions of Lister, and in him carrying out a wide range of stunts, and acting involving special effects. All series, except VII and IX, were recorded in front of a studio audience. Along with Danny John-Jules [Cat], Charles is one of only two cast members to appear in every episode of \"Red Dwarf\" to date. Charles reads the audiobook editions of both the \"Red Dwarf\" novel \"Last Human\" and his book \"The Log: A Dwarfer's Guide to Everything\", and he regularly attends sci-fi, comedy and memorabilia conventions in connection with the \"Red Dwarf\" franchise. During \"\", Lister visits the set of \"Coronation Street\", where he meets the actor Craig Charles.", "Charles presented \"Robot Wars\" on BBC2 (1998–2003) and Channel 5 (2003–04), from series 2 until series 7, which included two \"Extreme\" series and numerous'specials'. Charles was the main host and presided over the arena in which teams of amateur engineers battled their home-made radio-controlled robots against each other, and against the house robots. Charles introduced the show, enthusiastically announced the results of the battles and spoke to the contestants after the main events. He ended each episode with a short \"Robot Wars\"-themed poem. Charles' son, Jack, appeared on the show on several occasions, and was a contestant on \"Team Nemesis\" during series 4. Charles also hosted the \"Robot Wars Live\" UK tour, in 2001 and shows performed at the Wembley Arena. On 13 January 2016, the BBC announced that the show would be rebooted with 6 episodes in the year. On 14 January 2016, Charles posted a tweet on his Twitter page saying that he would love to present the new series, however he received no reply from the BBC. On 3 February 2016, Dara Ó Briain was announced as Charles' replacement as the presenter. The BBC also stated that they had denied Charles' request to reprise his role by stating that they don't comment on individual casting enquiries.", "Charles provided the English voice-over commentary for the Challenge (2002–04) rebroadcast of the popular game show \"Takeshi's Castle\", originally by Tokyo Broadcasting System in Japan. In each episode, between 100 and 142 contestants attempted to pass a series of wacky and near-impossible physical challenges to reach the Show Down at the castle against a Japanese actor Takeshi Kitano for a chance to win large cash prizes. Charles co-wrote the programme and commentated throughout all 122 episodes of the four series, and also some special and \"best of\" episodes. He provided comedy insights into the contestants' abilities, which were designed to appeal to adult audiences, as well as younger viewers - and also coined the term \"Keshi Heads\" to describe fans of the show. Charles' commentary was so well received that the 2013 reboot featuring Dick and Dom on the voice-overs did not fare as well because he wasn't there, according to complaints that Challenge received via social media. To this day, the Challenge rebroadcasts of \"Takeshi's Castle\" regularly place in the weekly top 10 for ratings with an average of 130,000 viewers per episode.", "In 2005, Charles joined the main cast of \"Coronation Street\", playing philandering taxicab driver, Lloyd Mullaney. Charles introduced aspects of the character himself, making Lloyd a Northern Soul DJ and record collector, and funk music enthusiast. Charles has chosen funk and soul songs playing as backing tracks during scenes, and posters for The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club and Red Dwarf have appeared in the background. Charles portrayed Lloyd as tough, but kind hearted and romantic, and the character was popular with viewers. Charles added a comedy element to the role, but was also involved in traumatic and emotional scenes with intricate storylines. In 2010, his character was involved in the show's dramatic 50th anniversary tram crash storyline, which was broadcast live. Charles presented documentaries for the show, including \"50 Years of Corrie Stunts\" (2010), which is included on the \"Tram Crash\" DVD. In November 2011, Charles took time off from \"Coronation Street\" to film a new series of \"Red Dwarf\", returning in April 2012. In February 2014 an online mini-series, \"Steve & Lloyd's Streetcar Stories\", ran alongside the television show's storyline. In May 2015, Craig announced he would be leaving \"Coronation Street\" for \"Red Dwarf.\" Lloyd left in a red Cadillac during the live episode on 23 September, although his final pre-recorded farewell scenes with Steve were shown during the following episode.", "Charles has acted in episodes of popular dramas such as \"The Bill\" (1995), \"EastEnders\" (2002) and \"Holby City\" (2003) and in the comedy \"The 10 Percenters\" (1996). Charles played the emotionally disturbed and violent prisoner, Eugene Buffy, in the highly successful Lynda La Plante drama series \"The Governor\" (1996); the title role in the Channel 4 pirate sitcom \"Captain Butler\" (1997); the warden of a women's prison in the Canadian sci-fi fantasy \"Lexx\" (2001); Detective Chief Inspector Mercer in seven episodes of the BBC soap opera \"Doctors\" (2003); and soccer agent, Joel Brooks, in the Sky TV football soap \"Dream Team\" (2004).", "Charles has presented children's television programmes, including \"What's That Noise?\" (1989) and \"Parallel 9\" (1992) on BBC1 and \"Go Getters\" (1994) on ITV. He was the travelling reporter for the highly acclaimed, but controversial, BBC'mockumentary' \"Ghostwatch\", which tricked viewers into believing it was a live investigation into ghost sightings in a suburban home on Halloween night (1992). Charles presented the virtual reality game show \"Cyberzone\" (1993) on BBC2; the late-night entertainment show \"Funky Bunker\" (1997) on ITV; the reality show \"Jailbreak\" (2000) on Channel 5; the discussion show \"Amazing Space: The Pub Guide to the Universe\" (2001) on National Geographic; and the late-night current affairs chat show \"Weapons of Mass Distraction\" (2004) on ITV.", "Charles has appeared on celebrity editions of \"University Challenge\" (1998), \"Can't Cook, Won't Cook\" (1998), \"The Weakest Link\" (2004), \"The Chase\" (2012) and \"Pointless\" (2013), and comedy panel shows such as \"Have I Got News for You\" (1995), \"Just a Minute\" (1995) and \"They Think It's All Over\" (1996) and Keith Lemon's Through the Keyhole (2014). He was a team captain on the sci-fi quiz series \"Space Cadets\" (1997) on Channel 4, which guest starred William Shatner. Charles has opened the National Lottery draw (1997) and his home has featured on \"Through the Keyhole\". Charles was a contestant in the \"Celebrity Poker Club\" tournament (2004) on Challenge, where he reached the semi-finals, and in the Channel 4 reality game show, \"The Games\" (2005), which documented the contestants' intensive training regime and each live Olympic Games-style sporting event. From 16 November 2014, Charles took part in the fourteenth series of \"I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here!\". However, on 20 November, Charles left the series soon after learning of his brother Dean's death from a heart attack.", "As well as his early appearances on shows such as Radio 4's \"Loose Ends\" (1987–88), and \"Kaleidoscope\", in the early 1990s, Charles could be heard on the London Radio Station Kiss 100 (Kiss FM) as the Breakfast show presenter. In 1995, Charles played the Porter in Steven Berkoff's adaptation of Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\", on Radio 4. Since 2002, Charles has been a DJ on BBC Radio 6 Music presenting \"The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show\", on air on Saturday evenings 6pm to 9pm, where he plays a diverse range of funk and soul music, from classic tracks to the latest releases, and provides publicity for less familiar bands. Charles explains the context for the music and carries out interviews with guest musicians. He was with the station at its launch, and while it was being tested during the previous year, under the name Network Y. Charles has also hosted the station's Breakfast Show (2004), and sits in for other presenters including Andrew Collins, Phil Wilding and Phill Jupitus and Radcliffe & Maconie. From January until November 2014, Charles also broadcast the Funk and Soul Show live on BBC Radio 2, immediately after his 6 Music show. He regularly sits in for Janice Long, Steve Wright and Jo Whiley, and has presented numerous programmes on the station, including \"The Craig Charles Soul All-Nighter\" (2011), which he hosted continuously for 12 hours, and the \"Beatleland\" (2012) documentary on \"The Beatles\". Charles has also chosen music as a guest of other broadcasters such as Ken Bruce on Radio 2 and Liz Kershaw on 6 Music. Charles covered for Graham Norton on Radio 2's Saturday mid-morning show during Norton's 10-week 2015 summer break. From 16 April 2016, Charles presents the House Party on Saturday nights on BBC Radio 2, with the show airing between 10pm and midnight. For eight weeks from April-June 2020, he also presented \"Craig Charles At Teatime\" between 4pm and 7pm on weekdays on Radio 6 Music. The show was sometimes billed as \"Craig Charles Weekend Workout\" on Fridays.", "Charles has been involved in the music industry through much of his career. His bands have included \"Watt 4\" (1980), in which he played keyboards and sang, \"Craig Charles and the Beat Burglars\" (1989), \"The Sons of Gordon Gekko\" (1989), where he wrote lyrics and also composed tunes and \"The Eye\" (2000–02), with whom he recorded the rock album \"Giving You The Eye, Live at the Edinburgh Festival\". Charles plays guitar and piano. In 1987, Charles provided the poem track used for the opening credits of the BBC series \"The Marksman\" (in which he also acted), which is included on the album \"The Marksman: Music from the BBC TV series\". Charles wrote lyrics for Suzanne Rhatigan's album \"To Hell With Love\" (1992). In 1993, Charles was signed to the Acid Jazz record label. In 2009, Charles formed the Fantasy Funk Band from the leading British musicians in the genre, and has presented the band at festivals, including Glastonbury and the BBC's Proms in the Park. As a continuation of his 6 Music show, Charles regularly takes the Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club to varied venues across the UK and abroad, and to the major UK music festivals. He performs live DJ sets, occasionally comperes and curates events, including his own Craig Charles Fantasy Weekender, and has broadcast the radio show live from festival locations. In 2012, Charles released the compilation album \"The Craig Charles Funk & Soul Club\", on CD and as a digital download, as part of a three-album deal with Freestyle Records. The second volume was released in the same format in 2013, and the third in 2014. He followed these with a \"Craig Charles Funk and Soul Classics\" album of 3 CDs in 2015.", "Charles returned to stand-up comedy between 1995 and 2001, regularly touring his one-man adult-rated shows nationally and releasing the videos \"Craig Charles: Live on Earth!\" (1995), \"Live Official Bootleg\" (1996) and \"Sickbag\" (2000). International performances included the Great Norwegian Comedy Festival and the Melbourne International Comedy Festival. Charles appeared in the John Godber comedy play \"Teechers\", in which he swapped in and out of various roles, at the Arts Theatre, London, and at the Edinburgh Festival (1989), and he played Idle Jack in the pantomime \"Dick Whittington\", at the Hull New Theatre (1997). In 2000, he performed the show \"Craig Charles and His Band\" at the Edinburgh Festival. Charles has a regular slot at Butlins Minehead House Of Fun Weekend every November for 3 nights, of DJing, Comedy and singing.", "Charles played Eddie in the 1987 political drama \"Business as Usual\". In 2006, Charles starred in two British feature films: the fantasy film \"Fated\" and the gangster film \"Clubbing to Death\". Charles voiced Zipper the Cat in the animation \"Prince Cinders\" (1993) and Asterix in \"Asterix Conquers America\" (1994). Roles in short films include playing Keith Dennis in the comedy \"The Colour of Funny\" (1999) and Mark in the drama \"Ten Minutes\" (2004).", "In 1993, Charles worked with Russell Bell on the \"Craig Charles Almanac of Total Knowledge\", writing about his'streetwise' sense of humour on a range of topics, from the world's most embarrassing stories to how to explain the mysteries of the universe. In 1997, Charles and Bell wrote Charles' \"Red Dwarf\" character's book \"The Log\", in which Lister decides to leave a log detailing mankind's greatest achievements. In 1998, Charles published \"No Other Blue\", a collection of his poetry, with illustrations by Philippa Drakeford, on diverse personal subjects including prison, his mother's final illness, love and politics at home and abroad. More recently he has written a series of nursery rhymes titled \"Scary Fairy and the Tales of the Dark Wood\". In 2000, Charles wrote his first autobiography about his experiences growing up in Liverpool, titled \"No Irish, No Niggers\". In 2007, he announced he would release his autobiography, planned for March 2008, published by Hodder Headline and titled \"On the Rocks\", which would cover the recent incidents in his life and be based on much of his journal, which Charles said he kept while in rehab. Charles has been involved in journalism and has had a column in \"Time Out\" magazine. In 1994, he launched a single issue of \"Comedy\" magazine with articles dedicated to the comedy circuit. In 2005 and 2006, Charles was a monthly columnist for the \"Liverpool Echo\" newspaper. His television writing credits include The Easter Stories (1994), Funky Bunker (1997) and Takeshi's Castle (2002). He is also involved in music journalism as he wrote \"Liner notes\" for the funk and soul music producer \"Mr. Confuse\" for his albums 'Feel The Fire' (2008), 'Do You Realize' (2012) and 'Only A Man' (2018) regarding to his work as a music presenter for \"The Craig Charles Funk and Soul Show\" on BBC Radio 6 Music.", "He has 3 children, a son Jack from his first marriage to actress Cathy Tyson, and two daughters Anna-Jo and Nellie from his second marriage to Jackie Fleming.", "In July 1994, Charles and a friend were arrested and remanded in custody for three months on a rape charge. In March 1995, both men were acquitted in their trial. After being cleared, Charles spoke of the need to restore anonymity for those accused of rape. He stated that \"the fact that my name and address along with my picture can appear on the front of the papers before the so-called 'victim' has even signed a statement proves that anonymity for rape defendants is a must and that the law must be changed.\" While in prison, Charles was attacked by a man wielding a makeshift knife.", "In June 2006, newspaper allegations of crack cocaine use resulted in Charles being suspended from both \"Coronation Street\" and BBC Radio 6 Music. In August, Charles was arrested and released on bail pending further enquiries, and in September he accepted a caution for possession of a Class A drug. Charles returned to hosting his 6 Music show from November 2006 and filming \"Coronation Street\" from January 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Legend.", "Evolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1948 the site that would become Mill Ends Park was intended to be the site for a light pole. When the pole failed to appear and weeds sprouted in the opening, Dick Fagan, a columnist for the \"Oregon Journal\", planted flowers in the hole and named it after his column in the paper, \"Mill Ends\" (a reference to leftover irregular pieces of wood at lumber mills). Fagan's office in the Journal building overlooked the median in the middle of the busy thoroughfare that ran in front of the building (then known as SW Front Avenue). The park was dedicated on St. Patrick's Day, 1976, as \"the only leprechaun colony west of Ireland,\" according to Fagan.", "Fagan told this story of the park's origin: He looked out the window and spotted a leprechaun digging in the hole. He ran down and grabbed the leprechaun, which meant that he had earned a wish. Fagan said he wished for a park of his own, but since he had not specified the size of the park in his wish, the leprechaun gave him the hole. Over the next two decades, Fagan often featured the park and its head leprechaun in his whimsical column. Fagan claimed to be the only person who could see the head leprechaun, Patrick O'Toole. Fagan published a threat by O'Toole about the 11 o'clock curfew set on all city parks. O'Toole dared the mayor to try to evict him and his followers from Mill Ends and threatened a leprechaun curse on him should he attempt to do so. Subsequently, no legal action was taken, and the leprechauns were allowed to stay in the park after hours.", "Fagan died of cancer in 1969, but the park lives on, cared for by others. It was named an official city park in 1976. The small circle has featured many unusual items through the decades, including a swimming pool for butterflies—complete with diving board—a horseshoe, a fragment of the Journal building, and a miniature Ferris wheel, which was delivered by a full-size crane. On St. Patrick's Day, 2001, the park was visited by a tiny leprechaun leaning against his pot of gold and children's drawings of four-leaf clovers and leprechauns. The park continues to be the site of St. Patrick's Day festivities. The events held here include concerts by Clan Macleay Pipe Band, picnics, and rose plantings by the Junior Rose Festival Court. In February 2006, the park was temporarily relocated during road construction to a planter outside the World Trade Center Portland, about from its permanent location. It was returned to its home—now named SW Naito Parkway—on March 16, 2007, in true St. Patrick's Day style with the Royal Rosarians, bagpipers, and the Fagan family, including Dick's widow, Katherine, in attendance. The legend lives on in the Fagan family. One of Fagan's sons, Pat Fagan, lives in Gladstone and has enjoyed sharing the park with his own son. \"He loves it,\" Pat Fagan said. \"It's still the largest leprechaun colony west of Ireland.\" In December 2011, plastic army men figures and small signs were placed in Mill Ends as a tongue-in-cheek flash mob demonstration for Occupy Portland. One man, Cameron Scott Whitten, was arrested after he was asked by police to move from the sidewalk and refused. In March 2013, the park's tree was stolen. Officials planted a replacement tree, and one day later, a passerby found what appeared to be the stolen tree lying next to the new one. The next month, officials from Burntwood, England, complained to Guinness, claiming that Mill Ends was not large enough to be a park and that Prince's Park, smallest in the UK, should hold the world record since it \"has a fence around it\" among other features. In response, volunteers erected a fence (several inches tall) around and stationed an \"armed guard\" in the park. The park has previously contained a tiny Ferris wheel which was \"delivered by a normal-sized crane.\" In 2018, Portland Parks & Recreation installed a miniaturized park sign and planted miniature roses. In December 2019, the tree was cut down by an unknown vandal. However, the tree was soon replaced." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Taxonomy and systematics.", "History.", "Phylogeny.", "Nematode systematics.", "Anatomy.", "Digestive system.", "Excretory system.", "Nervous system.", "Reproduction.", "Free-living species.", "Parasitic species.", "Agriculture and horticulture.", "Epidemiology.", "Soil ecosystems.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"nematode\" comes from the Modern Latin compound of \"nemat-\" \"thread\" (from Greek \"nema\", genitive \"nematos\" \"thread,\" from stem of \"nein\" \"to spin\"; see \"needle\") + \"-odes\" \"like, of the nature of\" (see \"-oid\").", "", "In 1758, Linnaeus described some nematode genera (e.g., \"Ascaris\"), then included in the Vermes. The name of the group Nematoda, informally called \"nematodes\", came from Nematoidea, originally defined by Karl Rudolphi (1808), from Ancient Greek νῆμα (\"nêma, nêmatos\", 'thread') and -eiδἠς (\"-eidēs\",'species'). It was treated as family Nematodes by Burmeister (1837). At its origin, the \"Nematoidea\" erroneously included Nematodes and Nematomorpha, attributed by von Siebold (1843). Along with Acanthocephala, Trematoda, and Cestoidea, it formed the obsolete group Entozoa, created by Rudolphi (1808). They were also classed along with Acanthocephala in the obsolete phylum Nemathelminthes by Gegenbaur (1859). In 1861, K. M. Diesing treated the group as order Nematoda. In 1877, the taxon Nematoidea, including the family Gordiidae (horsehair worms), was promoted to the rank of phylum by Ray Lankester. The first clear distinction between the nemas and gordiids was realized by Vejdovsky when he named a group to contain the horsehair worms the order Nematomorpha. In 1919, Nathan Cobb proposed that nematodes should be recognized alone as a phylum. He argued they should be called \"nema\" in English rather than \"nematodes\" and defined the taxon Nemates (later emended as Nemata, Latin plural of \"nema\"), listing Nematoidea \"sensu restricto\" as a synonym. However, in 1910, Grobben proposed the phylum Aschelminthes and the nematodes were included in as class Nematoda along with class Rotifera, class Gastrotricha, class Kinorhyncha, class Priapulida, and class Nematomorpha (The phylum was later revived and modified by Libbie Henrietta Hyman in 1951 as Pseudoceolomata, but remained similar). In 1932, Potts elevated the class Nematoda to the level of phylum, leaving the name the same. Despite Potts' classification being equivalent to Cobbs', both names have been used (and are still used today) and Nematode became a popular term in zoological science. Since Cobb was the first to include nematodes in a particular phylum separated from Nematomorpha, some researchers consider the valid taxon name to be Nemates or Nemata, rather than Nematoda, because of the zoological rule that gives priority to the first used term in case of synonyms.", "The phylogenetic relationships of the nematodes and their close relatives among the protostomian Metazoa are unresolved. Traditionally, they were held to be a lineage of their own, but in the 1990s, they were proposed to form the group Ecdysozoa together with moulting animals, such as arthropods. The identity of the closest living relatives of the Nematoda has always been considered to be well resolved. Morphological characters and molecular phylogenies agree with placement of the roundworms as a sister taxon to the parasitic Nematomorpha; together, they make up the Nematoida. Along with the Scalidophora (formerly Cephalorhyncha), the Nematoida form the clade Cycloneuralia, but much disagreement occurs both between and among the available morphological and molecular data. The Cycloneuralia or the Introverta—depending on the validity of the former—are often ranked as a superphylum.", "Due to the lack of knowledge regarding many nematodes, their systematics is contentious. An earliest and influential classification was proposed by Chitwood and Chitwood—later revised by Chitwood—who divided the phylum into two—the Aphasmidia and the Phasmidia. These were later renamed Adenophorea (gland bearers) and Secernentea (secretors), respectively. The Secernentea share several characteristics, including the presence of phasmids, a pair of sensory organs located in the lateral posterior region, and this was used as the basis for this division. This scheme was adhered to in many later classifications, though the Adenophorea were not in a uniform group. Initial studies of incomplete DNA sequences suggested the existence of five clades: As it seems, the Secernentea are indeed a natural group of closest relatives, but the \"Adenophorea\" appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage of roundworms simply retaining a good number of ancestral traits. The old Enoplia do not seem to be monophyletic, either, but to contain two distinct lineages. The old group \"Chromadoria\" seems to be another paraphyletic assemblage, with the Monhysterida representing a very ancient minor group of nematodes. Among the Secernentea, the Diplogasteria may need to be united with the Rhabditia, while the Tylenchia might be paraphyletic with the Rhabditia. The understanding of roundworm systematics and phylogeny as of 2002 is summarised below: Phylum Nematoda Later work has suggested the presence of 12 clades. The Secernentea—a group that includes virtually all major animal and plant 'nematode' parasites—apparently arose from within the Adenophorea. A major effort to improve the systematics of this phylum is in progress and being organised by the 959 Nematode Genomes. A complete checklist of the world's nematode species can be found in the World Species Index: Nematoda. An analysis of the mitochondrial DNA suggests that the following groupings are valid The Ascaridomorpha, Rhabditomorpha, and Diplogasteromorpha appear to be related. The suborders Spirurina and Tylenchina and the infraorders Rhabditomorpha, Panagrolaimomorpha, and Tylenchomorpha are paraphytic. The monophyly of the Ascaridomorph is uncertain.", "Nematodes are very small, slender worms: typically about 5 to 100 μm thick, and 0.1 to 2.5 mm long. The smallest nematodes are microscopic, while free-living species can reach as much as, and some parasitic species are larger still, reaching over in length. The body is often ornamented with ridges, rings, bristles, or other distinctive structures. The head of a nematode is relatively distinct. Whereas the rest of the body is bilaterally symmetrical, the head is radially symmetrical, with sensory bristles and, in many cases, solid 'head-shields' radiating outwards around the mouth. The mouth has either three or six lips, which often bear a series of teeth on their inner edges. An adhesive 'caudal gland' is often found at the tip of the tail. The epidermis is either a syncytium or a single layer of cells, and is covered by a thick collagenous cuticle. The cuticle is often of a complex structure and may have two or three distinct layers. Underneath the epidermis lies a layer of longitudinal muscle cells. The relatively rigid cuticle works with the muscles to create a hydroskeleton, as nematodes lack circumferential muscles. Projections run from the inner surface of muscle cells towards the nerve cords; this is a unique arrangement in the animal kingdom, in which nerve cells normally extend fibers into the muscles rather than \"vice versa\".", "The oral cavity is lined with cuticle, which is often strengthened with structures, such as ridges, especially in carnivorous species, which may bear a number of teeth. The mouth often includes a sharp stylet, which the animal can thrust into its prey. In some species, the stylet is hollow and can be used to suck liquids from plants or animals. The oral cavity opens into a muscular, sucking pharynx, also lined with cuticle. Digestive glands are found in this region of the gut, producing enzymes that start to break down the food. In stylet-bearing species, these may even be injected into the prey. No stomach is present, with the pharynx connecting directly to a muscleless intestine that forms the main length of the gut. This produces further enzymes, and also absorbs nutrients through its single-cell-thick lining. The last portion of the intestine is lined by cuticle, forming a rectum, which expels waste through the anus just below and in front of the tip of the tail. The movement of food through the digestive system is the result of the body movements of the worm. The intestine has valves or sphincters at either end to help control the movement of food through the body.", "Nitrogenous waste is excreted in the form of ammonia through the body wall, and is not associated with any specific organs. However, the structures for excreting salt to maintain osmoregulation are typically more complex. In many marine nematodes, one or two unicellular'renette glands' excrete salt through a pore on the underside of the animal, close to the pharynx. In most other nematodes, these specialized cells have been replaced by an organ consisting of two parallel ducts connected by a single transverse duct. This transverse duct opens into a common canal that runs to the excretory pore.", "Four peripheral nerves run along the length of the body on the dorsal, ventral, and lateral surfaces. Each nerve lies within a cord of connective tissue lying beneath the cuticle and between the muscle cells. The ventral nerve is the largest, and has a double structure forward of the excretory pore. The dorsal nerve is responsible for motor control, while the lateral nerves are sensory, and the ventral combines both functions. The nervous system is also the only place in the nematode body that contains cilia, which are all nonmotile and with a sensory function. At the anterior end of the animal, the nerves branch from a dense, circular nerve (nerve ring) round surrounding the pharynx, and serving as the brain. Smaller nerves run forward from the ring to supply the sensory organs of the head. The bodies of nematodes are covered in numerous sensory bristles and that together provide a sense of touch. Behind the sensory bristles on the head lie two small pits, or 'amphids'. These are well supplied with nerve cells and are probably chemoreception organs. A few aquatic nematodes possess what appear to be pigmented eye-spots, but whether or not these are actually sensory in nature is unclear.", "Most nematode species are dioecious, with separate male and female individuals, though some, such as \"Caenorhabditis elegans\", are androdioecious, consisting of hermaphrodites and rare males. Both sexes possess one or two tubular gonads. In males, the sperm are produced at the end of the gonad and migrate along its length as they mature. The testis opens into a relatively wide seminal vesicle and then during intercourse into a glandular and muscular ejaculatory duct associated with the vas deferens and cloaca. In females, the ovaries each open into an oviduct (in hermaphrodites, the eggs enter a spermatheca first) and then a glandular uterus. The uteri both open into a common vulva/vagina, usually located in the middle of the morphologically ventral surface. Reproduction is usually sexual, though hermaphrodites are capable of self-fertilization. Males are usually smaller than females or hermaphrodites (often much smaller) and often have a characteristically bent or fan-shaped tail. During copulation, one or more chitinized spicules move out of the cloaca and are inserted into the genital pore of the female. Amoeboid sperm crawl along the spicule into the female worm. Nematode sperm is thought to be the only eukaryotic cell without the globular protein G-actin. Eggs may be embryonated or unembryonated when passed by the female, meaning their fertilized eggs may not yet be developed. A few species are known to be ovoviviparous. The eggs are protected by an outer shell, secreted by the uterus. In free-living roundworms, the eggs hatch into larvae, which appear essentially identical to the adults, except for an underdeveloped reproductive system; in parasitic roundworms, the lifecycle is often much more complicated. Nematodes as a whole possess a wide range of modes of reproduction. Some nematodes, such as \"Heterorhabditis\" spp., undergo a process called endotokia matricida: intrauterine birth causing maternal death. Some nematodes are hermaphroditic, and keep their self-fertilized eggs inside the uterus until they hatch. The juvenile nematodes then ingest the parent nematode. This process is significantly promoted in environments with a low food supply. The nematode model species \"C. elegans\" and \"C. briggsae\" exhibit androdioecy, which is very rare among animals. The single genus \"Meloidogyne\" (root-knot nematodes) exhibits a range of reproductive modes, including sexual reproduction, facultative sexuality (in which most, but not all, generations reproduce asexually), and both meiotic and mitotic parthenogenesis. The genus \"Mesorhabditis\" exhibits an unusual form of parthenogenesis, in which sperm-producing males copulate with females, but the sperm do not fuse with the ovum. Contact with the sperm is essential for the ovum to begin dividing, but because no fusion of the cells occurs, the male contributes no genetic material to the offspring, which are essentially clones of the female.", "Different free-living species feed on materials as varied as algae, fungi, small animals, fecal matter, dead organisms, and living tissues. Free-living marine nematodes are important and abundant members of the meiobenthos. They play an important role in the decomposition process, aid in recycling of nutrients in marine environments, and are sensitive to changes in the environment caused by pollution. One roundworm of note, \"C. elegans\", lives in the soil and has found much use as a model organism. \"C. elegans\" has had its entire genome sequenced, the developmental fate of every cell determined, and every neuron mapped.", "Nematodes that commonly parasitise humans include ascarids (\"Ascaris\"), filarias, hookworms, pinworms (\"Enterobius\"), and whipworms (\"Trichuris trichiura\"). The species \"Trichinella spiralis\", commonly known as the 'trichina worm', occurs in rats, pigs, bears, and humans, and is responsible for the disease trichinosis. \"Baylisascaris\" usually infests wild animals, but can be deadly to humans, as well. \"Dirofilaria immitis\" is known for causing heartworm disease by inhabiting the hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats. \"Haemonchus contortus\" is one of the most abundant infectious agents in sheep around the world, causing great economic damage to sheep. In contrast, entomopathogenic nematodes parasitize insects and are mostly considered beneficial by humans, but some attack beneficial insects. One form of nematode is entirely dependent upon fig wasps, which are the sole source of fig fertilization. They prey upon the wasps, riding them from the ripe fig of the wasp's birth to the fig flower of its death, where they kill the wasp, and their offspring await the birth of the next generation of wasps as the fig ripens. A newly discovered parasitic tetradonematid nematode, \"Myrmeconema neotropicum\", apparently induces fruit mimicry in the tropical ant \"Cephalotes atratus\". Infected ants develop bright red gasters (abdomens), tend to be more sluggish, and walk with their gasters in a conspicuous elevated position. These changes likely cause frugivorous birds to confuse the infected ants for berries, and eat them. Parasite eggs passed in the bird's feces are subsequently collected by foraging \"C. atratus\" and are fed to their larvae, thus completing the lifecycle of \"M. neotropicum\". Similarly, multiple varieties of nematodes have been found in the abdominal cavities of the primitively social sweat bee, \"Lasioglossum zephyrus\". Inside the female body, the nematode hinders ovarian development and renders the bee less active, thus less effective in pollen collection. Plant-parasitic nematodes include several groups causing severe crop losses. The most common genera are \"Aphelenchoides\" (foliar nematodes), \"Ditylenchus\", \"Globodera\" (potato cyst nematodes), \"Heterodera\" (soybean cyst nematodes), \"Longidorus\", \"Meloidogyne\" (root-knot nematodes), \"Nacobbus\", \"Pratylenchus\" (lesion nematodes), \"Trichodorus\", and \"Xiphinema\" (dagger nematodes). Several phytoparasitic nematode species cause histological damages to roots, including the formation of visible galls (e.g. by root-knot nematodes), which are useful characters for their diagnostic in the field. Some nematode species transmit plant viruses through their feeding activity on roots. One of them is \"Xiphinema index\", vector of grapevine fanleaf virus, an important disease of grapes, another one is \"Xiphinema diversicaudatum\", vector of arabis mosaic virus\".\" Other nematodes attack bark and forest trees. The most important representative of this group is \"Bursaphelenchus xylophilus\", the pine wood nematode, present in Asia and America and recently discovered in Europe.", "Depending on the species, a nematode may be beneficial or detrimental to plant health. From agricultural and horticulture perspectives, the two categories of nematodes are the predatory ones, which kill garden pests such as cutworms and corn earworm moths, and the pest nematodes, such as the root-knot nematode, which attack plants, and those that act as vectors spreading plant viruses between crop plants. Plant-parasitic nematodes are often known as eelworms and attack leaves and buds. Predatory nematodes can be bred by soaking a specific recipe of leaves and other detritus in water, in a dark, cool place, and can even be purchased as an organic form of pest control. Rotations of plants with nematode-resistant species or varieties is one means of managing parasitic nematode infestations. For example, marigolds, grown over one or more seasons (the effect is cumulative), can be used to control nematodes. Another is treatment with natural antagonists such as the fungus \"Gliocladium roseum\". Chitosan, a natural biocontrol, elicits plant defense responses to destroy parasitic cyst nematodes on roots of soybean, corn, sugar beet, potato, and tomato crops without harming beneficial nematodes in the soil.<ref name=\"US-2008/072494\"></ref> Soil steaming is an efficient method to kill nematodes before planting a crop, but indiscriminately eliminates both harmful and beneficial soil fauna. The golden nematode \"Globodera rostochiensis\" is a particularly harmful variety of nematode pest that has resulted in quarantines and crop failures worldwide. CSIRO has found a 13- to 14-fold reduction of nematode population densities in plots having Indian mustard \"Brassica juncea\" green manure or seed meal in the soil.", "A number of intestinal nematodes cause diseases affecting human beings, including ascariasis, trichuriasis, and hookworm disease. Filarial nematodes cause filariasis.", "About 90% of nematodes reside in the top 15 cm of soil. Nematodes do not decompose organic matter, but, instead, are parasitic and free-living organisms that feed on living material. Nematodes can effectively regulate bacterial population and community composition—they may eat up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Also, nematodes can play an important role in the nitrogen cycle by way of nitrogen mineralization. One group of carnivorous fungi, the nematophagous fungi, are predators of soil nematodes. They set enticements for the nematodes in the form of lassos or adhesive structures.", "Nematode worms (\"C. elegans\"), part of an ongoing research project conducted on the 2003 Space Shuttle \"Columbia\" mission STS-107, survived the re-entry breakup. It is believed to be the first known life form to survive a virtually unprotected atmospheric descent to Earth's surface." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The project started with a single extension for the Mozilla projects known as Mozilla Calendar. It was a free software / open source calendar and personal information manager based on the open iCalendar standard. It was developed to be part of the Mozilla Application Suite project. However, Mozilla Sunbird and the Lightning project have replaced the Mozilla Calendar. As with other Mozilla projects, Mozilla Calendar was cross-platform, and used the XUL user interface language. It worked with Microsoft Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, and FreeBSD. The Mozilla Calendar project was announced by the Mozilla Organization (now the Mozilla Foundation) in October 2001. The original code, used by Mozilla Calendar and now the Mozilla Sunbird, was donated by OEone (now Axentra), who had developed it for use in their Mozilla-based HomeBase DESKTOP system. The project was initially led by OEone employee Mike Potter. Shortly after Mike Potter and his team had to pull out of development due to other projects taking precedence, Mostafa Hosseini was announced as the new project lead. The initial plan was for Mozilla Calendar to eventually be integrated into the Mozilla Application Suite alongside the other components. However, this plan was dropped when Mozilla decided to focus on its nascent standalone applications rather than the integrated suite. Mozilla Calendar could be installed as a component in the Mozilla Application Suite, or as an extension in either the Mozilla Firefox standalone browser or the Mozilla Thunderbird standalone mail and newsgroups client. The extension has now been replaced by the Lightning project, a project with similar features, but with tighter integration with Thunderbird." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ancient Near East.", "Ancient Greece and Rome.", "East Asia.", "Western tradition.", "Sealing practices.", "Seal design.", "Ecclesiastical seals.", "Architects, surveyors and professional engineers.", "Destruction of seals.", "Signet rings.", "Figurative uses.", "Seal of approval." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Seals were used in the earliest civilizations and are of considerable importance in archaeology and art history. In ancient Mesopotamia carved or engraved cylinder seals in stone or other materials were used. These could be rolled along to create an impression on clay (which could be repeated indefinitely), and used as labels on consignments of trade goods, or for other purposes. They are normally hollow and it is presumed that they were worn on a string or chain round the neck. Many have only images, often very finely carved, with no writing, while others have both. From ancient Egypt seals in the form of signet-rings (see below), including some with the names of kings, have been found; these tend to show only names in hieroglyphics. Recently, seals have come to light in South Arabia datable to the Himyarite age. One example shows a name written in Aramaic (Yitsḥaq bar Ḥanina) engraved in reverse so as to read correctly in the impression.", "From the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC until the Middle Ages, seals of various kinds were in production in the Aegean islands and mainland Greece. In the Early Minoan age these were formed of soft stone and ivory and show particular characteristic forms. By the Middle Minoan age a new set for seal forms, motifs and materials appear. Hard stone requires new rotary carving techniques. The Late Bronze Age is the time par excellence of the lens-shaped seal and the seal ring, which continued into the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods, in the form of pictorial engraved gems. These were a major luxury art form and became keenly collected, with King Mithridates VI of Pontus the first major collector according to Pliny the Elder. His collection fell as booty to Pompey the Great, who deposited it in a temple in Rome. Engraved gems continued to be produced and collected until the 19th century. Pliny also explained the significance of the signet ring, and how over time this ring was worn on the little finger.", "Known as \"yinzhang\" () in China, \"injang\" in Korea, \"inshō\" in Japan, \"ấn giám\" (or \"ấn chương\") in Vietnam, seals have been used in East Asia as a form of written identification since the Qin dynasty (221 BC–). The seals of the Han dynasty were impressed in a soft clay, but from the Tang dynasty a red ink made from cinnabar was normally used. Even in modern times, seals, often known as \"chops\" in local colloquial English, are still commonly used instead of handwritten signatures to authenticate official documents or financial transactions. Both individuals and organizations have official seals, and they often have multiple seals in different sizes and styles for different situations. East Asian seals usually bear the names of the people or organizations represented, but they can also bear poems or personal mottoes. Sometimes both types of seals, or large seals that bear both names and mottoes, are used to authenticate official documents. Seals are so important in East Asia that foreigners who frequently conduct business there also commission the engraving of personal seals. East Asian seals are carved from a variety of hard materials, including wood, soapstone, sea glass and jade. East Asian seals are traditionally used with a red oil-based paste consisting of finely ground cinnabar, which contrasts with the black ink traditionally used for the ink brush. Red chemical inks are more commonly used in modern times for sealing documents. Seal engraving is considered a form of calligraphy in East Asia. Like ink-brush calligraphy, there are several styles of engraving. Some engraving styles emulate calligraphy styles, but many styles are so highly stylized that the characters represented on the seal are difficult for untrained readers to identify. Seal engravers are considered artists, and, in the past, several famous calligraphers also became famous as engravers. Some seals, carved by famous engravers, or owned by famous artists or political leaders, have become valuable as historical works of art. Because seals are commissioned by individuals and carved by artists, every seal is unique, and engravers often personalize the seals that they create. The materials of seals and the styles of the engraving are typically matched to the personalities of the owners. Seals can be traditional or modern, or conservative or expressive. Seals are sometimes carved with the owners' zodiac animals on the tops of the seals. Seals are also sometimes carved with images or calligraphy on the sides. Although it is a utilitarian instrument of daily business in East Asia, westerners and other non-Asians seldom see Asian seals except on Asian paintings and calligraphic art. All traditional paintings in Taiwan, China, Japan, Korea, and the rest of East Asia are watercolor paintings on silk, paper, or some other surface to which the red ink from seals can adhere. East Asian paintings often bear multiple seals, including one or two seals from the artist, and the seals from the owners of the paintings. East Asian seals are the predecessors to block printing.", "There is a direct line of descent from the seals used in the ancient world, to those used in medieval and post-medieval Europe, and so to those used in legal contexts in the western world to the present day. Seals were historically most often impressed in sealing wax (often simply described as \"wax\"): in the Middle Ages, this generally comprised a compound of about two-thirds beeswax to one-third of some kind of resin, but in the post-medieval period the resin (and other ingredients) came to dominate. During the early Middle Ages seals of lead, or more properly \"bullae\" (from the Latin), were in common use both in East and West, but with the notable exception of documents (\"bulls\") issued by the Papal Chancery these leaden authentications fell out of favour in western Christendom. Byzantine Emperors sometimes issued documents with gold seals, known as Golden Bulls. Wax seals were being used on a fairly regular basis by most western royal chanceries by about the end of the 10th century. In England, few wax seals have survived of earlier date than the Norman Conquest, although some earlier matrices are known, recovered from archaeological contexts: the earliest is a gold double-sided matrix found near Postwick, Norfolk, and dated to the late 7th century; the next oldest is a mid-9th-century matrix of a Bishop Ethilwald (probably Æthelwold, Bishop of East Anglia). The practice of sealing in wax gradually moved down the social hierarchy from monarchs and bishops to great magnates, to petty knights by the end of the 12th century, and to ordinary freemen by the middle of the 13th century. They also came to be used by a variety of corporate bodies, including cathedral chapters, municipalities, monasteries etc., to validate the acts executed in their name. Traditional wax seals continue to be used on certain high-status and ceremonial documents, but in the 20th century they were gradually superseded in many other contexts by inked or dry embossed seals and by rubber stamps. While many instruments formerly required seals for validity (e.g. deeds or covenants) it is now unusual in most countries in the west for private citizens to use seals. In Central and Eastern Europe, however, as in East Asia, a signature alone is considered insufficient to authenticate a document of any kind in business, and all managers, as well as many book-keepers and other employees, have personal seals, normally just containing text, with their name and their position. These are applied to all letters, invoices issued, and similar documents. In Europe these are today plastic self-inking stamps. Notaries also still use seals on a daily basis. At least in Britain, each registered notary has an individual personal seal, registered with the authorities, which includes his or her name and a pictorial emblem, often an animal—the same combination found in many seals from ancient Greece.", "Seals are used primarily to authenticate documents, specifically those which carry some legal import. There are two main ways in which a seal may be attached to a document. It may be applied directly to the face of the paper or parchment (an \"applied seal\"); or it may hang loose from it (a \"pendent seal\"). A pendent seal may be attached to cords or ribbons (sometimes in the owner's livery colors), or to the two ends of a strip (or \"tag\") of parchment, threaded through holes or slots cut in the lower edge of the document: the document is often folded double at this point (a \"plica\") to provide extra strength. Alternatively, the seal may be attached to a narrow strip of the material of the document (again, in this case, usually parchment), sliced and folded down, as a tail or \"tongue\", but not detached. The object in all cases is to help ensure authenticity by maintaining the integrity of the relationship between document and seal, and to prevent the seal's reuse. If a forger tries to remove an applied seal from its document, it will almost certainly break. A pendent seal is easily detached by cutting the cords or strips of parchment, but the forger would then have great difficulty in attaching it to another document (not least because the cords or parchment are normally knotted inside the seal), and would again almost certainly break it. In the Middle Ages, the majority of seals were pendent. They were attached both to legal instruments and to letters patent (i.e. open letters) conferring rights or privileges, which were intended to be available for all to view. In the case of important transactions or agreements, the seals of all parties to the arrangement as well as of witnesses might be attached to the document, and so once executed it would carry several seals. Most governments still attach pendent seals to letters patent. Applied seals, by contrast, were originally used to seal a document closed: that is to say, the document would be folded and the seal applied in such a way that the item could not be opened without the seal being broken. Applied seals were used on letters close (letters intended only for the recipient) and parcels to indicate whether or not the item had been opened or tampered with since it had left the sender, as well as providing evidence that the item was actually from the sender and not a forgery. In the post-medieval period, seals came to be commonly used in this way for private letters. A letter writer would fold the completed letter, pour wax over the joint formed by the top of the page, and then impress a ring or other seal matrix. Governments sometimes sent letters to citizens under the governmental seal for their eyes only, known as letters secret. Wax seals might also be used with letterlocking techniques to ensure that only the intended recipient would read the message. In general, seals are no longer used in these ways except for ceremonial purposes. However, applied seals also came to be used on legal instruments applied directly to the face of the document, so that there was no need to break them, and this use continues.", "Historically, the majority of seals were circular in design, although ovals, triangles, shield-shapes and other patterns are also known. The design generally comprised a graphic emblem (sometimes, but not always, incorporating heraldic devices), surrounded by a text (the \"legend\") running around the perimeter. The legend most often consisted merely of the words \"The seal of [the name of the owner]\", either in Latin or in the local vernacular language: the Latin word \"Sigillum\" was frequently abbreviated to a simple \"S:\". Occasionally, the legend took the form of a motto. In the Middle Ages it became customary for the seals of women and of ecclesiastics to be given a vesica (pointed oval) shape. The central emblem was often a standing figure of the owner, or (in the case of ecclesiastical seals) of a saint. Medieval townspeople used a wide variety of different emblems but some had seals that included an image relating to their work. Sealing wax was naturally yellowish or pale brownish in tone, but could also be artificially colored red or green (with many intermediary variations). In some medieval royal chanceries, different colours of wax were customarily used for different functions or departments of state, or to distinguish grants and decrees made in perpetuity from more ephemeral documents. The matrices for pendent seals were sometimes accompanied by a smaller \"counter-seal\", which would be used to impress a small emblem on the reverse of the impression. In some cases the seal and counter-seal would be kept by two different individuals, in order to provide an element of double-checking to the process of authentication. Sometimes, a large official seal, which might be in the custody of chancery officials, would need to be counter-sealed by the individual in whose name it had been applied (the monarch, or the mayor of a town): such a counter-seal might be carried on the person (perhaps secured by a chain or cord), or later, take the form of a signet-ring, and so would be necessarily smaller. Other pendent seals were double-sided, with elaborate and equally-sized obverses and reverses. The impression would be formed by pressing a \"sandwich\" of matrices and wax firmly together by means of rollers or, later, a lever-press or a screw press. Certain medieval seals were more complex still, involving two levels of impression on each side of the wax which would be used to create a scene of three-dimensional depth. On the death of a seal-holder, as a sign of continuity, a son and heir might commission a new seal employing the same symbols and design-elements as those used by his father. It is likely that this practice was a factor in the emergence of hereditary heraldry in western Europe in the 12th century.", "Ecclesiastical seals are frequently mandorla-shaped, as in the shape of an almond, also known as vesica-shaped. The use of a seal by men of wealth and position was common before the Christian era, but high functionaries of the Church adopted the habit. An incidental allusion in one of St. Augustine's letters (217 to Victorinus) indicates that he used a seal. The practice spread, and it seems to be taken for granted by King Clovis I at the very beginning of the Merovingian dynasty. Later ecclesiastical synods require that letters under the bishop's seal should be given to priests when for some reason they lawfully quit their own proper diocese. Such a ruling was enacted at Chalon-sur-Saône in 813. Pope Nicholas I in the same century complained that the bishops of Dôle and Reims had, \"\"contra morem\"\" (contrary to custom), sent their letters to him unsealed. The custom of bishops possessing seals may from this date be assumed to have been pretty general. In the British Museum collection the earliest bishop's seals preserved are those of William de St-Calais, Bishop of Durham (1081–96) and of St. Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury (1093–1109).", "Seals are also affixed on architectural or engineering construction documents, or land survey drawings, to certify the identity of the licensed professional who supervised the development. Depending on the authority having jurisdiction for the project, these seals may be embossed and signed, stamped and signed, or in certain situations a computer generated facsimile of the original seal validated by a digital certificate owned by the professional may be attached to a security protected computer file. The identities on the professional seals determine legal responsibility for any errors or omissions, and in some cases financial responsibility for their correction as well as the territory of their responsibility, e.g.: \"State of Minnesota\". In some jurisdictions, especially in Canada, it is a legal requirement for a professional engineer to seal documents in accordance with the Engineering Profession Act and Regulations. Professional engineers may also be legally entitled to seal any document they prepare. The seal identifies work performed by, or under the direct supervision of, a licensed professional engineer, and assures the document's recipient that the work meets the standards expected of experienced professionals who take personal responsibility for their judgments and decisions.", "The importance of the seal as a means of authentication necessitated that when authority passed into new hands the old seal should be destroyed and a new one made. When the pope dies it is the first duty of the Cardinal Camerlengo to obtain possession of the Ring of the Fisherman, the papal signet, and to see that it is broken up. A similar practice prevailed in the Middle Ages and it is often alluded to by historians, as it seems to have been a matter of some ceremony. For example, on the death of Robert of Holy Island, Bishop of Durham, in 1283, the chronicler Robert Greystones reports: \"After his burial, his seal was publicly broken up in the presence of all by Master Robert Avenel.\" Matthew Paris gives a similar description of the breaking of the seal of William of Trumpington, Abbot of St Albans, in 1235. The practice is less widely attested in the case of medieval laypeople, but certainly occurred on occasion, particularly in the 13th and 14th centuries. Silver seal matrices have been found in the graves of some of the 12th-century queens of France. These were probably deliberately buried as a means of cancelling them. When King James II of England was dethroned in the Glorious Revolution of 1688/9, he is supposed to have thrown the Great Seal of the Realm into the River Thames before his flight to France in order to ensure that the machinery of government would cease to function. It is unclear how much truth there is to this story, but certainly the seal was recovered: James's successors, William III and Mary used the same Great Seal matrix, fairly crudely adapted – possibly quite deliberately, in order to demonstrate the continuity of government. A related practice of destruction is found among blacksmiths: their touchmark (a stamp used on the hot metal to show who made it) is destroyed upon their death.", "Signet rings have a flat bezel, usually wider than the rest of the hoop, which is decorated, normally in intaglio, so that it will leave a raised (relief) impression of the design when the ring is pressed onto soft sealing wax or a similar material. They have been used since ancient times as the personal seal of an individual. In recent times the design is generally a crest, made by engraving, either in metal or engraved gems (generally semiprecious). Agate is a frequent material, especially carnelian or banded agate like sardonyx; the banding makes the impression contrast with the ground. Most smaller classical engraved gems were probably originally worn as signet rings, or as seals on a necklace. Metal signet rings can also be cast, which may be cheaper but yields a weaker material. The wearing of signet rings (from Latin \"signum\" meaning sign) goes back to ancient Egypt; the distinctive personal signature was not developed in antiquity and most documents needed a seal. A seal of Pharaoh is mentioned in the Book of Genesis. Genesis 41:42: \"Removing his signet ring from his hand, Pharaoh put it on Joseph's hand; he arrayed him in garments of fine linen, and put a gold chain around his neck.\" Although less common today, and very rarely actually used for their intended purpose as seals, signet rings are still worn, especially among the armigerous, in European and some other cultures. Because it is used to attest the authority of its bearer, the ring has also been seen as a symbol of his power, which is one explanation for its inclusion in the regalia of certain monarchies. After the death of a Pope, the destruction of his signet ring is a prescribed act clearing the way for the \"sede vacante\" and subsequent election of a new Pope. Signet rings are also used as souvenir or membership attribute, e.g., class ring (typically bear the coat of arms or crest of the school), as an alternative to one with a stone. One may also have their initials engraved as a sign of their personal stature. The less noble classes began wearing and using signet rings as early as the 13th century. In the 17th century, signet rings fell out of favor in the upper levels of society, replaced by other means for mounting and carrying the signet. In the 18th century, though, signet rings again became popular, and by the 19th century, men of all classes wore them. Since at least the 16th century there have also been pseudo-signet rings where the engraving is not reversed (mirror image), as it should be if the impression is to read correctly. Rings have been used since antiquity as spy identification and in espionage. During World War II, US Air Force personnel would privately purchase signet rings with a hidden compartment that would hold small compass or hidden message. MI9 purchased a number of signet rings from Regent Street jewelers that were used to conceal compasses.", "", "The expression \"Seal of Approval\" refers to a formal approval, regardless whether it involves a seal or other external marking, by an authoritative person or institute. It is also part of the formal name of certain quality marks, such as:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Wood tar.", "Uses.", "Coal tar.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Tar\" and \"pitch\" can be used interchangeably; asphalt (naturally occurring pitch) may also be called either \"mineral tar\" or \"mineral pitch\". There is a tendency to use \"tar\" for more liquid substances and \"pitch\" for more solid (viscoelastic) substances. Both \"tar\" and \"pitch\" are applied to viscous forms of asphalt, such as the asphalt found in naturally occurring tar pits (e.g., the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles). \"Rangoon tar\", also known as \"Burmese oil\" or \"Burmese naphtha\", is also a form of petroleum. Oil sands, almost exclusively produced in Alberta, Canada, are colloquially referred to as \"tar sands\" but are in fact composed of asphalt, also called bitumen.", "In Northern Europe, the word \"tar\" refers primarily to a substance that is derived from the wood and roots of pine. In earlier times it was often used as a water repellent coating for boats, ships, and roofs. It is still used as an additive in the flavoring of candy, alcohol, and other foods. Wood tar is microbicidal. Producing tar from wood was known in ancient Greece and has probably been used in Scandinavia since the Iron Age. Production and trade in pine-derived tar was a major contributor in the economies of Northern Europe and Colonial America. Its main use was in preserving wooden sailing vessels against rot. For centuries, dating back at least to the 14th century, tar was among Sweden's most important exports. Sweden exported 13,000 barrels of tar in 1615 and 227,000 barrels in the peak year of 1863. The largest user was the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom. Demand for tar declined with the advent of iron and steel ships. Production nearly stopped in the early 20th century, when other chemicals replaced tar, and wooden ships were replaced by steel ships. Traditional wooden boats are still sometimes tarred. The heating (dry distilling) of pine wood causes tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind charcoal. Birch bark is used to make particularly fine tar, known as \"Russian oil\", suitable for leather protection. The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to destructive distillation, the products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal. Tar kilns (,,, ) are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss. If oxygen can enter, the wood might catch fire, and the production would be ruined. On top of this, a fire is stacked and lit. After a few hours, the tar starts to pour out and continues to do so for a few days.", "Tar was used as seal for roofing shingles and tar paper and to seal the hulls of ships and boats. For millennia, wood tar was used to waterproof sails and boats, but today, sails made from inherently waterproof synthetic substances have reduced the demand for tar. Wood tar is still used to seal traditional wooden boats and the roofs of historic, shingle-roofed churches, as well as painting exterior walls of log buildings. Tar is also a general disinfectant. Pine tar oil, or wood tar oil, is used for the surface treatment of wooden shingle roofs, boats, buckets, and tubs and in the medicine, soap, and rubber industries. Pine tar has good penetration on the rough wood. An old wood tar oil recipe for the treatment of wood is one-third each genuine wood tar, balsam turpentine, and boiled or raw linseed oil or Chinese tung oil. In Finland, wood tar was once considered a panacea reputed to heal \"even those cut in twain through their midriff\". A Finnish proverb states that \"if sauna, vodka and tar won't help, the disease is fatal.\" Wood tar is used in traditional Finnish medicine because of its microbicidal properties. Wood tar is also available diluted as tar water, which has numerous uses: Mixing tar with linseed oil varnish produces tar paint. Tar paint has a translucent brownish hue and can be used to saturate and tone wood and protect it from weather. Tar paint can also be toned with various pigments, producing translucent colors and preserving the wood texture. Tar was once used for public humiliation, known as tarring and feathering. By pouring hot wood tar onto somebody's bare skin and waiting for it to cool, they would remain stuck in one position. From there, people would attach feathers to the tar, which would remain stuck on the tarred person for the duration of the punishment. That person would then become a public example for the rest of the day. It was quickly abandoned due to the temporary and permanent physical damage caused by the burns of the tar from the application, which left those tarred scarred for life from the burns.", "Coal tar was formerly one of the products of gasworks. Tar made from coal or petroleum is considered toxic and carcinogenic because of its high benzene content, though coal tar in low concentrations is used as a topical medicine. Coal and petroleum tar has a pungent odour. Coal tar is listed at number 1999 in the United Nations list of dangerous goods.", "The use of tar dates back to 9th-century Baghdad, which had streets paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Windows Vista.", "Windows 8.", "Windows 10." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Microsoft first included a Calendar application (shortened to app) in Windows 1.0, which was included through Windows 3.1, and was replaced by Schedule+ in Windows for Workgroups and Windows NT 3.1. Schedule+ was later moved from Windows to the Microsoft Office suite, and Windows did not include another Calendar application until Windows Calendar in Windows Vista. Calendar had been created by Beta 2 of Windows Vista.", "This version supports sharing, subscribing, and publishing of calendars on WebDAV-enabled web servers and network shares. It has always supported.ics files, and the subscription feature enables syncing with Google Calendar. Its interface matches Windows Vista Mail's, but the two apps are not connected in this operating system. The default calendar can be renamed.", "A new version of Calendar with a text-heavy was added to Windows 8 as one of many apps written to run full-screen or snapped as part of Microsoft's Metro design language philosophy. It is one of three apps on Windows that originate from Microsoft Outlook, the other two being Mail and People apps. Structurally, the three apps are one and are installed and uninstalled as such. But each has its own user interface. Calendar in Windows 8 originally supported Outlook.com, Exchange, Google Calendar, and Facebook calendars. Because of API changes, Facebook and Google calendars can no longer be directly synced on Windows 8. Like many Microsoft apps introduced for Windows 8, many of the features are hidden in the charms or a menu at the bottom of the screen that is triggered by right clicking. Different calendars can be labeled with different colors. When a user with a Microsoft account adds a calendar account on one computer with Windows 8 Calendar, the account will be automatically added to all other Windows 8 computers the user is logged into..ics files are not supported in this version.", "Mail has preset server configurations for Outlook.com, Exchange, Google Calendar, and iCloud Calendar. Users can set it to use the system theme or choose a custom accent color, background image, and light/dark preference. Windows 10 Calendar has multi-window support for viewing and editing events. Different calendars can be labeled with different colors, and events can be rearranged by dragging and dropping. The default interface is Month View, but users can also use Day, Week, and Year views and print these views. The Windows 10 app also uses a flyout settings panel and a mini Ribbon interface in the viewing pane. The day of the year and calendar events show on the live tile. Like the Vista version, the important controls are readily visible and use icons to match the system's. Accounts can be grouped and relabeled, but folders cannot be edited from within the app..ics support was added to this version in time for the Windows 10 Anniversary Update." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Early stages.", "Attack on Moncada Barracks.", "Imprisonment and emigration.", "Student demonstrations.", "Attack on Domingo Goicuria barracks.", "Escalating conflict.", "Granma landing.", "Presidential palace attack.", "Frank País's death and strike.", "Strengthening insurgency and United States involvement.", "Operation Verano.", "Rebel offensive.", "Battle of Santa Clara and Batista's flight.", "Aftermath.", "Analysis.", "Ideology.", "Women's roles.", "Related Archival Collections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the decades following United States' invasion of Cuba in 1898, and formal independence from the U.S. on May 20, 1902, Cuba experienced a period of significant instability, enduring a number of revolts, coups and a period of U.S. military occupation. Fulgencio Batista, a former soldier who had served as the elected president of Cuba from 1940 to 1944, became president for the second time in 1952, after seizing power in a military coup and canceling the 1952 elections. Although Batista had been relatively progressive during his first term, in the 1950s he proved far more dictatorial and indifferent to popular concerns. While Cuba remained plagued by high unemployment and limited water infrastructure, Batista antagonized the population by forming lucrative links to organized crime and allowing American companies to dominate the Cuban economy, especially sugar-cane plantations and other local resources. Although the US armed and politically supported the Batista dictatorship, later US presidents recognized its corruption and the justifiability of removing it. During his first term as President, Batista had not been supported by the Communist Party of Cuba, and during his second term he became strongly anti-communist. Batista developed a rather weak security bridge as an attempt to silence political opponents. In the months following the March 1952 coup, Fidel Castro, then a young lawyer and activist, petitioned for the overthrow of Batista, whom he accused of corruption and tyranny. However, Castro's constitutional arguments were rejected by the Cuban courts. After deciding that the Cuban regime could not be replaced through legal means, Castro resolved to launch an armed revolution. To this end, he and his brother Raúl founded a paramilitary organization known as \"The Movement\", stockpiling weapons and recruiting around 1,200 followers from Havana's disgruntled working class by the end of 1952. Batista was known as a corrupt leader and constantly pampered himself with exotic foods and elegant women.", "", "Striking their first blow against the Batista government, Fidel and Raúl Castro gathered 69 Movement fighters and planned a multi-pronged attack on several military installations. On 26 July 1953, the rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the barracks in Bayamo, only to be decisively defeated by government soldiers. It was hoped that the staged attack would spark a nationwide revolt against Batista's government. After an hour of fighting the rebel leader fled to the mountains. The exact number of rebels killed in the battle is debatable; however, in his autobiography, Fidel Castro claimed that nine were killed in the fighting, and an additional 56 were executed after being captured by the Batista government. Due to the government's large number of men, Hunt revised the number to be around 60 members taking the opportunity to flee to the mountains along with Castro. Among the dead was Abel Santamaría, Castro's second-in-command, who was imprisoned, tortured, and executed on the same day as the attack.", "Numerous key Movement revolutionaries, including the Castro brothers, were captured shortly afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel spoke for nearly four hours in his defense, ending with the words \"Condemn me, it does not matter. History will absolve me.\" Castro's defense was based on nationalism, the representation and beneficial programs for the non-elite Cubans, and his patriotism and justice for the Cuban community. Fidel was sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla de Pinos, while Raúl was sentenced to 13 years. However, in 1955, under broad political pressure, the Batista government freed all political prisoners in Cuba, including the Moncada attackers. Fidel's Jesuit childhood teachers succeeded in persuading Batista to include Fidel and Raúl in the release. Soon, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to prepare for the overthrow of Batista, receiving training from Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil War. In June 1955, Fidel met the Argentine revolutionary Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara, who joined his cause. Raul and Castro's chief advisor Ernesto aided the initiation of Batista's amnesty. The revolutionaries named themselves the \"26th of July Movement\", in reference to the date of their attack on the Moncada Barracks in 1953.", "By late 1955, student riots and demonstrations became less common, and unemployment became problematic as new graduates could not find jobs. These protests were dealt with increasing repression. All young people were seen as possible revolutionaries. Due to its continued opposition to the Cuban government and much protest activity taking place on its campus, the University of Havana was temporarily closed on November 30, 1956 (it did not reopen until 1959 under the first revolutionary government).", "While the Castro brothers and the other July 26 Movement guerrillas were training in Mexico and preparing for their amphibious deployment to Cuba, another revolutionary group followed the example of the Moncada Barracks assault. On 29 April 1956 at 12:50 PM during Sunday mass, an independent guerrilla group of around 100 rebels led by Reynol Garcia attacked the Domingo Goicuria army barracks in Matanzas province. The attack was repelled with ten rebels and three soldiers killed in the fighting, and one rebel summarily executed by the garrison commander. Florida International University historian Miguel A. Brito was in the nearby cathedral when the firefight began. He writes, \"That day, the Cuban Revolution began for me and Matanzas.\"", "", "The yacht \"Granma\" departed from Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexico, on 25 November 1956, carrying the Castro brothers and 80 others including Ernesto \"Che\" Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos, even though the yacht was only designed to accommodate 12 people with a maximum of 25. On December 2nd, it landed in Playa Las Coloradas, in the municipality of Niquero, arriving two days later than planned because the boat was heavily loaded, unlike during the practice sailing runs. This dashed any hopes for a coordinated attack with the \"llano\" wing of the Movement. After arriving and exiting the ship, the band of rebels began to make their way into the Sierra Maestra mountains, a range in southeastern Cuba. Three days after the trek began, Batista's army attacked and killed most of the \"Granma\" participants – while the exact number is disputed, no more than twenty of the original eighty-two men survived the initial encounters with the Cuban army and escaped into the Sierra Maestra mountains. The group of survivors included Fidel and Raúl Castro, Che Guevara and Camilo Cienfuegos. The dispersed survivors, alone or in small groups, wandered through the mountains, looking for each other. Eventually, the men would link up again – with the help of peasant sympathizers – and would form the core leadership of the guerrilla army. A number of female revolutionaries, including Celia Sanchez and Haydée Santamaría (the sister of Abel Santamaria), also assisted Fidel Castro's operations in the mountains.", "On 13 March 1957, a separate group of revolutionaries – the anticommunist Student Revolutionary Directorate (RD) (\"Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil\", DRE), composed mostly of students – stormed the Presidential Palace in Havana, attempting to assassinate Batista and overthrow the government. The attack ended in utter failure. The RD's leader, student José Antonio Echeverría, died in a shootout with Batista's forces at the Havana radio station he had seized to spread the news of Batista's anticipated death. The handful of survivors included Dr. Humberto Castello (who later became the Inspector General in the Escambray), Rolando Cubela and Faure Chomon (both later Commandantes of the 13 March Movement, centered in the Escambray Mountains of Las Villas Province).", "On July 20, 1957 rebel leader Frank País was captured and killed in Santiago de Cuba during an intense and violent policing campaign. During his funeral activists began marching through the city and raised a general strike. The strike would start skirmishes with the police and spread across various provinces that would last days.", "The United States supplied Cuba with planes, ships, tanks and other tech such as napalm, which was used against the rebels. This would eventually come to an end due to a later arms embargo in 1958. According to Tad Szulc the United States began funding the 26th of July Movement around October or November of 1957 and ending around middle 1958. \"No less than $50,000\" would be delivered to key leaders of the 26th of July Movement. The purpose being to instill sympathies to the United States amongst the rebels in case the movement succeeded. While Batista increased troop deployments to the Sierra Maestra region to crush the 26 July guerrillas, the Second National Front of the Escambray kept battalions of the Constitutional Army tied up in the Escambray Mountains region. The Second National Front was led by former Revolutionary Directorate member Eloy Gutiérrez Menoyo and the \"Yanqui Comandante\" William Alexander Morgan. Gutiérrez Menoyo formed and headed the guerrilla band after news had broken out about Castro's landing in the Sierra Maestra, and José Antonio Echeverría had stormed the Havana Radio station. Though Morgan was dishonorably discharged from the U.S. Army, his recreating features from Army basic training made a critical difference in the Second National Front troops battle readiness. Thereafter, the United States imposed an economic embargo on the Cuban government and recalled its ambassador, weakening the government's mandate further. Batista's support among Cubans began to fade, with former supporters either joining the revolutionaries or distancing themselves from Batista. Once Batista started making drastic decisions concerning Cuba's economy, he began to nationalize U.S oil refineries and other U.S properties. Nonetheless, the Mafia and U.S. businessmen maintained their support for the regime. Batista's government often resorted to brutal methods to keep Cuba's cities under control. However, in the Sierra Maestra mountains, Castro, aided by Frank País, Ramos Latour, Huber Matos, and many others, staged successful attacks on small garrisons of Batista's troops. Castro was joined by CIA connected Frank Sturgis who offered to train Castro's troops in guerrilla warfare. Castro accepted the offer, but he also had an immediate need for guns and ammunition, so Sturgis became a gunrunner. Sturgis purchased boatloads of weapons and ammunition from CIA weapons expert Samuel Cummings' International Armament Corporation in Alexandria, Virginia. Sturgis opened a training camp in the Sierra Maestra mountains, where he taught Che Guevara and other 26th of July Movement rebel soldiers guerrilla warfare. In addition, poorly armed irregulars known as \"escopeteros\" harassed Batista's forces in the foothills and plains of Oriente Province. The \"escopeteros\" also provided direct military support to Castro's main forces by protecting supply lines and by sharing intelligence. Ultimately, the mountains came under Castro's control. In addition to armed resistance, the rebels sought to use propaganda to their advantage. A pirate radio station called \"Radio Rebelde\" (\"Rebel Radio\") was set up in February 1958, allowing Castro and his forces to broadcast their message nationwide within enemy territory. Castro's affiliation with the \"New York Times\" journalist Herbert Matthews created a front page-worthy report on anti-communist propaganda. The radio broadcasts were made possible by Carlos Franqui, a previous acquaintance of Castro who subsequently became a Cuban exile in Puerto Rico. During this time, Castro's forces remained quite small in numbers, sometimes fewer than 200 men, while the Cuban army and police force had a manpower of around 37,000. Even so, nearly every time the Cuban military fought against the revolutionaries, the army was forced to retreat. An arms embargo – imposed on the Cuban government by the United States on 14 March 1958 – contributed significantly to the weakness of Batista's forces. The Cuban air force rapidly deteriorated: it could not repair its airplanes without importing parts from the United States.", "Batista finally responded to Castro's efforts with an attack on the mountains called Operation Verano, known to the rebels as \"la Ofensiva\". The army sent some 12,000 soldiers, half of them untrained recruits, into the mountains, along with his own brother Raul. In a series of small skirmishes, Castro's determined guerrillas defeated the Cuban army. In the Battle of La Plata, which lasted from 11 to 21 July 1958, Castro's forces defeated a 500-man battalion, capturing 240 men while losing just three of their own. However, the tide nearly turned on 29 July 1958, when Batista's troops almost destroyed Castro's small army of some 300 men at the Battle of Las Mercedes. With his forces pinned down by superior numbers, Castro asked for, and received, a temporary cease-fire on 1 August. Over the next seven days, while fruitless negotiations took place, Castro's forces gradually escaped from the trap. By the 8 August, Castro's entire army had escaped back into the mountains, and Operation Verano had effectively ended in failure for the Batista government.", "On 21 August 1958, after the defeat of Batista's \"Ofensiva\", Castro's forces began their own offensive. In the Oriente province (in the area of the present-day provinces of Santiago de Cuba, Granma, Guantánamo and Holguín), Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro and Juan Almeida Bosque directed attacks on four fronts. Descending from the mountains with new weapons captured during the \"Ofensiva\" and smuggled in by plane, Castro's forces won a series of initial victories. Castro's major victory at Guisa, and the successful capture of several towns including Maffo, Contramaestre, and Central Oriente, brought the Cauto plains under his control. Meanwhile, three rebel columns, under the command of Che Guevara, Camilo Cienfuegos and Jaime Vega, proceeded westward toward Santa Clara, the capital of Villa Clara Province. Batista's forces ambushed and destroyed Jaime Vega's column, but the surviving two columns reached the central provinces, where they joined forces with several other resistance groups not under the command of Castro. When Che Guevara's column passed through the province of Las Villas, and specifically through the Escambray Mountains – where the anticommunist Revolutionary Directorate forces (who became known as the 13 March Movement) had been fighting Batista's army for many months – friction developed between the two groups of rebels. Nonetheless, the combined rebel army continued the offensive, and Cienfuegos won a key victory in the Battle of Yaguajay on 30 December 1958, earning him the nickname \"The Hero of Yaguajay\".", "On 31 December 1958, the Battle of Santa Clara took place in a scene of great confusion. The city of Santa Clara fell to the combined forces of Che Guevara, Cienfuegos, and Revolutionary Directorate (RD) rebels led by Comandantes Rolando Cubela, Juan (\"El Mejicano\") Abrahantes, and William Alexander Morgan. News of these defeats caused Batista to panic. He fled Cuba by air for the Dominican Republic just hours later on 1 January 1959. Comandante William Alexander Morgan, leading RD rebel forces, continued fighting as Batista departed, and had captured the city of Cienfuegos by 2 January. Cuban General Eulogio Cantillo entered Havana's Presidential Palace, proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra as the new President, and began appointing new members to Batista's old government. Castro learned of Batista's flight in the morning and immediately started negotiations to take over Santiago de Cuba. On 2 January, the military commander in the city, Colonel Rubido, ordered his soldiers not to fight, and Castro's forces took over the city. The forces of Guevara and Cienfuegos entered Havana at about the same time. They had met no opposition on their journey from Santa Clara to Cuba's capital. Castro himself arrived in Havana on 8 January after a long victory march. His initial choice of president, Manuel Urrutia Lleó, took office on 3 January.", "The Cuban Revolution was a crucial turning point in U.S.-Cuban relations. Although the United States government was initially willing to recognize Castro's new government, it soon came to fear that Communist insurgencies would spread through the nations of Latin America, as they had in Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, Castro's government resented the Americans for providing aid to Batista's government during the revolution. After the revolutionary government nationalized all U.S. property in Cuba in August 1960, the American Eisenhower administration froze all Cuban assets on American soil, severed diplomatic ties and tightened its embargo of Cuba. The Key West–Havana ferry shut down. In 1961, the U.S. government backed an armed counterrevolutionary assault on the Bay of Pigs with the aim of ousting Castro, but the counterrevolutionaries were swiftly defeated by the Cuban military. The U.S. Embargo against Cuba – the longest-lasting single foreign policy in American history – is still in force as of 2018, although it has undergone a partial loosening in recent years, only to be recently strengthened in 2017. The U.S. began efforts to normalize relations with Cuba in the mid-2010s, and formally reopened its embassy in Havana after over half a century in August 2015. The Trump administration has reversed much of the Cuban Thaw by severely restricting travel by US citizens to Cuba and tightening the US government's 59-year-old embargo against the country. Castro's victory and post-revolutionary foreign policy had global repercussions as influenced by the expansion of the Soviet Union into Eastern Europe after the 1917 October Revolution. In line with his call for revolution in Latin America and beyond against imperial powers, laid out in his Declarations of Havana, Castro immediately sought to \"export\" his revolution to other countries in the Caribbean and beyond, sending weapons to Algerian rebels as early as 1960. In the following decades, Cuba became heavily involved in supporting Communist insurgencies and independence movements in many developing countries, sending military aid to insurgents in Ghana, Nicaragua, Yemen and Angola, among others. Castro's intervention in the Angolan Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s was particularly significant, involving as many as 60,000 Cuban soldiers. Following the American embargo, the Soviet Union became Cuba's main ally. The two Communist countries quickly developed close military and intelligence ties, culminating in the stationing of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba in 1962, an act which triggered the Cuban Missile Crisis. Cuba maintained close links to the Soviets until the Soviet Union's collapse in 1991. The end of Soviet economic aid and the loss of its trade partners in the Eastern Bloc led to an economic crisis and period of shortages known as the Special Period in Cuba.", "", "At the time of the revolution various sectors of society supported the revolutionary movement from communists to business leaders and the Catholic Church. The beliefs of Fidel Castro during the revolution have been the subject of much historical debate. Fidel Castro was openly ambiguous about his beliefs at the time. Some orthodox historians argue Castro was a communist from the beginning with a long term plan; however, others have argued he had no strong ideological loyalties. Leslie Dewart has stated that there is no evidence to suggest Castro was ever a communist agent. Levine and Papasotiriou believe Castro believed in little outside of a distaste for American imperialism. As evidence for his lack of communist leanings they note his friendly relations with the United States shortly after the revolution and him not joining the Cuban Communist Party during the beginning of his land reforms.", "The importance of women's contributions to the Cuban Revolution is reflected in the very accomplishments that allowed the revolution to be successful, from the participation in the Moncada Barracks, to the Mariana Grajales all-women's platoon that served as Fidel Castro's personal security detail. Tete Puebla, second in command of the Mariana Grajales Platoon, has said: Before the Mariana Grajales Platoon was established, the revolutionary women of the Sierra Maestra were not organized for combat and primarily helped with cooking, mending clothes, and tending to the sick, frequently acting as couriers, as well as teaching guerrillas to read and write. Haydée Santamaría and Melba Hernandez were the only women who participated in the attack on the Moncada Barracks, afterward acting alongside Natalia Revuelta, and Lidia Castro (Fidel Castro's sister) to form alliances with anti-Batista organizations, as well as the assembly and distribution of \"History Will Absolve Me\". Celia Sanchez and Vilma Espin were leading strategists and highly skilled combatants who held essential roles throughout the revolution. Tete Puebla, founding member and second in command of the Mariana Grajales Platoon, said of Celia Sanchez, \"When you speak of Celia, you've got to speak of Fidel, and vice versa. Celia's ideas touched almost everything in the Sierra.", "There were many foreign presences in Cuba during this time. Esther Brinch was a Danish translator for the Danish government in 1960's Cuba. Brinch's work covered the Cuban Revolution and Cuban Missile Crisis. A collection of Brinch’s archival materials is housed at the George Mason University Special Collections Research Center." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Location.", "Lhasa River basin.", "Geology.", "Climate.", "Environment.", "Administrative divisions.", "Chengguan District.", "Doilungdêqên District.", "Dagzê District.", "Damxung County.", "Lhünzhub County.", "Maizhokunggar County.", "Nyêmo County.", "Qüxü County.", "Demographics.", "Ethnicity.", "Administrative divisions.", "Infrastructure.", "Highways.", "Railway.", "Power.", "Other facilities.", "Temples and monasteries.", "Early foundations.", "Middle period.", "Gelug foundations.", "Revolution and reconstruction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Lhasa lies in south-central Tibet, to the north of the Himalayas. The prefecture-level city is from east to west and from north to south. It covers an area of. It is bordered by Nagqu City to the north, Nyingchi City to the east, Shannan/Lhoka City to the", "Lhasa prefecture-level city roughly corresponds to the basin of the Lhasa River, a major tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. Exceptions are the north of Damxung County, which crosses the watershed of the Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains and includes part of the Namtso lake, and Nyêmo County, which covers the basin of the Nimu Maqu River, a direct tributary of the Yarlung Tsangpo. The river basin is separated from the Yarlung Tsangpo valley to the south by the Goikarla Rigyu range. The largest tributary of the Lhasa River, the Reting Tsangpo, originates in the Chenthangula Mountains in Nagqu Prefecture at an elevation of about, and flows southwest into Lhasa past Reting Monastery. The Lhasa River drains an area of, and is the largest tributary of the middle section of the Yarlung Tsangpo. The average altitude of the basin is around. The basin has complex geology and is", "The former Lhasa prefecture lies in the Lhasa terrane, to which it gives its name. This is thought to be the last crustal block to accrete to the Eurasian plate before the collision with the Indian plate in the Cenozoic. The terrane is separated from the Himalayas to the south by the Yarlung-Tsangpo suture, and from the Qiangtang terrane to the north by the Bangong-Nujiang suture. The Lhasa terrane consisted of two blocks before the Mesozoic, the North Lhasa Block and the South Lhasa Block. These blocks were joined in the Late Paleozoic. The Lhasa terrane moved northward and collided with the Qiangtang terrane along the Bangong suture. The collision began towards the end of the late Jurassic ( Ma), and collision activity continued until the early Late Cretaceous ( Ma). During this period the terrane may have been shortened by at least. The collision caused a peripheral foreland basin to form in the north part of the Lhasa terrane. In some parts of the foreland basin the north-dipping subduction of the Neotethyan oceanic crust below the Lhasa terrane caused volcanism. The Gangdese batholith was formed as this subduction continued along the southern margin of the Lhasa terrane. The Gangdese intrudes the southern half of the Lhasa terrain. Contact with India began along the Yarlung-Zangbo suture around 50 Ma during the Eocene, and the two continents", "The Lhasa valley is roughly the same latitude as the southern United States, but at an altitude of or more it is of course cooler. The central river valleys of Tibet are warm in summer, and even in the coldest months of winter the temperature is above freezing on sunny days. The climate is semi-arid monsoon,", "Most of the population of Tibet lives in the southern valleys, including those around Lhasa. The higher regions are used by nomadic \"drokpa\" who tend herds of yaks, sheep and goats on the steppe grasslands of the hills and high valleys. In the lower parts it is possible to cultivate products that include barley, wheat, black peas, beans, mustard, hemp, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, onions, garlic, celery and tomatoes. The traditional staple food is barley flour called \"tsampa\", often combined with buttered tea and made into a paste. A visitor described the valley around Lhasa in 1889 as follows, The Lhasa region does not have abundant wildlife or great numbers of species, but the Lhasa valley does support wintering populations of hundreds of black-necked cranes. Hutoushan Reservoir lies in Qangka Township, Lhünzhub County. The reservoir is bordered by large swamps and wet meadows, and has abundant plants and shellfish. The reservoir, which lies in the Pengbo valley, is the largest in", "Lhasa prefecture-level city consists of three districts and five counties. Chengguan District, Doilungdêqên District, and Dagzê District contains most of the urban area of Lhasa, which lies in the Lhasa River valley floor.", "Chengguan District is located on the middle reaches of the Lhasa River, with land that rises to the north and south of the river. It is from east to west and from north to south. Chengguan District is bordered by Doilungdêqên District to the west, Dagzê District to the east and Lhünzhub County to the north. Gonggar County of Lhoka (Shannan) City lies to the south. Chengguan District has an elevation of and covers. The urban built-up area covers. The average annual temperature is. Annual precipitation is about, mostly falling between July and September. Before the PRC takeover the city of Lhasa had a population of 25,000–30,000, or", "Doilungdêqên District contains the western urban areas of Lhasa, developed in recent years with the new Lhasa railway station, which begin about from the city center. It covers an area of 2,704 square kilometers, with 94,969 acres of farmland. The district borders on the north Tibet grasslands in the northwest. The valley of the Duilong River leads south to the Lhasa River. The Duilong is in length. In the south the district occupies part of the south bank of the Lhasa River. The district has an average elevation of, with a highest elevation of and a lowest point", "Dagzê District has a total area of and it contains the eastern urban areas of Lhasa. It has an average elevation of above sea level, and descends from higher ground in the north and south to in the lowest part of the Lhasa River valley. The average temperature is, with about 130 days free of frost. Average rainfall", "Damxung County has an area of, with rugged topography. As of 2013 the population was 40,000, up from 35,000 in 1997. It is tectonically active. On 6 October 2008 an earthquake measuring 6.6 on the Richter magnitude scale was reported. In November 2010 a moderate quake in Damxung at 5.2 on the Richter scale shook office windows in Lhasa. There were no casualties, but houses were damaged. In the extreme northeast of the county, Namtso lake has an area of, of which 45% lies in Damxung county. Namtso is one of the great lakes of the Tibetan plateau. The Nyenchen Tanglha (or Nyainqentanglha) mountains extend along the northwest of the county. Mount Nyenchen Tanglha is the highest peak in the region, at. The Nyainqêntanglha mountains define the watershed between northern and southern Tibet. A valley with elevation of about runs parallel", "Lhünzhub County is located around northeast of metropolitan Lhasa. It includes the Pengbo River Valley and the upper reaches of the Lhasa River. It covers an area of. The county is geologically complex, with an average elevation of. The administrative center is the town of Lhünzhub. As of 2000 the county had a total population of 50,895, of which 8,111 lived in a community designated as urban. 2,254 had non-agricultural registration and 48,362 had agricultural registration. In the south the Pengbo valley has an average elevation of with a mild climate. The average temperature is. The northern \"three rivers\" section, crossed by the Lhasa River and its tributary the Razheng River, is mountainous and has an average", "Maizhokunggar County is located on the middle and upper sections of the Lhasa River and the west of Mila Mountain. Mila (or Mira) Mountain, at, forms the watershed between the Lhasa River and the Nyang River. The Gyama Zhungchu, which runs through Gyama Township, is a tributary of the Lhasa River. Maizhokunggar County is about east of Lhasa, has an area of with an average elevation of more than. The annual average temperature is. There are about 90 frost-free days each year. Annual rainfall is. China National Highway 318 runs through the county from east to west. The 100 MW Zhikong Hydro Power Station on the Lhasa River came into operation in September 2007. The total population as of 2010 was 48,561 people in 9,719 households, the great majority engaged", "Nyêmo County is located in the middle section of the Brahmaputra, from Lhasa. It is mainly agricultural and pastoral, with an area of and an average elevation of. The Nimu Maqu River flows through the county from north to south. The Yarlung Tsangpo River forms its southern boundary. The highest point is a peak at above sea level, and the lowest point is where the Maqu River empties into the Brahmaputra at an elevation of. The county has a temperate semi-arid plateau monsoon climate,", "Qüxü County has a total area of, with an average elevation of. The county is in the Yarlung Tsangpo valley, and is mostly relatively flat, but rises to the Nyainqêntanglha Mountains in the north. The Lhasa River runs south through the eastern part of the county to its confluence with the Yarlung Tsangpo River, which forms the southern boundary of the county. The lowest elevation is, and the highest summit elevation is. Qüxü County has about 150 days a year without frost. Annual precipitation is.", "The demographics of Lhasa prefecture-level city are difficult to define precisely due to the way in which administrative boundaries have been drawn, and the way in which statistics are collected. The population of Lhasa prefectural-level city is about 500,000, of whom about 80% are ethnic Tibetan and most of the others are ethnic Han Chinese. Approximately 250,000 people live in the city and in towns, most of them in or near Chengguan District, and the remainder live in rural areas.", "The 2000 census give the following breakdown for the population of the prefecture-level city as a whole: The 2000 census counts more than 105,000 people in Chengguan District who are registered elsewhere. Most of them are Han, with agricultural registrations. Outside Chengguan District, in 2000 the rural townships almost all had Han populations below 2.85%, other than one in Duilongdeqing County and", "Lhasa metropolitan district includes most of the built-up area, which counts as urban, and four rural townships. The counties also contain urban towns, of which there are nine in the prefectural municipality. Official census figures for 2000 are: The census figures differ considerably from the Tibet Statistical Yearbooks for the same period, since the yearbook only includes the registered population and counts them based on place of origin rather", "", "China National Highway 318 enters the prefecture-level city from the east at Mila Mountain, where it reaches an elevation of. The highway runs through Maizhokunggar County from east to west. It continues along the south bank of the Lhasa River through Dagzê County, then crosses to the north of the river in Chengguan District and runs through the center of the urban district. It turns south to cross Doilungdêqên District, where it is joined", "The Qinghai–Tibet Railway runs through the Lhasa prefecture-level city beside the Qinghai–Tibet Highway through Damxung County and Doilungdêqên District. It terminates at Lhasa railway station in Niu New Area (Liuwu Township). The terminus of the Qinghai–Tibet line, this station is over above sea", "The Yangbajain Geothermal Station was established in 1977 to exploit the Yangbajain Geothermal Field in Damxung. It is the first geothermal power station to be built in Tibet and is the largest geothermal steam power plant in China. 4,000 kW of electricity from Yangbajain began to be delivered to Lhasa in 1981 along a transmission line that followed the Doilung Qu River. It was the main power supply for Lhasa until the Yamdrok Hydropower Station came into operation. By the end of 2000 eight steam turbo generators had been installed at the Yangbajain Geothermal Station, each with capacity of 3,000", "The rural counties generally have numerous primary schools at the village level, with high levels of attendance, and at least one secondary school. In 2010 there were 28 schools in Dagzê County, including one junior high school and one kindergarten. As of 2009 there were 37 primary and secondary school buildings in Damxung County. Maizhokunggar County has one high school, 14 full primary schools and 74 village schools. Nyêmo County has 24 primary and secondary schools, including one junior high school. As of", "Buddhism was adopted as the official religion of Tibet by king Songtsän Gampo (died 649) at a time when the rise of Hinduism was sweeping away Buddhism in India, the land of its birth. Over the next two centuries Buddhism became established in Tibet, now the center of the religion. Tibetan Buddhism would become a pervasive influence on the lives of the people. The first monastery, \"Samyé\", was founded by Trisong Detsen (). Its buildings were arranged in a mandala pattern after the Odantapuri monastery in Bihar. The three-story monastery was completed in 766 and consecrated in 767. Seven Tibetans took monastic vows in a ceremony that marked the start of the long Tibetan tradition of monastic Buddhism.", "Yerpa, on a hillside in Dagze County, is known for its meditation cave connected with Songtsän Gampo. The cliffs contain some of the earliest known meditation sites in Tibet, some dating back to pre-Buddhist times. There are a number of small temples, shrines and hermitages. Songtsän Gampo's queen, Monza Triucham, founded the Dra Yerpa temple here. Jokhang in Chengguan District is the most sacred temple in Tibet, built in the 7th century when Songtsän Gampo transferred his capital to Lhasa. It was designed", "The Nyethang Drolma Temple is southwest of Lhasa, from the county seat and from Lhasa. It is in Nyétang, Qüxü County. Some sources say that Atiśa (980–1054) built the monastery, which was expanded after his death by his pupil Dromtön (1004–64). Another version says that Dromtön raised funds to build the temple to commemorate his old friend. Dromtön built Reting Monastery in Lhünzhub County in 1056. It was the earliest monastery of the Gedain sect, and the patriarchal seat of that sect. In 1240 a Mongol force sacked Reting monastery and killed 500 people. The \"gompa\" was rebuilt. When the Gedain sect joined the Gelug sect in the 16th century the monastery adopted the reincarnation system. Tsurphu Monastery in Doilungdêqên District was built in 1189 and is treated as a", "Ganden Monastery was built after 1409 at the initiative of Je Tsongkhapa, founder of the Gelug sect, and is the most important of this sect. It is from Lhasa on the slopes of Wangbori Mountain at an elevation of, on the south bank of the Lhasa River in Dagze County. The mountain is said to have the shape of a reclining elephant. The monastery includes Buddha halls, palace residences, Buddhist colleges and other buildings. Drepung Monastery in Chengguan District was founded in 1416 by Jamyang Choge Tashi Palden", "Most of the monasteries in the prefecture-level city suffered damage, and many were destroyed, before and during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76). Jokhang was used as a military barracks and a slaughterhouse during the Cultural Revolution, and then as a hotel for Chinese officials. Many of the statues were taken, or were damaged or destroyed, so most of the present statues are recent copies. Jokhang was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. Ramoche Temple was badly damaged during the Cultural Revolution but has been restored with assistance from the Swiss. The Nyethang Drolma Temple survived the Cultural Revolution without much damage, and was able to preserve most of its valuable artifacts, due to the intervention of Premier Zhou Enlai at the request of the government of what is now Bangladesh. Reting Monastery was devastated by the Red Guards during the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Ordering and enumeration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Right tributary\" and \"left tributary\" (or \"right-bank tributary\" and \"left-bank tributary\") are terms stating the orientation of the tributary relative to the flow of the main stem river. These terms are defined from the perspective of looking downstream (in the direction the water current of the main stem is going). An \"early tributary\" is a tributary that joins the main stem river closer to the main river's source than its end. Similarly, a \"late tributary\" joins the main river much further downstream, closer to the main river's end point. In the United States, where tributaries sometimes have the same name as the river into which they feed, they are called forks. These are typically designated by compass direction. For example, the American River in California receives flow from its North, Middle, and South forks. The Chicago River's North Branch has the East, West, and Middle Fork; the South Branch has its South Fork, and used to have a West Fork as well (now filled in). Forks are sometimes designated as right or left. Here, the \"handedness\" is from the point of view of an observer facing upstream. For instance, Steer Creek has a left tributary which is called Right Fork Steer Creek.", "Tributaries are sometimes listed starting with those nearest to the source of the river and ending with those nearest to the mouth of the river. The Strahler Stream Order examines the arrangement of tributaries in a hierarchy of first, second, third, and higher orders, with the first-order tributary being typically the least in size. For example, a second-order tributary would be the result of two or more first-order tributaries combining to form the second-order tributary. Another method is to list tributaries from mouth to source, in the form of a tree structure, stored as a tree data structure." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Fauna." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The passage received its name from the 16th-century English privateer Sir Francis Drake during his circumnavigation. Drake's only remaining ship, after having passed through the Strait of Magellan, was blown far south in September 1578. This incident demonstrated there was open water south of South America. Half a century earlier, after a gale had pushed them south from the entrance of the Strait of Magellan, the crew of the Spanish navigator Francisco de Hoces thought they saw a land's end and possibly inferred this passage in 1525. For this reason, some Spanish and Latin American historians and sources call it Mar de Hoces after Francisco de Hoces. The first recorded voyage through the passage was that of \"Eendracht\", captained by the Dutch navigator Willem Schouten in 1616, naming Cape Horn in the process. The first human-powered transit (by rowing) across the passage was accomplished on December 25, 2019, by captain Fiann Paul (Iceland), first mate Colin O'Brady (US), Andrew Towne (US), Cameron Bellamy (South Africa), Jamie Douglas-Hamilton (UK) and John Petersen (US).", "The wide passage between Cape Horn and Livingston Island is the shortest crossing from Antarctica to another landmass. The boundary between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans is sometimes taken to be a line drawn from Cape Horn to Snow Island ( north of mainland Antarctica), though the International Hydrographic Organization defines it as the meridian that passes through Cape Horn—67° 16′ W. Both lines lie within the Drake Passage. The other two passages around the extreme southern part of South America (though not going around Cape Horn as such), the Strait of Magellan and Beagle Channel, are narrow, leaving little maneuvering room for a ship. They can become icebound. Sometimes the wind blows so strongly that no sailing vessel can make headway against it. Most sailing ships thus prefer the Drake Passage, which is open water for hundreds of miles. The small Diego Ramírez Islands lie about south-southwest of Cape Horn. No significant land sits at the latitudes of the Drake Passage. That is important to the unimpeded flow of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, which carries a huge volume of water through the passage and around Antarctica. The passage hosts whales, dolphins and seabirds including giant petrels, other petrels, albatrosses and penguins.", "Wildlife include the sooty shearwater, white-chinned petrel, southern giant-petrel, northern giant-petrel, black-browed albatross, Campbell albatross, grey-headed albatross, Atlantic yellow-nosed albatross, Indian yellow-nosed albatross, Buller's albatross, Salvin's albatross, shy albatross, southern royal albatross, northern royal albatross, wandering albatross, light-mantled albatross, sooty albatross, great shearwater, great-winged petrel, Kerguelen petrel, southern fulmar, Cape petrel, soft-plumaged petrel, white-headed petrel, atlantic petrel, grey petrel, antarctic prion, slender-billed prion, blue petrel, black-bellied storm-petrel, Wilson's storm-petrel, fin whale, sei whale, blue whale, humpback whale, southern right whale, sperm whale, hourglass dolphin, southern right whale dolphin, long-finned pilot whale, Arnoux's beaked whale, southern bottlenose whale, Cuvier's beaked whale, strap-toothed whale, Gray's beaked whale, and Hector's beaked whale." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1949–1980 period (pre-antivirus days).", "1980–1990 period (early days).", "1990–2000 period (emergence of the antivirus industry).", "2000–2005 period.", "2005–2014 period.", "2014–present (rise of next-gen).", "Identification methods.", "Signature-based detection.", "Heuristics.", "Rootkit detection.", "Real-time protection.", "Issues of concern.", "Unexpected renewal costs.", "Rogue security applications.", "Problems caused by false positives.", "System and interoperability related issues.", "Effectiveness.", "New viruses.", "Rootkits.", "Damaged files.", "Firmware infections.", "Performance and other drawbacks.", "Alternative solutions.", "Hardware and network firewall.", "Cloud antivirus.", "Online scanning.", "Specialized tools.", "Usage and risks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Although the roots of the computer virus date back as early as 1949, when the Hungarian scientist John von Neumann published the \"\"Theory of self-reproducing automata\"\", the first known computer virus appeared in 1971 and was dubbed the \"Creeper virus\". This computer virus infected Digital Equipment Corporation's (DEC) PDP-10 mainframe computers running the TENEX operating system. The Creeper virus was eventually deleted by a program created by Ray Tomlinson and known as \"The Reaper\". Some people consider \"The Reaper\" the first antivirus software ever written – it may be the case, but it is important to note that the Reaper was actually a virus itself specifically designed to remove the Creeper virus. The Creeper virus was followed by several other viruses. The first known that appeared \"in the wild\" was \"Elk Cloner\", in 1981, which infected Apple II computers. In 1983, the term \"\"computer virus\"\" was coined by Fred Cohen in one of the first ever published academic papers on computer viruses. Cohen used the term \"\"computer virus\"\" to describe a program that: \"\"affect other computer programs by modifying them in such a way as to include a (possibly evolved) copy of itself.\"\" (note that a more recent, and precise, definition of computer virus has been given by the Hungarian security researcher Péter Szőr: \"\"a code that recursively replicates a possibly evolved copy of itself\"\"). The first IBM PC compatible \"in the wild\" computer virus, and one of the first real widespread infections, was \"Brain\" in 1986. From then, the number of viruses has grown exponentially. Most of the computer viruses written in the early and mid-1980s were limited to self-reproduction and had no specific damage routine built into the code. That changed when more and more programmers became acquainted with computer virus programming and created viruses that manipulated or even destroyed data on infected computers. Before internet connectivity was widespread, computer viruses were typically spread by infected floppy disks. Antivirus software came into use, but was updated relatively infrequently. During this time, virus checkers essentially had to check executable files and the boot sectors of floppy disks and hard disks. However, as internet usage became common, viruses began to spread online.", "There are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Possibly, the first publicly documented removal of an \"in the wild\" computer virus (i.e. the \"Vienna virus\") was performed by Bernd Fix in 1987. In 1987, Andreas Lüning and Kai Figge, who founded G Data Software in 1985, released their first antivirus product for the Atari ST platform. In 1987, the \"Ultimate Virus Killer (UVK)\" was also released. This was the de facto industry standard virus killer for the Atari ST and Atari Falcon, the last version of which (version 9.0) was released in April 2004. In 1987, in the United States, John McAfee founded the McAfee company (was part of Intel Security) and, at the end of that year, he released the first version of VirusScan. Also in 1987 (in Czechoslovakia), Peter Paško, Rudolf Hrubý, and Miroslav Trnka created the first version of NOD antivirus. In 1987, Fred Cohen wrote that \"there is no algorithm that can perfectly detect all possible computer viruses\". Finally, at the end of 1987, the first two heuristic antivirus utilities were released: \"Flushot Plus\" by Ross Greenberg and \"Anti4us\" by Erwin Lanting. In his O'Reilly book, \"Malicious Mobile Code: Virus Protection for Windows\", Roger Grimes described Flushot Plus as \"the first holistic program to fight malicious mobile code (MMC).\" However, the kind of heuristic used by early AV engines was totally different from those used today. The first product with a heuristic engine resembling modern ones was F-PROT in 1991. Early heuristic engines were based on dividing the binary in different sections: data section, code section (in a legitimate binary, it usually starts always from the same location). Indeed, the initial viruses re-organized the layout of the sections, or overrode the initial portion of section in order to jump to the very end of the file where malicious code was located—only going back to resume execution of the original code. This was a very specific pattern, not used at the time by any legitimate software, which represented an elegant heuristic to catch suspicious code. Other kinds of more advanced heuristics were later added, such as suspicious section names, incorrect header size, regular expressions, and partial pattern in-memory matching. In 1988, the growth of antivirus companies continued. In Germany, Tjark Auerbach founded Avira (\"H+BEDV\" at the time) and released the first version of \"AntiVir\" (named \"\"Luke Filewalker\"\" at the time). In Bulgaria, Vesselin Bontchev released his first freeware antivirus program (he later joined FRISK Software). Also Frans Veldman released the first version of ThunderByte Antivirus, also known as \"TBAV\" (he sold his company to Norman Safeground in 1998). In Czechoslovakia, Pavel Baudiš and Eduard Kučera started avast! (at the time \"ALWIL Software\") and released their first version of avast! antivirus. In June 1988, in South Korea, Ahn Cheol-Soo released its first antivirus software, called \"V1\" (he founded AhnLab later in 1995). Finally, in the Autumn 1988, in United Kingdom, Alan Solomon founded S&S International and created his \"Dr. Solomon's Anti-Virus Toolkit\" (although he launched it commercially only in 1991 – in 1998 Solomon's company was acquired by McAfee). In November 1988 a professor at the Panamerican University in Mexico City named Alejandro E. Carriles copyrighted the first antivirus software in Mexico under the name \"Byte Matabichos\" (Byte Bugkiller) to help solve the rampant virus infestation among students. Also in 1988, a mailing list named VIRUS-L was started on the BITNET/EARN network where new viruses and the possibilities of detecting and eliminating viruses were discussed. Some members of this mailing list were: Alan Solomon, Eugene Kaspersky (Kaspersky Lab), Friðrik Skúlason (FRISK Software), John McAfee (McAfee), Luis Corrons (Panda Security), Mikko Hyppönen (F-Secure), Péter Szőr, Tjark Auerbach (Avira) and Vesselin Bontchev (FRISK Software). In 1989, in Iceland, Friðrik Skúlason created the first version of F-PROT Anti-Virus back in 1989 (he founded FRISK Software only in 1993). In the meanwhile, in United States, Symantec (founded by Gary Hendrix in 1982) launched its first \"Symantec antivirus for Macintosh\" (SAM). SAM 2.0, released March 1990, incorporated technology allowing users to easily update SAM to intercept and eliminate new viruses, including many that didn't exist at the time of the program's release. In the end of the 1980s, in United Kingdom, Jan Hruska and Peter Lammer founded the security firm Sophos and began producing their first antivirus and encryption products. In the same period, in Hungary, also VirusBuster was founded (which has recently being incorporated by Sophos).", "In 1990, in Spain, Mikel Urizarbarrena founded Panda Security (\"Panda Software\" at the time). In Hungary, the security researcher Péter Szőr released the first version of \"Pasteur\" antivirus. In Italy, Gianfranco Tonello created the first version of VirIT eXplorer antivirus, then founded TG Soft one year later. In 1990, the Computer Antivirus Research Organization (CARO) was founded. In 1991, CARO released the \"\"Virus Naming Scheme\"\", originally written by Friðrik Skúlason and Vesselin Bontchev. Although this naming scheme is now outdated, it remains the only existing standard that most computer security companies and researchers ever attempted to adopt. CARO members includes: Alan Solomon, Costin Raiu, Dmitry Gryaznov, Eugene Kaspersky, Friðrik Skúlason, Igor Muttik, Mikko Hyppönen, Morton Swimmer, Nick FitzGerald, Padgett Peterson, Peter Ferrie, Righard Zwienenberg and Vesselin Bontchev. In 1991, in the United States, Symantec released the first version of Norton AntiVirus. In the same year, in the Czech Republic, Jan Gritzbach and Tomáš Hofer founded AVG Technologies (\"Grisoft\" at the time), although they released the first version of their \"Anti-Virus Guard\" (AVG) only in 1992. On the other hand, in Finland, F-Secure (founded in 1988 by Petri Allas and Risto Siilasmaa – with the name of Data Fellows) released the first version of their antivirus product. F-Secure claims to be the first antivirus firm to establish a presence on the World Wide Web. In 1991, the European Institute for Computer Antivirus Research (EICAR) was founded to further antivirus research and improve development of antivirus software. In 1992, in Russia, Igor Danilov released the first version of \"SpiderWeb\", which later became Dr. Web. In 1994, AV-TEST reported that there were 28,613 unique malware samples (based on MD5) in their database. Over time other companies were founded. In 1996, in Romania, Bitdefender was founded and released the first version of \"Anti-Virus eXpert\" (AVX). In 1997, in Russia, Eugene Kaspersky and Natalya Kaspersky co-founded security firm Kaspersky Lab. In 1996, there was also the first \"in the wild\" Linux virus, known as \"\"Staog\"\". In 1999, AV-TEST reported that there were 98,428 unique malware samples (based on MD5) in their database.", "In 2000, Rainer Link and Howard Fuhs started the first open source antivirus engine, called \"OpenAntivirus Project\". In 2001, Tomasz Kojm released the first version of ClamAV, the first ever open source antivirus engine to be commercialised. In 2007, ClamAV was bought by Sourcefire, which in turn was acquired by Cisco Systems in 2013. In 2002, in United Kingdom, Morten Lund and Theis Søndergaard co-founded the antivirus firm BullGuard. In 2005, AV-TEST reported that there were 333,425 unique malware samples (based on MD5) in their database.", "In 2007, AV-TEST reported a number of 5,490,960 new unique malware samples (based on MD5) only for that year. In 2012 and 2013, antivirus firms reported a new malware samples range from 300,000 to over 500,000 per day. Over the years it has become necessary for antivirus software to use several different strategies (e.g. specific email and network protection or low level modules) and detection algorithms, as well as to check an increasing variety of files, rather than just executables, for several reasons: In 2005, F-Secure was the first security firm that developed an Anti-Rootkit technology, called \"BlackLight\". Because most users are usually connected to the Internet on a continual basis, Jon Oberheide first proposed a Cloud-based antivirus design in 2008. In February 2008 McAfee Labs added the industry-first cloud-based anti-malware functionality to VirusScan under Artemis name. It was tested by AV-Comparatives in February 2008 and officially unveiled in August 2008 in McAfee VirusScan. Cloud AV created problems for comparative testing of security software – part of the AV definitions was out of testers control (on constantly updated AV company servers) thus making results non-repeatable. As a result, Anti-Malware Testing Standards Organisation (AMTSO) started working on method of testing cloud products which was adopted on May 7, 2009. In 2011, AVG introduced a similar cloud service, called Protective Cloud Technology.", "Following the 2013 release of the APT 1 report from Mandiant, the industry has seen a shift towards signature-less approaches to the problem capable of detecting and mitigating zero-day attacks. Numerous approaches to address these new forms of threats have appeared, including behavioral detection, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and cloud-based file detonation. According to Gartner, it is expected the rise of new entrants, such Carbon Black, Cylance and Crowdstrike will force EPP incumbents into a new phase of innovation and acquisition. One method from Bromium involves micro-virtualization to protect desktops from malicious code execution initiated by the end user. Another approach from SentinelOne and Carbon Black focuses on behavioral detection by building a full context around every process execution path in real time, while Cylance leverages an artificial intelligence model based on machine learning. Increasingly, these signature-less approaches have been defined by the media and analyst firms as \"next-generation\" antivirus and are seeing rapid market adoption as certified antivirus replacement technologies by firms such as Coalfire and DirectDefense. In response, traditional antivirus vendors such as Trend Micro, Symantec and Sophos have responded by incorporating \"next-gen\" offerings into their portfolios as analyst firms such as Forrester and Gartner have called traditional signature-based antivirus \"ineffective\" and \"outdated\".", "One of the few solid theoretical results in the study of computer viruses is Frederick B. Cohen's 1987 demonstration that there is no algorithm that can perfectly detect all possible viruses. However, using different layers of defense, a good detection rate may be achieved. There are several methods which antivirus engine can use to identify malware:", "Traditional antivirus software relies heavily upon signatures to identify malware. Substantially, when a malware arrives in the hands of an antivirus firm, it is analysed by malware researchers or by dynamic analysis systems. Then, once it is determined to be a malware, a proper signature of the file is extracted and added to the signatures database of the antivirus software. Although the signature-based approach can effectively contain malware outbreaks, malware authors have tried to stay a step ahead of such software by writing \"oligomorphic\", \"polymorphic\" and, more recently, \"metamorphic\" viruses, which encrypt parts of themselves or otherwise modify themselves as a method of disguise, so as to not match virus signatures in the dictionary.", "Many viruses start as a single infection and through either mutation or refinements by other attackers, can grow into dozens of slightly different strains, called variants. Generic detection refers to the detection and removal of multiple threats using a single virus definition. For example, the Vundo trojan has several family members, depending on the antivirus vendor's classification. Symantec classifies members of the Vundo family into two distinct categories, \"Trojan.Vundo\" and \"Trojan.Vundo.B\". While it may be advantageous to identify a specific virus, it can be quicker to detect a virus family through a generic signature or through an inexact match to an existing signature. Virus researchers find common areas that all viruses in a family share uniquely and can thus create a single generic signature. These signatures often contain non-contiguous code, using wildcard characters where differences lie. These wildcards allow the scanner to detect viruses even if they are padded with extra, meaningless code. A detection that uses this method is said to be \"heuristic detection.\"", "Anti-virus software can attempt to scan for rootkits. A rootkit is a type of malware designed to gain administrative-level control over a computer system without being detected. Rootkits can change how the operating system functions and in some cases can tamper with the anti-virus program and render it ineffective. Rootkits are also difficult to remove, in some cases requiring a complete re-installation of the operating system.", "Real-time protection, on-access scanning, background guard, resident shield, autoprotect, and other synonyms refer to the automatic protection provided by most antivirus, anti-spyware, and other anti-malware programs. This monitors computer systems for suspicious activity such as computer viruses, spyware, adware, and other malicious objects in'real-time', in other words while data loaded into the computer's active memory: when inserting a CD, opening an email, or browsing the web, or when a file already on the computer is opened or executed.", "", "Some commercial antivirus software end-user license agreements include a clause that the subscription will be automatically renewed, and the purchaser's credit card automatically billed, at the renewal time without explicit approval. For example, McAfee requires users to unsubscribe at least 60 days before the expiration of the present subscription while BitDefender sends notifications to unsubscribe 30 days before the renewal. Norton AntiVirus also renews subscriptions automatically by default.", "Some apparent antivirus programs are actually malware masquerading as legitimate software, such as WinFixer, MS Antivirus, and Mac Defender.", "A \"false positive\" or \"false alarm\" is when antivirus software identifies a non-malicious file as malware. When this happens, it can cause serious problems. For example, if an antivirus program is configured to immediately delete or quarantine infected files, as is common on Microsoft Windows antivirus applications, a false positive in an essential file can render the Windows operating system or some applications unusable. Recovering from such damage to critical software infrastructure incurs technical support costs and businesses can be forced to close whilst remedial action is undertaken. Examples of serious false-positives:", "Running (the real-time protection of) multiple antivirus programs concurrently can degrade performance and create conflicts. However, using a concept called multiscanning, several companies (including G Data Software and Microsoft) have created applications which can run multiple engines concurrently. It is sometimes necessary to temporarily disable virus protection when installing major updates such as Windows Service Packs or updating graphics card drivers. Active antivirus protection may partially or completely prevent the installation of a major update. Anti-virus software can cause problems during the installation of an operating system upgrade, e.g. when upgrading to a newer version of Windows \"in place\"—without erasing the previous version of Windows. Microsoft recommends that anti-virus software be disabled to avoid conflicts with the upgrade installation process. Active anti-virus software can also interfere with a firmware update process. The functionality of a few computer programs can be hampered by active anti-virus software. For example, TrueCrypt, a disk encryption program, states on its troubleshooting page that anti-virus programs can conflict with TrueCrypt and cause it to malfunction or operate very slowly. Anti-virus software can impair the performance and stability of games running in the Steam platform. Support issues also exist around antivirus application interoperability with common solutions like SSL VPN remote access and network access control products. These technology solutions often have policy assessment applications that require an up-to-date antivirus to be installed and running. If the antivirus application is not recognized by the policy assessment, whether because the antivirus application has been updated or because it is not part of the policy assessment library, the user will be unable to connect.", "Studies in December 2007 showed that the effectiveness of antivirus software had decreased in the previous year, particularly against unknown or zero day attacks. The computer magazine \"c't\" found that detection rates for these threats had dropped from 40–50% in 2006 to 20–30% in 2007. At that time, the only exception was the NOD32 antivirus, which managed a detection rate of 68%. According to the \"ZeuS tracker\" website the average detection rate for all variants of the well-known ZeuS trojan is as low as 40%. The problem is magnified by the changing intent of virus authors. Some years ago it was obvious when a virus infection was present. At the time, viruses were written by amateurs and exhibited destructive behavior or pop-ups. Modern viruses are often written by professionals, financed by criminal organizations. In 2008, Eva Chen, CEO of Trend Micro, stated that the anti-virus industry has over-hyped how effective its products are—and so has been misleading customers—for years. Independent testing on all the major virus scanners consistently shows that none provides 100% virus detection. The best ones provided as high as 99.9% detection for simulated real-world situations, while the lowest provided 91.1% in tests conducted in August 2013. Many virus scanners produce false positive results as well, identifying benign files as malware. Although methods may differ, some notable independent quality testing agencies include AV-Comparatives, ICSA Labs, West Coast Labs, Virus Bulletin, AV-TEST and other members of the Anti-Malware Testing Standards Organization.", "Anti-virus programs are not always effective against new viruses, even those that use non-signature-based methods that should detect new viruses. The reason for this is that the virus designers test their new viruses on the major anti-virus applications to make sure that they are not detected before releasing them into the wild. Some new viruses, particularly ransomware, use polymorphic code to avoid detection by virus scanners. Jerome Segura, a security analyst with ParetoLogic, explained: A proof of concept virus has used the Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) to avoid detection from anti-virus software. The potential success of this involves bypassing the CPU in order to make it much harder for security researchers to analyse the inner workings of such malware.", "Detecting rootkits is a major challenge for anti-virus programs. Rootkits have full administrative access to the computer and are invisible to users and hidden from the list of running processes in the task manager. Rootkits can modify the inner workings of the operating system and tamper with antivirus programs.", "If a file has been infected by a computer virus, anti-virus software will attempt to remove the virus code from the file during disinfection, but it is not always able to restore the file to its undamaged state. In such circumstances, damaged files can only be restored from existing backups or shadow copies (this is also true for ransomware); installed software that is damaged requires re-installation (however, see System File Checker).", "Any writeable firmware in the computer can be infected by malicious code. This is a major concern, as an infected BIOS could require the actual BIOS chip to be replaced to ensure the malicious code is completely removed. Anti-virus software is not effective at protecting firmware and the motherboard BIOS from infection. In 2014, security researchers discovered that USB devices contain writeable firmware which can be modified with malicious code (dubbed \"BadUSB\"), which anti-virus software cannot detect or prevent. The malicious code can run undetected on the computer and could even infect the operating system prior to it booting up.", "Antivirus software has some drawbacks, first of which that it can impact a computer's performance. Furthermore, inexperienced users can be lulled into a false sense of security when using the computer, considering their computers to be invulnerable, and may have problems understanding the prompts and decisions that antivirus software presents them with. An incorrect decision may lead to a security breach. If the antivirus software employs heuristic detection, it must be fine-tuned to minimize misidentifying harmless software as malicious (false positive). Antivirus software itself usually runs at the highly trusted kernel level of the operating system to allow it access to all the potential malicious process and files, creating a potential avenue of attack. The US National Security Agency (NSA) and the UK Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) intelligence agencies, respectively, have been exploiting anti-virus software to spy on users. Anti-virus software has highly privileged and trusted access to the underlying operating system, which makes it a much more appealing target for remote attacks. Additionally anti-virus software is \"years behind security-conscious client-side applications like browsers or document readers. It means that Acrobat Reader, Microsoft Word or Google Chrome are harder to exploit than 90 percent of the anti-virus products out there\", according to Joxean Koret, a researcher with Coseinc, a Singapore-based information security consultancy.", "Antivirus software running on individual computers is the most common method employed of guarding against malware, but it is not the only solution. Other solutions can also be employed by users, including Unified Threat Management (UTM), hardware and network firewalls, Cloud-based antivirus and online scanners.", "Network firewalls prevent unknown programs and processes from accessing the system. However, they are not antivirus systems and make no attempt to identify or remove anything. They may protect against infection from outside the protected computer or network, and limit the activity of any malicious software which is present by blocking incoming or outgoing requests on certain TCP/IP ports. A firewall is designed to deal with broader system threats that come from network connections into the system and is not an alternative to a virus protection system.", "Cloud antivirus is a technology that uses lightweight agent software on the protected computer, while offloading the majority of data analysis to the provider's infrastructure. One approach to implementing cloud antivirus involves scanning suspicious files using multiple antivirus engines. This approach was proposed by an early implementation of the cloud antivirus concept called CloudAV. CloudAV was designed to send programs or documents to a network cloud where multiple antivirus and behavioral detection programs are used simultaneously in order to improve detection rates. Parallel scanning of files using potentially incompatible antivirus scanners is achieved by spawning a virtual machine per detection engine and therefore eliminating any possible issues. CloudAV can also perform \"retrospective detection,\" whereby the cloud detection engine rescans all files in its file access history when a new threat is identified thus improving new threat detection speed. Finally, CloudAV is a solution for effective virus scanning on devices that lack the computing power to perform the scans themselves. Some examples of cloud anti-virus products are Panda Cloud Antivirus, Crowdstrike, Cb Defense and Immunet. Comodo group has also produced cloud-based anti-virus.", "Some antivirus vendors maintain websites with free online scanning capability of the entire computer, critical areas only, local disks, folders or files. Periodic online scanning is a good idea for those that run antivirus applications on their computers because those applications are frequently slow to catch threats. One of the first things that malicious software does in an attack is disable any existing antivirus software and sometimes the only way to know of an attack is by turning to an online resource that is not installed on the infected computer.", "Virus removal tools are available to help remove stubborn infections or certain types of infection. Examples include \"Avast Free Anti- Malware\", \"AVG Free Malware Removal Tools\", and \"Avira AntiVir Removal Tool\". It is also worth noting that sometimes antivirus software can produce a false positive result, indicating an infection where there is none. A rescue disk that is bootable, such as a CD or USB storage device, can be used to run antivirus software outside of the installed operating system, in order to remove infections while they are dormant. A bootable antivirus disk can be useful when, for example, the installed operating system is no longer bootable or has malware that is resisting all attempts to be removed by the installed antivirus software. Examples of some of these bootable disks include the \"Bitdefender Rescue CD\", \"Kaspersky Rescue Disk 2018\", and \"Windows Defender Offline\" (integrated into Windows 10 since the Anniversary Update). Most of the Rescue CD software can also be installed onto a USB storage device, that is bootable on newer computers.", "According to an FBI survey, major businesses lose $12 million annually dealing with virus incidents. A survey by Symantec in 2009 found that a third of small to medium-sized business did not use antivirus protection at that time, whereas more than 80% of home users had some kind of antivirus installed. According to a sociological survey conducted by G Data Software in 2010 49% of women did not use any antivirus program at all." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design.", "Combat record and alterations.", "Exports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1986 Italy, the United Kingdom and Germany agreed to terminate their existing development of the PzH 155-1 (SP70) programme, which had run into reliability problems and had design defects, notably being mounted on a modified tank chassis. A new Joint Ballistics Memorandum of Understanding (JBMOU) for a 52 calibre barrel (based on a UK proposal) to replace 39 calibre was nearing agreement. German industry was asked for proposals to build a new design with gun conforming to the JBMOU. Of the proposed designs, Wegmann's was selected. Wegman eventually won a contract in 1996 for 185 to be delivered to Germany's rapid reaction force, followed by another 410 for the main force. Wegmann and Krauss-Maffei, the two main German military tracked vehicle designers, merged in 1998 to form \"KMW\".", "Rheinmetall designed the 155 mm 52-calibre JBMOU compliant gun, which is chromium-lined for its entire 8 metre length and includes a muzzle brake on the end. The gun uses a new modular charge system with six charges (five identical), which can be combined to provide the optimal total charge for the range to the target, as well as the conventional bagged charge systems. Primer is loaded separately via a conveyor belt, and the entire loading, laying and clearing is completely automated. The maximum range of the gun is 30–36 km with the standard DM121 Boattail round, about 40–47 km with base bleed rounds, and 67 km with M2005 V-LAP assisted projectiles. In April 2006 a PzH 2000 shot assisted shells (Denel V-Lap) over a distance of 56 km with a probable maximum range of over 60 km. The gun can also fire the SMArt 155 artillery round, which is used by Germany and Greece. Wegmann supplied both the chassis, sharing some components with the Leopard 2, and the turret for the gun. The system has superb cross-country performance because of its use of continuous tracks and considerable protection in the case of counter-fire. The turret includes a phased array radar on the front glacis for measuring the muzzle velocity of each round fired. Laying data can be automatically provided via encrypted radio from the battery fire direction centre. A lighter, more air-portable version, using the gun in a module fitted to a lighter chassis, has been developed by KMW. It is called the Artillery Gun Module. In December 2013, Raytheon and the German Army completed compatibility testing for the M982 Excalibur extended range guided artillery shell with the PzH 2000. Ten Excaliburs were fired at ranges from 9 to 48 kilometers. Shells hit within three meters of their targets, with an average miss distance of one meter at 48 km. The Excalibur may be accepted by the German Army in 2014. A PzH 2000 L52 gun fired a shell to a range of 67 km at the Alkantpan test range in South Africa on 6 November 2019.", "The PzH 2000 was used for the first time in combat by the Dutch Army in August 2006 against Taliban targets in Kandahar Province, Afghanistan, in support of Operation Medusa. Since then it has been used regularly in support of coalition troops in Uruzgan province, also in Afghanistan. The PzH 2000 was also used extensively during the Battle of Chora. It is known as \"the long arm of ISAF\". The gun has been criticised by the Dutch in Uruzgan province as the NBC system designed for use in Europe cannot cope with the high level of dust in Afghanistan. The guns have been modified with additional armor being fitted to the roof to protect against mortar rounds. There have been other reports of problems including the need to keep it in the shade unless actually firing, the damage it does to poorly built roads and a significant 'cold gun' effect necessitating the use of 'warmers'. Since the beginning of June 2010, German ISAF troops at PRT Kunduz have three PzH 2000 at their disposal. They were first used on 10 July 2010 to provide support for the recovery of a damaged vehicle. This was the first time in its history the Bundeswehr has used heavy artillery in combat. The PzH 2000 also played a key role during Operation Halmazag in November 2010, when the villages of Isa Khel and Quatliam were retaken from the Taliban by German paratroopers.", "A number of armies have tested the system and its ability to provide accurate fire at 40 km has been a major selling point. The PzH 2000 was considered for the US Army's Crusader concept system, but several requirements of the Crusader made it unsuitable. The Crusader specifications placed the crew and gun in separate compartments, allowing a single highly armoured crew compartment to control the firing of an entire battery of guns through intervehicle links. In addition the Crusader included an automated ammunition tender, and an active cooled barrel. The PzH 2000 was a contender for Phase 1C of Australia's Land 17 Artillery Replacement Programme prior to that phase of the project being cancelled in May 2012. Finland tested one alongside the 155mm SpGH ZUZANA and AS-90 \"Braveheart\". Tests ended in 1998 and due to cost efficiency issues no self-propelled gun system was selected, but instead more of the cheaper 155 K 98 field guns were bought. The German Navy evaluated a modified system known as MONARC for installation onboard frigates; while the system performed well components were difficult to protect against corrosion. Sweden evaluated a slightly modified version but selected the ARCHER Artillery System instead. In December 2018, Hungary ordered 24 newly-built PzH 2000s from Krauss-Maffei Wegmann together with 44 Leopard 2A7+ and 12 Leopard 2A4 main battle tanks in a deal valued at over 160 billion HUF ($565 million)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "President (1992–97).", "Opposition leader (1997–2005).", "Prime Minister (2005–13).", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Berisha was born in Viçidol, Tropojë District, Kukës County, northern Albania, near the border with Kosovo to a Muslim father and mother: Ramë and Sheqere Berisha. He studied medicine at the University of Tirana, graduating in 1967. He specialized in cardiology and was subsequently appointed as an assistant professor of medicine at the same university and as staff cardiologist at the Tirana General Hospital. At the same time, Berisha became a member of a discussion forum for changes in the Albanian Party of Labor while having been enrolled as a member a few years earlier. During the 1970s, Berisha gained distinction as the leading researcher in the field of cardiology in Albania and became professor of cardiology at the University of Tirana. In 1978 he received a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural (UNESCO) fellowship for nine months of advanced study and training in Paris. He also conducted a research program on hemodynamics that attracted considerable attention among his colleagues in Europe. In 1986 he was elected to be a member of the European Committee for Research on Medical Sciences, where he worked for the elaboration of scientific researches strategies for \"Health for all\". In an interview for the Albanian Writers League newspaper published also in the international press, Berisha demanded that the remaining barriers to freedom of thought and expression be ended, that Albanians be granted the right to travel freely within the country and abroad, and that Albania abandon its isolationist foreign policy. At an August 1990 meeting of the nation's intellectuals convened by President Ramiz Alia, Berisha urged the Albanian Party of Labor (APL) to abolish the third article of the communist constitution which sanctioned that the Party of Labor had the hegemony of the Power, to recognize the Human Rights Charter, the drafting of a new democratic constitution, and to remove all monuments of Stalin in the country. In an article published in the \"Bashkimi\" newspaper on 17 September 1990, Berisha condemned what he termed the \"cosmetic reforms\" of the Alia regime, which had only served to aggravate unrest within the nation. Without political pluralism, he argued, there could be no true democracy in Albania. In December 1990, Berisha joined, on the very first day, a series of student demonstrations that forced the government to approve the establishment of a multi-party system. Berisha emerged as the leader of the Democratic Party of Albania (DP), the first and largest of the new opposition parties. All leading members of the party wore white coats during demonstrations. He was formally elected DP chairman in February 1991 at the party's first national congress. He was elected member of Albania parliament in 1991, 1992, 1997, 2001 from the constituency of Kavajë.", "After the 1992 elections—the first free legislative elections held in the country in decades—Berisha was elected president on 9 April 1992. He was the country's first freely elected head of state, and the first non-Communist head of state in 53 years. Following his election, Berisha and his government were engaged in a profound course of political, economic, institutional, legislative and multifaceted reforms. Therefore, the complete privatization of land and residencies, as well as of all small and medium state enterprises, was accomplished over the period 1992–96; prices and exchange rates were fully liberalized, and Albania changed from a country of a three figure inflation rate and economic growth regression of −20% into a country with a one-figure inflation rate and with an average economic growth rate of 9% in 1992 and, in ’93 – ’96, 75% of GDP was generated from the private sector. Albania opened towards the West; it became a member of the Council of Europe in 1995; it signed the Partnership for Peace Agreement in 1993, and it established a close cooperation with European Union countries and the United States. All laws of the communist dictatorship were replaced with new laws of European standards, and a series of institutions that had not been in place before, like the Constitutional Court and High Council of Justice, were established. Berisha also introduced Islam to the Albanian political scene, pursued re-Islamisation of the country (approximately 34% Sunnit Muslims of Albania's population) to reverse decades of anti-religious policy under Communism. Non-Governmental Organisations from Saudi Arabia and other parts of the Muslim world were invited in to build mosques and schools and provide other aid, and introduce Wahhabi or Salafi Islam to Albania. The collapse of the Ponzi schemes towards the end of 1996, into which Albanians allegedly invested $1 billion worth of life savings from 1994, recapped the crisis. The schemes failed, one by one, from December 1996, and demonstrators took to the streets accusing the government of having stolen the money. Those demonstrations were then taken over by the opposition. During the first ten days of March, the situation deteriorated, culminating in the desertion of large numbers of police and military, leaving their arsenals unlocked. These were promptly looted, mostly by militias and some criminal gangs, and for a time it looked like civil war would erupt between the government and rebels. Although the Prime Minister resigned immediately, Berisha refused opposition demands to step down, claiming he had to ensure continuity, and UN and European Multinational Forces were required to step in and take the situation under control. After their intervention in Albania, early elections were held in June 1997, leading to the victory of a socialist-led coalition of parties. On 24 July 1997, a month after the DP lost the 1997 elections to the left coalition, Berisha stepped down as president and was replaced by the socialist Rexhep Meidani. In 1997 he became the chairman of the Democratic Party, which became the biggest opposition party. He eventually returned to power as Prime Minister between 2005 and 2013.", "The murder of DP MP Azem Hajdari on 12 September 1998, triggered two days of violent protests in Tirana. During Hajdari's funeral procession on 14 September 1998, armed DP supporters ransacked government offices, and for a brief period, held the PM's office, the parliament building, and the Albanian State television and radio building. Estimates of casualties during the protests and riots ranged between 3 and 7 deaths and 14 and 76 injuries. After 72 hours, the Government restored order and reclaimed tanks and armored personnel carriers seized by DP supporters that were being held at the Democratic Party main offices in Tirana. Parliament subsequently lifted Berisha's immunity due to his alleged role in what the government described as a \"coup d'état\", but no charges were laid. Berisha blamed the Socialist Party of Albania and its leaders for the murder. Twelve people were arrested for their alleged involvement in the violence. In February 2002 five people, including Jaho Mulosmani, were sentenced for the murder by a Tirana district court. Sali Berisha led the coalition of the center-right parties in the general elections held in five rounds in June–August 2001. Although Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe/ODIHR International Election Observation Mission declared these elections as being manipulated. The coalition won 37% of the votes. Berisha led continuous peaceful demonstrations demanding fresh elections. In the winter of 2004, a number of protests with over 20,000 people were organized by the opposition led by Sali Berisha demanding Nano to resign as prime minister which came known as the \"Nano Go Away\" Movement (\"Levizja \"Nano Ik\"\").", "On 3 July 2005, Sali Berisha was able to lead a coalition of five right center parties into the 2005 parliamentary elections, which eventually won a majority of 74 MPs from a total of 140. He was appointed Prime Minister of Albania on 8 September 2005. On 10 June 2007, Sali Berisha met with U.S. President George W. Bush in Tirana. Bush became the first U.S. president to visit Albania and repeated his staunch support for the independence of neighbouring Kosovo from Serbia: \"At some point in time, sooner rather than later, you've got to say, enough is enough. Kosovo is independent.\" On 15 March 2008, Berisha faced the toughest challenge of his government when an ammunition dump exploded in the village of Gërdec near Tirana, causing the deaths of 26 people and injuring over 100. Defense Minister Fatmir Mediu resigned, and the press reported many irregularities at the blast site, operated by an Albanian company that deactivated the country's aging ammunition and then sold it for scrap. In June 2009, Berisha's Democrats declared a narrow win in the parliamentary elections. Berisha's alliance came up one seat short of a majority and had to join forces with a splinter socialist party, the Socialist Movement for Integration of Ilir Meta, in order to retain power. Berisha appointed to Meta to the post of Deputy Prime Minister for Foreign Affairs, and later Minister of Economy, Trade and Energy. It is the first time since the start of multi-party democracy in 1991 that a ruling party had been forced into a coalition through not winning enough seats on its own. The 2009 elections were flawed and have been called as such by the socialist opposition, who have asked for a recount of the ballots. Berisha refused any recount of the votes, on the grounds that the Albanian Constitution does not foresee such procedure. For that reason he called the opposition to the parliament to change the constitution, but the Socialist Party refused. The political crisis between government and opposition worsened over time, with the Socialists abandoning parliamentary debates for months and staging hunger strikes to ask for internal and international support. The EU attempted a conciliation, which failed. The ongoing political crisis was one of the reasons for the EU's refusal to grant Albania official candidate status in late 2010. On 21 January 2011, clashes broke out between police and protesters in an anti-government rally in front of the Government building in Tirana. Four people were shot dead from government special forces. The EU issued a statement to Albanian politicians, warning both sides to refrain from violence, while Berisha defined the protests and the subsequent charges by judges upon policemen as stages of an attempted coup against him – consequently using this to his advantage to further attempt to consolidate his grip on the state institutions. He accused the then President of having been part of the coup after the relations had soured between the two and he embraced his perceived victim status to install his own 'yes man' in the office. Under his leadership, Albania made several strides in sustainable development. In the 2012 Environmental Performance Index, the country ranked 4th out of 132 countries, while maintaining an average GDP growth of 5.1% between 2007 and 2011. BY 2012, the country was producing more than 96 percent of the energy through renewable hydropower resources. For his significant achievements and contributions to sustainable development, he was awarded the Fray International Sustainability Award in 2012. After his party's defeat in the 2013 parliamentary election, Berisha resigned as party leader, but he remained in parliament.", "Berisha is married to Liri Berisha (née Ramaj), a pediatrician. Liri Berisha is the president of Albanian Children Foundation. Her foundation focuses on children with autism and down syndrome. The couple have two children, a daughter, Argita Malltezi (née Berisha), and a son, Shkëlzen Berisha. Apart from his native Albanian, he speaks English, Italian, Russian and French fluently." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "French Revolutionary Wars.", "Napoleonic Wars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Augereau was born in Faubourg Saint-Marceau, Paris, as the son of a Parisian fruit seller (in some accounts, a servant). He enlisted in the army at the age of seventeen in the \"Clare\" Infantry Regiment, but was soon discharged. Later, he joined the dragoons. He became a noted swordsman and duellist, but he had to flee France after killing an officer in a quarrel. For the next 13 years Augereau drifted across Europe. He claimed to have served in the Russian Army against the Ottoman Empire, being present at the Siege of Izmail as a sergeant before deserting afterwards. He later enlisted in the infantry regiment of Prince Henry of Prussia and claimed he served in the Prussian Foot Guards as well. He deserted by masterminding a mass escape and reached the border of Saxony where he taught fencing. In 1781, King Louis XVI of France proclaimed an amnesty for deserters, so Augereau returned to his native land. He joined the cavalry in 1784, and after serving in the carabiniers he was sent to the Kingdom of Naples as part of a military mission. While in Naples, he eloped with Gabrielle Grach and the two lovers traveled to Portugal where they spent the years 1788–1791. After the French Revolution broke out, the Portuguese jailed Augereau as a dangerous foreigner. Somehow, Gabrielle persuaded the authorities to release her husband and the couple returned to France. In September 1792, Augereau joined a volunteer cavalry unit, the \"German Legion\", but this is without proof as Augereau claims that the papers were taken away from him during the Portuguese Inquisition.", "Augereau's unit was sent to put down the revolt in the Vendée in April 1793. The \"German Legion\" proved useless in battle because many of the soldiers switched sides, and the officers, including Augereau and François Marceau found themselves in prison. Released, he served briefly in the 11th Hussars before serving as wagonmaster and as aide de camp to General Jean Antoine Rossignol. He was then assigned to train recruits for General Jean-Antoine Marbot at Toulouse. Marbot liked his work and Augereau soon became a close friend of the Marbot family. It is not clear when, or if, Augereau was promoted to general of brigade, but he transferred to the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and was promoted to general of division on 23 December 1793. When General Jacques François Dugommier became commander in January 1794, the army was thoroughly reorganized. Augereau became a divisional commander and played a significant role at the Battle of Boulou from 29 April to 1 May, where his feint attacks lured the Spanish Army led by General Luis Firmín de la Unión into a false position. After the victory at Boulou, the army advanced a short distance into Spain, with Augereau holding the right wing. At the Battle of San-Lorenzo de la Muga on 13 August, he skillfully repelled the assaults of 20,000 Spanish troops with his 10,000 French troops. On 17 November, Dugommier launched a major offensive against the Spanish at the Battle of the Black Mountain. On the first day, Augereau's attack crushed the Spanish left flank while other French attacks proved unsuccessful. Dugommier was killed on the second day, but after a day's pause, the advance resumed and the Spanish were routed. After the Peace of Basel ended the War of the Pyrenees in July 1795, Augereau and his division were transferred to the Army of Italy. On 23 November 1795, Augereau fought at the Battle of Loano against the Austrians and Piedmontese. During the fighting, his troops attacked on the right near the coast, while General André Masséna's division pierced the Allied center. The following April, his close association with Napoleon Bonaparte began when Bonaparte took command of the army and launched the Montenotte campaign. Augereau fought at the Battle of Millesimo on 13 April 1796, and accepted the surrender of the castle of Cosseria the next morning. He led his troops at the Battle of Ceva on the 16th, before serving in the Lodi campaign in early May and at the Battle of Borghetto on 30 May. But it was at the Battle of Castiglione on 5 August 1796 that Augereau rendered the most notable services. In his memoirs, General Marcellin Marbot described him as encouraging even Bonaparte himself in the confused situation that prevailed before that battle, though Marbot may not be the most reliable source, as he had not witnessed these events directly and because of his outspoken sympathy for Augereau. In any case, it was Bonaparte's undoubted superiority as a strategist that made the victory at Castiglione a possibility. On 3 August, while Bonaparte defeated the Austrian corps of General Peter Quasdanovich, Augereau held off the main Austrian army of General Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser. With 11,000 men, he attacked General Anton Lipthay's brigade and drove it back on the Austrian main body. By the end of the day, Augereau faced 20,000 Austrians. The battle cost the Austrians about 1,000 casualties, while French losses were also heavy, including General Martial Beyrand who was killed. Augereau's bold front allowed Bonaparte to dispose of Quasdanovich, then mass his main strength to beat Wurmser at Castiglione two days later. Shortly after Castiglione, Bonaparte tersely summed up Augereau's military qualities: \"\"Much character, courage, steadiness, activity; is used to war, liked by the soldiers, lucky in his operations.\"\" In 1797, Bonaparte sent Augereau to Paris to encourage the Jacobin Directors. Augereau and the troops led by him coerced the \"moderates\" in the councils and carried through the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797). He was then sent to command French forces in Germany. Augereau took little part in the \"coup d'état\" of 18 Brumaire in November 1799, and did not distinguish himself in the Rhenish campaign which ensued. Nevertheless, owing to his final adhesion to Bonaparte's fortunes, Augereau received a Marshal's baton at the beginning of the First French Empire on 19 May 1804.", "Augereau commanded a camp in Brest, Brittany, during preparations for the invasion of Britain. When Napoleon called off the invasion because of the growing threat from Austria and Russia, the camp became the VII Corps of the \"Grande Armée\". With this force, Augereau fought in the War of the Third Coalition. His corps was charged with protecting the army’s lines of communications during the Ulm campaign. He fought in the battles of Konstanz and Bregenz, before tracking down and destroying General Franz Jellacic's Austrian division at Dornbirn in Vorarlberg on 13 November 1805. This was followed by the occupation of Frankfurt am Main. His wife Gabrielle died while he was away. During the War of the Fourth Coalition, Augereau was again commander of the VII Corps. He distinguished himself at the Battle of Jena on 14 October 1806 where his corps made up the left flank. Early in 1807, he fell ill with fever, and at the Battle of Eylau on 7 February 1807, he had to be supported on his horse. Nevertheless, he directed the movements of his corps with his usual bravery. Augereau's corps was almost annihilated and the marshal himself received a wound in the arm from grapeshot. Augereau became Duke of Castiglione on 19 March 1808, a hereditary victory title (i.e. not in chief of an actual fief, but a hollow title), in honour of the 1796 victory. In 1809, he married the 19-year-old Adélaïde Josephine Bourlon de Chavange (1789 – 1869) whom he had become infatuated with. Adélaïde, the daughter of Gilles Bernard Bourlon de Chavange and wife Jeanne Françoise Launuy, had no children with Augereau and the ducal title became extinct upon his death. His wife later remarried Camille de Sainte-Aldegonde (1787 – 1853), by whom she had a daughter Valentine de Sainte-Aldegonde (1820 – 1891), who married the 3rd Duke of Dino. While serving in Catalonia during the Peninsular War from February to May 1810, Augereau gained some successes but tarnished his name with cruelty. During the Russian campaign in 1812, Augereau guarded the \"Grande Armée\"'s rear flanks. He sat out the German campaign in spring 1813 due to illness. Before the Battle of Leipzig in October, Napoleon reproached him with not being the Augereau of Castiglione; to which he replied, \"\"Give me back the old soldiers of Italy, and I will show you that I am.\"\" Yet, he led the IX Corps at Leipzig with skill and brought off his command in good order. In 1814, Augereau was given command of the army of Lyon, and his slackness exposed him to the charge of having come to an understanding with the Allies. Thereafter, he served the restored Bourbon King Louis XVIII of France. But, after reviling Napoleon, he went over to him during the Hundred Days. The emperor repulsed Augereau and charged him with being a traitor to France in 1814. After being re-restored to the throne in 1815 following Napoleon's defeat, King Louis XVIII deprived Augereau of his military title and pension. Augereau died at his estate of La Houssaye only a year later. He is buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regulations and restrictions.", "Issues.", "German Bundesländer series.", "Lithuanian Ethnographical Regions series.", "Spanish UNESCO World Heritage Sites series." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The basis for the commemorative coins is derived from a decision of the European Council, which allowed changing the national obverse sides of euro coins from 1 January 2004 onwards. However, a number of recommendations and restrictions still apply. Two restrictions concern the design. Euro coins must still have a common reverse side, so only the national obverse sides may be varied. Also, the standard national obverse sides \"per se\" should not be changed before 2008 at the earliest, unless the head of state depicted on some coins changes before then. (This clause already came into effect for Monaco and the Vatican City, whose heads of state—Rainier III and Pope John Paul II respectively—died in 2005 and whose national obverse sides were changed for 2006.) Further regulations restrict the frequency and number of commemorative coin issues. Until 2012, each member state could only issue one commemorative coin per year, and since that year two coins per year, and they shall only be denominated as €2 coins. The total number of such coins put into circulation per year should not surpass the higher of the following two numbers: Another decision added two more guidelines regarding the design of the coins. The state issuing a coin should in some way clearly be identified on the obverse side, either by stating the full name or a clearly identifiable abbreviation of it; and neither name nor the denomination of the coin should be repeated on the obverse, as it is already featured on the common reverse side. These restrictions do not apply retroactively; only new designs—the national obverse sides for regular issues of states newly joining the euro or of eurozone states which change their design, and €2 commemorative coins issued from 2006 onwards—are subject to them. However, the five countries whose designs violated the first update to the rules (Austria, Belgium, Finland, Germany and Greece) initially were assumed to have to change their design in the future, which Finland did for 2007 and Belgium for 2008. Another decision changed the rules again: Belgium was forced to change its design back to show the original portrait of its monarch, because the 2008 update to follow the recommendations also updated the portrait, which was against the rules. The Belgian coins from 2009 onwards show the original royal portrait of 1999, but otherwise keep the new 2008 coin design as far as the country identification and year mark are concerned. These provisions additionally prohibit further \"sede vacante\" sets of coins by the Vatican City, allowing only commemorative coins for such occasions. Spain updated their design from 2010 onwards to meet the new rules, leaving Austria, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg and Slovenia in breach of them still. In 2012, the European Council set up new specifications of euro coins and named (in article 1 g) a deadline for national sides of regular coins to be updated to fully comply with the current regulation: 20 June 2012. Also in 2012, a new EU regulation on the issuance of euro coins was concluded, increasing the allowed number of national €2 commemorative coins per year to two.", "Twenty three countries have independently issued €2 commemorative coins (Andorra, Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Lithuania, Malta, Monaco, the Netherlands, Portugal, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain and the Vatican City), with Greece being the first country to issue this type of coin. There have also been four common €2 commemorative coins issued by all eurozone member states: Issued designs are made public in the \"Official Journal of the European Union\".", "Germany started the commemorative coin series (The 16 States of the Federal Republic of Germany) in 2006, which will continue until 2022. The year in which the coin for a specific state is issued coincides with that state's Presidency of the \"Bundesrat\". In 2018, the last three coins of the series were postponed to 2020, 2021 and 2022, respectively. This was because in 2019 Schleswig-Holstein assumed the presidency of the Bundesrat again. Since they had already been honored with its first coin in 2006, Germany decided to mint a coin commemorating 70 years since the constitution of the Federal Council in 2019 instead. Originally, the designs for the following states were different: The series is similar to the United States' 50 State Quarters series, which saw fifty coins issued for its fifty constituent states, five per year between 1999 and 2008. A separate program saw six coins issued in 2009 for the District of Columbia and five territories of the United States.", "Including Samogitia, Aukštaitija, Dzūkija, Suvalkija and Lithuania Minor", "Spain started the commemorative coin series (UNESCO World Heritage) in 2010, commemorating all of Spain's UNESCO World Heritage Sites, which could continue until 2050. The order in which the coin for a specific site is issued coincides with the order in which they were declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. The coins issued are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Europe.", "Sigmund Freud.", "Sándor Ferenczi.", "Anna Freud.", "Melanie Klein.", "Vote by European parliament in March 2018.", "Germany.", "United States.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Theories and techniques.", "Behavioral modification.", "Ex-gay ministry.", "Psychoanalysis.", "Reparative therapy.", "Sex therapy.", "Lobotomy.", "Studies of conversion therapy.", "\"Can Some Gay Men and Lesbians Change Their Sexual Orientation?\".", "Analysis of the May 2001 Spitzer report.", "\"Changing Sexual Orientation: A Consumer's Report\".", "Medical, scientific and legal views.", "Legal status by US state.", "Status by health organizations.", "List of health organizations critical of conversion therapy.", "APA taskforce study.", "Self-determination.", "Ethics guidelines.", "International medical views.", "Australia.", "Legal views." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The history of conversion therapy can be divided broadly into three periods: an early Freudian period; a period of mainstream approval of conversion therapy, when the mental health establishment became the \"primary superintendent\" of sexuality; and a post-Stonewall period where the mainstream medical profession disavowed conversion therapy. During the earliest parts of psychoanalytic history, analysts granted that homosexuality was non-pathological in certain cases, and the ethical question of whether it ought to be changed was discussed. By the 1920s analysts assumed that homosexuality was pathological and that attempts to treat it were appropriate, although psychoanalytic opinion about changing homosexuality was largely pessimistic. Those forms of homosexuality that were considered perversions were usually held to be incurable. Analysts' tolerant statements about homosexuality arose from recognition of the difficulty of achieving change. Beginning in the 1930s and continuing for roughly twenty years, major changes occurred in how analysts viewed homosexuality, which involved a shift in the rhetoric of analysts, some of whom felt free to ridicule and abuse their gay patients.", "", "Sigmund Freud was a physician and the founder of psychoanalysis. Freud stated that homosexuality could sometimes be removed through hypnotic suggestion, and was influenced by Eugen Steinach, a Viennese endocrinologist who transplanted testicles from straight men into gay men in attempts to change their sexual orientation, stating that his research had \"thrown a strong light on the organic determinants of homo-eroticism\". Freud cautioned that Steinach's operations would not necessarily make possible a therapy that could be generally applied, arguing that such transplant procedures would be effective in changing homosexuality in men only in cases in which it was strongly associated with physical characteristics typical of women, and that probably no similar therapy could be applied to lesbianism. Steinach's method was doomed to failure because the immune system rejects transplanted glands, and was eventually exposed as ineffective and often harmful. Freud's main discussion of female", "Sándor Ferenczi was an influential psychoanalyst. Ferenczi hoped to cure some kinds of homosexuality completely, but was content in practice with reducing what he considered gay men's hostility to women, along with the urgency of their homosexual desires, and with helping them", "Daughter of Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud became an influential psychoanalytic theorist in the UK. Anna Freud reported the successful treatment of homosexuals as neurotics in a series of unpublished lectures. In 1949 she published \"Some Clinical Remarks Concerning the Treatment of Cases of Male Homosexuality\" in the \"International Journal of Psychoanalysis\". In her view, it was important to pay attention to the interaction of passive and active homosexual fantasies and strivings, the original interplay of which prevented adequate identification with the father. The patient should be told that his choice of a passive partner allows him to enjoy a passive or receptive mode, while his choice of an active partner allows him to recapture his lost masculinity. She claimed that these interpretations would reactivate repressed castration anxieties, and childhood", "Melanie Klein was a pupil of Ferenczi. Her seminal book \"The Psycho-Analysis of Children\", based on lectures given to the British Psychoanalytical Society in the 1920s, was published in 1932. Klein claimed that entry into the Oedipus Complex is based on mastery of primitive anxiety from the oral and anal stages. If these tasks are not performed properly, developments in the Oedipal stage will be unstable. Complete analysis of patients with such unstable developments would require uncovering these early concerns. The analysis", "In March 2018, a majority of 435 against 109 representatives in the", "On May 7, 2020, German parliament Bundestag banned nationwide conversion therapy for minors until 18 years and forbids advertising of conversion therapy. It also forbids conversion therapy for adults, if they are decided by force, fraud or pressure.", "", "Psychoanalysis started to receive recognition in the United States in 1909, when Sigmund Freud delivered a series of lectures at Clark University in Massachusetts at the invitation of G. Stanley Hall. In 1913, Abraham Brill wrote \"The Conception of Homosexuality\", which he published in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" and read before the American Medical Association's annual meeting. Brill criticised physical treatments for homosexuality such as bladder washing, rectal massage, and castration, along with hypnosis, but referred approvingly to Freud and Sadger's use of psychoanalysis, calling its results \"very gratifying\". Since Brill understood curing homosexuality as restoring heterosexual potency, he claimed that he had cured his patients in several cases, even though many remained homosexual. Wilhelm Stekel, an Austrian, published his views on treatment of homosexuality, which he considered a disease, in the American \"Psychoanalytic", "United States Surgeon General David Satcher in 2001 issued a report stating that \"there is no valid scientific evidence that sexual orientation can be changed\". The same year, a study by Robert Spitzer concluded that some highly motivated individuals whose orientation is predominantly homosexual can become predominantly heterosexual with some form of reparative therapy. Spitzer based his findings on structured interviews with 200 self-selected individuals (143 males, 57 females). He told \"The Washington Post\" that the study \"shows some people can change from gay to straight, and we ought to acknowledge that\". Spitzer's study caused controversy and attracted media attention. Spitzer recanted his study in 2012, and apologized to the gay community for making unproven claims of the efficacy of reparative therapy, calling it his only professional regret. The American Psychoanalytic Association spoke against NARTH in 2004, stating \"that organization does not adhere to our policy of nondiscrimination and... their activities are demeaning to our members who are gay and lesbian\". The same year, a survey of members of the American Psychological Association rated reparative therapy as \"certainly discredited\", though", "", "Before the American Psychological Association's 1973 decision to remove homosexuality from the DSM, practitioners of conversion therapy employed aversive conditioning techniques, involving electric shock and nausea-inducing drugs during presentation of same-sex erotic images. Cessation of the aversive stimuli was typically accompanied by the presentation of opposite-sex erotic images, with the objective of strengthening heterosexual feelings. In \"Aversion therapy for sexual deviation: a critical review\", published in 1966, M. P. Feldman claimed a 58% cure rate, but Douglas Haldeman is skeptical that such stressful methods permit feelings of", "Some sources describe ex-gay ministries as a form of conversion therapy, while others state that ex-gay organizations and conversion therapy are distinct methods of attempting to convert gay people to heterosexuality. Ex-gay ministries have also been called transformational ministries.", "Haldeman writes that psychoanalytic treatment of homosexuality is exemplified by the work of Irving Bieber \"et al.\" in \"Homosexuality: A Psychoanalytic Study of Male Homosexuals\". They advocated long-term therapy aimed at resolving the unconscious childhood conflicts that they considered responsible for homosexuality. Haldeman notes that Bieber's methodology has been criticized because it relied upon a clinical sample, the description of the outcomes was based upon subjective therapist impression, and follow-up data were poorly presented. Bieber reported a 27% success rate from long-term therapy, but only 18% of the patients in whom", "The term \"reparative therapy\" has been used as a synonym for conversion therapy generally, but according to Jack Drescher it properly refers to a specific kind of therapy associated with the psychologists Elizabeth Moberly and Joseph Nicolosi. The term \"reparative\" refers to Nicolosi's postulate that same-sex attraction is a person's unconscious attempt to \"self-repair\" feelings of inferiority. Most mental", "Haldeman has described William Masters' and Virginia Johnson's work on sexual orientation change as a form of conversion therapy. In \"Homosexuality in Perspective\", published in 1979, Masters and Johnson viewed homosexuality as the result of blocks that prevented the learning that facilitated heterosexual responsiveness, and described a study of 54 gay men who were dissatisfied with their sexual orientation. The original study did not describe the treatment methodology used, but this was published five years later. John C. Gonsiorek criticized their study on several grounds in 1981, pointing out that while Masters and Johnson stated that their patients were screened for major psychopathology or severe neurosis, they did not explain how this screening was performed, or how the motivation of the patients to change was", "In the 1940s and 1950s, U.S. neurologist Walter Freeman popularized the ice-pick lobotomy as a treatment for homosexuality. He personally performed as many as 3,439 lobotomy surgeries in 23 states, of which 2,500 used his ice-pick procedure, despite the fact that he had no formal surgical training. Up to 40% of Freeman's patients were gay", "", "In May 2001, Robert Spitzer presented \"Can Some Gay Men and Lesbians Change Their Sexual Orientation? 200 Participants Reporting a Change from Homosexual to Heterosexual Orientation\", a study of attempts to change homosexual orientation through ex-gay ministries and conversion therapy, at the American Psychiatric Association's convention in New Orleans. The study was partly a response to the APA's 2000 statement cautioning against clinical attempts at changing homosexuality, and was aimed at determining whether such attempts were ever successful rather than how likely it was that", "Spitzer reported that after intervention, 66% of the men and 44% of the women had achieved \"Good Heterosexual Functioning\", which he defined as requiring five criteria (being in a loving heterosexual relationship during the last year, overall satisfaction in emotional relationship with a partner, having heterosexual sex with the partner at least a few times a month, achieving physical satisfaction through heterosexual sex, and not thinking about having homosexual sex more than 15% of the time while having heterosexual sex). He found that the most common reasons for seeking change were lack of emotional satisfaction from gay life, conflict between same-sex feelings and behavior and religious beliefs, and desire to marry or remain married. This paper was widely reported in the international media and taken up by politicians in the United States, Germany, and Finland, and by conversion therapists. In 2003, Spitzer published the paper in the \"Archives of Sexual Behavior\". Spitzer's study has been criticized on numerous ethical and methodological grounds, and", "Ariel Shidlo and Michael Schroeder found in \"Changing Sexual Orientation: A Consumer's Report\", a peer-reviewed study of 202 respondents published in 2002, that 88% of participants failed to achieve a sustained change in their sexual behavior and 3% reported changing their orientation to heterosexual. The remainder reported either losing all sexual drive or attempting to remain celibate, with no change", "", "Although no national ban exists, several US states and individual", "Many health organizations around the world have denounced and criticized sexual orientation change efforts. National health organizations in the United States have announced that there has been no scientific demonstration of conversion therapy's efficacy in the last forty years. They find that conversion therapy is ineffective, risky and can be harmful. Anecdotal claims of cures are counterbalanced by assertions of harm, and the American Psychiatric Association, for example, cautions ethical practitioners under the Hippocratic oath to do no harm and to refrain from attempts at conversion therapy. Mainstream medical bodies state that conversion therapy can be harmful because it may exploit guilt and anxiety, thereby damaging self-esteem and leading to depression and even suicide. There is also concern in the mental health community that the advancement of conversion therapy can cause social harm by disseminating inaccurate views about sexual orientation and the ability of gay and bisexual people to lead happy, healthy lives.", "Major health organizations", "The American Psychological Association undertook a study of the peer-reviewed literature in the area of sexual orientation change efforts (SOCE) and found myriad issues with the procedures used in conducting the research. The taskforce did find that some participants experienced a lessening of same sex attraction and arousal, but that these instances were \"rare\" and \"uncommon\". The taskforce concluded that, \"given the limited amount of methodically sound research, claims that recent SOCE is effective are not supported\". Two issues with SOCE claims are that conversion therapists falsely assume that homosexuality is a mental disorder and that their research focuses almost exclusively on gay men and rarely includes lesbians.", "The American Psychological Association's code of conduct states that \"Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination\", but also that \"Psychologists are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making.\" The American Counseling Association says that \"it is of primary importance to respect a client's autonomy to request a referral for a service not offered by a counselor\". They said that no one should be forced to attempt to change their sexual orientation against their will, including children being forced by their parents. Supporters of SOCE focus on patient self-determination when discussing whether therapy should be available. Mark Yarhouse, of Pat Robertson's Regent University, wrote that \"psychologists have an ethical responsibility to allow individuals to pursue treatment aimed at curbing experiences of same-sex attraction or modifying same-sex behaviors, not only because it affirms the client's rights to dignity, autonomy, and agency, as persons presumed capable of freely choosing among treatment modalities and behavior, but also because it demonstrates regard for diversity\". Yarhouse and Throckmorton, of the private Christian school Grove", "In 1998, the American Psychiatric Association issued a statement opposing any treatment which is based upon the assumption that homosexuality is a mental disorder or that a person should change their orientation, but did not have a formal position on other treatments that attempt to change a person's sexual orientation. In 2000, they augmented that statement by saying that as a general principle, a therapist should not determine the goal of treatment, but recommends that ethical practitioners refrain from attempts to change clients' sexual orientation until more research is available. The American Counseling Association has stated that they do not condone any training to educate and prepare a counselor to practice conversion therapy. Counselors who do offer training in conversion therapy must inform students that the techniques are unproven. They suggest counselors do not refer clients to a conversion therapist or to proceed cautiously once they know the counselor fully informs clients of the unproven nature of the treatment and the potential risks. However, \"it is of primary importance to respect a client's autonomy to request a referral for a service not offered by a counselor\". A counselor performing conversion therapy must provide complete information about the treatment, offer referrals to gay-affirmative counselors, discuss the right of clients, understand the client's request within a cultural context, and only practice within their level of expertise. NARTH stated in 2012 that refusing to offer therapy aimed at change to a client who requests it, and telling them that their only option is to claim a gay", "The World Health Organization's ICD-10, which along with the DSM-IV is widely used internationally, states that \"sexual orientation by itself is not to be regarded as a disorder\". It lists ego-dystonic sexual orientation as a disorder instead, which it defines as occurring where \"the gender identity or sexual preference (heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or prepubertal) is not in doubt, but the individual wishes it were different because of associated psychological and behavioural disorders, and may seek treatment in order to change it\". In 2012, the Pan American Health Organization (the North and South American branch of the World Health Organization) released a statement cautioning against services that purport to \"cure\" people with non-heterosexual sexual orientations as they lack medical justification and represent a serious threat to the health and well-being of affected people, and noted that the global scientific and professional consensus is that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation of human sexuality and cannot be regarded as a pathological condition. The Pan American Health Organization further called on governments, academic institutions, professional associations and the media to expose these practices and to promote respect for diversity. The World Health Organization affiliate further noted that gay minors have sometimes been forced to attend these \"therapies\" involuntarily, being deprived of their liberty and sometimes kept in isolation for several months, and that these findings were reported by several United Nations bodies. Additionally, the Pan American Health Organization recommended that such practices be denounced and subject to sanctions and penalties under national legislation, as they constitute a violation of the ethical principles of health care and violate human rights that are protected by international and regional agreements. The development of theoretical models of sexual orientation in countries outside the United States that have established mental health professions often follows the history within the U.S. (although often at a slower pace), shifting from pathological to non-pathological conceptions of homosexuality.", "Major medical and psychological bodies in Australia uniformly prohibit conversion therapy practices, with published statements having come from peak bodies representing psychologists, psychiatrists, and medical practitioners. In a statement issued jointly with the College of Psychiatrists, Royal Australasian College of Physicians President Catherine Yelland summarised the view of the Australian medical community: \"[g]ay conversion therapy is unethical, harmful and not supported by medical evidence.\" The approaches taken by peak medical bodies is exemplified by the 2015 Australian Psychological Society Position Statement, which declares (emphasis in original) that the: The Position Statement supports this position by reference to the Society's Code of Ethics, which were adopted in 2007 and mandated as the Code of Ethics for Australian psychologists in 2010 by the Psychology Board of Australia. Under the Code, psychologists are required to \"avoid discriminating unfairly against people on the basis of age, religion, sexuality, ethnicity, gender, disability, or any other basis proscribed by law\" and mandates that they The Position Statement explicitly states that this ethical \"requirement not to discriminate and to respect clients' moral rights does not equate to a justification to treat homosexuality or bisexuality as a disorder requiring treatment,\" relying on the Code of Ethics' section on propriety: \"psychologists only provide psychological services within the boundaries of their professional competence [which] includes but is not restricted to... basing their service on established knowledge of the discipline and profession of psychology\". Regarding the knowledge base relating to conversion therapy, the statement is unequivocal (emphasis in original): The Society's position concludes by noting that it \"is, of course, appropriate for psychologists to provide clinical services to clients who experience distress in regards to their sexual orientation... [but this practice] should seek to understand \"the reasons for\" distress and how it may be alleviated. Evidence-based strategies to alleviate distress do not include attempts at changing sexual orientation, but could include challenging negative stereotypes, seeking social support, and self-acceptance, among others.\" The Government of Victoria announced in 2016 that it would be legislating to ban all LGBTQI conversion therapy. The new law began operating in February 2017 and allows the Health Complaints Commissioner to act against any health professional engaged in practices that are \"found to be making false claims and to be acting in a manner that puts people's physical,", "On June 25, 2015, a New Jersey jury found the Jewish conversion therapy organization JONAH guilty of consumer fraud in the case Ferguson v JONAH for promising to be able to change its clients' sexual urges and determined its commercial practices to be unconscionable. In a 1997 U.S. case, the Ninth Circuit addressed conversion therapy in the context of an asylum application. A Russian citizen \"had been apprehended by the Russian militia, registered at a clinic as a'suspected lesbian', and forced to undergo treatment for lesbianism, such as'sedative drugs'" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Plot.", "Main characters.", "Development, publication and reception.", "Development.", "Publication and reception in the United Kingdom.", "U.S. publication and reception.", "Translations.", "Style and themes.", "Legacy.", "Sequels.", "Illustrated version.", "Podcast version.", "Film version.", "Video games.", "Uses in education and business." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Harry Potter has been living an ordinary life, constantly abused by his surly and cold aunt and uncle, Vernon and Petunia Dursley and bullied by their spoiled son Dudley since the death of his parents ten years prior. His life changes on the day of his eleventh birthday when he receives a letter of acceptance into Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry, delivered by a half-giant named Rubeus Hagrid after previous letters had been destroyed by Vernon and Petunia. Hagrid details Harry's past as the son of James and Lily Potter, who were a wizard and witch respectively, and how they were murdered by the most evil and powerful dark wizard of all time, Lord Voldemort, which resulted in the one-year-old Harry being sent to live with his aunt and uncle. Voldemort was not only unable to kill Harry, but his powers were also destroyed in the attempt, forcing him into exile and sparking Harry's immense fame among the magical community. Hagrid introduces Harry to the wizarding world by bringing him to Diagon Alley, a hidden street in London, where Harry uncovers a fortune left to him by his parents at Gringotts Wizarding Bank. He also receives a pet owl, Hedwig, various school supplies, and a wand (which he learns shares a core from the same source as Voldemort's wand). There, he is surprised to discover how famous he truly is among witches and wizards as \"The Boy Who Lived\". A month later, Harry leaves the Dursleys' home to catch the Hogwarts Express from King's Cross railway station's secret Hogwarts platform, Platform. On the train, he quickly befriends fellow first-year Ronald Weasley and the two boys meet Hermione Granger, whose snobbiness and affinity for spells initially causes the two boys to dislike her. There, Harry also makes an enemy of yet another first-year, Draco Malfoy, who shows prejudice against Ron for his family's financial difficulties. Arriving at Hogwarts, the first-years are assigned by the magical Sorting Hat to Houses that best suit their personalities, the four Houses being Gryffindor, Slytherin, Hufflepuff and Ravenclaw. Harry hears from Ron about Slytherin's dark reputation which is known to house potential dark witches and wizards, and thus objects to being sorted into Slytherin despite the Hat claiming that Harry has potential to develop under that House. He winds up in Gryffindor with Ron and Hermione, while Draco is sorted into Slytherin like his family before him. As classes begin at Hogwarts, Harry discovers his innate talent for flying on broomsticks despite no prior experience, and is recruited into his House's team for Quidditch (a competitive wizards' sport sharing similarities to football, but played on flying broomsticks) as a Seeker. He also comes to dislike the school's Potions master, Severus Snape, who is also the Head of Slytherin House who acts with bias in favour of members of his House while perpetually looking for opportunities to fail Harry and his friends. Malfoy tricks Harry and Ron into a duel in the trophy room to get them out of their rooms at night and secretly tells Filch, the school's caretaker, where they will be. Hermione unintentionally is forced to come along after her failed attempts to stop them, and they find Gryffindor student Neville Longbottom asleep outside the common area because he had forgotten the password to get in. After realizing the duel was a set-up to get them in trouble, they run away. They then discover a huge three-headed dog standing guard over a trapdoor in a forbidden corridor. The school's Halloween celebrations are interrupted by the entrance of a troll into the school, which enters the girls' bathroom where Hermione was. However, she is saved by Harry and Ron and, as a result, Hermione is grateful and the three become best friends. Coupled with Snape's recent leg injury as well as behaviour, the recent events prompt Harry, Hermione and Ron to suspect him to be looking for a way to enter the trapdoor. Hermione forbids the boys from investigating for fear of expulsion, and instead makes Harry direct his attention to his first ever Quidditch game, where his broomstick begins to lose control and threatens to throw him off. This leads Hermione to suspect that Snape had jinxed Harry's broom, due to his strange behaviour during the match. After the excitement of winning the match has died down, Christmas arrives and Harry receives an invisibility cloak from an anonymous source claiming that the cloak belonged to Harry's father. Using the cloak to explore the school at night to investigate what is under the trapdoor, he discovers the Mirror of Erised, in which the viewer sees his or her deepest desires come true. Within the Mirror, Harry sees himself standing with both of his parents. A visit to Hagrid's hut at the foot of the school leads the trio to find a newspaper report stating there had been an attempted robbery of a Gringotts vault—the same vault that Hagrid and Harry had visited when the latter was getting his school supplies. A further indiscretion from Hagrid allows them to work out that the object kept under that trapdoor is a Philosopher's Stone, which grants its user immortality as well as the ability to turn any metal into pure gold. Harry is also informed by a centaur named Firenze in the forest that a plot to steal the Stone is being orchestrated by none other than Voldemort himself, who schemes to use it to be restored back to his body and return to power. When the school's headmaster Albus Dumbledore is lured from Hogwarts under false pretences, Harry, Hermione and Ron fear that the theft is imminent and descend through the trapdoor themselves. They encounter a series of obstacles, each of which requires unique skills possessed by one of the three, one of which requires Ron to sacrifice himself in a life-sized game of wizard's chess. In the final room, Harry, now alone, finds Quirinus Quirrell, the Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, who reveals he had been the one working behind the scenes to kill Harry by first jinxing his broom and then letting a troll into the school, while Snape had been trying to protect Harry instead. Quirrell is helping Voldemort, whose face has sprouted on the back of Quirrell's head but is constantly concealed by his oversized turban, to attain the Philosopher's Stone so as to restore his body. Quirrell uses Harry to get past the final obstacle, the Mirror of Erised, by forcing him to stand before the Mirror. It recognises Harry's lack of greed for the Stone and surreptitiously deposits it into his pocket. As Quirrell attempts to seize the stone and kill Harry, his flesh burns on contact with the boy's skin and breaks into blisters. Harry's scar suddenly burns with pain and he passes out. Three days later, he awakens in the school's infirmary, where Dumbledore explains his survival against Voldemort is due to his mother's sacrificing her life in order for him to live. This left a powerful protective charm on Harry that lives in his blood, which caused Quirrell's hands to burn on contact with Harry due to him being possessed by hatred and greed. He also reveals himself as the one who sent Harry his father's invisibility cloak, while Quirrell has been left to die by Voldemort, who still lives, and the Stone has now been destroyed. The eventful school year ends at the final feast, during which Gryffindor wins the House Cup. Harry returns to Privet Drive for the summer, neglecting to tell the Dursleys that the use of spells is forbidden by under-aged wizards and witches and thus anticipating some fun and peace over the holidays.", "Other members of staff include the dumpy Herbology teacher and Head of Hufflepuff House Professor Sprout, Professor Flitwick, the tiny and excitable Charms teacher, and Head of Ravenclaw House, the soporific History of Magic teacher, Professor Binns, a ghost who does not seem to have noticed his own death; and Madam Hooch, the Quidditch coach, who is strict, but a considerate and methodical teacher. The poltergeist Peeves wanders around the castle causing trouble wherever he can. In the book, Rowling introduces an eclectic cast of characters. The first character to be introduced is Vernon Dursley, Harry's uncle. Most of the actions centre on the eponymous hero Harry Potter, an orphan who escapes his miserable childhood with the Dursley family. Rowling imagined him as a \"scrawny, black-haired, bespectacled boy who didn't know he was a wizard\", and says she transferred part of her pain about losing her mother to him. During the book, Harry makes two close friends, Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger. Ron is described by Rowling as the ultimate best friend, \"always there when you need him\". Rowling has described Hermione as a \"very logical, upright and good\" character with \"a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure beneath her swottiness\". Rowling also imagined a supporting cast of adults. The headmaster of Hogwarts is the powerful, but kind wizard Albus Dumbledore, who becomes Harry's confidant. Rowling described him as \"epitome of goodness\". His right hand is severe Minerva McGonagall, who according to the author \"under that gruff exterior\" is \"a bit of an old softy\", the friendly half-giant Rubeus Hagrid, who saved Harry from the Dursley family, and the sinister Severus Snape. Professor Quirrell is also featured in the novel. The main antagonists are Draco Malfoy, an elitist, bullying classmate and Lord Voldemort, the most powerful evil wizard who becomes disembodied when he tries to kill baby Harry. According to a 1999 interview with Rowling, the character of Voldemort was created as a literary foil for Harry, and his backstory was intentionally not fleshed-out at first:", "", "The book, which was Rowling's debut novel, was written between approximately June 1990 and some time in 1995. In 1990 Jo Rowling, as she preferred to be known, wanted to move with her boyfriend to a flat in Manchester and in her words, \"One weekend after flat hunting, I took the train back to London on my own and the idea for Harry Potter fell into my head... A scrawny, little, black-haired, bespectacled boy became more and more of a wizard to me... I began to write \"Philosopher's Stone\" that very evening. Although, the first couple of pages look nothing like the finished product.\" Then Rowling's mother died and, to cope with her pain, Rowling transferred her own anguish to the orphan Harry. Rowling spent six years working on \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", and after it was accepted by Bloomsbury, she obtained a grant of £8,000 from the Scottish Arts Council, which enabled her to plan the sequels. She sent the book to an agent and a publisher, and then the second agent she approached spent a year trying to sell the book to publishers, most of whom thought it was too long at about 90,000 words. Barry Cunningham, who was building a portfolio of distinctive fantasies by new authors for Bloomsbury Children's Books, recommended accepting the book, and the eight-year-old daughter of Bloomsbury's chief executive said it was \"so much better than anything else\".", "Bloomsbury accepted the book, paying Rowling a £2,500 advance, and Cunningham sent proof copies to carefully chosen authors, critics and booksellers in order to obtain comments that could be quoted when the book was launched. He was less concerned about the book's length than about its author's name, since the title sounded like a boys' book to him, and he believed boys preferred books by male authors. Rowling therefore adopted the \"nom de plume\" J.K. Rowling just before publication. In June 1997, Bloomsbury published \"Philosopher's Stone\" with an initial print-run of 500 copies in hardback, three hundred of which were distributed to libraries. Her original name, \"Joanne Rowling\", can be found in small print on the copyright page of this first British edition. (The 1998 first American edition would remove reference to \"Joanne\" completely.) The short initial print run was standard for first novels, and Cunningham hoped booksellers would read the book and recommend it to customers. Examples from this initial print run have sold for as much as US$33,460 in a 2007 Heritage Auction. Lindsey Fraser, who had previously supplied one of the blurb comments, wrote what is thought to be the first published review, in \"The Scotsman\" on 28 June 1997. She described \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" as \"a hugely entertaining thriller\" and Rowling as \"a first-rate writer for children\". Another early review, in \"The Herald\", said, \"I have yet to find a child who can put it down.\" Newspapers outside Scotland started to notice the book, with glowing reviews in \"The Guardian\", \"The Sunday Times\" and \"The Mail on Sunday\", and in September 1997 \"Books for Keeps\", a magazine that specialised in children's books, gave the novel four stars out of five. \"The Mail on Sunday\" rated it as \"the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl\"; a view echoed by the \"Sunday Times\" (\"comparisons to Dahl are, this time, justified\"), while \"The Guardian\" called it \"a richly textured novel given lift-off by an inventive wit\" and \"The Scotsman\" said it had \"all the makings of a classic\". In 1997 the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9- to 11-year-olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize. The \"Smarties\" award, which is voted for by children, made the book well known within six months of publication, while most children's books have to wait for years. The following year, \"Philosopher's Stone\" won almost all the other major British awards that were decided by children. It was also shortlisted for children's books awards adjudicated by adults, but did not win. Sandra Beckett commented that books which were popular with children were regarded as undemanding and as not of the highest literary standards – for example the literary establishment disdained the works of Dahl, an overwhelming favourite of children before the appearance of Rowling's books. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 22 on the BBC's survey The Big Read. \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" won two publishing industry awards given for sales rather than literary merit, the British Book Awards Children's Book of the Year and the Booksellers' Association / \"Bookseller\" Author of the Year. By March 1999 UK editions had sold just over 300,000 copies, and the story was still the UK's best-selling title in December 2001. A Braille edition was published in May 1998 by the Scottish Braille Press. Platform, from which the Hogwarts Express left London, was commemorated in the real-life King's Cross railway station with a sign and a trolley apparently passing through the wall.", "Scholastic Corporation bought the U.S. rights at the Bologna Book Fair in April 1997 for US$105,000, an unusually high sum for a children's book. Scholastic's Arthur Levine thought that \"philosopher\" sounded too archaic for readers and after some discussion (including the proposed title \"Harry Potter and the School of Magic\"), the American edition was published in September 1998 under the title Rowling suggested, \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\". Rowling later said that she regretted this change and would have fought it if she had been in a stronger position at the time. Philip Nel has pointed out that the change lost the connection with alchemy, and the meaning of some other terms changed in translation, for example from \"crumpet\" to \"muffin\". While Rowling accepted the change from both the British English \"mum\" and Seamus Finnigan's Irish variant \"mam\" to \"mom\" in \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\", she vetoed this change in the later books, which was then reversed in later editions of \"Philosopher's Stone\". However, Nel considered that Scholastic's translations were considerably more sensitive than most of those imposed on British English books of the time, and that some other changes could be regarded as useful copyedits. Since the British editions of early titles in the series were published months prior to the American versions, some American readers became familiar with the British English versions owing to having bought them from online retailers. At first the most prestigious reviewers ignored the book, leaving it to book trade and library publications such as \"Kirkus Reviews\" and \"Booklist\", which examined it only by the entertainment-oriented criteria of children's fiction. However, more penetrating specialist reviews (such as one by \"Cooperative Children's Book Center Choices\", which pointed out the complexity, depth and consistency of the world that Rowling had built) attracted the attention of reviewers in major newspapers. Although \"The Boston Globe\" and Michael Winerip in \"The New York Times\" complained that the final chapters were the weakest part of the book, they and most other American reviewers gave glowing praise. A year later, the US edition was selected as an American Library Association Notable Book, a \"Publishers Weekly\" Best Book of 1998, and a New York Public Library 1998 Best Book of the Year, and won \"Parenting Magazine\"'s Book of the Year Award for 1998, the School Library Journal Best Book of the Year, and the American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults. In August 1999, \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" topped the \"New York Times\" list of best-selling fiction, and stayed near the top of the list for much of 1999 and 2000, until the \"New York Times\" split its list into children's and adult sections under pressure from other publishers who were eager to see their books given higher placings. \"Publishers Weekly\"'s report in December 2001 on cumulative sales of children's fiction placed \"Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone\" 19th among hardbacks (over 5 million copies) and 7th among paperbacks (over 6.6 million copies). In May 2008, Scholastic announced the creation of a 10th Anniversary Edition of the book that was released on 1 October 2008 to mark the tenth anniversary of the original American release. For the fifteenth anniversary of the books, Scholastic re-released \"Sorcerer's Stone\", along with the other six novels in the series, with new cover art by Kazu Kibuishi in 2013.", "By mid-2008, official translations of the book had been published in 67 languages. By November 2017, the book had been translated into 80 languages, the 80th being Lowland Scots. It was translated by Matthew Fitt, who said that he was honoured to be the Scots translator, and that he \"wanted to do it for a long time\". The translation is considered significant by \"Heart\", who described it as \"probably the most incredible version so far\", \"The Guardian\", who believed that it \"may just be the best of all\", and \"Stylist\". Bloomsbury have published translations in Latin and in Ancient Greek, with the latter being described as \"one of the most important pieces of Ancient Greek prose written in many centuries\".", "Philip Nel highlighted the influence of Jane Austen, whom Rowling has greatly admired since the age of twelve. Both novelists greatly encourage re-reading, because details that look insignificant foreshadow important events or characters much later in the story-line – for example Sirius Black is briefly mentioned near the beginning of \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", and then becomes a major character in the third to fifth books. Like Austen's heroines, Harry often has to re-examine his ideas near the ends of books. Some social behaviour in the \"Harry Potter\" books is remininiscent of Austen, for example the excited communal reading of letters. Both authors satirise social behaviour and give characters names that express their personalities. However in Nel's opinion Rowling's humour is more based on caricature and the names she invents are more like those found in Charles Dickens's stories, and Amanda Cockrell noted that many of these express their owners' traits through allusions that run from ancient Roman mythology to eighteenth-century German literature. Rowling, like the Narnia series' author C.S. Lewis, thinks there is no rigid distinction between stories for children and for adults. Nel also noted that, like many good writers for children, Rowling combines literary genresfantasy, young adult fiction, boarding school stories, \"Bildungsroman\" and many others. Some reviewers compared \"Philosopher's Stone\" to the stories of Roald Dahl, who died in 1990. Many writers since the 1970s had been hailed as his successor, but none had attained anything near his popularity with children and, in a poll conducted shortly after the launch of \"Philosopher's Stone\", seven of the ten most popular children's books were by Dahl, including the one in top place. The only other really popular children's author of the late 1990s was an American, R. L. Stine. Some of the story elements in \"Philosopher's Stone\" resembled parts of Dahl's stories. For example, the hero of \"James and the Giant Peach\" lost his parents and had to live with a pair of unpleasant auntsone fat and one thin rather like Mr. and Mrs. Dursley, who treated Harry as a servant. However Harry Potter was a distinctive creation, able to take on the responsibilities of an adult while remaining a child inside. Librarian Nancy Knapp and marketing professor Stephen Brown noted the liveliness and detail of descriptions, especially of shop scenes such as Diagon Alley. Tad Brennan commented that Rowling's writing resembles that of Homer: \"rapid, plain, and direct in expression.\" Stephen King admired \"the sort of playful details of which only British fantasists seem capable\" and concluded that they worked because Rowling enjoys a quick giggle and then moves briskly forward. Nicholas Tucker described the early \"Harry Potter\" books as looking back to Victorian and Edwardian children's stories: Hogwarts was an old-style boarding school in which the teachers addressed pupils formally by their surnames and were most concerned with the reputations of the houses with which they were associated; characters' personalities were plainly shown by their appearances, starting with the Dursleys; evil or malicious characters were to be crushed rather than reformed, including Argus Filch's cat Mrs Norris; and the hero, a mistreated orphan who found his true place in life, was charismatic and good at sports, but considerate and protective towards the weak. Several other commentators have stated that the books present a highly stratified society including many social stereotypes. However Karin Westerman drew parallels with 1990s Britain: a class system that was breaking down but defended by those whose power and status it upheld; the multi-ethnic composition of Hogwarts' students; the racial tensions between the various intelligent species; and school bullying. Susan Hall wrote that there is no rule of law in the books, as the actions of Ministry of Magic officials are unconstrained by laws, accountability or any kind of legal challenge. This provides an opportunity for Voldemort to offer his own horrific version of order. As a side-effect Harry and Hermione, who were brought up in the highly regulated Muggle world, find solutions by thinking in ways unfamiliar to wizards. For example, Hermione notes that one obstacle to finding the Philosopher's Stone is a test of logic rather than magical power, and that most wizards have no chance of solving it. Nel suggested that the unflattering characterisation of the extremely conventional, status-conscious, materialistic Dursleys was Rowling's reaction to the family policies of the British government in the early 1990s, which treated the married heterosexual couple as the \"preferred norm\", while the author was a single mother. Harry's relationships with adult and juvenile wizards are based on affection and loyalty. This is reflected in his happiness whenever he is a temporary member of the Weasley family throughout the series, and in his treatment of first Rubeus Hagrid and later Remus Lupin and Sirius Black as father-figures.", "", "The second book, \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", was originally published in the UK on July 2, 1998 and later, in the US on June 2, 1999. \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\" was then published a year later in the UK on July 8, 1999 and in the US on September 8, 1999. \"Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire\" was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic. \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version. It was published worldwide in English on June 21, 2003. \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\" was published on July 16, 2005 and sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release. The seventh and final novel, \"Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows\", was published on July 21, 2007. The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release: 2.7 million copies in the UK and 8.3 million in the US.", "An illustrated version of \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" was released on October 6, 2015, with illustrations by Jim Kay. The book carries over 100 illustrations and will be followed by illustrated versions of all seven books from the series by the same artist.", "In May 2020, a reading podcast by Spotify was created and entitled \"Harry Potter at Home: Readings\". Each chapter is narrated by a celebrity guest from the \"Harry Potter\" and \"Wizarding World\" franchises.", "In 1999, Rowling sold the film rights of the first four \"Harry Potter\" books to Warner Bros. for a reported £1 million ($1.65 million in 1999). Rowling demanded that the principal cast be kept strictly British but allowed for the casting of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore and of foreign actors as characters of the same nationalities in later books. After extensive casting, filming began in September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London, with production ending in July 2001. \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" was released in London on 14 November 2001. Reviewers' comments were positive, as reflected by an 80% Fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes and by a score of 64% at Metacritic, representing \"generally favourable reviews\".", "Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2001 and 2003 by Electronic Arts, that were loosely based on the film and book:", "Writers on education and business subjects have used the book as an. Writing about clinical teaching in medical schools, Jennifer Conn contrasted Snape's technical expertise with his intimidating behaviour towards students. Quidditch coach Madam Hooch on the other hand, illustrated useful techniques in the teaching of physical skills, including breaking down complex actions into sequences of simple ones and helping students to avoid common errors. Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first-year sociology class: \"sociological concepts including culture, society, and socialisation; stratification and social inequality; social institutions; and social theory\". Stephen Brown noted that the early \"Harry Potter\" books, especially \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", were a runaway success despite inadequate and poorly organised marketing. Brown advised marketing executives to be less preoccupied with rigorous statistical analyses and the \"analysis, planning, implementation, and control\" model of management. Instead he recommended that they should treat the stories as \"a marketing masterclass\", full of enticing products and brand names. For example, a real-world analogue of Bertie Bott's Every Flavour Beans was introduced under licence in 2000 by toymaker Hasbro." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Publication and reception.", "Development.", "Publication.", "Critical response.", "Awards and honours.", "Main themes.", "Connection to \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\".", "Adaptations.", "Film.", "Video games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "On Harry Potter's twelfth birthday, the Dursley family—Harry's uncle Vernon, aunt Petunia, and cousin Dudley—hold a dinner party for a potential client of Vernon's drill-manufacturing company. Harry is not invited but is content to spend the evening quietly in his bedroom, although he is confused why his school friends have not sent cards or presents. However, while in his room, a house-elf named Dobby shows up at his house and warns him not to return to Hogwarts and admits to intercepting Harry's post from his friends. Having failed to persuade Harry to voluntarily give up his place at Hogwarts, Dobby then attempts to get him expelled by using magic to smash Aunt Petunia's dessert on the kitchen floor and framing Harry, who is not allowed to use magic outside school. Uncle Vernon's business deal falls through, but Harry is given a second chance from the Ministry of Magic and allowed to return at the start of the school year. In the meantime, Uncle Vernon punishes Harry, fitting locks to his bedroom door and bars to the windows. However, Harry’s best friend Ron Weasley arrives with his twin brothers Fred and George in their father Arthur’s enchanted Ford Anglia. They rescue Harry, who stays at the Weasley's family home, the Burrow, for the remainder of his holidays. Harry and the other Weasleys—mother Molly, third-eldest son Percy, and daughter Ginny (who has a crush on Harry)—travel to Diagon Alley. They are then reunited with Hermione Granger and introduced to Lucius Malfoy, father of Harry’s school nemesis Draco, and Gilderoy Lockhart, a conceited autobiographer who has been appointed Defence Against the Dark Arts professor after the death of Professor Quirrell. When Harry and Ron approach Platform 9⁄. in King's Cross station, it refuses to allow them to pass. They decide to fly Arthur’s car to Hogwarts after missing the train when they cannot get through the barrier. Harry and Ron crash into a Whomping Willow on the grounds, and Ron's wand is damaged. In punishment for the crash, Ron cleans the school trophies, and Harry helps Professor Lockhart, whose classes are chaotic, with addressing his fan mail. Harry learns of some wizards' prejudice about blood status in terms of “pure” blood (only wizarding heritage) and those with Muggle (non-magical) parentage. He is alone in hearing an unnerving voice seemingly coming from the walls of the school itself. During a deathday party for Gryffindor House’s ghost Nearly Headless Nick, Harry, Ron, and Hermione run into the school caretaker Argus Filch’s petrified cat, Mrs. Norris, along with a warning scrawled on the wall: “The Chamber of Secrets has been opened. Enemies of the heir, beware.” Rumours fly around the school regarding the Chamber of Secrets' history. Harry and his friends discover from Cuthbert Binns, the ghostly professor of History of Magic, that it allegedly houses a terrible monster and was created by one of the school’s founders, Salazar Slytherin, after a fundamental disagreement with the other founders (Godric Gryffindor, Helga Hufflepuff, and Rowena Ravenclaw). Slytherin believed students of non-magical parentage should be refused entry to the school. So, he built the chamber to finish his mission. Only his heir can open it and control the monster inside. During a Quidditch game, a Bludger, one of the balls involved in Quidditch, chases after Harry instead of zigzagging toward any player it can hit. The rogue Bludger breaks Harry's arm. In an attempt to mend it, Lockhart accidentally removes all the bones from Harry's broken arm, which requires an overnight stay in the hospital wing to heal. Dobby returns in the middle of the night to visit Harry in the hospital wing, revealing that it was he who charmed the Bludger and sealed the gateway at King’s Cross and that the Chamber of Secrets was opened before. Another attack occurs, this time on a first-year Gryffindor named Colin Creevey, who idolises Harry, and the school goes into a state of panic. A duelling class is then set up for the students (led by Lockhart and Potions master/Head of Slytherin House Severus Snape), during which it is revealed that Harry is a 'Parselmouth', meaning he has the rare ability to speak to snakes. This sparks rumours yet again because students around the school suspect Harry is the Heir of Slytherin (Salazar Slytherin was also a Parselmouth). Circumstantial evidence to support this theory arrives in the form of another attack, this time on Hufflepuff second-year Justin Finch-Fletchley and Nearly Headless Nick. Harry, Ron, and Hermione begin to suspect Draco Malfoy is behind the attacks, given his family history of remaining well within Slytherin ranks and open hostility toward Muggle-born students. After talking about their speculations, Hermione concocts Polyjuice Potion, which allows Harry and Ron to look like Draco’s boorish lackeys, Vincent Crabbe and Gregory Goyle, for an hour. Harry and Ron use this hour to interrogate Draco. This comes to nothing because Draco’s father only told his son the general facts of the previous opening of the Chamber and that it occurred fifty years previously. Meanwhile, \"Moaning\" Myrtle Warren, an existentially mopey ghost that haunts a girls' bathroom at Hogwarts, unwittingly provides a new clue in the form of a diary deposited in her stall. The trio discover the diary belonged to Tom Riddle, a student who knows all too well about the Chamber, having been witness to a fellow student’s death while the Chamber was opened fifty years ago. The culprit, Riddle reveals to Harry, was none other than Rubeus Hagrid, now gamekeeper for Hogwarts. When Hermione is attacked next, alongside a Ravenclaw prefect, the school is put on lockdown, and headmaster Albus Dumbledore and Hagrid are forced to leave. Fortunately for Harry and Ron, Hagrid left a set of instructions: follow the spiders currently fleeing into the Forbidden Forest. They do this, only to find the monster that was blamed for the attacks fifty years before, a massive Acromantula named Aragog, who explains to them that the real monster is one spiders fear above all others. When Harry and Ron try to leave, Aragog says they cannot leave because his sons and daughters have not eaten for a long time and plan to eat the boys. Before the spiders can grab them, Arthur's Ford Anglia arrives, and the boys use the car to escape. Hermione provides the last set of clues that inform them of the monster’s identity: a basilisk, (hence Harry’s ability to understand it) that kills with a stare (although no one is dead because of various devices through which they indirectly saw the monster) and that spiders (such as Aragog and his offspring) fear above all others. Harry figures out from hints Aragog dropped that the student who died during the previous attacks was Myrtle, and when Ginny is taken by the monster into the Chamber, Harry and Ron discover that the entrance is in the bathroom they have been using to make Polyjuice Potion. Harry, Ron, and Lockhart enter the Chamber, but the dunderheaded professor (who reveals that he is a fraud) causes a rockfall while attempting to erase the boys’ memories with Ron’s damaged wand, permanently losing his memory in the process. Separated from Ron, Harry enters the Chamber of Secrets alone to find an unconscious Ginny and Tom Riddle, who claims to be a memory preserved in his diary for the last fifty years. Riddle shows Harry that his full name, Tom Marvolo Riddle, can be made into the anagram \"I am Lord Voldemort.\" Tom Riddle is in fact Voldemort's true name, and it was he who opened the Chamber fifty years before and framed Hagrid. Riddle is the true Heir of Slytherin. By possessing Ginny through his diary, Riddle has been continuing what he started fifty years before. Harry's loyalty to Dumbledore in the face of Riddle summons Dumbledore's phoenix Fawkes, who arrives with the Sorting Hat. Fawkes blinds the basilisk, allowing Harry to remove the Sword of Godric Gryffindor from the Sorting Hat and slay the creature. Though fatally poisoned by the basilisk, Fawkes's healing tears save Harry, who uses a basilisk fang to stab Riddle's diary. Both the diary and Riddle are destroyed, and Ginny is restored. Harry, Ron, Ginny, and Lockhart return to the main castle and reunite with McGonagall, Dumbledore, and Mr. and Mrs. Weasley. Ginny, whose possession by Voldemort caused all of the petrification and troubles over the course of the year, is given a reprieve by Dumbledore. He reasons that greater wizards have been duped by Voldemort before and takes great interest in the qualities of the diary, which Harry gives to him. Lucius Malfoy bursts in after this meeting, demanding to know why and how Dumbledore has returned to the school. He is accompanied by Dobby, revealing that Dobby is enslaved to the Malfoys. The house-elf also provides Harry with unspoken clues regarding the diary’s ownership. Although it was Tom Riddle’s, it had been in the Malfoys’ possession. While in Diagon Alley over the summer, Lucius, a follower of Voldemort, had slipped the diary into Ginny's cauldron to ensure the reopening of the Chamber of Secrets. Harry returns the diary, devising a scenario involving his own sock that frees Dobby from the Malfoys’ employment, hence provoking an attack on Harry. Dobby jumps in and saves Harry. The petrified students are cured, Gryffindor wins the house cup again by earning 400 more points, Harry and Ron both receive Special Services to School award, the end-of-year exams are cancelled (much to Hermione’s chagrin), Hagrid returns in the middle of the final feast, Lockhart is discharged from his job as Defence Against the Dark Arts teacher, and Harry returns to Privet Drive in higher spirits than he last left it.", "", "Rowling found it difficult to finish \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" because she was afraid it would not live up to the expectations raised by \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\". After delivering the manuscript to Bloomsbury on schedule, she took it back for six weeks of revision. In early drafts of the book, the ghost Nearly Headless Nick sang a self-composed song explaining his condition and the circumstances of his unknown death. This was cut because the book's editor did not care for the poem, which has been subsequently published as an extra on J. K. Rowling's official website. The family background of Dean Thomas was removed because Rowling and her publishers considered it an \"unnecessary digression,\" and she considered Neville Longbottom's own journey of discovery \"more important to the central plot.\"", "\"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" was published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999. It immediately took first place in UK bestseller lists, displacing popular authors such as John Grisham, Tom Clancy, and Terry Pratchett and making Rowling the first author to win the British Book Awards Children's Book of the Year for two years in succession. In June 1999, it went straight to the top of three US bestseller lists, including in\"The New York Times\". First edition printings had several errors, which were fixed in subsequent reprints. Initially, Dumbledore said Voldemort was the last remaining ancestor of Salazar Slytherin instead of his descendant. Gilderoy Lockhart's book on werewolves is entitled \"Weekends with Werewolves\" at one point and \"Wanderings with Werewolves\" later in the book.", "\"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" was met with near-universal acclaim. In \"The Times\", Deborah Loudon described it as a children's book that would be \"re-read into adulthood\" and highlighted its \"strong plots, engaging characters, excellent jokes and a moral message which flows naturally from the story\". Fantasy author Charles de Lint agreed, and considered the second Harry Potter book to be just as good as \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", a rare achievement among series of books. Thomas Wagner regarded the plot as very similar to that of the first book, based on searching for a secret hidden under the school. However, he enjoyed the parody of celebrities and their fans that centres round Gilderoy Lockhart, and approved of the book's handling of racism. Tammy Nezol found the book more disturbing than its predecessor, particularly in the rash behaviour of Harry and his friends after Harry withholds information from Dumbledore, and in the human-like behaviour of the mandragoras used to make a potion that cures petrification. Nevertheless, she considered the second story as enjoyable as the first. Mary Stuart thought the final conflict with Tom Riddle in the Chamber was almost as scary as in some of Stephen King's works, and perhaps too strong for young or timid children. She commented that \"there are enough surprises and imaginative details thrown in as would normally fill five lesser books.\" Like other reviewers, she thought the book would give pleasure to both children and adult readers. According to Philip Nel, the early reviews gave unalloyed praise while the later ones included some criticisms, although they still agreed that the book was outstanding. Writing after all seven books had been published, Graeme Davis regarded \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" as the weakest of the series, and agreed that the plot structure is much the same as in \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\". He described Fawkes's appearance to arm Harry and then to heal him as a \"deus ex machina\": he said that the book does not explain how Fawkes knew where to find Harry; and Fawkes's timing had to be very precise, as arriving earlier would probably have prevented the battle with the basilisk, while arriving later would have been fatal to Harry and Ginny.", "Rowling's \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" was the recipient of several awards. The American Library Association listed the novel among its 2000 Notable Children's Books, as well as its Best Books for Young Adults. In 1999, Booklist named \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" as one of its Editors' Choices, and as one of its Top Ten Fantasy Novels for Youth. The Cooperative Children's Book Center made the novel a CCBC Choice of 2000 in the \"Fiction for Children\" category. The novel also won Children's Book of the Year British Book Award, and was shortlisted for the 1998 Guardian Children's Award and the 1998 Carnegie Award. \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" won the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize 1998 Gold Medal in the 9–11 years division. Rowling also won two other Nestlé Smarties Book Prizes for \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\" and \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\". The Scottish Arts Council awarded their first ever Children’s Book Award to the novel in 1999, and it was also awarded Whitaker's Platinum Book Award in 2001. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 23 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.", "\"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" continues to examine what makes a person who he or she is, which began in the first book. As well as maintaining that Harry's identity is shaped by his decisions rather than any aspect of his birth, \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" provides contrasting characters who try to conceal their true personalities: as Tammy Nezol puts it, Gilderoy Lockhart \"lacks any real identity\" because he is nothing more than a charming liar. Riddle also complicates Harry's struggle to understand himself by pointing out the similarities between the two: \"both half-bloods, orphans raised by Muggles, probably the only two Parselmouths to come to Hogwarts since the great Slytherin.\" Opposition to class, death and its impacts, experiencing adolescence, sacrifice, love, friendship, loyalty, prejudice, and racism are constant themes of the series. In \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" Harry's consideration and respect for others extends to the lowly, non-human Dobby and the ghost Nearly Headless Nick. According to Marguerite Krause, achievements in the novel depend more on ingenuity and hard work than on natural talents. Edward Duffy, associate professor at Marquette University, says that one of the central characters of \"Chamber of Secrets\" is Tom Riddle's enchanted diary, which takes control of Ginny Weasley – just as Riddle planned. Duffy suggests Rowling intended this as a warning against passively consuming information from sources that have their own agendas. Although Bronwyn Williams and Amy Zenger regard the diary as more like an instant messaging or chat room system, they agree about the dangers of relying too much on the written word, which can camouflage the author, and they highlight a comical example, Lockhart's self-promoting books. Immorality and the portrayal of authority as negative are significant themes in the novel. Marguerite Krause states there are few absolute moral rules in Harry Potter's world, for example Harry prefers to tell the truth, but lies whenever he considers it necessary – very like his enemy Draco Malfoy. At the end of \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\", Dumbledore retracts his promise to punish Harry, Ron, and Hermione if they break any more school rules – after Professor McGonagall estimates they have broken over 100 – and lavishly rewards them for ending the threat from the Chamber of Secrets. Krause further states that authority figures and political institutions receive little respect from Rowling. William MacNeil of Griffith University, Queensland, Australia states that the Minister for Magic is presented as a mediocrity. In his article \"Harry Potter and the Secular City\", Ken Jacobson suggests the Ministry as a whole is portrayed as a tangle of bureaucratic empires, saying that \"Ministry officials busy themselves with minutiae (e.g. standardising cauldron thicknesses) and coin politically correct euphemisms like 'non-magical community' (for Muggles) and'memory modification' (for magical brainwashing).\" This novel implies it begins in 1992: the cake for Nearly-Headless Nick's 500th deathday party bears the words \"Sir Nicholas De Mimsy Porpington died 31 October 1492\".", "\"Chamber of Secrets\" has many links with the sixth book of the series, \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\". In fact, \"Half-Blood Prince\" was the working title of \"Chamber of Secrets\" and Rowling says she originally intended to present some \"crucial pieces of information\" in the second book, but ultimately felt \"this information's proper home was book six\". Some objects that play significant roles in \"Half-Blood Prince\" first appear in \"Chamber of Secrets\": the Hand of Glory and the opal necklace that are on sale in Borgin and Burkes; a Vanishing Cabinet in Hogwarts that is damaged by Peeves the Poltergeist; and Tom Riddle's diary, which is later shown to be a Horcrux. Additionally, these two novels are the ones with the most focus on Harry's relationship with Ginny Weasley.", "", "The film version of \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" was released in 2002. Chris Columbus directed the film, and the screenplay was written by Steve Kloves. It became the third film to exceed $600 million in international box office sales, preceded by \"Titanic\", released in 1997, and \"Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone\", released in 2001. The film was nominated for a Saturn Award for the Best Fantasy Film, According to Metacritic, the film version of \"Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets\" received \"generally favourable reviews\" with an average score of 63%, and another aggregator, Rotten Tomatoes, gave it a score of 82%.", "Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2002 and 2003 by Electronic Arts, loosely based on the book:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Plays.", "Cultural legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Terence's date of birth is disputed; Aelius Donatus, in his incomplete \"Commentum Terenti\", considers the year 185 BC to be the year Terentius was born; Fenestella, on the other hand, states that he was born ten years earlier, in 195 BC. He may have been born in or near Carthage or in Greek Italy to a woman taken to Carthage as a slave. Terence's cognomen \"Afer\" suggests he lived in the territory of the Libyan tribe called by the Romans Afri near Carthage prior to being brought to Rome as a slave. This inference is based on the fact that the term was used in two different ways during the republican era: during Terence's lifetime, it was used to refer to non-Carthaginian Berbers, with the term \"Punicus\" reserved for the Carthaginians. Later, after the destruction of Carthage in 146 BC, it was used to refer to anyone from the land of the \"Afri\" (that is, the ancient Roman province of Africa, mostly corresponding to today's Tunisia and its surroundings). The nickname \"Afer\" \"[North] African\" indicates that Terence hailed from ancient Libya, and was therefore of Berber descent. In any case, he was sold to P. Terentius Lucanus, a Roman senator, who educated him and later on, impressed by Terence's abilities, freed him. Terence then took the \"nomen\" \"Terentius,\" which is the origin of the present form. He was a member of the so-called Scipionic Circle. When he was 25, Terence travelled to Greece and never returned. It is mostly believed that Terence died during the journey, but this cannot be confirmed. Before his disappearance he exhibited six comedies which are still in existence. According to some ancient writers, he died at sea.", "Like Plautus, Terence adapted Greek plays from the late phases of Attic comedy. Terence wrote in a simple conversational Latin, pleasant and direct. Aelius Donatus, Jerome's teacher, is the earliest surviving commentator on Terence's work. Terence's popularity throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance is attested to by the numerous manuscripts containing part or all of his plays; the scholar Claudia Villa has estimated that 650 manuscripts containing Terence's work date from after AD 800. The mediaeval playwright Hroswitha of Gandersheim claims to have written her plays so that learned men had a Christian alternative to reading the pagan plays of Terence, while the reformer Martin Luther not only quoted Terence frequently to tap into his insights into all things human but also recommended his comedies for the instruction of children in school. Terence's six plays are: The first printed edition of Terence appeared in Strasbourg in 1470, while the first certain post-antique performance of one of Terence's plays, \"Andria\", took place in Florence in 1476. There is evidence, however, that Terence was performed much earlier. The short dialogue \"Terentius et delusor\" was probably written to be performed as an introduction to a Terentian performance in the 9th century (possibly earlier).", "Due to his clear and entertaining language, Terence's works were heavily used by monasteries and convents during the Middle Ages and The Renaissance. Scribes often learned Latin through the meticulous copying of Terence's texts. Priests and nuns often learned to speak Latin through reenactment of Terence's plays, thereby learning both Latin and Gregorian chants. Although Terence's plays often dealt with pagan material, the quality of his language promoted the copying and preserving of his text by the church. The preservation of Terence through the church enabled his work to influence much of later Western drama. Pietro Alighieri's Commentary to the \"Commedia\" states that his father took the title from Terence's plays and Giovanni Boccaccio copied out in his own hand all of Terence's \"Comedies\" and Apuleius' writings in manuscripts that are now in the Laurentian Library. Two of the earliest English comedies, \"Ralph Roister Doister\" and \"Gammer Gurton's Needle\", are thought to parody Terence's plays. Montaigne, Shakespeare and Molière cite and imitate him. Terence's plays were a standard part of the Latin curriculum of the neoclassical period. President of the United States John Adams once wrote to his son, \"Terence is remarkable, for good morals, good taste, and good Latin... His language has simplicity and an elegance that make him proper to be accurately studied as a model.\" American playwright Thornton Wilder based his novel \"The Woman of Andros\" on Terence's \"Andria\". Due to his cognomen Afer, Terence has long been identified with Africa and heralded as the first poet of the African diaspora by generations of writers, including Juan Latino, Phyllis Wheatley, Alexandre Dumas, Langston Hughes and Maya Angelou. Two of his plays were produced in Denver with Black actors. Questions as to whether Terence received assistance in writing or was not the actual author have been debated over the ages, as described in the 1911 edition of the \"Encyclopædia Britannica:\" [In a prologue to one of his plays, Terence] meets the charge of receiving assistance in the composition of his plays by claiming as a great honour the favour which he enjoyed with those who were the favorites of the Roman people. But the gossip, not discouraged by Terence, lived and throve; it crops up in Cicero and Quintilian, and the ascription of the plays to Scipio had the honour to be accepted by Montaigne and rejected by Diderot." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Similar creatures.", "Classical sources.", "Hypothesis about origin.", "Use for Chinese mythological creatures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Homer's brief description in the \"Iliad\" is the earliest surviving literary reference: \"a thing of immortal make, not human, lion-fronted and snake behind, a goat in the middle, and snorting out the breath of the terrible flame of bright fire.\" Elsewhere in the \"Iliad\", Homer attributes the rearing of Chimera to Amisodorus. Hesiod's \"Theogony\" follows the Homeric description: he makes the Chimera the issue of Echidna: \"She was the mother of Chimaera who breathed raging fire, a creature fearful, great, swift-footed and strong, who had three heads, one of a grim-eyed lion; in her hinderpart, a dragon; and in her middle, a goat, breathing forth a fearful blast of blazing fire. Her did Pegasus and noble Bellerophon slay.\" The author of the \"Bibliotheca\" concurs: Descriptions agree that she breathed fire. The Chimera is generally considered to have been female (see the quotation from Hesiod above) despite the mane adorning her head, the inclusion of a close mane was often depicted on lionesses, but the ears were always visible (that does not occur with depictions of male lions). While there are different genealogies, in one version the Chimera mated with her brother Orthrus and was the mother of the Sphinx and the Nemean lion (others have Orthrus and their mother, Echidna, mating; most attribute all to Typhon and Echidna). The Chimera finally was defeated by Bellerophon with the help of Pegasus, at the command of King Iobates of Lycia, after terrorizing Lycia and nearby lands. Since Pegasus could fly, Bellerophon shot the Chimera from the air, safe from her heads and breath. A scholiast to Homer adds that he finished her off by equipping his spear with a lump of lead that melted when exposed to the Chimera's fiery breath and consequently killed her, an image drawn from metalworking. Robert Graves suggests, \"The Chimera was, apparently, a calendar-symbol of the tripartite year, of which the seasonal emblems were lion, goat, and serpent.\" The Chimera was situated in foreign Lycia, but her representation in the arts was wholly Greek. An autonomous tradition, one that did not rely on the written word, was represented in the visual repertory of the Greek vase-painters. The Chimera first appears at an early stage in the repertory of the proto-Corinthian pottery-painters, providing some of the earliest identifiable mythological scenes that may be recognized in Greek art. The Corinthian type is fixed, after some early hesitation, in the 670s BC; the variations in the pictorial representations suggest multiple origins to Marilyn Low Schmitt. The fascination with the monstrous devolved by the end of the seventh century into a decorative Chimera-motif in Corinth, while the motif of Bellerophon on Pegasus took on a separate existence alone. A separate Attic tradition, where the goats breathe fire and the animal's rear is serpentine, begins with such confidence that Marilyn Low Schmitt is convinced there must be unrecognized or undiscovered local precursors. Two vase-painters employed the motif so consistently they are given the pseudonyms the Bellerophon Painter and the Chimaera Painter. A fire-breathing lioness was one of the earliest of solar and war deities in Ancient Egypt (representations from 3000 years prior to the Greek) and influences are feasible. The lioness represented the war goddess and protector of both cultures that would unite as Ancient Egypt. Sekhmet was one of the dominant deities in upper Egypt and Bast in lower Egypt. As divine mother, and more especially as protector, for Lower Egypt, Bast became strongly associated with Wadjet, the patron goddess of Lower Egypt. In Etruscan civilization, the Chimera appears in the Orientalizing period that precedes Etruscan Archaic art; that is to say, very early indeed. The Chimera appears in Etruscan wall-paintings of the fourth century BC. In Indus civilization are pictures of the chimera in many seals. There are different kinds of the chimera composed of animals from the Indian subcontinent. It is not known what the Indus people called the chimera.", "In Medieval art, although the Chimera of antiquity was forgotten, chimerical figures appear as embodiments of the deceptive, even satanic forces of raw nature. Provided with a human face and a scaly tail, as in Dante's vision of Geryon in \"Inferno\" xvii.7–17, 25–27, hybrid monsters, more akin to the Manticore of Pliny's Natural History (viii.90), provided iconic representations of hypocrisy and fraud well into the seventeenth century, through an emblematic representation in Cesare Ripa's \"Iconologia\".", "The myths of the Chimera may be found in the \"Bibliotheca\" of Pseudo-Apollodorus (book 1), the \"Iliad\" (book 16) by Homer, the \"Fabulae\" 57 and 151 by Hyginus, the \"Metamorphoses\" (book VI 339 by Ovid; IX 648), and the \"Theogony\" 319ff by Hesiod. Virgil, in the \"Aeneid\" (book 5) employs \"Chimaera\" for the name of a gigantic ship of Gyas in the ship-race, with possible allegorical significance in contemporary Roman politics.", "Pliny the Elder cited Ctesias and quoted Photius identifying the Chimera with an area of permanent gas vents that still may be found by hikers on the Lycian Way in southwest Turkey. Called in Turkish, \"Yanartaş\" (flaming rock), the area contains some two dozen vents in the ground, grouped in two patches on the hillside above the Temple of Hephaestus approximately 3 km north of Çıralı, near ancient Olympos, in Lycia. The vents emit burning methane thought to be of metamorphic origin. The fires of these were landmarks in ancient times and used for navigation by sailors. The Neo-Hittite Chimera from Carchemish, dated to 850–750 BC, which is now housed in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations, is believed to be a basis for the Greek legend. It differs, however, from the Greek version in that a winged body of a lioness also has a human head rising from her shoulders.", "Some western scholars of Chinese art, starting with Victor Segalen, use the word \"chimera\" generically to refer to winged leonine or mixed species quadrupeds, such as \"bixie\", \"tianlu\", and even \"qilin\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Radeon Graphics.", "Radeon Graphics card brands.", "Graphics processor generations.", "Fixed-pipeline family.", "R100/RV200.", "R200.", "R300/R350.", "R420.", "R520.", "TeraScale-family.", "R600.", "R700.", "Evergreen.", "Northern Islands.", "Graphics Core Next-family.", "Southern Islands.", "Sea Islands.", "Volcanic Islands.", "Caribbean Islands.", "Arctic Islands.", "RDNA-family.", "Navi.", "API overview.", "Graphics device drivers.", "AMD's proprietary graphics device driver \"Radeon Software\" (Formerly Catalyst).", "On operating systems.", "Free and open-source graphics device driver \"Radeon\".", "Supported features.", "Linux.", "Other operating systems.", "Embedded GPU products.", "Radeon Memory.", "Production.", "Radeon RAMDisk.", "Version history.", "Production.", "Radeon SSD." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Radeon Graphics is the successor to the Rage line. Three different families of microarchitectures can be roughly distinguished, the fixed-pipeline family, the unified shader model-families of TeraScale and Graphics Core Next. ATI/AMD have developed different technologies, such as TruForm, HyperMemory, HyperZ, XGP, Eyefinity for multi-monitor setups, PowerPlay for power-saving, CrossFire (for multi-GPU) or Hybrid Graphics. A range of SIP blocks is also to be found on certain models in the Radeon products line: Unified Video Decoder, Video Coding Engine and TrueAudio. The brand was previously only known as \"ATI Radeon\" until August 2010, when it was renamed to increase AMD's brand awareness on a global scale. Products up to and including the HD 5000 series are branded as ATI Radeon, while the HD 6000 series and beyond use the new AMD Radeon branding. On 11 September 2015, AMD's GPU business was split into a separate unit known as Radeon Technologies Group, with Raja Koduri as Senior Vice President and chief architect.", "AMD does not distribute Radeon cards directly to consumers (Though some exceptions can be found). Instead, it sells Radeon GPUs to third-party manufacturers, who build and sell the Radeon-based video cards to the OEM and retail channels. Manufacturers of the Radeon cards—some of whom also make motherboards—include Sapphire, XFX, Asus, Gigabyte, MSI, Biostar, Gainward, Diamond, HIS, PowerColor, Club 3D, VisionTek, ASRock and Force3D.", "Early generations were identified with a number and major/minor alphabetic prefix. Later generations were assigned code names. New or heavily redesigned architectures have a prefix of \"R\" (e.g., \"R300\" or \"R600\") while slight modifications are indicated by the \"RV\" prefix (e.g., \"RV370\" or \"RV635\"). The first derivative architecture, \"RV200\", did not follow the scheme used by later parts.", "", "The Radeon, first introduced in 2000, was ATI's first graphics processor to be fully DirectX 7 compliant. R100 brought with it large gains in bandwidth and fill-rate efficiency through the new HyperZ technology. The RV200 was a die-shrink of the former R100 with some core logic tweaks for clockspeed, introduced in 2002. The only release in this generation was the Radeon 7500, which introduced little in the way of new features but offered substantial performance improvements over its predecessors.", "ATI's second generation Radeon included a sophisticated pixel shader architecture. This chipset implemented Microsoft's pixel shader 1.4 specification for the first time. Its performance relative to competitors was widely perceived as weak, and subsequent revisions of this generation were cancelled in order to focus on development of the next generation.", "The R300 was the first GPU to fully support Microsoft's DirectX 9.0 technology upon its release in 2001. It incorporated fully programmable pixel and vertex shaders. About a year later, the architecture was revised to allow for higher frequencies, more efficient memory access, and several other improvements in the R350 family. A budget line of RV350 products was based on this refreshed design with some elements disabled or removed. Models using the new PCI Express interface were introduced in 2004. Using 110-nm and 130-nm manufacturing technologies under the X300 and X600 names, respectively, the RV370 and RV380 graphics processors were used extensively by consumer PC manufacturers.", "While heavily based upon the previous generation, this line included extensions to the Shader Model 2 feature-set. Shader Model 2b, the specification ATI and Microsoft defined with this generation, offered somewhat more shader program flexibility.", "ATI's DirectX 9.0c series of graphics cards, with complete shader Model 3.0 support. Launched in October 2005, this series brought a number of enhancements including the floating point render target technology necessary for HDR rendering with anti-aliasing.", "", "ATI's first series of GPUs to replace the old fixed-pipeline and implement unified shader model. Subsequent revisions tuned the design for higher performance and energy efficiency, resulting in the ATI Mobility Radeon HD series for mobile computers.", "Based on the R600 architecture. Mostly a bolstered with many more stream processors, with improvements to power consumption and GDDR5 support for the high-end RV770 and RV740(HD4770) chips. It arrived in late June 2008. The HD 4850 and HD 4870 have 800 stream processors and GDDR3 and GDDR5 memory, respectively. The 4890 was a refresh of 4870 with the same amount of stream processors yet higher clock rates due to refinements. The 4870x2 has 1600 stream processors and GDDR5 memory on an effective 512-bit memory bus with 230.4 Gbit/s video memory bandwidth available.", "The series was launched on 23 September 2009. It featured a 40 nm fabrication process for the entire product line (only the HD4770 (RV740) was built on this process previously), with more stream cores and compatibility with the next major version of the DirectX API, DirectX 11, which launched on 22 October 2009 along with Microsoft Windows 7. The Rxxx/RVxxx codename scheme was scrapped entirely. The initial launch consisted of only the 5870 and 5850 models. ATI released beta drivers that introduced full OpenGL 4.0 support on all variants of this series in March 2010.", "This is the first series to be marketed solely under the \"AMD\" brand. It features a 3rd generation 40 nm design, rebalancing the existing architecture with redesigned shaders to give it better performance. It was released first on 22 October 2010, in the form of the 6850 and 6870. 3D output is enabled with HDMI 1.4a and DisplayPort 1.2 outputs.", "", "\"Southern Islands\" was the first series to feature the new compute microarchitecture known as \"Graphics Core Next\"(GCN). GCN 1.0 was used among the higher end cards, while the VLIW5 architecture utilized in the previous generation was used in the lower end, OEM products. However, the \"Radeon HD 7790\" uses GCN 1.1, and was the first product in the series to be released by AMD on 9 January 2012.", "The \"Sea Islands\" were OEM rebadges of the 7000 series, with only three products, code named Oland, available for general retail. The series, just like the \"Southern Islands\", used a mixture of VLIW5 models and GCN models for its desktop products.", "\"Volcanic Islands\" GPUs were introduced with the AMD Radeon Rx 200 Series, and were first released in late 2013. The Radeon Rx 200 line is mainly based on AMD's GCN architecture, with the lower end, OEM cards still using VLIW5. The majority of desktop products use GCN 1.0, while the \"R9 290x/290\" & \"R7 260X/260\" use GCN 1.1, and with only the R9 285 using the new GCN 1.2.", "GPUs codenamed \"Caribbean Islands\" were introduced with the AMD Radeon Rx 300 Series, released in 2015. This series was the first to solely use GCN based models, ranging from GCN 1st to GCN 3rd Gen.", "GPUs codenamed \"Arctic Islands\"were first introduced with the Radeon RX 400 Series in June 2016 with the announcement of the \"RX 480\". These cards were the first to use the new Polaris chips which implements GCN 4th Gen on the 14 nm fab process. The RX 500 Series released in April 2017 also uses Polaris chips.", "", "On 27 May 2019, at COMPUTEX 2019, AMD announced the new 'RDNA' graphics micro-architecture, which is to succeed the Graphics Core Next micro-architecture. This is the basis for the Radeon RX 5700-series graphics cards, the first to be built under the codename 'Navi'. These cards feature GDDR6 SGRAM and support for PCI Express 4.0.", "Some generations vary from their predecessors predominantly due to architectural improvements, while others were adapted primarily to new manufacturing processes with fewer functional changes. The table below summarizes the APIs supported in each Radeon generation. Also see AMD FireStream and AMD FirePro branded products.", "", "On 24 November 2015, AMD released a new version of their graphics driver following the formation of the Radeon Technologies Group (RTG) to provide extensive software support for their graphics cards. This driver, labelled Radeon Software Crimson Edition, overhauls the UI with Qt, resulting in better responsiveness from a design and system perspective. It includes a new interface featuring a game manager, clocking tools, and sections for different technologies. Unofficial modifications such as Omega drivers and DNA drivers were available. These drivers typically consist of mixtures of various driver file versions with some registry variables altered and are advertised as offering superior performance or image quality. They are, of course, unsupported, and as such, are not guaranteed to function correctly. Some of them also provide modified system files for hardware enthusiasts to run specific graphics cards outside of their specifications.", "Radeon Software is being developed for Microsoft Windows and Linux., other operating systems are not officially supported. This may be different for the AMD FirePro brand, which is based on identical hardware but features OpenGL-certified graphics device drivers. ATI previously offered driver updates for their retail and integrated Macintosh video cards and chipsets. ATI stopped support for Mac OS 9 after the Radeon R200 cards, making the last officially supported card the Radeon 9250. The Radeon R100 cards up to the Radeon 7200 can still be used with even older classic Mac OS versions such as System 7, although not all features are taken advantage of by the older operating system. Ever since ATI's acquisition by AMD, ATI no longer supplies or supports drivers for classic Mac OS nor macOS. macOS drivers can be downloaded from Apple's support website, while classic Mac OS drivers can be obtained from 3rd party websites that host the older drivers for users to download. ATI used to provide a preference panel for use in macOS called ATI Displays which can be used both with retail and OEM versions of its cards. Though it gives more control over advanced features of the graphics chipset, ATI Displays has limited functionality compared to Catalyst for Windows or Linux.", "The free and open-source for Direct Rendering Infrastructure has been under constant development by the Linux kernel developers, by 3rd party programming enthusiasts and by AMD employees. It is composed out of five parts:", "The free and open-source driver supports many of the features available in Radeon-branded cards and APUs, such as multi-monitor or hybrid graphics.", "The free and open-source drivers are primarily developed on Linux and for Linux.", "Being entirely free and open-source software, the free and open-source drivers can be ported to any existing operating system. Whether they have been, and to what extent depends entirely on the man-power available. Available support shall be referenced here. FreeBSD adopted DRI, and since Mesa 3D is not programmed for Linux, it should have identical support. MorphOS supports 2D and 3D acceleration for Radeon R100, R200 and R300 chipsets. AmigaOS 4 supports Radeon R100, R200, R300, R520 (X1000 Series), R700 (HD 4000 Series), HD 5000 (Evergreen) series, HD 6000 (Northern Islands) series and HD 7000 (Southern Islands) series. The RadeonHD AmigaOS 4 driver has been developed by Hans de Ruiter funded and owned by A-EON Technology Ltd. The older R100 and R200 \"ATIRadeon\" driver for AmigaOS, originally developed Forefront Technologies has been acquired by A-EON Technology Ltd in 2015. In the past ATI provided hardware and technical documentation to the Haiku Project to produce drivers with full 2D and video in/out support on older Radeon chipsets (up to R500) for Haiku. A new Radeon HD driver was developed with the unofficial and indirect guidance of AMD open source engineers and currently exists in recent Haiku versions. The new Radeon HD driver supports native mode setting on R600 through Southern Islands GPU's.", "AMD (and its predecessor ATI) have released a series of embedded GPUs targeted toward medical, entertainment, and display devices.", "In August 2011, AMD expanded the Radeon name to include random access memory modules under the AMD Memory line. The initial releases included 3 types of 2GiB DDR3 SDRAM modules: Entertainment (1333 MHz, CL9 9-9), UltraPro Gaming (1600 MHz, CL11 11-11) and Enterprise (specs to be determined). In 2013-05-08, AMD announced the release of Radeon RG2133 Gamer Series Memory. Radeon R9 2400 Gamer Series Memory was released in 2014-01-16.", "Dataram Corporation is manufacturing RAM for AMD.", "In 2012-09-06, Dataram Corporation announced it has entered into a formal agreement with AMD to develop an AMD-branded version of Dataram's RAMDisk software under the name Radeon RAMDisk, targeting gaming enthusiasts seeking exponential improvements in game load times leading to an enhanced gaming experience. The freeware version of Radeon RAMDisk software supports Windows Vista and later with minimum 4GiB memory, and supports maximum of 4GiB RAM disk (6GiB if AMD Radeon Value, Entertainment, Performance Edition or Products installed, and Radeon RAMDisk is activated between 2012-10-10 and 2013-10-10). Retail version supports RAM disk size between 5MiB to 64GiB.", "Version 4.1 was released in 2013-05-08.", "In 2014-04-02, Dataram Corporation announced it has signed an Agreement with Elysium Europe Ltd. to expand sales penetration in Europe, the Middle East and Africa. Under this Agreement, Elysium is authorized to sell AMD Radeon RAMDisk software. Elysium is focusing on etailers, retailers, system builders and distributors.", "AMD planned to enter solid state drive market with the introduction of R7 models powered by Indilinx Barefoot 3 controller and Toshiba 19 nm MLC flash memory, and initially available in 120G, 240G, 480G capacities. The R7 Series SSD was released on 2014-08-09, which included Toshiba's A19 MLC NAND flash memory, Indilinx Barefoot 3 M00 controller. These components are the same as in the SSD OCZ Vector 150 model." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Egypt.", "Greece.", "Riddle of the Sphinx.", "The riddle in popular culture.", "South and Southeast Asia.", "Europe.", "Freemasonry.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The largest and most famous sphinx is the Great Sphinx of Giza, situated on the Giza Plateau adjacent to the Great Pyramids of Giza on the west bank of the Nile River and facing east (). The sphinx is located southeast of the pyramids. While the date of its construction is not known for certain, general consensus among egyptologists is that the head of the Great Sphinx bears the likeness of the pharaoh Khafra, while a fringe minority of late 20th century geologists have claimed evidence of water erosion in and around the Sphinx enclosure which would prove that the Sphinx predates Khafra, a claim that is sometimes referred to as the Sphinx water erosion hypothesis, but which has little support among egyptologists. What names their builders gave to these statues is not known. At the Great Sphinx site, a 1400 BCE inscription on a stele belonging to the 18th dynasty pharaoh Thutmose IV lists the names of three aspects of the local sun deity of that period, \"Khepera–Rê–Atum\". Many pharaohs had their heads carved atop the guardian statues for their tombs to show their close relationship with the powerful solar deity Sekhmet, a lioness. Besides the Great Sphinx, other famous Egyptian sphinxes include one bearing the head of the pharaoh Hatshepsut, with her likeness carved in granite, which is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, and the alabaster Sphinx of Memphis, currently located within the open-air museum at that site. The theme was expanded to form great avenues of guardian sphinxes lining the approaches to tombs and temples as well as serving as details atop the posts of flights of stairs to very grand complexes. Nine hundred sphinxes with ram heads, representing Amon, were built in Thebes, where his cult was strongest. The Great Sphinx has become an emblem of Egypt, frequently appearing on its stamps, coins, and official documents.", "In the Bronze Age, the Hellenes had trade and cultural contacts with Egypt. Before the time that Alexander the Great occupied Egypt, the Greek name, \"sphinx\", was already applied to these statues. The historians and geographers of Greece wrote extensively about Egyptian culture. Herodotus called the ram-headed sphinxes Criosphinxes and called the hawk-headed ones Hieracosphinxes. The word \"sphinx\" comes from the Greek Σφίγξ, apparently from the verb σφίγγω (\"sphíngō\"), meaning \"to squeeze\", \"to tighten up\". This name may be derived from the fact that, in a pride of lions, the hunters are the lionesses, and kill their prey by strangulation, biting the throat of prey and holding them down until they die. However, the historian Susan Wise Bauer suggests that the word \"sphinx\" was instead a Greek corruption of the Egyptian name \"shesepankh\", which meant \"living image\", and referred rather to the \"statue\" of the sphinx, which was carved out of \"living rock\" (rock that was present at the construction site, not harvested and brought from another location), than to the beast itself. Apollodorus describes the sphinx as having a woman's face, the body and tail of a lion and the wings of a bird. Pliny the Elder mentions that Ethiopia produces plenty of sphinxes, with brown hair and breasts. Statius describes her as a winged monster, with pallid cheeks, eyes tainted with corruption, plumes clotted with gore and talons on livid hands. Sometimes, the wings are specified to be those of an eagle, and the tail to be serpent-headed. There was a single \"sphinx\" in Greek mythology, a unique demon of destruction and bad luck. According to Hesiod, she was a daughter of Orthrus and either Echidna or the Chimera, or perhaps even Ceto;. According to Apollodorus and Lasus, she was a daughter of Echidna and Typhon. The Sphinx is called \"Phix\" (Φίξ) by Hesiod in line 326 of the Theogony The sphinx was the emblem of the ancient city-state of Chios, and appeared on seals and the obverse side of coins from the 6th century BCE until the 3rd century CE.", "The Sphinx is said to have guarded the entrance to the Greek city of Thebes, asking a riddle to travellers to allow them passage. The exact riddle asked by the Sphinx was not specified by early tellers of the myth, and was not standardized as the one given below until late in Greek history. It was said in late lore that Hera or Ares sent the Sphinx from her Aethiopian homeland (the Greeks always remembered the foreign origin of the Sphinx) to Thebes in Greece where she asked all passersby the most famous riddle in history: \"Which creature has one voice and yet becomes four-footed and two-footed and three-footed?\" She strangled and devoured anyone who could not answer. Oedipus solved the riddle by answering: \"Man—who crawls on all fours as a baby, then walks on two feet as an adult, and then uses a walking stick in old age\". By some accounts (but much more rarely), there was a second riddle: \"There are two sisters: one gives birth to the other and she, in turn, gives birth to the first. Who are the two sisters?\" The answer is \"day and night\" (both words—\"ἡμέρα\" and \"νύξ\", respectively—are feminine in Ancient Greek). This second riddle is also found in a Gascon version of the myth and could be very ancient. Bested at last, the Sphinx then threw herself from her high rock and died. An alternative version tells that she devoured herself. In both cases, Oedipus can therefore be recognized as a \"liminal\" or threshold figure, helping effect the transition between the old religious practices, represented by the death of the Sphinx, and the rise of the new, Olympian gods.", "In Jean Cocteau's retelling of the Oedipus legend, \"The Infernal Machine\", the Sphinx tells Oedipus the answer to the riddle in order to kill herself so that she did not have to kill anymore, and also to make him love her. He leaves without ever thanking her for giving him the answer to the riddle. The scene ends when the Sphinx and Anubis ascend back to the heavens. There are mythic, anthropological, psychoanalytic and parodic interpretations of the Riddle of the Sphinx, and of Oedipus's answer to it. Sigmund Freud describes \"the question of where babies come from\" as a riddle of the Sphinx. Numerous riddle books use the Sphinx in their title or illustrations. Michael Maier, in his book the \"Atalanta Fugiens\" (1617) writes the following remark about the Sphinx's riddle, in which he states that its solution is the Philosopher's Stone: Sphinx is indeed reported to have had many Riddles, but this offered to Oedipus was the chief, \"What is that which in the morning goeth upon four feet; upon two feet in the afternoon; and in the Evening upon three?\" What was answered by Oedipus is not known. But they who interpret concerning the Ages of Man are deceived. For a Quadrangle of Four Elements are of all things first to be considered, from thence we come to the Hemisphere having two lines, a Right and a Curve, that is, to the White Luna; from thence to the Triangle which consists of Body, Soul and Spirit, or Sol, Luna and Mercury. Hence Rhasis in his Epistles, \"The Stone,\" says he, \"is a Triangle in its essence, a Quadrangle in its quality.\"", "A composite mythological being with the body of a lion and the head of a human being is present in the traditions, mythology and art of South and Southeast Asia. Variously known as \"purushamriga\" (Sanskrit, \"man-beast\"), \"purushamirugam\" (Tamil, \"man-beast\"), \"naravirala\" (Sanskrit, \"man-cat\") in India, or as \"nara-simha\" (Sanskrit, \"man-lion\") in Sri Lanka, \"manusiha\" or \"manuthiha\" (Pali, \"man-lion\") in Myanmar, and \"norasingh\" (from Pali, \"man-lion\", a variation of the Sanskrit \"nara-simha\") or \"thep norasingh\" (\"man-lion deity\"), or \"nora nair\" in Thailand. Although, just like the \"nara-simha\", he has a head of a lion and the body of a human. In contrast to the sphinxes in Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece, of which the traditions largely have been lost due to the discontinuity of the civilization, the traditions related to the \"Asian sphinxes\" are very much alive today. The earliest artistic depictions of \"sphinxes\" from the South Asian subcontinent are to some extent influenced by Hellenistic art and writings. These hail from the period when Buddhist art underwent a phase of Hellenistic influence. Numerous sphinxes can be seen on the gateways of Bharhut stupa, dating to the 1st century B.C. In South India, the \"sphinx\" is known as \"purushamriga\" (Sanskrit) or \"purushamirugam \" (Tamil), meaning \"human-beast\". It is found depicted in sculptural art in temples and palaces where it serves an apotropaic purpose, just as the \"sphinxes\" in other parts of the ancient world. It is said by the tradition, to take away the sins of the devotees when they enter a temple and to ward off evil in general. It is therefore often found in a strategic position on the gopuram or temple gateway, or near the entrance of the sanctum sanctorum. The \"purushamriga\" plays a significant role in daily as well as yearly ritual of South Indian Shaiva temples. In the shodhasha-upakaara (or sixteen honors) ritual, performed between one and six times at significant sacred moments through the day, it decorates one of the lamps of the diparadhana or lamp ceremony. And in several temples the \"purushamriga\" is also one of the \"vahana\" or vehicles of the deity during the processions of the Brahmotsava or festival. In Kanya Kumari district, in the southernmost tip of the Indian subcontinent, during the night of Shiva Ratri, devotees run 75 kilometres while visiting and worshiping at twelve Shiva temples. This Shiva Ottam (or Run for Shiva) is performed in commemoration of the story of the race between the Sphinx and Bhima, one of the heroes of the epic \"Mahabharata\". The Indian conception of a sphinx that comes closest to the classic Greek idea is in the concept of the \"Sharabha\", a mythical creature, part lion, part man and part bird, and the form of Sharabha that god Shiva took on to counter Narasimha's violence. In Sri Lanka the sphinx is known as \"narasimha\" or man-lion. As a sphinx, it has the body of a lion and the head of a human being, and is not to be confused with Narasimha, the fourth reincarnation of the deity Vishnu; this avatar or incarnation is depicted with a human body and the head of a lion. The \"sphinx\" narasimha is part of the Buddhist tradition and functions as a guardian of the northern direction and also was depicted on banners. In Burma, the sphinx is known as \"manussiha\" (\"manuthiha\"). It is depicted on the corners of Buddhist stupas, and its legends tell how it was created by Buddhist monks to protect a new-born royal baby from being devoured by ogresses. Nora Nair, Norasingh and Thep Norasingh are three of the names under which the \"sphinx\" is known in Thailand. They are depicted as upright walking beings with the lower body of a lion or deer, and the upper body of a human. Often they are found as female-male pairs. Here, too, the sphinx serves a protective function. It also is enumerated among the mythological creatures that inhabit the ranges of the sacred mountain Himapan.", "The revived Mannerist sphinx of the late 15th century is sometimes thought of as the \"French sphinx\". Her coiffed head is erect and she has the breasts of a young woman. Often she wears ear drops and pearls as ornaments. Her body is naturalistically rendered as a recumbent lioness. Such sphinxes were revived when the \"grottesche\" or \"grotesque\" decorations of the unearthed \"Domus Aurea\" of Nero were brought to light in late 15th-century Rome, and she was incorporated into the classical vocabulary of arabesque designs that spread throughout Europe in engravings during the 16th and 17th centuries. Sphinxes were included in the decoration of the \"loggia\" of the Vatican Palace by the workshop of Raphael (1515–20), which updated the vocabulary of the Roman \"grottesche\". The first appearances of sphinxes in French art are in the School of Fontainebleau in the 1520s and 1530s and she continues into the Late Baroque style of the French Régence (1715–1723). From France, she spread throughout Europe, becoming a regular feature of the outdoors decorative sculpture of 18th-century palace gardens, as in the Upper Belvedere Palace in Vienna, Sanssouci Park in Potsdam, La Granja in Spain, Branicki Palace in Białystok, or the late Rococo examples in the grounds of the Portuguese Queluz National Palace (of perhaps the 1760s), with ruffs and clothed chests ending with a little cape. Sphinxes are a feature of the neoclassical interior decorations of Robert Adam and his followers, returning closer to the undressed style of the \"grottesche\". They had an equal appeal to artists and designers of the Romanticism and subsequent Symbolism movements in the 19th century. Most of these sphinxes alluded to the Greek sphinx and the myth of Oedipus, rather than the Egyptian, although they may not have wings.", "The sphinx imagery has historically been adopted into Masonic architecture and symbology. Among the Egyptians, sphinxes were placed at the entrance of the temples to guard their mysteries, by warning those who penetrated within that they should conceal a knowledge of them from the uninitiated. Champollion said that the sphinx became successively the symbol of each of the gods. The placement of the sphinxes expressed the idea that all the gods were hidden from the people, and that the knowledge of them, guarded in the sanctuaries, was revealed to initiates only. As a Masonic emblem, the sphinx has been adopted as a symbol of mystery, and as such often is found as a decoration sculptured in front of Masonic temples, or engraved at the head of Masonic documents. It cannot, however, be properly called an ancient, recognized symbol of the order. Its introduction has been of comparatively recent date, and rather as a symbolic decoration than as a symbol of any particular dogma.", "Similar hybrid creatures" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name origin.", "Graphics processor generations.", "GeForce 256.", "GeForce 2 series.", "GeForce 3 series.", "GeForce 4 series.", "GeForce FX series.", "GeForce 6 series.", "GeForce 7 series.", "GeForce 8 series.", "GeForce 9 series and 100 series.", "GeForce 200 series and 300 series.", "GeForce 400 series and 500 series.", "GeForce 600 series, 700 series and 800M series.", "GeForce 900 series.", "GeForce 10 series.", "GeForce 20 series and 16 series.", "Variants.", "Mobile GPUs.", "Small form factor GPUs.", "Integrated desktop motherboard GPUs.", "Nomenclature.", "Graphics device drivers.", "Proprietary.", "Free and open-source.", "Licensing and privacy issues.", "GeForce Experience." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The \"GeForce\" name originated from a contest held by Nvidia in early 1999 called \"Name That Chip\". The company called out to the public to name the successor to the RIVA TNT2 line of graphics boards. There were over 12,000 entries received and 7 winners received a RIVA TNT2 Ultra graphics card as a reward. Brian Burke, senior PR manager at Nvidia, told \"Maximum PC\" in 2002 that \"GeForce\" originally stood for \"Geometry Force\" since GeForce 256 was the first GPU for personal computers to calculate the transform-and-lighting geometry, offloading that function from the CPU.", "", "Launched on August 31, 1999, the GeForce 256 (NV10) was the first consumer-level PC graphics chip shipped with hardware transform, lighting, and shading although 3D games utilizing this feature did not appear until later. Initial GeForce 256 boards shipped with SDR SDRAM memory, and later boards shipped with faster DDR SDRAM memory.", "Launched in April 2000, the first GeForce2 (NV15) was another high-performance graphics chip. Nvidia moved to a twin texture processor per pipeline (4x2) design, doubling texture fillrate per clock compared to GeForce 256. Later, Nvidia released the GeForce2 MX (NV11), which offered performance similar to the GeForce 256 but at a fraction of the cost. The MX was a compelling value in the low/mid-range market segments and was popular with OEM PC manufacturers and users alike. The GeForce 2 Ultra was the high-end model in this series.", "Launched in February 2001, the GeForce3 (NV20) introduced programmable vertex and pixel shaders to the GeForce family and to consumer-level graphics accelerators. It had good overall performance and shader support, making it popular with enthusiasts although it never hit the midrange price point. The \"NV2A\" developed for the Microsoft Xbox game console is a derivative of the GeForce 3.", "Launched in February 2002, the then-high-end GeForce4 Ti (NV25) was mostly a refinement to the GeForce3. The biggest advancements included enhancements to anti-aliasing capabilities, an improved memory controller, a second vertex shader, and a manufacturing process size reduction to increase clock speeds. Another member of the GeForce 4 family, the budget GeForce4 MX, was based on the GeForce2, with the addition of some features from the GeForce4 Ti. It targeted the value segment of the market and lacked pixel shaders. Most of these models used the AGP 4× interface, but a few began the transition to AGP 8×.", "Launched in 2003, the GeForce FX (NV30) was a huge change in architecture compared to its predecessors. The GPU was designed not only to support the new Shader Model 2 specification but also to perform well on older titles. However, initial models like the GeForce FX 5800 Ultra suffered from weak floating point shader performance and excessive heat which required infamously noisy two-slot cooling solutions. Products in this series carry the 5000 model number, as it is the fifth generation of the GeForce, though Nvidia marketed the cards as GeForce FX instead of GeForce 5 to show off \"the dawn of cinematic rendering\".", "Launched in April 2004, the GeForce 6 (NV40) added Shader Model 3.0 support to the GeForce family, while correcting the weak floating point shader performance of its predecessor. It also implemented high dynamic range imaging and introduced SLI (Scalable Link Interface) and PureVideo capability (integrated partial hardware MPEG-2, VC-1, Windows Media Video, and H.264 decoding and fully accelerated video post-processing).", "The seventh generation GeForce (G70/NV47) was launched in June 2005 and was the last Nvidia video card series that could support the AGP bus. The design was a refined version of GeForce 6, with the major improvements being a widened pipeline and an increase in clock speed. The GeForce 7 also offers new transparency supersampling and transparency multisampling anti-aliasing modes (TSAA and TMAA). These new anti-aliasing modes were later enabled for the GeForce 6 series as well. The GeForce 7950GT featured the highest performance GPU with an AGP interface in the Nvidia line. This era began the transition to the PCI-Express interface. A 128-bit, 8 ROP variant of the 7950 GT, called the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer', is used as the main GPU in the Sony PlayStation 3.", "Released on November 8, 2006, the eighth-generation GeForce (originally called G80) was the first ever GPU to fully support Direct3D 10. Manufactured using a 90 nm process and built around the new Tesla microarchitecture, it implemented the unified shader model. Initially just the 8800GTX model was launched, while the GTS variant was released months into the product line's life, and it took nearly six months for mid-range and OEM/mainstream cards to be integrated into the 8 series. The die shrink down to 65 nm and a revision to the G80 design, codenamed G92, were implemented into the 8 series with the 8800GS, 8800GT and 8800GTS-512, first released on October 29, 2007, almost one whole year after the initial G80 release.", "The first product was released on February 21, 2008. Not even four months older than the initial G92 release, all 9-series designs are simply revisions to existing late 8-series products. The 9800GX2 uses two G92 GPUs, as used in later 8800 cards, in a dual PCB configuration while still only requiring a single PCI-Express 16x slot. The 9800GX2 utilizes two separate 256-bit memory busses, one for each GPU and its respective 512 MB of memory, which equates to an overall of 1 GB of memory on the card (although the SLI configuration of the chips necessitates mirroring the frame buffer between the two chips, thus effectively halving the memory performance of a 256-bit/512MB configuration). The later 9800GTX features a single G92 GPU, 256-bit data bus, and 512 MB of GDDR3 memory. Prior to the release, no concrete information was known except that the officials claimed the next generation products had close to 1 TFLOPS processing power with the GPU cores still being manufactured in the 65 nm process, and reports about Nvidia downplaying the significance of Direct3D 10.1. On March 2009, several sources reported that Nvidia had quietly launched a new series of GeForce products, namely the GeForce 100 Series, which consists of rebadged 9 Series parts. GeForce 100 series products were not available for individual purchase.", "Based on the GT200 graphics processor consisting of 1.4 billion transistors, codenamed Tesla, the 200 series was launched on June 16, 2008. The next generation of the GeForce series takes the card-naming scheme in a new direction, by replacing the series number (such as 8800 for 8-series cards) with the GTX or GTS suffix (which used to go at the end of card names, denoting their 'rank' among other similar models), and then adding model-numbers such as 260 and 280 after that. The series features the new GT200 core on a 65nm die. The first products were the GeForce GTX 260 and the more expensive GeForce GTX 280. The GeForce 310 was released on November 27, 2009, which is a rebrand of GeForce 210. The 300 series cards are rebranded DirectX 10.1 compatible GPUs from the 200 series, which were not available for individual purchase.", "On April 7, 2010, Nvidia released the GeForce GTX 470 and GTX 480, the first cards based on the new Fermi architecture, codenamed GF100; they were the first Nvidia GPUs to utilize 1 GB or more of GDDR5 memory. The GTX 470 and GTX 480 were heavily criticized due to high power use, high temperatures, and very loud noise that were not balanced by the performance offered, even though the GTX 480 was the fastest DirectX 11 card as of its introduction. In November 2010, Nvidia released a new flagship GPU based on an enhanced GF100 architecture (GF110) called the GTX 580. It featured higher performance, less power utilization, heat and noise than the preceding GTX 480. This GPU received much better reviews than the GTX 480. Nvidia later also released the GTX 590, which packs two GF110 GPUs on a single card.", "In September 2010, Nvidia announced that the successor to Fermi microarchitecture would be the Kepler microarchitecture, manufactured with the TSMC 28 nm fabrication process. Earlier, Nvidia had been contracted to supply their top-end GK110 cores for use in Oak Ridge National Laboratory's \"Titan\" supercomputer, leading to a shortage of GK110 cores. After AMD launched their own annual refresh in early 2012, the Radeon HD 7000 series, Nvidia began the release of the GeForce 600 series in March 2012. The GK104 core, originally intended for their mid-range segment of their lineup, became the flagship GTX 680. It introduced significant improvements in performance, heat, and power efficiency compared to the Fermi architecture and closely matched AMD's flagship Radeon HD 7970. It was quickly followed by the dual-GK104 GTX 690 and the GTX 670, which featured only a slightly cut-down GK104 core and was very close in performance to the GTX 680. With the GTX TITAN, Nvidia also released GPU Boost 2.0, which would allow the GPU clock speed to increase indefinitely until a user-set temperature limit was reached without passing a user-specified maximum fan speed. The final GeForce 600 series release was the GTX 650 Ti BOOST based on the GK106 core, in response to AMD's Radeon HD 7790 release. At the end of May 2013, Nvidia announced the 700 series, which was still based on the Kepler architecture, however it featured a GK110-based card at the top of the lineup. The GTX 780 was a slightly cut-down TITAN that achieved nearly the same performance for two-thirds of the price. It featured the same advanced reference cooler design, but did not have the unlocked double-precision cores and was equipped with 3 GB of memory. At the same time, Nvidia announced ShadowPlay, a screen capture solution that used an integrated H.264 encoder built into the Kepler architecture that Nvidia had not revealed previously. It could be used to record gameplay without a capture card, and with negligible performance decrease compared to software recording solutions, and was available even on the previous generation GeForce 600 series cards. The software beta for ShadowPlay, however, experienced multiple delays and would not be released until the end of October 2013. A week after the release of the GTX 780, Nvidia announced the GTX 770 to be a rebrand of the GTX 680. It was followed by the GTX 760 shortly after, which was also based on the GK104 core and similar to the GTX 660 Ti. No more 700 series cards were set for release in 2013, although Nvidia announced G-Sync, another feature of the Kepler architecture that Nvidia had left unmentioned, which allowed the GPU to dynamically control the refresh rate of G-Sync-compatible monitors which would release in 2014, to combat tearing and judder. However, in October, AMD released the R9 290X, which came in at $100 less than the GTX 780. In response, Nvidia slashed the price of the GTX 780 by $150 and released the GTX 780 Ti, which featured a full 2880-core GK110 core even more powerful than the GTX TITAN, along with enhancements to the power delivery system which improved overclocking, and managed to pull ahead of AMD's new release. The GeForce 800M series consists of rebranded 700M series parts based on the Kepler architecture and some lower-end parts based on the newer Maxwell architecture.", "In March 2013, Nvidia announced that the successor to Kepler would be the Maxwell microarchitecture. It was released in September 2014. This was the last GeForce series to support analog video output through DVI-I.", "In March 2014, Nvidia announced that the successor to Maxwell would be the Pascal microarchitecture; announced on 6 May 2016 and released on 27 May 2016. Architectural improvements include the following:", "In August 2018, Nvidia announced the GeForce successor to Pascal. The new microarchitecture name was revealed as \"Turing\" at the Siggraph 2018 conference. This new GPU microarchitecture is aimed to accelerate the real-time ray tracing support and AI Inferencing. It features a new Ray Tracing unit (RT Core) which can dedicate processors to the ray tracing in hardware. It supports the DXR extension in Microsoft DirectX 12. Nvidia claims the new architecture is up to 6 times faster than the older Pascal architecture. A whole new Tensor core design since Volta introduces AI deep learning acceleration, which allows the utilisation of DLSS (Deep Learning Super Sampling), a new form of anti-aliasing that uses AI to provide crisper imagery with less impact on performance. It also changes its integer execution unit which can execute in parallel with the floating point data path. A new unified cache architecture which doubles its bandwidth compared with previous generations was also announced. The new GPUs were revealed as the Quadro RTX 8000, Quadro RTX 6000 and Quadro RTX 5000. The high end Quadro RTX 8000 features 4,608 CUDA cores and 576 Tensor cores with 48GB of VRAM. Nvidia expects the Turing-based Quadro GPU to be released on Q4 2018. Later during the Gamescom press conference, NVIDIA's CEO Jensen Huang, unveiled the new GeForce RTX series with RTX 2080 Ti, 2080, and 2070 that will use the Turing architecture. The first Turing cards were slated to ship to consumers on September 20, 2018. Nvidia announced the RTX 2060 on January 6, 2019 at CES 2019. On July 2, 2019, Nvidia announced the GeForce RTX Super line of cards, a 20 series refresh which comprises higher-spec versions of the RTX 2060, 2070 and 2080. The RTX 2070 and 2080 were discontinued. In February 2019, Nvidia announced the GeForce 16 series. It is based on the same Turing architecture used in the GeForce 20 series, but omitting the Tensor (AI) and RT (ray tracing) cores unique to the latter in favour of providing a more affordable graphics solution for gamers while still attaining a higher performance compared to respective cards of the previous GeForce generations. Like the RTX Super refresh, Nvidia on October 29, 2019 announced the GTX 1650 and 1660 Super cards, which replaced their non-Super counterparts.", "", "Since the GeForce2, Nvidia has produced a number of graphics chipsets for notebook computers under the \"GeForce Go\" branding. Most of the features present in the desktop counterparts are present in the mobile ones. These GPUs are generally optimized for lower power consumption and less heat output in order to be used in notebook PCs and small desktops. Beginning with the GeForce 8 series, the \"GeForce Go\" brand was discontinued and the mobile GPUs were integrated with the main line of GeForce GPUs, but their name suffixed with an \"M\". This ended in 2016 with the launch of the laptop GeForce 10 series – Nvidia dropped the \"M\" suffix, opting to unify the branding between their desktop and laptop GPU offerings, as notebook Pascal GPUs are almost as powerful as their desktop counterparts (something Nvidia tested with their \"desktop-class\" notebook GTX 980 GPU back in 2015). The \"GeForce MX\" brand, previously used by Nvidia for their entry-level desktop GPUs, was revived in 2017 with the release of the GeForce MX150 for notebooks. The MX150 is based on the same Pascal GP108 GPU as used on the desktop GT 1030, and was quietly released in June 2017.", "Similar to the mobile GPUs, Nvidia also released a few GPUs in \"small form factor\" format, for use in all-in-one desktops. These GPUs are suffixed with an \"S\", similar to the \"M\" used for mobile products.", "Beginning with the nForce 4, Nvidia started including onboard graphics solutions in their motherboard chipsets. These onboard graphics solutions were called mGPUs (motherboard GPUs). Nvidia discontinued the nForce range, including these mGPUs, in 2009. After the nForce range was discontinued, Nvidia released their Ion line in 2009, which consisted of an Intel Atom CPU partnered with a low-end GeForce 9 series GPU, fixed on the motherboard. Nvidia released an upgraded \"Ion 2\" in 2010, this time containing a low-end GeForce 300 series GPU.", "From the GeForce 4 series until the GeForce 9 series, the naming scheme below is used. Since the release of the GeForce 100 series of GPUs, Nvidia changed their product naming scheme to the one below.", "", "Nvidia develops and publishes GeForce drivers for Windows 10 x86/x86-64 and later, Linux x86/x86-64/ARMv7-A, OS X 10.5 and later, Solaris x86/x86-64 and FreeBSD x86/x86-64. A current version can be downloaded from Nvidia and most Linux distributions contain it in their own repositories. Nvidia GeForce driver 340.24 from supports the EGL interface enabling support for Wayland in conjunction with this driver. This may be different for the Nvidia Quadro brand, which is based on identical hardware but features OpenGL-certified graphics device drivers. Basic support for the DRM mode-setting interface in the form of a new kernel module named codice_1 has been available since version 358.09 beta. The support Nvidia's display controller on the supported GPUs is centralized in codice_1. Traditional display interactions (X11 modesets, OpenGL SwapBuffers, VDPAU presentation, SLI, stereo, framelock, G-Sync, etc.) initiate from the various user-mode driver components and flow to codice_1. On the same day the Vulkan graphics API was publicly released, Nvidia released drivers that fully supported it. Legacy driver: Usually a legacy driver does feature support for newer GPUs as well, but since newer GPUs are supported by newer GeForce driver numbers which regularly provide more features and better support, the end-user is encouraged to always use the highest possible drivers number. Current driver:", "Community-created, free and open-source drivers exist as an alternative to the drivers released by Nvidia. Open-source drivers are developed primarily for Linux, however there may be ports to other operating systems. The most prominent alternative driver is the reverse-engineered free and open-source \"nouveau\" graphics device driver. Nvidia has publicly announced to not provide any support for such additional device drivers for their products, although Nvidia has contributed code to the Nouveau driver. Free and open-source drivers support a large portion (but not all) of the features available in GeForce-branded cards. For example, nouveau driver lacks support for the GPU and memory clock frequency adjustments, and for associated dynamic power management. Also, Nvidia's proprietary drivers consistently perform better than nouveau in various benchmarks. However, and version 3.16 of the Linux kernel mainline, contributions by Nvidia allowed partial support for GPU and memory clock frequency adjustments to be implemented.", "The license has common terms against reverse engineering and copying, and it disclaims warranties and liability. Starting in 2016 the GeFORCE license says Nvidia \"SOFTWARE may access, collect non-personally identifiable information about, update, and configure Customer's system in order to properly optimize such system for use with the SOFTWARE.\" The privacy notice goes on to say, \"We are not able to respond to \"Do Not Track\" signals set by a browser at this time. We also permit third party online advertising networks and social media companies to collect information... We may combine personal information that we collect about you with the browsing and tracking information collected by these [cookies and beacons] technologies.\" The software configures the user's system to optimize its use, and the license says, \"NVIDIA will have no responsibility for any damage or loss to such system (including loss of data or access) arising from or relating to (a) any changes to the configuration, application settings, environment variables, registry, drivers, BIOS, or other attributes of the system (or any part of such system) initiated through the SOFTWARE\".", "Until the March 26, 2019 update, users of GeForce Experience were vulnerable to code execution, denial of service and escalation of privilege attacks" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Company history.", "Major releases and acquisitions.", "Class action lawsuit.", "Apple/Nvidia web driver controversy.", "Finances.", "GPU Technology Conference.", "Product families.", "Open-source software support.", "Deep learning.", "DGX.", "Inception Program.", "2018 winners.", "2017 winners." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Nvidia was founded on April 5, 1993 by Jensen Huang (CEO ), a Taiwanese American, previously director of CoreWare at LSI Logic and a microprocessor designer at Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Chris Malachowsky, an electrical engineer who worked at Sun Microsystems and Curtis Priem, previously a senior staff engineer and graphics chip designer at Sun Microsystems. In 1993, the three co-founders believed that the proper direction for the next wave of computing is accelerated or graphics-based computing as this model of computing could solve problems that general-purpose computing fundamentally couldn't. They also observed that video games were simultaneously one of the most computationally challenging problems and would have incredibly high sales volume. The two conditions don't happen very often. Video games became the company's flywheel to reach large markets and funding huge R&D to solve massive computational problems. With only $40,000 in the bank, the company was born. The company subsequently received $20 million of venture capital funding from Sequoia Capital and others. Nvidia initially had no name and the co-founders named all their files NV, as in \"next version\". The need to incorporate the company prompted the co-founders to review all words with those two letters, leading them to \"invidia\", the Latin word for \"envy\". Nvidia went public on January 22, 1999.", "The release of the RIVA TNT in 1998 solidified Nvidia's reputation for developing capable graphics adapters. In late 1999, Nvidia released the GeForce 256 (NV10), most notably introducing on-board transformation and lighting (T&L) to consumer-level 3D hardware. Running at 120 MHz and featuring four pixel pipelines, it implemented advanced video acceleration, motion compensation and hardware sub-picture alpha blending. The GeForce outperformed existing products by a wide margin. Due to the success of its products, Nvidia won the contract to develop the graphics hardware for Microsoft's Xbox game console, which earned Nvidia a $200 million advance. However, the project took many of its best engineers away from other projects. In the short term this did not matter, and the GeForce2 GTS shipped in the summer of 2000. In December 2000, Nvidia reached an agreement to acquire the intellectual assets of its one-time rival 3dfx, a pioneer in consumer 3D graphics technology leading the field from mid 1990s until 2000. The acquisition process was finalized in April 2002. In July 2002, Nvidia acquired Exluna for an undisclosed sum. Exluna made software-rendering tools and the personnel were merged into the Cg project. In August 2003, Nvidia acquired MediaQ for approximately US$70 million. On April 22, 2004, Nvidia acquired iReady, also a provider of high performance TCP/IP and iSCSI offload solutions. In December 2004, it was announced that Nvidia would assist Sony with the design of the graphics processor (RSX) in the PlayStation 3 game console. On December 14, 2005, Nvidia acquired ULI Electronics, which at the time supplied third-party southbridge parts for chipsets to ATI, Nvidia's competitor. In March 2006, Nvidia acquired Hybrid Graphics. In December 2006, Nvidia, along with its main rival in the graphics industry AMD (which had acquired ATI), received subpoenas from the U.S. Department of Justice regarding possible antitrust violations in the graphics card industry. \"Forbes\" named Nvidia its \"Company of the Year\" for 2007, citing the accomplishments it made during the said period as well as during the previous five years. On January 5, 2007, Nvidia announced that it had completed the acquisition of PortalPlayer, Inc. In February 2008, Nvidia acquired Ageia, developer of the PhysX physics engine and physics processing unit. Nvidia announced that it planned to integrate the PhysX technology into its future GPU products. In November 2011, after initially unveiling it at Mobile World Congress, Nvidia released its Tegra 3 ARM system-on-chip for mobile devices. Nvidia claimed that the chip featured the first-ever quad-core mobile CPU. In May 2011, it was announced that Nvidia had agreed to acquire Icera, a baseband chip making company in the UK, for $367 million. In January 2013, Nvidia unveiled the Tegra 4, as well as the Nvidia Shield, an Android-based handheld game console powered by the new system-on-chip. On July 29, 2013, Nvidia announced that they acquired PGI from STMicroelectronics. On May 6, 2016, Nvidia unveiled the first GeForce 10 series GPUs, the GTX 1080 and 1070, based on the company's new Pascal microarchitecture. Nvidia claimed that both models outperformed its Maxwell-based Titan X model; the models incorporate GDDR5X and GDDR5 memory respectively, and use a 16 nm manufacturing process. The architecture also supports a new hardware feature known as simultaneous multi-projection (SMP), which is designed to improve the quality of multi-monitor and virtual reality rendering. Laptops that include these GPUs and are sufficiently thin – as of late 2017, under – have been designated as meeting Nvidia's \"Max-Q\" design standard. In July 2016, Nvidia agreed to a settlement for a false advertising lawsuit regarding its GTX 970 model, as the models were unable to use all of their advertised 4 GB of RAM due to limitations brought by the design of its hardware. In May 2017, Nvidia announced a partnership with Toyota Motor Corp. Toyota will use Nvidia's Drive PX-series artificial intelligence platform for its autonomous vehicles. In July 2017, Nvidia and Chinese search giant Baidu, Inc. announced a far-reaching AI partnership that includes cloud computing, autonomous driving, consumer devices, and Baidu's open-source AI framework PaddlePaddle. Baidu unveiled that Nvidia's Drive PX 2 AI will be the foundation of its autonomous-vehicle platform. Nvidia officially released the NVIDIA TITAN V on December 7, 2017. Nvidia officially released the Nvidia Quadro GV100 on March 27, 2018. Nvidia officially released RTX 2080GPUs September 27, 2018. In 2018, Google announced that Nvidia's Tesla P4 graphic cards would be integrated into Google Cloud service's artificial intelligence. On March 11, 2019, Nvidia announced a deal to buy Mellanox Technologies for $6.9 billion to substantially expand its footprint in the high-performance computing market. In May 2019, Nvidia announced new RTX Studio laptops. The creators say that the new laptop is going to be seven times faster than a top-end MacBook Pro with a Core i9 and AMD's Radeon Pro Vega 20 graphics in apps like Maya and RedCine-X Pro. In August 2019, Nvidia announced Minecraft RTX, an official Nvidia-developed patch for the game adding real-time DXR raytracing exclusively to the Windows 10 version of the game. The whole game is, in Nvidia's words, \"refit\" with path tracing, which dramatically affects the way light, reflections and shadows work inside the engine. In May 2020, Nvidia's top scientists developed an open-source ventilator in order to address the shortage resulting from the global coronavirus pandemic. On May 14, 2020, Nvidia officially announced their Ampere GPU microarchitecture and the Nvidia A100 GPU accelerator.", "In July 2008, Nvidia took a write-down of approximately $200 million on its first-quarter revenue, after reporting that certain mobile chipsets and GPUs produced by the company had \"abnormal failure rates\" due to manufacturing defects. Nvidia, however, did not reveal the affected products. In September 2008, Nvidia became the subject of a class action lawsuit over the defects, claiming that the faulty GPUs had been incorporated into certain laptop models manufactured by Apple Inc., Dell, and HP. In September 2010, Nvidia reached a settlement, in which it would reimburse owners of the affected laptops for repairs or, in some cases, replacement. On January 10, 2011, Nvidia signed a six-year, $1.5 billion cross-licensing agreement with Intel, ending all litigation between the two companies.", "In May 2018, on the Nvidia user forum, a thread was started asking the company to update users when they would release web drivers for its cards installed on legacy Mac Pro 'cheesegrater' machines up to mid 2012 5,1 running the macOS Mojave operating system 10.14. Web drivers are required to enable graphics acceleration and multiple display monitor capabilities of the GPU. On its Mojave update info website, Apple stated that macOS Mojave would run on legacy machines with 'Metal compatible' graphics cards and listed Metal compatible GPUs, including some manufactured by Nvidia. However, this list did not include metal compatible cards that currently work in macOS High Sierra using Nvidia developed web drivers. In September, Nvidia responded, \"Apple fully control drivers for Mac OS. But if Apple allows, our engineers are ready and eager to help Apple deliver great drivers for Mac OS 10.14 (Mojave).\" In October, Nvidia followed this up with another public announcement, \"Apple fully controls drivers for Mac OS. Unfortunately, Nvidia currently cannot release a driver unless it is approved by Apple,\" suggesting a possible rift between the two companies. By January 2019, with still no sign of the enabling web drivers, Apple Insider weighed into the controversy with a claim that Apple management \"doesn't want Nvidia support in macOS\". The following month, Apple Insider followed this up with another claim that Nvidia support was abandoned because of \"relational issues in the past\", and that Apple was developing its own GPU technology. Without Apple approved Nvidia web drivers, Apple users are faced with replacing their Nvidia cards with a competing supported brand, such as AMD Radeon from the list recommended by Apple.", "For the fiscal year 2018, Nvidia reported earnings of US$3.047 billion, with an annual revenue of US$9.714 billion, an increase of 40.6% over the previous fiscal cycle. Nvidia's shares traded at over $245 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$120.6 billion in September 2018.", "NVIDIA's GPU Technology Conference (GTC) is a series of technical conferences held around the world. It originated in 2009 in San Jose, California, with an initial focus on the potential for solving computing challenges through GPUs. In recent years, the conference focus has shifted to various applications of artificial intelligence and deep learning, including: self-driving cars, healthcare, high performance computing, and NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) training. GTC 2018 attracted over 8400 attendees. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, GTC 2020 was converted to a digital event and drew roughly 59,000 registrants.", "Nvidia's family includes primarily graphics, wireless communication, PC processors and automotive hardware/software. Some families are listed below:", "Until September 23, 2013, Nvidia had not published any documentation for its hardware, meaning that programmers could not write free and open-source device driver for its products without resorting to (clean room) reverse engineering. Instead, Nvidia provides its own binary GeForce graphics drivers for X.Org and an open-source library that interfaces with the Linux, FreeBSD or Solaris kernels and the proprietary graphics software. Nvidia also provided but stopped supporting an obfuscated open-source driver that only supports two-dimensional hardware acceleration and ships with the X.Org distribution. The proprietary nature of Nvidia's drivers has generated dissatisfaction within free-software communities. Some Linux and BSD users insist on using only open-source drivers and regard Nvidia's insistence on providing nothing more than a binary-only driver as inadequate, given that competing manufacturers such as Intel offer support and documentation for open-source developers and that others (like AMD) release partial documentation and provide some active development. Because of the closed nature of the drivers, Nvidia video cards cannot deliver adequate features on some platforms and architectures given that the company only provides x86/x64 and ARMv7-A driver builds. As a result, support for 3D graphics acceleration in Linux on PowerPC does not exist, nor does support for Linux on the hypervisor-restricted PlayStation 3 console. Some users claim that Nvidia's Linux drivers impose artificial restrictions, like limiting the number of monitors that can be used at the same time, but the company has not commented on these accusations. In 2014, with Maxwell GPUs, Nvidia started to require firmware by them to unlock all features of its graphics cards. Up to now this state did not change and makes writing open source drivers difficult.", "Nvidia GPUs are used in deep learning, artificial intelligence, and accelerated analytics. The company developed GPU-based deep learning in order to use artificial intelligence to approach problems like cancer detection, weather prediction, and self-driving vehicles. They are included in all Tesla vehicles. The purpose is to help networks learn to “think”. According to \"TechRepublic\", Nvidia GPUs \"work well for deep learning tasks because they are designed for parallel computing and do well to handle the vector and matrix operations that are prevalent in deep learning\". These GPUs are used by researchers, laboratories, tech companies and enterprise companies. In 2009, Nvidia was involved in what was called the \"big bang\" of deep learning, \"as deep-learning neural networks were combined with Nvidia graphics processing units (GPUs)\". That year, the Google Brain used Nvidia GPUs to create Deep Neural Networks capable of machine learning, where Andrew Ng determined that GPUs could increase the speed of deep-learning systems by about 100 times.", "In April 2016, Nvidia produced the DGX-1 supercomputer based on an 8 GPU cluster, to improve the ability of users to use deep learning by combining GPUs with integrated deep learning software. It also developed Nvidia Tesla K80 and P100 GPU-based virtual machines, which are available through Google Cloud, which Google installed in November 2016. Microsoft added GPU servers in a preview offering of its N series based on Nvidia's Tesla K80s, each containing 4992 processing cores. Later that year, AWS's P2 instance was produced using up to 16 Nvidia Tesla K80 GPUs. That month Nvidia also partnered with IBM to create a software kit that boosts the AI capabilities of Watson, called IBM PowerAI. Nvidia also offers its own NVIDIA Deep Learning software development kit. In 2017, the GPUs were also brought online at the RIKEN Center for Advanced Intelligence Project for Fujitsu. The company's deep learning technology led to a boost in its 2017 earnings. In May 2018, researchers at the artificial intelligence department of Nvidia realized the possibility that a robot can learn to perform a job simply by observing the person doing the same job. They have created a system that, after a short revision and testing, can already be used to control the universal robots of the next generation. In addition to GPU manufacturing, Nvidia provides parallel processing capabilities to researchers and scientists that allow them to efficiently run high-performance applications.", "Nvidia's Inception Program was created to support startups making exceptional advances in the fields of AI and Data Science. Award winners are announced at Nvidia's GTC Conference. There are currently 2,800 startups in the Inception Program.", "Source:", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Pollution.", "Riverfront development controversy.", "Flooding." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Gomti, a monsoon- and groundwater-fed river, originates from Gomat Taal (formally known as Fulhaar jheel) near Madho Tanda, Pilibhit, India. It extends through Uttar Pradesh and meets the Ganges near Saidpur, Kaithi, from Varanasi district. It meets a small river, the Gaihaaee, from its origin. The Gomti is a narrow stream until it reaches Mohammadi Kheri, a tehsil of Lakhimpur Kheri district (about 100 km from its origin), where it is joined by tributaries such as the Sukheta, Choha and Andhra Choha. The river is then well-defined, with the Kathina tributary joining it at Mailani and Sarayan joining it at a village in Sitapur district. A major tributary is the Sai River, which joins the Gomti near Jaunpur. The Markandey Mahadeo temple is at the confluence of the Gomti and the Ganges. After the Gomti enters Lucknow, meandering through the city for about and supplying its water. In the Lucknow area, 25 city drains pour untreated sewage into the river. At the downstream end, the Gomti barrage converts the river into a lake. In addition to Lucknow, Lakhimpur Kheri, Sultanpur Kerakat and Jaunpur are the most prominent of the 15 towns in the river's catchment basin. The river cuts the Sultanpur district and Jaunpur in half, becoming wider in the city.", "The Gomti River is polluted at several points of its course through the stretch of alluvial plains in Uttar Pradesh. The major sources of pollution are industrial waste and effluent from sugar factories and distilleries and residential wastewater and sewage. The river and its tributaries, such as Kukrail Drainage, collect large amounts of human and industrial pollutants as they flow through an area of about 18 million people. High pollution levels threaten the Gomti's aquatic life. On 25 July 2008, the foundation stone of a -capacity sewage treatment plant was laid. The plant, promoted as Asia's largest, failed; in 2014 it was reportedly running at 10 percent of capacity, and beyond the plant (near Bharwara) untreated sewage and solid waste entered the river. The plant was intended to intercept the 23 major natural drains entering the Gomti.", "The Gomti has been stressed, particularly in and around Lucknow, for decades. There are three major issues: Although government agencies planned major projects, such as the Bharwara sewage treatment plant and mechanical dredging, most were unsuccessful. The Gomti rises by 10–12 meters during the monsoon, and in 2008 a major flood was reported. Around 2012, the newly-elected government and the Lucknow Development Authority began a feasibility study with the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee to build a river-front similar to Sabarmati Riverfront in Ahmedabad. The LDA submitted the report, warning about the negative consequences of reducing the Gomti to less than 250 meters wide. At 250 meters wide (with walls on both sides), the river's velocity would increase by 20 percent and its bed-shear stress by 30 percent. Current embankments would have to be raised by 1.5 meters, and the high flood level (HFL) would increase by 1.25 meters. Two bridges would be threatened with collapse under flood conditions. The plan was given to the irrigation department, which signed a memorandum of understanding with IIT Roorkee in December 2015 to conduct a similar study on the project. The riverfront-development project is seen as a political showdown between the state government and the ruling party, whose similar construction in Ahmedabad over the Sabarmati River has been projected as a showcase of development in the state of Gujarat. Many noted environmentalists and river-system experts vehemently opposed that project as well. Both projects are seen as a template for similar interference with river systems across India, including the Yamuna, the Hindon and the Varuna.", "Monsoon flooding leads to several problems when the water recedes, including the danger posed by drying potholes and pits (which host disease causing mosquitoes such as malaria and dengue)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Tidal bore.", "History.", "Bridges.", "Economics.", "Hooghly River in arts.", "Literature.", "Cultural events." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The vast majority of the water that flows into the Hooghly River is provided by the man-made Farakka Feeder Canal, rather than the natural source of the river at Giria. The Farakka Barrage is a dam that diverts water from the Ganges into the Farakka Feeder Canal near the town of Tildanga in Murshidabad district, located 40 km upstream from Giria. This supplies the Hooghly with water as per agreement between India and Bangladesh. The feeder canal runs parallel to the Ganges, past Dhulian, until just above Jahangirpur where the canal ends and joins the Bhagirathi river. The Bhagirathi then flows south past Jiaganj Azimganj, Murshidabad, and Baharampur. South of Baharampur and north of Palashi it used to form the border between Bardhaman District and Nadia District, but while the border has remained the same the river is now often east or west of its former bed. The river then flows south past Katwa, Navadwip and Kalna. At Kalna it originally formed the border between Nadia District and Hooghly District, and then further south between Hooghly District and North 24 Parganas District. It flows past Halisahar, Chinsurah, Serampore, and Kamarhati. Then, just before entering the twin cities of Kolkata (Calcutta) and Howrah, it turns to the southwest. At Nurpur it enters an old channel of the Ganges, and turns south to empty into the Bay of Bengal through an estuary about wide. Ain-i-Akbari, a book by Abu'l-Fazl, describes that the river Ganga and river Sarwasati(Sarsuti) streams of lower Bengal had different flows. According to the footnotes of this book, the colour of the water of the Sarawasati was white, the colour of another stream named Jamuna was blue, and the colour of the Ganga was muddy and yellowish. From Kolkata the main flow of the Hooghly-Bhagirathi (or Ganga) used to run along the side of the Kalighat temple, Baruipur, Jaynagar, Chhatrabhog and Hatiagarh. At that time, between Khiderpore and Sankrail no flow existed. Presently, the stream between Khiderpore and Sankrail became known as KatiGanga. A channel had been dug at the time of Alibardi Khan in the middle of 18th century. This happened with the assistance of Dutch traders, who also set up a toll point on the Hooghly river. So the present reach of the Hooghly is actually the lower part of the historical Saraswati.the capital of kolkatha is located near Hoogly river", "The tide runs rapidly on the Hooghly, and produces a remarkable example of the fluvial phenomenon known as a tidal bore. This consists of the head-wave of the advancing tide, hemmed in where the estuary narrows suddenly into the river, and often exceeds in height. It is felt as high up as Kolkata, and frequently destroys small boats. The difference from the lowest point of low-water in the dry season to the highest point of high-water in the rains is reported to be. The greatest mean rise of tide, about, takes place in March, April or May - with a declining range during the rainy season to a mean of, and a minimum during freshets of.", "In its upper reaches the river is generally known as the Bhāgirathi, until it reaches Hooghly. The word Bhāgirathi literally means \"caused by Bhagiratha\", a mythical Sagar Dynasty prince who was instrumental in bringing the river Ganges from the heavens on to the earth, in order to release his 60,000 grand-uncles from a curse of the saint Kapila. In 1974, the Farakka Barrage began diverting water into the Hooghly during the dry season so as to reduce the silting difficulties at Kolkata's port. Like the rest of the Ganges, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly is considered sacred to Hindus, and its water is considered holy.", "The following bridges currently span the Hooghly/Bhagirathi River; listed from south to north (mouth to source), until the Farakka Feeder Canal meets the river: The following bridges are under various stages of development:", "The Bhāgirathi-Hooghly river system is an essential lifeline for the people of West Bengal. It was through this river that the East India company sailed into Bengal and established their trade settlement, Calcutta, the capital of British India. People from other countries such as the French, Dutch, Portuguese, etc. all had their trade settlements by the banks of this river. The river provides a perennial supply of water to the plain of West Bengal for irrigation and human & industry consumption. The river is navigable and a major transport system in the region with a large traffic flow. For a long time, the Calcutta Port was the biggest port of India. Although in the past its significance had gone down, recently it has reached the 3rd position in the list of Indian Ports. The modern container port of Haldia, on the intersection of lower Hooghly and Haldi River, now carries much of the region's maritime trade. One new port will be built in the deep sea to reduce the load on Calcutta port. Despite being polluted, the fish from the river are important to the local economy.The Hooghly river valley was the most important industrial area of the state of Bengal. Due to declining jute industry, the prime industry of this region, but it is still one of the biggest industrial areas of India. It has number of small cities which forms the Greater Kolkata agglomeration, the second biggest Indian city and former capital. In September 2015, the Government of West Bengal announced that renovation of the Hooghly riverfront in Kolkata will be completed with the help of World Bank funding under the National Ganga River Basin Project Scheme.", "", "Rudyard Kipling wrote an article, \"On the Banks of the Hugli\" (1888), and a short story set on the Hooghli, \"An Unqualified Pilot\" (1895).", "The Silk River project aims at exploring the artistic relationship between Kolkata and London through artistic exchange from 10 locations each along the Hooghly River and the River Thames. The 10 places along the Hooghly River are Murshidabad, Krishnagar, Chandernagore, Barrackpore, Jorasanko, Bowbazar, Howrah, Kidderpore, Botanical Gardens and Batanagar. Ten scrolls, painted in the Patua tradition, depicting the 10 places will be carried along the Hooghly River. The event began at Murshidabad on 7 December 2017 and ended at the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata on 17 December." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Sandinista revolution (1979–1990).", "In opposition (1990–2007).", "Second presidency (2007–present).", "Controversy.", "Sexual abuse allegations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Ortega was born in La Libertad, department of Chontales, Nicaragua. His parents, Daniel Ortega Cerda and Lidia Saavedra, were opposed to the regime of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. His mother was imprisoned by Somoza's National Guard for being in possession of \"love letters,\" which the police said were coded political missives. Ortega and his two brothers, grew up to become revolutionaries. His brother Humberto Ortega is a former general, military leader, and published writer, and Camilo Ortega has also been politically active. They had a sister, Germania, who died. Seeking stable employment, the family migrated from La Libertad to the provincial capital of Juigalpa, and then to a working-class neighborhood in Managua. Their father Daniel Ortega Cedra detested U.S. military intervention in Nicaragua and Washington's support for the Somoza dictatorship. Hi imparted this anti-American sentiment to his sons. Ortega was first arrested for political activities at the age of 15, and quickly joined the then-underground Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN). In 1964, Ortega travelled to Guatemala, where the police arrested him and turned him over to the Nicaraguan National Guard. After his release from detainment, Ortega arranged the assassination of his torturer, Guardsman Gonzalo Lacayo, in August 1967. He was imprisoned in 1967 for taking part in armed robbery of", "When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person Junta of National Reconstruction, which included Sandinista militant Moisés Hassan, novelist Sergio Ramírez, businessman Alfonso Robelo, and Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, the widow of a murdered journalist. In September 1979, United States President Carter hosted Ortega at the White House, and warned him against arming other Central American leftist guerrilla movements. At the time, Ortega spoke truthfully when he denied Sandinista involvement in neighboring countries. When Ortega questioned the Americans about CIA support for anti-Sandinista groups, Carter and Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher said the reports were false. After the meeting, Carter asked Congress for $75 million in aid to Nicaragua, contingent on the Sandinista government's promise not to aid other guerrillas. The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and in 1981 Ortega became the coordinator of the Junta. As the only member of the FSLN National Directorate in the Junta, he was the effective leader of the country. After attaining power, the FSLN embarked upon an ambitious programme of social reform. They arranged to redistribute of land to about 100,000 families; launched a literacy drive, and made health care improvements that ended polio through mass vaccinations, and reduced th frequency of other treatable diseases. The Sandinista nationalization efforts affected mostly banks and industries owned by the extended Somoza family. More than half of all farms, businesses, and industries remained in private hands. The revolutionary government wanted to preserve a mixed economy and support private sector investment. The Superior Council of Private Enterprise (COSEP) opposed the Sandinistas’ economic reform. The main organization of Nicaraguan big business was composed of prosperous families from the Pacific coast cities, who dominated commerce and banking. Ortega took a very hard line against opposition to his policies: On February 21, 1981, the Sandinista army killed 7 Miskito Indians and wounded 17. Ortega's administration forced displacement of many of the indigenous population: 10,000 individuals had been moved by 1982. Thousands of Indians fled to take refuge across the border in Honduras, and Ortega's government imprisoned 14,000 in Nicaragua. Anthropologist Gilles Bataillon termed this \"politics of ethnocide\" in Nicaragua. The Indians formed two rebel groups – the Misura and Misurasata. They were joined in the north by Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) and in the south by former Sandinistas and peasantry who, under the leadership of Edén Pastora, were resisting forced collectivization. In 1980 the Sandinista government launched the massive Nicaraguan Literacy Campaign, and claimed the illiteracy rate fell from 50% to 13% in the span of five months. These figures are disputed, as many \"unteachable\" illiterates were omitted from the statistics, and many people declared literate were found to", "In the 1990 presidential election, Ortega lost his reelection bid to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the junta. Chamorro was supported by the US and a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the National Opposition Union (Unión Nacional Oppositora, UNO), an alliance that ranged from conservatives and liberals to communists. She ran an effective campaign, presenting herself as the peace candidate and promising to end the US-funded Contra War if she won. Ortega campaigned on the slogan, \"Everything Will Be Better,\" and promised that, with the Contra war over, he could focus on the nation's recovery. Contrary to what most observers expected, Chamorro shocked Ortega and won the election. Chamorro's UNO coalition garnered 54 percent of the vote, and won 51 of the 92 seats in the National Assembly. Immediately after the loss, the Sandinistas tried to maintain unity around their revolutionary posture. In Ortega's concession speech the following day he vowed to keep \"ruling from below\" a reference to the power that the FSLN still wielded in various sectors. He also stressed his belief that the Sandinistas had the goal of bringing \"dignity\" to Latin America, and not necessarily to hold on to government posts. In 1991, Ortega claimed elections were “an instrument to reaffirm” the FSLN's “political and ideological positions,” and also “confront capitalism.” However, the electoral loss led to pronounced divisions in the FSLN. Some members adopted more pragmatic positions, and sought to transform the FSLN into a modern social democratic party engaged in national reconciliation and class cooperation. Ortega and other party insiders found common ground with the radicals, who still promoted anti-imperialism and class conflict to achieve social change. Possible explanations for his loss include that the Nicaraguan people were disenchanted with the Ortega government as well as the fact that already in November 1989, the White House had announced that the economic embargo against Nicaragua would continue unless Violeta Chamorro won. Also, there had been reports of intimidation from the side of the contras, with a Canadian observer mission claiming that 42 people were killed by the contras in \"election violence\" in October 1989. This led many commentators to assume that Nicaraguans voted against the Sandinistas out of fear of a continuation of the contra war and economic deprivation. From July 19–21, 1991, the FSLN held a National Congress to mend the rifts between members and form a new overarching political program. The effort failed to unite the party, and intense debates over the internal governance of the FSLN continued. The pragmatists, led by the former vice president Sergio Ramirez, formed the basis of a \"renovating\" faction, and supported collaboration with other political forces to preserve the rule of law in Nicaragua. Under the leadership of Ortega and Tomas Borge, the radicals regrouped into the \"principled\" faction, and branded themselves the Izquierda Democratica (ID), or Democratic Left (DL). The DL fought the Chamorro government with disruptive labor strikes and demonstrations, and renewed calls for the revolutionary reconstruction of Nicaraguan society. During the May 20–23, 1994, extraordinary congress, Ortega ran against a fellow National Directorate member, Henry Ruiz, for the position of party secretary-general. Ortega was elected with 287 to Ruiz's 147 votes, and the DL secured the most dominant role in the FSLN. On September 9, 1994, Ortega gained more power after taking over Sergio Ramirez's seat in the Asamblea Sandinista (Sandinista Assembly). Ramirez had served as chief of the FSLN's parliamentary caucus since 1990, but Ortega came to oppose his actions in the National Assembly, setting the stage for Ramirez's removal. Historic leaders, such as Ernesto Cardenal, a former minister of culture in the Sandinista government, rejected Ortega's consolidation of power: “My resignation from the FSLN has been caused by the kidnapping of the party carried out by Daniel Ortega and the group he heads.” The party formally split on January 8, 1995, when Ramirez and a number of prominent Sandinista officials quit. Ortega ran for election again, in October 1996 and November 2001, but lost on both occasions to Arnoldo Alemán and Enrique Bolaños, respectively. In these elections, a key issue was the allegation of corruption. In Ortega's last days as president, through a series of legislative acts known as \"The Piñata\", estates that had been seized by the Sandinista government (some valued at millions and even billions of US dollars) became the private property of various FSLN officials, including Ortega himself. In the 1996 campaign, Ortega faced the Liberal Alliance (Alianza Liberal), headed by Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo, a former mayor of Managua. The Sandinistas softened their anti-imperialist rhetoric, with Ortega calling the U.S. “our great neighbor,” and vowing to cooperate “within a framework of respect, equality, and justice.” The image change failed, as Aleman's Liberal Alliance came first with 51.03 percent of the vote, while Ortega's FSLN secured 37.75 percent. Ortega's policies became more moderate during his time in opposition, and he gradually changed much of his former Marxist stance in favor of an agenda of democratic socialism. His Roman Catholic faith has become more public in recent years as well, leading Ortega to embrace a variety of socially conservative policies; in 2006 the FSLN endorsed a strict law banning all abortions in Nicaragua. In the run-up to the 2006 elections, Ortega displayed his ties to the Catholic Church by renewing his marriage vows before Cardinal Miguel Obanda y Bravo. Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the Constitutional Liberal Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC). The controversial alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties is aimed at distributing power between the PLC and FSLN, and preventing other parties from rising. After sealing the agreement in January 2000, the two parties controlled the three key institutions of the state: the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Electoral Council. \"\"El Pacto,\"\" as it is known in Nicaragua, is said to have personally benefited former presidents Ortega and Alemán greatly, while constraining then-president Bolaños. One of the key accords of the pact was to lower the percentage necessary to win a presidential election in the first round from 45% to 35%, a change in electoral law that would become decisive in Ortega's favor in the 2006 elections. At the Fourth Ordinary Congress of the FSLN, held March 17–18, 2002, Ortega eliminated the National Directorate (DN). Once the main collective leadership body of the party, with nine members, the DN no longer met routinely, and only three historic members remained. Instead, the body just supported decisions already made by the secretary-general. Ortega sidelined party officials and other members while empowering his own informal circle, known as the ring of iron.", "Soon after his inauguration, Ortega paid an official visit to Iran and met Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad. Ortega told the press that the \"revolutions of Iran and Nicaragua are almost twin revolutions...since both revolutions are about justice, liberty, self-determination, and the struggle against imperialism.\" Since the start of his second presidency, various measures have been introduced to combat hunger and to improve access to healthcare, education, credit, and social security. In addition, other reforms have been carried out, including an enhancement of labour rights, the introduction of low-interest loans and training for female micro-entrepreneurs in rural areas, and the distribution of transport subsidies, scholarships, medicine, land titles, and housing materials throughout the population. Altogether, these policies have helped to reduce high levels of poverty and inequality in Nicaragua. Ortega placed the first lady, Rosario Murillo, in charge of the Citizens’ Power Councils (CPCs), designed to implement his anti-poverty social policies. The CPCs also undermined municipal autonomy, as they effectively functioned as local governments by determining the distribution of public goods and services. In June 2008 the Nicaraguan Supreme Court disqualified the MRS and the Conservative Party from participation in municipal elections. In November 2008, the Supreme Electoral Council received national and international criticism following irregularities in municipal elections, but agreed to review results for Managua only, while the opposition demanded a nationwide review. For the first time since 1990, the Council decided not to allow national or international observers to witness the election. Instances of intimidation, violence, and harassment of opposition political party members and NGO representatives have been recorded. Official results show Sandinista candidates winning 94 of the 146 municipal mayoralties, compared to 46 for the main opposition Liberal Constitutional Party (PLC). The opposition claimed that marked ballots were dumped and destroyed, that party members were refused access to some of the vote counts and that tallies from many polling places were altered. As a result of the fraud allegations, the European Union suspended $70m of aid, and the US $64m. With the late-2000s recession, Ortega in 2011 characterised capitalism as in its \"death throes\" and portrayed the Bolivarian Alternative for the People of Our America (ALBA) is the most advanced, most Christian and fairest project. He also said God was punishing the United States with the financial crisis for trying to impose its economic principles on poor countries. \"It's incredible that in the most powerful country in the world, which spends billions of dollars on brutal wars... people do not have enough money to stay in their homes.\" Before the National Sandinista Council held in September 2009, Lenin Cerna, the secretary of the party organization, called for diversifying its political strategies. He declared the FSLN's future depended on implementing new plans, “so that the party can advance via new routes and in new ways, always under Ortega’s leadership.” Ortega gained power over the selection of candidates, allowing him to personally choose all candidates for public office. During an interview with David Frost for the Al Jazeera English programme \"Frost Over The World\" in March 2009, Ortega suggested that he would like to change the constitution to allow him to run again for president. In Judicial Decision 504, issued on October 19, 2009, the Supreme Court of Justice of Nicaragua declared portions of Articles 147 and 178 of the Constitution of Nicaragua inapplicable; these provisions concerned the eligibility of candidates for president, vice-president, mayor, and vice-mayor—a decision that had the effect of allowing Ortega to run for reelection in 2011. For this decision, the Sandinista magistrates formed the required quorum by excluding the opposition magistrates and replacing them with Sandinista substitutes, violating the Nicaraguan constitution. Opposing parties, the church and human rights groups in Nicaragua denounced the decision. Throughout 2010, court rulings gave Ortega greater power over judicial and civil service appointments. While supporting abortion rights during his presidency during the 1980s, Ortega has since embraced the Catholic Church's position of strong opposition. While non-emergency abortions have long been illegal in Nicaragua, recently even abortions \"in the case where the pregnancy endangers the mother's life\", otherwise known as therapeutic abortions have been made illegal in the days before the 2006 election, with a six-year prison term in such cases, too—a move supported by Ortega. Ortega was re-elected president with a vote on November 6 and confirmation on November 16, 2011. During the election, the Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) blocked both domestic and international poll observers from multiple polling stations. According to the Supreme Electoral Council, Ortega defeated Fabio Gadea, with 63 percent of the vote. In January 2014 the National Assembly, dominated by the FSLN, approved constitutional amendments that abolished term limits for the presidency and allowed a president to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms. Although billed as a measure to ensure stability, critics charged that the amendments threatened Nicaraguan democracy. The constitutional reforms also gave Ortega the sole power to appoint military and police commanders. As of 2016, Ortega's family owns three of the nine free-to-air television channels in Nicaragua, and controls a fourth (the public Channel 6). Four of the remaining five are controlled by Mexican mogul Ángel González, and are generally considered to be aligned with Ortega's ruling FSLN party. There are no government restrictions on Internet use; the Ortega administration attempted to gain complete control over online media in 2015, but failed due to opposition from civil society, political parties, and private organizations. In June 2016, the Nicaraguan supreme court ruled to oust Eduardo Montealegre, the leader of the main opposition party, leaving the main opposition coalition with no means of contesting the November 2016 national elections. In August 2016, Ortega chose his wife, Rosario Murillo, as his vice-presidential running-mate for re-election. According to the \"Washington Post\", figures announced on November 7, 2016 put Daniel Ortega in line for his third consecutive term as President, also being his fourth term overall. The Supreme Electoral Council (CSE) reported Ortega and Murillo won 72.4 percent of the vote, with 68 percent turnout. The opposition coalition had called the election a \"farce\" and had called for the boycott of the election. International observers were not allowed to observe the vote. Nevertheless, according to the BBC, Ortega was the most popular candidate by far, possibly due to Nicaragua's stable economic growth and lack of violence compared to its neighbours El Salvador and Honduras in recent years. In April 2018, student protests over a nature reserve fire expanded to cover an unpopular social security decree. The protesters were violently set upon by the state sponsored Sandinista Youth. Despite attempts by Ortega's government to hide the incident through censorship of all private-owned news outlets, photos and videos of the violence made their way to social media where they sparked outrage and urged more Nicaraguans to join in on the protests. Tensions escalated quickly, as police began using tear gas canisters and rubber bullets, and eventually live ammunition on unarmed protesters. Authorities were also seen arming Sandinista Youth members with weapons to serve as paramilitary forces. Dozens of student protesters were subsequently killed. Despite the withdrawal of the unpopular decree, the protests continue, with most protesters demanding Ortega's and his cabinet's resignations. As the protests continue, support for the Ortega-Murillo regime dwindles. On May 30, Nicaragua's Mother's Day, a march attended by over 300,000 people took place. It was held to honor the mothers of students killed in the recent protests. The demonstration was peaceful, attended by children, mothers and retirees. Yet Ortega's regime ordered sharpshooters, perched at the National Stadium to shoot indiscriminately at the marchers, resulting in the deaths of 15 civilians, one of them in the hands of his own mother. This event has been dubbed by Nicaraguans as the \"Mother's Day Massacre\". CNN Reported on April 13, 2020 that President Ortega had not been seen in public (in person or virtually) since March 12, 2020 when he participated in a video conference with Central America's System of Integration (SICA) to discuss the COVID-19 pandemic. Meanwhile his government has been the target of criticism for its lack of a response to the pandemic.", "In Nicaragua, reviews of Ortega's presidency have not always been glowing, with many considering him a dictator. Many Nicaraguans, including prominent former Sandinista leaders, such as Daniel Ortega's own brother Humberto Ortega, have accused him of forgetting where he came from and catering to his own capitalist interests, calling his government monopolistic and authoritarian and denouncing him as a \"Bloody Dictator\". The 2018 protests are symbolic of these tensions.", "In 1998, Daniel Ortega's adopted stepdaughter Zoilamérica Narváez released a 48-page report describing how, she alleged, Ortega had systematically sexually abused her from 1979, when she was 12, until 1990. Ortega, his wife Murillo and their other children denied the allegations, as did many Sandinistas who believe it is politically motivated. The case could not proceed in Nicaraguan courts, which have been consistently allied with Ortega, because Ortega" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Client and server role.", "Client and server communication.", "Example.", "Early history.", "Client-host and server-host.", "Centralized computing.", "Comparison with peer-to-peer architecture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"client-server\" characteristic describes the relationship of cooperating programs in an application. The server component provides a function or service to one or many clients, which initiate requests for such services. Servers are classified by the services they provide. For example, a web server serves web pages and a file server serves computer files. A shared resource may be any of the server computer's software and electronic components, from programs and data to processors and storage devices. The sharing of resources of a server constitutes a \"service\". Whether a computer is a client, a server, or both, is determined by the nature of the application that requires the service functions. For example, a single computer can run a web servers and file server software at the same time to serve different data to clients making different kinds of requests. Client software can also communicate with server software within the same computer. Communication between servers, such as to synchronize data, is sometimes called \"inter-server\" or \"server-to-server\" communication.", "In general, a service is an abstraction of computer resources and a client does not have to be concerned with how the server performs while fulfilling the request and delivering the response. The client only has to understand the response based on the well-known application protocol, i.e. the content and the formatting of the data for the requested service. Clients and servers exchange messages in a request–response messaging pattern. The client sends a request, and the server returns a response. This exchange of messages is an example of inter-process communication. To communicate, the computers must have a common language, and they must follow rules so that both the client and the server know what to expect. The language and rules of communication are defined in a communications protocol. All client-server protocols operate in the application layer. The application layer protocol defines the basic patterns of the dialogue. To formalize the data exchange even further, the server may implement an application programming interface (API). The API is an abstraction layer for accessing a service. By restricting communication to a specific content format, it facilitates parsing. By abstracting access, it facilitates cross-platform data exchange. A server may receive requests from many distinct clients in a short period of time. A computer can only perform a limited number of tasks at any moment, and relies on a scheduling system to prioritize incoming requests from clients to accommodate them. To prevent abuse and maximize availability, the server software may limit the availability to clients. Denial of service attacks are designed to exploit a server's obligation to process requests by overloading it with excessive request rates. Encryption should be applied if sensitive information is to be communicated between the client and the server.", "When a bank customer accesses online banking services with a web browser (the client), the client initiates a request to the bank's web server. The customer's login credentials may be stored in a database, and the web server accesses the database server as a client. An application server interprets the returned data by applying the bank's business logic, and provides the output to the web server. Finally, the webserver returns the result to the client web browser for display. In each step of this sequence of client-server message exchanges, a computer processes a request and returns data. This is the request-response messaging pattern. When all the requests are met, the sequence is complete and the web browser presents the data to the customer. This example illustrates a design pattern applicable to the client–server model: separation of concerns.", "An early form of client-server architecture is remote job entry, dating at least to OS/360 (announced 1964), where the request was to run a job, and the response was the output. While formulating the client–server model in the 1960s and 1970s, computer scientists building ARPANET (at the Stanford Research Institute) used the terms \"server-host\" (or \"serving host\") and \"user-host\" (or \"using-host\"), and these appear in the early documents RFC 5 and RFC 4. This usage was continued at Xerox PARC in the mid-1970s. One context in which researchers used these terms was in the design of a computer network programming language called Decode-Encode Language (DEL). The purpose of this language was to accept commands from one computer (the user-host), which would return status reports to the user as it encoded the commands in network packets. Another DEL-capable computer, the server-host, received the packets, decoded them, and returned formatted data to the user-host. A DEL program on the user-host received the results to present to the user. This is a client-server transaction. Development of DEL was just beginning in 1969, the year that the United States Department of Defense established ARPANET (predecessor of Internet).", "\"Client-host\" and \"server-host\" have subtly different meanings than \"client\" and \"server\". A host is any computer connected to a network. Whereas the words \"server\" and \"client\" may refer either to a computer or to a computer program, \"server-host\" and \"user-host\" always refer to computers. The host is a versatile, multifunction computer; \"clients\" and \"servers\" are just programs that run on a host. In the client-server model, a server is more likely to be devoted to the task of serving. An early use of the word \"client\" occurs in \"Separating Data from Function in a Distributed File System\", a 1978 paper by Xerox PARC computer scientists Howard Sturgis, James Mitchell, and Jay Israel. The authors are careful to define the term for readers, and explain that they use it to distinguish between the user and the user's network node (the client). (By 1992, the word \"server\" had entered into general parlance.)", "The client–server model does not dictate that server-hosts must have more resources than client-hosts. Rather, it enables any general-purpose computer to extend its capabilities by using the shared resources of other hosts. Centralized computing, however, specifically allocates a large amount of resources to a small number of computers. The more computation is offloaded from client-hosts to the central computers, the simpler the client-hosts can be. It relies heavily on network resources (servers and infrastructure) for computation and storage. A diskless node loads even its operating system from the network, and a computer terminal has no operating system at all; it is only an input/output interface to the server. In contrast, a fat client, such as a personal computer, has many resources, and does not rely on a server for essential functions. As microcomputers decreased in price and increased in power from the 1980s to the late 1990s, many organizations transitioned computation from centralized servers, such as mainframes and minicomputers, to fat clients. This afforded greater, more individualized dominion over computer resources, but complicated information technology management. During the 2000s, web applications matured enough to rival application software developed for a specific microarchitecture. This maturation, more affordable mass storage, and the advent of service-oriented architecture were among the factors that gave rise to the cloud computing trend of the 2010s.", "In addition to the client–server model, distributed computing applications often use the peer-to-peer (P2P) application architecture. In the client–server model, the server is often designed to operate as a centralized system that serves many clients. The computing power, memory and storage requirements of a server must be scaled appropriately to the expected workload. Load-balancing and failover systems are often employed to scale the server beyond a single physical machine. In a peer-to-peer network, two or more computers (\"peers\") pool their resources and communicate in a decentralized system. Peers are coequal, or equipotent nodes in a non-hierarchical network. Unlike clients in a client–server or client–queue–client network, peers communicate with each other directly. In peer-to-peer networking, an algorithm in the peer-to-peer communications protocol balances load, and even peers with modest resources can help to share the load. If a node becomes unavailable, its shared resources remain available as long as other peers offer it. Ideally, a peer does not need to achieve high availability because other, redundant peers make up for any resource downtime; as the availability and load capacity of peers change, the protocol reroutes requests. Both client-server and master-slave are regarded as sub-categories of distributed peer-to-peer systems." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development of the myth.", "Second Labor of Heracles.", "Constellation.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The oldest extant Hydra narrative appears in Hesiod's \"Theogony\", while the oldest images of the monster are found on a pair of bronze fibulae dating to c. 700 BC. In both these sources, the main motifs of the Hydra myth are already present: a multi-headed serpent that is slain by Heracles and Iolaus. While these fibulae portray a six-headed Hydra, its number of heads was first fixed in writing by Alcaeus (c. 600 BC), who gave it nine heads. Simonides, writing a century later, increased the number to fifty, while Euripides, Virgil and others did not give an exact figure. Heraclitus the paradoxographer rationalized the myth by suggesting that the Hydra would have been a single-headed snake accompanied by its offspring. Like the initial number of heads, the monster's capacity to regenerate lost heads varies with time and author. The first mention of this ability of the Hydra occurs with Euripides, where the monster grew back a pair of heads for each one severed by Heracles. In the \"Euthydemus\" of Plato, Socrates likens Euthydemus and his brother Dionysidorus to a Hydra of a sophistical nature who grows two arguments for every one refuted. Palaephatus, Ovid and Diodorus Siculus concur with Euripides, while Servius has the Hydra grow back three heads each time; the \"Suda\" does not give a number. Depictions of the monster dating to c. 500 BC show it with a double tail as well as multiple heads, suggesting the same regenerative ability at work, but no literary accounts have this feature. The Hydra had many parallels in ancient Near Eastern religions. In particular, Sumerian, Babylonian, and Assyrian mythology celebrated the deeds of the war and hunting god Ninurta, whom the \"Angim\" credited with slaying 11 monsters on an expedition to the mountains, including a seven-headed serpent (possibly identical with the Mushmahhu) and Bashmu, whose constellation (despite having a single Head) was later associated by the Greeks with the Hydra. The constellation is also sometimes associated in Babylonian contexts with Marduk's dragon, the Mushhushshu.", "Eurystheus sent Heracles to slay the Hydra, which Hera had raised just to slay Heracles. Upon reaching the swamp near Lake Lerna, where the Hydra dwelt, Heracles covered his mouth and nose with a cloth to protect himself from the poisonous fumes. He shot flaming arrows into the Hydra's lair, the spring of Amymone, a deep cave from which it emerged only to terrorize neighboring villages. He then confronted the Hydra, wielding either a harvesting sickle (according to some early vase-paintings), a sword, or his famed club. The chthonic creature's reaction to this decapitation was botanical: two grew back, an expression of the hopelessness of such a struggle for any but the hero. The weakness of the Hydra was that it was invulnerable only if it retained at least one head. The details of the struggle are explicit in the \"Bibliotheca\": realizing that he could not defeat the Hydra in this way, Heracles called on his nephew Iolaus for help. His nephew then came upon the idea (possibly inspired by Athena) of using a firebrand to scorch the neck stumps after each decapitation. Heracles cut off each head and Iolaus cauterized the open stumps. Seeing that Heracles was winning the struggle, Hera sent a giant crab to distract him. He crushed it under his mighty foot. The Hydra's one immortal head was cut off with a golden sword given to Heracles by Athena. Heracles placed the head—still alive and writhing—under a great rock on the sacred way between Lerna and Elaius, and dipped his arrows in the Hydra's poisonous blood. Thus his second task was complete. The alternate version of this myth is that after cutting off one head he then dipped his sword in its neck and used its venom to burn each head so it could not grow back. Hera, upset that Heracles had slain the beast she raised to kill him, placed it in the dark blue vault of the sky as the constellation Hydra. She then turned the crab into the constellation Cancer. Heracles would later use arrows dipped in the Hydra's poisonous blood to kill other foes during his remaining labors, such as Stymphalian Birds and the giant Geryon. He later used one to kill the centaur Nessus; and Nessus' tainted blood was applied to the Tunic of Nessus, by which the centaur had his posthumous revenge. Both Strabo and Pausanias report that the stench of the river Anigrus in Elis, making all the fish of the river inedible, was reputed to be due to the Hydra's poison, washed from the arrows Heracles used on the centaur. When Eurystheus, the agent of Hera who was assigning The Twelve Labors to Heracles, found out that it was Heracles' nephew Iolaus who had handed Heracles the firebrand, he declared that the labor had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the 10 labors set for him. The mythic element is an equivocating attempt to resolve the submerged conflict between an ancient ten labors and a more recent twelve.", "Greek and Roman writers related that Hera placed the Hydra and crab as constellations in the night sky after Heracles slew him. When the sun is in the sign of Cancer (Latin for \"The Crab\"), the constellation Hydra has its head nearby. In fact, both constellations derived from the earlier Babylonian signs: Bashmu (\"The Venomous Snake\") and Alluttu (\"The Crayfish\").", "Primary sources Secondary sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Political rise.", "School reforms.", "Colonial expansion.", "Agreements with Germany.", "Later life.", "Ferry's 2nd Ministry, 21 February 1883 – 6 April 1885." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Saint-Dié, in the Vosges department, France, he studied law, and was called to the bar at Paris in 1854, but soon went into politics, contributing to various newspapers, particularly to \"Le Temps\". He attacked the Second French Empire with great violence, directing his opposition especially against Baron Haussmann, prefect of the Seine department. A series of his articles in \"Le Temps\" was later republished as \"The Fantastic Tales of Haussmannlaxupa\" (1868).", "Elected republican deputy for Paris in 1869, he protested against the declaration of war with Germany, and on 6 September 1870 was appointed prefect of the Seine by the Government of National Defense. In this position he had the difficult task of administering Paris during the siege, and after the Paris Commune was obliged to resign (5 June 1871). From 1872 to 1873 he was sent by Adolphe Thiers as minister to Athens, but returned to the chamber as deputy for the Vosges, and became one of the leaders of the Opportunist Republicans. When the first republican ministry was formed under W. H. Waddington on 4 February 1879, he was one of its members, and continued in the ministry until 30 March 1885, except for two short interruptions (from 10 November 1881 to 30 January 1882, and from 29 July 1882 to 21 February 1883), first as minister of education and then as minister of foreign affairs. A leader of the Opportunist Republicans faction, he was twice premier (1880–1881 and 1883–1885). He was an active Freemason initiated on July 8, 1875, in \"La Clémante amitiée\" lodge in Paris the same day as Émile Littré. He became a member of the \"Alsace-Lorraine\" Lodge founded in Paris in 1782.", "Two important works are associated with his administration: the non-clerical organization of public education, and the major colonial expansion of France. Following the republican programme, he proposed to destroy the influence of the clergy in universities and found his own system of republican schooling. He reorganized the committee of public education (law of 27 February 1880), and proposed a regulation for the conferring of university degrees, which, though rejected, aroused violent polemics because the 7th article took away from the unauthorized religious orders the right to teach. He finally succeeded in passing his eponymous laws of 16 June 1881 and 28 March 1882, which made primary education in France free, non-clerical (laïque) and mandatory. In higher education, the number of professors, called the \"Republic's black hussars\" () because of their Republican support, doubled under his ministry. The education policies establishing French language as the language of the Republic have been contested in the second half of the 20th century insofar as, while they played an important role in unifying the French nation state and the Third Republic, they also nearly caused the extinction of several regional languages.", "After the military defeat of France by Prussia in 1870, Ferry formed the idea of acquiring a great colonial empire, principally for the sake of economic exploitation. In 1882 Jules Ferry, as Minister of Public Instruction, decided to create a mission to explore the Regency of Tunisia. The expedition was headed by the botanist Ernest Cosson and included the botanist Napoléon Doumet-Adanson and other naturalists. In 1884 a geological section under Georges Rolland was added to the Tunisian Scientific Exploration Mission. Rolland was assisted by Philippe Thomas from 1885 and by Georges Le Mesle in 1887. In a speech on the colonial empire before the Chamber of Deputies on 28 March 1884, he declared that \"it is a right for the superior races, because they have a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races.\" Ferry directed the negotiations which led to the establishment of a French protectorate in Tunis (1881), prepared the treaty of 17 December 1885 for the occupation of Madagascar; directed the exploration of the Congo and of the Niger region; and above all, he organized the conquest of Annam and Tonkin in what became Indochina. The last endeavor led to a war with Qing dynasty China, which had a claim of suzerainty over the two provinces. The excitement caused in Paris by the sudden retreat of the French troops from Lạng Sơn during this war led to the Tonkin Affair: his violent denunciation by Clemenceau and other radicals, and his downfall on 30 March 1885. Although the treaty of peace with the Chinese Empire (9 June 1885), in which the Qing dynasty ceded suzerainty of Annam and Tonkin to France, was the work of his ministry, he would never again serve as premier. The desire for a monarchy was strong in France in the early years of the Third Republic – Henri, Count of Chambord having made a bid early in its history. A committed republican, Ferry proceeded to a wide-scale \"purge\" by dismissing many known monarchists from top positions in the magistrature, army and civil and diplomatic service. In the 1890 decade he visited Algeria and provided a critic report. He predicted that Algeria could not escape a conflict between Indigènes and Europeans:", "The key to understanding Ferry's unique position in Third Republic history is that until his political critic, Georges Clemenceau became Prime Minister twice in the 20th century, Ferry had the longest tenure as Prime Minister under that regime. He also played with political dynamite that eventually destroyed his success. Ferry (like his 20th century equivalent Joseph Caillaux) believed in not confronting Wilhelmine Germany by threats of a future war of revenge. Most French politicians in the middle and right saw it as a sacred duty to one day lead France again against Germany to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine, and avenge the awful defeat of 1870. But Ferry realized that Germany was too powerful, and it made more sense to cooperate with Otto von Bismarck and avoid trouble. A sensible policy – but hardly popular. Bismarck was constantly nervous about the situation with France. Although he had despised the ineptness of the French under Napoleon III and the government of Adolphe Thiers and Jules Favre, he had not planned for all the demands he presented the French in 1870. He only wished to temporarily cripple France by the billion franc reparation, but suddenly he was confronted by the demands of Marshals Albrecht von Roon and Helmut von Moltke (backed by Emperor Wilhelm I) to annex the two French provinces as further payment. Bismarck, for all his abilities regarding manipulating events, could not afford to anger the Prussian military. He got the two provinces, but he realized it would eventually have severe future repercussions. Bismarck was able to ignore the French for most of the 1870s and early 1880s, but as he found problems with his three erstwhile allies (Austria, Russia, and Italy), he realized France might one day take advantage of this (as it did with Russia in 1894). When Ferry came up with a radically different approach to the situation and offered an olive branch, Bismarck reciprocated. A Franco-German friendship would alleviate problems of siding with either Austria or Russia, or Austria and Italy. Bismarck approved of the colonial expansion that France pursued under Ferry. He only had some problems with local German imperialists who were critical that Germany lacked colonies, so he found a few in the 1880s, making certain he did not confront French interests. But he also suggested Franco-German cooperation on the imperial front against the British Empire, thus hoping to create a wedge between the two Western European great powers. It did as a result, leading to a major race for influence across Africa that nearly culminated in war in the next decade, at Fashoda in the Sudan in 1898. But by then both Bismarck and Ferry were dead, and the rapproachment policy died when Ferry lost office. As for Fashoda, while it was a confrontation, it led to Britain and France eventually discussing their rival colonial goals, and agreeing to support each other's sphere of influence – the first step to the Entente Cordiale between the countries in 1904.", "Ferry remained an influential member of the moderate republican party, and directed the opposition to General Boulanger. After the resignation of Jules Grévy (2 December 1887), he was a candidate for the presidency of the republic, but the radicals refused to support him, and he withdrew in favour of Sadi Carnot. On 10 December 1887, a man named Aubertin attempted to assassinate Jules Ferry, who later died from complications attributed to this wound on 17 March 1893. The Chamber of Deputies gave him a state funeral.", "Changes" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Phonemic trills.", "Extralinguistic trills." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Trill consonants included in the International Phonetic Alphabet: In addition, The bilabial trill is uncommon. The coronal trill is most frequently alveolar, but dental and postalveolar articulations and also occur. An alleged retroflex trill found in Toda has been transcribed (that is, the same as the retroflex flap), but might be less ambiguously written, as only the onset is retroflex, with the actual trill being alveolar. The epiglottal trills are identified by the IPA as fricatives, with the trilling assumed to be allophonic. However, analyzing the sounds as trills may be more economical. There are also so-called strident vowels which are accompanied by epiglottal trill. The cells in the IPA chart for the velar, (upper) pharyngeal, and glottal places of articulation are shaded as impossible. The glottis quite readily vibrates, but this occurs as the phonation of vowels and consonants, not as a consonant of its own. Dorso-palatal and velar vibratory motions of the tongue are occasionally produced, especially during the release of dorsal stops, and \"ingressive\" velar trills occur in snoring, but not in normal speech. The upper pharyngeal tract cannot reliably produce a trill, but the epiglottis does, and epiglottal trills are pharyngeal in the broad sense. A partially devoiced pre-uvular (i.e. between velar and uvular) fricative trill has been reported to occur as coda allophone of in Limburgish dialects of Maastricht and Weert. It is in free variation with partially devoiced uvular fricative trill. Voiceless trills occur phonemically in e.g. Welsh and Icelandic. (See also voiceless alveolar trill, voiceless retroflex trill, voiceless uvular trill.) Mangbetu and Ninde have phonemically voiceless bilabial trills. The Czech language has two contrastive alveolar trills, one a fricative trill (written \"ř\" in the orthography). In the fricative trill the tongue is raised, so that there is audible frication during the trill, sounding a little like a simultaneous and (or and when devoiced). A symbol for this sound,, has been dropped from the IPA, and it is now generally transcribed as a raised \"r\",. Liangshan Yi (\"Cool Mountain\" Yi) has two \"buzzed\" or fricative vowels (written \"ṳ, i̤\") which may also be trilled,. A number of languages have trilled affricates such as and. The Chapakuran language Wariʼ and the Muran language Pirahã have a very unusual trilled phoneme, a voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop,. A nasal trill has been described from some dialects of Romanian, and is posited as an intermediate historical step in rhotacism. However, the phonetic variation of the sound is considerable, and it is not clear how frequently it is actually trilled.", "A linguolabial trill is not known to be used phonemically, but occurs when blowing a raspberry. Snoring typically consists of vibration of the uvula and the soft palate (velum), which may be described as an ingressive velic trill. Like the uvular trill, the ingressive velic trill does not involve the tongue; it is the velum that passively vibrates in the airstream. The \"Speculative Grammarian\" has proposed a jocular symbol for this sound (and also the sound used to imitate a pig's snort), a double-wide with double dot suggesting a pig's snout. (This might be typeset as Cyrillic Ꙫ.) The Extensions to the IPA identifies an egressive fricative pronounced with this same configuration, common with a cleft palate, as velopharyngeal, and with accompanying uvular trill as or. Lateral trills are also possible. They may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow. There is no symbol for them in the IPA. Lateral coronal trills are sometimes used to imitate bird calls, and are a component of Donald Duck talk. A labiodental trill,, is most likely to be lateral, but laterality is not distinctive among labial sounds. Ejective trills are not known from any language, despite being easy to produce. They may occur as mimesis of a cat's purr." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Initial efforts to control the quality of production.", "Wartime production.", "Postwar.", "Approaches.", "Failure testing.", "Statistical control.", "Total quality management.", "Models and standards.", "Company quality.", "In practice.", "Medical industry.", "Aerospace industry.", "Software development.", "Using contractors or consultants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "During the Ages, guilds adopted responsibility for the quality of goods and services offered by their members, setting and maintaining certain standards for guild membership. Royal governments purchasing material were interested in quality control as customers. For this reason, King John of England appointed William de Wrotham to report about the construction and repair of ships. Centuries later, Samuel Pepys, Secretary to the British Admiralty, appointed multiple such overseers to standardize sea rations and naval training. Prior to the extensive division of labor and mechanization resulting from the Industrial Revolution, it was possible for workers to control the quality of their own products. The Industrial Revolution led to a system in which large groups of people performing a specialized type of work were grouped together under the supervision of a foreman who was appointed to control the quality of work manufactured.", "During the time of the First World War, manufacturing processes typically became more complex, with larger numbers of workers being supervised. This period saw the widespread introduction of mass production and piece work, which created problems as workmen could now earn more money by the production of extra products, which in turn occasionally led to poor quality workmanship being passed on to the assembly lines. Pioneers such as Frederick Winslow Taylor and Henry Ford recognized the limitations of the methods being used in mass production at the time and the subsequent varying quality of output. Taylor, utilizing the concept of scientific management, helped separate production tasks into many simple steps (the assembly line) and limited quality control to a few specific individuals, limiting complexity. Ford emphasized standardization of design and component standards to ensure a standard product was produced, while quality was the responsibility of machine inspectors, \"placed in each department to cover all operations... at frequent intervals, so that no faulty operation shall proceed for any great length of time.\" Out of this also came statistical process control (SPC), which was pioneered by Walter A. Shewhart at Bell Laboratories in the early 1920s. Shewhart developed the control chart in 1924 and the concept of a state of statistical control. Statistical control is equivalent to the concept of exchangeability developed by logician William Ernest Johnson, also in 1924, in his book \"Logic, Part III: The Logical Foundations of Science\". Along with a team at AT&T that included Harold Dodge and Harry Romig, he worked to put sampling inspection on a rational statistical basis as well. Shewhart consulted with Colonel Leslie E. Simon in the application of control charts to munitions manufacture at the Army's Picatinny Arsenal in 1934. That successful application helped convince Army Ordnance to engage AT&T's George Edwards to consult on the use of statistical quality control among its divisions and contractors at the outbreak of World War II.", "After World War II, many countries' manufacturing capabilities that had been destroyed during the war were rebuilt. General Douglas MacArthur oversaw the rebuilding of Japan. He involved two key people in the development of modern quality concepts: W. Edwards Deming and Joseph Juran. They and others promoted the collaborative concepts of quality to Japanese business and technical groups, and these groups used these concepts in the redevelopment of the Japanese economy. Although there were many people trying to lead United States industries toward a more comprehensive approach to quality, the US continued to apply the Quality Control (QC) concepts of inspection and sampling to remove defective products from production lines, essentially unaware of or ignoring advances in QA for decades.", "", "It is valuable to failure test or stress test a complete consumer product. In mechanical terms this is the operation of a product until it fails, often under stresses such as increasing vibration, temperature, and humidity. This may expose many unanticipated weaknesses in the product, and the data is used to drive engineering and manufacturing process improvements. Often quite simple changes can dramatically improve product service, such as changing to mold-resistant paint or adding lock-washer placement to the training for new assembly personnel.", "Statistical control is based on analyses of objective and subjective data. Many organizations use statistical process control as a tool in any quality improvement effort to track quality data. Any product can be statistically charted as long as they have a common cause variance or special cause variance to track. Walter Shewart of Bell Telephone Laboratories recognized that when a product is made, data can be taken from scrutinized areas of a sample lot of the part and statistical variances are then analyzed and charted. Control can then be implemented on the part in the form of rework or scrap, or control can be implemented on the process that made the part, ideally eliminating the defect before more parts can be made like it.", "The quality of products is dependent upon that of the participating constituents, some of which are sustainable and effectively controlled while others are not. The process(es) which are managed with QA pertain to Total quality management. If the specification does not reflect the true quality requirements, the product's quality cannot be guaranteed. For instance, the parameters for a pressure vessel should cover not only the material and dimensions but operating, environmental, safety, reliability and maintainability requirements.", "ISO 17025 is an international standard that specifies the general requirements for the competence to carry out tests and or calibrations. There are 15 management requirements and 10 technical requirements. These requirements outline what a laboratory must do to become accredited. Management system refers to the organization's structure for managing its processes or activities that transform inputs of resources into a product or service which meets the organization's objectives, such as satisfying the customer's quality requirements, complying with regulations, or meeting environmental objectives. WHO has developed several tools and offers training courses for quality assurance in public health laboratories. The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) model is widely used to implement Process and Product Quality Assurance (PPQA) in an organization. The CMMI maturity levels can be divided into 5 steps, which a company can achieve by performing specific activities within the organization.", "During the 1980s, the concept of \"company quality\" with the focus on management and people came to the fore in the U.S. It was considered that, if all departments approached quality with an open mind, success was possible if management led the quality improvement process. The company-wide quality approach places an emphasis on four aspects (enshrined in standards such as ISO 9001): The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these aspects is deficient. QA is not limited to manufacturing, and can be applied to any business or non-business activity, including: design, consulting, banking, insurance, computer software development, retailing, investment, transportation, education, and translation. It comprises a quality improvement process, which is generic in the sense that it can be applied to any of these activities and it establishes a behavior pattern, which supports the achievement of quality. This in turn is supported by quality management practices which can include a number of business systems and which are usually specific to the activities of the business unit concerned. In manufacturing and construction activities, these business practices can be equated to the models for quality assurance defined by the International Standards contained in the ISO 9000 series and the specified Specifications for quality systems. In the system of Company Quality, the work being carried out was shop floor inspection which did not reveal the major quality problems. This led to quality assurance or total quality control, which has come into being recently.", "", "QA is very important in the medical field because it helps to identify the standards of medical equipments and services. Hospitals and laboratories make use of external agencies in order to ensure standards for equipment such as X-ray machines, Diagnostic Radiology and AERB. QA is particularly applicable throughout the development and introduction of new medicines and medical devices. The Research Quality Association (RQA) supports and promotes the quality of research in life sciences, through its members and regulatory bodies.", "The term product assurance (PA) is often used instead of quality assurance and is, alongside project management and engineering, one of the three primary project functions. Quality assurance is seen as one part of product assurance. Due to the sometimes catastrophic consequences a single failure can have for human lives, the environment, a device, or a mission, product assurance plays a particularly important role here. It has organizational, budgetary and product developmental independence meaning that it reports to highest management only, has its own budget, and does not expend labor to help build a product. Product assurance stands on an equal footing with project management but embraces the customer's point of view.", "Software quality assurance refers to monitoring the software engineering processes and methods used to ensure quality. Various methods are employed for this, such as ensuring conformance to one or more standards, such as ISO 9000 or a model such as CMMI. In addition, enterprise quality management software is used to correct issues such as supply chain disaggregation and to ensure regulatory compliance; these are vital for medical device manufacturers.", "Consultants and contractors are sometimes employed when introducing new quality practices and methods, particularly where the relevant skills and expertise and resources are not available within the organization. Consultants and contractors will often employ Quality Management Systems (QMS), auditing and procedural documentation writing CMMI, Six Sigma, Measurement Systems Analysis (MSA), Quality Function Deployment (QFD), Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA), and Advance Product Quality Planning (APQP)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cultural applications.", "Third parties.", "Use outside English-speaking countries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand the major opposition party and specifically its shadow cabinet is called \"His\" or \"Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition\". The adjective \"loyal\" is used because, while the role of the opposition is to oppose Her Majesty's Government, it does not dispute the sovereign's right to the throne and therefore the legitimacy of the government. However, in other countries that use the Westminster system, the opposition is known simply as \"The Parliamentary Opposition\". Some parliamentary parties, notably the Australian Labor Party, elect all the members of their shadow cabinets in a party room ballot, with the Leader of the Opposition then allocating portfolios to the Shadow Ministers. In other parliamentary parties, the membership and composition of the Shadow Cabinet is generally determined solely by the Leader of the Opposition. A related term is the Shadow Budget which is often prepared by shadow cabinets (and, when released, usually presented by the shadow finance minister or equivalent) as an alternative to the real budget presented by the government. When prepared and released in an election year, an opposition party's shadow budget will typically form a key part of the party's manifesto, and will be largely if not wholly implemented if the opposition party subsequently forms a government (especially if it wins an outright majority).", "In many jurisdictions, third parties (which are neither participant in the government nor in the official opposition) may also form their own parliamentary front benches of spokespersons; however, parliamentary standing orders on the right of parties to speak often dictate that it can only be granted to a party or group if a minimum number of members can be recorded by the party. In Ireland, for example, technical groups are often formed by third parties and independent TDs in the Dáil Éireann in order to increase the members' right to speak against larger parties which can afford the right to speak as Front Benches in Government or Opposition. Opposition parliamentary parties which are sufficiently small that they are about the same size as the government cabinet will often appoint all of their elected members to their shadow cabinet or equivalent, with third parties more likely compared to official opposition parties to use this sort of arrangement. If the parliamentary party is only slightly larger than the government's cabinet, its leadership potentially faces the awkward position of embarrassing a small minority of legislators by singling them out for exclusion from the shadow cabinet. On the other hand, incoming governments in the Westminster system often change the number and/or composition of ministries upon assuming office. Therefore, one solution to such an aforementioned issue when it occurs is to create nominal shadow \"ministries\" that correspond to currently-nonexistent cabinet posts the party actually intends to create once in government. Of course, an opposition party can also employ this process in reverse by \"merging\" its shadow ministries to correspond to actual cabinet posts the opposition party wants to merge or otherwise eliminate.", "While the practice of parliamentary shadow cabinets or frontbenches is not widespread in Germany, party leaders have often formed boards of experts and advisors (\"teams of experts\", or \"Kompetenzteam\", in CDU/CSU and SPD parlance; alternate \"top team\", or \"Spitzenteam\", in Bündnis '90/Die Grünen parlance). In France, although the formation of a Shadow Cabinet is not compulsory and not common, several Shadow Cabinets have been formed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Common names.", "History.", "Academic discovery.", "Botany.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Reproduction.", "Taxonomy.", "Strains.", "Cultivation.", "Propagation by cuttings.", "Flowering.", "Chemistry.", "Potency.", "Other terpenoids.", "Other pharmaceutical action.", "Ingestion.", "Traditional methods.", "Modern methods.", "Smoking.", "Quid chewing.", "Using a tincture.", "Effects.", "Safety.", "Vaporization.", "Research.", "Controversy.", "Media coverage.", "Brett's law.", "Usage shown on YouTube.", "Legal status.", "United Kingdom.", "Australia.", "United States.", "Internet sale.", "Opinions and arguments.", "Public opinion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The genus name, \"Salvia\", was first used by Pliny for a plant that was likely \"Salvia officinalis\" (common sage) and is derived from the Latin \"salvere\". The specific epithet, \"divinorum\", was given because of the plant's traditional use in divination. It is often loosely translated as \"diviner's sage\" or \"seer's sage\". Albert Hofmann, who collected the first plants with Wasson, objected to the new plant being given the name \"divinorum\": \"I was not very happy with the name because \"Salvia divinorum\" means \"Salvia of the ghosts\", whereas \"Salvia divinatorum\", the correct name, means \"Salvia of the priests\". It is now in the botanical literature under the name \"Salvia divinorum\".", "There are many common names for \"S. divinorum\", including \"sage", "\"Salvia divinorum\" is native to the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico, where it is still used by the Mazatec, primarily to facilitate shamanic visions in the context of curing or divination. \"S. divinorum\" is one of several species with hallucinogenic properties that are ritually used by Mazatec shamans. In their rituals, the shamans use only fresh \"S. divinorum\" leaves. They see the plant as an incarnation of the Virgin Mary, and begin the ritual with an invocation to Mary, Saint Peter, the Holy Trinity, and other saints. Ritual use traditionally involves being in a quiet place after ingestion of the leaf—the Maztec shamans say that \"La Maria (\"S. divinorum\") speaks with a quiet voice.\" It is also used remedially at lower dosages as a diuretic, and to treat ailments including diarrhea, anemia, headaches, rheumatism, and a semi-magical disease known as \"panzón de borrego\", or a swollen belly (literally, \"lamb belly\"). The history of the plant is not well known, and there has been no definitive answer to the question of its origin. Speculation includes \"Salvia divinorum\" being a wild plant native to the area; a cultigen of the Mazatecs; or a cultigen introduced by another indigenous group. Botanists have also not been able to determine whether it is a hybrid or a cultigen.", "\"Salvia divinorum\" was first recorded in print by Jean Basset Johnson in 1939 while he was studying Mazatec shamanism. He later documented its usage and reported its effects through personal testimonials. It was not until the 1990s that the psychoactive mechanism was identified by a team led by Daniel Siebert. Gordon Wasson tentatively postulated", "\"Salvia divinorum\" has large green ovate (often also dentate) leaves, with a yellow undertone that reach 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) long. The leaves have no hairs on either surface, and little or no petiole. The plant grows to well over in height, on hollow square stems which tend to break or trail on the ground, with the plant rooting quite readily at the nodes and internodes. The flowers, which bloom only rarely, grow in whorls on a inflorescence, with about six flowers to each whorl. The flowers are white, curved and covered with hairs, and held in a small violet calyx that is covered in hairs and glands. When it does bloom in its native habitat, it does so from September to May. Early authors erred in describing the flowers as having blue corollas, based on Epling and Játiva's description. The first plant material they received was dried, so they based the flower color on an erroneous description by Hofmann and Wasson, who didn't realize that their \"blue flowers, crowned with a white dome\" were in fact violet calyces with unopened white corollas.", "\"Salvia divinorum\" is endemic to the Sierra Mazateca in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, growing in the primary or secondary cloud", "\"Salvia divinorum\" produces few viable seeds even when it does flower—no seeds have ever been observed on plants in the wild. For an unknown reason, pollen fertility is also comparatively reduced. There is no active pollen tube", "\"Salvia divinorum\" was first documented in 1939, but it was many years before botanists could identify the plant due to Mazatec secrecy about the growing sites. Flowers were needed for a definitive identification of the species. In 1962, the Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann, and ethnomycologist R. Gordon Wasson, traveled throughout the Sierra Mazateca researching Mazatec rituals and looking for specimens of the plant. They were unable to locate live plants. Eventually, the Mazatec provided them some flowering specimens. These specimens were sent to botanists Carl Epling and Carlos D. Játiva, who described and named the plant as \"Salvia divinorum\", after its use in divination and healing by the Mazatec. By 1985, up to fifteen populations of the plant had been found. Until 2010, there were differing opinions on whether \"Salvia divinorum\" is an interspecific hybrid. The", "There are two commonly cultivated strains which are known to be distinct. One is the strain that was collected in 1962 by ecologist and psychologist Sterling Bunnell (the \"Bunnell\" strain), colloquially mis-attributed as the \"Wasson-Hofmann strain\".", "", "\"Salvia divinorum\" is usually propagated through vegetative reproduction. Small cuttings, between long, cut off", "Blooms occur when the day length becomes shorter than 12 hours (beginning in mid-October in some places), necessitating a shade cloth in urban environments with exposure to light pollution (HPS).", "The known active constituent of \"Salvia divinorum\" is a \"trans\"-neoclerodane diterpenoid known as salvinorin A (chemical formula CHO). This compound is present in the dried plant at about 0.18%. Salvinorin A is not an alkaloid, (meaning it does not contain a basic nitrogen), unlike most known opioid receptor ligands. Salvinorin A is the first documented diterpene hallucinogen. Similar to many psychoactive herbs, \"Salvia divinorum\" synthesizes and excretes its active constituent (salvinorin A) via trichomes, of the peltate-glandular morphology, located just beneath the cuticle (subcuticular) layer.", "By mass, salvinorin A \"is the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen.\" It is active at doses as low as 200 μg. Synthetic chemicals, such as LSD (active at 20–30 μg doses), can be more potent. Research has shown that salvinorin A is a potent and selective κ-opioid (kappa-opioid) receptor agonist. It has been reported that the effects of salvinorin A in mice are blocked by", "Other terpenoids have been isolated from \"Salvia divinorum\", including other salvinorins and related compounds named divinatorins and", "Salvinorin A is capable of inhibiting excess intestinal motility (e.g. diarrhea), through a combination of κ-opioid and cannabinoid (mainly CB receptor) receptors in \"inflamed\" but not normal gut \"in vivo\". The mechanism of action for Salvinorin A on ileal tissue has been described as 'prejunctional', as it was", "There are a few ways to consume \"Salvia divinorum\". In traditional Mazatec ritual, shamans use only fresh \"Salvia divinorum\" leaves. Modern methods have been developed to more effectively absorb the active principle, salvinorin A. If enough salvinorin A is absorbed, an altered state of consciousness can occur. The duration of experience varies with the method of ingestion and the amount of salvinorin A absorbed.", "Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 (about 50g/2 oz to 200g/7 oz.) or more fresh leaves. They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or 'tea' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies. Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method. Oral consumption", "Modern methods of ingestion include smoking or chewing the leaf, or using a tincture, as described in the following sections.", "Dry leaves can be smoked in a pipe, or through the use of a water pipe to cool the smoke. The temperature required to release salvinorin from the plant material is quite high (about 240 °C). A cooler flame will work, but the direct application of a more intense flame, such as that of a torch lighter, is often preferred. Some find that untreated dry leaf produces unnoticeable or only light effects. Concentrated preparations or extracts which may be smoked in place of untreated leaves, have become widely available. This enhanced (or \"fortified\") leaf is described by a number followed by an x (e.g. \"5x\", \"10x\"), the multiplicative factors being generally indicative of the relative amounts of", "The traditional method of chewing the leaves has continued in modern use. However, salvinorin A is generally considered to be inactive when orally ingested, as salvinorin A is effectively deactivated by the gastrointestinal system. Therefore, in what's understood to be a modern innovation, the 'quid'", "Less commonly, some may ingest salvia in the form of a tincture. This is administered sublingually, usually with the aid of a glass dropper. It may be taken diluted with water just before use, which may slightly reduce the intensity of its effects, but can also serve to lessen or avoid a stinging sensation in the mouth caused by the presence of alcohol. Tinctures vary in potency, and the effects can range from inducing a mild meditative state to bringing about a more intense hallucinatory one. When taken as a tincture the effects and duration are similar to other methods of oral ingestion, though they may be significantly more intense, depending on extract potency.", "Aside from individual reported experiences there has been a limited amount of published work summarising salvia divinorum effects. A survey of salvia users found that 38% described the effects as unique in comparison to other methods of altering consciousness. 23% said the effects were like yoga, meditation or trance. Users have written prose about their experiences; some describing their visions pictorially, and there exist examples of visionary art which are'salvia-inspired'. Others claim musical inspiration from the plant.", "Dale Pendell expresses some concerns about the use of highly concentrated forms of salvia. In its natural form salvia is more balanced and benevolent, and quite strong enough, he argues. High strength extracts on the other hand can show \"\"a more precipitous, and more terrifying, face\"\" and many who try it this way may never wish to repeat the experience.", "Ethnobotanist Daniel Siebert cautions that inhaling hot air can be irritating and potentially damaging to the lungs. Vapor produced by a heat gun needs to be cooled by running it through a water pipe or cooling chamber before inhalation.", "An ABC news report said excitement over research into \"Salvia\" \"could vanish overnight if the federal government criminalized the sale or possession of salvia, as the Drug Enforcement Agency [sic] is considering doing right now.\"", "The relatively recent emergence of \"Salvia divinorum\" in modern Western culture, in comparison to its long continuing traditions of indigenous use, contrasts widely differing attitudes on the subject. Opinions range from veneration of the plant as a spiritual sacrament or \"a gift from the gods\", to 'threat to society', to be banned as quickly as possible in order to \"spare countless families the horror of losing a loved one to the relentless tentacles of drug abuse\".", "Interest in \"Salvia divinorum\" has been escalating in the news media, particularly in the United States, where an increasing number of newspaper reports have been published and television news stories broadcast. These stories generally raise alarms over salvia's legal status, for example comparing it to LSD, or describing it as \"the new pot\", with parental concerns being raised by particular focus on salvia's use by younger teens. Story headlines may also include 'danger' keywords, such as \"Dangerous Herb is Legal...\" or \"Deadly Dangers Of A Street Legal High\". Mainstream news coverage and journalistic opinion has widely been negative on the subject. In a local news report aired on ABC affiliate WJLA in Washington, DC on July 11, 2007, the anchors are seen to exchange expressions of incredulity when referring to a salvia story with the following introduction", "A particular focus of many US media stories is the long-running coverage of the case of Brett Chidester, a 17-year-old Delaware student who committed suicide in January 2006 by carbon monoxide poisoning. Reportedly, some months before this, Brett's mother Kathleen Chidester had learned about his salvia use and questioned him about it. Brett said that he had ceased his experimentation, but his parents did not believe that he was telling the truth. They have instead argued that salvia-induced depression was largely to blame for his death. Some of Brett's earlier writings about his salvia experiences have been used to suggest that it made him think \"existence in general is pointless.\" Some media stories have referred to these earlier written experience reports as if they were part of Brett's suicide", "A reported concern has been the emergence of YouTube videos showing alleged salvia users laughing uncontrollably, apparently unable to perform simple tasks or to communicate. In an interview with California-based newspaper the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", published in June 2007, Daniel Siebert said that the videos \"make salvia look like some horrible drug that makes people nuts and dangerous...\" and that it stops people from realizing \"there are sensible ways to use something like this.\" \"The New York Times\" has reported that \"in state after state... the YouTube videos have become \"Exhibit A\" in legislative efforts to regulate salvia.\" Waco Representative Charles Anderson (R), who is sponsoring one of several bills to ban salvia in Texas. Anderson told colleagues at a legislative hearing about a video that depicts a salvia user behind the wheel of a car. \"What we really worry about, is youngsters doing this and then getting in a vehicle or getting on a motorcycle or jumping", "Many countries control \"Salvia divinorum\" in some manner. As of 2015, it is illegal in Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Republic of Ireland, Romania, South Korea, Sweden and Switzerland. It is legal to possess and grow in Chile, France and Spain, but not to sell. In Russia, it is legal to possess, but not grow or sell. Estonia, Finland, Iceland and Norway treat it as a medicinal herb that requires a prescription. The prohibitive degree of \"Salvia divinorum\" legislation varies widely from country to country. Australia has imposed its strictest'schedule 9' (US Schedule I equivalent), and Italy has also placed salvia in its 'Table I' of controlled substances (also US Schedule I equivalent). In Spain, there are controls focusing only on the commercial trade of \"Salvia divinorum\", personal cultivation (i.e. for non-commercial use) is not targeted. Legislation may prove difficult to enforce. The plant has a nondescript appearance; unlike many other drug plants, the leaves are non-descript, and without a detectable odour. \"Salvia divinorum\" can be grown as an ordinary houseplant without the need of special equipment such as hydroponics or high-power lights.", "In the United Kingdom, following a local newspaper story in October 2005, a parliamentary Early Day Motion was raised calling for \"Salvia divinorum\" to be banned there. However, it only received 11 signatures. A second motion raised in October 2008 attracted 18 signatures, and it was reported that Mann had also written to Jacqui Smith, then Home Secretary. The Advisory", "\"Salvia divinorum\" is considered a Schedule 9 prohibited plant in Australia under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964", "National legislation for amendment of the Controlled Substances Act to place salvinorin A and \"Salvia divinorum\" in Schedule I at the federal level in the United States was proposed in 2002 by Representative Joe Baca (D- California). Those opposed to bill HR 5607 include Daniel Siebert, who sent a letter to Congress arguing against the proposed legislation, and the Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics (CCLE), who sent key members of the US Congress a report on \"Salvia divinorum\" and its active principle, along with letters from an array of scientists who expressed concern that scheduling \"Salvia divinorum\" would negatively impact important research on the plant. The bill did not pass. Although salvia is not regulated under the Controlled Substances Act, as of 2009, it had been made illegal in 13 states. Delaware banned it after the Salvia use was reported to have played a role in the suicide of a teenager. Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio, Texas and others, have passed their own laws. Several other states have proposed legislation against salvia, including Alaska, California, Florida, Iowa, Maryland, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. Many of these proposals have not made it into law, with motions having failed, stalled or otherwise died, for example at committee review stages. Where individual state legislation does exist, it varies from state to state in its prohibitive degree. Legal consequences may also exist even in states without bans on salvia in particular. Christian Firoz, a Nebraska store owner, was charged for selling salvia, but not under the auspices of any specific law against \"Salvia divinorum\". Firoz was instead charged under a general Nebraskan statute where it is illegal to sell a product to induce an intoxicated condition. See also the legal status of salvia in North Dakota and Nebraska). \"Salvia divinorum\" has been banned by various branches of the U.S. military and some military bases.", "Some internet vendors will not sell live \"salvia\" cuttings, leaf, or leaf products to states where its use is restricted or prohibited. Per their drugs and drug paraphernelia policy, eBay does not permit sale of \"Salvia divinorum\" or derived products (despite legality in most areas).", "Concerns expressed by some politicians on the subject of salvia reflect those of the media, with comparisons to LSD and particular focus on \"protecting our children\" being echoed; and with legislative proposals following soon after news stories breaking. Some arguments against salvia have been of a preventative nature, \"We need to stop this before it gets to be a huge problem not after it gets to be a huge problem,\" or of an imitative nature, \"The Australians have clearly found a problem with it. There's obviously a risk in people taking it.\" Concerns about driving while under the influence of salvia have also been expressed. Opponents of more prohibitive measures against salvia argue that such reactions are largely due to an inherent prejudice and a particular cultural bias rather than any actual balance of evidence, pointing out inconsistencies in attitudes toward other more toxic and addictive drugs such as alcohol and nicotine. While not objecting to some form of legal control, in particular with regard to the sale to minors or sale of enhanced high-strength extracts, most salvia proponents otherwise argue against stricter legislation. Those advocating consideration of \"Salvia divinorum\"s potential for beneficial use in a modern context argue that more could be learned from Mazatec culture, where salvia is not really associated with notions of drug taking at all and it is rather considered as a spiritual sacrament. In light of this it is argued that \"Salvia divinorum\" could be better understood more positively as an entheogen rather than pejoratively as a hallucinogen.", "Despite its growing notoriety in some circles, media stories generally suggest that the public at large are still mostly unaware of salvia, with the majority perhaps having never even heard of it. Although published responses may not necessarily be representative of public opinion as a whole, some news agencies generally support reader and viewer feedback in connection with their stories." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Types.", "Single horn.", "Double horn.", "Detachable bell.", "Related horns.", "Natural horn.", "Vienna horn.", "Mellophone.", "Marching horn.", "Wagner tuba.", "Repertoire.", "Orchestra and concert band.", "Chamber music.", "Orchestral and concert band horns.", "In jazz.", "Notable horn players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"French horn\" is found only in English, first coming into use in the late 17th century. At that time, French makers were preeminent in the manufacture of hunting horns, and were credited with creating the now-familiar, circular \"hoop\" shape of the instrument. As a result, these instruments were often called, even in English, by their French names: \"trompe de chasse\" or \"cor de chasse\" (the clear modern distinction between \"trompes\", trumpets, and \"cors\", horns, did not exist at that time). German makers first devised \"crooks\" to make such horns playable in different keys—so musicians came to use \"French\" and \"German\" to distinguish the simple hunting horn from the newer horn with crooks, which in England was also called by the Italian name \"corno cromatico\" (chromatic horn). More recently, \"French horn\" is often used colloquially, though the adjective has normally been avoided when referring to the European orchestral horn, ever since the German horn began replacing the French-style instrument in British orchestras around 1930. The International Horn Society has recommended since 1971 that the instrument be simply called the \"horn\". There is also a more specific use of \"French horn\" to describe a particular horn type, differentiated from the German horn and Vienna horn. In this sense, \"French horn\" refers to a narrow-bore instrument () with three Périnet (piston) valves. It retains the narrow bell-throat and mouthpipe crooks of the orchestral hand horn of the late 18th century, and most often has an \"ascending\" third valve. This is a whole-tone valve arranged so that with the valve in the \"up\" position the valve loop is engaged, but when the valve is pressed the loop is cut out, raising the pitch by a whole tone.", "As the name indicates, humans originally used to blow on the actual horns of animals before starting to emulate them in metal. This original usage survives in the shofar, a ram's horn, which plays an important role in Jewish religious rituals. Early metal horns were less complex than modern horns, consisting of brass tubes with a slightly flared opening (the bell) wound around a few times. These early \"hunting\" horns were originally played on a hunt, often while mounted, and the sound they produced was called a recheat. Change of pitch was controlled entirely by the lips (the horn not being equipped with valves until the 19th century). Without valves, only the notes within the harmonic series are available. By combining a long length with a narrow bore, the French horn's design allows the player to easily reach the higher overtones which differ by whole tones or less, thus making it capable of playing melodies before valves were invented. Early horns were commonly pitched in B alto, A, A, G, F, E, E, D, C, and B basso. Since the only notes available were those on the harmonic series of one of those pitches, they had no ability to play in different keys. The remedy for this limitation was the use of crooks, i.e., sections of tubing of differing length that, when inserted, altered the length of the instrument, and thus its pitch. In the mid-18th century, horn players began to insert the right hand into the bell to change the length of the instrument, adjusting the tuning up to the distance between two adjacent harmonics depending on how much of the opening was covered. In 1818 the German makers Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blümel patented the first valved horn, using rotary valves. Piston valves were introduced in France about 1839 by François Périnet. Valves were initially intended to overcome problems associated with changing crooks during a performance. Valves' unreliability, musical taste, and players' distrust, among other reasons, slowed their adoption into mainstream. Many traditional conservatories and players refused to use them at first, claiming that the valveless horn, or \"natural horn\", was a better instrument. Some musicians who specialize in period instruments use a natural horn to play in original performance styles, to try to recapture the sound of an older piece's original performances. The use of valves, however, opened up a great deal more flexibility in playing in different keys; in effect, the horn became an entirely different instrument, fully chromatic for the first time. Valves were originally used primarily as a means to play in different keys without crooks, not for harmonic playing. That is reflected in compositions for horns, which only began to include chromatic passages in the late 19th century. When valves were invented, generally, the French made smaller horns with piston valves and the Germans made larger horns with rotary valves.", "Horns may be classified in single horn, double horn, compensating double horn, and triple horn as well as the versatility of detachable bells.", "Single horns use a single set of tubes connected to the valves. This allows for simplicity of use and a much lighter weight. They are usually in the keys of F or B, although many F horns have longer slides to tune them to E, and almost all B horns have a valve to put them in the key of A. The problem with single horns is the inevitable choice between accuracy or tone – while the F horn has the \"typical\" horn sound, above third-space C accuracy is a concern for the majority of players because, by its nature, one plays high in the horn's harmonic series where the overtones are closer together. This led to the development of the B horn, which, although easier to play accurately, has a less desirable sound in the mid and especially the low register where it is not able to play all of the notes. The solution has been the development of the double horn, which combines the two into one horn with a single lead pipe and bell. Both main types of single horns are still used today as student models because they are cheaper and lighter than double horns. In addition, the single B horns are sometimes used in solo and chamber performances and the single F survives orchestrally as the Vienna horn. Additionally, single F alto and B alto descants are used in the performance of some baroque horn concertos and F, B and F alto singles are occasionally used by jazz performers. Dennis Brain's benchmark recordings of the Mozart Horn Concerti were made on a single B instrument by Gebr. Alexander, now on display at the Royal Academy of Music in London.", "Despite the introduction of valves, the single F horn proved difficult for use in the highest range, where the partials grew closer and closer, making accuracy a great challenge. An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch—usually B. The use of the F versus the B horn was extensively debated among horn players of the late 19th century, until the German horn maker Ed. Kruspe (namesake of his family's brass instrument firm) produced a prototype of the \"double horn\" in 1897. The double horn also combines two instruments into a single frame: the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B. By using a fourth valve (usually operated by the thumb), the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B horn, or vice versa, as the horn player may choose to have the horn set into B by default by making a simple adjustment to the valves. The two sets of tones are commonly called \"sides\" of the horn. Using the fourth valve not only changes the basic length (and thus the harmonic series and pitch) of the instrument, it also causes the three main valves to use proportionate slide lengths. In the US, the two most common styles (\"wraps\") of double horns are named Kruspe and Geyer/Knopf, after the first instrument makers who developed and standardized them. The Kruspe wrap locates the B change valve above the first valve, near the thumb. The Geyer wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the little finger (although the valve's trigger is still played with the thumb). In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model. Kruspe wrap horns tend to be larger in the bell throat than the Geyer wrap horns. Typically, Kruspe models are constructed from nickel silver (also called German silver, an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc, containing no actual silver) while Geyer horns tend to be of yellow brass. Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and while the choice of instrument is very personal, an orchestral horn section is usually found to have either one or the other, owing to the differences in tone color, response, and projection of the two different styles. In Europe the most popular horns are arguably those made by Gebr. Alexander, of Mainz (particularly the Alexander 103), and those made by Paxman in London. In Germany and the Benelux countries, the Alex 103 is extremely popular. These horns do not fit strictly into the Kruspe or Knopf camps, but have features of both. Alexander prefers the traditional medium bell size, which they have produced for many years, whereas Paxman do offer their models in a range of bell throat sizes. In the United States, the Conn 8D, a mass-produced instrument based on the Kruspe design, has been extremely popular in many areas (New York, Los Angeles, Cleveland, Philadelphia). Since roughly the early 1990s, however, for reasons ranging from changing tastes to a general dislike of Conn's newer 8Ds, orchestras have been moving away from the popular Conn 8D. Geyer model horns (by Carl Geyer, Karl Hill, Keith Berg, Steve Lewis, Jerry Lechniuk, Dan Rauch, and Ricco-Kuhn) are used in other areas (San Francisco, Chicago, Pittsburgh, Boston, Houston). The CF Schmidt double, with its unique piston change valve, is occasionally found in sections playing Geyer/Knopf model equipment.", "The horn, although not large, is awkward in its shape and does not lend itself well to transport where space is shared or limited, especially on planes. To compensate, horn makers can make the bell detachable; this allows for smaller and more manageable horn cases.", "The variety in horn history necessitates consideration of the natural horn, Vienna horn, mellophone, marching horn, and Wagner tuba.", "The natural horn is the ancestor of the modern horn. It is essentially descended from hunting horns, with its pitch controlled by air speed, aperture (opening of the lips through which air passes) and the use of the right hand moving around, as well as in and out of the bell. Although a few recent composers have written specifically for the natural horn (e.g., György Ligeti's \"Hamburg Concerto\"), today it is played primarily as a period instrument. The natural horn can only play from a single harmonic series at a time because there is only one length of tubing available to the horn player. A proficient player can indeed alter the pitch by partially muting the bell with the right hand, thus enabling the player to reach some notes that are not part of the instrument's natural harmonic series – of course this technique also affects the quality of the tone. The player has a choice of key by using crooks to change the length of tubing.", "The Vienna horn is a special horn used primarily in Vienna, Austria. Instead of using rotary valves or piston valves, it uses the pumpenvalve (or Vienna valve), which is a double-piston operating inside the valve slides, and usually situated on the opposite side of the corpus from the player's left hand, and operated by a long pushrod. Unlike the modern horn, which has grown considerably larger internally (for a bigger, broader, and louder tone), and considerably heavier (with the addition of valves and tubing in the case of the double horn) the Vienna horn very closely mimics the size and weight of the natural horn, (although the valves do add some weight, they are lighter than rotary valves) even using crooks in the front of the horn, between the mouthpiece and the instrument. Although instead of the full range of keys, Vienna horn players usually use an F crook and it is looked down upon to use others, though switching to an A or B crook for higher pitched music does happen on occasion. Vienna horns are often used with funnel shaped mouthpieces similar to those used on the natural horn, with very little (if any) backbore and a very thin rim. The Viennese horn requires very specialized technique and can be quite challenging to play, even for accomplished players of modern horns. The Vienna horn has a warmer, softer sound than the modern horn. Its pumpenvalves facilitate a continuous transition between notes (glissando); conversely, a more precise operating of the valves is required to avoid notes that sound out of tune.", "Two instruments are called a \"mellophone\". The first is an instrument shaped somewhat like a horn, in that it is formed in a circle. It has piston valves and is played with the right hand on the valves. Manufacturing of this instrument sharply decreased in the middle of the 20th century, and this mellophone (or mellophonium) rarely appears today. The second instrument is used in modern brass bands and marching bands, and is more accurately called a \"marching mellophone\" or mellophone. A derivative of the F alto horn, it is keyed in F. It is shaped like a flugelhorn, with piston valves played with the right hand and a forward-pointing bell. These horns are generally considered better marching instruments than regular horns because their position is more stable on the mouth, they project better, and they weigh less. It is primarily used as the middle voice of drum and bugle corps. Though they are usually played with a V-cup cornet-like mouthpiece, their range overlaps the common playing range of the horn. This mouthpiece switch makes the mellophone louder, less mellow, and more brassy and brilliant, making it more appropriate for marching bands. Often now with the use of converters, traditional conical horn mouthpieces are used to achieve the more mellow sound of a horn to make the marching band sound more like a concert band. As they are pitched in F or G and their range overlaps that of the horn, mellophones can be used in place of the horn in brass and marching band settings. Mellophones are, however, sometimes unpopular with horn players because the mouthpiece change can be difficult and requires a different embouchure. Mouthpiece adapters are available so that a horn mouthpiece can fit into the mellophone lead pipe, but this does not compensate for the many differences that a horn player must adapt to. The \"feel\" of the mellophone can be foreign to a horn player. Another unfamiliar aspect of the mellophone is that it is designed to be played with the right hand instead of the left (though it can be played with the left). Intonation can also be an issue with the mellophone. While horn players may be asked to play the mellophone, it is unlikely that the instrument was ever intended as a substitute for the horn, mainly because of the fundamental differences described. As an instrument it compromises between the ability to sound like a horn, while being used like a trumpet or flugelhorn, a tradeoff that sacrifices acoustic properties for ergonomics.", "The marching horn is quite similar to the mellophone in shape and appearance, but is pitched in the key of B, the same as the B side of a double horn. It is also available in F alto, one octave above the F side of a double horn. The marching horn is also played with a horn mouthpiece (unlike the mellophone, which needs an adapter to fit the horn mouthpiece). These instruments are primarily used in marching bands so the sound comes from a forward-facing bell, as dissipation of the sound from the backward-facing bell becomes a concern in open-air environments. Many college marching bands and drum corps, however, use mellophones instead, which, with many marching bands, better balance the tone of the other brass instruments; additionally, mellophones require less special training of trumpeters, who considerably outnumber horn players.", "The Wagner tuba is a rare brass instrument that is essentially a horn modified to have a larger bell throat and a vertical bell. Despite its name, it is generally not considered part of the tuba family. Invented for Richard Wagner specifically for his work \"Der Ring des Nibelungen\", it has since been written for by various other composers, including Bruckner, Stravinsky and Richard Strauss. It uses a horn mouthpiece and is available as a single tuba in B or F, or, more recently, as a double tuba similar to the double horn. Its common range is similar to that of the euphonium, but its possible range is the same as that of the horn, extending from low F, below the bass clef staff to high C above the treble staff when read in F. These low pedals are substantially easier to play on the Wagner tuba than on the horn. Wagner viewed the regular horn as a woodwind rather than a brass instrument, evidenced by his placing of the horn parts in his orchestral scores in the woodwind group and not in their usual place above the trumpets in the brass section.", "Discussion of the repertoire of horns must recognize the different needs of orchestras and concert bands in contrast to marching bands, as above, but also the use of horns in a wide variety of music, including chamber music and jazz.", "The horn is most often used as an orchestral and concert band instrument, with its singular tone being employed by composers to achieve specific effects. Leopold Mozart, for example, used horns to signify the hunt, as in his \"Jagdsinfonie\" (hunting symphony). Telemann wrote much for the horn, and it features prominently in the work of Handel and in Bach's \"Brandenburg Concerto no. 1\". Once the technique of hand-stopping had been developed, allowing fully chromatic playing, composers began to write seriously for the horn. Gustav Mahler made great use of the horn's uniquely haunting and distant sound in his symphonies, notably the famous \"Nachtmusik\" (serenade) section of his Symphony No. 7. Many composers have written works that have become favorites in the horn repertoire. These include Poulenc (\"Elegie\") and Saint-Saëns (\"Morceau de Concert for horn and orchestra\", op. 94 and \"Romance\", op. 36). Others, particularly Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, whose friend Joseph Leutgeb was a noted horn player, wrote extensively for the instrument, including concerti and other solo works. Mozart's \"A Musical Joke\" satirizes the limitations of contemporary horn playing, including the risk of selecting the wrong crook by mistake. The development of the valve horn was exploited by romantic composers such as Bruckner, Mahler, and Richard Strauss, whose father was a well-known professional horn player. Strauss's \"Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks\" contains one of the best known horn solos from this period, relying on the chromatic facility of the valved horn. Schumann's \"Konzertstück\" for four horns and orchestra is a notable three-movement work. Brahms had a lifelong love-affair with the instrument, with many prominently featured parts throughout his four symphonies. However players today typically play Brahms on modern valved instruments.", "There is an abundance of chamber music repertoire for horn. It is a standard member of the wind quintet and brass quintet, and often appears in other configurations, such as Brahms' Horn Trio for violin, horn and piano (for which, however, Brahms specified the natural horn). Also, the horn can be used by itself in a horn ensemble or \"horn choir\". The horn choir is especially practical because the extended range of the horn provides the composer or arranger with more possibilities, registerally, sonically, and contrapuntally.", "A classical orchestra usually has at least two French horn players. Typically, the first horn played a high part and the second horn played a low part. Composers from Beethoven (early 1800s) onwards commonly used four horns. Here, the first and second horns played as a pair (first horn being high, second horn being low), and the third and fourth horns played as another pair (third horn being high, fourth horn being low). Music written for the modern horn follows a similar pattern with the first and third horns being high and the second and fourth horns being low. This configuration serves multiple purposes. It is easier to play high when the adjacent player is playing low and vice versa. Pairing makes it easier to write for horns, as the third and fourth horns can take over from the first and second horns or play contrasting material. For example, if the piece is in C minor, the first and second horns might be in C, the tonic major key, which could get most of the notes, and the third and fourth horns might be in E, the relative major key, to fill in the gaps. Many orchestral horn sections in the 2010s also have an assistant who doubles the first horn part for selected passages, joining in loud parts, playing instead of the principal if there is a first horn solo approaching, or alternating with the principal if the part is tiring to play. Often the assistant is asked to play a passage after resting a long time. Also, he or she may be asked to enter in the middle of a passage, exactly matching the sound, articulation, and overall interpretation of the principal, thus enabling the principal horn to rest a bit.", "The French horn was at first rarely used in jazz music (Note that colloquially in jazz, the word \"horn\" refers to any wind instrument). Notable exponents, however, began including French horn in jazz pieces and ensembles. These include composer/arranger Gil Evans who included the French horn as an ensemble instrument from the 1940s, first in Claude Thornhill's groups, and later with the pioneering cool jazz nonet (nine-piece group) led by trumpeter Miles Davis, and in many other projects that sometimes also featured Davis, as well as Don Ellis, a trumpet player from Stan Kenton's jazz band. Notable works of Ellis' jazz French horn include \"Strawberry Soup\" and other songs on the album \"Tears of Joy\". Notable improvising horn players in jazz include Julius Watkins, Willie Ruff, John Graas, David Amram, John Clark, Vincent Chancey, Giovanni Hoffer, Arkady Shilkloper, Adam Unsworth, and Tom Varner.", "People who are more notable for their other achievements, but also play the horn, include actors Ewan McGregor and David Ogden Stiers, comedian and television host Jon Stewart, journalist Chuck Todd, The Who bassist and singer John Entwistle, and rapper and record producer B.o.B." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Mass manufacturing.", "Rice.", "Fillings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Murasaki Shikibu's 11th-century diary \"Murasaki Shikibu Nikki\", she writes of people eating rice balls. At that time, onigiri were called \"tonjiki\" and often consumed at outdoor picnic lunches. Other writings, dating back as far as the seventeenth century, state that many samurai stored rice balls wrapped in bamboo sheath as a quick lunchtime meal during war, but the origins of onigiri are much earlier even than Lady Murasaki. Before the use of chopsticks became widespread, in the Nara period, rice was often rolled into a small ball so that it could be easily picked up. In the Heian period, rice was also made into small rectangular shapes known as \"tonjiki\" so that they could be piled onto a plate and easily eaten. From the Kamakura period to the early Edo period, onigiri was used as a quick meal. This made sense as cooks simply had to think about making enough onigiri and did not have to concern themselves with serving. These onigiri were simply balls of rice flavored with salt. Nori did not become widely available until the Genroku era in the mid-Edo period, when the farming of nori and fashioning it into sheets became widespread.", "In the 1980s, a machine that made triangular onigiri was devised. Rather than rolling the filling inside, the flavoring was put into a hole in the onigiri and the hole was hidden by nori. Since the onigiri made by this machine came with nori already applied to the rice ball, over time the nori became moist and sticky, clinging to the rice. A packaging improvement allowed the nori to be stored separately from the rice. Before eating, the diner could open the packet of nori and wrap the onigiri. The use of a hole for filling the onigiri made new flavors of onigiri easier to produce as this cooking process did not require changes from ingredient to ingredient. Modern mechanically wrapped onigiri are specially folded so that the plastic wrapping is between the nori and rice to act as a moisture barrier. When the packaging is pulled open at both ends, the nori and rice come into contact and is eaten together. This packaging is commonly found for both triangular onigiri and rolls (細巻き).", "Usually, onigiri is made with boiled white rice, though it is sometimes made with different varieties of cooked rice, such as:", "Umeboshi, okaka, or tsukudani have long been frequently used as fillings for onigiri. Generally, onigiri made with pre-seasoned rice is not filled with ingredients. Plain (salt only) onigiri is called \"shio-musubi\". Typical fillings are listed below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Performers.", "Background.", "Skywalker saga.", "Other appearances.", "Description.", "Equipment.", "Armor.", "501st Legion.", "Specialists.", "Cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Storm Troopers designs were intended to look \"terrifying, but also supercool, super clean\", with the helmets being \"very stylized skulls\". In early drafts of \"Star Wars\" and Ralph McQuarrie's concept designs, stormtroopers were to wield lightsabers and hand-held shields as common weapons not limited to the Jedi or Sith. George Lucas, when composing background information in 1977, stated that females did exist in the Stormtrooper Corps, although there were few stationed on the Death Star. He suggested that there were numerous in other units.", "While stormtrooper performers like Michael Leader (\"Episode IV\"), Laurie Goode (\"Episode IV\"), Peter Diamond (\"Episode IV-VI\"), Stephen Bayley (\"Episode IV\"), and Bill Weston (\"Episode IV\") have generally been uncredited in the film series, there have been a few exceptions. In \"Attack of the Clones\" (2002), Temuera Morrison plays bounty hunter Jango Fett and his multitude of clones, who are the first army of clone troopers. In \"The Force Awakens\" (2015), John Boyega stars as Finn, the former Stormtrooper FN-2187 who defects from the First Order and joins the Resistance, and Gwendoline Christie portrays Captain Phasma, commander of the First Order's stormtroopers. Daniel Craig has a small uncredited role as a stormtrooper whom Rey compels using the Jedi mind trick to let her escape from captivity, and director J. J. Abrams also cast \"Alias\" and \"Lost\" composer Michael Giacchino as FN-3181, and Radiohead producer Nigel Godrich as FN-9330. A riot control stormtrooper who calls Finn a traitor during the battle on Takodana, portrayed by stunt performer Liang Yang and voiced by sound editor David Acord, is identified as FN-2199 in the anthology book \"\" (2015) by Greg Rucka. The trooper, armed with a \"Z6 baton\" and dubbed \"TR-8R\" by fans, quickly inspired multiple memes and fan art. Actor/director Kevin Smith also voiced a stormtrooper in the Takodana sequence. In \"Star Wars Rebels\", different voice actors have provided the voices of the stormtroopers, including David Acord, Dee Bradley Baker, Steven Blum, Clancy Brown, Robin Atkin Downes, Greg Ellis, Dave Fennoy, Dave Filoni, Tom Kane, Andrew Kishino, Phil LaMarr, Liam O'Brien, Freddie Prinze, Jr., André Sogliuzzo, Stephen Stanton, Greg Weisman, Gary Anthony Williams, and Matthew Wood. In \"Ralph Breaks the Internet\", the stormtroopers in the \"Oh My Disney\" website are voiced by Jesse Averna, Kevin Deters, Jeremy Milton, and Rich Moore. Jason Sudeikis and Adam Pally play stormtroopers in \"\", the 2019 first-season finale episode of \"The Mandalorian\".", "", "Introduced in \"Star Wars\" (1977), the Imperial stormtroopers serve as the army of the Galactic Empire, establishing Imperial authority and putting down any revolts. In the prequel film \"\" (2002), the first clone troopers are cloned from bounty hunter Jango Fett, to be the Army of the Republic in the Clone Wars. In \"\" (2005), Chancellor Palpatine orders them to slay their Jedi generals in the Great Jedi Purge, effectively making them stormtroopers. The Imperial Stormtrooper Corps swell in size after Palpatine completely replaced the clones with recruits and conscripts of the Empire, though the replacement of clones with natural beings lowered the effectiveness of the Empire's soldiers. With the Empire firmly stabilized and an Imperial Army and Navy established, the stormtroopers are integrated into Palpatine's personal army and stationed on Imperial bases and cruisers, as well as on the Death Star. As established in \"The Force Awakens\" (2015), after Palpatine's death the stormtroopers continue to serve under the factions that broke apart from the Empire. With redesigned armor, they eventually serve under the leadership of the First Order. In the First Order, an undisclosed number of stormtroopers are abducted as young children, given serial numbers for names and mentally conditioned for loyal service. Stormtrooper FN-2187, later known as Finn, plans his escape when his resistance to this conditioning puts him in line to be reprogrammed. Additionally, Rey's goggles were based on scavenged stormtrooper lenses.", "The streaming series \"The Mandalorian\", which is set after the fall of the Empire, portrays stormtroopers as freelance mercenaries in the service of Moff Gideon, a former officer of the Imperial Security Bureau. \"Star Wars Legends\" media such as games and comics feature a number of specialized stormtrooper units. The Marvel-produced comics of the late 1970s and early 1980s featured Shadow Troopers. Other specialists have included commandos and troopers equipped to work in the vacuum of outer space, such as the zero gravity Spacetroopers depicted engaging in extra vehicular battle in the 1991 novel \"Star Wars: Heir to the Empire\", and its 1995 Dark Horse Comics adaptation. Others, such as the Beach Troopers, are for comical effect, being projected as Stormtroopers relaxing at the beach. Appearing only briefly in \"\", they are clad in a Speedo and stormtrooper helmet. In \"\", they also wear life jackets. A distinct variant known as \"Shadowtroopers\" appear in \"\", wearing black armour that incorporates a lightsaber-resistant mineral called cortosis. As a project of the Dark Jedi named Desann aligned with a Remnant of the Empire, the Shadowtroopers themselves had been immersed in a Force nexus on Ruusan, temporarily empowering them with Force sensitivity. This armour has a green synthetic gem set into the breastplate which sustained the otherwise temporary effect of their Force empowerment and combines with their abilities to render them near-invisible, with only a faint area of blue discoloration giving them away. In conjunction with their Force-granted telekinesis, reflexes, and agility, the Shadowtroopers are armed and trained in the use of mass-produced red lightsabers. Their combination of abilities allow them to lie in wait and ambush the enemy, representing formidable opponents even for trained Jedi, most often the game's Jedi protagonist, Kyle Katarn. Shadow stormtroopers appear in \"\" and wear exactly the same type of Phase III armor as normal stormtroopers but not white in color, but rather a mixture of silver, grey and red detailing. These troopers also possess the invisible feature and use this tactic to ambush their enemies, but only if stormtrooper officers call out for support.", "The politicking and military philosophy of the Galactic Empire was internally focused and heavily incorporated the \"\"Tarkin\"-doctrine\", which mandated \"rule through fear of force\", rather than \"force itself\", would ensure peace and stability across the galaxy. Unlike their Clone Wars predecessors, Imperial stormtroopers were primarily an internal security and peacekeeping force that had never faced large scale conflict until the latter years of the Galactic Civil War. Disloyalty or failures were heavily punished and individualism was discouraged; command structure was sacred and disobeying orders (no matter how irrational) was forbidden. This meant Imperial Stormtroopers lacked improvisation and were highly ineffective when cut off from command, but also allowed the best trained soldiers who prefer death over retreat. Unable to conscript millions of soldiers to fill its stormtrooper ranks, yet unwilling to switch back to using a rapidly produced clone troopers, First Order stormtroopers are bred, trained and indoctrinated from birth, raised their entire lives for no other purpose. First Order soldiers and crews have constantly trained for combat in war games and simulations, making them much more effective one-on-one than the endless waves of stormtrooper conscripts fielded by the Galactic Empire. First Order stormtroopers are regularly put through mental indoctrination and propaganda programs, to make sure that they remain fanatically loyal and never hesitate or question orders. Being taken from their families at birth, these soldiers are not even given individual names for themselves but merely serial numbers, such as \"FN-2187\".", "", "As established in the original \"Star Wars\" trilogy of films, the troopers' most distinctive equipment is their white battle armor, which completely encases the body and typically has no individually distinguishing markings. Their helmets are thermoregulated for trooper comfort and may be fitted with transparent lenses or holographic image generators. Based on conceptual drawings by Ralph McQuarrie, Liz Moore and Nick Pemberton sculpted designs for the helmet, Brian Muir sculpted armor pieces for the stormtrooper costume. Muir, who was also responsible for sculpting the Darth Vader costume, worked out of the Art Department at Elstree Studios. The suit was molded and initially cast in plaster, with Muir sharpening the detail at the plaster stage. The plaster casts were then remolded and cast in fiberglass to use as the \"tools\" for the vacuum forming process. The suits were produced in house by Tashy Baines, the resident vacuum former, but then a problem developed with the machine. As Shepperton Design Studios had already been used to vacuum form the helmets, the fiberglass molds for the armor were then sent to them for vacuum forming the suits. By the end of production, two different helmets were produced; one for the common stunt trooper and a second design for close-ups. Fifty stunt helmets were produced in white-painted HDPE and six hero helmets were produced in white ABS plastic. Besides the material used, the two designs can be differentiated by differences in the eyes, the ears, and the mouth area. The prequel films establish the clone troopers as predecessors to the stormtroopers, and they were also the first generation of stormtroopers after the fall of the Republic. Clone trooper armor is typically shown to have various colorings to denote rank or unit. The copyright status of the armor design has undergone legal challenges. A 2004 lawsuit by Lucasfilm against one of the original prop designers, Andrew Ainsworth, who had been selling helmet replicas, confirmed the design to be under copyright in the US. However, a 2011 UK court decision in Ainsworth's favor deemed the costume to be industrial design, which is protected there only for 15 years. This puts the armor design in the public domain in the UK, and likely throughout the European Union. The helmet and armor were redesigned for the 2015 film \"Star Wars: The Force Awakens\" by costume designer Michael Kaplan with input from director J. J. Abrams.", "The 501st Legion Elite Stormtrooper Unit, or \"Vader's Fist\", is a stormtrooper unit from the \"Star Wars\" movies and \"Star Wars Legends\" continuity. Commanded by the ruthlessly cunning General Maximilian Veers and composed of the best trained soldiers in the \"Star Wars\" galaxy, the legion earned a fierce reputation for completing missions considered unwinnable or suicidal. The 501st serves as Darth Vader’s personal death squadron, whom he leads in the Jedi extermination. The 501st spearhead the assault upon the Tantive IV consular ship, and capture Princess Leia. During the Battle of Hoth, the 501st is instrumental in the destruction of the Rebel Alliance base, and nearly succeeds in capturing the \"Millennium Falcon\". Most of the background story linked to the 501st comes from \"Star Wars\" novels, the games \"\" and \"Star Wars The Force Unleashed\", and the TV show. The elite 501st designation is resurrected by Grand Admiral Thrawn, who in the \"Thrawn\" trilogy is charged with the defense of the \"Hand of the Empire\" imperial remnant forces. Thrawn's 501st is composed of aliens, humans and Jango Fett clones. The First Order’s 501st units wear stark white armor derived from that worn by the Republic's clone troopers and the Empire’s stormtroopers. Members of this new generation of stormtroopers are trained from birth, growing up with unit designations instead of names and fed a steady diet of First Order propaganda to ensure absolute loyalty. Where the Empire opted for numbing routine, the First Order’s training simulations and live-fire drills encourage improvisation on the battlefield, making these stormtroopers more dangerous than their Imperial predecessors. The Legion's name is based on a fan organization of the same name; their inclusion in the official continuity was based on the worldwide organization's dedication to \"Star Wars\" fandom.", "Within the franchise, several types of \"military occupation specialist\" stormtrooper units are seen. These include:", "Stormtroopers have become cultural icons, and a widely recognized element of the \"Star Wars\" franchise. In 2015, an Imperial stormtrooper helmet from \"The Empire Strikes Back\" that was expected to sell at auction for $92,000 sold for $120,000. In 2019, a team of biologists named a new genus of Colombian spiders, \"Stormtropis\", after the stormtroopers, noting the spiders, like the fictional soldiers, are \"very similar to each other, with some capacity for camouflage but with unskillful movements\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Geography.", "Changes in course of rivers.", "Hydroelectric projects.", "Other dams.", "Usage conflicts.", "Seismic concerns.", "Climate and tectonics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Teesta River originates from the Pahunri (or Teesta Kangse) glacier above, and flows southward through gorges and rapids in the Sikkim Himalaya. It is fed by rivulets arising in the Thangu, Yumthang and Donkha mountain ranges. The river then flows past the town of Rangpo where the Rangpo River joins, and where it forms the border between Sikkim and West Bengal up to Teesta Bazaar. Just before the Teesta Bridge, where the roads from Kalimpong and Darjeeling join, the river is met by its main tributary, the Rangeet River. At this point, it changes course southwards flowing into West Bengal. The river hits the plains at Sevoke, northeast of Siliguri, where it is spanned by the Coronation Bridge linking the northeast states to the rest of India. The river then goes merging up with the Brahmaputra River after it bifurcates the city of Jalpaiguri and flows just touching Cooch Behar district at Mekhliganj and moves to Fulchori in Bangladesh.", "Through its course, the Teesta river has carved out ravines and gorges in Sikkim meandering through the hills with the hill station of Kalimpong lying just off the river. Variegated vegetation can be seen along this route. At lower elevations, tropical deciduous trees and shrubs cover the surrounding hills; alpine vegetation is seen at the upper altitudes. The river is flanked by white sand which is used by the construction industry in the region. Large boulders in and around the waters make it ideal for rafting enthusiasts. Between Rangpo town and the railway bridge (popularly called Lohapul or iron bridge) on it as it enters the plains at Sevoke, the Teesta flows with a very strong current, ideal for white river rafting. Towns like Teesta Bazaar and Melli have facilities for group rafting. Though the river looks innocuous, the underlying current is very strong. In 1915, G.P. Robertson, the then Municipal Engineer of Darjeeling, drowned after losing control of the boat in the turbulence while surveying the river. The boat struck a partially hidden boulder and was sucked in by a whirlpool, leaving no trace of the occupants. During the monsoons, Teesta river distends its banks; both in size and turbulence. Landslides in this region often dam up parts of the river in this season.", "Great changes have taken place in the course of some of the rivers in Bengal and the adjoining areas, during the period since 1500 CE. Although positive evidence is lacking, similar changes can be assumed in the remoter past. The Teesta River is one of the rivers that has changed over the years. The Teesta earlier ran due south from Jalpaiguri in three channels, namely, the Karatoya to the east, the Punarbhaba in the west and the Atrai in the centre. The three channels possibly gave the name to the river as \"Trisrota\" \"possessed of three streams\" which has been shortened to Teesta. Of these three, the Punarbhaba joined the Mahananda. The Atrai passing through a vast marshy area known as Chalan Beel joined the Karatoya and the united stream joined the Padma (Ganges) near Jafarganj. In the destructive floods of 1787, the Teesta river forsook its old channel and rushing south-east it joined the Brahmaputra. James Rennell made a survey between 1764 and 1777 and his maps are one of the earliest authentic maps of Bengal in existence. In these maps Teesta is shown as flowing through North Bengal in several branches—Punarbhaba, Atrai, Karatoya, etc. All these streams combined lower down with the Mahananda, now the westernmost river in North Bengal, and taking the name of Hoorsagar finally discharged into the Ganges at Jafarganj, near modern Goalundo. The Hoorsagar river still in existence, being the combined outfall of the Baral, a spill channel of the Ganges, the Atrai, the Jamuna or Jamuneswari (not the main Jamuna through which the Brahmaputra now flows), and the Karatoya, but instead of falling into the Ganges, it falls into the main Jamuna, a few miles above its confluence with the Padma at Goalundo.", "India has an estimated total hydroelectric power potential of 84 GW (at 60% load factor). Of this, Sikkim's potential share is 2.9%, or about 4.29 GW. As of 2010, 13.9% (594 MW) of Sikkim's potential had been implemented and was under operation, 44.8% is under implementation (1919 MW), and another 41.3% (1773 MW) is yet to be examined from environment and engineering design perspective. The successfully completed major projects and dams are: The other three completed projects are significantly smaller and minor—Lower Lagyap, Upper Rongni Chhu and Mayang Chhu projects.", "The Teesta Barrage is a major irrigation project in Bangladesh, in Lalmonirhat District. Construction started 1979 and was completed in 1997–98.", "Disputes over the appropriate allocation and development of the water resources of the river have remained a subject of conflict for almost 35 years, with several bilateral agreements and rounds of talks failing to produce results.", "Teesta river area is in the seismically active Zone-V and has experienced micro-seismic activity. According to India's Ministry of Environment & Forests, the Teesta river dam projects have been approved with the requirement that they adopt suitable seismic coefficient in the design for the dam, tunnel, surge shaft and power house. The projects are cascaded over the length of the river, do not store large amounts water, have small reservoirs, and therefore the projects are expected to have very low risk from the reservoir induced seismicity in the area.", "The Teesta river has preserved good imprints of climatic and tectonics along its valleys and catchments. The interrelationship between climate, erosion, deposition and tectonic activities is not properly understood to date. These are being studied." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "UEFA Euro 2004.", "Portugal national football team.", "Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira finals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Estádio Municipal de Aveiro Stadium has an ambitious design that combines a simple and endearing shape with a liveliness of colours of every kind throughout the entire stadium. Therefore, the stadium conveys a sensation of jolliness that has a positive effect on the celebration of sports events. It was the intuition of architect Tomás Taveira to introduce intense tonality colours to the exterior of the stadium and to subsequently give a feeling of motion and a spectacular visual effect. Therefore, the stadium resembles a big toy for children with lots a coloured parts gathered together. The stadium's polychromy and dynamism is also reflected on the interior where four tribunes contain a curvilinear profile and multicoloured seats that characterize the stadium. The seats have different colours that are distributed in a random way. Red, green, yellow, blue, white, and black seats offer an original and chromatic animation and a strong feeling of dynamism and cheerfulness - even when the stadium is empty it looks as if the party has already started.The intentional use of different colours is also reflected in the most detailed aspects, from the entrance gates, to the pillars and supporting beams. Even the walls at the inner ambience are coloured. The roof also contributes to the harmonization process by making the stadium look like a big toy. It contains sharply red steel pylons that uphold sky-blue edges. From a more formal point of view, the slightly waved roof unifies the curved course of the underlying tribunes that offer a view over the pylons and its steel tie-beams.", "The following UEFA Euro 2004 - Group D - matches were held in the stadium:", "The following national team matches were held in the stadium.", "The following Portuguese Super Cup finals took place at this stadium:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Geography.", "Administrative divisions.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Transportation.", "Others." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Poasoa\" (transliterated into ) was once a center of settlement for the Babuza people (a plains aboriginal tribe). During the Dutch period, the area was under the administration of Favorlang (modern-day Huwei, Yunlin) and was controlled by the Dutch East India Company. During the Siege of Fort Zeelandia, the area was also one of Koxinga's central defense and attack bases. During the Chinese immigration of the 17th century, Changhua city was one of the four cities that had major immigration; it was one of the oldest Han Chinese settlements. By 1694, Poasoa Village () had been established. During the late 17th to late 19th century the area continued to be one of the major urban settlements in central Taiwan. In 1723, Changhua County was established, following the Zhu Yigui rebellion. Despite that, rebellions and civil wars continued.", "The origin of today's Changhua City is attributed to the Japanese administration, as they made the city into the official county seat in 1897 under. During this era, the Japanese pronunciation \"Shōka\" came into use, alongside the \"Chinese spellings\" of \"Changwha, Changhwa, Changhoa, Chanhue, Chan-hua, Tchanghoua\". In 1901, the local administrative unit was established, but this merged with in 1909. In 1920, Shoka was governed under the new Taichū Prefecture. In 1933, and were merged with Shōka Town and upgraded to Shōka City.", "After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China on 25 October 1945, Changhua City was established as provincial city of Taiwan Province on 25 December the same year. On 30 November 1951, the Changhua City Office was established and subsequently on 1 December 1951, it was downgraded to county-administered city and became the county seat of Changhua County until today.", "Changhua city has plenty of flat lands, however, the flat lands are divided in two portions by the Central Mountain Range of Taiwan. One on the South Eastern area and the other on the North Western area. The North Eastern area, although being flat, is often affected by soil erosion caused by typhoons during the summer, thus is not suitable for living. The temperature of Changhua city on average is, annually, with July being the hottest and January being the coolest. Annual rainfall is, June being the wettest and November being the driest. Rainfall decreases westward closer to the coastline.", "Changhua City is divided into the following villages (in romanized alphabetical order): Anxi, Ayi, Baobu, Chenggong, Citong, Datong, Dazhu, Fuan, Fugui, Fushan, Futian, Fuxing, Guangfu, Guanghua, Guangnan, Guashan, Guosheng, Guyi, Hediao, Huabei, Huayang, Jiadong, Jianan, Jianbao, Jieshou, Kuaiguan, Longshan, Lunping, Minquan, Minsheng, Nanan, Nanmei, Nanxing, Nanyao, Niupu, Pinghe, Sancun, Shipai, Taifeng, Taoyuan, Tianzhong, Tungfang, Tungxing, Wanan, Wanshou, Wenhua, Wuquan, Xiabu, Xian Xiangshan, Xiangyang, Xingbei, Xinhua, Xinxing, Xinyi, Xishi, Xixing, Yangming, Yanhe, Yanping, Yongfu, Yongsheng, Zhangan, Zhangle, Zhongquan, Zhongshan, Zhongxiao, Zhongyang, Zhongzheng, Zhongzhuang, Zhuanyao, Zhuxiang and Zhuzhong.", "Changhua City is one of the more developed areas of Changhua County, industrialization has been ongoing since the 1970s. This is reflected by an increase of factories in Changhua and decreasing amount of agricultural fields. However, Changhua City has a considerable amount of pollution as a result of this industrialization. From a poll in 1992, 43.2% of respondents worked in the service sector, 42.4% in the industrial sector and only 14.4% in either the agricultural or fishing sector.", "The earliest school in Changhua dated back to 1726 during the Qing dynasty. The Japanese administration also improved the education system in Changhua City. Changhua City has 15 elementary schools, 7 junior high schools, 7 senior high schools and 2 technical/universities.", "Changhua Station is currently the only Taiwan Railways Administration station in Changhua City. Freeway 1 connects Changhua City to Taichung City and is one of the primary route for commuters between the two cities. Freeway 3 intersects with Freeway 1 at Changhua and connects to Provincial Highway 74.", "On 25 May 2002, China Airlines Flight 611 broke into pieces in mid-air. Parts of the plane landed in Changhua." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding.", "Western Zhou.", "Spring and Autumn Period.", "Warring States period.", "Defeat.", "Qin and Han dynasties.", "Culture.", "Linguistic influences.", "Bureaucracy.", "Geography.", "Chu in astronomy.", "Chu in biology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "According to legends recounted in Sima Qian's \"Records of the Grand Historian\", the royal family of Chu descended from the Yellow Emperor and his grandson and successor Zhuanxu. Zhuanxu's great-grandson Wuhui () was put in charge of fire by Emperor Ku and given the title Zhurong. Wuhui's son Luzhong () had six sons, all born by Caesarian section. The youngest, Jilian, adopted the ancestral surname Mi. ’s descendant Yuxiong was the teacher of King Wen of Zhou (r. 1099–1050 BCE). After the Zhou overthrew the Shang dynasty, King Cheng (r. 1042–1021 BCE) awarded Yuxiong's great-grandson Xiong Yi with the fiefdom of Chu and the hereditary title of (\"zǐ\", \"viscount\"). Xiong Yi built the first capital of Chu at Danyang (present-day Xichuan in Henan).", "In 977 BCE, during his campaign against Chu, King Zhao of Zhou's boat sank and he drowned in the Han River. After this death, Zhou ceased to expand to the south, allowing the southern tribes and Chu to cement their own autonomy much earlier than the states to the north. The Chu viscount Xiong Qu overthrew E in 863 BCE but subsequently made its capital Ezhou one of his capitals. In either 703 or 706, the ruler Xiong Tong proclaimed himself king, establishing Chu's full independence from the Zhou dynasty.", "In its early years, Chu was a successful expansionist and militaristic state that developed a reputation for coercing and absorbing its allies. Subsequently, Chu grew from a small state into a large kingdom. Under the reign of King Zhuang, Chu reached the height of its power and was considered one of the five Hegemons of the era. After a number of battles with neighboring states, sometime between 695 and 689 BCE, the Chu capital moved south-east from Danyang to Ying. Chu first consolidated its power by absorbing lesser states in its original area (modern Hubei), then it expanded into the north towards the North China Plain. In the summer of 648 BCE, the State of Huang was annexed by the state of Chu. The threat from Chu resulted in multiple northern alliances under the leadership of Jin. These alliances kept Chu in check, and the Chu kingdom lost their first major battle at the Chengpu in 632 BCE. During the 6th century BCE, Jin and Chu fought numerous battles over the hegemony of central plain. In 597 BCE, Jin was defeated by Chu in the battle of Bi, causing Jin's temporary inability to counter Chu's expansion. Chu strategically used the state of Zheng as its representative in the central plain area, through the means of intimidation and threats, Chu forced Zheng to ally with itself. On the other hand, Jin had to balance out Chu's influence by repeatedly allying with Lu, Wey, and Song. The tension between Chu and Jin did not loosen until the year of 579 BCE when a truce was signed between the two states. At the beginning of the sixth century BCE, Jin strengthened the state of Wu near the Yangtze delta to act as a counterweight against Chu. Wu defeated Qi and then invaded Chu in 506 BCE. Following the Battle of Boju, it occupied Chu's capital at Ying, forcing King Zhao to flee to his allies in Yun and \"Sui\". King Zhao eventually returned to Ying but, after another attack from Wu in 504 BCE, he temporarily moved the capital into the territory of the former state of Ruo. Chu began to strengthen Yue in modern Zhejiang to serve as allies against Wu. Yue was initially subjugated by King Fuchai of Wu until he released their king Goujian, who took revenge for his former captivity by crushing and completely annexing Wu.", "Freed from its difficulties with Wu, Chu annexed Chen in 479 BCE and overran Cai to the north in 447 BCE. This policy of expansion continued until the last generation before the fall to Qin (Lu was conquered by King Kaolie in 223 BCE). However, by the end of the 5th century BCE, the Chu government had become very corrupt and inefficient, with much of the state's treasury used primarily to pay for the royal entourage. Many officials had no meaningful task except taking money and Chu's army, while large, was of low quality. In the late 390s BCE, King Dao of Chu made Wu Qi his chancellor. Wu's reforms began to transform Chu into an efficient and powerful state in 389 BCE, as he lowered the salaries of officials and removed useless officials. He also enacted building codes to make the capital Ying seem less barbaric. Despite Wu Qi's unpopularity among Chu's ruling class, his reforms strengthened the king and left the state very powerful until the late 4th century BCE, when Zhao and Qin were ascendant. Chu's powerful army once again became successful, defeating the states of Wei and Yue. Yue was partitioned between Chu and Qi in either 334 or 333 BCE. However, the officials of Chu wasted no time in their revenge and Wu Qi was assassinated at King Dao's funeral in 381 BCE. Prior to Wu's service in the state of Chu, Wu lived in the state of Wei, where his military analysis of the six opposing states was recorded in his magnum opus, \"The Book of Master Wu\". Of Chu, he said: During the late Warring States period, Chu was increasingly pressured by Qin to its west, especially after Qin enacted and preserved the Legalistic reforms of Shang Yang. In 241 BCE, five of the seven major warring states - Chu, Zhao, Wei, Yan and Han - formed an alliance to fight the rising power of Qin. King Kaolie of Chu was named the leader of the alliance and Lord Chunshen the military commander. According to historian Yang Kuan, the Zhao general Pang Nuan () was the actual commander in the battle. The allies attacked Qin at the strategic Hangu Pass but were defeated. King Kaolie blamed Lord Chunshen for the loss and began to mistrust him. Afterwards, Chu moved its capital east to Shouchun, farther away from the threat of Qin. Chu's size and power made it the key state in alliances against Qin. As Qin expanded into Chu's territory, Chu was forced to expand southwards and eastwards, absorbing local cultural influences along the way. By the late 4th century BCE, however, Chu's prominent status had fallen into decay. As a result of several invasions headed by Zhao and Qin, Chu was eventually subjugated by Qin.", "According to the \"Records of the Warring States\", a debate between the Diplomat strategist Zhang Yi and the Qin general Sima Cuo led to two conclusions concerning the unification of China. Zhang Yi argued in favor of conquering Han and seizing the Mandate of Heaven from the powerless Zhou king would be wise. Sima Cuo, however, considered that the primary difficulty was not legitimacy but the strength of Qin's opponents; he argued that \"conquering Shu is conquering Chu\" and, \"once Chu is eliminated, the country will be united\". The importance of Shu in the Sichuan Basin was its great agricultural output and its control over the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, leading directly into the Chu heartland. King Huiwen of Qin opted to support Sima Cuo. In 316 BCE, Qin invaded and conquered Shu and nearby Ba, expanding downriver in the following decades. In 278 BCE, the Qin general Bai Qi finally conquered Chu's capital at Ying. Following the fall of Ying, the Chu government moved to various locations in the east until settling in Shouchun in 241 BCE. After a massive two-year struggle, Bai Qi lured the main Zhao force of 400,000 men onto the field, surrounding them and forcing their surrender at Changping in 260 BCE. The Qin army massacred their prisoners, removing the last major obstacle to Qin dominance over the Chinese states. By 225 BCE, only four kingdoms remained: Qin, Chu, Yan, and Qi. Chu had recovered sufficiently to mount serious resistance. Despite its size, resources, and manpower, though, Chu's corrupt government worked against it. In 224 BCE, Ying Zheng called for a meeting with his subjects to discuss his plans for the invasion of Chu. Wang Jian said that the invasion force needed to be at least 600,000 strong, while Li Xin thought that less than 200,000 men would be sufficient. Ying Zheng sided with Li and ordered him and Meng Wu to lead the army against Chu; Wang Jian was forced to retire from state affairs upon a pretense of illness. The Qin armies scored initial victories as Li Xin's force conquered Pingyu (, north of present-day Pingyu in Henan) and Meng Wu's captured Qinqiu (, present-day Linquan in Anhui). After conquering Yan (, present-day Yanling in Henan), Li Xin led his army west to rendezvous with Meng at Chengfu (, east of present-day Baofeng in Henan). The Chu army, led by Xiang Yan, had avoided using its main force and waited for an opportunity to launch a counterattack. They secretly followed Li Xin's army for three days and three nights, before launching a surprise offensive and defeating the Qin army. Upon learning of Li's defeat, Ying Zheng visited the exiled Wang Jian in person and invited him back, putting Wang in command of the 600,000-strong army he had requested earlier and placing Meng Wu beneath him as a deputy. Worried that the Qin tyrant might fear the power he now possessed and order him executed upon some pretense, Wang Jian constantly sent messengers back to the king in order to remain in contact and reduce the king's suspicion. Wang Jian's army passed through southern Chen (; present-day Huaiyang in Henan) and made camp at Pingyu. The Chu armies under Xiang Yan used their full strength against the camp but failed. Wang Jian ordered his troops to defend their positions firmly but avoid advancing further into Chu territory. After failing to lure the Qin army into an attack, Xiang Yan ordered a retreat; Wang Jian seized this opportunity to launch a swift assault. The Qin forces pursued the retreating Chu forces to Qinan (; northwest of present-day Qichun in Hubei) and Xiang Yan was either killed in the action or committed suicide following his defeat. The next year, in 223 BCE, Qin launched another campaign and captured the Chu capital Shouchun. King Fuchu was captured and his state annexed. The following year, Wang Jian and Meng Wu led the Qin army against Wuyue around the mouth of the Yangtze, capturing the descendants of the royal family of Yue. These conquered territories became the Kuaiji Prefecture of the Qin Empire. At their peak, Chu and Qin together fielded over 1,000,000 troops, more than the massive Battle of Changping between Qin and Zhao 35 years before. The excavated personal letters of two regular Qin soldiers, Hei Fu () and Jing (), tell of a protracted campaign in Huaiyang under Wang Jian. Both soldiers wrote letters requesting supplies of clothing and money from home to sustain the long waiting campaign.", "The Chu realm at its most powerful was vast with many ethnicities and various customs. Though diverse, the Chu people were united by a common respect for nature, the supernatural, and their heritage and loyalty to their ruling house and nobility, epitomized by the famed Chu statesman-poet Qu Yuan and the \"Songs of Chu\". The Chu populace in areas conquered by Qin openly ignored the stringent Qin laws and governance, as recorded in the excavated bamboo slips of a Qin administrator in Hubei. Chu was one of the last states to fall and its people aspired to overthrow the painful yoke of Qin rule and re-establishing a separate state. The attitude was immortalized in a Chinese expression about implacable hostility: \"Though Chu have but three clans, Qin surely be perished by none other but Chu\" (). After Ying Zheng declared himself the First Emperor (Shi Huangdi) and reigned briefly, the people of Chu and its former ruling house organized the first violent insurrections against the new Qin administration. They were especially resentful of the Qin corvée; folk poems record the mournful sadness of Chu families whose men worked in the frigid north to construct the Great Wall of China. The Dazexiang Uprising occurred in 209 BCE under the leadership of a Chu peasant, Chen Sheng, who proclaimed himself \"King of Rising Chu\" (\"Zhangchu\"). This uprising was crushed by the Qin army but it inspired a new wave of other rebellions. One of the leaders, Jing Ju of Chu, proclaimed himself the new king of Chu. Jing Ju was defeated by another rebel force under Xiang Liang. Xiang installed Xiong Xin, a scion of Chu's traditional royal family, on the throne of Chu under the regnal name King Huai II. In 206 BCE, after the fall of the Qin Empire, Xiang Yu, Xiang Liang's nephew, proclaimed himself the \"Hegemon-King of Western Chu\" and promoted King Huai II to \"Emperor Yi\". He subsequently had Yi assassinated. Xiang Yu then engaged with Liu Bang, another prominent anti-Qin rebel, in a long struggle for supremacy over the lands of the former Qin Empire, which became known as the Chu–Han Contention. The conflict ended in victory for Liu Bang: he proclaimed the Han dynasty and was later honored with the temple name Gaozu, while Xiang Yu committed suicide in defeat. The Chu people and customs were major influences on the new era of the Han. Liu Bang immediately enacted a more traditional and less intrusive administration than the Qin before him, made peace with the Xiongnu through heqin intermarriages, rewarded his allies with large fiefdoms, and allowed the population to rest from centuries of warfare. The core Chu territories centered in Pengcheng was granted first to general Han Xin and then to Liu Bang's brother Liu Jiao as the Kingdom of Chu. By the time of Emperor Wu of Han, Chu folk culture and aesthetics were amalgamated with the Han-sponsored Confucian tradition and Qin-influenced central governance to create a distinct \"Chinese\" culture.", "Based on the archaeological finds, Chu's culture was initially quite similar to that of the other Zhou states of the Yellow River basin. Subsequently, however, Chu absorbed indigenous elements from the Baiyue lands the state conquered to its south and east, developing a distinct culture from the states of the northern plains. During the Western Zhou period, the difference between the culture of Chu and the Central Plains states to the north was negligible. Only in the late Spring and Autumn Period does Chu culture begin to diverge, preserving some older aspects of the culture and developing new phenomena. It also absorbed some elements from annexed areas. The culture of Chu had significant internal diversity from locality to locality. Chu, like Qin and Yan, was often described as being not as cultured by people in the Central plains. However, this image originated with the later development of Chu relative to the Central plains, and the stereotype was retrospectively cultivated by Confucian scholars in the Qin dynasty, to indirectly criticise the ruling regime, and the Han dynasty as a means of curbing their ideological opponents who were associated with such cultural practices. As the founder of the Han dynasty was from Chu, Chu culture would later become a basis of the culture of the later Han dynasty, combined with that of the Qin dynasty. Early Chu burial offerings consisted primarily of bronze vessels in the Zhou style. Later Chu burials, especially during the Warring States, featured distinct burial objects, such as colorful lacquerware, iron, and silk, accompanied by a reduction in bronze vessel offerings. A common Chu motif was the vivid depiction of wildlife, mystical animals, and natural imagery, such as snakes, dragons, phoenixes, tigers, and free-flowing clouds and serpent-like beings. Some archaeologists speculate that Chu may have had cultural connections to the vanished Shang dynasty, since many motifs used by Chu appeared earlier at Shang sites such as serpent-tailed gods. Later Chu culture was known for its affinity for shamans. The Chu culture and government strongly supported Taoism and native shamanism supplemented with some Confucian glosses on Zhou ritual. Chu people affiliated themselves with the god of fire Zhurong in Chinese mythology. For this reason, fire worshiping and red coloring were practiced by Chu people. The naturalistic and flowing art, the \"Songs of Chu\", historical records, excavated bamboo documents such as the Guodian slips, and other artifacts reveal heavy Taoist and native folk influence in Chu culture. The disposition to a spiritual, often pleasurable and decadent lifestyle, and the confidence in the size of the Chu realm led to the inefficiency and eventual destruction of the Chu state by the ruthless Legalist state of Qin. Even though the Qin realm lacked the vast natural resources and waterways of Chu, the Qin government maximized its output under the efficient minister Shang Yang, installing a meritocracy focused solely on agricultural and military might. Chu was known for its distinct music. Archaeological evidence shows that Chu music was annotated differently from Zhou. Chu music also showed an inclination for using different performance ensembles, as well as unique instruments. In Chu, the \"se\" was preferred over the zither, while both instruments were equally preferred in the northern Zhou states. Chu came into frequent contact with other peoples in the south, most notably the Ba, Yue, and the Baiyue. Numerous burials and burial objects in the Ba and Yue styles have been discovered throughout the territory of Chu, co-existing with Chu-style burials and burial objects. The early rulers of the Han dynasty romanticized the culture of Chu, sparking a renewed interest in Chu cultural elements such as the \"Songs of Chu\". Evidence of heavy Chu cultural influence appears at Mawangdui. After the Han dynasty, some Confucian scholars considered Chu culture with distaste, criticizing the \"lewd\" music and shamanistic rituals associated with Chu culture. Chu artisanship shows a mastery of form and color, especially the lacquer woodworks. Red and black pigmented lacquer were most used. Silk-weaving also attained a high level of craftsmanship, creating lightweight robes with flowing designs. These examples (as at Mawangdui) were preserved in waterlogged tombs where the lacquer did not peel off over time and in tombs sealed with coal or white clay. Chu used the complex calligraphic script called \"Birds and Worms\" style, which was borrowed by the Wu and Yue states. It has an intricate design that embellishes the characters with motifs of animals, snakes, birds, and insects. This is another representation of the Chu reverence of the natural world and its liveliness. Chu produced broad bronze swords that were similar to Wuyue swords but not as intricate. Chu was in the region of many rivers, so it created an efficient riverine transport system of boats augmented by wagons. These are detailed in bronze tallies with gold inlay regarding trade along the river systems connecting with those of the Chu capital at Ying.", "Excavated Chinese texts from Chu, and Chinese dialect words recorded in the \"Fangyan\", show substrate influences, which have been attributed to Kra–Dai, Hmong–Mien or Austroasiatic languages.", "Chu's bureaucracy was distinct from other Zhou dynasty states. According to Li Tiaoyuan's \"Zuozhuan Guanming Kao\", Mo'ao () and Lingyin were the top government officials of Chu. Sima was the military commander of Chu's army. Lingyin, Mo'ao and Sima were the San Gong () of Chu. In the Spring and Autumn period, Zuoyin () and Youyin () were added as the undersecretaries of Lingyin. Likewise, Sima() was assisted by Zuosima () and Yousima () respectively. Mo'ao's status was gradually lowered while Lingyin and Sima became more powerful posts in the Chu court. Ministers whose functions vary according to their titles were called Yin(). For example: Lingyin (Prime minister), Gongyin (Minister of works), and Zhenyin were all suffixed by the word \"Yin\". Shenyin () was the minister of religious duties or the high priest of Chu, multiple entries in Zuo Zhuan indicated their role as oracles. Other Yins recorded by history were: Yuyin, Lianyin, Jiaoyin, Gongjiyin, Lingyin, Huanlie Zhi Yin (Commander of Palace guards) and Yueyin( Minister of Music). In counties and commanderies, Gong(), also known as Xianyin (minister of county) was the chief administrator. In many cases, positions in Chu's bureaucracy were hereditarily held by members of a cadet branch of Chu's royal house; Mi. Mo'ao, one of the three chancellors of Chu, was exclusively chosen from Qu () clan. During the early spring and autumn period and before the Ruo'ao rebellion, Lingyin was a position held by Ruo'aos, namely Dou () and Cheng ().", "Chu's expanse was one of the largest among ancient Chinese states. Progenitors of Chu such as viscount Xiong Yi were said to originate from the Jing Mountains; a chain of mountains located in today's Hubei province. Rulers of Chu systematically migrated states annexed by Chu to the Jing mountains in order to control them more efficiently. East of Jing mountains are the Tu () mountains. In the north-east part of Chu are the Dabie mountains; the drainage divide of Huai river and Yangtse river. The first capital of Chu, Dangyang () was located in today's Zhijiang, Hubei province. Ying(), one of the later capitals of Chu, is known by its contemporary name Jingzhou. In Chu's northern border lies the Fangcheng mountain. Strategically, Fangcheng is an ideal defense against states of central plain. Due to its strategic value, numerous castles were built on the Fangcheng mountain. Yunmeng Ze in Jianghan Plain was an immense freshwater lake that historically existed in Chu's realm, It was crossed by Yanzi river, the northern Yunmeng was named Meng (), the southern Yunmeng was known as Yun (). The lake's body covers parts of today's Zhijiang, Jianli, Shishou, Macheng, Huanggang, and Anlu. Shaoxi Pass was an important outpost in the mountainous western border of Chu. It was located in today's Wuguan town of Danfeng County, Shaanxi. Any forces that marched from the west, mainly from Qin, to Chu's realm would have to pass Shaoxi.", "In traditional Chinese astronomy, Chu is represented by a star in the \"Twelve States\" asterism, part of the \"Girl\" lunar mansion in the \"Black Turtle\" symbol. Opinions differ, however, as to whether that star is Phi or 24 Capricorni. It is also represented by the star Epsilon Ophiuchi in the \"Right Wall\" asterism in the \"Heavenly Market\" enclosure.", "The virus taxa \"Chuviridae\" and \"Jingchuvirales\" are named in honor of Chǔ." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Background.", "Exile to Thebes.", "Birth of Heracles.", "Homer.", "Ovid.", "Pausanias.", "Plautus.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "According to the \"Bibliotheca\", Alcmene was born to Electryon, the son of Perseus and Andromeda, and king of Tiryns and Mycenae or Medea in Argolis. Her mother was Anaxo, daughter of Alcaeus and Astydamia. Other accounts say her mother was Lysidice, the daughter of Pelops and Hippodameia, or Eurydice the daughter of Pelops. According to Pausanias, the poet Asius made Alcmene the daughter of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle. Hesiod describes Alcmene as the tallest, most beautiful woman with wisdom surpassed by no person born of mortal parents. It is said that her face and dark eyes were as charming as Aphrodite's, and that she honoured her husband like no woman before her.", "According to the \"Bibliotheca\", Alcmene went with Amphitryon to Thebes, where he was purified by Creon for accidentally killing Electryon. Alcmene refused to marry Amphitryon until he had avenged the death of her brothers. During Amphitryon's expedition against the Taphians and Teleboans, Zeus visited Alcmene disguised as Amphitryon. Zeus persuaded Alcmene that he was her husband. Extending one night into three, Zeus slept with Alcmene, his great-granddaughter, thereby conceiving Heracles, while recounting Amphitryon's victories against the Teleboans. When Amphitryon finally returned to Thebes, Alcmene told him that he had come the night before and slept with her; he learned from Tiresias what Zeus had done.", "", "In Homer's \"Iliad\", when Alcmene was about to give birth to Heracles, Zeus announced to all the gods that on that day a child by Zeus himself would be born and rule all those around him. Hera, after requesting Zeus to swear an oath to that effect, descended from Olympus to Argos and made the wife of Sthenelus (son of Perseus) give birth to Eurystheus after only seven months, while at the same time preventing Alcmene from delivering Heracles. This resulted in the fulfillment of Zeus's oath in that it was Eurystheus rather than Heracles.", "According to Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", while in labour, Alcmene was having great difficulty giving birth to such a large child. After seven days and nights of agony, Alcmene stretched out her arms and called upon Lucina, the goddess of childbirth (the Roman equivalent of Eileithyia). While Lucina did go to Alcmene, she had been previously instructed by Juno (Hera) to prevent the delivery. With her hands clasped and legs crossed, Lucina muttered charms, thereby preventing Alcmene from giving birth. Alcmene writhed in pain, cursed the heavens, and came close to death. Galanthis, a maid of Alcmene who was nearby, observed Lucina's behaviour and quickly deduced that it was Juno's doing. To put an end to her mistress's suffering, she announced that Alcmene had safely delivered her child, which surprised Lucina so much that she immediately jumped up and unclenched her hands. As soon as Lucina leapt up, Alcmene was released from her spell, and gave birth to Heracles. As punishment for deceiving Lucina, Galanthis was transformed into a weasel; she continued to live with Alcmene.", "In Pausanias' recounting, Hera sent witches (as they were called by the Thebans) to hinder Alcmene's delivery of Heracles. The witches were successful in preventing the birth until Historis, daughter of Tiresias, thought of a trick to deceive the witches. Like Galanthis, Historis announced that Alcmene had delivered her child; having been deceived, the witches went away, allowing Alcmene to give birth.", "In contrast to the depictions of a difficult labor above, an alternative version is presented in \"Amphitryon\", a comedic play by Plautus. Here Alcmene calls upon Jupiter, who performs a miracle allowing her to give birth quickly and without pain. After a crash of thunder and light, the baby arrives without anyone's assistance.", "After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married Rhadamanthys, son of Zeus, and lived with him in exile at Ocaleae in Boeotia. It is said that after Heracles was apotheosised, Hyllus, having pursued and killed Eurystheus, cut off Eurystheus' head and gave it to Alcmene, who gouged out the eyes with weaving pins. In Metamorphoses, an aging Alcmene recounted the story of the birth of Heracles to Iole. There are two accounts of Alcmene's death. In the first, according to the Megarians, Alcmene was walking from Argos to Thebes when she died at Megara. The Heracleidae fell into disagreement about where to take Alcmene's body, with some wishing to take her corpse back to Argos, and others wishing to take it to Thebes to be buried with Amphitryon and Heracles' children by Megara. However, the god in Delphi gave the Heracleidae an oracle that it was better to bury Alcmene in Megara. In the second account given by the Thebans, when Alcmene died, she was turned from human form to a stone. Pausanias indicated that an altar to Alcmene had been built in the Cynosarges in Athens, alongside altars to Heracles, Hebe, and Iolaus. Pausanias also said that Alcmene's tomb is located near the Olympieum at Megara." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Divide and conquer.", "Early historical examples.", "Advantages.", "Solving difficult problems.", "Algorithm efficiency.", "Parallelism.", "Memory access.", "Roundoff control.", "Implementation issues.", "Recursion.", "Explicit stack.", "Stack size.", "Choosing the base cases.", "Sharing repeated subproblems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The divide-and-conquer paradigm is often used to find an optimal solution of a problem. Its basic idea is to decompose a given problem into two or more similar, but simpler, subproblems, to solve them in turn, and to compose their solutions to solve the given problem. Problems of sufficient simplicity are solved directly. For example, to sort a given list of \"n\" natural numbers, split it into two lists of about \"n\"/2 numbers each, sort each of them in turn, and interleave both results appropriately to obtain the sorted version of the given list (see the picture). This approach is known as the merge sort algorithm. The name \"divide and conquer\" is sometimes applied to algorithms that reduce each problem to only one sub-problem, such as the binary search algorithm for finding a record in a sorted list (or its analog in numerical computing, the bisection algorithm for root finding). These algorithms can be implemented more efficiently than general divide-and-conquer algorithms; in particular, if they use tail recursion, they can be converted into simple loops. Under this broad definition, however, every algorithm that uses recursion or loops could be regarded as a \"divide-and-conquer algorithm\". Therefore, some authors consider that the name \"divide and conquer\" should be used only when each problem may generate two or more subproblems. The name decrease and conquer has been proposed instead for the single-subproblem class. An important application of divide and conquer is in optimization, where if the search space is reduced (\"pruned\") by a constant factor at each step, the overall algorithm has the same asymptotic complexity as the pruning step, with the constant depending on the pruning factor (by summing the geometric series); this is known as prune and search.", "Early examples of these algorithms are primarily decrease and conquer – the original problem is successively broken down into \"single\" subproblems, and indeed can be solved iteratively. Binary search, a decrease-and-conquer algorithm where the subproblems are of roughly half the original size, has a long history. While a clear description of the algorithm on computers appeared in 1946 in an article by John Mauchly, the idea of using a sorted list of items to facilitate searching dates back at least as far as Babylonia in 200 BC. Another ancient decrease-and-conquer algorithm is the Euclidean algorithm to compute the greatest common divisor of two numbers by reducing the numbers to smaller and smaller equivalent subproblems, which dates to several centuries BC. An early example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm with multiple subproblems is Gauss's 1805 description of what is now called the Cooley–Tukey fast Fourier transform (FFT) algorithm, although he did not analyze its operation count quantitatively, and FFTs did not become widespread until they were rediscovered over a century later. An early two-subproblem D&C algorithm that was specifically developed for computers and properly analyzed is the merge sort algorithm, invented by John von Neumann in 1945. Another notable example is the algorithm invented by Anatolii A. Karatsuba in 1960 that could multiply two \"n\"-digit numbers in formula_1 operations (in Big O notation). This algorithm disproved Andrey Kolmogorov's 1956 conjecture that formula_2 operations would be required for that task. As another example of a divide-and-conquer algorithm that did not originally involve computers, Donald Knuth gives the method a post office typically uses to route mail: letters are sorted into separate bags for different geographical areas, each of these bags is itself sorted into batches for smaller sub-regions, and so on until they are delivered. This is related to a radix sort, described for punch-card sorting machines as early as 1929.", "", "Divide and conquer is a powerful tool for solving conceptually difficult problems: all it requires is a way of breaking the problem into sub-problems, of solving the trivial cases and of combining sub-problems to the original problem. Similarly, decrease and conquer only requires reducing the problem to a single smaller problem, such as the classic Tower of Hanoi puzzle, which reduces moving a tower of height \"n\" to moving a tower of height \"n\" − 1.", "The divide-and-conquer paradigm often helps in the discovery of efficient algorithms. It was the key, for example, to Karatsuba's fast multiplication method, the quicksort and mergesort algorithms, the Strassen algorithm for matrix multiplication, and fast Fourier transforms. In all these examples, the D&C approach led to an improvement in the asymptotic cost of the solution. For example, if (a) the base cases have constant-bounded size, the work of splitting the problem and combining the partial solutions is proportional to the problem's size \"n\", and (b) there is a bounded number \"p\" of sub-problems of size ~ \"n\"/\"p\" at each stage, then the cost of the divide-and-conquer algorithm will be O(\"n\" log\"n\").", "Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally adapted for execution in multi-processor machines, especially shared-memory systems where the communication of data between processors does not need to be planned in advance, because distinct sub-problems can be executed on different processors.", "Divide-and-conquer algorithms naturally tend to make efficient use of memory caches. The reason is that once a sub-problem is small enough, it and all its sub-problems can, in principle, be solved within the cache, without accessing the slower main memory. An algorithm designed to exploit the cache in this way is called \"cache-oblivious\", because it does not contain the cache size as an explicit parameter. Moreover, D&C algorithms can be designed for important algorithms (e.g., sorting, FFTs, and matrix multiplication) to be \"optimal\" cache-oblivious algorithms–they use the cache in a probably optimal way, in an asymptotic sense, regardless of the cache size. In contrast, the traditional approach to exploiting the cache is \"blocking\", as in loop nest optimization, where the problem is explicitly divided into chunks of the appropriate size—this can also use the cache optimally, but only when the algorithm is tuned for the specific cache size(s) of a particular machine. The same advantage exists with regards to other hierarchical storage systems, such as NUMA or virtual memory, as well as for multiple levels of cache: once a sub-problem is small enough, it can be solved within a given level of the hierarchy, without accessing the higher (slower) levels.", "In computations with rounded arithmetic, e.g. with floating-point numbers, a divide-and-conquer algorithm may yield more accurate results than a superficially equivalent iterative method. For example, one can add \"N\" numbers either by a simple loop that adds each datum to a single variable, or by a D&C algorithm called pairwise summation that breaks the data set into two halves, recursively computes the sum of each half, and then adds the two sums. While the second method performs the same number of additions as the first, and pays the overhead of the recursive calls, it is usually more accurate.", "", "Divide-and-conquer algorithms are naturally implemented as recursive procedures. In that case, the partial sub-problems leading to the one currently being solved are automatically stored in the procedure call stack. A recursive function is a function that calls itself within its definition.", "Divide-and-conquer algorithms can also be implemented by a non-recursive program that stores the partial sub-problems in some explicit data structure, such as a stack, queue, or priority queue. This approach allows more freedom in the choice of the sub-problem that is to be solved next, a feature that is important in some applications — e.g. in breadth-first recursion and the branch-and-bound method for function optimization. This approach is also the standard solution in programming languages that do not provide support for recursive procedures.", "In recursive implementations of D&C algorithms, one must make sure that there is sufficient memory allocated for the recursion stack, otherwise the execution may fail because of stack overflow. D&C algorithms that are time-efficient often have relatively small recursion depth. For example, the quicksort algorithm can be implemented so that it never requires more than formula_3 nested recursive calls to sort formula_4 items. Stack overflow may be difficult to avoid when using recursive procedures, since many compilers assume that the recursion stack is a contiguous area of memory, and some allocate a fixed amount of space for it. Compilers may also save more information in the recursion stack than is strictly necessary, such as return address, unchanging parameters, and the internal variables of the procedure. Thus, the risk of stack overflow can be reduced by minimizing the parameters and internal variables of the recursive procedure or by using an explicit stack structure.", "In any recursive algorithm, there is considerable freedom in the choice of the \"base cases\", the small subproblems that are solved directly in order to terminate the recursion. Choosing the smallest or simplest possible base cases is more elegant and usually leads to simpler programs, because there are fewer cases to consider and they are easier to solve. For example, an FFT algorithm could stop the recursion when the input is a single sample, and the quicksort list-sorting algorithm could stop when the input is the empty list; in both examples there is only one base case to consider, and it requires no processing. On the other hand, efficiency often improves if the recursion is stopped at relatively large base cases, and these are solved non-recursively, resulting in a hybrid algorithm. This strategy avoids the overhead of recursive calls that do little or no work, and may also allow the use of specialized non-recursive algorithms that, for those base cases, are more efficient than explicit recursion. A general procedure for a simple hybrid recursive algorithm is \"short-circuiting the base case\", also known as \"arm's-length recursion\". In this case whether the next step will result in the base case is checked before the function call, avoiding an unnecessary function call. For example, in a tree, rather than recursing to a child node and then checking whether it is null, checking null before recursing; this avoids half the function calls in some algorithms on binary trees. Since a D&C algorithm eventually reduces each problem or sub-problem instance to a large number of base instances, these often dominate the overall cost of the algorithm, especially when the splitting/joining overhead is low. Note that these considerations do not depend on whether recursion is implemented by the compiler or by an explicit stack. Thus, for example, many library implementations of quicksort will switch to a simple loop-based insertion sort (or similar) algorithm once the number of items to be sorted is sufficiently small. Note that, if the empty list were the only base case, sorting a list with \"n\" entries would entail maximally \"n\" quicksort calls that would do nothing but return immediately. Increasing the base cases to lists of size 2 or less will eliminate most of those do-nothing calls, and more generally a base case larger than 2 is typically used to reduce the fraction of time spent in function-call overhead or stack manipulation. Alternatively, one can employ large base cases that still use a divide-and-conquer algorithm, but implement the algorithm for predetermined set of fixed sizes where the algorithm can be completely unrolled into code that has no recursion, loops, or conditionals (related to the technique of partial evaluation). For example, this approach is used in some efficient FFT implementations, where the base cases are unrolled implementations of divide-and-conquer FFT algorithms for a set of fixed sizes. Source-code generation methods may be used to produce the large number of separate base cases desirable to implement this strategy efficiently. The generalized version of this idea is known as recursion \"unrolling\" or \"coarsening\", and various techniques have been proposed for automating the procedure of enlarging the base case.", "For some problems, the branched recursion may end up evaluating the same sub-problem many times over. In such cases it may be worth identifying and saving the solutions to these overlapping subproblems, a technique commonly known as memoization. Followed to the limit, it leads to bottom-up divide-and-conquer algorithms such as dynamic programming and chart parsing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Tributaries.", "River of Sorrows.", "Damodar Valley.", "Damodar Valley Corporation (D.V.C.)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Means \"rope around the belly\", derived from Sanskrit दाम (dama) \"rope\" and उदर (udara) \"belly\". This is another name of the Hindu god Krishna, given to him because his foster-mother tied him to a large urn.", "It has a number of tributaries and subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, Jamunia, Ghari, Guaia, Khadia and Bhera. The Damodar and the Barakar trifurcates the Chota Nagpur plateau. The rivers pass through hilly areas with great force, sweeping away whatever lies in their path. Two bridges on the Grand Trunk Road near Barhi in Hazaribagh district were torn down by the Barakar: the great stone bridge in 1913 and the subsequent iron bridge in 1946.", "The Chota Nagpur Plateau receives an average annual rainfall of around, almost all of it in the monsoon months between June and August. The huge volume of water that flows down the Damodar and its tributaries during the monsoons used to be a fury in the upper reaches of the valley. In the lower valley it used to overflow its banks and flood large areas. Damodar River was earlier known as the \"River of Sorrows\" as it used to flood many areas of Bardhaman, Hooghly, Howrah and Medinipur districts. Even now the floods sometimes affect the lower Damodar Valley, but the havoc it wreaked in earlier years is now a matter of history. The floods were virtually an annual ritual. In some years the damage was probably more. Many of the great floods of the Damodar are recorded in history — 1770, 1855, 1866, 1873–74, 1875–76, 1884–85, 1891–92, 1897, 1900, 1907, 1913, 1927, 1930, 1935 and 1943. In four of these floods (1770, 1855, 1913 and 1943) most of Bardhaman town was flooded. In 1789 an agreement was signed between Maharaja Kirti Chand of Burdwan and the East India Company wherein the Maharaja was asked to pay an additional amount of for the construction and maintenance of embankment to prevent floods. However, these ran into dispute and in 1866 and 1873, \"The Bengal Embankment Act\" was passed, transferring the powers to build and maintain embankment to the government. So great was the devastation every year that the floods passed into folklore, as the following Bhadu song testifies:", "The Damodar Valley is spread across Hazaribagh, Ramgarh, Koderma, Giridih, Dhanbad, Bokaro and Chatra districts in Jharkhand and Bardhaman and Hooghly districts in West Bengal and partially covers Palamu, Ranchi, Lohardaga and Dumka districts in Jharkhand and Howrah, Bankura and Purulia districts in West Bengal with a command area of. The Damodar valley is rich in coal. It is considered as the prime centre of coking coal in the country. Massive deposits are found in the central basin spreading over. The important coalfields in the basin are Jharia, Raniganj, West Bokaro, East Bokaro, Ramgarh, South Karanpura and North Karanpura. The Damodar Valley is one of the most industrialised parts of India. Three integrated steel plants (Bokaro, Burnpur and Durgapur) of Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and other factories are in the valley.", "Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power. The valley is called “the Ruhr of India”. Damodar Valley Corporation, popularly known as DVC, came into being on July 7, 1948, by an Act of the Constituent Assembly of India (Act No. XIV of 1948) as the first multipurpose river valley project of independent India. It is modeled on the Tennessee Valley Authority of the United States. The initial focus of the DVC were flood control, irrigation, generation, transmission and distribution of electricity, eco-conservation and afforestation, as well as job creation for the socio-economic well-being of the people residing in and around areas affected by DVC projects. However, over the past few decades, power generation has gained priority. Other objectives of the DVC remain part of its primary responsibility. The dams in the valley have a capacity to moderate peak floods of. DVC has created irrigation potential of. The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar river at Tilaiya in 1953. The second one was built across the Konar River, another tributary of the Damodar river at Konar in 1955. Two dams across the rivers Barakar and Damodar were built at Maithon in 1957 and Panchet in 1958. Both the dams are some upstream of the confluence point of the rivers. These four major dams are controlled by DVC. Durgapur Barrage was constructed downstream of the four dams in 1955, across the Damodar river at Durgapur in 1955, with head regulators for canals on either side for feeding an extensive system of canals and distributaries. In 1978, the government of Bihar (that was before the formation of the state of Jharkhand) constructed the Tenughat Dam across the Damodar river outside the control of DVC. It proposes constructing a dam across the Barakar river at Belpahari in Jharkhand state." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical characteristics.", "Production.", "Consumption.", "Health.", "Nutrition.", "Similar foods." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Umeboshi are usually round, and vary from smooth to very wrinkled. Usually they taste salty, and are extremely sour due to high citric acid content, but sweeter versions exist as well. Umeboshi were notorious for their ability to eat their way through the plain drawn aluminum lunch boxes commonly used in the 1960s. The combination of organic acids and salt in the umeboshi were the cause of this phenomenon. The central area of Wakayama prefecture is known throughout Japan for the number and quality of its ume and umeboshi. The town of Minabe, Wakayama, in particular, grows more ume and produces more umeboshi than any other town in Japan.", "Umeboshi are traditionally made by harvesting ume fruit when they ripen around June and packing them in barrels with 20% salt per weight of fruit. The salt extracts juice, which the ume then soak in for about two weeks. This salty, sour liquid is marketed as \"umezu\" (梅酢; often translated as 'ume vinegar', although it is not a true vinegar.) Many varieties of umeboshi sold on the market are desalinated to a certain extent and re-soaked in a flavoring liquid. They are sometimes dyed red using purple perilla herbs (called \"akajiso\"), or flavoured with \"katsuobushi\", \"kombu\" or even sweetened with honey. Because these flavored varieties end up at 3% to 15% salt content, they usually contain a natural or artificial preservative to extend shelf life. Natural preservatives include vinegar, alcohol, and vitamin B1.", "Umeboshi are usually eaten in small quantities with rice, for added flavor. It is also a common ingredient in \"onigiri\", rice balls wrapped with \"nori\", and they may also be used in \"makizushi\". \"Makizushi\" made with umeboshi may be made with either pitted umeboshi or umeboshi paste (which is cheaper), often in conjunction with slivered fresh green perilla (\"shiso\") leaves. The standard Japanese folk remedy for colds and flus is \"okayu\" (rice congee) with umeboshi. Another usage of umeboshi is in \"Ume chazuke\", a dish of rice with poured in green tea topped with umeboshi. Umeboshi were esteemed by the samurai to combat battle fatigue, a function of their salt and citric acid content, among other factors. Salt, citric acid, and polyphenols also contribute to their antimicrobial activity, so they are a natural preservative for foods and help prevent food poisoning and other bacterial stomach problems. Umeboshi is used as a cooking accent to enhance flavor and presentation. They may also be served as a complement of a drink with \"shochu\" and hot water. Umeboshi are often eaten as snacks; in the United States and Australia, many Japanese grocery stores stock them. Eating umeboshi in Japan is the equivalent of the English expression \"an apple a day\". Children's candy shops sometimes carry \"karikari ume\", or prepackaged, crunchy pickled ume, and dried umeboshi.", "This Japanese style traditional condiment is believed to be a digestive aid, prevention of nausea, and for systemic toxicity, including hangovers. Green ume extract is used as a tonic in Japan. The citric acid is believed to act as an antibacterial, help to increase saliva production and assist in the digestion of rice. Additionally, umeboshi is claimed to combat fatigue (historically given as part of a samurai's field ration) and protect against aging.", "Umeboshi per 100 g contains elements as follows.", "The umeboshi style of pickling is common in Japan and is similar in style to other Asian preserved pickling techniques found in China, Vietnam, and Korea. In Vietnam, a very similar variety of pickled ume is called \"xí muội\" or \"ô mai\". In South Asian countries, a fruit called \"amla\" in Hindi or \"Amala\" in Nepali is prepared in the same way, but with Indian gooseberries instead of ume. In Mexico, it is known as \"chamoy\" and is usually made with apricot, ume or tamarind and a mix of salt and dry chili. In South Africa, a similar style of preserved dried fruit is called \"mebos\" in Afrikaans, the name of which seems to derive from the Japanese via Dutch trade. Usually, apricot is used to produce a salty, acidic variety, although other, sweetened varieties made from other fruits are also colloquially called \"mebos\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and design.", "Limitations and future.", "Technical specifications.", "Core object.", "Events (VEVENT).", "To-do (VTODO).", "Journal entry (VJOURNAL).", "Free/busy time (VFREEBUSY).", "Other component types.", "Distributing updates.", "Calendar extensions.", "vCalendar 1.0.", "Representations.", "xCal.", "jCal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "iCalendar was first created in 1998 by the Calendaring and Scheduling Working Group of the Internet Engineering Task Force, chaired by Anik Ganguly of Open Text Corporation, and was authored by Frank Dawson of Lotus Development Corporation and Derik Stenerson of Microsoft Corporation. iCalendar is heavily based on the earlier vCalendar by the Internet Mail Consortium (IMC). iCalendar data files are plain text files with the extension codice_1 or codice_3 (for files containing availability information only). RFC 5545 replaced RFC 2445 in September 2009 and now defines the standard. iCalendar data have the MIME content type \"text/calendar\". The filename extension of codice_4 is to be used for files containing calendaring and scheduling information, codice_5 for files with free or busy time information consistent with this MIME content type. The equivalent file type codes in Apple Macintosh operating system environments are codice_6 and codice_7. By default, iCalendar uses the UTF-8 character set; a different character set can be specified using the \"charset\" MIME parameter (if the transport method used supports MIME, such as Email or HTTP). Each line is terminated by CR+LF (in hexadecimal: 0D0A). Lines should be limited to 75 octets (not characters) long. Where a data item is too long to fit on a single line it can be continued on following lines by starting the continuation lines with a space character (in hex: 20) or a tab character (in hex: 09). Actual line feeds in data items are encoded as a backslash followed by the letter n or N (the bytes 5C 6E or 5C 4E in UTF-8).", "The iCalendar format is designed to transmit calendar-based data, such as events, and intentionally does not describe what to do with that data. Thus, other programming may be needed to negotiate what to do with this data. iCalendar is meant to \"provide the definition of a common format for openly exchanging calendaring and scheduling information across the Internet\". While the features most often used by users are widely supported by iCalendar, some more advanced capabilities have problems. For example, most vendors do not support Journals (VJOURNAL). VTODOs have had conversion problems as well. iCalendar's calendar is also not compatible with some non-Gregorian calendars such as the lunar calendars used in Israel and Saudi Arabia. The memo \"Calendar Access Protocol\" (RFC 4324) was an initial attempt at a universal system to create real-time calendars. This protocol was eventually abandoned, possibly because of excessive complexity. Regardless, iCalendar-based code such as GroupDAV and CalDAV are now being used more frequently in both client and server software packages. The IETF \"Calendaring and Scheduling Working Group\" (ietf-calsify WG) has published additional proposed revisions to the iCalendar standards (as RFC-drafts/\"Proposed\"), but as of January 2011, the group has 'ended'. The work being picked up by the \"Calendaring Extensions Working Group\" (ietf-calext WG).", "", "The top-level element in iCalendar is the Calendaring and Scheduling Core Object, a collection of calendar and scheduling information. Typically, this information will consist of a single iCalendar object. However, multiple iCalendar objects can be grouped together. The first line must be codice_8, and the last line must be codice_9; the contents between these lines is called the \"icalbody\". The second line codice_10 indicates that the data is in iCalendar format. codice_11 was used to specify that data is in the old vCalendar format. The body of the iCalendar object (the icalbody) is made up of a list of calendar properties and one or more calendar components. The calendar properties apply to the entire calendar. The calendar components are several calendar properties which create a calendar schematic (design). For example, the calendar component can specify an event, a to-do list, a journal entry, time zone information, free/busy time information, or an alarm. Empty lines are not allowed in some versions of usage (Google calendar). Here is a simple example of an iCalendar object, \"Bastille Day Party\" event which occurs July 14, 1997 17:00 (UTC) through July 15, 1997 03:59:59 (UTC): There are many different types of components which can be used in iCalendar, as described below.", "codice_12 describes an event, which has a scheduled amount of time on a calendar. Normally, when a user accepts the calendar event, this will cause that time to be considered busy. A codice_12 may include a codice_14 which allows an alarm. Such events have a codice_15 which sets a starting time, and a codice_16 which sets an ending time. If the calendar event is recurring, codice_15 sets up the start of the first event. A VALARM code (reminder 1 day before): codice_12 also is used for calendar events without a specific time, such as anniversaries and daily reminders. If the user needs to send in a cancellation for an event, the UID should be the same as the original event, and the component properties should be set to cancel Ex. For sending an codice_19 for an event the codice_20 should match the original codice_20. The other component property to be set is: I.e., for the first update: In Microsoft Outlook, the codice_22 corresponds to the \"Subject\" entry in the \"Appointment\" form, and codice_23 to the descriptive text below it. In addition, Outlook 2002 and Outlook 2003 demand a codice_20 and a codice_25.", "VTODO explains a to-do item, i.e., an action-item or assignment. Not all calendar applications recognize VTODO items. In particular, Outlook does not export Tasks as VTODO items, and ignores VTODO items in imported calendars. The following is an example of a to-do due on April 15, 1998. An audio alarm has been specified to remind the calendar user at noon, the day before the to-do is expected to be completed and repeat hourly, four additional times. The SEQUENCE element shows this to-do has been modified twice since it was initially created.", "VJOURNAL is a journal entry. They attach descriptive text to a particular calendar date, may be used to record a daily record of activities or accomplishments, or describe progress with a related to-do entry. A \"VJOURNAL\" calendar component does not take up time on a calendar, so it has no effect on free or busy time (just like TRANSPARENT entries). In practice, few programs support VJOURNAL entries, although examples exist: Plum Canary's Chirp software uses VTODO and VJOURNAL together. Also KOrganizer from the KDE desktop and Evolution from the GNOME desktop support VJOURNAL. The following is an example of a journal entry:", "VFREEBUSY is a request for free/busy time, is a response to a request, or is a published set of busy time. The following is an example of published busy time information:", "Other component types include VAVAILABILITY, VTIMEZONE (time zones) and VALARM (alarms). Some components can include other components (VALARM is often included in other components).", "The UID field distributes updates when a scheduled event changes. When the event is first generated a globally unique identifier is created. If a later event is distributed with the same UID, it replaces the original one.", "vCalendar and iCalendar support private software extensions, with a \"X-\" prefix, a number of which are in common usage. Some of these include:", "iCalendar's design was based on the previous file format vCalendar created by the Internet Mail Consortium (IMC). Here is an example of information in vCalendar format: It has the.vcs file extension. After iCalendar was released, the Internet Mail Consortium stated that it \"hopes that all vCalendar developers take advantage of these new open standards and make their software compatible with both vCalendar 1.0 and iCalendar.\"", "", "xCal is an XML representation of iCalendar data, as defined in.", "jCal is a JSON representation of iCalendar data, as defined in." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Main olfactory system.", "Receptor neuron.", "Olfactory bulb projections.", "Accessory olfactory system.", "Incest avoidance.", "Olfactory coding and perception.", "Genetics.", "Interactions with other senses.", "Olfaction and flavor.", "Audition.", "Disorders.", "Quantification in industry.", "In plants and animals.", "Inbreeding avoidance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Early scientific study of olfaction includes the extensive doctoral dissertation of Eleanor Gamble, published in 1898, which compared olfactory to other stimulus modalities, and implied that smell had a lower intensity discrimination. As the Epicurean and atomistic Roman philosopher Lucretius (1stcentury BCE) speculated, different odors are attributed to different shapes and sizes of \"atoms\" (odor molecules in the modern understanding) that stimulate the olfactory organ. A modern demonstration of that theory was the cloning of olfactory receptor proteins by Linda B. Buck and Richard Axel (who were awarded the Nobel Prize in 2004), and subsequent pairing of odor molecules to specific receptor proteins. Each odor receptor molecule recognizes only a particular molecular feature or class of odor molecules. Mammals have about a thousand genes that code for odor reception. Of the genes that code for odor receptors, only a portion are functional. Humans have far fewer active odor receptor genes than other primates and other mammals. In mammals, each olfactory receptor neuron expresses only one functional odor receptor. Odor receptor nerve cells function like a key–lock system: if the airborne molecules of a certain chemical can fit into the lock, the nerve cell will respond. There are, at present, a number of competing theories regarding the mechanism of odor coding and perception. According to the shape theory, each receptor detects a feature of the odor molecule. The weak-shape theory, known as the odotope theory, suggests that different receptors detect only small pieces of molecules, and these minimal inputs are combined to form a larger olfactory perception (similar to the way visual perception is built up of smaller, information-poor sensations, combined and refined to create a detailed overall perception). According to a new study, researchers have found that a functional relationship exists between molecular volume of odorants and the olfactory neural response.<ref name=\"10.1101/013516\"></ref> An alternative theory, the vibration theory proposed by Luca Turin, posits that odor receptors detect the frequencies of vibrations of odor molecules in the infrared range by quantum tunnelling. However, the behavioral predictions of this theory have been called into question. There is no theory yet that explains olfactory perception completely.", "In vertebrates, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the olfactory epithelium. The olfactory epithelium is made up of at least six morphologically and biochemically different cell types. The proportion of olfactory epithelium compared to respiratory epithelium (not innervated, or supplied with nerves) gives an indication of the animal's olfactory sensitivity. Humans have about of olfactory epithelium, whereas some dogs have. A dog's olfactory epithelium is also considerably more densely innervated, with a hundred times more receptors per square centimeter. The sensory olfactory system integrates with other senses to form the perception of flavor. Often, land organisms will have separate olfaction systems for smell and taste (orthonasal smell and retronasal smell), but water-dwelling organisms usually have only one system. Molecules of odorants passing through the superior nasal concha of the nasal passages dissolve in the mucus that lines the superior portion of the cavity and are detected by olfactory receptors on the dendrites of the olfactory sensory neurons. This may occur by diffusion or by the binding of the odorant to odorant-binding proteins. The mucus overlying the epithelium contains mucopolysaccharides, salts, enzymes, and antibodies (these are highly important, as the olfactory neurons provide a direct passage for infection to pass to the brain). This mucus acts as a solvent for odor molecules, flows constantly, and is replaced approximately every ten minutes. In insects, smells are sensed by olfactory sensory neurons in the chemosensory sensilla, which are present in insect antenna, palps, and tarsa, but also on other parts of the insect body. Odorants penetrate into the cuticle pores of chemosensory sensilla and get in contact with insect odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) or Chemosensory proteins (CSPs), before activating the sensory neurons.", "The binding of the ligand (odor molecule or odorant) to the receptor leads to an action potential in the receptor neuron, via a second messenger pathway, depending on the organism. In mammals, the odorants stimulate adenylate cyclase to synthesize cAMP via a G protein called G. cAMP, which is the second messenger here, opens a cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel (CNG), producing an influx of cations (largely Ca with some Na) into the cell, slightly depolarising it. The Ca in turn opens a Ca-activated chloride channel, leading to efflux of Cl, further depolarizing the cell and triggering an action potential. Ca is then extruded through a sodium-calcium exchanger. A calcium-calmodulin complex also acts to inhibit the binding of cAMP to the cAMP-dependent channel, thus contributing to olfactory adaptation. The main olfactory system of some mammals also contains small subpopulations of olfactory sensory neurons that detect and transduce odors somewhat differently. Olfactory sensory neurons that use trace amine-associated receptors (TAARs) to detect odors use the same second messenger signaling cascade as do the canonical olfactory sensory neurons. Other subpopulations, such as those that express the receptor guanylyl cyclase GC-D (Gucy2d) or the soluble guanylyl cyclase Gucy1b2, use a cGMP cascade to transduce their odorant ligands. These distinct subpopulations (olfactory subsystems) appear specialized for the detection of small groups of chemical stimuli. This mechanism of transduction is somewhat unusual, in that cAMP works by directly binding to the ion channel rather than through activation of protein kinase A. It is similar to the transduction mechanism for photoreceptors, in which the second messenger cGMP works by directly binding to ion channels, suggesting that maybe one of these receptors was evolutionarily adapted into the other. There are also considerable similarities in the immediate processing of stimuli by lateral inhibition. Averaged activity of the receptor neurons can be measured in several ways. In vertebrates, responses to an odor can be measured by an electro-olfactogram or through calcium imaging of receptor neuron terminals in the olfactory bulb. In insects, one can perform electroantennography or calcium imaging within the olfactory bulb.", "Olfactory sensory neurons project axons to the brain within the olfactory nerve, (cranial nerveI). These nerve fibers, lacking myelin sheaths, pass to the olfactory bulb of the brain through perforations in the cribriform plate, which in turn projects olfactory information to the olfactory cortex and other areas. The axons from the olfactory receptors converge in the outer layer of the olfactory bulb within small (≈50 micrometers in diameter) structures called glomeruli. Mitral cells, located in the inner layer of the olfactory bulb, form synapses with the axons of the sensory neurons within glomeruli and send the information about the odor to other parts of the olfactory system, where multiple signals may be processed to form a synthesized olfactory perception. A large degree of convergence occurs, with 25,000 axons synapsing on 25 or so mitral cells, and with each of these mitral cells projecting to multiple glomeruli. Mitral cells also project to periglomerular cells and granular cells that inhibit the mitral cells surrounding it (lateral inhibition). Granular cells also mediate inhibition and excitation of mitral cells through pathways from centrifugal fibers and the anterior olfactory nuclei. Neuromodulators like acetylcholine, serotonin and norepinephrine all send axons to the olfactory bulb and have been implicated in gain modulation, pattern separation, and memory functions, respectively. The mitral cells leave the olfactory bulb in the lateral olfactory tract, which synapses on five major regions of the cerebrum: the anterior olfactory nucleus, the olfactory tubercle, the amygdala, the piriform cortex, and the entorhinal cortex. The anterior olfactory nucleus projects, via the anterior commissure, to the contralateral olfactory bulb, inhibiting it. The piriform cortex has two major divisions with anatomically distinct organizations and functions. The anterior piriform cortex (APC) appears to be better at determining the chemical structure of the odorant molecules, and the posterior piriform cortex (PPC) has a strong role in categorizing odors and assessing similarities between odors (e.g. minty, woody, and citrus are odors that can, despite being highly variant chemicals, be distinguished via the PPC in a concentration-independent manner). The piriform cortex projects to the medial dorsal nucleus of the thalamus, which then projects to the orbitofrontal cortex. The orbitofrontal cortex mediates conscious perception of the odor (citation needed). The three-layered piriform cortex projects to a number of thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei, the hippocampus and amygdala and the orbitofrontal cortex, but its function is largely unknown. The entorhinal cortex projects to the amygdala and is involved in emotional and autonomic responses to odor. It also projects to the hippocampus and is involved in motivation and memory. Odor information is stored in long-term memory and has strong connections to emotional memory. This is possibly due to the olfactory system's close anatomical ties to the limbic system and hippocampus, areas of the brain that have long been known to be involved in emotion and place memory, respectively. Since any one receptor is responsive to various odorants, and there is a great deal of convergence at the level of the olfactory bulb, it may seem strange that human beings are able to distinguish so many different odors. It seems that a highly complex form of processing must be occurring; however, as it can be shown that, while many neurons in the olfactory bulb (and even the pyriform cortex and amygdala) are responsive to many different odors, half the neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex are responsive to only one odor, and the rest to only a few. It has been shown through microelectrode studies that each individual odor gives a particular spatial map of excitation in the olfactory bulb. It is possible that the brain is able to distinguish specific odors through spatial encoding, but temporal coding must also be taken into account. Over time, the spatial maps change, even for one particular odor, and the brain must be able to process these details as well. Inputs from the two nostrils have separate inputs to the brain, with the result that, when each nostril takes up a different odorant, a person may experience perceptual rivalry in the olfactory sense akin to that of binocular rivalry. In insects, smells are sensed by sensilla located on the antenna and maxillary palp and first processed by the antennal lobe (analogous to the olfactory bulb), and next by the mushroom bodies and lateral horn.", "Many animals, including most mammals and reptiles, but not humans, have two distinct and segregated olfactory systems: a main olfactory system, which detects volatile stimuli, and an accessory olfactory system, which detects fluid-phase stimuli. Behavioral evidence suggests that these fluid-phase stimuli often function as pheromones, although pheromones can also be detected by the main olfactory system. In the accessory olfactory system, stimuli are detected by the vomeronasal organ, located in the vomer, between the nose and the mouth. Snakes use it to smell prey, sticking their tongue out and touching it to the organ. Some mammals make a facial expression called flehmen to direct stimuli to this organ. The sensory receptors of the accessory olfactory system are located in the vomeronasal organ. As in the main olfactory system, the axons of these sensory neurons project from the vomeronasal organ to the accessory olfactory bulb, which in the mouse is located on the dorsal-posterior portion of the main olfactory bulb. Unlike in the main olfactory system, the axons that leave the accessory olfactory bulb do not project to the brain's cortex but rather to targets in the amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and from there to the hypothalamus, where they may influence aggression and mating behavior.", "The MHC genes (known as HLA in humans) are a group of genes present in many animals and important for the immune system; in general, offspring from parents with differing MHC genes have a stronger immune system. Fish, mice, and female humans are able to smell some aspect of the MHC genes of potential sex partners and prefer partners with MHC genes different from their own. Humans can detect blood relatives from olfaction. Mothers can identify by body odor their biological children but not their stepchildren. Pre-adolescent children can olfactorily detect their full siblings but not half-siblings or step siblings, and this might explain incest avoidance and the Westermarck effect. Functional imaging shows that this olfactory kinship detection process involves the frontal-temporal junction, the insula, and the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, but not the primary or secondary olfactory cortices, or the related piriform cortex or orbitofrontal cortex.", "The process by which olfactory information is coded in the brain to allow for proper perception is still being researched, and is not completely understood. When an odorant is detected by receptors, they in a sense break the odorant down, and then the brain puts the odorant back together for identification and perception. The odorant binds to receptors that recognize only a specific functional group, or feature, of the odorant, which is why the chemical nature of the odorant is important. After binding the odorant, the receptor is activated and will send a signal to the glomeruli. Each glomerulus receives signals from multiple receptors that detect similar odorant features. Because several receptor types are activated due to the different chemical features of the odorant, several glomeruli are activated as well. All of the signals from the glomeruli are then sent to the brain, where the combination of glomeruli activation encodes the different chemical features of the odorant. The brain then essentially puts the pieces of the activation pattern back together in order to identify and perceive the odorant. This distributed code allows the brain to detect specific odors in mixtures of many background odors. It is a general idea that the layout of brain structures corresponds to physical features of stimuli (called topographic coding), and similar analogies have been made in olfaction with concepts such as a layout corresponding to chemical features (called chemotopy) or perceptual features. While chemotopy remains a highly controversial concept, evidence exists for perceptual information implemented in the spatial dimensions of olfactory networks. Although conventional wisdom and lay literature, based on impressionistic findings in the 1920s, have long presented human olfaction as capable of distinguishing between roughly 10,000 unique odors, recent research has suggested that the average individual is capable of distinguishing over one trillion unique odors. Researchers in the most recent study, which tested the psychophysical responses to combinations of over 128 unique odor molecules with combinations composed of up to 30 different component molecules, noted that this estimate is \"conservative\" and that some subjects of their research might be capable of deciphering between a thousand trillion odorants, adding that their worst performer could probably still distinguish between 80million scents. Authors of the study concluded, \"This is far more than previous estimates of distinguishable olfactory stimuli. It demonstrates that the human olfactory system, with its hundreds of different olfactory receptors, far out performs the other senses in the number of physically different stimuli it can discriminate.\" However, it was also noted by the authors that the ability to distinguish between smells is not analogous to being able to consistently identify them, and that subjects were not typically capable of identifying individual odor stimulants from within the odors the researchers had prepared from multiple odor molecules. In November 2014 the study was strongly criticized by Caltech scientist Markus Meister, who wrote that the study's \"extravagant claims are based on errors of mathematical logic\". The logic of his paper has in turn been criticized by the authors of the original paper.", "Different people smell different odors, and most of these differences are caused by genetic differences. Although odorant receptor genes make up one of the largest gene families in the human genome, only a handful of genes have been linked conclusively to particular smells. For instance, the odorant receptor OR5A1 and its genetic variants (alleles) are responsible for our ability (or failure) to smell β-ionone, a key aroma in foods and beverages. Similarly, the odorant receptor OR2J3 is associated with the ability to detect the \"grassy\" odor, cis-3-hexen-1-ol. The preference (or dislike) of cilantro (coriander) has been linked to the olfactory receptor OR6A2.", "", "Flavor perception is an aggregation of auditory, taste, haptic, and smell sensory information. Retronasal smell plays the biggest role in the sensation of flavor. During the process of mastication, the tongue manipulates food to release odorants. These odorants enter the nasal cavity during exhalation. The olfaction of food has the sensation of being in the mouth because of co-activation of the motor cortex and olfactory epithelium during mastication. Olfaction, taste, and trigeminal receptors (also called chemesthesis) together contribute to flavor. The human tongue can distinguish only among five distinct qualities of taste, while the nose can distinguish among hundreds of substances, even in minute quantities. It is during exhalation that the olfaction contribution to flavor occurs, in contrast to that of proper smell, which occurs during the inhalation phase of breathing. The olfactory system is the only human sense that bypasses the thalamus and connects directly to the forebrain.", "Olfaction and sound information has been shown to converge in the olfactory tubercles of rodents. This neural convergence is proposed to give rise to a perception termed smound. Whereas a flavor results from interactions between smell and taste, a smound may result from interactions between smell and sound.", "The following are disorders associated with olfaction:", "Scientists have devised methods for quantifying the intensity of odors, in particular for the purpose of analyzing unpleasant or objectionable odors released by an industrial source into a community. Since the 1800s industrial countries have encountered incidents where proximity of an industrial source or landfill produced adverse reactions among nearby residents regarding airborne odor. The basic theory of odor analysis is to measure what extent of dilution with \"pure\" air is required before the sample in question is rendered indistinguishable from the \"pure\" or reference standard. Since each person perceives odor differently, an \"odor panel\" composed of several different people is assembled, each sniffing the same sample of diluted specimen air. A field olfactometer can be utilized to determine the magnitude of an odor. Many air management districts in the US have numerical standards of acceptability for the intensity of odor that is allowed to cross into a residential property. For example, the Bay Area Air Quality Management District has applied its standard in regulating numerous industries, landfills, and sewage treatment plants. Example applications this district has engaged are the San Mateo, California, wastewater treatment plant; the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California; and the IT Corporation waste ponds, Martinez, California.", "The tendrils of plants are especially sensitive to airborne volatile organic compounds. Parasites such as dodder make use of this in locating their preferred hosts and locking on to them. The emission of volatile compounds is detected when foliage is browsed by animals. Threatened plants are then able to take defensive chemical measures, such as moving tannin compounds to their foliage. (See Plant perception). The importance and sensitivity of smell varies among different organisms; most mammals have a good sense of smell, whereas most birds do not, except the tubenoses (e.g., petrels and albatrosses), certain species of vultures, and the kiwis. Although, recent analysis of the chemical composition of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from King Penguin feathers suggest that VOCs may provide olfactory cues, used by the penguins to locate their colony and recognise individuals. Among mammals, it is well developed in the carnivores and ungulates, which must always be aware of each other, and in those that smell for their food, such as moles. Having a strong sense of smell is referred to as macrosmatic. Figures suggesting greater or lesser sensitivity in various species reflect experimental findings from the reactions of animals exposed to aromas in known extreme dilutions. These are, therefore, based on perceptions by these animals, rather than mere nasal function. That is, the brain's smell-recognizing centers must react to the stimulus detected for the animal to be said to show a response to the smell in question. It is estimated that dogs, in general, have an olfactory sense approximately ten thousand to a hundred thousand times more acute than a human's. This does not mean they are overwhelmed by smells our noses can detect; rather, it means they can discern a molecular presence when it is in much greater dilution in the carrier, air. Scenthounds as a group can smell one- to ten-million times more acutely than a human, and bloodhounds, which have the keenest sense of smell of any dogs, have noses ten- to one-hundred-million times more sensitive than a human's. They were bred for the specific purpose of tracking humans, and can detect a scent trail a few days old. The second-most-sensitive nose is possessed by the Basset Hound, which was bred to track and hunt rabbits and other small animals. Bears, such as the Silvertip Grizzly found in parts of North America, have a sense of smell seven times stronger than that of the bloodhound, essential for locating food underground. Using their elongated claws, bears dig deep trenches in search of burrowing animals and nests as well as roots, bulbs, and insects. Bears can detect the scent of food from up to eighteen miles away; because of their immense size, they often scavenge new kills, driving away the predators (including packs of wolves and human hunters) in the process. The sense of smell is less developed in the catarrhine primates, and nonexistent in cetaceans, which compensate with a well-developed sense of taste. In some strepsirrhines, such as the red-bellied lemur, scent glands occur atop the head. In many species, olfaction is highly tuned to pheromones; a male silkworm moth, for example, can sense a single molecule of bombykol. Fish, too, have a well-developed sense of smell, even though they inhabit an aquatic environment. Salmon utilize their sense of smell to identify and return to their home stream waters. Catfish use their sense of smell to identify other individual catfish and to maintain a social hierarchy. Many fishes use the sense of smell to identify mating partners or to alert to the presence of food.", "Since inbreeding is detrimental, it tends to be avoided. In the house mouse, the major urinary protein (MUP) gene cluster provides a highly polymorphic scent signal of genetic identity that appears to underlie kin recognition and inbreeding avoidance. Thus, there are fewer matings between mice sharing MUP haplotypes than would be expected if there were random mating." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Applications.", "Design rules.", "Turbine physics and derivation.", "Energy and initial jet velocity.", "Final jet velocity.", "Optimal wheel speed.", "Torque.", "Power.", "Efficiency.", "System components." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Lester Allan Pelton was born in Vermillion, Ohio in 1829. In 1850, he travelled overland to take part in the California Gold Rush. Pelton worked by selling fish he caught in the Sacramento River. In 1860, he moved to Camptonville, a center of placer mining activity. At this time many mining operations were powered by steam engines which consumed vast amounts of wood as their fuel. Some water wheels were used in the larger rivers, but they were ineffective in the smaller streams that were found near the mines. Pelton worked on a design for a water wheel that would work with the relatively small flow found in these streams. By the mid 1870s, Pelton had developed a wooden prototype of his new wheel. In 1876, he approached the Miners Foundry in Nevada City, California to build the first commercial models in iron. The first Pelton Wheel was installed at the Mayflower Mine in Nevada City in 1878.. The efficiency advantages of Pelton's invention were quickly recognized and his product was soon in high demand. He patented his invention on 26 October 1880. By the mid-1880s, the Miners Foundry could not meet the demand, and in 1888, Pelton sold the rights to his name and the patents to his invention to the Pelton Water Wheel Company in San Francisco. The company established a factory at 121/123 Main Street in San Francisco. The Pelton Water Wheel Company manufactured a large number of Pelton Wheels in San Francisco which were shipped around the world. In 1892, the Company added a branch on the east coast at 143 Liberty Street in New York City. By 1900, over 11,000 turbines were in use. In 1914, the company moved manufacturing to new, larger premises at 612 Alabama Street in San Francisco. In 1956, the company was acquired by the Baldwin-Lima-Hamilton Company, which ended manufacture of Pelton Wheels. In New Zealand, A & G Price in Thames, New Zealand produced Pelton waterwheels for the local market. One of these is on outdoor display at the Thames Goldmine Experience.", "Nozzles direct forceful, high-speed streams of water against a series of spoon-shaped buckets, also known as impulse blades, which are mounted around the outer rim of a drive wheel (also called a \"runner\"). As the water jet hits the blades, the direction of water velocity is changed to follow the contours of the blades. The impulse energy of the water jet exerts torque on the bucket-and-wheel system, spinning the wheel; the water jet does a \"u-turn\" and exits at the outer sides of the bucket, decelerated to a low velocity. In the process, the water jet's momentum is transferred to the wheel and hence to a turbine. Thus, \"impulse\" energy does work on the turbine. Maximum power and efficiency are achieved when the velocity of the water jet is twice the velocity of the rotating buckets. A very small percentage of the water jet's original kinetic energy will remain in the water, which causes the bucket to be emptied at the same rate it is filled, and thereby allows the high-pressure input flow to continue uninterrupted and without waste of energy. Typically two buckets are mounted side-by-side on the wheel, with the water jet split into two equal streams; this balances the side-load forces on the wheel and helps to ensure smooth, efficient transfer of momentum from the water jet to the turbine wheel. Because water is nearly incompressible, almost all of the available energy is extracted in the first stage of the hydraulic turbine. Therefore, Pelton wheels have only one turbine stage, unlike gas turbines that operate with compressible fluid.", "Pelton wheels are the preferred turbine for hydro-power where the available water source has relatively high hydraulic head at low flow rates. Pelton wheels are made in all sizes. There exist multi-ton Pelton wheels mounted on vertical oil pad bearings in hydroelectric plants. The largest units – the Bieudron Hydroelectric Power Station at the Grande Dixence Dam complex in Switzerland – are over 400 megawatts. The smallest Pelton wheels are only a few inches across, and can be used to tap power from mountain streams having flows of a few gallons per minute. Some of these systems use household plumbing fixtures for water delivery. These small units are recommended for use with or more of head, in order to generate significant power levels. Depending on water flow and design, Pelton wheels operate best with heads from, although there is no theoretical limit.", "The specific speed formula_1 parameter is independent of a particular turbine's size. Compared to other turbine designs, the relatively low specific speed of the Pelton wheel, implies that the geometry is inherently a \"low gear\" design. Thus it is most suitable to being fed by a hydro source with a low ratio of flow to pressure, (meaning relatively low flow and/or relatively high pressure). The specific speed is the main criterion for matching a specific hydro-electric site with the optimal turbine type. It also allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known performance. formula_2 (dimensioned parameter), where: The formula implies that the Pelton turbine is \"geared\" most suitably for applications with relatively high hydraulic head \"H\", due to the 5/4 exponent being greater than unity, and given the characteristically low specific speed of the Pelton.", "", "In the ideal (frictionless) case, all of the hydraulic potential energy (\"E\" = \"mgh\") is converted into kinetic energy (\"E\" = \"mv\"/2) (see Bernoulli's principle). Equating these two equations and solving for the initial jet velocity (\"V\") indicates that the theoretical (maximum) jet velocity is \"V\" =. For simplicity, assume that all of the velocity vectors are parallel to each other. Defining the velocity of the wheel runner as: (\"u\"), then as the jet approaches the runner, the initial jet velocity relative to the runner is: (\"V\" − \"u\"). The initial velocity of jet is \"V\"", "Assuming that the jet velocity is higher than the runner velocity, if the water is not to become backed-up in runner, then due to conservation of mass, the mass entering the runner must equal the mass leaving the runner. The fluid is assumed to be incompressible (an accurate assumption for most liquids). Also it is assumed that the cross-sectional area of the jet is constant. The jet \"speed\" remains constant relative to the runner. So as the jet recedes from the runner, the jet velocity relative to the runner is: −(\"V\" − \"u\") = −\"V\" + \"u\". In the standard reference frame (relative to the earth), the final velocity is then: \"V\" = (−\"V\" + u) + \"u\" = −\"V\" + 2\"u\".", "We know that the ideal runner speed will cause all of the kinetic energy in the jet to be transferred to the wheel. In this case the final jet velocity must be zero. If we let −\"V\" + 2\"u\" = 0, then the optimal runner speed will be \"u\" = \"V\" /2, or half the initial jet velocity.", "By Newton's second and third laws, the force \"F\" imposed by the jet on the runner is equal but opposite to the rate of momentum change of the fluid, so where \"ρ\" is the density, and \"Q\" is the volume rate of flow of fluid. If \"D\" is the wheel diameter, the torque on the runner is The torque is maximal when the runner is stopped (i.e. when \"u\" = 0, \"T\" = \"ρQDV\"). When the speed of the runner is equal to the initial jet velocity, the torque is zero (i.e. when \"u\" = \"V\", then \"T\" = 0). On a plot of torque versus runner speed, the torque curve is straight between these two points: (0, \"pQDV\") and (\"V\", 0). Nozzle efficiency is the ratio of the jet power to the water power at the base of nozzle", "The power \"P\" = \"Fu\" = \"Tω\", where \"ω\" is the angular velocity of the wheel. Substituting for \"F\", we have \"P\" = 2\"ρQ\"(\"V\" − \"u\")\"u\". To find the runner speed at maximum power, take the derivative of \"P\" with respect to \"u\" and set it equal to zero, [\"dP\"/\"du\" = 2\"ρQ\"(\"V\" − 2\"u\")]. Maximum power occurs when \"u\" = \"V\" /2. \"P\" = \"ρQV\"/2. Substituting the initial jet power \"V\" =, this simplifies to \"P\" = \"ρghQ\". This quantity exactly equals the kinetic power of the jet, so in this ideal case, the efficiency is 100%, since all the energy in the jet is converted to shaft output.", "A wheel power divided by the initial jet power, is the turbine efficiency, \"η\" = 4\"u\"(\"V\" − \"u\")/\"V\". It is zero for \"u\" = 0 and for \"u\" = \"V\". As the equations indicate, when a real Pelton wheel is working close to maximum efficiency, the fluid flows off the wheel with very little residual velocity. In theory, the energy efficiency varies only with the efficiency of the nozzle and wheel, and does not vary with hydraulic head. The term \"efficiency\" can refer to: Hydraulic, Mechanical, Volumetric, Wheel, or overall efficiency.", "The conduit bringing high-pressure water to the impulse wheel is called the penstock. Originally the penstock was the name of the valve, but the term has been extended to include all of the fluid supply hydraulics. Penstock is now used as a general term for a water passage and control that is under pressure, whether it supplies an impulse turbine or not." ] }

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{ "title": [ "River course.", "Nepal.", "India.", "Glaciers, glacial lakes and glacial lake outburst floods.", "Thulagi glacier.", "Important towns.", "National Parks.", "Chitwan National Park.", "Valmiki National Park.", "Religious significance.", "Valmiki Ashram.", "Shaligrams and Mukthinath.", "Nepali Mandir, Hajipur.", "Places of archaeological significance.", "Mustang Caves.", "Development scenario.", "Hydropower development.", "Nepal.", "Irrigation.", "Flood management.", "Navigation on the river." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Kali Gandaki river source is at the border with Tibet at an elevation of at the Nhubine Himal Glacier in the Mustang region of Nepal. The headwaters stream on some maps is named the Chhuama Khola and then, nearing Lo Manthang, the Nhichung Khola or Choro Khola. The Kali Gandaki then flows southwest (with the name of Mustang Khola on old, outdated maps) through a sheer-sided, deep canyon before widening at the steel footbridge at Chele, where part of its flow funnels through a rock tunnel, and from this point the now wide river is called the Kali Gandaki on all maps. In Kagbeni a major tributary named Johng Khola, Kak Khola or Krishnaa descends from Muktinath. The river then flows southward through a steep gorge known as the Kali Gandaki Gorge, or Andha Galchi, between the mountains Dhaulagiri, elevation to the west and Annapurna I, elevation to the east. If one measures the depth of a canyon by the difference between the river height and the heights of the highest peaks on either side, this gorge is the world's deepest. The portion of the river directly between Dhaulagiri and Annapurna I, downstream from Tukuche), is at an elevation of, which is lower than Annapurna I. The river is older than the Himalayas. As tectonic activity forces the mountains higher, the river has cut through the uplift. South of the gorge, the river is joined by Rahughat Khola at Galeshwor, Myagdi Khola at Beni, Modi Khola near Kushma and Badigaad at Rudrabeni above Ridi Bazaar. The river then turns east to run along the northern edge of the Mahabharat Range. The largest hydroelectricity project in Nepal is located along this stretch of the river. Turning south again and breaking through the Mahabharats, Kali Gandaki is then joined by a major tributary, the Trishuli, at Devighat,which is larger than the Kali Gandaki. Gandaki is then joined by the East Rapti River draining the Inner Terai valley known as Chitwan. The Gandaki then crosses the outermost foothills of the Himalayas—Sivalik Hills—into the Terai plains of Nepal. From Devighat, the river flows southwest of Gaindakot town. The river later curves back towards the southeast as it enters India where it is called the Gandak. Below Gaindakot the river is known as the Narayani or Sapt Gandaki (Seven Gandakis), for seven tributaries rising in the Himalaya or further north along the main Ganges-Brahmaputra divide. These are the Kali Gandaki, the Trishuli River, and the five main tributaries of the Trishuli known as the Daraudi, Seti, Madi, Marsyandi and Budhi Gandaki.", "The entry point of the river at the Indo–Nepal border is also the confluence called Triveni with rivers Pachnad and Sonha descending from Nepal. Pandai river flows into Bihar (India) from Nepal in the eastern end of the Valmiki Sanctuary and meets Masan. The Gandak flows southeast across the Gangetic plain of Bihar state through West Champaran, Gopalganj, Saran and Muzaffarpur districts. It joins the Ganges near Patna just downstream of Hajipur at Sonpur (also known as Harihar Kshetra). Its drainage area in India is. From its exit from the outermost Siwaliks foothills to the Ganges, the Gandak has built an immense megafan comprising Eastern Uttar Pradesh and North Western Bihar in the Middle Gangetic Plains. The megafan consists of sediments eroded from the rapidly uplifting Himalaya. The river's course over this structure is constantly shifting.", "The Gandaki river basin is reported to contain 1025 glaciers and 338 lakes. These contribute substantially to the lean season flows of the river. Glacier lakes, among the most hazardous features of high mountains, are usually formed behind dams of moraine debris left behind by retreating glaciers, a trend that is observed all over the world. Even though glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) events have been occurring in Nepal for many decades, the Dig Tsho glacier outburst, which took place in 1985, has triggered detailed study of this phenomenon. In 1996, the Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS) of Nepal reported that five lakes were potentially dangerous, namely, Dig Tsho, Imja, Lower Barun, Tsho Rolpa, and Thulagi, all lying above. A recent study done by ICIMOD and UNEP (UNEP, 2001) reported 27 potentially dangerous lakes in Nepal. In ten of them GLOF events have occurred in the past few years and some have been regenerating after the event.", "The Thulagi glacier, which is located in the Upper Marsyangdi River basin, is one out of the two moraine-dammed lakes (supra-glacial lakes), identified as a potentially dangerous lake. The KfW, Frankfurt, the BGR (Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources, Germany), in cooperation with the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology in Kathmandu, have carried out studies on the Thulagi Glacier and have concluded that even assuming the worst case, a disastrous outburst of the lake can be excluded in the near future.", "Major towns and cities located along or near the banks of the Kali Gandaki are Lo Manthang, Jomsom, Beni, Baglung, Kusma, Ridi, Devghat, Bharatpur, Valmikinagar and Triveni. The river also forms the western border of Chitwan National Park. Along the stretch in Nepal, the river carries heavy amounts of glacial silt, imparting the river a black colour. The Kali Gandaki, Marshyandi and Seti Rivers are popular whitewater adventure destinations. Recently, the highest bungee jumping plunge is constructed over the Kaligandaki River at the suspension bridge between Narayansthan, Balewa Baglung and Kusma Parbat. The height of the plunge is 224 meters and it is the third-highest bungee jumping in the world.. The important towns in the Indian part of the Gandak river are the Valmikinagar (Bhainsalotan) - location of Gandak Barrage, Bagaha, Bettiah (district headquarters & field directorate of Valmiki Tiger Project), Harinagar (Ramnagar), Hajipur (across the Ganges 10 km from Patna) and Sonepur (also Known as Harihar Kshetra), near Patna.", "Chitwan National Park of Nepal and Valmiki National Park of India are adjacent to each other in the vicinity of Valmikinagar around the Gandak Barrage.", "Chitwan National Park covers an area of. Established in 1973, it is the oldest national park of Nepal. It was granted the status of a World Heritage Site in 1984. It is located in Chitwan, one of the Inner Terai Valleys of Nepal. The park is rich in flora and fauna, including Bengal Tigers and one of the last populations of single-horned Indian rhinoceros (\"Rhinoceros unicornis\"). The area used to be known as the Chitwan Valley. It was a place for big game hunting and until 1951 it was a hunting reserve. At the park there is canoeing, elephant rides, and guided jungle walks.", "Valmiki Sanctuary covers about of forest and was the 18th tiger reserve established in India. It is ranked fourth in terms density of tiger population. Valmikinagar is located nearly from Bettiah in the northernmost part of the West Champaran district, Bihar, bordering Nepal. Valmikinagar is a small town with scattered habitation, mostly within the forest area and has a railroad station in the district of West Champaran, close to the railhead of Narkatiaganj. It has diverse landscapes, sheltering rich wildlife habitats and floral and faunal composition with the prime protected carnivores and was included in the National Conservation Programme of the Project Tiger in the year 1994. As per Zoological Survey of India's report of 1998 the sanctuary is reported to shelter 53 mammals, 145 birds, 26 reptile and 13 amphibians. and Tiger Reserve The notable species of wild fauna include: tiger, leopard, wild dog, wild boar, bison, bear, peacock, partridge, hornbill, hill mynah, woolly-necked stork, python, crocodile, deer, sambar, blue bull, barking deer, hog deer. As per the Botanical Survey of India report of 1998 there are seven types of vegetation consisting of seven classes of forests; home to 84 species of trees (subtropical trees such as sal, sagwan, bamboo, and cane), 32 shrubs and climbers and 81 herbs and grasses.", "", "The ancient Valmiki Ashram (hermitage) and surrounding temples are located in the Chitwan National Park of Nepal. It is located at a distance of about 7 km from Valmikinagar. It is approachable for pilgrimage only from Valmikinagar near Gandak Barrage, both from Nepal and India. It is said that Valmiki Rishi (sage) wrote the great epic, \"Ramayana\" here. It is also believed to be the birthplace of Lava & Kusha (the two sons of Lord Ram and his divine wife Sita. The hermitage also has landmarks of Sita’s ‘Falahar’ (eating place), Meditation place of the great Sage Valmiki, the place where the Ashwamedh horse was tied, Amrit (nectar of immortality) Kuan (well); Vishnu Chakra (disc), and the Hawan (Yagna) Kund (sacred square structure to perform fire rituals). In the periphery of around the Valmiki Ashram, the temples of importance are a) the Jatashankar (Shiv) Temple, 2) Nardevi (Sweta Kali) Temple (Form of Durga and 3) Kaleshwaran (an avatar of the God Shiva) Temple. Triveni Temple is located across the Gandak Barrage in Nepal, about 3 km from the Gandak Barrage.", "Ammonite fossils collected from the bed of the Gandaki River at a place close to Saligrama or Muktinath (literally \"place of salvation\") in the Mustang district of Nepal are known as \"shaligrams\" or \"shilas\" and are considered aniconic representations of Vishnu. These are first mentioned in \"Devi Bhagavath\" completely. If we want to refer puranas, it is as so there was king name Dharmadwaja who was initially a devotee of goddess Lakshmi who later became rival of the same and completely ruined. His son Padmadwaja realized his father's mistake became a devotee of Lakshmi, pleased to his devotion Lakshmi herself incarnated as Tulasi. Later Tulasi fell in deep love with Lord Krishna. They married to immortalise their bond. Lord Krishna converted himself as Salagrava (saligram) and Tulasi as river Gandaki. Even today Salagrava are available in Gandaki only. The Great Master Sri Shankaracharya who knew this story told to his disciples that whenever these stones are taken for the purpose of worship one should never worship those shila without Tulasi, to keep the same relation of Tulasi and Sri Krishna. He further says the Tulasi which we use for worship is hair of that Tulasi who converted into river Gandaki. He has quoted about the stones Salagrava in his Brahmasutras itself yatha salagrame Harihe, \"salagrama eva visno etyethdupayukameva\", \"yatha slagrame visnuhu sanihita eti tatvat\". Even today all his amnaya peetas have a salagrava for their compulsory daily rituals, Silas and considered unique and are used for worship. It is a sacred place for Buddhists who call it Chumig Gyatsa, which in Tibetan means 'Hundred Waters'.Muktinath is called by the Hindus as \"Mukthiksehtra\", which literally means \"place of salvation\". These stones are naturally formed round stones, with circular or spiral markings and are fossil ammonite stones found in the rivers of Himalayas, in particular kinds of ocean sediments, which have been uplifted to the top of the Himalayas. Between the Dhaulagiri and Annapurna mountain ranges, the Gandaki River flows through the village of Saligrama or Muktinath and the Ashrama of Pulaha. In ancient times, the mountain range surrounding Pulaha was called Salagiris due to the vast forests of sala (sal) trees. The stones found in this region are therefore called Saligrama – Silas (stones found only in the region of Saligrama). It has great significance to Hindus, particularly to Brahmins. Smarthas uses this the replica of lord Narayana, Srivaisnavas, and Madhva sects who consider the place of availability of this stone in the river bed of the Gandaki River, and the Mukthinath temple as one of the 108 Divyakshetrams or Thirthastanas (temples and celestial abodes of Vishnu) to be visited on a pilgrimage (at least once in their life). At the pilgrimage site of Muktinath (3,710m) one wonders in amazement at the presence of 108 small waterfalls and mysterious natural gas fires, worshiped as Jwalamukhi (in Sanskrit). For Tibetan Buddhists, Muktinath-Chumig Gyatsa is a place of Dakinis, goddesses known as Sky Dancers. It is of great importance for Buddhists that Chumig Gyatsa is one of the 24 Tantric places. The Tibetan Buddhist tradition states that for this reason Guru Rinpoche, also known as Padmasambhava, the founder of Tibetan Buddhism meditated at Muktinath on his way to Tibet. It is one of the 51 Shakti peetams. The particular site in the course of the river where the stones become sacred is known as Chakra-Tirtha. The sanctity of this site is said to extend to three yojanas (24 miles) all round. There is a tributary called Chakra-nadi or Jhong Khola that flows from Muktinath and joins the Kali Gandaki at Kagbeni. This tributary is described in Garuda purana as created by Brahma; the great peak to the north of the river is said to contain the presence of Vishnu. All the stones found in the river as well as in the mountain are believed to bear the marks of Vishnu. The entire area (including streams and the mountainside to the north of Muktinath) covers as many as 12 yojanas (96 miles), according to the Puranic account. Among the Saligrama stones, some are from the waters (jalaja) and some are from the mountainside (sthalaja). Puranic texts testify that the sacred stones are what are found in the river and not what are taken out of the rock on its banks.", "It is a unique Shaivite shrine near Hajipur made in the late medieval period (18th century), by one of the army commanders of Nepal. The temple brings-in a fresh pagoda-style architecture of the Himalayan Kingdom to the plains of the Ganges. This temple is built largely of wood. Another distinctive feature of this temple is its fine wooden carving, which includes, of others, generous erotic scenes.", "Archaeologically important places around Valmikinagar are Lauriya-Nandangarh and Someshwar Fort. In Lauria block, about 1 km east of Nandan Garh, a lion pillar of Ashoka, made out of a single block of polished sandstone, measuring in height with a diameter of 35\" at the base and 22\" at the top, which is believed to be over 2,300 years old, is in an excellent condition. Its massiveness and exquisite finish furnish striking proof of the skill and resources of the masons of Ashokan age. Two more such pillars with their capitals removed have been discovered in Rampurwa village, close to Gandhi's Bhitiharawa Ashram in Gaunaha block. One of their capitals, the bull is now in the National Museum at New Delhi and the other, the lion, is at Calcutta Museum. At Nandan Garh there are also Baudh (Buddha) stupas made out of bricks and about high which according to the authoritative source are Ashoka Stupas, in which ashes of Lord Buddha’s funeral pyre are enshrined. Someshwar Fort is situated in Narkatiaganj sub-division, near Nepal border, on top of Someshwar Hill at altitude. It is in a ruined state but its remains are well defined. The Bhitiharawa Ashram of Mahatma Gandhi near Gaunaha in the eastern end of the Valmiki reserve. It is a village in Gaunaha block in Bihar from where Gandhiji started his freedom movement that came to be known as 'Champaran Satyagraha' in India history. The village houses the hut which is called Ashram and has become a place of Gandhian pilgrimage.", "Mustang caves are a collection of some 10,000 man-made caves dug into the sides of valleys in the Mustang District of Nepal. The caves lie on the steep valley walls near the Kali Gandaki River in Upper Mustang. Several groups of archaeologists and researchers have explored these stacked caves and found partially mummified human bodies and skeletons that are at least 2,000-3,000 years old. Explorations of these caves by conservators and archaeologists have also led to the discovery of valuable religious paintings, sculptures, manuscripts and numerous artifacts belonging to the 12th to 14th century.", "", "", "In Nepal, Sapta Gandaki alone has a huge hydropower potential of 20,650 MW (economic exploitable potential is 5,270 MW) out of a total estimated potential of 83,290 MW (economically exploitable potential is 42,140 MW). The country has so far been able to generate only around 600 MW of hydropower out of which the Gandak basin projects contribute more than 266 MW, about 44%. The hydropower projects built are the Trisuli at Nuwakot (21 MW), Devighat at Nuwakot (14 MW), Pokhra (1 MW) and Western Gandak HEP, at Nawalparasi (15 MW), Marsyangdi at Tanahu (69 MW), Kali Gandaki at Syanja (144 MW), and Syange (2 MW). Middle Marsyangdi HE Project (70 MW) at Lamjung is under final stage of construction. Several major projects are on the anvil for implementation in the near future. With Government of Nepal now according priority to private-sector participation in a multi-pronged approach, the pace of hydropower development will get accelerated. A major Indian firm has entered into a share purchase and joint venture agreement with a Nepalese firm to acquire 80 per cent stake of Nepalese Company for development of the Upper Marsyangdi HEP (250MW). Achieving the economically exploitable potential need would no more be a mirage. Reportedly there are several other major projects being pursued by the Government of Nepal for private sector participation on IPP basis.", "The Gandak Project at Valmikinagar (Bhainsaloton), intercepts water of a catchment area of, of which most is in Nepal) which lies partly in Nepal and partly in India. An Agreement between His Majesty’s Government of Nepal and the Government of India on the Gandak Irrigation and Power Project, signed at Kathmandu on 4 December 1959; which came in force upon signature (somewhat modified in 1964), to construct the project comprising a barrage, canal head regulators and other appurtenant works about below the existing Triveni Canal Head Regulator and of taking out canal systems for purposes development of irrigation and power for Nepal and India. Some modification was subsequently made in this agreement in 1964 for the protection of Nepal’s riparian rights. Basically there is an agreed share of water for ‘western Canal System including a power station in Nepal and Eastern canal System. As a part of this bilateral agreement, the Gandak Barrage, a part of Gandak Project, has been built (1968/69.) over the Gandak river for providing irrigation to Nepal, U.P. and Bihar. The irrigation potential of this project is, spread in the district of West Champaran, East Champaran, Muzaffarpur, Samastipur, Saran, Siwan and Gopalganj. The Eastern Gandak Canal Project was taken up in 1960 and Main Canal system was completed in 1975 for flow irrigation in Nepal for the gross commanded area estimated to be. A hydroelectric generating station with an installed capacity of 15 MW has also been constructed and commissioned on the by pass to Eastern Gandak Canal.", "Flood management does not aim at total elimination or control of floods or providing total immunity from the effects of all magnitudes of floods, which is neither practicable from economic considerations nor even necessary, keeping in view other realities that are faced in the Indian context. Thus, a multi-pronged strategy ranging from modifying the floods by means of structural measures to learning to live with the floods by means of other non-structural measures is the goal of flood management. Measures for protection against extreme floods of low frequency are seldom economically feasible. The term \"flood management\" refers to the provision of a reasonable degree of protection against floods by measures to mitigate the recurring havoc caused by floods. This is what is being done in flood plains of Gandak River in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh which are affected by floods.", "Nepal has carried out studies on the feasibility of having navigational use of the Gandaki river. Studies indicate that (a) it is feasible only in the lower reaches, (b) link it with India’s number 1 highway from Allahabad to Haldia, and (c) cognizance has to be taken of the adverse situation which could arise due to increased irrigation use in dry seasons which could restrict the river level for maintaining possible navigation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Technology.", "Generations.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "DEC launched the TK50 tape drive for the MicroVAX II and PDP-11 minicomputers in 1984. This used 22-track CompacTape I cartridges, storing 94 MB per cartridge. The TK50 was superseded in 1987 by the TK70 drive and the 48-track CompacTape II cartridge, capable of storing 294 MB. In 1989, the CompacTape III (later DLTtape III) format was introduced, increasing the number of tracks to 128 and capacity to 2.6 GB. Later drives into the early 1990s improved the data density of the DLTtape III cartridge, up to 10 GB. The DLTtape IV cartridge was introduced by Quantum in 1994, with increased tape length and data density, initially offering 20 GB per tape. Super DLTtape, originally capable of up to 110 GB, was launched in 2001.", "DLT uses linear serpentine recording with multiple tracks on half-inch (12.7 mm) wide tape. The cartridges contain a single reel and the tape is pulled out of the cartridge by means of a leader tape attached to the take-up reel inside the drive. The drive leader tape is buckled to the cartridge leader during the load process. Tape speed and tension are controlled electronically via the reel motors; there is no capstan. The tape is guided by 4 to 6 rollers that touch only the back side of the tape. Tape material is metal particle tape (MP/AMP). SDLT adds an optical servo system that reads servo patterns on the back of the tape to keep the data tracks on the front of the tape correctly aligned with the read/write heads. This is important for newer tape media, which have very thin, dense data tracks; 256, 384 and 768 data tracks on a tape are available. DLT7000 and 8000 tilt the head forward and backward to reduce crosstalk between adjacent tracks through azimuth; this is called Symmetric Phase Recording. All (S)DLT drives support hardware data compression. The often-used compression factor of 2:1 is optimistic and generally only achievable for text data; a more realistic factor for a file system is 1.3:1 to 1.5:1, although drive compression applied to pre-compressed data can actually make the written data larger than having compression turned off in the tape drive. Media are guaranteed for 30 years of data retention under specified environmental conditions; they are easily damaged by mishandling (dropping or improper packaging during shipment.) Manufacturers of cartridges for the DLT/SDLT market are Fujifilm, Hitachi/Maxell and Imation. VStape is made by Sony. All other companies/brands (even Quantum) are contractors and/or resellers of these companies. A new naming convention took effect in 2005, calling the performance line DLT-S and the value line DLT-V. DLT includes Write Once Read Many (WORM) capability. In February 2007, Quantum stopped developing the next generations of DLT drives (S5 and V5) after insufficient market acceptance of the S4 and V4 drives, shifting its drive strategy to LTO.", "", "DLTtape IV can support both DLT4000/7000/8000 and DLT1/DLT-VS80 for full functions; once DLTtape IV media has been written to or formatted in a DLT7000/8000 drive, this media cannot be read, written to, or formatted in a DLT1/DLT-VS80 drive unless it is degaussed. Once the media has been written to or formatted in a DLT4000 drive, the media cannot be written to or formatted in a DLT1/DLT-VS80 drive unless it is degaussed but it can be read. This is because the DLT1/VS series use a different recording format that is not fully supported by the other family. Tapes written in value series drives can typically be read in (and often written to) higher end drives of a similar vintage, so long as the drive's technical specifications contain interoperability options." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Basin.", "Tributaries.", "Administrative zones and districts.", "Protected areas.", "Endangered species.", "Development projects.", "Irrigation.", "Nepal.", "India.", "Navigation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "It rises in the southern slopes of the Himalayas in Tibet, in the glaciers of Mapchachungo, at an elevation of about above sea level. The river flows south through one of the most remote and least explored areas of Nepal as the Karnali River. The Seti River drains the western part of the catchment and joins the Karnali River in Doti District north of Dundras hill. Another tributary, the long Bheri, rises in the western part of Dhaulagiri Himalaya and drains the eastern part of the catchment, meeting the Karnali near Kuineghat in Surkhet. Cutting southward across the Siwalik Hills, it splits into two branches, the Geruwa on the left and Kauriala on the right near Chisapani to rejoin south of the Indian border and form the proper Ghaghara. Other tributaries originating in Nepal are the West Rapti, the Kali (or Mahakali) and the little Gandak. It flows southeast through Uttar Pradesh and Bihar states to join the Ganges downstream of the town of Chhapra, after a course of. Sarayu river is stated to be synonymous with the modern Ghaghara river or as a tributary of it. Karnali River exposes the oldest part of the Sivalik Hills of Nepal. The remnant magnetization of siltstones and sandstones in this group suggests a depositional age of between 16 million and 5.2 million years.", "The Karnali River Basin lies between the mountain ranges of Dhaulagiri in Nepal and Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand. Dhaulagiri II, elevation, is the highest point of the entire basin. In the north, it lies in the rain shadow of the Himalayas. The basin formed by the river has a total catchment area of, of which 45 percent is in India. The population of the Basin districts in Nepal increased from 1.9 million in 1971 to 4.7 million people in 2001, almost a 250% increase over three decades. The average population density of the Basin area increased from 53 persons/km in 1981 to 87 persons/km in 2001. There is a steady growth in the economically active population in the basin districts. The average literacy rate has increased from a mere 7.5% in 1971 to 45% in 2001. The social status of the permanent households increased from 24% in 1991 to 31% in 2001. The basin has a total road length of, but the pace of road development is slow.", "Chhoti Gandak is a groundwater-fed meandering river originating near Dhesopool, Maharajganj district of Uttar Pradesh. It travels a distance of about and joins Ghaghara near Guthani, Siwan district of Bihar. The Chhoti Gandak River Basin is located between 26°00' to 27°20' N latitude and 83°30' to 84°15' E longitude. Right bank tributaries are Khekhra, Hirna, Jethan, Maun, Duhari, Kanchi and Koilar rivers; Khanua river joins from the left bank. The discharge of Chhoti Gandak is mainly controlled by rain, which is very high during the monsoon season and low during the summers. It has been observed that whenever precipitation is high in the catchment areas, there is flood in the downstream part of the Chhoti Gandak River Basin. The region exhibits upland terrace surface, river valley terrace surface, present-day river channel with narrow flood plains, natural levee, and point-bar deposits. All these geomorphic features are depositional in nature and made up of alluvium of different ages. The main tributaries of the Karnali are: the Seti, the Bheri.", "In Nepal, Karnali Zone is the largest zone with about area. Its administrative center is Jumla. The zone is divided into the five districts of Dolpa, Humla, Jumla, Kalikot and Mugu. The Karnali zone has the lowest population density in Nepal. There are no large settlements on the banks of the river, which is only crossed near Chisapani by the Mahendra Highway. This region is now connected by karnali highway.And now due to various hydro electricity projects this area is being developed.Now a 900 MW project is going to be constructed in this river In India, the administrative districts in the Ghaghra catchment are Ambedkar Nagar, Faizabad, Ayodhya, Azamgarh, Barabanki, Basti, Ballia, Bahraich, Deoria, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Sant Kabir Nagar, Lakhimpur Kheri, Mau, Sitapur of Uttar Pradesh and Siwan district in Bihar. Important towns in India include Akabarpur, twin towns of Ayodhya and Faizabad, Bahraich, Barabanki, Basti, Deoria, Barhalganj, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Sitapur, Siddharthnagar, Saint Kabir Nagar, Kamhariya, Rajesultanpur and Tanda in Uttar Pradesh and Chapra, Siwan, and Sonepur in Bihar. The Ghaghra River is locally known as the legendary \"Sarayu River\" in the holy city of Ayodhya.", "The Karnali Basin hosts some of Nepal's famous national parks. The protected area constitutes nearly 14% of the total basin area, including four national parks, one wildlife reserve, one hunting reserve and two buffer zones. The basin and its influence area constitute 27% of the total protected area, 63% of national park, 25% of the buffer zone and 31% of wildlife reserve. The significance of some of the protected areas is summarised below: Shey Phoksundo National Park in Dolpa District, established in 1984, is situated in the trans-Himalayan region of northwestern Nepal and represents the Tibetan Plateau ecosystem. The park, covering an area of, contains luxuriant forests mainly composed of blue pine, spruce, cypress, poplar, fir and birch. It provides habitat for the endangered snow leopard, the blue sheep and many bird species such as Himalayan monal, blood pheasant, cheer pheasant and snow partridge. It is a religious Buddhist site. Rara National Park is located in Mugu District with a small area in Jumla District in the mountain region of northwestern Nepal and is the smallest park with a size of. It includes Rara Lake, spread over, the biggest lake in Nepal, at an elevation of. The oval lake has a maximum length of and a width of. The vegetation of the park consists of coniferous trees such blue pine, rhododendrons, black juniper, west Himalayan spruce, oak and Himalayan cypress. The fauna includes musk deer, Himalayan black bear, leopard, goral, jackal, Himalayan tahr, yellow-throated marten, dhole, wild boar, gray langur, rhesus macaque and otter. Common bird species include migrant waterfowl, coot, great-crested and black-necked grebes, red-crested pochard, mallard, common teal, common merganser, Himalayan snowcock and chukar partridge. Bardia National Park is the largest and most undisturbed protected area in the Terai region of the Nepal Himalayas, covering on the southern slopes of the Sivalik Hills. It is bordered in the south by the Babai River, and to the west by the Girwa River, a tributary of the Karnali. At Chisapani Gorge, the swift-flowing Karnali River emerges from the Shiwalik Range onto the broad plain and flows purposefully through the semi-tropical jungle. The park is famous for two Asian elephant herds, several deer species, gaur, nilgai, Himalayan tahr, serow and goral. The Karnali supports the endangered mugger crocodile, the gharial, a few remaining South Asian river dolphins and the golden mahseer. Other protected areas include Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve and, as the river crosses the Nepal–India border, the Katarniaghat Wildlife Sanctuary, a part of Dudhwa Tiger Reserve in Uttar Pradesh India.", "The Karnali provides the upper range for the Gangetic river dolphin (\"Platanista gangetica\"), the largest freshwater mammals found on the Indian subcontinent. They are considered vulnerable species under CITES Appendix 1 and are classified as endangered on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2004). The river dolphins are legally protected animals in Nepal as endangered mammal and fall under Schedule I of the protected list of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. Living at the upstream range limit, dolphins in the Karnali River are particularly vulnerable to threats from habitat degradation. Dolphins need deep pools of water. They are often found in places where human activities are most intense and they are sometimes accidentally caught by the local people who live in the lower Karnali basin. The Karnali River supports the last potentially viable population of the Ganges river dolphin in Nepal. These dolphins are at their farthest upstream range and isolated by the Girijapur Barrage (a low gated dam), located about downstream of the Nepal–India border. A high dam has been planned for some time just upstream of the dolphins' current (or at least recent) range in the Karnali River, Nepal. If built, this structure would almost certainly eliminate the small amount of dolphin habitat in Nepal's last river with a potentially viable dolphin population. Disturbance and environmental degradation associated with geotechnical feasibility studies and bridge and road construction for the dam already may have contributed to a decline in the number and range of dolphins or \"susu\" above the Nepal-India border. The Ghaghara is the furthest upstream in the dolphin range. Other important protected areas and their biological and religious significance are a) Khaptad NP at, 1984 - oak, fir, conifer, musk deer, leopard, black bear. Ashram of late Khaptad Baba (sage), Shiva shrine, Khaptad daha - a shallow lake; b) Dhorpatan HR at, 1987- fir, hemlock, spruce, birch, junipers, grassland. Game hunting reserve; and c) Royal Suklaphanta - WR (1976) at Kanchanpur at in the Terai Sal, acacia, sisso, extensive grassland, elephant, swamp deer, tiger, hispid hare, Bengal florican.", "In Nepal The Karnali basin is the first to arouse keen interest in Nepal's vast hydropower development study. There are several attractive sites for the generation of cheap hydroelectric energy in this basin. The Master Plan Study for Water Resource Development of the Upper Karnali River and Mahakali River Basins (1993) identified 32 potential hydropower projects in the Karnali Basin. Despite the high potential of hydrower development (32,000 MW) in the Basin, only 2,245 kW capacities (from eight micro hydel schemes) has been developed so far. Considering the pace of hydropower development in Nepal (Out of 83,000 MW potential, only 705 MW hydropower has been generated throughout the country till the end of 12th national plan viz. 2009/10-2011-12) in general and in the Karnali Basin in particular, harnessing the total hydropower potential of the Basin is envisaged to take a long time. Based on recent water resources development planning and project progress, the likely large scale hydropower projects that will be operational in the Basin by 2025 are predicted to be: West Seti HEP (750 MW); Upper Karnali HEP (300 MW); Bheri-Babai Multipurpose Project (48 MW); and Lohore Khola HEP (58 MW). West Seti HEP (750 MW) The proposed West Seti HEP is located on the Seti River in the Far-Western Development Region of Nepal. The West Seti HEP catchment covers the upper of the Seti River Basin. The West Seti HEP is a large storage project with a rated capacity of 750 MW. The power station is located approximately upstream of the Seti River confluence with the Karnali River, with the dam site located a further upstream. All project sites, excluding the reservoir area and transmission line corridor, are located in either Doti and/or Dadeldhura Districts. The reservoir area is located in Doti, Dadeldhura, Baitadi and Bajhang Districts. The transmission line corridor is located in Doti, Dadeldhura, Kailali and Kanchanpur Districts. The project has been allocated for development as BOOT project under private sector. Upper Karnali HEP (900 MW) The proposed Upper Karnali HEP is located on the main course of the Karnali River and has a catchment area of. This project is one of Nepal's most economically attractive runof- river diversion schemes (900 MW), with daily peaking capacity and high firm energy. Project facilities will be located in three districts: Surkhet, Dailekh and Achham. Project hydrology is based on data from station 240 at Asaraghat. The river is snow fed and the mean annual estimated flow at the headworks is. The project has been allocated to GMR of India for development on BOOT basis. Bheri-Babai Multipurpose Project (48 MW) The Bheri-Babai Multipurpose Project is an inter-Basin water transfer project prioritised for the development of irrigation in Bardia District. The intake of the Bheri-Babai (BR-1) diversion scheme lies on the Bheri River upstream of the confluence with the Karnali River. The tailrace outlet is located in the Babai River upstream of the existing Babai irrigation project diversion weir. The Bheri-Babai project aims to generate electricity and supply additional water to the Babai Irrigation Scheme in the Terai by diverting of water from the Bheri River into the Babai River. The project is yet to undergo a feasibility study. Lohore Khola HEP (LR-1) – (58 MW) The Lohore Khola HEP is a proposed reservoir storage project situated on the Lohore Khola, a tributary of the Karnali River in Dailekh District. The project is located a few kilometers downstream from the confluence with Chham River and upstream of Dungeshowr. The catchment area of the Lohore River at the reservoir site is. Based on the isohyetal map of the Karnali River Basin, average annual rainfall for the basin is estimated to be. As there is no stream gauge on the Lohore River, its flow was estimated using data from Station 240 (1963–2000) located on the Karnali River at Asaraghat with a catchment area of. The sediment flow into the river is estimated to be 2.4 million tonnes per year. As the economic internal rate of return (EIRR) for the project is highest for the draft rate of 0.7, the flow for power generation was estimated for this draft rate. The riparian flow was assumed to be 10 percent of the monthly minimum flow; i.e.,. Karnali (Chisapani) Multipurpose Project (10,800 MW) The site of the Karnali Multipurpose Project, also Chisapani Dam Project, is located in the Karnali Gorge, immediately upstream of the Terai. The project has a catchment area of, covering nearly 30 percent of Nepal. The long-term average river flow is, with an average dry season flow (November–May) of and an average wet season flow (June–October) of. The Karnali (Chisapani) Multipurpose Project is a potential mega multipurpose storage project on the Karnali River at Chisapani, envisaging a high dam, with reservoir area of, with power station operating under a design head of to operate 18 units of 620 MW capacity each ( 10,800 MW installed capacity) and with a re-regulating weir downstream with power plant of 84 MW capacity operating under a head of. A large-scale irrigation development is also envisaged— in Nepal and in India. Project planning commenced in 1960, although the feasibility study for the project was only completed in 1989. Before this project is developed a number of significant underlying issues have to be resolved. These issues include: Nepal and India reaching a bilateral agreement on the downstream benefits of regulated river flows; the resettlement of over 60,000 people; the impact on and restoration of habitat within Bardia National Park; and, above all, the financial arrangements for project funding. Accordingly, it is predicted that the chances of this project being implemented before 2025 are very slim, although increasing international pressure on reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the energy generation sector may assist project initiation. While the likelihood of this project being developed by 2025 is low, Nepal and India could cooperate to develop this project to meet India's growing energy demand from renewable resources.", "", "The major existing river use by volume in the Karnali Basin is irrigation. Three areas on the Nepal Terai and two areas in India are irrigated from the Karnali River. Within Nepal, two areas are irrigated in Bardiya District,, and a single site is irrigated in Kailali District,. The total demand for irrigation water from the Karnali River by these three areas represents a very small proportion of existing total annual river flows, amounting to a mean annual rate of. This is equivalent to 3.9 percent of the mean annual Karnali River flow into India.", "In India, water is diverted from the Karnali River at the Girija Barrage into the Sarda Sahayak Irrigation Scheme and the Saryu Nahar Irrigation Scheme, which have command areas of and respectively. The combined annual irrigation demand of these two schemes is approximately. The Sarda Sahayak Irrigation Project uses the combined flows from the rivers Ghaghara and Sarda in the Girija Barrage built across the Ghaghara river below a catchment area of. This barrage is situated about downstream of Khatria Ghat Rly station and from the international border to Nepal in Bahraich district. It is linked to the Lower Sarda Barrage (built across the Sarda river, with a catchment area of, about northeast of Lakhimpur Kheri Rly station in Lakhimpur Kheri district) via a link canal from Girija Barrage to the Lower Sarda Barrage which is long and is designed to divert a discharge of from Gandak to Sarda river. The feeder channel taking off from the Lower Sarda Barrage is long, feeds the five branches of Dariyabad, Barabani, Haideganj, RaeBareil and Purva, and is designed to carry a discharge of. The Sarda Sahayak feeder channel meets the Haidergarh branch at and Raibareli branch at. The entire canal system is considered the largest in Asia and designed to provide irrigation to a Culturalable Command Area (CCA) of covering 14 districts in 168 blocks with a gross command area of. On account of high silt flows during the flood season, Sarda Sahayak supplies (from Karnali) are suspended for 100 days between June and October, when the Lower Sarda Canal (feeder canal) draws water from the Sarda River, which is then flooded.", "In the past the Karnali River was considered to be attractive for the development of navigation right from the Indo–Nepal border till the confluence of this river and the Ganges. The lower reach of this river—called the Ghaghra in India—was used in the past for navigation by steamers. Apart from in the foothills of the Himalayas where most of the streams were simply fast-moving water throughout the greater part of the year and not navigable when flowing rapidly, most of the rivers with steadier currents had boats on them. The Ganges, the Ghaghra, the Yamuna, the Gomti, the Sharda and the Rapti were the most important navigable rivers in the Northwestern provinces and Oudh. Many trade items such as timber, food grains, sugar, indigo, cotton seed, poppy seed and mustard seed were transported by boats. April, May and June were the most suitable months and were a busy trading period. Different kinds of cargo boats were used on the Ganges, the smaller ones were known as palwars, while the larger ones were known as katris. In the latter half of the 19th century when the railways came into existence, the significance of waterways as inland trade routes declined, as the railways were faster and safer. With the exception of eastern parts of Bengal where abundance of water in the natural network of channels sustained and continued to provide a suitable mode of transport of goods and people, the railways had almost entirely replaced the waterways as communication lines throughout the country by the end of the 19th century. The possibilities for further extension of the steamer services to the north had also been explored in the past. The Central Water and Power Commission of the Government of India had carried out hydrographical survey of the Karnali River from the Bahramghat to the confluence of this river and the Ganges a distance of. This survey was done in the years 1943–53 to explore the possibility of improvement and extension of navigation on this river by powered crafts. These surveys revealed that there were only 5 shoals under at low water between Burhaj and Bahramghat a distance of about. The minimum depth was. These depths were available without any river conservancy works. All other conditions of navigable channel such as the width and current of flow etc. were also found to be very favourable. The low water stage in this river is only for a short duration. There is a great urgency to carry out detailed study of the Karnali river to develop modern inland waterway by applying various channel improvement technologies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Iphicles was the son of Alcmene and her human husband Amphitryon, whereas Heracles was her son by Zeus. He also had a sister, Laonome who married Euphemus or Polyphemus. Iphicles was the father of Heracles' charioteer Iolaus by his first wife, Automedusa, daughter of Alcathous. Afterwards, he fathered by Pyrrha, the younger daughter of Creon, two children.", "Iphicles was one night younger than his half-brother Heracles, who strangled the snakes which had been sent by Hera or by Amphitryon, and at which Iphicles was frightened. Iphicles, like his famous brother, grew into a strong man but could not match him in terms of strength. When Heracles was made insane once again by Hera, the hero threw into the fire his brother's two offspring by Pyrrha, who perished as a result. Nevertheless, Iphicles went with Heracles on a punitive expedition against Troy, because King Laomedon refused Heracles to donate the mares he had promised him before. Arriving in Troy, Iphicles and Telamon were sent by Heracles to the city to claim the mares, but they were thrown into prison by Laomedon. But Priam, the son of the king, disagreed with the decision of his father, sent two swords to the two heroes, and revealed the plans that Laomedon had for Heracles. As soon as Iphicles and Telamon heard this they killed their guards with donated swords and returned to Heracles for the plans of Laomedon to be revealed. Then Heracles and his men went to the king and eventually slayed him. When Heracles ended his twelve labours, King Eurystheus accused him of killing him from the throne, and ordered that he, together with Alcmene and Iphicles, leave Tiryns. This is how Iphicles ended up in Arcadia where he joined Heracles on a punitive expedition against the Hippocoon of Sparta. In the ensuing battle, Iphicles was killed and Heracles was inconsolable over the death of his half-brother, and voluntarily went into exile to another city. In some accounts, Iphicles fought in the first battle of Heracles against the Eleans and Augeas, and was wounded by the Molionides of Elis. In a fainting condition, Iphicles was carried by his relatives to Pheneus, home of his grandmother Laonome, where he was carefully nursed by Buphagus, a citizen of Pheneus, and by his wife Promne. They buried him when he died of his wound and was honoured with a heroum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Western Zhou (1046-771).", "Spring and Autumn period.", "The breakaway state of Quwo (745-677).", "Ascendency.", "Decline and fall.", "Military forces.", "Rulers.", "Later tradition.", "Claimed descendants.", "Astrology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Jin was located in the lower Fen River drainage basin on the Shanxi plateau. To the north were the Xirong and Beidi peoples. To the west were the Lüliang Mountains and then the Loess Plateau of northern Shaanxi. To the southwest the Fen River turns west to join the south-flowing part of the Yellow River which soon leads to the Guanzhong, an area of the Wei River Valley that was the heartland of the Western Zhou and later of the Qin. To the south are the Zhongtiao Mountains and then the east-west valley of the Yellow River which was the main route to the Wei Valley to the west. To the east were the Taihang Mountains and then the North China Plain. This location gave ambitious Jin dukes the opportunity to move north to conquer and absorb the Xirong tribes, move southwest and fight Qin, and move southeast to absorb the many smaller Zhou states. Also important to the region were the large states of Chu to the south in the Yangtze and Huai River regions and Qi to the east in Shandong. Jin had multiple capitals. The first capital of Jin was Tang (唐). The capital was later moved to E (鄂), then Jiang (絳), then Xintian (新田). From 746 to 677, Quwo (曲沃) was the capital of a fragment of Jin.", "When the Zhou Dynasty was founded, the conquered lands were given to Zhou relatives and ministers as hereditary fiefs. King Cheng of Zhou, the second Zhou king, gave the land called Tang (唐), west of modern Yicheng County in Shanxi, to his younger brother, Tang Shuyu (唐叔虞) with the rank of a marquis. Tang Shuyu's son and successor, Marquis Xie of Jin (晉侯燮), changed the name of Tang to Jin. There is little information about Jin for this period beyond a list of rulers.", "In 771 the Quanrong nomads drove the Zhou out of the Wei River valley and killed the king. Marquis Wen of Jin, the eleventh marquis of Jin, supported King Ping of Zhou by killing his rival, King Xie of Zhou, an act that King Ping heavily rewarded him for.", "When Marquis Zhao of Jin (745-739) acceded to the throne, he gave the land of Quwo to his uncle Chengshi who became Huan Shu of Quwo. In 739, an official named Panfu (潘父) murdered Marquis Zhao and invited Huan Shu to take the throne. Huan Shu entered Jin but was driven out by the people and retreated to Quwo. All three Quwo rulers, Huan Shu (745-731), Zhuang Bo (731-716) and Duke Wu (716-678) made attempts to take over Jin. In 678, Duke Wu of Quwo conquered Jin and killed Marquis Min of Jin (704-678). One year later, after receiving gifts from Duke Wu, King Xi of Zhou made Duke Wu the legal ruler of Jin, who became known as Duke Wu of Jin (679-677).", "With the establishment of the Quwo line, Jin became the most powerful state for three generations and remained powerful for a century or more after that. Duke Wu died soon after gaining control of Jin. He was followed by Duke Xian of Jin (676-651). Xian broke with Zhou feudalism by killing or exiling his cousins and ruling with appointees of various social backgrounds. He annexed 16 or 17 small states in Shanxi, dominated 38 others, and absorbed a number of Rong tribes. Some of the states conquered were Geng (耿), Huo (霍), old Wei (魏), Yu (虞) and Western Guo. His death led to a succession struggle which ended with the enthronement of Duke Hui of Jin (650-637). In 646, Duke Hui was captured by Qin and restored as a vassal. Another son of Duke Xian was Duke Wen of Jin (636-628), who spent 19 years exile in various courts. He came to the throne in 636 escorted by the troops of his father-in-law, Duke Mu of Qin. Duke Wen quickly established himself as an independent ruler by driving the Di barbarians west of the Yellow River. In 635 he supported King Xiang of Zhou against a rival and was rewarded with lands near the royal capital. In 633, he confronted the rising power of the southern state of Chu which was then besieging Song. Instead of directly assisting Song, he attacked two vassals of Chu, Cao and Wei. The following year, he formed a military alliance with Qin, Qi and Song that defeated Chu at the Battle of Chengpu, perhaps the largest battle in the Spring and Autumn period. Shortly after the battle, he held an interstate conference at Jitu (踐土) with King Xiang of Zhou and the rulers of six other states. He affirmed the lords' loyalty and received from the King the title of \"ba\" or hegemon. At some point there was a war with Qin which ended in peace. Duke Wen erected monuments to the fallen on both sides. The Chinese proverb \"The Friendship of Qin and Jin\", meaning an unbreakable bond, dates from this period. Over the next century, a four-way balance of power developed between Qin (west), Jin (west-center), Chu (south) and Qi (east), with a number of smaller states between Jin and Qi. In 627, Jin defeated Qin while it was attacking Zheng. Jin invaded Qin in 625 and was driven back the following year. In 598, Chu defeated Jin at the Battle of Mi. In 589, Jin defeated Qi, which had invaded Lu and Wei. About this time Jin began to support the southeastern state of Wu as a means of weakening Chu. Duke Li of Jin (580-573) allied with Qin and Qi to make an east-west front against the threat of Chu from the south. In 579, a minister of the state of Song arranged a four-power conference in which the states agreed to limit their military strength. Four years later, fighting broke out again; Jin and its allies defeated Chu at the battle of Yingling. Duke Dao of Jin (572-558) strengthened the state by internal improvements rather than external wars. He absorbed a number of Rong tribes and was recognized as Hegemon.", "In 607, Duke Ling of Jin (620-607) was killed by Zhao Chuan (趙穿) under the orders of his uncle Zhao Dun. Prince Heitun was placed on the throne as Duke Cheng of Jin (606-600). This was the beginning of the slow shift of power from the Jin dukes to the ministerial clans. Duke Li of Jin (580-573), the grandson of Duke Cheng, tried to break the power of the clans by fostering conflicts between them. In 573, he was killed by the Luan (欒氏) and Zhonghang (中行氏) clans. Duke Dao of Jin (572-558) strengthened the ducal power, but could not eliminate the power of the other aristocratic families. After the reign of Duke Zhao of Jin (531-526), the Jin dukes were figureheads and the state was controlled by six clans: Fan (范), Zhonghang (中行), Zhi (智), Han (韓), Zhao (趙) and Wei (魏). The clans soon began to fight among themselves. During the time of Duke Ding of Jin (511-475), the Fan and Zhonghang clans were eliminated by Xiangzi of Zhi. By about 450, the Zhi were dominant and began demanding territory from the other clans. When Zhao resisted, Zhi attacked Zhao and brought along Han and Wei as allies. After a long siege at Taiyuan, Han and Wei switched sides and the three weaker clans annihilated the Zhi. They then divided the Zhi lands, as well as most of the rest of Jin, among themselves. When Duke You of Jin (433-416) came to the throne, the three clans had taken over much of the remaining Jin lands, leaving the dukes only the area around Jiang and Quwo. From then on, the three clans were known as the \"Three Jins\" (三晉). In 403, during the reign of Duke Lie of Jin (415-389), King Weilie of Zhou recognized Marquis Jing of Han, Marquis Wen of Wei and Marquess Lie of Zhao, as marquises of Han in the south, Wei in the center and Zhao in the north, completing the partition of Jin. The state of Jin still nominally existed for several decades afterwards. The \"Bamboo Annals\" mentions that in the 20th year of Duke Huan's reign (369 BC), Marquess Cheng of Zhao and Marquess Gong of Han moved Duke Huan to Tunliu, and after that there were no more records of Duke Huan or any other Jin ruler. Modern historians such as Yang Kuan, Ch'ien Mu, and Han Zhaoqi generally consider 369 BC the final year of Jin's existence.", "Jin united civil and military authority. Traditionally, Jin had three armies: the upper army, the central army and the lower army. Three more armies were later added. Each army contained 12500 soldiers. According to the convention of Zhou dynasty, a large fiefdom was allowed to have as many as three armies. Since Jin was a large fiefdom, it was permitted by the Zhou king to own three armies. However, Jin originally had only one army: the limitation was imposed by the Zhou dynasty king in order to observe the rite of Zhou. In 679 BCE, Duke Wu of Quwo assassinated Marquis Xiaozi of Jin and became the ruler of Jin. Quwo was a cadet branch of Jin's ruling house; Ji clan descended from Shu Yu of Tang. The Zhou court, which regarded the lineal legitimacy as an extremely important matter, could not agree with such an usurpation. As a consequence, the king revoked Jin's permission to have three armies. In 661 BCE, Duke Xian of Jin lifted this prohibition by establishing the upper army; led by himself and the lower army; commanded by his son Shengshen. Jin's central army was established in the year of 633 BCE by Duke Wen of Jin. In 634 BCE, Duke Wen additionally formed three \"ranks\" (三行) with the purpose of defending against a Beidi invasion. The three ranks were later redeployed into the \"New armies\" (新軍). The new armies were largely dependent on the actual military necessity instead of being permanent units. Due to their flexibility, the new armies were sometimes omitted. According to Tang dynasty scholar Kong Yingda, The central army was the most prestigious army among Jin's three armies. Its commander \"Zhongjunjiang\" (中軍將) also governs the state of Jin as \"Zhengqing\" (正卿)----Jin's prime minister. Commander of the upper army (\"Shangjunjiang\", 上軍將) and commander of the lower army (\"Xiajunjiang\", 下軍將) did not have the access of political influence in Jin's court and were merely military staffs. Every commander (\"Junjiang\") of an Jin army was accompanied by a \"Junzuo\" (軍佐) who was the assistant of \"Junjiang\" (軍將). Other posts in Jin' army were: \"Junsima\" (軍司馬) and \"Junwei\" (軍尉). The two were subordinated under \"Junjiang\" and \"Junzuo\".", "List of Jin rulers based on the \"Records of the Grand Historian\" and the \"Bamboo Annals\". The original branch: The Quwo branch, replacing the original branch in 678: The \"Records of the Grand Historian\" (\"Shiji\") also has another Duke Jing after Duke Xiao. However, \"Shiji's\" account of the last rulers of Jin is often self-contradictory, and is further contradicted by the \"Bamboo Annals\", which does not mention any Jin ruler after Duke Huan of Jin. Historians such as Yang Kuan, Ch'ien Mu, and Han Zhaoqi generally regard the \"Bamboo Annals\" as more reliable, as it was unearthed from the tomb of King Xiang (died 296 BC) of the State of Wei, one of the three successor states of Jin. Duke Huan is therefore generally considered the final ruler of Jin.", "", "The Sui dynasty Emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and emphasized that their patrilineal ancestry was ethnic Han, claiming descent from the Han official Yang Zhen. and the New Book of Tang traced his patrilineal ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via Ji Boqiao 姬伯僑, who was the son of Duke Wu of Jin. Ji Boqiao's family became known as the \"sheep tongue family\" 羊舌氏. The Yang of Hongnong 弘農楊氏 were asserted as ancestors by the Sui Emperors like the Longxi Li's were asserted as ancestors of the Tang Emperors. The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from Shandong and were related to the Liu clan which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of Guanlong. Duke Wu of Jin was claimed as the ancestors of the Hongnong Yang. The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were claimed as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages. There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in the Later Jin (Five Dynasties).", "Jin is represented by the star 36 Capricorni (b Capricorni) in the asterism \"Twelve States\", \"Girl\" mansion. Jin is also represented by the star Kappa Herculis in asterism \"Right Wall\", Heavenly Market enclosure (see Chinese constellation)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1989–91: Formation and \"Wilson Phillips\".", "1992–1993: \"Shadows and Light\" and breakup.", "2004: First reunion.", "2010–present: Second reunion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Wilson sisters and Phillips grew up together in Southern California in the 1970s and 1980s. The three shared a love of music and songwriting, and developed their own style of vocal harmonies. In 1989, the trio signed with SBK Records. The group is also known for being the offspring of prominent musicians; the Wilsons are the daughters of Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys and Marilyn Rovell of The Honeys, while Phillips is the daughter of John and Michelle Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas. Wilson Phillips released their debut album, \"Wilson Phillips\", in 1990. Their debut single, \"Hold On,\" hit number one on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart on June 9, 1990, bumping Madonna's \"Vogue\" off the top spot. The single was also number one on the US \"Billboard\" Adult Contemporary and became a worldwide hit, peaking at number two in Australia, number six in the UK, number seven in Ireland, number 10 in Sweden, and number 15 in the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland. The single also won Wilson Phillips the \"Billboard\" Music Award for Hot 100 Single of the Year for 1990. The second and fourth singles from the album also became number-one singles on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100: \"Release Me\" (two weeks) and \"You're in Love\" (one week). The singles \"Impulsive\" and \"The Dream Is Still Alive\", peaked at number four and number 12, respectively, on the Hot 100. In 1991, they contributed a recording of \"Daniel\" to the tribute album \"\". While not released as a single, it peaked at number seven in the US Adult Contemporary chart due to strong radio airplay. They also released the song \"You're in Love\" the same year, which scored as a number one (and to date, their last top-10) pop single. In 1992, Wilson Phillips also made history as \"Billboard\" declared their debut album the best-selling album of all time by an all female group, peaking at number two on the \"Billboard\" 200 album chart, and selling over 5 million copies in the US and over 10 million copies worldwide, which also made Wilson Phillips, at the time, the best-selling female group of all time for a single album, breaking the previous record set by The Supremes.", "In June 1992, Wilson Phillips released their second album, \"Shadows and Light\". The album was deeply personal and adopted a more serious tone, with tracks exploring issues such as child abuse (\"Where Are You\") and their estrangement from their fathers (\"Flesh and Blood\", \"All the Way From New York\"). The first single, \"You Won't See Me Cry\" peaked at number 20 in the US and number 18 in the UK, the first time they had a higher-ranking single in the UK than in the US. The album peaked at number four on the \"Billboard\" 200 and was certified platinum in the US, and double platinum in Canada. Shortly after the release of \"Shadows and Light\" in 1992, Chynna Phillips announced plans for a solo career, and the group decided to disband. During the next decade, the group went their separate ways. In 1993, Wendy and Carnie Wilson released the Christmas-themed album, \"Hey Santa!\", a collection of classic Christmas themes with an original song (the title track). In 1995, Chynna Phillips released a solo album, \"Naked and Sacred\". The same year, Carnie went on to host her own short-lived syndicated television talk show titled \"Carnie!\" In 1997, Carnie and Wendy, along with their father Brian Wilson, released \"The Wilsons\" and the single \"Monday Without You.\" Capitol Records released the compilation \"Greatest Hits\" in 2000, although the group did not officially reunite for the release. On March 29, 2001, they reunited to perform The Beach Boys' song \"You're So Good to Me\" at a tribute show to Brian Wilson held at New York's Radio City Music Hall. Chynna Phillips dedicated the performance to her own father John Phillips, who had died a few days earlier.", "Wilson Phillips reunited in 2004 to release \"California\", an album of cover songs. A single, \"Go Your Own Way,\" a song originally recorded by Fleetwood Mac, peaked at number 13 on the \"Billboard\" Adult Contemporary chart. The album debuted at number 35 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart with 31,000 copies sold in its first week of release. In New Zealand, the album was a surprise hit, reaching the top 10 and amassing gold sales after \"Go Your Own Way\" topped the country's adult contemporary radio chart for several weeks.", "On October 12, 2010, Wilson Phillips released a new Christmas album, \"Christmas in Harmony\". The album yielded a single, \"I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday,\" a cover of the popular seasonal tune that first was a hit in 1973 for English glam-rock band Wizzard. The band appeared in a cameo and performed \"Hold On\" in the film \"Bridesmaids\" (2011). Bandmember Chynna Phillips was a contestant on season 13 of ABC's \"Dancing With the Stars\" and explained that \"Hold On\" was written by bandmates Carnie and Wendy Wilson and her about Phillips' recovery from drug and alcohol addiction. Phillips was eliminated after week four. On March 20, 2012, the group appeared on QVC to promote their release \"Dedicated\" (2012), a new studio album composed of covers of songs by both The Beach Boys and The Mamas and the Papas. On April 3, 2012, the group released \"Dedicated,\" which peaked at number 29 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart. The trio appeared in their own reality show, \"Wilson Phillips: Still Holding On\", which debuted on TV Guide Network in April 2012. In 2015, Wilson Phillips contributed backup vocals to the song \"FourFiveSeconds\" by Rihanna, Kanye West and Paul McCartney for Rihanna's eighth studio album. In July 2016, Wilson Phillips reunited and performed on ABC's \"Greatest Hits\". In 2017, the group performed on the season finale of NBC's \"The New Celebrity Apprentice\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Informal geometrical description.", "Example.", "Using step size equal to 1 (\"h\" = 1).", "MATLAB code example.", "R code example.", "Using other step sizes.", "Derivation.", "Local truncation error.", "Global truncation error.", "Numerical stability.", "Rounding errors.", "Modifications and extensions.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Consider the problem of calculating the shape of an unknown curve which starts at a given point and satisfies a given differential equation. Here, a differential equation can be thought of as a formula by which the slope of the tangent line to the curve can be computed at any point on the curve, once the position of that point has been calculated. The idea is that while the curve is initially unknown, its starting point, which we denote by formula_1 is known (see the picture on top right). Then, from the differential equation, the slope to the curve at formula_2 can be computed, and so, the tangent line. Take a small step along that tangent line up to a point formula_3 Along this small step, the slope does not change too much, so formula_4 will be close to the curve. If we pretend that formula_4 is still on the curve, the same reasoning as for the point formula_2 above can be used. After several steps, a polygonal curve formula_7 is computed. In general, this curve does not diverge too far from the original unknown curve, and the error between the two curves can be made small if the step size is small enough and the interval of computation is finite: Choose a value formula_9 for the size of every step and set formula_10. Now, one step of the Euler method from formula_11 to formula_12 is: The value of formula_14 is an approximation of the solution to the ODE at time formula_11: formula_16. The Euler method is explicit, i.e. the solution formula_17 is an explicit function of formula_18 for formula_19. While the Euler method integrates a first-order ODE, any ODE of order \"N\" can be represented as a system of first-order ODEs: to treat the equation we introduce auxiliary variables formula_21 and obtain the equivalent equation: This is a first-order system in the variable formula_23 and can be handled by Euler's method or, in fact, by any other scheme for first-order systems.", "Given the initial value problem we would like to use the Euler method to approximate formula_25.", "The Euler method is so first we must compute formula_27. In this simple differential equation, the function formula_28 is defined by formula_29. We have By doing the above step, we have found the slope of the line that is tangent to the solution curve at the point formula_31. Recall that the slope is defined as the change in formula_32 divided by the change in formula_33, or formula_34. The next step is to multiply the above value by the step size formula_9, which we take equal to one here: Since the step size is the change in formula_33, when we multiply the step size and the slope of the tangent, we get a change in formula_32 value. This value is then added to the initial formula_32 value to obtain the next value to be used for computations. The above steps should be repeated to find formula_41, formula_42 and formula_43. Due to the repetitive nature of this algorithm, it can be helpful to organize computations in a chart form, as seen below, to avoid making errors. The conclusion of this computation is that formula_45. The exact solution of the differential equation is formula_46, so formula_47. Although the approximation of the Euler method was not very precise in this specific case, particularly due to a large value step size formula_9, its behaviour is qualitatively correct as the figure shows.", "clear; clc; close('all'); y0 = 1; t0 = 0; h = 1; % try: h = 0.01 tn = 4; % equal to: t0 + h*n, with n the number of steps [t, y] = Euler(t0, y0, h, tn); plot(t, y, 'b'); function [t, y] = Euler(t0, y0, h, tn) end % in this case, f(y,t) = f(y) function dydt = f(y,t) end % OUTPUT: % i yi ti f(yi,ti) % 0 +1.00 +0.00 +1.00 % 1 +2.00 +1.00 +2.00 % 2 +4.00 +2.00 +4.00 % 3 +8.00 +3.00 +8.00 % 4 +16.00 +4.00 +16.00 % NOTE: Code also outputs a comparison plot", "Below is the code of the example in the R programming language. f <- function(ti,y) y t0 <- 0 y0 <- 1 h <- 1 tn <- 4 Euler <- function(t0, y0, h, tn, dy.dt) { r <- Euler(t0, y0, h, tn, f) rownames(r) <- 0:(nrow(r)-1) # to coincide with index n r$y <- exp(r$ti) print(r) plot(r$ti, r$y, type=\"l\", col=\"red\", lwd=2) lines(r$ti, r$yi, col=\"blue\", lwd=2) grid(col=\"black\") legend(\"top\", legend = c(\"Exact\", \"Euler\"), lwd=2, col = c(\"red\", \"blue\"))", "As suggested in the introduction, the Euler method is more accurate if the step size formula_9 is smaller. The table below shows the result with different step sizes. The top row corresponds to the example in the previous section, and the second row is illustrated in the figure. The error recorded in the last column of the table is the difference between the exact solution at formula_50 and the Euler approximation. In the bottom of the table, the step size is half the step size in the previous row, and the error is also approximately half the error in the previous row. This suggests that the error is roughly proportional to the step size, at least for fairly small values of the step size. This is true in general, also for other equations; see the section \"Global truncation error\" for more details. Other methods, such as the midpoint method also illustrated in the figures, behave more favourably: the global error of the midpoint method is roughly proportional to the \"square\" of the step size. For this reason, the Euler method is said to be a first-order method, while the midpoint method is second order. We can extrapolate from the above table that the step size needed to get an answer that is correct to three decimal places is approximately 0.00001, meaning that we need 400,000 steps. This large number of steps entails a high computational cost. For this reason, people usually employ alternative, higher-order methods such as Runge–Kutta methods or linear multistep methods, especially if a high accuracy is desired.", "The Euler method can be derived in a number of ways. Firstly, there is the geometrical description above. Another possibility is to consider the Taylor expansion of the function formula_32 around formula_52: The differential equation states that formula_54. If this is substituted in the Taylor expansion and the quadratic and higher-order terms are ignored, the Euler method arises. The Taylor expansion is used below to analyze the error committed by the Euler method, and it can be extended to produce Runge–Kutta methods. A closely related derivation is to substitute the forward finite difference formula for the derivative, in the differential equation formula_56. Again, this yields the Euler method. A similar computation leads to the midpoint method and the backward Euler method. Finally, one can integrate the differential equation from formula_52 to formula_58 and apply the fundamental theorem of calculus to get: Now approximate the integral by the left-hand rectangle method (with only one rectangle): Combining both equations, one finds again the Euler method. This line of thought can be continued to arrive at various linear multistep methods.", "The local truncation error of the Euler method is the error made in a single step. It is the difference between the numerical solution after one step, formula_61, and the exact solution at time formula_62. The numerical solution is given by For the exact solution, we use the Taylor expansion mentioned in the section \"Derivation\" above: The local truncation error (LTE) introduced by the Euler method is given by the difference between these equations: This result is valid if formula_32 has a bounded third derivative. This shows that for small formula_9, the local truncation error is approximately proportional to formula_68. This makes the Euler method less accurate (for small formula_9) than other higher-order techniques such as Runge-Kutta methods and linear multistep methods, for which the local truncation error is proportional to a higher power of the step size. A slightly different formulation for the local truncation error can be obtained by using the Lagrange form for the remainder term in Taylor's theorem. If formula_32 has a continuous second derivative, then there exists a formula_71 such that In the above expressions for the error, the second derivative of the unknown exact solution formula_32 can be replaced by an expression involving the right-hand side of the differential equation. Indeed, it follows from the equation formula_54 that", "The global truncation error is the error at a fixed time formula_33, after however many steps the methods needs to take to reach that time from the initial time. The global truncation error is the cumulative effect of the local truncation errors committed in each step. The number of steps is easily determined to be formula_77, which is proportional to formula_78, and the error committed in each step is proportional to formula_68 (see the previous section). Thus, it is to be expected that the global truncation error will be proportional to formula_9. This intuitive reasoning can be made precise. If the solution formula_32 has a bounded second derivative and formula_28 is Lipschitz continuous in its second argument, then the global truncation error (GTE) is bounded by where formula_84 is an upper bound on the second derivative of formula_32 on the given interval and formula_86 is the Lipschitz constant of formula_28. The precise form of this bound is of little practical importance, as in most cases the bound vastly overestimates the actual error committed by the Euler method. What is important is that it shows that the global truncation error is (approximately) proportional to formula_9. For this reason, the Euler method is said to be first order.", "The Euler method can also be numerically unstable, especially for stiff equations, meaning that the numerical solution grows very large for equations where the exact solution does not. This can be illustrated using the linear equation The exact solution is formula_90, which decays to zero as formula_91. However, if the Euler method is applied to this equation with step size formula_92, then the numerical solution is qualitatively wrong: It oscillates and grows (see the figure). This is what it means to be unstable. If a smaller step size is used, for instance formula_93, then the numerical solution does decay to zero. If the Euler method is applied to the linear equation formula_94, then the numerical solution is unstable if the product formula_95 is outside the region illustrated on the right. This region is called the (linear) \"stability region\". In the example, formula_97 is −2.3, so if formula_98 then formula_99 which is outside the stability region, and thus the numerical solution is unstable. This limitation —along with its slow convergence of error with \"h\"— means that the Euler method is not often used, except as a simple example of numerical integration.", "The discussion up to now has ignored the consequences of rounding error. In step \"n\" of the Euler method, the rounding error is roughly of the magnitude ε\"y\" where ε is the machine epsilon. Assuming that the rounding errors are all of approximately the same size, the combined rounding error in \"N\" steps is roughly \"N\"ε\"y\" if all errors points in the same direction. Since the number of steps is inversely proportional to the step size \"h\", the total rounding error is proportional to ε / \"h\". In reality, however, it is extremely unlikely that all rounding errors point in the same direction. If instead it is assumed that the rounding errors are independent random variables, then the expected total rounding error is proportional to formula_100. Thus, for extremely small values of the step size, the truncation error will be small but the effect of rounding error may be big. Most of the effect of rounding error can be easily avoided if compensated summation is used in the formula for the Euler method.", "A simple modification of the Euler method which eliminates the stability problems noted in the previous section is the backward Euler method: This differs from the (standard, or forward) Euler method in that the function formula_28 is evaluated at the end point of the step, instead of the starting point. The backward Euler method is an implicit method, meaning that the formula for the backward Euler method has formula_103 on both sides, so when applying the backward Euler method we have to solve an equation. This makes the implementation more costly. Other modifications of the Euler method that help with stability yield the exponential Euler method or the semi-implicit Euler method. More complicated methods can achieve a higher order (and more accuracy). One possibility is to use more function evaluations. This is illustrated by the midpoint method which is already mentioned in this article: This leads to the family of Runge–Kutta methods. The other possibility is to use more past values, as illustrated by the two-step Adams–Bashforth method: This leads to the family of linear multistep methods. There are other modifications which uses techniques from compressive sensing to minimize memory usage", "In the film \"Hidden Figures\", Katherine Goble resorts to the Euler method in calculating the re-entry of astronaut John Glenn from Earth orbit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Exorcisms.", "Books.", "Controversies.", "Views on yoga.", "Disappearance of Emanuela Orlandi." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Amorth was born in Modena, Emilia-Romagna, Italy on 1 May 1925. He was ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1954 and became an official exorcist in June 1986, under the tutelage of Fr. Candido Amantini. He was a member of the Society of St. Paul, the congregation founded by James Alberione in 1914. In 1990, he founded the International Association of Exorcists and was president until he retired in 2000. He was Honorary President for life of the association until his death. Amorth's favorite film was \"The Exorcist\". He thought it substantially correct and based on true events, although the special effects were exaggerated. In an interview with the \"London Sunday Telegraph\", Amorth stressed that \"People need to know what we do.\" Amorth died at the age of 91 on 16 September 2016, a short time after he was hospitalised for pulmonary complications.", "In October 2000, it was reported he had performed over 50,000 exorcisms (which ranged from \"a few minutes\" to \"several hours\" in length). In March 2010, he said that the number had increased to 70,000. By May 2013, he said he had performed 160,000 exorcisms in the course of his ministry. According to Father Amorth, each exorcism does not represent a victim of possession, but rather each exorcism is counted as a prayer or ritual alone, and some possession victims required hundreds of exorcisms. Edward Peters, a professor of canon law, finds Amorth's claim to have personally performed 30,000 exorcisms over 9 years \"astounding\". Even accepting Amorth's claim that only 94 of his 30,000 exorcisms represented full-blown possession, that would have required roughly one case a month to be thoroughly examined and processed over nine years with hardly a break. Amorth believed that a person may be possessed by more than one demon at once, sometimes numbering in the thousands, which is what accounts for the high number of reputed demons exorcised. When asked whether the devil can strike inside the Vatican City, Amorth stated, \"He has tried already. He did it in 1981 by attacking John Paul II by working with those who armed Ali Agca.\" He attributed the number of exorcisms performed to his opinion that \"People have lost the Faith, and superstition, magic, Satanism, or ouija boards have taken its place, which then open all the doors to the presence of demons.\" Amorth offered the following guidelines to those exercising the charism of exorcism. Any such person must be highly regarded for his prayer life, faith, acts of charity and judgement. In addition he must rely solely on the \"Word of God\" and traditional prayer, be completely detached from monetary concerns, profoundly humble and treasure obscurity. He said that the new rite of exorcism is \"a farce. An incredible obstacle that is likely to prevent us from acting against the demon.\" He remarked that the new exorcism rite forbids exorcisms on people who have been reportedly subjected to evil spells. Father Amorth exclaimed, \"Absurd! Evil spells are by far the most frequent causes of possessions and evil procured through the demon: at least 90% of cases. It is as good as telling exorcists they can no longer perform exorcisms.\" He also noted that it \"Solemnly declares that one should not carry out exorcisms if one is not certain of the presence of the devil\", while \"it is only through exorcism that the demons reveal themselves\". He considered the new rite \"A blunt weapon...Efficacious prayers, prayers that had been in existence for twelve centuries, were suppressed and replaced by new ineffective prayers.\"", "Amorth wrote two memoirs of his time as an exorcist - \"An Exorcist Tells His Story\" and \"An Exorcist: More Stories\". The books include references to official Roman Catholic teachings on demonology while the main emphasis is on Amorth's experience as an exorcist. Both include references to the diagnosis and treatment of spiritual problems. The books briefly cover the topics of demonic contraction and curses. He states, \"A curse can originate from such things as maledictions by close relatives, a habit of blaspheming, membership in Freemasonry, spiritic or magic practices, and so on.\" Amorth was also interviewed for the second episode of \"True Horror with Anthony Head\", presented by Anthony Head. He explained he would never perform an exorcism based solely on someone's claims of possession; always directs people to psychiatrists and doctors first, and that when he sees someone is not possessed but the person still insists, he replies: \"You have no devil. If you have a problem, talk to a good vet.\"", "", "At a film festival in Umbria (where he was invited to introduce the 2011 film about Exorcism called \"The Rite\"), he is quoted as saying that yoga is satanic because it leads to practice of Hinduism and \"all eastern religions are based on a false belief in reincarnation\" and \"practicing yoga is satanic, it leads to evil just like reading Harry Potter\". Francis Xavier Clooney of Boston College and Harvard Divinity School noted that, \"First, mere recriminations against the religion of another are just about never acceptable or useful...Second, if one is a professional exorcist, one may indeed see everything in light of that profession, and so it is not surprising that Fr. Amorth sees the devil at work everywhere; perhaps it is his default explanation of the woes that afflict us.\"", "Amorth claimed that Emanuela Orlandi, an Italian schoolgirl who went missing in Rome in 1983 was kidnapped for a sex party by a gang involving Vatican police and foreign diplomats. He said that she was later murdered and her body disposed of. Amorth claimed that girls were recruited at the Vatican for parties, adding that her death \"was a crime with a sexual motive.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Uses.", "Tools or cutting edges.", "To ignite fire or gunpowder.", "Flintlocks.", "Comparison with ferrocerium.", "Fragmentation.", "As a building material.", "Ceramics.", "Jewellery.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The exact mode of formation of flint is not yet clear, but it is thought that it occurs as a result of chemical changes in compressed sedimentary rock formations, during the process of diagenesis. One hypothesis is that a gelatinous material fills cavities in the sediment, such as holes bored by crustaceans or molluscs and that this becomes silicified. This hypothesis certainly explains the complex shapes of flint nodules that are found. The source of dissolved silica in the porous media could be the spicules of silicious sponges (demosponges). Certain types of flint, such as that from the south coast of England, contain trapped fossilised marine flora. Pieces of coral and vegetation have been found preserved inside the flint similar to insects and plant parts within amber. Thin slices of the stone often reveal this effect. Flint sometimes occurs in large flint fields in Jurassic or Cretaceous beds, for example, in Europe. Puzzling giant flint formations known as paramoudra and flint circles are found around Europe but especially in Norfolk, England on the beaches at Beeston Bump and West Runton. The \"Ohio flint\" is the official gemstone of Ohio state. It is formed from limey debris that was deposited at the bottom of inland Paleozoic seas hundreds of millions of years ago that hardened into limestone and later became infused with silica. The flint from Flint Ridge is found in many hues like red, green, pink, blue, white and gray, with the color variations caused by minute impurities of iron compounds. Flint can be coloured: sandy brown, medium to dark gray, black, reddish brown or an off-white grey.", "", "Flint was used in the manufacture of tools during the Stone Age as it splits into thin, sharp splinters called flakes or blades (depending on the shape) when struck by another hard object (such as a hammerstone made of another material). This process is referred to as knapping. Flint mining is attested since the Paleolithic, but became more common since the Neolithic (Michelsberg culture, Funnelbeaker culture). In Europe, some of the best toolmaking flint has come from Belgium (Obourg, flint mines of Spiennes), the coastal chalks of the English Channel, the Paris Basin, Thy in Jutland (flint mine at Hov), the Sennonian deposits of Rügen, Grimes Graves in England, the Upper Cretaceous chalk formation of Dobruja and the lower Danube (Balkan flint), the Cenomanian chalky marl formation of the Moldavian Plateau (Miorcani flint) and the Jurassic deposits of the Kraków area and Krzemionki in Poland, as well as of the Lägern (silex) in the Jura Mountains of Switzerland. In 1938, a project of the Ohio Historical Society, under the leadership of H. Holmes Ellis began to study the knapping methods and techniques of Native Americans. Like past studies, this work involved experimenting with actual knapping techniques by creation of stone tools through the use of techniques like direct freehand percussion, freehand pressure and pressure using a rest. Other scholars who have conducted similar experiments and studies include William Henry Holmes, Alonzo W. Pond, Francis H. S. Knowles and Don Crabtree. To combat fragmentation, flint/chert may be heat-treated, being slowly brought up to a temperature of for 24 hours, then slowly cooled to room temperature. This makes the material more homogeneous and thus more knappable and produces tools with a cleaner, sharper cutting edge. Heat treating was known to stone age artisans.", "When struck against steel, a flint edge produces sparks. The hard flint edge shaves off a particle of the steel that exposes iron, which reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere and can ignite the proper tinder. Prior to the wide availability of steel, rocks of pyrite (FeS) would be used along with the flint, in a similar (but more time-consuming) way. These methods remain popular in woodcraft, bushcraft, and amongst people practising traditional fire-starting skills.", "A later, major use of flint and steel was in the flintlock mechanism, used primarily in flintlock firearms, but also used on dedicated fire-starting tools. A piece of flint held in the jaws of a spring-loaded hammer, when released by a trigger, strikes a hinged piece of steel (\"frizzen\") at an angle, creating a shower of sparks and exposing a charge of priming powder. The sparks ignite the priming powder and that flame, in turn, ignites the main charge, propelling the ball, bullet, or shot through the barrel. While the military use of the flintlock declined after the adoption of the percussion cap from the 1840s onward, flintlock rifles and shotguns remain in use amongst recreational shooters.", "Flint and steel used to strike sparks were superseded by ferrocerium (sometimes referred to as \"flint\", although not true flint, \"mischmetal\", \"hot spark\", \"metal match\", or \"fire steel\"). This man-made material, when scraped with any hard, sharp edge, produces sparks that are much hotter than obtained with natural flint and steel, allowing use of a wider range of tinders. Because it can produce sparks when wet and can start fires when used correctly, ferrocerium is commonly included in survival kits. Ferrocerium is used in many cigarette lighters, where it is referred to as \"a flint\".", "Flint's utility as a fire starter is hampered by its property of uneven expansion under heating, causing it to fracture, sometimes violently, during heating. This tendency is enhanced by the impurities found in most samples of flint that may expand to a greater or lesser degree than the surrounding stone, and is similar to the tendency of glass to shatter when exposed to heat, and can become a drawback when flint is used as a building material.", "Flint, knapped or unknapped, has been used from antiquity (for example at the Late Roman fort of Burgh Castle in Norfolk) up to the present day as a material for building stone walls, using lime mortar, and often combined with other available stone or brick rubble. It was most common in those parts of southern England where no good building stone was available locally, and where brick-making not widespread until the later Middle Ages. It is especially associated with East Anglia, but also used in chalky areas stretching through Hampshire, Sussex, Surrey and Kent to Somerset. Flint was used in the construction of many churches, houses, and other buildings, for example, the large stronghold of Framlingham Castle. Many different decorative effects have been achieved by using different types of knapping or arrangement and combinations with stone (flushwork), especially in the 15th and early 16th centuries. Because knapping flints to a relatively flush surface and size is a highly skilled process with a high level of wastage, flint finishes typically indicate high status buildings.", "Flint pebbles are used as the media in ball mills to grind glazes and other raw materials for the ceramics industry. The pebbles are hand-selected based on colour; those having a tint of red, indicating high iron content, are discarded. The remaining blue-grey stones have a low content of chromophoric oxides and so are less deleterious to the colour of the ceramic composition after firing. Until recently flint was also an important raw material in clay-based ceramic bodies produced in the UK. In preparation for use flint pebbles, frequently sourced from the coasts of South-East England or Western France, were calcined to around. This heating process both removed organic impurities and induced certain physical reactions, including converting some of the silica to cristobalite. After calcination the flint pebbles were milled to a fine particle size. However, the use of flint has now been superseded by quartz. Because of the historical use of flint, the word \"flint\" is used by some potters, especially in the US, to refer to siliceous materials that are not flint.", "Flint bracelets were known in Ancient Egypt, and several examples have been found.", "Mineralogy Archaeology" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Principles.", "Advantages.", "Disadvantages.", "Strategies.", "Tracing.", "Reference counting.", "Escape analysis.", "Timestamp & Heartbeat.", "Availability.", "BASIC.", "Objective-C.", "Limited environments.", "Garbage Collectors for Java.", "Compile-time use.", "Real-time systems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The basic principles of garbage collection are to find data objects in a program that cannot be accessed in the future, and to reclaim the resources used by those objects. Many programming languages require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (for example, Java, C#, D, Go and most scripting languages) or effectively for practical implementation (for example, formal languages like lambda calculus); these are said to be \"garbage collected languages\". Other languages were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage-collected implementations available (for example, C and C++). Some languages, like Ada, Modula-3, and C++/CLI, allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects; others, like D, are garbage-collected but allow the user to manually delete objects and also entirely disable garbage collection when speed is required. While integrating garbage collection into the language's compiler and runtime system enables a much wider choice of methods, \"post-hoc\" GC systems exist, such as Automatic Reference Counting (ARC), including some that do not require recompilation. (\"Post-hoc\" GC is sometimes distinguished as \"litter collection\".) The garbage collector will almost always be closely integrated with the memory allocator.", "Garbage collection frees the programmer from manually dealing with memory deallocation. As a result, certain categories of bugs are eliminated or substantially reduced: Some of the bugs addressed by garbage collection have security implications.", "Typically, garbage collection has certain disadvantages, including consuming additional resources, performance impacts, possible stalls in program execution, and incompatibility with manual resource management. Garbage collection consumes computing resources in deciding which memory to free, even though the programmer may have already known this information. The penalty for the convenience of not annotating object lifetime manually in the source code is overhead, which can lead to decreased or uneven performance. A peer-reviewed paper from 2005 came to the conclusion that GC needs five times the memory to compensate for this overhead and to perform as fast as explicit memory management. Interaction with memory hierarchy effects can make this overhead intolerable in circumstances that are hard to predict or to detect in routine testing. The impact on performance was also given by Apple as a reason for not adopting garbage collection in iOS despite being the most desired feature. The moment when the garbage is actually collected can be unpredictable, resulting in stalls (pauses to shift/free memory) scattered throughout a session. Unpredictable stalls can be unacceptable in real-time environments, in transaction processing, or in interactive programs. Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors address these problems, with varying trade-offs. The modern GC implementations try to minimize blocking \"stop-the-world\" stalls by doing as much work as possible on the background (i.e. on a separate thread), for example marking unreachable garbage instances while the application process continues to run. In spite of these advancements, for example in the.NET CLR paradigm it is still very difficult to maintain large heaps (millions of objects) with resident objects that get promoted to older generations without incurring noticeable delays (sometimes a few seconds). The need for explicit manual resource management (release/close) for non-GCed resources in an object oriented language becomes transitive to composition. That is: in a non-deterministic GC system, if a resource or a resource-like object requires manual resource management (release/close), and this object is used as \"part of\" another object, then the composed object will also become a resource-like object that itself requires manual resource management (release/close).", "", "Tracing garbage collection is the most common type of garbage collection, so much so that \"garbage collection\" often refers to tracing garbage collection, rather than other methods such as reference counting. The overall strategy consists of determining which objects should be garbage collected by tracing which objects are \"reachable\" by a chain of references from certain root objects, and considering the rest as garbage and collecting them. However, there are a large number of algorithms used in implementation, with widely varying complexity and performance characteristics.", "Reference counting garbage collection is where each object has a count of the number of references to it. Garbage is identified by having a reference count of zero. An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created, and decremented when a reference is destroyed. When the count reaches zero, the object's memory is reclaimed. As with manual memory management, and unlike tracing garbage collection, reference counting guarantees that objects are destroyed as soon as their last reference is destroyed, and usually only accesses memory which is either in CPU caches, in objects to be freed, or directly pointed by those, and thus tends to not have significant negative side effects on CPU cache and virtual memory operation. There are a number of disadvantages to reference counting; this can generally be solved or mitigated by more sophisticated algorithms:", "Escape analysis is a compile-time technique that can convert heap allocations to stack allocations, thereby reducing the amount of garbage collection to be done. This analysis determines whether an object allocated inside a function is accessible outside of it. If a function-local allocation is found to be accessible to another function or thread, the allocation is said to “escape” and cannot be done on the stack. Otherwise, the object may be allocated directly on the stack and released when the function returns, bypassing the heap and associated memory management costs.", "This is not a classical garbage collection algorithm used to collect unused memory instead this is a technique to primarily handle garbage collection of heterogenous resources (file handlers, network pointers etc.). The method is used to garbage collect unused resources from the system and avoid running out of system resources (including memory). The common method is to check if the system resource is still alive and being used. The simplest of these are network algorithms sending so called heartbeat signals to a monitor. In this case the resources in on the monitor server are freed when a client fails to send a heartbeat to the monitor server. Timestamp methods can work as garbage collectors for collection of unused memory but have serious drawbacks for this task and are used when other methods are not practical (i.e. network tasks).", "Generally speaking, higher-level programming languages are more likely to have garbage collection as a standard feature. In some languages that do not have built in garbage collection, it can be added through a library, as with the Boehm garbage collector for C and C++. Most functional programming languages, such as ML, Haskell, and APL, have garbage collection built in. Lisp is especially notable as both the first functional programming language and the first language to introduce garbage collection. Other dynamic languages, such as Ruby and Julia (but not Perl 5 or PHP before version 5.3, which both use reference counting), JavaScript and ECMAScript also tend to use GC. Object-oriented programming languages such as Smalltalk and Java usually provide integrated garbage collection. Notable exceptions are C++ and Delphi which have destructors.", "Historically, languages intended for beginners, such as BASIC and Logo, have often used garbage collection for heap-allocated variable-length data types, such as strings and lists, so as not to burden programmers with manual memory management. On early microcomputers, with their limited memory and slow processors, BASIC garbage collection could often cause apparently random, inexplicable pauses in the midst of program operation. Some BASIC interpreters, such as Applesoft BASIC on the Apple II family, repeatedly scanned the string descriptors for the string having the highest address in order to compact it toward high memory, resulting in O(n) performance, which could introduce minutes-long pauses in the execution of string-intensive programs. A replacement garbage collector for Applesoft BASIC published in Call-A.P.P.L.E. (January 1981, pages 40–45, Randy Wigginton) identified a group of strings in every pass over the heap, which cut collection time dramatically. BASIC.System, released with ProDOS in 1983, provided a windowing garbage collector for BASIC that reduced most collections to a fraction of a second.", "While the Objective-C traditionally had no garbage collection, with the release of OS X 10.5 in 2007 Apple introduced garbage collection for Objective-C 2.0, using an in-house developed runtime collector. However, with the 2012 release of OS X 10.8, garbage collection was deprecated in favor of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) that was introduced with OS X 10.7. Furthermore, since May 2015 Apple even forbids the usage of garbage collection for new OS X applications in the App Store. For iOS, garbage collection has never been introduced due to problems in application responsivity and performance; instead, iOS uses ARC.", "Garbage collection is rarely used on embedded or real-time systems because of the usual need for very tight control over the use of limited resources. However, garbage collectors compatible with many limited environments have been developed. The Microsoft.NET Micro Framework,.NET nanoFramework and Java Platform, Micro Edition are embedded software platforms that, like their larger cousins, include garbage collection.", "Some popular Garbage Collectors available in Java JDKs include: Comparing Garbage Collectors is a complex task, and different applications can have very different needs. Among the factors of importance are performance overhead (how is the application slowed by the garbage collector), stop-the-world pauses times, frequency and distribution (when the garbage collector freezes the application, how long does it take to complete the process, and how often does this phenomenon happens), scalability, memory allocation performance,...", "Compile-time garbage collection is a form of static analysis allowing memory to be reused and reclaimed based on invariants known during compilation. This form of garbage collection has been studied in the Mercury programming language, and it saw greater usage with the introduction of LLVM's automatic reference counter (ARC) into Apple's ecosystem (iOS and OS X) in 2011.", "Incremental, concurrent, and real-time garbage collectors have been developed, such as Baker's algorithm or Lieberman's algorithm. In Baker's algorithm, the allocation is done in either half of a single region of memory. When it becomes half full, a garbage collection is performed which moves the live objects into the other half and the remaining objects are implicitly deallocated. The running program (the'mutator') has to check that any object it references is in the correct half, and if not move it across, while a background task is finding all of the objects. Generational garbage collection schemes are based on the empirical observation that most objects die young. In generational garbage collection two or more allocation regions (generations) are kept, which are kept separate based on object's age. New objects are created in the \"young\" generation that is regularly collected, and when a generation is full, the objects that are still referenced from older regions are copied into the next oldest generation. Occasionally a full scan is performed. Some high-level language computer architectures include hardware support for real-time garbage collection. Most implementations of real-time garbage collectors use tracing. Such real-time garbage collectors meet hard real-time constraints when used with a real-time operating system." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Early life.", "Trojan War.", "Return to Greece.", "Other stories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "His name in Greek, Ἀγαμέμνων, means \"very steadfast\", \"unbowed\". The word comes from *Ἀγαμέδμων from ἄγαν, \"very much\" and μέδομαι, \"think on\".", "Agamemnon's father, Atreus, murdered the sons of his twin brother Thyestes and fed them to Thyestes after discovering Thyestes' adultery with his wife Aerope. Thyestes fathered Aegisthus with his own daughter, Pelopia, and this son vowed gruesome revenge on Atreus' children. Aegisthus murdered Atreus, restored Thyestes to the throne and took possession of the throne of Mycenae and jointly ruled with his father. During this period, Agamemnon and his brother, Menelaus, took refuge with Tyndareus, King of Sparta. There they respectively married Tyndareus' daughters Clytemnestra and Helen. Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra and Chrysothemis. Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece. Agamemnon's family history had been tarnished by murder, incest, and treachery, consequences of the heinous crime perpetrated by his ancestor, Tantalus, and then of a curse placed upon Pelops, son of Tantalus, by Myrtilus, whom he had murdered. Thus misfortune hounded successive generations of the House of Atreus, until atoned by Orestes in a court of justice held jointly by humans and gods.", "Agamemnon gathered the reluctant Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from Aulis, a port in Boeotia, Agamemnon's army incurred the wrath of the goddess Artemis. There are several reasons throughout myth for such wrath: in Aeschylus' play \"Agamemnon\", Artemis is angry for the young men who will die at Troy, whereas in Sophocles' \"Electra\", Agamemnon has slain an animal sacred to Artemis, and subsequently boasted that he was Artemis' equal in hunting. Misfortunes, including a plague and a lack of wind, prevented the army from sailing. Finally, the prophet Calchas announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of Agamemnon's daughter Iphigenia. Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter was to this fate; some include such trickery as claiming she was to be married to Achilles, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis, and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources, such as \"Iphigenia at Aulis\", say that Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but that Artemis accepted a deer in her place, and whisked her away to Tauris in the Crimean Peninsula. Hesiod said she became the goddess Hecate. Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the Trojan War. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed Antiphus and fifteen other Trojan soldiers, according to one source. But in the \"Iliad\" itself, he's shown to slaughter hundreds more in Book 11 during his \"aristea\" loosely translated to \"day of glory\" which is the most similar to Achilles' \"aristea\" in Book 21 (they both are compared to lions and destructive fires in battle, their hands are described as \"splattered with gore\" and \"invincible,\" the Trojans flee to the walls, they both are appealed to by one of their victims, they are both avoided by Hector, they both get wounded in the arm or hand, and they both kill the one who wounded them). Even before his \"aristea,\" Agamemnon was considered to be one of the three best warriors on the Greek side as proven when Hector challenges any champion of the Greek side to fight him in Book 7, and Agamemnon (along with Diomedes and Big Aias) is one of the three most wished for to face him out of the nine strongest Greek warriors who volunteered. And after they reconciled, even Achilles admits in Book 23 that Agamemnon is \"the best in strength and in throwing the spear.\" That claim is further proven by the fact that Agamemnon was the only major warrior on either side never to need the gods' direct intervention to increase his strength or give him any unfair advantages in battle and yet he still caused incredible destruction almost on the scale of Achilles. The \"Iliad\" tells the story about the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles in the final year of the war. Following one of the Achaean Army's raids, Chryseis, daughter of Chryses, one of Apollo's priests, was taken as a war prize by Agamemnon. Chryses pleaded with Agamemnon to free his daughter but was met with little success. Chryses then prayed to Apollo for the safe return of his daughter, which Apollo responded to by unleashing a plague over the Achaean Army. After learning from the Prophet Calchas that the plague could be dispelled by returning Chryseis to her father, Agamemnon reluctantly agreed (but first berated Calchas for previously forcing Agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia) and released his prize. However, as compensation for his lost prize, Agamemnon demanded a new prize. He stole an attractive slave called Briseis, one of the spoils of war, from Achilles. In response to being deprived of Briseis, Achilles withdrew from battle and put the Greek armies at risk of losing the war. Agamemnon, having realized Achilles's importance in winning the war against the Trojan Army, sent ambassadors begging for Achilles to return, offering him riches and the hand of his daughter in marriage, but Achilles refused, only being spurred back into action when his closest friend, Patroclus, was killed in battle by Hector, eldest son of King Priam and Queen Hecuba. Although not the equal of Achilles in bravery, Agamemnon was a representative of \"kingly authority\". As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. His chief fault was his overwhelming haughtiness; an over-exalted opinion of his position that led him to insult Chryses and Achilles, thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks. After the capture of Troy, Cassandra, the doomed prophetess and daughter of Priam, fell to Agamemnon's lot in the distribution of the prizes of war.", "After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra landed in Argolis, or, in another version, were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus' country. Clytemnestra, Agamemnon's wife, had taken Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, as a lover. When Agamemnon came home he was slain by Aegisthus (in the oldest versions of the story) or by Clytemnestra. According to the accounts given by Pindar and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain in a bath by his wife alone, after being ensnared by a blanket or a net thrown over him to prevent resistance. In Homer's version of the story in the Odyssey, Aegisthus ambushes and kills Agamemnon in a feasting hall under the pretense of holding a feast in honor of Agamemnon's return home from Troy. Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her jealousy of Cassandra, and her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia and at Agamemnon's having gone to war over Helen of Troy, are said to have been the motives for her crime. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, Aegisthus claiming his right of revenge for Atreus's crimes against Thyestes (Thyestes then crying out \"So perish all the race of Pleisthenes!\", thus explaining Aegisthus' action as justified by his father's curse). Agamemnon's son Orestes later avenged his father's murder, with the help or encouragement of his sister Electra, by murdering Aegisthus and Clytemnestra (his own mother), thereby inciting the wrath of the Erinyes (English: the Furies), winged goddesses who tracked down wrongdoers with their hounds' noses and drove them to insanity.", "Athenaeus tells a tale of how Agamemnon mourned the loss of his friend or lover Argynnus, when he drowned in the Cephisus river. He buried him, honored with a tomb and a shrine to Aphrodite Argynnis. This episode is also found in Clement of Alexandria, in Stephen of Byzantium \"(Kopai\" and \"Argunnos),\" and in Propertius, III with minor variations. The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous tragedies, ancient and modern, the most famous being the \"Oresteia\" of Aeschylus. In the legends of the Peloponnesus, Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in Sparta he was worshipped under the title of \"Zeus Agamemnon\". His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of Mycenae and at Amyclae. Another account makes him the son of Pleisthenes (the son or father of Atreus), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband. In works of art, there is considerable resemblance between the representations of Zeus, king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally depicted with a sceptre and diadem, conventional attributes of kings. Agamemnon's mare was named Aetha. She was also one of two horses driven by Menelaus at the funeral games of Patroclus. In Homer's \"Odyssey\" Agamemnon made an appearance in the kingdom of Hades after his death. There, the former king met Odysseus and explained just how he was murdered before he offered Odysseus a warning about the dangers of trusting a woman." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Production.", "Format and structure.", "Themes.", "Jews as an uncivilized and parasitic people.", "Jews as manipulative.", "Changing outward appearances.", "Economic impact.", "Jews as abnormal and depraved.", "Degenerate art.", "Jewish religious practice.", "Hitler's Reichstag speech.", "Release and reception.", "Postwar legacy.", "Availability.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hitler and Goebbels believed that film was a vital tool for molding public opinion. The Nazis first established a film department in 1930 and Goebbels had taken a personal interest in the use of film to promote the Nazi philosophy and agenda. Soon after the Nazi takeover, Goebbels insisted in speeches that the role of the German cinema was to serve as the \"vanguard of the Nazi military\". The Goebbels film appears to have been intended as a violently antisemitic version of the British film \"The Wandering Jew\", which argued that Jews were victims of relentless persecution throughout history. Saul Friedländer suggests that Goebbels' intent was to counter three films: \"Jew Süss\", \"The House of Rothschild\", and \"The Wandering Jew\". These three films, all released in 1933–34, showed that Jews were persecuted throughout history; the Goebbels films presented the opposite message. In 1937, a special wing of the Propaganda Ministry put on an art exhibition in Munich titled \"Der ewige Jude\". It followed this up with the publication of a book of the same title, consisting of 265 photographs, each with a derogatory caption asserting the degeneracy of the Jewish race. In November 1938, Goebbels made a series of attacks against the Jews in the German media that were a factor which resulted in the pogrom known as Kristallnacht. Despite the emotional satisfaction afforded the Nazis by carrying out their antisemitism with direct violence, Kristallnacht was considered by Hitler to have been a political disaster both within Germany and internationally. Not only did the brutality indirectly caused by Goebbels evoke harsh criticism internationally, the mixed reaction in the German media showed a lack of broad-based support among Germans for antisemitism and violence. Hitler expressed his frustration and anger at the mixed response from the German media and insisted that, instead of openly calling for violence against the Jews as Goebbels had in instigating the pogrom, Nazi propaganda should \"elucidate events of foreign policy\" in such a way that the German people themselves would call for violence against the Jews. In response to Hitler's harsh reprimand, Goebbels launched a campaign to promote the antisemitic views of the Nazis to the German populace. He ordered each film studio to make an antisemitic film. In the case of \"The Eternal Jew\", Goebbels conceived of a film that would communicate to the German people the same antisemitic message that had been the theme of the 1937 Munich exhibition. Hitler preferred films such as \"The Eternal Jew\" which presented the Nazi antisemitic agenda openly and directly; however Goebbels disliked the crudeness of such straightforward approaches, preferring the much more subtle approach of couching antisemitic messages in an engaging story with popular appeal. The film \"Jud Süß\" is an example of Goebbels' preferred approach.", "Although Goebbels did not generally take an active role in the production of particular films, he elected to do so in the case of major propaganda films such as \"The Eternal Jew\". The film was in production for over a year. Throughout the end of 1939 and the beginning of 1940, Goebbels devoted \"constant attention\" to the production of what he referred to as \"the Jew film\". As early as 1938, Goebbels had wanted to have a film crew travel to Poland to shoot the ghetto scenes; however, he was unable to gain permission from the Polish government. In October and November 1939, almost immediately after the German/Soviet invasion of Poland, he instructed Hippler to send camera crews to Łódź, Warsaw, Cracow and Lublin to shoot footage of Polish Jews. The footage that Hippler shot in the Jewish ghettos of those cities in German occupied Poland was the only footage shot specifically for the purpose of the film. At the beginning of the film, animated text informs the audience that this \"documentary footage\" shows Jews in their original state \"before they put on the mask of civilized Europeans.\" In the Nazi press, Hippler expanded on this claim, asserting that his filming techniques captured Jews \"in an unprejudiced manner, real to life as they live and as they react in their own surroundings.\" Although Hippler advertised the film as being a factual documentary consisting of pictures of real Jews with nothing faked or simulated, his claims were complete falsehoods. In reality, the film was an exercise in manipulation for the purposes of propaganda. In shooting his footage, Hippler did in fact simulate scenes and use actors who were performing under duress and without knowledge of how the footage would be employed. For example, in order to get shots of Jewish worship services, Hippler and Goebbels assembled the congregation of the Vilker synagogue, ordered them to wear the \"tallithim\" and \"tefillin\" and hold a full-scale service. When the Germans ordered the Torah reader to read from the Torah, he started by saying on camera \"Today is Tuesday\" signalling that his reading of the Torah was coerced since it was not customary to read the Torah on Tuesdays. Aside from the footage shot in Poland, the rest of the film consisted of stills and archival footage from feature films (often without permission) that the film presented as if they were documentary footage.", "The movie was produced in a documentary format and, like other Hippler films, relied heavily on narration. The film can be roughly divided into four thematic areas:", "Richard Barsam writes the film's \"essential contrast is between myths and stereotypes of Jews and the Nazi ideal of a'master race,' between the alleged inferiority of the Jews and the superiority of the Germans.\" According to Stephen Fritz, Goebbels' intent was to create a film that would serve as \"both a demonstration of the parasitical nature of the Jews and a justification for drastic measures against them.\" Maria Tatar writes that the Nazis were able to use Hippler's film to \"position the victims of their genocidal project as dangerous aggressors who had to be exterminated.\" Similarly, Barsam describes the film as arguing that \"Jews are criminals;... they have no soul;... they are different in every way;... killing them is not a crime, but a necessity—just as killing rats is a necessity to preserve health and cleanliness.\" \"Unser Wille und Weg\" (Our Will and Way), a Nazi Party monthly publication aimed at propagandists, provides a rationale for why \"The Eternal Jew\" was made. The author of the essay \"The Film of a 2000-Year Rat Migration,\" who remains anonymous, believes the film shows \"a full picture of Jewry\" and provides \"the best treatment of this parasitic race.\" The author connects the Jews' migration from the Middle East to Egypt and their following of German colonists to rats traveling as a group, who \"even then displayed the same criminal traits that they still displayed\". The film is complimented for \"its portrayal of the Jews' vulgar methods and the brutality and all-devouring hatred they exhibit when they reach their goal and control finance.\" The slaughtering method causes the author to question the \"so-called Jewish religion\", as butchers do their work with grins on their face. In closing, the author states the film will be a valuable tool in the struggle to break the Jews' \"power over us. We are the initiators of the fight against world Jewry, which now directs its hate, its brutal greed and destructive will toward us. We must win this battle for ourselves, for Europe, for the world.\"", "Richard Taylor describes the basic tenet of the film as arguing that \"the Jew is an oriental barbarian who has insinuated himself cleverly into European society, and now exploits it parasitically.\" This point is emphasized throughout the film, starting from the very opening lines of the film's commentary: The \"civilized\" Jews that we know in Germany give us only an incomplete picture of their racial character. This film shows genuine shots of the Polish ghettos. It shows the Jews as they really are, before they conceal themselves behind the mask of the civilized European. Following this commentary, the film provides a succession of scenes in which Jews are portrayed as an uncivilized, parasitic people with low social standing. The images were mostly shot on site in the Warsaw Ghetto and other Polish ghettos, showing subjects who were deliberately chosen to be poorly dressed, dirty and who had partially toothless grins. The locations shown are dirty and infested by vermin. Robert Reimer asserts that a central theme of the film is the assertion that \"Jews have always lived in the ghettos and in fact they \"choose\" to live this way.\" According to Reimer, the film asserts that ghettos are \"ordinary [and] normal\" aspects of Jewish life. Reimer charges that what the film is actually showing is not the normal life of Polish Jewry but rather the \"effect of the Nazi administration and the disruption of the lives of millions of Polish Jews.\" Erik Barnouw describes the Warsaw Ghetto after the Nazi conquest as a place where \"hundreds of thousands of Jews were herded by the Nazi conquerors into pockets of indescribable misery.\" He describes footage shot there as showing \"half-starved, unshaven creatures caught in pathetic acts of barter – a pair of socks for a scrap of food.\" It is scenes such as these that the film presents as showing Jews \"in their natural state.\" The film utilizes a montage that juxtaposes these images of ghetto Jews with images of rats to draw an analogy between the migration of Jews from Eastern Europe with the migration of rats. For example, one of the shots shows a pack of rats emerging from a sewer, followed by a shot of a crowd of Jews in a bustling street of the Łódź Ghetto. Close-ups of those in the crowd reveal sickly, malformed facial features. The narrator states that, as rats are the vermin of the animal kingdom, Jews are the vermin of the human race and similarly spread disease and corruption. Unlike rats, however, the narrator continues, Jews have the uncanny ability to change their appearance and blend into their \"human hosts.\" A scene depicts four bearded men in traditional religious Jewish clothing, then shows them shaved and in modern business suits, while the narrator explains that only a \"trained eye\" can distinguish their Jewish features. \"Where rats appear, they bring ruin by destroying mankind's goods and foodstuffs. In this way, they spread disease, plague, leprosy, typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and so on. They are cunning, cowardly and cruel and are found mostly in large packs. Among the animals, they represent the rudiment of an insidious, underground destruction – just like the Jews among human beings.\" The film also claims that: [Jewish people] need other people because they need the goods with which to carry on business. The things that are valued by the creative \"Aryan\" peoples have been reduced by the Jew to the level of a mere piece of merchandise, which he buys and sells but cannot produce himself. He leaves production to the labourers and peasants of the people upon whom he has imposed his presence. The Jews are a race without farmers and without manual labourers, a race of parasites. According to \"Film Propaganda: Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany\": By showing the way in which Jews allegedly insinuate themselves from small-scale to large-scale operations by preying on others, the film returns to its original image of the Jew concealing himself 'behind the mask of the civilised European'. [...] According to the film, the Jew presents an insidious, because concealed, threat, and one that is growing and must be brought under control. The message of this part of the commentary is that Jews will always be Jews, and that the 'civilised European' Jew is only a guise for a new and more dangerous forms of parasitic exploitation.", "", "The film also claims that the Jewish people......change their outward appearances when they leave their Polish nests and go out into the rich world. [...] When he appears without them, then it is only the keen-eyed amongst us who recognise his racial origins. [...] It is true that their fathers and grandfathers still lived in ghettoes, but there is no trace left now in their external appearance. Here in the second and third generation, the Aryanisation has reached its zenith. [...] And people lacking in intuition allow themselves to be deceived by this mimicry and regard them as being in truth their equals. Therein lies the dreadful danger, for even these 'civilised' Jews remain foreign bodies in the organism of their hosts, no matter how much their outward appearance may correspond to that of their hosts.", "The film claims: \"At the beginning of the twentieth century, Jews sit at the junction of the world financial markets. They are an international power. Only one percent of the world's population, with the help of their capital they terrorize the world stock exchanges, world opinion, and world politics.\" The movie blamed Jews for inflation and unemployment in Germany. It charged that they had crept into all professions through usury, racketeering and crimes against German assets. \"Out of a thousand workers in Berlin, only two were Jews. For the start of 1933, out of one hundred prosecutors in Berlin 15 were Jews. Out of a hundred judges were 23 Jews. Out of a hundred lawyers 49 Jews. 52 Jews out of a hundred doctors. And out of every hundred of businessmen 60 Jews. The average wealth of Germans was 810 marks each. The average wealth of each Jew amounted to 10,000 marks.\" The evidence for these assertions is unstated in the film. The occupational information is found in Germany's June 1933 census, which proves the claims made in the movie to be greatly exaggerated. In 1933, 5,600 Jewish doctors and 3,030 Jewish lawyers were practicing in Germany, corresponding to 11 percent of doctors and 16 percent of lawyers. Still, an exceptionally large number of successful lawsuits over equal citizenship and rights had been filed in the Weimar Republic, most of them by Jewish lawyers. The Nuremberg Laws specifically forbade German judges from citing any precedents by Jewish jurists and cut off Jewish doctors from reimbursement under public health care insurance. In contrast, during the economic crisis between the end of World War I and the implementation of the Nuremberg Laws, Jews were disproportionately likely to be laid off from the labor market, to the point that 1 out of every 4 Jews had been laid off by 1935. The original set of layoffs also had the effect of concentrating Jewish employment during this period into the professional and self-employed sectors, while post-1933 delicensing and other Nuremberg legislation gradually pushed Jews completely out of professional occupations and into positions such as street peddlers. The reference to average wealth probably used the wealth of the Jewish Rothschild family as the basis for its calculation. The Rothschild banking family is still believed to have had the largest private fortune in the world during the 19th century, as well as the largest fortune in modern world history. Although the Creditanstalt debts were assumed in part by the Austrian branch of the Rothschild family, its bankruptcy was later used by Hitler as an example of how the Jews were responsible for all the economic and social troubles of Germany and the world. The movie goes on to assert that: \"The most common expressions in the jargon of international gangsters and criminals stem from Hebrew and Yiddish words.\" According to the movie, Jews are likewise disproportionately plentiful in organized crime, where they represent 82% of international crime organizations, and 98% of international prostitution. This Jewish influence is seen as well in the international language used by criminals (see also \"Rotwelsch\"). The evidence for these blatant assertions is nowhere produced. Insofar as \"organized crime\" represents lawbreaking other than that forced by the Nuremberg Laws, it has not been corroborated by subsequent research. The film also claims that the Jewish people have some kind of \"genetic predisposition towards barter and haggling\", saying that \"[Jewish people] rush into trade\" because it is fitting \"with their character and inclination\", and that \"For the Jew, there is but one object of value – money. How he earns it is a matter of complete indifference to him.\" It also accuses Jews of passing corruption on to their children by religious means, saying that: These children see no ideals before them like our own. The egoism of the individual is not used in the service of higher common goals. On the contrary, Jewish racial morality claims, in contrast to \"Aryan\" morality, that the unrestrained egoism of each Jew is a divine law. His religion makes a duty out of treachery and usury.", "In a long sequence of images, the film provides examples to illustrate its claims that Aryan/European culture had been corrupted by Jews. This sequence includes footage of notable figures who had earned Adolf Hitler's wrath, such as physicist and Nobel laureate Albert Einstein and Spartacist uprising leader Rosa Luxemburg (erroneously named as one and the same person as anarchist Emma Goldman) as representatives of so-called \"international Jewry\". Einstein's image was juxtaposed with a series of images about the supposed Jewish control of the pornography industry. Einstein was characterized as \"the relativity Jew, who masks his hatred of Germany behind his obscure pseudo-sciences\". Other film clips presented Jewish (or supposedly Jewish) actors from the Weimar era such as Curt Bois, Fritz Kortner, Peter Lorre, and Ernst Lubitsch. Charlie Chaplin was also included in this sequence and inaccurately identified as Jewish, possibly as a consequence of his role as the Jewish barber in \"The Great Dictator\". The film includes two scenes from the Hollywood film \"The House of Rothschild\" (1934). The first clip shows Mayer Rothschild, a rich man, hiding money and putting on old, shabby clothes in order to fool a corrupt tax collector. And the second shows him speaking to his sons, encouraging them to start an international banking business to take advantage of nations' misfortunes in times of war. The clips were used without permission. The film's narrator asserts that: \"the Jew is instinctively interested in everything abnormal and depraved.\" To illustrate this point, Hippler included a scene from Fritz Lang's film \"M\" in which the child murderer Beckert (played by Peter Lorre) makes an impassioned plea to the \"jury\" of criminals, begging for his life and disclaiming responsibility for his crimes on account of insanity. Beckert shrieks, \"... it burns within me. I must go the way I am driven. Who knows what is going on inside me? How I must – not want, must!\" According to Sharon Packer, Hitler used this scene to assert that \"Jews transmit inheritable criminality and therefore deserve to die.\"", "The film proceeds to suggest that pictorial art and music have degenerated under Jewish influence, with many spurious examples given. Degenerate art included works of abstract art as well as those from specific individuals such as George Grosz and Emil Nolde, while degenerate music included jazz and so-called \"Negermusik\", although here the connection to Jewry is unknown.", "After showing how Jews have supposedly been responsible for the decline of Western music, science, art, and commerce, the film presents a scene of a cow being slaughtered for meat by a \"shochet\" (Jewish ritual slaughterer). The scene is prefaced by a warning similar to the one in \"Frankenstein\", warning the squeamish about what is coming next. This long sequence, lasting several minutes, shows cows and sheep in their death throes as they bleed to death. The producers apparently filmed this scene because of Hitler's opposition to cruelty to animals. He had banned kosher slaughter of animals in Germany and felt that such footage would shock the German public. This scene was cut from the version intended for young audiences.", "The film concludes with footage of Hitler's 30 January 1939 Reichstag speech in which he proclaims: \"If international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, the result will not be Bolshevization of the earth and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!\" The film ends with images of brownshirted SA troops on parade.", "In and of itself, the movie did not have much impact on the German public. The film suffered from being released after \"Jud Süß\", which had been wildly popular, perhaps because the antisemitic message was secondary to an engaging period drama. The actors in \"Jud Süß\" were leading German actors of the time. In contrast, \"Der ewige Jude\" only original footage was of Jews in the Polish ghetto and animated maps. All the other footage consisted of stills and archive film clips. Thus, unlike \"Jud Süß\", which was a box-office smash success, \"Der ewige Jude\" was a commercial flop. David Culbert asserts that it is unlikely that there were more than one million paid admissions compared to over 20 million paid admissions to \"Jud Süß\". The film was more known by word-of-mouth descriptions than from people actually viewing it. Some Germans were quoted as saying \"We've already seen enough Jewish filth. We don't need to see any more.\" The film was chiefly screened by party supporters and Nazi organizations like the Hitler Youth and the SS. Its themes and content made it a topic of discussion by a wider audience that never saw it. Himmler invited to screen it for SS troops headed for the Eastern Front to carry out the \"Final Solution\".", "In 1946, Fritz Hippler was tried for directing \"Der ewige Jude\" but was not found guilty. Hippler contended Joseph Goebbels was the true creator of \"The Eternal Jew\" with Hitler's close supervision. He claimed that Goebbels gave Hippler credit as a reward \"for his excellent work in the newsreel department\". Franz Hippler was interviewed in the Emmy Award-winning program \"The Propaganda Battle\" in the PBS series \"Walk Through the Twentieth Century\" (1983–1984). In this interview he stated that he regretted being listed as the director of \"The Eternal Jew\" because it resulted in being interrogated by the Allies after the war. He thought this was unfair because, in his opinion, he had nothing to do with the killing of Jews. In an interview shown in the German documentary series \"Holocaust\" (2000), the 90-year-old Hippler described the film as \"the most disgraceful example of antisemitism.\" The film's narrator, Harry Giese, went on to narrate other films, but he was associated with this film and other films by the Third Reich and he found less work in the Postwar German cinema of the 1950s and 60s.", "The public distribution and exhibition of the film is prohibited in Germany. The only exception is for use in college classrooms and other academic purposes; however, exhibitors must have formal education in \"media science and the history of the Holocaust\", and it can only be screened in a censored version with annotations.", "Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Processes.", "Nitrogen fixation.", "Assimilation.", "Ammonification.", "Nitrification.", "Denitrification.", "Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium.", "Anaerobic ammonia oxidation.", "Other processes.", "Marine nitrogen cycle.", "New vs. regenerated nitrogen.", "Human influences on the nitrogen cycle.", "Consequence of human modification of the nitrogen cycle.", "Impacts on natural systems.", "Impacts on human health: nitrate accumulation in drinking water.", "Impacts on human health: air quality." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Nitrogen is present in the environment in a wide variety of chemical forms including organic nitrogen, ammonium (NH), nitrite (NO), nitrate (NO), nitrous oxide (NO), nitric oxide (NO) or inorganic nitrogen gas (N). Organic nitrogen may be in the form of a living organism, humus or in the intermediate products of organic matter decomposition. The processes in the nitrogen cycle is to transform nitrogen from one form to another. Many of those processes are carried out by microbes, either in their effort to harvest energy or to accumulate nitrogen in a form needed for their growth. For example, the nitrogenous wastes in animal urine are broken down by nitrifying bacteria in the soil to be used by plants. The diagram alongside shows how these processes fit together to form the nitrogen cycle.", "The conversion of nitrogen gas (N) into nitrates and nitrites through atmospheric, industrial and biological processes is called nitrogen fixation. Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or \"fixed\", into a usable form to be taken up by plants. Between 5 and 10 billion kg per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which is converted by the bacteria into other organic compounds. Most biological nitrogen fixation occurs by the activity of Mo-nitrogenase, found in a wide variety of bacteria and some Archaea. Mo-nitrogenase is a complex two-component enzyme that has multiple metal-containing prosthetic groups. An example of free-living bacteria is \"Azotobacter\". Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as \"Rhizobium\" usually live in the root nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates. Because of this relationship, legumes will often increase the nitrogen content of nitrogen-poor soils. A few non-legumes can also form such symbioses. Today, about 30% of the total fixed nitrogen is produced industrially using the Haber-Bosch process, which uses high temperatures and pressures to convert nitrogen gas and a hydrogen source (natural gas or petroleum) into ammonia.", "Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between \"Rhizobia\" bacteroids and plants. The plant provides amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus forming an interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.", "When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste, the initial form of nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back into ammonium (NH), a process called ammonification or mineralization. Enzymes involved are:", "The conversion of ammonium to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH) is performed by bacteria such as the \"Nitrosomonas\" species, which converts ammonia to nitrites (). Other bacterial species such as \"Nitrobacter\", are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites () into nitrates (). It is important for the ammonia () to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because ammonia gas is toxic to plants. Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly unable to retain anions, nitrates can enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a concern for drinking water use because nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby syndrome. Where groundwater recharges stream flow, nitrate-enriched groundwater can contribute to eutrophication, a process that leads to high algal population and growth, especially blue-green algal populations. While not directly toxic to fish life, like ammonia, nitrate can have indirect effects on fish if it contributes to this eutrophication. Nitrogen has contributed to severe eutrophication problems in some water bodies. Since 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer has been increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States. This is occurring along the same lines as control of phosphorus fertilizer, restriction of which is normally considered essential to the recovery of eutrophied waterbodies.", "Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N), completing the nitrogen cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as \"Pseudomonas\" and \"Paracoccus\", under anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during respiration. These facultatively (meaning optionally) anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions. Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is inert and unavailable to plants.", "Dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), or nitrate/nitrite ammonification, is an anaerobic respiration process. Microbes which undertake DNRA oxidise organic matter and use nitrate as an electron acceptor, reducing it to nitrite, then ammonium (NO→NO→NH). Both denitrifying and nitrate ammonification bacteria will be competing for nitrate in the environment, although DNRA acts to conserve bioavailable nitrogen as soluble ammonium rather than producing dinitrogen gas.", "In this biological process, nitrite and ammonia are converted directly into molecular nitrogen (N) gas. This process makes up a major proportion of nitrogen conversion in the oceans. The balanced formula for this \"anammox\" chemical reaction is: NH + NO → N + 2HO (Δ\"G\"° = ).", "Though nitrogen fixation is the primary source of plant-available nitrogen in most ecosystems, in areas with nitrogen-rich bedrock, the breakdown of this rock also serves as a nitrogen source. Nitrate reduction is also part of the iron cycle, under anoxic conditions Fe(II) can donate an electron to NO and is oxidized to Fe(III) while NO is reduced to NO, NO, N, and NH depending on the conditions and microbial species involved.", "The nitrogen cycle is an important process in the ocean as well. While the overall cycle is similar, there are different players and modes of transfer for nitrogen in the ocean. Nitrogen enters the water through the precipitation, runoff, or as N from the atmosphere. Nitrogen cannot be utilized by phytoplankton as N so it must undergo nitrogen fixation which is performed predominately by cyanobacteria. Without supplies of fixed nitrogen entering the marine cycle, the fixed nitrogen would be used up in about 2000 years. Phytoplankton need nitrogen in biologically available forms for the initial synthesis of organic matter. Ammonia and urea are released into the water by excretion from plankton. Nitrogen sources are removed from the euphotic zone by the downward movement of the organic matter. This can occur from sinking of phytoplankton, vertical mixing, or sinking of waste of vertical migrators. The sinking results in ammonia being introduced at lower depths below the euphotic zone. Bacteria are able to convert ammonia to nitrite and nitrate but they are inhibited by light so this must occur below the euphotic zone. Ammonification or Mineralization is performed by bacteria to convert organic nitrogen to ammonia. Nitrification can then occur to convert the ammonium to nitrite and nitrate. Nitrate can be returned to the euphotic zone by vertical mixing and upwelling where it can be taken up by phytoplankton to continue the cycle. N can be returned to the atmosphere through denitrification. Ammonium is thought to be the preferred source of fixed nitrogen for phytoplankton because its assimilation does not involve a redox reaction and therefore requires little energy. Nitrate requires a redox reaction for assimilation but is more abundant so most phytoplankton have adapted to have the enzymes necessary to undertake this reduction (nitrate reductase). There are a few notable and well-known exceptions that include most \"Prochlorococcus\" and some \"Synechococcus\" that can only take up nitrogen as ammonium. The nutrients in the ocean are not uniformly distributed. Areas of upwelling provide supplies of nitrogen from below the euphotic zone. Coastal zones provide nitrogen from runoff and upwelling occurs readily along the coast. However, the rate at which nitrogen can be taken up by phytoplankton is decreased in oligotrophic waters year-round and temperate water in the summer resulting in lower primary production. The distribution of the different forms of nitrogen varies throughout the oceans as well. Nitrate is depleted in near-surface water except in upwelling regions. Coastal upwelling regions usually have high nitrate and chlorophyll levels as a result of the increased production. However, there are regions of high surface nitrate but low chlorophyll that are referred to as HNLC (high nitrogen, low chlorophyll) regions. The best explanation for HNLC regions relates to iron scarcity in the ocean, which may play an important part in ocean dynamics and nutrient cycles. The input of iron varies by region and is delivered to the ocean by dust (from dust storms) and leached out of rocks. Iron is under consideration as the true limiting element to ecosystem productivity in the ocean. Ammonium and nitrite show a maximum concentration at 50–80 m (lower end of the euphotic zone) with decreasing concentration below that depth. This distribution can be accounted for by the fact that nitrite and ammonium are intermediate species. They are both rapidly produced and consumed through the water column. The amount of ammonium in the ocean is about 3 orders of magnitude less than nitrate. Between ammonium, nitrite, and nitrate, nitrite has the fastest turnover rate. It can be produced during nitrate assimilation, nitrification, and denitrification; however, it is immediately consumed again.", "Nitrogen entering the euphotic zone is referred to as new nitrogen because it is newly arrived from outside the productive layer. The new nitrogen can come from below the euphotic zone or from outside sources. Outside sources are upwelling from deep water and nitrogen fixation. If the organic matter is eaten, respired, delivered to the water as ammonia, and re-incorporated into organic matter by phytoplankton it is considered recycled/regenerated production. New production is an important component of the marine environment. One reason is that only continual input of new nitrogen can determine the total capacity of the ocean to produce a sustainable fish harvest. Harvesting fish from regenerated nitrogen areas will lead to a decrease in nitrogen and therefore a decrease in primary production. This will have a negative effect on the system. However, if fish are harvested from areas of new nitrogen the nitrogen will be replenished.", "As a result of extensive cultivation of legumes (particularly soy, alfalfa, and clover), growing use of the Haber–Bosch process in the creation of chemical fertilizers, and pollution emitted by vehicles and industrial plants, human beings have more than doubled the annual transfer of nitrogen into biologically available forms. In addition, humans have significantly contributed to the transfer of nitrogen trace gases from Earth to the atmosphere and from the land to aquatic systems. Human alterations to the global nitrogen cycle are most intense in developed countries and in Asia, where vehicle emissions and industrial agriculture are highest. Generation of Nr, reactive nitrogen, has increased over 10 fold in the past century due to global industrialisation. This form of nitrogen follows a cascade through the biosphere via a variety of mechanisms, and is accumulating as the rate of its generation is greater than the rate of denitrification. Nitrous oxide (NO) has risen in the atmosphere as a result of agricultural fertilization, biomass burning, cattle and feedlots, and industrial sources. NO has deleterious effects in the stratosphere, where it breaks down and acts as a catalyst in the destruction of atmospheric ozone. Nitrous oxide is also a greenhouse gas and is currently the third largest contributor to global warming, after carbon dioxide and methane. While not as abundant in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, it is, for an equivalent mass, nearly 300 times more potent in its ability to warm the planet. Ammonia (NH) in the atmosphere has tripled as the result of human activities. It is a reactant in the atmosphere, where it acts as an aerosol, decreasing air quality and clinging to water droplets, eventually resulting in nitric acid (HNO) that produces acid rain. Atmospheric ammonia and nitric acid also damage respiratory systems. The very high temperature of lightning naturally produces small amounts of NO, NH, and HNO, but high-temperature combustion has contributed to a 6- or 7-fold increase in the flux of NO to the atmosphere. Its production is a function of combustion temperature - the higher the temperature, the more NO is produced. Fossil fuel combustion is a primary contributor, but so are biofuels and even the burning of hydrogen. However, the rate that hydrogen is directly injected into the combustion chambers of internal combustion engines can be controlled to prevent the higher combustion temperatures that produce NO. Ammonia and nitrous oxides actively alter atmospheric chemistry. They are precursors of tropospheric (lower atmosphere) ozone production, which contributes to smog and acid rain, damages plants and increases nitrogen inputs to ecosystems. Ecosystem processes can increase with nitrogen fertilization, but anthropogenic input can also result in nitrogen saturation, which weakens productivity and can damage the health of plants, animals, fish, and humans. Decreases in biodiversity can also result if higher nitrogen availability increases nitrogen-demanding grasses, causing a degradation of nitrogen-poor, species-diverse heathlands.", "", "Increasing levels of nitrogen deposition are shown to have a number of negative effects on both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Nitrogen gases and aerosols can be directly toxic to certain plant species, affecting the aboveground physiology and growth of plants near large point sources of nitrogen pollution. Changes to plant species may also occur, as accumulation of nitrogen compounds increase its availability in a given ecosystem, eventually changing the species composition, plant diversity, and nitrogen cycling. Ammonia and ammonium - two reduced forms of nitrogen - can be detrimental over time due to an increased toxicity toward sensitive species of plants, particularly those that are accustomed to using nitrate as their source of nitrogen, causing poor development of their roots and shoots. Increased nitrogen deposition also leads to soil acidification, which increases base cation leaching in the soil and amounts of aluminum and other potentially toxic metals, along with decreasing the amount of nitrification occurring and increasing plant-derived litter. Due to the ongoing changes caused by high nitrogen deposition, an environment's susceptibility to ecological stress and disturbance - such as pests and pathogens - may increase, thus making it less resilient to situations that otherwise would have little impact to its long-term vitality. Additional risks posed by increased availability of inorganic nitrogen in aquatic ecosystems include water acidification; eutrophication of fresh and saltwater systems; and toxicity issues for animals, including humans. Eutrophication often leads to lower dissolved oxygen levels in the water column, including hypoxic and anoxic conditions, which can cause death of aquatic fauna. Relatively sessile benthos, or bottom-dwelling creatures, are particularly vulnerable because of their lack of mobility, though large fish kills are not uncommon. Oceanic dead zones near the mouth of the Mississippi in the Gulf of Mexico are a well-known example of algal bloom-induced hypoxia. The New York Adirondack Lakes, Catskills, Hudson Highlands, Rensselaer Plateau and parts of Long Island display the impact of nitric acid rain deposition, resulting in the killing of fish and many other aquatic species. Ammonia (NH) is highly toxic to fish and the level of ammonia discharged from wastewater treatment facilities must be closely monitored. To prevent fish deaths, nitrification via aeration prior to discharge is often desirable. Land application can be an attractive alternative to the aeration.", "Leakage of Nr (reactive nitrogen) from human activities can cause nitrate accumulation in the natural water environment, which can create harmful impacts on human health. Excessive use of N-fertilizer in agriculture has been one of the major sources of nitrate pollution in groundwater and surface water. Due to its high solubility and low retention by soil, nitrate can easily escape from the subsoil layer to the groundwater, causing nitrate pollution. Some other non-point sources for nitrate pollution in groundwater are originated from livestock feeding, animal and human contamination and municipal and industrial waste. Since groundwater often serves as the primary domestic water supply, nitrate pollution can be extended from groundwater to surface and drinking water in the process of potable water production, especially for small community water supplies, where poorly regulated and unsanitary waters are used. The WHO standard for drinking water is 50 mg NO L for short-term exposure, and for 3 mg NO Lchronic effects. Once it enters human body, nitrate can react with organic compounds through nitrosation reactions in the stomach to form nitrosamines and nitrosamides, which are involved in some types of cancers (e.g., oral cancer and gastric cancer).", "Human activities have also dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle via production of nitrogenous gases, associated with the global atmospheric nitrogen pollution. There are multiple sources of atmospheric reactive nitrogen (Nr) fluxes. Agricultural sources of reactive nitrogen can produce atmospheric emission of ammonia (NH, nitrogen oxides (NO) and nitrous oxide (NO). Combustion processes in energy production, transportation and industry can also result in the formation of new reactive nitrogen via the emission of NO, an unintentional waste product. When those reactive nitrogens are released to the lower atmosphere, they can induce the formation of smog, particulate matter and aerosols, all of which are major contributors to adverse health effects on human health from air pollution. In the atmosphere, NO can be oxidized to nitric acid (HNO), and it can further react with NH to form ammonium nitrate, which facilitates the formation of particular nitrate. Moreover, NH can react with other acid gases (sulfuric and hydrochloric acids) to form ammonium-containing particles, which are the precursors for the secondary organic aerosol particles in photochemical smog." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technology.", "Image sensor.", "Optics.", "Compression.", "Interface.", "Software.", "Characteristics.", "Uses.", "Health care.", "Video monitoring.", "Commerce.", "Videocalling and videoconferencing.", "Video security.", "Video clips and stills.", "Input control devices.", "Astro photography.", "Laser beam profiling.", "History.", "Early development.", "Connectix QuickCam.", "Later developments.", "Privacy.", "Effects on modern society.", "Descriptive names and terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Webcams typically include a lens, an image sensor, support electronics, and may also include one or even two microphones for sound.", "Image sensors can be CMOS or CCD, the former being dominant for low-cost cameras, but CCD cameras do not necessarily outperform CMOS-based cameras in the low-price range. Most consumer webcams are capable of providing VGA-resolution video at a frame rate of 30 frames per second. Many newer devices can produce video in multi-megapixel resolutions, and a few can run at high frame rates such as the PlayStation Eye, which can produce 320×240 video at 120 frames per second. The Wii Remote contains an image sensor with a resolution of 1024×768 pixels. As the bayer filter is proprietary, any webcam contains some built-in image processing, separate from compression.", "Various lenses are available, the most common in consumer-grade webcams being a plastic lens that can be manually moved in and out to focus the camera. Fixed-focus lenses, which have no provision for adjustment, are also available. As a camera system's depth of field is greater for small image formats and is greater for lenses with a large f-number (small aperture), the systems used in webcams have a sufficiently large depth of field that the use of a fixed-focus lens does not impact image sharpness to a great extent. Most models use simple, focal-free optics (fixed focus, factory-set for the usual distance from the monitor to which it is fastened to the user) or manual focus.", "Digital video streams are represented by huge amounts of data, burdening its transmission (from the image sensor, where the data is continuously created) and storage alike. Most if not all cheap webcams come with built-it ASIC to do video compression in real-time. Support electronics read the image from the sensor and transmit it to the host computer. The camera pictured to the right, for example, uses a Sonix SN9C101 to transmit its image over USB. Typically, each frame is transmitted uncompressed in RGB or YUV or compressed as JPEG. Some cameras, such as mobile-phone cameras, use a CMOS sensor with supporting electronics \"on die\", i.e. the sensor and the support electronics are built on a single silicon chip to save space and manufacturing costs. Most webcams feature built-in microphones to make video calling and videoconferencing more convenient.", "Typical interfaces used by articles marketed as a \"webcam\" are USB, Ethernet and IEEE 802.11 (denominated as IP camera). Further interfaces such as e.g. Composite video or S-Video are also available. The USB video device class (UVC) specification allows inter-connectivity of webcams to computers without the need for proprietary device drivers.", "Various proprietary as well as free and open-source software is available to handle the UVC stream. One could use Guvcview or GStreamer and GStreamer-based software to handle the UVC stream. Another could use multiple USB cameras attached to the host computer the software resides on, and broadcast multiple streams at once over ( Wireless ) Ethernet, such as MotionEye. MotionEye can either be installed onto a Raspberry Pi as MotionEyeOs, or afterwards on Raspbian as well. MotionEye can also be setup on Debian, Raspbian is a variant of Debian.", "Webcams are known for their low manufacturing cost and their high flexibility, making them the lowest-cost form of videotelephony. As webcams evolved simultaneously with display technologies, USB interface speeds and broadband internet speeds, the resolution went up from gradually from 320×240, to 640×480, and some now even offer 1280×720 (aka 720p) or 1920×1080 (aka 1080p) resolution. Despite the low cost, the resolution offered as of 2019 is impressive, with now the low-end webcams offering resolutions of 720p, mid-range webcams offering 1080p resolution, and high-end webcams offering 4K resolution at 60 fps. Webcams have become a source of security and privacy issues, as some built-in webcams can be remotely activated by spyware. To address this concern, many webcams come with a physical lens cover.", "The most popular use of webcams is the establishment of video links, permitting computers to act as videophones or videoconference stations. Other popular uses include security surveillance, computer vision, video broadcasting, and for recording social videos. The video streams provided by webcams can be used for a number of purposes, each using appropriate software:", "Most modern webcams are capable of capturing arterial pulse rate by the use of a simple algorithmic trick. Researchers claim that this method is accurate to ±5 bpm.", "Webcams may be installed at places such as childcare centres, offices, shops and private areas to monitor security and general activity.", "Webcams have been used for augmented reality experiences online. One such function has the webcam act as a \"magic mirror\" to allow an online shopper to view a virtual item on themselves. The Webcam Social Shopper is one example of software that utilizes the webcam in this manner.", "Webcams can be added to instant messaging, text chat services such as AOL Instant Messenger, and VoIP services such as Skype, one-to-one live video communication over the Internet has now reached millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Improved video quality has helped webcams encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as automatic lighting controls, real-time enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch), automatic face tracking and autofocus, assist users by providing substantial ease-of-use, further increasing the popularity of webcams. Webcam features and performance can vary by program, computer operating system, and also by the computer's processor capabilities. Video calling support has also been added to several popular instant messaging programs.", "Webcams can be used as security cameras. Software is available to allow PC-connected cameras to watch for movement and sound, recording both when they are detected. These recordings can then be saved to the computer, e-mailed, or uploaded to the Internet. In one well-publicised case, a computer e-mailed images of the burglar during the theft of the computer, enabling the owner to give police a clear picture of the burglar's face even after the computer had been stolen. Unauthorized access of webcams can present significant privacy issues (see \"Privacy\" section below). In December 2011, Russia announced that 290,000 Webcams would be installed in 90,000 polling stations to monitor the 2012 Russian presidential election.", "Webcams can be used to take video clips and still pictures. Various software tools in wide use can be employed for this, such as PicMaster (for use with Windows operating systems), Photo Booth (Mac), or Cheese (with Unix systems). For a more complete list see Comparison of webcam software.", "Special software can use the video stream from a webcam to assist or enhance a user's control of applications and games. Video features, including faces, shapes, models and colors can be observed and tracked to produce a corresponding form of control. For example, the position of a single light source can be tracked and used to emulate a mouse pointer, a head-mounted light would enable hands-free computing and would greatly improve computer accessibility. This can be applied to games, providing additional control, improved interactivity and immersiveness. FreeTrack is a free webcam motion-tracking application for Microsoft Windows that can track a special head-mounted model in up to six degrees of freedom and output data to mouse, keyboard, joystick and FreeTrack-supported games. By removing the IR filter of the webcam, IR LEDs can be used, which has the advantage of being invisible to the naked eye, removing a distraction from the user. TrackIR is a commercial version of this technology. The EyeToy for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Eye for the PlayStation 3, and the Xbox Live Vision camera and Kinect motion sensor for the Xbox 360 and are color digital cameras that have been used as control input devices by some games. Small webcam-based PC games are available as either standalone executables or inside web browser windows using Adobe Flash.", "With very-low-light capability, a few specific models of webcams are very popular to photograph the night sky by astronomers and astro photographers. Mostly, these are manual-focus cameras and contain an old CCD array instead of comparatively newer CMOS array. The lenses of the cameras are removed and then these are attached to telescopes to record images, video, still, or both. In newer techniques, videos of very faint objects are taken for a couple of seconds and then all the frames of the video are \"stacked\" together to obtain a still image of respectable contrast.", "A webcam's CCD response is linear proportional to the incoming light. Therefore, webcams are suitable to record laser beam profiles, after the lens is removed. The resolution of a laser beam profiler depends on the pixel size. Commercial webcams are usually designed to record color images. The size of a webcam's color pixel depends on the model and may lie in the range of 5 to 10 μm. However, a color pixel consists of four black and white pixels each equipped with a color filter (for details see Bayer filter). Although these color filters work well in the visible, they may be rather transparent in the near infra-red. By switching a webcam into the Bayer-mode it is possible to access the information of the single pixels and a resolution below 3 μm was possible.", "", "First developed in 1991, a webcam was pointed at the Trojan Room coffee pot in the Cambridge University Computer Science Department (initially operating over a local network instead of the web). The camera was finally switched off on August 22, 2001. The final image captured by the camera can still be viewed at its homepage. The oldest continuously operating webcam, San Francisco State University's FogCam, has run since 1994 and was slated to turn off August 2019. After the publicity following extensive news coverage about the planned ending of FogCam, SFSU agreed to continue maintaining the FogCam and keep it running.", "The first commercial webcam, the black-and-white QuickCam, entered the marketplace in 1994, created by the U.S. computer company Connectix. QuickCam was available in August 1994 for the Apple Macintosh, connecting via a serial port, at a cost of $100. Jon Garber, the designer of the device, had wanted to call it the \"Mac-camera\", but was overruled by Connectix's marketing department; a version with a PC-compatible parallel port and software for Microsoft Windows was launched in October 1995. The original QuickCam provided 320x240-pixel resolution with a grayscale depth of 16 shades at 60 frames per second, or 256 shades at 15 frames per second. These cam were tested on several Delta II launch using a variety of communication protocols including CDMA, TDMA, GSM and HF. In 2010, Time Magazine named the QuickCam as one of the top computer devices of all time. Videoconferencing via computers already existed, and at the time client-server based videoconferencing software such as CU-SeeMe had started to become popular.", "One of the most widely reported-on webcam sites was JenniCam, created in 1996, which allowed Internet users to observe the life of its namesake constantly, in the same vein as the reality TV series \"Big Brother\", launched four years later. Other cameras are mounted overlooking bridges, public squares, and other public places, their output made available on a public web page in accordance with the original concept of a \"webcam\". Aggregator websites have also been created, providing thousands of live video streams or up-to-date still pictures, allowing users to find live video streams based on location or other criteria. Around the turn of the 21st century, computer hardware manufacturers began building webcams directly into laptop and desktop screens, thus eliminating the need to use an external USB or FireWire camera. Gradually webcams came to be used more for telecommunications, or videotelephony, between two people, or among several people, than for offering a view on a Web page to an unknown public. For less than US$100 in 2012, a three-dimensional space webcam became available, producing videos and photos in 3D anaglyph image with a resolution up to 1280 × 480 pixels. Both sender and receiver of the images must use 3D glasses to see the effect of three dimensional image.", "Many users do not wish the continuous exposure for which webcams were originally intended, but rather prefer privacy. Such privacy is lost when malware allow malicious hackers to activate the webcam without the user's knowledge, providing the hackers with a live video and audio feed. This is a particular concern on many laptop computers, as such cameras normally cannot be physically disabled if hijacked by such a Trojan Horse program or other similar spyware programs. Cameras such as Apple's older external iSight cameras include lens covers to thwart this. Some webcams have built-in hardwired LED indicators that light up whenever the camera is active, sometimes only in video mode. However, it is possible for malware to circumvent the indicator and activate the camera surrepticiously, as researchers demonstrated in the case of a MacBook's built-in camera in 2013. Various companies sell sliding lens covers and stickers that allow users to retrofit a computer or smartphone to close access to the camera lens as needed. One such company reported having sold more than 250,000 such items from 2013 to 2016. However, any opaque material will work. Prominent users include former FBI director James Comey. The fraudulent process of attempting to hack into a person's webcam and activate it without the webcam owner's permission has been called camfecting. The remotely activated webcam can be used to watch anything within the webcam's field of vision, sometimes the webcam owner itself. Camfecting is most often carried out by infecting the victim's computer with a virus that can provide the hacker access to the victim's webcam. This attack is specifically targeted at the victim's webcam, and hence the name \"camfecting\", a portmanteau of the words \"cam\" and \"infecting\". In January 2005, some search engine queries were published in an online forum which allow anyone to find thousands of Panasonic- and Axis high-end web cameras, provided that they have a web-based interface for remote viewing. Many such cameras are running on default configuration, which does not require any password login or IP address verification, making them viewable by anyone. In the 2010 \"Robbins v. Lower Merion School District\" \"WebcamGate\" case, plaintiffs charged that two suburban Philadelphia high schools secretly spied on students - by surreptitiously remotely activating iSight webcams embedded in school-issued MacBook laptops the students were using at home — and thereby infringed on their privacy rights. School authorities admitted to secretly snapping over 66,000 photographs, including shots of students in the privacy of their bedrooms, including some with teenagers in various state of undress. The school board involved quickly disabled their laptop spyware program after parents filed lawsuits against the board and various individuals.", "Webcams allow for inexpensive, real-time video chat and webcasting, in both amateur and professional pursuits. They are frequently used in online dating and for online personal services offered mainly by women when camgirling. However, the ease of webcam use through the Internet for video chat has also caused issues. For example, moderation system of various video chat websites such as Omegle has been criticized as being ineffective, with sexual content still rampant. In a 2013 case, the transmission of nude photos and videos via Omegle from a teenage girl to a schoolteacher resulted in a child pornography charge. YouTube is a popular website hosting many videos made using webcams. News websites such as the BBC also produce professional live news videos using webcams rather than traditional cameras. Webcams can also encourage telecommuting, enabling people to work from home via the Internet, rather than traveling to their office. The popularity of webcams among teenagers with Internet access has raised concern about the use of webcams for cyber-bullying. Webcam recordings of teenagers, including underage teenagers, are frequently posted on popular Web forums and imageboards such as 4chan.", "\"Videophone calls\" (also: \"videocalls\" and \"video chat\"), differ from videoconferencing in that they expect to serve individuals, not groups. However that distinction has become increasingly blurred with technology improvements such as increased bandwidth and sophisticated software clients that can allow for multiple parties on a call. In general everyday usage the term \"videoconferencing\" is now frequently used instead of \"videocall\" for point-to-point calls between two units. Both videophone calls and videoconferencing are also now commonly referred to as a \"video link\". Webcams are popular, relatively low cost devices which can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers, and can be used with many software clients for both video calls and videoconferencing. A videoconference system is generally higher cost than a videophone and deploys greater capabilities. A \"videoconference\" (also known as a \"videoteleconference\") allows two or more locations to communicate via live, simultaneous two-way video and audio transmissions. This is often accomplished by the use of a multipoint control unit (a centralized distribution and call management system) or by a similar non-centralized multipoint capability embedded in each videoconferencing unit. Again, technology improvements have circumvented traditional definitions by allowing multiple party videoconferencing via web-based applications. A separate webpage article is devoted to videoconferencing. A telepresence system is a high-end videoconferencing system and service usually employed by enterprise-level corporate offices. Telepresence conference rooms use state-of-the art room designs, video cameras, displays, sound-systems and processors, coupled with high-to-very-high capacity bandwidth transmissions. Typical use of the various technologies described above include calling or conferencing on a one-on-one, one-to-many or many-to-many basis for personal, business, educational, deaf Video Relay Service and tele-medical, diagnostic and rehabilitative use or services. New services utilizing videocalling and videoconferencing, such as teachers and psychologists conducting online sessions, personal videocalls to inmates incarcerated in penitentiaries, and videoconferencing to resolve airline engineering issues at maintenance facilities, are being created or evolving on an ongoing basis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Disk partitioning.", "Sector layout.", "Partition table entries.", "System bootstrapping.", "Disk identity.", "Programming considerations.", "BIOS to MBR interface.", "MBR to VBR interface.", "Editing and replacing contents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Support for partitioned media, and thereby the master boot record (MBR), was introduced with IBM PC DOS 2.0 in March 1983 in order to support the 10 MB hard disk of the then-new IBM Personal Computer XT, still using the FAT12 file system. The original version of the MBR was written by David Litton of IBM in June 1982. The partition table supported up to four \"primary partitions\", of which DOS could only use one. This did not change when FAT16 was introduced as a new file system with DOS 3.0. Support for an \"extended partition\", a special primary partition type used as a container to hold other partitions, was added with DOS 3.2, and nested \"logical drives\" inside an extended partition came with DOS 3.30. Since MS-DOS, PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows were never enabled to boot off them, the MBR format and boot code remained almost unchanged in functionality, except for in some third-party implementations, throughout the eras of DOS and OS/2 up to 1996. In 1996, support for logical block addressing (LBA) was introduced in Windows 95B and DOS 7.10 in order to support disks larger than 8 GB. \"Disk timestamps\" were also introduced. This also reflected the idea that the MBR is meant to be operating system and file system independent. However, this design rule was partially compromised in more recent Microsoft implementations of the MBR, which enforce CHS access for FAT16B and FAT32 partition types 06/0B, whereas LBA is used for 0E/0C. Despite sometimes poor documentation of certain intrinsic details of the MBR format (which occasionally caused compatibility problems), it has been widely adopted as a de facto industry standard, due to the broad popularity of PC-compatible computers and its semi-static nature over decades. This was even to the extent of being supported by computer operating systems for other platforms. Sometimes this was in addition to other pre-existing or cross-platform standards for bootstrapping and partitioning. MBR partition entries and the MBR boot code used in commercial operating systems, however, are limited to 32 bits. Therefore, the maximum disk size supported on disks using 512-byte sectors (whether real or emulated) by the MBR partitioning scheme (without using non-standard methods) is limited to 2 TiB. Consequently, a different partitioning scheme must be used for larger disks, as they have become widely available since 2010. The MBR partitioning scheme is therefore in the process of being superseded by the GUID Partition Table (GPT). The official approach does little more than ensuring data integrity by employing a \"protective MBR\". Specifically, it does not provide backward compatibility with operating systems that do not support the GPT scheme as well. Meanwhile, multiple forms of \"hybrid MBRs\" have been designed and implemented by third parties in order to maintain partitions located in the first physical 2 TiB of a disk in both partitioning schemes \"in parallel\" and/or to allow older operating systems to boot off GPT partitions as well. The present non-standard nature of these solutions causes various compatibility problems in certain scenarios. The MBR consists of 512 or more bytes located in the first sector of the drive. It may contain one or more of:", "IBM PC DOS 2.0 introduced the codice_1 utility to set up and maintain MBR partitions. When a storage device has been partitioned according to this scheme, its MBR contains a partition table describing the locations, sizes, and other attributes of linear regions referred to as partitions. The partitions themselves may also contain data to describe more complex partitioning schemes, such as extended boot records (EBRs), BSD disklabels, or Logical Disk Manager metadata partitions. The MBR is not located in a partition; it is located at a first sector of the device (physical offset 0), preceding the first partition. (The boot sector present on a non-partitioned device or within an individual partition is called a volume boot record instead.) In cases where the computer is running a DDO BIOS overlay or boot manager, the partition table may be moved to some other physical location on the device; e.g., Ontrack Disk Manager often placed a copy of the original MBR contents in the second sector, then hid itself from any subsequently booted OS or application, so the MBR copy was treated as if it were still residing in the first sector.", "By convention, there are exactly four primary partition table entries in the MBR partition table scheme, although some operating systems and system tools extended this to five (Advanced Active Partitions (AAP) with PTS-DOS 6.60 and DR-DOS 7.07), eight (AST and NEC MS-DOS 3.x as well as Storage Dimensions SpeedStor), or even sixteen entries (with Ontrack Disk Manager).", "An artifact of hard disk technology from the era of the PC XT, the partition table subdivides a storage medium using units of cylinders, heads, and sectors (CHS addressing). These values no longer correspond to their namesakes in modern disk drives, as well as being irrelevant in other devices such as solid-state drives, which do not physically have cylinders or heads. In the CHS scheme, sector indices have (almost) always begun with sector 1 rather than sector 0 by convention, and due to an error in all versions of MS-DOS/PC DOS up to including 7.10, the number of heads is generally limited to 255 instead of 256. When a CHS address is too large to fit into these fields, the tuple (1023, 254, 63) is typically used today, although on older systems, and with older disk tools, the cylinder value often wrapped around modulo the CHS barrier near 8 GB, causing ambiguity and risks of data corruption. (If the situation involves a \"protective\" MBR on a disk with a GPT, Intel's Extensible Firmware Interface specification requires that the tuple (1023, 255, 63) be used.) The 10-bit cylinder value is recorded within two bytes in order to facilitate making calls to the original/legacy INT 13h BIOS disk access routines, where 16 bits were divided into sector and cylinder parts, and not on byte boundaries. Due to the limits of CHS addressing, a transition was made to using LBA, or logical block addressing. Both the partition length and partition start address are sector values stored in the partition table entries as 32-bit quantities. The sector size used to be considered fixed at 512 (2) bytes, and a broad range of important components including chipsets, boot sectors, operating systems, database engines, partitioning tools, backup and file system utilities and other software had this value hard-coded. Since the end of 2009, disk drives employing 4096-byte sectors (4Kn or Advanced Format) have been available, although the size of the sector for some of these drives was still reported as 512 bytes to the host system through conversion in the hard-drive firmware and referred to as 512 emulation drives (512e). Since block addresses and sizes are stored in the partition table of an MBR using 32 bits, the maximal size, as well as the highest start address, of a partition using drives that have 512-byte sectors (actual or emulated) cannot exceed 2 TiB−512 bytes ( bytes or (2−1) sectors × 512 (2) bytes per sector). Alleviating this capacity limitation was one of the prime motivations for the development of the GPT. Since partitioning information is stored in the MBR partition table using a beginning block address and a length, it may in theory be possible to define partitions in such a way that the allocated space for a disk with 512-byte sectors gives a total size approaching 4 TiB, if all but one partition are located below the 2 TiB limit and the last one is assigned as starting at or close to block 2−1 and specify the size as up to 2−1, thereby defining a partition that requires 33 rather than 32 bits for the sector address to be accessed. However, in practice, only certain LBA-48-enabled operating systems, including GNU/Linux, FreeBSD and Windows 7 that use 64-bit sector addresses internally actually support this. Due to code space constraints and the nature of the MBR partition table to only support 32 bits, boot sectors, even if enabled to support LBA-48 rather than LBA-28, often use 32-bit calculations, unless they are specifically designed to support the full address range of LBA-48 or are intended to run on 64-bit platforms only. Any boot code or operating system using 32-bit sector addresses internally would cause addresses to wrap around accessing this partition and thereby result in serious data corruption over all partitions. For disks that present a sector size other than 512 bytes, such as USB external drives, there are limitations as well. A sector size of 4096 results in an eight-fold increase in the size of a partition that can be defined using MBR, allowing partitions up to 16 TiB (2 × 4096 bytes) in size. Versions of Windows more recent than Windows XP support the larger sector sizes, as well as Mac OS X, and Linux has supported larger sector sizes since 2.6.31 or 2.6.32, but issues with boot loaders, partitioning tools and computer BIOS implementations present certain limitations, since they are often hard-wired to reserve only 512 bytes for sector buffers, causing memory to become overwritten for larger sector sizes. This may cause unpredictable behaviour as well, and therefore should be avoided when compatibility and standard conformity is an issue. Where a data storage device has been partitioned with the GPT scheme, the master boot record will still contain a partition table, but its only purpose is to indicate the existence of the GPT and to prevent utility programs that understand only the MBR partition table scheme from creating any partitions in what they would otherwise see as free space on the disk, thereby accidentally erasing the GPT.", "On IBM PC-compatible computers, the bootstrapping firmware (contained within the ROM BIOS) loads and executes the master boot record. The PC/XT (type 5160) used an Intel 8088 microprocessor. In order to remain compatible, all x86 architecture systems start with the microprocessor in an operating mode referred to as real mode. The BIOS reads the MBR from the storage device into physical memory, and then it directs the microprocessor to the start of the boot code. Since the BIOS runs in real mode, the processor is in real mode when the MBR program begins to execute, and so the beginning of the MBR is expected to contain real-mode machine code. Since the BIOS bootstrap routine loads and runs exactly one sector from the physical disk, having the partition table in the MBR with the boot code simplifies the design of the MBR program. It contains a small program that loads the Volume Boot Record (VBR) of the targeted partition. Control is then passed to this code, which is responsible for loading the actual operating system. This process is known as chain loading. Popular MBR code programs were created for booting PC DOS and MS-DOS, and similar boot code remains in wide use. These boot sectors expect the codice_1 partition table scheme to be in use and scans the list of partitions in the MBR's embedded partition table to find the only one that is marked with the \"active flag\". It then loads and runs the volume boot record (VBR) of the active partition. There are alternative boot code implementations, some of which are installed by boot managers, which operate in a variety of ways. Some MBR code loads additional code for a boot manager from the first track of the disk, which it assumes to be \"free\" space that is not allocated to any disk partition, and executes it. A MBR program may interact with the user to determine which partition on which drive should boot, and may transfer control to the MBR of a different drive. Other MBR code contains a list of disk locations (often corresponding to the contents of files in a filesystem) of the remainder of the boot manager code to load and to execute. (The first relies on behavior that is not universal across all disk partitioning utilities, most notably those that read and write GPTs. The last requires that the embedded list of disk locations be updated when changes are made that would relocate the remainder of the code.) On machines that do not use x86 processors, or on x86 machines with non-BIOS firmware such as Open Firmware or Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI) firmware, this design is unsuitable, and the MBR is not used as part of the system bootstrap. EFI firmware is instead capable of directly understanding the GPT partitioning scheme and the FAT filesystem format, and loads and runs programs held as files in the EFI System partition. The MBR will be involved only insofar as it might contain a partition table for compatibility purposes if the GPT partition table scheme has been used. There is some MBR replacement code that emulates EFI firmware's bootstrap, which makes non-EFI machines capable of booting from disks using the GPT partitioning scheme. It detects a GPT, places the processor in the correct operating mode, and loads the EFI compatible code from disk to complete this task.", "In addition to the bootstrap code and a partition table, master boot records may contain a disk signature. This is a 32-bit value that is intended to identify uniquely the disk medium (as opposed to the disk unit—the two not necessarily being the same for removable hard disks). The disk signature was introduced by Windows NT version 3.5, but it is now used by several operating systems, including the Linux kernel version 2.6 and later. GNU/Linux tools can use the NT disk signature to determine which disk the machine booted from. Windows NT (and later Microsoft operating systems) uses the disk signature as an index to all the partitions on any disk ever connected to the computer under that OS; these signatures are kept in Windows Registry keys, primarily for storing the persistent mappings between disk partitions and drive letters. It may also be used in Windows NT BOOT.INI files (though most do not), to describe the location of bootable Windows NT (or later) partitions. One key (among many), where NT disk signatures appear in a Windows 2000/XP registry, is: If a disk's signature stored in the MBR was (in that order) and its first partition corresponded with logical drive C: under Windows, then the codice_3 data under the key value codice_4 would be: The first four bytes are said disk signature. (In other keys, these bytes may appear in reverse order from that found in the MBR sector.) These are followed by eight more bytes, forming a 64-bit integer, in little-endian notation, which are used to locate the byte offset of this partition. In this case, corresponds to the hexadecimal value (). Under the assumption that the drive in question reports a sector size of 512 bytes, then dividing this byte offset by 512 results in 63, which is the physical sector number (or LBA) containing the first sector of the partition (unlike the \"sector count\" used in the sectors value of CHS tuples, which counts from one, the absolute or LBA sector value starts counting from \"zero\"). If this disk had another partition with the values following the disk signature (under, e.g., the key value codice_5), it would begin at byte offset (), which is also the first byte of physical sector. Starting with Windows Vista, the disk signature is also stored in the Boot Configuration Data (BCD) store, and the boot process depends on it. If the disk signature changes, cannot be found or has a conflict, Windows is unable to boot. Unless Windows is forced to use the overlapping part of the LBA address of the Advanced Active Partition entry as pseudo-disk signature, Windows' usage is conflictive with the Advanced Active Partition feature of PTS-DOS 7 and DR-DOS 7.07, in particular if their boot code is located outside the first 8 GB of the disk, so that LBA addressing must be used.", "The MBR originated in the PC XT. IBM PC-compatible computers are little-endian, which means the processor stores numeric values spanning two or more bytes in memory least significant byte first. The format of the MBR on media reflects this convention. Thus, the MBR signature will appear in a disk editor as the sequence codice_6. The bootstrap sequence in the BIOS will load the first valid MBR that it finds into the computer's physical memory at address codice_7:codice_8. The last instruction executed in the BIOS code will be a \"jump\" to that address in order to direct execution to the beginning of the MBR copy. The primary validation for most BIOSes is the signature at offset codice_9, although a BIOS implementer may choose to include other checks, such as verifying that the MBR contains a valid partition table without entries referring to sectors beyond the reported capacity of the disk. To the BIOS, removable (e.g. floppy) and fixed disks are essentially the same. For either, the BIOS reads the first physical sector of the media into RAM at absolute address codice_8, checks the signature in the last two bytes of the loaded sector, and then, if the correct signature is found, transfers control to the first byte of the sector with a jump (JMP) instruction. The only real distinction that the BIOS makes is that (by default, or if the boot order is not configurable) it attempts to boot from the first removable disk before trying to boot from the first fixed disk. From the perspective of the BIOS, the action of the MBR loading a volume boot record into RAM is exactly the same as the action of a floppy disk volume boot record loading the object code of an operating system loader into RAM. In either case, the program that the BIOS loaded is going about the work of chain loading an operating system. While the MBR boot sector code expects to be loaded at physical address codice_7:codice_8, all the memory from physical address codice_7:codice_14 (address codice_7:codice_16 is the last one used by a Phoenix BIOS) to codice_7:codice_18, later relaxed to codice_7:codice_20 (and sometimes up to codice_21:codice_20)the end of the first 640 KBis available in real mode. The codice_23 BIOS interrupt call may help in determining how much memory can be allocated safely (by default, it simply reads the base memory size in KB from segment:offset location codice_24:codice_25, but it may be hooked by other resident pre-boot software like BIOS overlays, RPL code or viruses to reduce the reported amount of available memory in order to keep other boot stage software like boot sectors from overwriting them). The last 66 bytes of the 512-byte MBR are reserved for the partition table and other information, so the MBR boot sector program must be small enough to fit within 446 bytes of memory or less. The MBR code examines the partition table, selects a suitable partition and loads the program that will perform the next stage of the boot process, usually by making use of INT 13h BIOS calls. The MBR bootstrap code loads and runs (a boot loader- or operating system-dependent) volume boot record code that is located at the beginning of the \"active\" partition. The volume boot record will fit within a 512-byte sector, but it is safe for the MBR code to load additional sectors to accommodate boot loaders longer than one sector, provided they do not make any assumptions on what the sector size is. In fact, at least 1 KB of RAM is available at address codice_8 in every IBM XT- and AT-class machine, so a 1 KB sector could be used with no problem. Like the MBR, a volume boot record normally expects to be loaded at address codice_7:codice_8. This derives from the fact that the volume boot record design originated on unpartitioned media, where a volume boot record would be directly loaded by the BIOS boot procedure; as mentioned above, the BIOS treats MBRs and volume boot records (VBRs) exactly alike. Since this is the same location where the MBR is loaded, one of the first tasks of an MBR is to relocate itself somewhere else in memory. The relocation address is determined by the MBR, but it is most often codice_7:codice_30 (for MS-DOS/PC DOS, OS/2 and Windows MBR code) or codice_31:codice_7 (most DR-DOS MBRs). (Even though both of these segmented addresses resolve to the same physical memory address in real mode, for Apple Darwin to boot, the MBR must be relocated to codice_7:codice_30 instead of codice_31:codice_7, since the code depends on the DS:SI pointer to the partition entry provided by the MBR, but it erroneously refers to it via codice_7:SI only.) It is important not to relocate to other addresses in memory because many VBRs will assume a certain standard memory layout when loading their boot file. The \"Status\" field in a partition table record is used to indicate an active partition. Standard-conformant MBRs will allow only one partition marked active and use this as part of a sanity-check to determine the existence of a valid partition table. They will display an error message, if more than one partition has been marked active. Some non-standard MBRs will not treat this as an error condition and just use the first marked partition in the row. Traditionally, values other than codice_38 (not active) and codice_39 (active) were invalid and the bootstrap program would display an error message upon encountering them. However, the Plug and Play BIOS Specification and BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) allowed other devices to become bootable as well since 1994. Consequently, with the introduction of MS-DOS 7.10 (Windows 95B) and higher, the MBR started to treat a set bit 7 as active flag and showed an error message for values codice_40..codice_41 only. It continued to treat the entry as physical drive unit to be used when loading the corresponding partition's VBR later on, thereby now also accepting other boot drives than codice_39 as valid, however, MS-DOS did not make use of this extension by itself. Storing the actual physical drive number in the partition table does not normally cause backward compatibility problems, since the value will differ from codice_39 \"only\" on drives other than the first one (which have not been bootable before, anyway). However, even with systems enabled to boot off other drives, the extension may still not work universally, for example, after the BIOS assignment of physical drives has changed when drives are removed, added or swapped. Therefore, per the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS), it is best practice for a modern MBR accepting bit 7 as active flag to pass on the DL value originally provided by the BIOS instead of using the entry in the partition table.", "The MBR is loaded at memory location codice_7:codice_8 and with the following CPU registers set up when the prior bootstrap loader (normally the IPL in the BIOS) passes execution to it by jumping to codice_7:codice_8 in the CPU's real mode. Systems with Plug-and-Play BIOS or BBS support will provide a pointer to PnP data in addition to DL:", "By convention, a standard conformant MBR passes execution to a successfully loaded VBR, loaded at memory location codice_7:codice_8, by jumping to codice_7:codice_8 in the CPU's real mode with the following registers maintained or specifically set up: The MBR code passes additional information to the VBR in many implementations: Under DR-DOS 7.07 an extended interface may be optionally provided by the extended MBR and in conjunction with LOADER: In conjunction with GPT, an \"Enhanced Disk Drive Specification\" (EDD) 4 Hybrid MBR proposal recommends another extension to the interface:", "Though it is possible to manipulate the bytes in the MBR sector directly using various disk editors, there are tools to write fixed sets of functioning code to the MBR. Since MS-DOS 5.0, the program codice_1 has included the switch codice_109, which will rewrite the MBR code. Under Windows 2000 and Windows XP, the Recovery Console can be used to write new MBR code to a storage device using its codice_110 command. Under Windows Vista and Windows 7, the Recovery Environment can be used to write new MBR code using the codice_111 command. Some third-party utilities may also be used for directly editing the contents of partition tables (without requiring any knowledge of hexadecimal or disk/sector editors), such as MBRWizard. codice_112 is also a commonly used POSIX command to read or write to any location on a storage device, MBR included. In Linux, ms-sys may be used to install a Windows MBR. The GRUB and LILO projects have tools for writing code to the MBR sector, namely codice_113 and codice_114. The GRUB Legacy interactive console can write to the MBR, using the codice_115 and codice_116 commands, but GRUB2 currently requires codice_113 to be run from within an operating system. Various programs are able to create a \"backup\" of both the primary partition table and the logical partitions in the extended partition. Linux codice_118 (on a SystemRescueCD) is able to save a backup of the primary and extended partition table. It creates a file that can be read in a text editor, or this file can be used by sfdisk to restore the primary/extended partition table. An example command to back up the partition table is codice_119 and to restore is codice_120. It is possible to copy the partition table from one disk to another this way, useful for setting up mirroring, but sfdisk executes the command without prompting/warnings using codice_121." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Notation.", "Glyphs.", "Types of grapheme.", "Relationship with phonemes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Graphemes are often notated within angle brackets:,, etc. This is analogous to both the slash notation (/a/, /b/) used for phonemes, and the square bracket notation used for phonetic transcriptions ([a], [b]).", "In the same way that the surface forms of phonemes are speech sounds or phones (and different phones representing the same phoneme are called allophones), the surface forms of graphemes are glyphs (sometimes \"graphs\"), namely concrete written representations of symbols, and different glyphs representing the same grapheme are called allographs. Thus, a grapheme can be regarded as an abstraction of a collection of glyphs that are all functionally equivalent. For example, in written English (or other languages using the Latin alphabet), there are two different physical representations of the lowercase latin letter \"a\":'and '. Since, however, the substitution of either of them for any other cannot change the meaning of a word, they are considered to be allographs of the same grapheme, which can be written. Italic and bold face are also allographic. There is some disagreement as to whether capital and lower case letters are allographs or distinct graphemes. Capitals are generally found in certain triggering contexts that do not change the meaning of a word: a proper name, for example, or at the beginning of a sentence, or all caps in a newspaper headline. In other contexts, capitalization can determine meaning: compare, for example Polish and polish: the former is a language, the latter is for shining shoes. Some linguists consider digraphs like the in \"ship\" to be distinct graphemes, but these are generally analyzed as sequences of graphemes. Non-stylistic ligatures, however, such as, are distinct graphemes, as are various letters with distinctive diacritics, such as.", "The principal types of graphemes are logograms (more accurately termed morphograms), which represent words or morphemes (for example Chinese characters, the ampersand \"&\" representing the word \"and\", Arabic numerals); syllabic characters, representing syllables (as in Japanese kana); and alphabetic letters, corresponding roughly to phonemes (see next section). For a full discussion of the different types, see. There are additional graphemic components used in writing, such as punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, word dividers such as the space, and other. Ancient logographic scripts often used silent determinatives to disambiguate the meaning of a neighboring (non-silent) word.", "As mentioned in the previous section, in languages that use alphabetic writing systems, many of the graphemes stand in principle for the phonemes (significant sounds) of the language. In practice, however, the orthographies of such languages entail at least a certain amount of deviation from the ideal of exact grapheme–phoneme correspondence. A phoneme may be represented by a multigraph (sequence of more than one grapheme), as the digraph \"sh\" represents a single sound in English (and sometimes a single grapheme may represent more than one phoneme, as with the Russian letter я or the Spanish c). Some graphemes may not represent any sound at all (like the \"b\" in English \"debt\" or the \"h\" in all Spanish words containing the said letter), and often the rules of correspondence between graphemes and phonemes become complex or irregular, particularly as a result of historical sound changes that are not necessarily reflected in spelling. \"Shallow\" orthographies such as those of standard Spanish and Finnish have relatively regular (though not always one-to-one) correspondence between graphemes and phonemes, while those of French and English have much less regular correspondence, and are known as deep orthographies. Multigraphs representing a single phoneme are normally treated as combinations of separate letters, not as graphemes in their own right. However, in some languages a multigraph may be treated as a single unit for the purposes of collation; for example, in a Czech dictionary, the section for words that start with comes after that for. For more examples, see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Demography.", "Traffic control." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Christopher Columbus named the islands after Saint Ursula and the 11,000 Virgins (), shortened to the Virgins (). The official name of the British territory is the Virgin Islands, and the official name of the U.S. territory is the Virgin Islands of the United States. In practice, the two island groups are almost universally referred to as the British Virgin Islands and the U.S. Virgin Islands.", "The Virgin Islands were originally inhabited by the Arawak and Carib, almost all of whom are thought to have perished during the colonial period due to enslavement, foreign disease, and mass extermination brought about by European colonists, as is the case in the rest of the Caribbean. European colonists later settled here and established sugar plantations, at least one tobacco plantation, and purchased slaves acquired from Africa. The plantations are gone, but the descendants of the slaves remain the bulk of the population, sharing a common African-Caribbean heritage with the rest of the English-speaking Caribbean. Like Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands that belonged to Spain were ceded to the United States in 1898. The United States took possession of the islands after the signing of the armistice that put an end to military operations in the U.S.-Spanish war. In 1916 and 1917, Denmark and the United States, respectively, ratified a treaty in which Denmark sold the Danish Virgin Islands to the United States for $25 million in gold. In the 1990s, a Puerto Rican tourism campaign renamed the Passage Islands as the Spanish Virgin Islands, though they are seldom identified as such on maps and atlases. They are part of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, located east of the main island of Puerto Rico. They are closer to St. Thomas than St. Thomas is to St. Croix.", "The total population of the Virgin Islands is 147,778: 104,901 in the U.S. Virgin Islands, 31,758 in the British, and 11,119 in the Spanish. Roughly three-quarters of islanders are black in the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, while the majority of inhabitants in Culebra and Vieques are Puerto Rican of European descent, with a significant Afro-Puerto Rican community. The main languages are English and Virgin Islands Creole in the U.S. and British Virgin Islands, and Spanish in the Puerto Rican territory. St. Thomas is the most populous island, with St. Croix close behind (51,634 and 50,601, respectively).", "Motor vehicles are driven on the left-hand side of the road in both the British and the U.S. Virgin Islands, although the steering wheels on most cars are located on the left side (as is the norm for drive-on-the-right localities). In the Spanish Virgin Islands, vehicles are driven on the right-hand side of the road." ] }