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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Properties.", "Linear biopolymers.", "Structural features.", "DNA is optimised for encoding information.", "Proteins are optimised for catalysis.", "RNA is multifunctional.", "Branched biopolymers.", "Synthetic macromolecules." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"macromolecule\" (\"macro-\" + \"molecule\") was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentions \"high molecular compounds\" (in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the term \"polymer\", as introduced by Berzelius in 1832, had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of isomerism for example with benzene and acetylene and had little to do with size. Usage of the term to describe large molecules varies among the disciplines. For example, while biology refers to macromolecules as the four large molecules comprising living things, in chemistry, the term may refer to aggregates of two or more molecules held together by intermolecular forces rather than covalent bonds but which do not readily dissociate. According to the standard IUPAC definition, the term \"macromolecule\" as used in polymer science refers only to a single molecule. For example, a single polymeric molecule is appropriately described as a \"macromolecule\" or \"polymer molecule\" rather than a \"polymer,\" which suggests a substance composed of macromolecules. Because of their size, macromolecules are not conveniently described in terms of stoichiometry alone. The structure of simple macromolecules, such as homopolymers, may be described in terms of the individual monomer subunit and total molecular mass. Complicated biomacromolecules, on the other hand, require multi-faceted structural description such as the hierarchy of structures used to describe proteins. In British English, the word \"macromolecule\" tends to be called \"high polymer\".", "Macromolecules often have unusual physical properties that do not occur for smaller molecules. Another common macromolecular property that does not characterize smaller molecules is their relative insolubility in water and similar solvents, instead forming colloids. Many require salts or particular ions to dissolve in water. Similarly, many proteins will denature if the solute concentration of their solution is too high or too low. High concentrations of macromolecules in a solution can alter the rates and equilibrium constants of the reactions of other macromolecules, through an effect known as macromolecular crowding. This comes from macromolecules excluding other molecules from a large part of the volume of the solution, thereby increasing the effective concentrations of these molecules.", "All living organisms are dependent on three essential biopolymers for their biological functions: DNA, RNA and proteins. Each of these molecules is required for life since each plays a distinct, indispensable role in the cell. The simple summary is that DNA makes RNA, and then RNA makes proteins. DNA, RNA, and proteins all consist of a repeating structure of related building blocks (nucleotides in the case of DNA and RNA, amino acids in the case of proteins). In general, they are all unbranched polymers, and so can be represented in the form of a string. Indeed, they can be viewed as a string of beads, with each bead representing a single nucleotide or amino acid monomer linked together through covalent chemical bonds into a very long chain. In most cases, the monomers within the chain have a strong propensity to interact with other amino acids or nucleotides. In DNA and RNA, this can take the form of Watson-Crick base pairs (G-C and A-T or A-U), although many more complicated interactions can and do occur.", "Because of the double-stranded nature of DNA, essentially all of the nucleotides take the form of Watson-Crick base pairs between nucleotides on the two complementary strands of the double-helix. In contrast, both RNA and proteins are normally single-stranded. Therefore, they are not constrained by the regular geometry of the DNA double helix, and so fold into complex three-dimensional shapes dependent on their sequence. These different shapes are responsible for many of the common properties of RNA and proteins, including the formation of specific binding pockets, and the ability to catalyse biochemical reactions.", "DNA is an information storage macromolecule that encodes the complete set of instructions (the genome) that are required to assemble, maintain, and reproduce every living organism. DNA and RNA are both capable of encoding genetic information, because there are biochemical mechanisms which read the information coded within a DNA or RNA sequence and use it to generate a specified protein. On the other hand, the sequence information of a protein molecule is not used by cells to functionally encode genetic information. DNA has three primary attributes that allow it to be far better than RNA at encoding genetic information. First, it is normally double-stranded, so that there are a minimum of two copies of the information encoding each gene in every cell. Second, DNA has a much greater stability against breakdown than does RNA, an attribute primarily associated with the absence of the 2'-hydroxyl group within every nucleotide of DNA. Third, highly sophisticated DNA surveillance and repair systems are present which monitor damage to the DNA and repair the sequence when necessary. Analogous systems have not evolved for repairing damaged RNA molecules. Consequently, chromosomes can contain many billions of atoms, arranged in a specific chemical structure.", "Proteins are functional macromolecules responsible for catalysing the biochemical reactions that sustain life. Proteins carry out all functions of an organism, for example photosynthesis, neural function, vision, and movement. The single-stranded nature of protein molecules, together with their composition of 20 or more different amino acid building blocks, allows them to fold in to a vast number of different three-dimensional shapes, while providing binding pockets through which they can specifically interact with all manner of molecules. In addition, the chemical diversity of the different amino acids, together with different chemical environments afforded by local 3D structure, enables many proteins to act as enzymes, catalyzing a wide range of specific biochemical transformations within cells. In addition, proteins have evolved the ability to bind a wide range of cofactors and coenzymes, smaller molecules that can endow the protein with specific activities beyond those associated with the polypeptide chain alone.", "RNA is multifunctional, its primary function is to encode proteins, according to the instructions within a cell’s DNA. They control and regulate many aspects of protein synthesis in eukaryotes. RNA encodes genetic information that can be translated into the amino acid sequence of proteins, as evidenced by the messenger RNA molecules present within every cell, and the RNA genomes of a large number of viruses. The single-stranded nature of RNA, together with tendency for rapid breakdown and a lack of repair systems means that RNA is not so well suited for the long-term storage of genetic information as is DNA. In addition, RNA is a single-stranded polymer that can, like proteins, fold into a very large number of three-dimensional structures. Some of these structures provide binding sites for other molecules and chemically-active centers that can catalyze specific chemical reactions on those bound molecules. The limited number of different building blocks of RNA (4 nucleotides vs >20 amino acids in proteins), together with their lack of chemical diversity, results in catalytic RNA (ribozymes) being generally less-effective catalysts than proteins for most biological reactions. The Major Macromolecule:", "Carbohydrate macromolecules (polysaccharides) are formed from polymers of monosaccharides. Because monosaccharides have multiple functional groups, polysaccharides can form linear polymers (e.g. cellulose) or complex branched structures (e.g. glycogen). Polysaccharides perform numerous roles in living organisms, acting as energy stores (e.g. starch) and as structural components (e.g. chitin in arthropods and fungi). Many carbohydrates contain modified monosaccharide units that have had functional groups replaced or removed. Polyphenols consist of a branched structure of multiple phenolic subunits. They can perform structural roles (e.g. lignin) as well as roles as secondary metabolites involved in signalling, pigmentation and defense.", "Some examples of macromolecules are synthetic polymers (plastics, synthetic fibers, and synthetic rubber), graphene, and carbon nanotubes. Polymers may be prepared from inorganic matter as well as for instance in inorganic polymers and geopolymers. The incorporation of inorganic elements enables the tunability of properties and/or responsive behavior as for instance in smart inorganic polymers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions, connotations, and etymology.", "Related concepts.", "Words beginning with \"gyn-\".", "Intergenerational relationships.", "Words beginning with \"matri-\".", "History and distribution.", "By region and culture.", "Ancient Near East.", "Europe.", "Asia.", "Native Americans.", "By chronology.", "Earliest prehistory and undated.", "Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages.", "Bronze Age.", "Iron Age to Middle Ages.", "20th–21st centuries.", "Mythology.", "Amazons.", "Greece.", "Celtic myth and society.", "South America.", "In feminist thought.", "In religious thought.", "Exclusionary.", "Inclusionary.", "Animals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (\"OED\"), matriarchy is a \"form of social organization in which the mother or oldest female is the head of the family, and descent and relationship are reckoned through the female line; government or rule by a woman or women.\" A popular definition, according to James Peoples and Garrick Bailey, is \"female dominance\". Within the academic discipline of cultural anthropology, according to the \"OED\", matriarchy is a \"culture or community in which such a system prevails\" or a \"family, society, organization, etc., dominated by a woman or women.\" In general anthropology, according to William A. Haviland, matriarchy is \"rule by women\". A matriarchy is a society in which females, especially mothers, have the central roles of political leadership, moral authority, and control of property, but does not include a society that occasionally is led by a female for nonmatriarchal reasons or an occupation in which females generally predominate without reference to matriarchy, such as prostitution or women's auxiliaries of organizations run by men. According to Lawrence A. Kuzner in 1997, A. R. Radcliffe-Brown argued in 1924 that the definitions of matriarchy and patriarchy had \"logical and empirical failings... [and] were too vague to be scientifically useful\". Most academics exclude egalitarian nonpatriarchal systems from matriarchies more strictly defined. According to Heide Göttner-Abendroth, a reluctance to accept the existence of matriarchies might be based on a specific culturally biased notion of how to define matriarchy: because in a patriarchy men rule over women, a matriarchy has frequently been conceptualized as women ruling over men, while she believed that matriarchies are egalitarian. The word matriarchy, for a society politically led by females, especially mothers, who also control property, is often interpreted to mean the genderal opposite of patriarchy, but it is not an opposite. According to Peoples and Bailey, the view of anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday is that matriarchies are not a mirror form of patriarchies but rather that a matriarchy \"emphasizes maternal meanings where'maternal symbols are linked to social practices influencing the lives of both sexes and where women play a central role in these practices. Journalist Margot Adler wrote, \"literally,... [\"\"matriarchy\"\"] means government by mothers, or more broadly, government and power in the hands of women.\" Barbara Love and Elizabeth Shanklin wrote, \"by'matriarchy,' we mean a non-alienated society: a society in which women, those who produce the next generation, define motherhood, determine the conditions of motherhood, and determine the environment in which the next generation is reared.\" According to Cynthia Eller, \"'matriarchy' can be thought of", "In their works, Johann Jakob Bachofen and Lewis Morgan used such terms and expressions as \"mother-right\", \"female rule\", \"gyneocracy\", and \"female authority\". All these terms meant the same: the rule by females (mother or wife). Although Bachofen and Lewis Morgan confined the \"mother-right\" inside households, it was the basis of female influence upon the whole society. The authors of the classics did not think that \"gyneocracy\" meant 'female government' in politics. They were aware of the fact that the sexual structure of government had no relation to domestic rule and to roles of both sexes.", "A matriarchy is also sometimes called a \"gynarchy\", a \"gynocracy\", a \"gynecocracy\", or a \"gynocentric\" society, although these terms do not definitionally emphasize motherhood. Cultural anthropologist Jules de Leeuwe argued that some societies were \"mainly \"gynecocratic\"\" (others being \"mainly \"androcratic\"\"). Gynecocracy, gynaecocracy, gynocracy, gyneocracy, and gynarchy generally mean 'government by women over women and men'. All of these words are synonyms in their most important definitions. While these words all share that principal meaning, they differ a little in their additional meanings, so that \"gynecocracy\" also means 'women's social supremacy', \"gynaecocracy\" also means 'government by one woman', 'female dominance', and, derogatorily, 'petticoat government', and \"gynocracy\" also means 'women as the ruling class'. \"Gyneocracy\" is rarely used in modern times. None of these definitions are limited to mothers. Some question whether a queen ruling without a king is sufficient to", "Some people who sought evidence for the existence of a matriarchy often mixed matriarchy with anthropological terms and concepts describing specific arrangements in the field of family relationships and the organization of family life, such as matrilineality", "Anthropologists have begun to use the term matrifocality. There is some debate concerning the terminological delineation between \"matrifocality\" and \"matriarchy\". Matrifocal societies are those in which women, especially mothers, occupy a central position. Anthropologist R. T. Smith refers to \"matrifocality\" as the kinship structure of a social system whereby the mothers assume structural prominence. The term does not necessarily imply domination by women or mothers. In addition, some authors depart from the premise of a mother-child dyad as the core of a human group where the grandmother was the central ancestor with her children and grandchildren clustered around her in an extended family. The term matricentric means 'having a mother as head of the family or household'. Matristic: Feminist scholars", "Most anthropologists hold that there are no known societies that are unambiguously matriarchal. According to J. M. Adovasio, Olga Soffer, and Jake Page, no true matriarchy is known actually to have existed. Anthropologist Joan Bamberger argued that the historical record contains no primary sources on any society in which women dominated. Anthropologist Donald Brown's list of human cultural universals (\"viz.\", features shared by nearly all current human societies) includes men being the \"dominant element\" in public political affairs, which he asserts is the contemporary opinion of mainstream anthropology. There are some disagreements and possible exceptions. A belief that women's rule preceded men's rule was, according to Haviland, \"held by many nineteenth-century intellectuals\". The hypothesis survived into the 20th century and was notably advanced in the context of feminism and especially second-wave feminism, but the hypothesis is mostly discredited today, most experts saying that it was never true. Matriarchs, according to Peoples and Bailey, do exist; there are \"individual matriarchs of families and kin groups.\"", "", "\"The Cambridge Ancient History\" (1975) stated that \"the predominance of a supreme goddess is", "Tacitus claimed in his book \"Germania\" that in \"the nations of the Sitones a woman is the ruling sex.\" Cucuteni–Trypillia culture has been frequently discussed as a matriarchal society, including its goddess art,", "", "The Hopi (in what is now the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona), according to Alice Schlegel, had as its \"gender ideology... one of female superiority, and it operated within a social actuality of sexual equality.\" According to LeBow (based on Schlegel's work), in the Hopi, \"gender roles... are egalitarian... [and] [n]either sex is inferior.\" LeBow concluded that Hopi women \"participate fully in... political decision-making.\" According to Schlegel, \"the Hopi no longer live as they are described here\" and \"the attitude of female superiority is fading\". Schlegel said the Hopi \"were and still are matrilinial\" and \"the household... was matrilocal\". Schlegel explains why there was female superiority as that the Hopi believed in \"life as the highest good... [with] the female principle... activated in women and in Mother Earth... as its source\" and that the Hopi \"were not in a state of continual war with equally matched neighbors\" and \"had no standing army\" so that \"the Hopi lacked the spur to masculine superiority\" and, within that, as that women were central to institutions of clan and household and predominated \"within the economic and social systems (in contrast to male predominance within the political and ceremonial systems)\", the Clan Mother, for example, being empowered to overturn land distribution by men if she felt it was unfair, since there was no \"countervailing... strongly centralized, male-centered political structure\". The Iroquois Confederacy or League, combining 5–6 Native American Haudenosaunee nations or tribes before the U.S. became a nation, operated by The", "", "The controversy surrounding prehistoric or \"primal\" matriarchy began in reaction to the book by Bachofen, \"Mother Right: An Investigation of the Religious and Juridical Character of Matriarchy in the Ancient World\", in 1861. Several generations of ethnologists were inspired by his pseudo-evolutionary theory of archaic matriarchy. Following him and Jane Ellen Harrison, several generations of scholars, usually arguing from known myths or oral traditions and examination of Neolithic female cult-figures, suggested that many ancient societies might have been matriarchal, or even that there existed a wide-ranging matriarchal society prior", "Friedrich Engels, in 1884, claimed that, in the earliest stages of human social development, there was group marriage and that therefore paternity was disputable, whereas maternity was not, so that a family could be traced only through the female line, and claimed that this was connected with the dominance of women over men or a \"Mutterrecht\", which notion Engels took from Bachofen, who claimed, based on his interpretations of myths, that myths reflected a memory of a time when women dominated over men. Engels speculated that the domestication of animals increased wealth claimed by men. Engels", "According to Rohrlich, \"many scholars are convinced that Crete was a matriarchy, ruled by a queen-priestess\" and the \"Cretan civilization\" was \"matriarchal\" before \"1500 B.C.,\" when it was overrun and colonized. Also according to Rohrlich, \"in the early Sumerian city-states'matriarchy seems to have left something more than a trace. One common misconception among historians of the Bronze Age such as Stone and Eisler is the notion that the Semites were matriarchal while the Indo-Europeans practiced a patriarchal system. An example of this view is found in Stone's \"When God Was a Woman\", wherein she makes the case that the worship of Yahweh was an Indo-European invention superimposed on an ancient matriarchal Semitic nation. Evidence from the Amorites and pre-Islamic Arabs, however, indicates that the primitive Semitic family was in fact patriarchal and patrilineal. However, not all scholars agree. Anthropologist and Biblical scholar Raphael Patai writes in \"The Hebrew Goddess\" that the Jewish religion, far from being pure monotheism, contained from earliest times strong polytheistic elements, chief of which", "Arising in the period ranging from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages, several early northwestern European mythologies from the Irish (\"e.g.\", Macha and Scáthach), the Brittonic (\"e.g.\", Rhiannon), and the Germanic (\"e.g.\", Grendel's mother and Nerthus) contain ambiguous episodes of primal female power which have been interpreted as", "In 1995, in Kenya, according to Emily Wax, Umoja, a village only for women from one tribe with about 36 residents, was established under a matriarch. Men of the same tribe established a village nearby from which to observe the women's village, the men's leader objecting to the matriarch's questioning the culture and men suing to close the women's village. The village was still operational in 2005 when Wax reported on it. Spokespersons for various indigenous peoples at the United Nations and elsewhere have highlighted the central role of women in their societies, referring to them as matriarchies, or as matriarchal in character.", "", "A legendary matriarchy related by several writers was Amazon society. According to Phyllis Chesler, \"in Amazon societies, women were... mothers and their society's only political and religious leaders\", as well as the only warriors and hunters; \"queens were elected\" and apparently \"any woman could aspire to and achieve full human expression.\" Herodotus reported that the Sarmatians were descendants of Amazons and Scythians, and that their females observed their ancient maternal customs, \"frequently hunting on horseback", "Robert Graves suggested that a myth displaced earlier myths that had to change when a major cultural change brought patriarchy to replace a matriarchy. According to this myth, in Greek mythology, Zeus is said to have swallowed his pregnant lover, the titan goddess Metis, who was", "According to Adler, \"there \"is\" plenty of evidence of ancient societies where women held greater power than in many societies today. For example,", "Bamberger (1974) examines several matriarchal myths from South American cultures and concludes", "While \"matriarchy\" has mostly fallen out of use for the anthropological description of existing societies, it remains current as a concept in feminism. In first-wave feminist discourse, either Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Margaret Fuller (it is unclear who was first) introduced the concept of matriarchy and the discourse was joined in by Matilda Joslyn Gage. Victoria Woodhull, in 1871, called for men to open the U.S. government to women or a new constitution and government would be formed in a year; and, on a basis of equality, she ran to be elected President in 1872. Charlotte Perkins Gilman, in 1911 and 1914, argued for \"a woman-centered, or better mother-centered, world\" and described government by women. She argued that a government led by either sex must be assisted by the other, both genders being \"useful... and should in our governments be alike used\", because men and women have different qualities. Cultural feminism includes \"matriarchal worship\", according to Prof. James Penner. In feminist literature, matriarchy and patriarchy are not conceived as simple mirrors of each other. While \"matriarchy\" sometimes means \"the political rule of women\", that meaning is often rejected, on the ground that matriarchy is not a mirroring of patriarchy. Patriarchy is held to be about power over others while matriarchy is held to be about power from within, Starhawk having written on that distinction and Adler having argued that matriarchal power is not possessive and not controlling, but is harmonious with nature. For radical feminists, the importance of matriarchy is that \"veneration for the female principle... somewhat lightens an oppressive system.\" Feminist utopias are a form of advocacy. According to Tineke Willemsen, \"a feminist utopia would... be the description of a place where at least women would like to live.\" Willemsen continues, among \"type[s] of feminist utopias[,]... [one] stem[s] from feminists who emphasize the differences between women and men. They tend to formulate their ideal world in terms of a society where women's positions are better than men's. There are various forms of matriarchy, or even a utopia that resembles the Greek myth of the Amazons... [V]ery few modern utopias have been developed in which women are absolute autocrats.\" A minority of feminists, generally radical, have argued that women should govern societies of women and men. In all of these advocacies, the governing women are not limited to mothers: Some such advocacies are informed by work on past matriarchy: Some fiction caricatured the current gender hierarchy by describing a matriarchal alternative without advocating for it. According to Karin Schönpflug, \"Gerd Brantenberg's \"Egalia's Daughters\" is a caricature of powered gender relations which have been completely reversed, with the female sex on the top and the male sex a degraded, oppressed group\"; \"gender inequality is expressed through power inversion\" and \"all gender roles are reversed and women rule over a class of intimidated, effeminate men\". \"\"Egalia\" is not a typical example of gender inequality in the sense that a vision of a desirable matriarchy is created; \"Egalia\" is more a caricature of", "", "Some theologies and theocracies limit or forbid women from being in civil government or public leadership", "According to Eller, feminist thealogy conceptualized humanity as beginning with \"female-ruled or equalitarian societies\", until displaced by patriarchies, and that in the millennial future gynocentric,' life-loving values\" will return to prominence. This, according to Eller, produces \"a", "Matriarchy may also refer to non-human animal species in which females hold higher status and hierarchical positions, such as among lions, spotted hyenas, and bonobos. The social structure of European bison herds has also been described by specialists as a matriarchy – the cows of the group lead it as the entire herd follows them to grazing areas. Though heavier and larger than the females, the older and more powerful males of the European bison usually fulfill the role of satellites that hang around the edges of the herd. Apart from the mating season when they begin to compete with each other, European bison bulls serve a more active role in the herd only once a danger to the group's safety appears." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and usage.", "Vedic texts.", "Vedic Sanskrit corpus.", "Śruti and smriti.", "Authorship.", "Chronology, transmission and interpretation.", "Chronology.", "Transmission.", "Vedic learning.", "Vedic schools or recensions.", "Four Vedas.", "Rigveda.", "Samaveda.", "Yajurveda.", "Atharvaveda.", "Embedded Vedic texts.", "Brahmanas.", "Aranyakas and Upanishads.", "Post-Vedic literature.", "Vedanga.", "Parisista.", "Upaveda.", "\"Fifth\" and other Vedas.", "Puranas.", "Authority of the Vedas.", "Western Indology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Sanskrit word'\"knowledge, wisdom\" is derived from the root \"vid-\" \"to know\". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root ', meaning \"see\" or \"know.\" The noun is from Proto-Indo-European ', cognate to Greek \"aspect\", \"form\". This is not to be confused with the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense ', cognate to Greek \"(w)oida\" \"I know\". Root cognates are Greek \"ἰδέα\", English \"wit\", etc., Latin \"videō\" \"I", "", "The term \"Vedic texts\" is used in two distinct meanings: The corpus of Vedic Sanskrit texts includes: While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceased with the end of the Vedic period, additional Upanishads were composed after the end of the Vedic period. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, among other things, interpret and discuss the Samhitas in", "Vedas are'\"what is heard\"), distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called'(\"what is", "Hindus consider the Vedas to be \"apauruṣeya\", which means \"not of a man, superhuman\" and \"impersonal, authorless.\" The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times. In the Hindu Epic \"Mahabharata\", the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma. The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by \"Rishis\" (sages), after", "", "The Vedas are among the oldest sacred texts. The oldest part of the Rigveda Samhita was composed in the northwestern region (Punjab) of the Indian subcontinent, most likely between 1500 and 1200 BC, although a wider approximation of 1700–1100 BC has also been given. The \"circum-Vedic\" texts, as well as the redaction of the Samhitas, date to c. 1000–500 BCE, resulting in a Vedic period, spanning the mid 2nd to mid 1st millennium BCE, or the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. The", "The Vedas were orally transmitted since their composition in the Vedic period for several millennia. The authoritative transmission of the Vedas is by an oral tradition in a \"sampradaya\" from father to son or from teacher (\"guru\") to student (\"shishya\"), believed to be initiated by the Vedic \"rishis\" who heard the primordial sounds. Only this tradition, embodied by a living teacher, can teach the correct pronounciation of the sounds and explain hidden meanings, in a way the \"dead and entombed manuscript\" cannot do. As Leela Prasad states, \"According to Shankara, the \"correct tradition\" (\"sampradaya\") has as much authority as the written Shastra,\" explaining that the tradition \"bears the authority to clarify and provide direction in the application of knowledge.\" The emphasis in this transmission is on the \"proper articulation and pronunciation of the Vedic sounds,\"", "The Vedas, Vedic rituals and its ancillary sciences called the Vedangas, were part of the curriculum at ancient universities such as at Taxila, Nalanda and Vikramashila. According to Deshpande, \"the tradition of the Sanskrit grammarians also contributed significantly to the preservation and interpretation of Vedic texts.\" Yāska (4th c. BCE) wrote the \"Nirukta\", which reflects the concerns about the loss of meaning of the mantras, while Pāṇinis (4th c. BCE) \"Aṣṭādhyāyī\" is the most important surviving text of the Vyākaraṇa traditions. Mimamsa scholar Sayanas (14th c. CE) major \"Vedartha Prakasha\" is a", "The four Vedas were transmitted in various s (branches, schools). Each school likely represented an ancient community of a particular area, or kingdom. Each school followed its own canon. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas. Thus, states Witzel as well as Renou, in the 2nd millennium BCE, there was likely no canon of one broadly accepted Vedic texts, no Vedic “Scripture”, but only a canon of various texts accepted by each school. Some of these texts have survived, most lost or yet to be found. Rigveda that survives in modern times, for example, is in only one extremely well preserved school of Śåkalya, from a region called Videha, in modern north Bihar, south of Nepal. The Vedic canon in its entirety consists of texts from all the various Vedic schools taken together. Each of the four Vedas were shared by the numerous schools, but revised, interpolated and adapted", "The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (\") viz., Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called \"\"\"; that is, \"the triple science\" of reciting hymns (Rigveda), performing sacrifices (Yajurveda), and chanting songs (Samaveda). The Rigveda is the oldest work, which Witzel states are probably from the period of 1900 to 1100 BCE. Witzel, also notes that it is the Vedic period itself, where incipient lists divide the Vedic texts into three (trayī) or four branches: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies such as newborn baby's rites of passage, coming of age, marriages, retirement and cremation, sacrifices and symbolic sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). The Upasanas (short ritual worship-related sections) are considered by some scholars as the fifth part. Witzel notes that the rituals, rites and ceremonies described in these ancient texts reconstruct to a large degree the Indo-European marriage rituals observed in a region spanning the Indian subcontinent, Persia and the European area, and some greater details are found in the Vedic era texts such as the Grhya Sūtras. Only one version of the Rigveda is known to have survived into the modern era. Several different versions of the Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda are known, and many different versions of the Yajur Veda have been found in different parts of South Asia. Despite their differences, just like the texts of the śramaṇa traditions, the layers of texts in the Vedas discuss similar ideas and concepts.", "The Rigveda Samhita is the oldest extant Indic text. It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: \"mandalas\"). The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities. The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of several centuries between 1500 and 1200 BC, (the early Vedic period) starting with the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the northwest Indian subcontinent. The Rigveda is structured based on clear principles – the Veda begins with a small book addressed to Agni, Indra, Soma and other gods, all arranged according to decreasing total number of", "The Samaveda Samhita consists of 1549 stanzas, taken almost entirely (except for 75 mantras) from the Rigveda. While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, the existing compilation dates from the post-Rigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, c. 1200 or 1000 BCE, roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda. The Samaveda samhita has two major parts. The first part includes four melody collections (gāna, गान) and the second part three verse", "The Yajurveda Samhita consists of prose mantras. It is a compilation of ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - younger than the Rigveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the. The scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, c. 1200 or 1000 BC, corresponding to the early Kuru Kingdom. The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses,", "The Artharvaveda Samhita is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa poets. It has about 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rigveda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose. Two different versions of the text – the and the – have survived into the modern times. The Atharvaveda was not considered as a Veda in the Vedic era, and was accepted as a Veda in late 1st millennium BCE. It was compiled last, probably around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rigveda, or earlier. The Atharvaveda is sometimes called", "", "The Brahmanas are commentaries, explanation of proper methods and meaning of Vedic Samhita rituals in the four Vedas. They also incorporate myths, legends and in some cases philosophy. Each regional Vedic \"shakha\" (school) has its own operating manual-like Brahmana text, most of which have been lost. A total of 19 Brahmana texts have survived into modern times: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda, ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. The oldest dated to about 900 BCE, while the youngest Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana), were complete by about 700 BCE. According to Jan Gonda, the final codification of the Brahmanas took place in pre-Buddhist times", "The Aranyakas layer of the Vedas include rituals, discussion of symbolic meta-rituals, as well as philosophical speculations. \"Aranyakas\", however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure. They are a medley of instructions and ideas, and some include chapters of Upanishads within them. Two theories have been proposed on the origin of the word \"Aranyakas\". One theory holds that these texts were meant to be studied in a forest, while the other holds that the name came from these being the manuals of allegorical interpretation of sacrifices, for those in Vanaprastha (retired, forest-dwelling) stage of their life, according to the historic age-based Ashrama system of", "", "The Vedangas developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after the middle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged because the language of the Vedas, composed centuries earlier, became too archaic to the people of that time. The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret the Vedas", "\" \"supplement, appendix\" is the term applied to various ancillary works of Vedic literature, dealing mainly with details of ritual and elaborations of the texts logically", "The term upaveda (\"applied knowledge\") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects", "Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the \"fifth Veda\". The earliest reference to such a \"fifth Veda\" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad in hymn 7.1.2. \"Divya Prabandha\", for example Tiruvaymoli, is a", "The \"Puranas\" is a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. There are 18 \"Maha Puranas\" (Great Puranas) and 18 \"Upa", "The various Hindu denominations and Indian philosophies have taken differing positions on the authority of the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which acknowledge the authority of the Vedas are classified as \"orthodox\" (āstika). Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as \"heterodox\" or \"non-orthodox\" (nāstika) schools. Though many religious Hindus implicitly acknowledge the authority", "The study of Sanskrit in the West began in the 17th century. In the early 19th century, Arthur Schopenhauer drew attention to Vedic texts, specifically the Upanishads. The importance of Vedic Sanskrit for Indo-European studies was also recognized in the early 19th century. English translations of the Samhitas were published in the later 19th century, in the \"Sacred Books of the East\" series edited by Müller between 1879 and 1910. Ralph T. H. Griffith also presented English translations of the four Samhitas, published 1889 to 1899. Rigveda manuscripts were selected for inscription in UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Determinants and characteristics.", "Role theory.", "Role in functionalist and consensus theory.", "Role in interactionist or social action theory.", "Social norms theory.", "The theory of planned behavior.", "Team role theory.", "Role conflict.", "Role confusion.", "Role enhancement.", "Role strain.", "Gender roles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stanley Wasserman and Katherine Faust Stanley cautioned that \"there is considerable disagreement among social scientists about the definitions of the related concepts of social position, social status, and social role.\" They note that while many scholars differentiate those terms, they can define those terms in a way that clashes with the definitions of another scholar; for example they state that \"[Ralph] Linton uses the term'status' in a way that is identical to our use of the term \"position\".", "Roles may be achieved or ascribed or they can be accidental in different situations. An \"achieved role\" is a position that a person assumes voluntarily which reflects personal skills, abilities, and effort. An \"ascribed role\" is a position assigned to individuals or groups without regard for merit but because of certain traits beyond their control, and is usually forced upon a person. Roles can be semi-permanent (\"doctor\", \"mother\", \"child\"), or they can be transitory. A well-known example is the \"sick role\" as formulated by Talcott Parsons in the late 1940s. In the transitory \"sick role\", a person is exempted from their usual roles, but is expected to conform to transitory behavioral standards, such as following doctors' orders and trying to recover. For many roles, individuals must meet certain conditions, biological or sociological. For instance, a boy cannot ordinarily take the biological role of mother. Other roles require training or experience. For instance, in many cultures doctors must be educated and certified before practicing medicine. Role development can be influenced by a number of additional factors, including social, genetic predisposition, cultural or situational. Roles are also frequently interconnected in a role set, that complement of role-relationships in which persons are involved by virtue of occupying a particular social status. For example, a high school football player carries the roles of student, athlete, classmate, etc. Another example of a role is \"an individual in the role of a parent is expected to care for their child and protect them from harm\".", "Role theory is the sociological study of role development, concerned with explaining what forces cause people to develop the expectations of their own and others' behaviors. According to sociologist Bruce Biddle (1986), the five major models of role theory include:", "The functionalist approach to role theory, which is largely borrowed from anthropology, sees a \"role\" as the set of expectations that society places on an individual. By unspoken consensus, certain behaviors are deemed \"appropriate\" and others \"inappropriate\". For example, an appropriate doctor dresses fairly conservatively, asks a series of personal questions about one's health, touches one in ways that would normally be forbidden, writes prescriptions, and shows more concern for the personal wellbeing of his or her clients than is expected of, say, an electrician or a shopkeeper. \"Role\" is what the doctor \"does\" (or, at least, is expected to do) while status is what the doctor \"is; \"in other words, \"status\" is the position an actor occupies, while \"role\" is the expected behavior attached to that position. Roles are not limited to occupational status, of course, nor does the fact that one is cast in the role of \"doctor\" during working hours prevent one from taking on other roles at other times: husband/wife, friend, father/mother, and so on.", "In interactionist social theory, the concept of role is crucial. The interactionist definition of \"role\" pre-dates the functionalist one. A role, in this conception, is not fixed or prescribed but something that is constantly negotiated between individuals in a tentative, creative way. Philosopher George Herbert Mead explored roles in his seminal 1934 work, \"Mind, self and society\". Mead's main interest was the way in which children learn how to become a part of society by imaginative \"role-taking\", observing and mimicking others. This is always done in an interactive way: it's not meaningful to think of a role for one person alone, only for that person as an individual who is both co-operating and competing with others. Adults behave similarly: taking roles from those that they see around them, adapting them in creative ways, and (by the process of social interaction) testing them and either confirming them or modifying them. This can be most easily seen in encounters where there is considerable ambiguity, but is nevertheless something that is part of all social interactions: each individual actively tries to \"define the situation\" (understand their role within it); choose a role that is advantageous or appealing; play that role; and persuade others to support the role.", "Social norms theory states that much of people's behavior is influenced by their perception of how other members of their social group behave. When individuals are in a state of deindividuation, they see themselves only in terms of group identity, and their behavior is likely to be guided by group norms alone. But while group norms have a powerful effect on behavior, they can only guide behavior when they are activated by obvious reminders or by subtle cues. People adhere to social norms through enforcement, internalization, the sharing of norms by other group members, and frequent activation. Norms can be enforced through punishment or reward. Individuals are rewarded for living up to their roles (i.e. students getting an \"A\" on their exam) or punished for not completing the duties of their role (i.e. a salesman is fired for not selling enough product). Social norm theory has been applied as an environmental approach, with an aim of influencing individuals by manipulating their social and cultural environments. It has been widely applied using social marketing techniques. Normative messages are designed for delivery using various media and promotional strategies in order to effectively reach a target population. Social norms theory has also been successfully applied through strategies such as curriculum infusion, creating press coverage, policy development, and small group inventions.", "People display reactance by fighting against threats to their freedom of action when they find norms inappropriate. Attitudes and norms typically work together to influence behavior (directly or indirectly). The theory of planned behavior intentions are a function of three factors: attitudes about the behavior, social norms relevant to the behavior, and perceptions of control over the behavior. When attitudes and norms disagree, their influence on behaviour will depend on their relative accessibility.", "As described in \"Working in Groups\" by Engleberg and Wynn, team role theory is when \"members assume roles that are compatible with their personal characteristics and skills\". Meredith Belbin, a psychologist, first explored the concept of team-role theory in the 1970s when he and his research team went about observing teams and wanted to find out what made teams work and what did not. According to Belbin and his research team \"the research revealed that the difference between success and failure for a team was not dependent on factors such as intellect, but more on behavior\". They began to identify separate clusters of behaviors and found that behavior was more influential on a team than anything else. These separate clusters of behaviors are known as the \"Team Roles\". The nine \"team roles\" are as follows: coordinator/chairperson, shaper, innovator, resource investigator, monitor/evaluator, implementer, teamworker, completer/finisher, and specialist.", "There are situations where the prescribed sets of behavior that characterise roles may lead to cognitive dissonance in individuals. Role conflict is a special form of social conflict that takes place when one is forced to take on two different and incompatible roles at the same time. An example of role conflict is a father, who is a baseball coach, that is torn between his role as a father by wanting to let his son be the pitcher and his role as a coach who should let the more experienced pitcher play.", "Role confusion occurs in a situation where an individual has trouble determining which role he or she should play, but where the roles are not necessarily incompatible. For example, if a college student attending a social function encounters his teacher as a fellow guest, he will have to determine whether to relate to the teacher as a student or a peer.", "Role enhancement or \"role enrichment\" refers to a situation in which roles which are held by a person are compatible and moreover enacting one role has beneficial spillover effects on the enactment of the other role. An example of role enhancement is a nurse who assists a patient in improving relationships by \"clarifying and supplementing specific role behaviors\". Some evidence indicates that role conflict and role enhancement can occur simultaneously, and further evidence suggests that mental health correlates with low role conflict and high role enhancement. Also certain personality traits, in particular traits linked to perceiving and seeking greater levels of support, are associated with lower inter-role conflict and increase inter-role enrichment.", "Role strain is \"the incompatibility among roles corresponding to a single status\". An example of role strain is \"a student who is torn between the obligations of school, their parents, and their job\". This is role strain because the status of being a student comes with multiple responsibilities that make it difficult to handle all at the same time.", "Gender roles are \"sets of behavioral norms assumed to accompany one's status as male or female\". Gender roles are \"one of the most popular strains of thought to evolve from role theory\" because it can be applied to one's status as a male or female in everyday life. It has been argued that gender \"constitutes as a master status\" because the status of gender holds a power in society. An example of gender role is baby boys being associated with the color blue and baby girls being associated with the color pink. As people get older, women are traditionally assigned the role of being a stay at home mom and men are assigned the role of being the breadwinner of the family." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Theory.", "Capitalist or bourgeois-democratic revolution.", "Passivity of the bourgeoisie.", "Incapability of the peasantry.", "The key role of the proletariat.", "International revolution.", "History.", "Origins.", "Trotskyism and the 1917 Russian Revolution.", "\"Legend of Trotskyism\".", "Founding of the Fourth International.", "Trotskyist movements.", "Latin America.", "Asia.", "Europe.", "International.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Trotsky, his program could be distinguished from other Marxist theories by five key elements: On the political spectrum of Marxism, Trotskyists are usually considered to be towards the left. In the 1920s they called themselves the Left Opposition, although today's left communism is distinct and usually non-Bolshevik. The terminological disagreement can be confusing because different versions of a left-right political spectrum are", "In 1905, Trotsky formulated his theory of permanent revolution that later became a defining characteristic of Trotskyism. Until 1905, some revolutionaries claimed that Marx's theory of history posited that only a revolution in a European capitalist society would lead to a socialist one. According to this position, it was impossible for a socialist revolution to occur in a backward, feudal country such as early 20th century Russia when it had such a small and almost powerless capitalist class. The theory of permanent revolution addressed the question of how such feudal regimes were to be overthrown and how socialism could be established given the lack of economic prerequisites. Trotsky argued that in Russia only the working class could overthrow feudalism and win the support of the peasantry. Furthermore, he argued that the Russian working class would not stop there. They would win their own revolution against the weak capitalist class, establish a workers' state in Russia and appeal to the working class in the advanced capitalist countries around the world. As a result, the global working class would come to Russia's aid and socialism could develop worldwide.", "Revolutions in Britain in the 17th century and in France in 1789 abolished feudalism and established the basic requisites for the development of capitalism. Trotsky argued that these revolutions would not be repeated in Russia. In \"Results and Prospects\", written in 1906, Trotsky outlines his theory in detail, arguing: \"History does not repeat itself. However much one may compare the", "Trotsky argues that countries like Russia had no \"enlightened, active\" revolutionary bourgeoisie which could play the same role and the working class constituted a very small minority. By the time of the European revolutions of 1848, \"the bourgeoisie was already unable to play a comparable role. It did not want and was not able to undertake the revolutionary liquidation of the social system that stood in its path to power.\" The theory of permanent revolution considers that in many countries that are thought under Trotskyism to have not yet completed a bourgeois-democratic revolution, the capitalist class opposes the creation of any revolutionary situation. They fear stirring the working class into fighting for its", "The theory of permanent revolution further considers that the peasantry as a whole cannot take on the task of carrying through the revolution, because it is dispersed in small holdings throughout the country", "Trotskyists differ on the extent to which this is true today, but even the most orthodox tend to recognise in the late twentieth century a new development in the revolts of the rural poor, the self-organising struggles of the landless; and many other struggles which in some ways reflect the militant united organised struggles of the working class; and which to various degrees do not bear the marks of class divisions typical of the heroic peasant struggles of previous epochs. However, orthodox Trotskyists today still argue that the town- and city-based working-class struggle is central to the task of a successful socialist revolution, linked to these struggles of the rural poor. They argue that the working class learns of necessity to conduct a collective struggle, for instance in trade unions, arising from its social conditions", "According to classical Marxism, revolution in peasant-based countries such as Russia prepares the ground ultimately only for a development of capitalism since the liberated peasants become small owners, producers and traders which leads to the growth of commodity markets, from which a new capitalist class emerges. Only fully developed capitalist conditions prepare the basis for socialism. Trotsky agreed that a new socialist state and economy in a country like Russia would", "", "According to Trotsky, the term \"Trotskyism\" was coined by Pavel Milyukov (sometimes transliterated as Paul Miliukoff), the ideological leader of the Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) in Russia. Milyukov waged a bitter war against Trotskyism \"as early as 1905\". Trotsky was elected chairman of the St. Petersburg Soviet during the Russian Revolution of 1905. He pursued a policy of proletarian revolution at a time when other socialist trends advocated a", "During his leadership of the Russian revolution of 1905, Trotsky argued that once it became clear that the Tsar's army would not come out in support of the workers, it was necessary to retreat before the armed might of the state in as good an order as possible. In 1917, Trotsky was again elected chairman of the Petrograd soviet, but this time soon came to lead the Military Revolutionary Committee which had the allegiance of the Petrograd garrison and carried through the October 1917", "In \"The Stalin School of Falsification\", Trotsky argues that what he calls the \"legend of Trotskyism\" was formulated by Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev in collaboration with Stalin in 1924 in response to the criticisms Trotsky raised of Politburo policy. Orlando Figes argues: \"The urge to silence Trotsky, and all criticism of the Politburo, was in itself a crucial factor in Stalin's rise to power\". During 1922–1924, Lenin suffered a series of strokes and became increasingly incapacitated. Before his death in 1924, while describing Trotsky as \"distinguished not only by his exceptional abilities—personally he is, to be sure, the most able man in the present", "Trotsky founded the International Left Opposition in 1930. It was meant to be an opposition group within the Comintern, but anyone who joined or was suspected of joining the ILO was immediately expelled from the Comintern. The ILO, therefore, concluded that opposing Stalinism from within the communist organizations controlled by Stalin's supporters had become impossible, so new organizations had to be formed. In 1933, the ILO was renamed the International Communist League (ICL), which formed the basis of the Fourth International, founded in Paris in 1938. Trotsky said that only the Fourth International, basing itself on Lenin's theory of the vanguard party, could lead the world revolution and that it would need to be built in opposition to both the", "", "Trotskyism has had some influence in some recent major social upheavals, particularly in Latin America. The Bolivian Trotskyist party (\"Partido Obrero Revolucionario\", POR) became a mass party in the period of the late 1940s and early 1950s and together with other groups played a central role during and immediately after the period termed the Bolivian National Revolution. In Brazil, as an officially recognised platform or faction of the PT until 1992, the Trotskyist Movimento Convergência Socialista (CS), which founded the United Socialist Workers' Party (PSTU) in 1994, saw a number of its members elected to national, state and local legislative bodies during the 1980s. The Socialism and Liberty Party (PSOL) presidential candidate in the 2006 general elections Heloísa Helena is termed a Trotskyist who was a member of the Workers Party of Brazil (PT), a legislative deputy in Alagoas and in 1999 was elected to the Federal Senate. Expelled from the PT in December 2003, she helped found PSOL in which various Trotskyist groups play a prominent role. In Argentina, the Workers' Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario de los Trabajadores, PRT) lay in the merger of two leftist organizations in 1965, the Revolutionary and", "In China various left opposition groups in the late 1920s sought to engage Trotsky against the Comintern policy of support for the Kuomintang. In 1931, at Trotsky's urging, the various factions united in the Communist League of China, adopting Trotsky’s document \"The Political Situation in China and the Task of the Bolshevik-Leninist Opposition\". The League and persecuted by the Nationalist government and by the Chinese Communist Party. In 1939, Ho Chi Minh, then a Comintern agent in southern China, reported that \"everyone united to fight the Japanese except the Trotskyists. These traitors... adopted the ‘resolution’: ‘In the war against the Japanese, our position is clear: those who wanted the war and have illusions about the Kuomintang government, those concretely have committed treason. The union between the Communist Party and", "The French section of the Fourth International was the Internationalist Communist Party (PCI). In 1952 the party split when the Fourth International removed its Central Committee, and split again when in 1953 the Fourth International itself divided. Further divisions occurred over which independence faction to support in the Algerian War. In 1967, the rump of the PCI renamed itself the \"Internationalist Communist Organisation\" (\"Organisation Communiste Internationaliste\", OCI). It grew rapidly during the May 1968 student demonstrations, but was banned alongside other far left groups, such as the Gauche prolétarienne (Proletarian Left). Members temporarily reconstituted the group as the Trotskyist Organisation, but soon obtained a state order permitting the reformation of the OCI.", "The Fourth International derives from the 1963 reunification of the two public factions into which the Fourth International split in 1953: the International Secretariat of the Fourth International (ISFI) and some sections of the International Committee of the Fourth International (ICFI). It is often referred to as the United Secretariat of the Fourth International, the name of its leading committee before 2003. The USFI retains sections and sympathizing organizations in over 50 countries, including the \"Ligue Communiste Revolutionnaire\" (LCR) of France, as well as sections in Portugal, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, and Pakistan. The International Committee of the Fourth International maintains its independent organization and publishes the World Socialist Web Site. The Committee for a Workers' International (CWI) was founded in 1974 and now has sections in over 35", "Trotskyism has been criticised from various directions. In 1935, Marxist–Leninist Moissaye J. Olgin argued that Trotskyism was \"the enemy of the working class\" and \"should be shunned by anybody who has sympathy for the revolutionary movement of the exploited and oppressed the world over.\" The African American Marxist–Leninist Harry Haywood, who spent much time in the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s, stated that although he had been somewhat interested in Trotsky’s ideas when he was young, he came to see it as \"a disruptive force on the fringes of the international revolutionary movement\" which eventually developed into \"a counter-revolutionary conspiracy against the Party and the Soviet state\". He continued to put forward his following belief: Other figures associated with Marxism-Leninism criticized Trotskyist political theory, including Régis Debray. and Earl Browder. Polish philosopher Leszek Kołakowski wrote: \"Both Trotsky and Bukharin were emphatic in their assurances that forced labour was an organic part of the new society.\" The way Trotskyists organise to promote their beliefs has been criticised often by ex-members of their organisations. Dennis Tourish, a former member of the CWI, asserts that these organisations typically value doctrinal orthodoxy over critical reflection, have illusions in the absolute correctness of their own party's analysis, a fear of dissent, the demonising of dissenters and critical opinion, overworking of members, a sectarian attitude to the rest of the left and the concentration of power among a small group of leaders. Some Left Communists such as Paul Mattick claim that the October Revolution was totalitarian from the start and therefore Trotskyism has no real differences from Stalinism either in practice or theory. In the United States, Dwight Macdonald broke with Trotsky and left the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party by raising the question of the Kronstadt rebellion, which Trotsky as leader of the Soviet Red Army and the other Bolsheviks had brutally repressed. He then moved towards democratic socialism and anarchism. A similar critique on Trotsky's role on the events around the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by the American anarchist Emma Goldman. In her essay \"Trotsky Protests Too Much\", she says: \"I admit, the dictatorship under Stalin's rule has become monstrous. That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one of the bloodiest scenes\". Trotsky defended the actions of the Red Army in his essay \"Hue and Cry over Kronstadt\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Parameters.", "History.", "Current recommendations for United States and Canada.", "Vitamins and minerals.", "Macronutrients.", "Calculating the RDA.", "Standard of evidence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "DRI provides several different types of reference values: The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as Dietary Reference Values, with Population Reference Intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and Average Requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL defined the same as in United States, but values may differ. DRIs are used by both the United States and Canada, and are intended for the general public and health professionals. Applications include:", "The recommended dietary allowance (RDA) was developed during World War II by Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, all part of a committee established by the United States National Academy of Sciences in order to investigate issues of nutrition that might \"affect national defense\". The committee was renamed the Food and Nutrition Board in 1941, after which they began to deliberate on a set of recommendations of a standard daily allowance for each type of nutrient. The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civilians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances for \"energy and eight nutrients\", and submitted them to experts for review (Nestle, 35). The final set of guidelines, called RDAs for Recommended Dietary Allowances, were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a \"margin of safety.\" Because of food rationing during the war, the food guides created by government agencies to direct citizens' nutritional intake also took food availability into account. The Food and Nutrition Board subsequently revised the RDAs every five to ten years. In the early 1950s, United States Department of Agriculture nutritionists made a new set of guidelines that also included the number of servings of each food group in order to make it easier for people to receive their RDAs of each nutrient. The DRI was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing system of RDAs. DRIs were published over the period 1998 to 2001. In 2011, revised DRIs were published for calcium and vitamin D. None of the other DRIs have been revised since first published 1998 to 2001.", "", "EARs, RDA/AIs and ULs for an average healthy 44-year-old male are shown below. Amounts and \"ND\" status for other age and gender groups, pregnant women, lactating women, and breastfeeding infants may be much different. It is also recommended that the following substances not be added to food or dietary supplements. Research has been conducted into adverse effects, but was not conclusive in many cases:", "RDA/AI is shown below for males and females aged 19-70 years.", "The equations used to calculate the RDA are as follows: \"If the standard deviation (SD) of the EAR is available and the requirement for the nutrient is symmetrically distributed, the RDA is set at two SDs above the EAR: formula_1 If data about variability in requirements are insufficient to calculate an SD, a coefficient of variation (CV) for the EAR of 10 percent is assumed, unless available data indicate a greater variation in requirements. If 10 percent is assumed to be the CV, then twice that amount when added to the EAR is defined as equal to the RDA. The resulting equation for the RDA is then formula_2 This level of intake statistically represents 97.5 percent of the requirements of the population.\"", "In September 2007, the Institute of Medicine held a workshop entitled “The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges.” At that meeting, several speakers stated that the current Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI’s) were largely based upon the very lowest rank in the quality of evidence pyramid, that is, opinion, rather than the highest level – randomized controlled clinical trials. Speakers called for a higher standard of evidence to be utilized when making dietary recommendations. The only DRIs to have been revised since that meeting are vitamin D and calcium." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Description.", "History.", "Cultivation and production.", "Cultivation areas.", "Climatic requirements.", "Grading.", "Cultivation parameters.", "Cultivation management.", "Breeding.", "Uses.", "Traditional uses.", "Volatiles and essential oil.", "Aroma profile.", "Nutritional value.", "Confusion with other spices." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term comes via Middle English and Old French from the Latin term \"cuminum\", which in turn comes from the Ancient Greek (\"kúminon\"). This is a Semitic borrowing related to Hebrew כמון (\"kammōn\") and Arabic كمون (\"kammun\"), all of which ultimately derive from Akkadian 𒂵𒈬𒉡 (kamūnu).", "Cumin is the dried seed of the herb \"Cuminum cyminum\", a member of the parsley family. The cumin plant grows to tall and is harvested by hand. It is an annual herbaceous plant, with a slender, glabrous, branched stem that is tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm (–2 in). Each branch has two to three subbranches. All the branches attain the same height, so the plant has a uniform canopy. The stem is coloured grey or dark green. The leaves are long, pinnate or bipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. The flowers are small, white or pink, and borne in umbels. Each umbel has five to seven umbellets. The fruit is a lateral fusiform or ovoid achene 4–5 mm (– in) long, containing two mericarps with a single seed. Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals. They resemble caraway seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in colour, like other members of the family Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) such as caraway, parsley, and dill.", "Likely originating in a region of the Eastern Mediterranean called the Levant, cumin has been in use as a spice for thousands of years. Seeds excavated at the Syrian site Tell ed-Der were dated to the second millennium BC. They have also been reported from several New Kingdom levels of ancient Egyptian archaeological sites. In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as a spice and as a preservative in mummification. Cumin was a significant spice for the Minoans in ancient Crete. Ideograms for cumin appear in Linear A archive tablets documenting Minoan palace stores during the Late Minoan period. The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in Morocco. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine. In India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists. Several different types of cumin are known, but the most famous ones are black and green cumin, both of which are used in Persian cuisine. Today, the plant is mostly grown in the Indian subcontinent, Northern Africa, Mexico, Chile, and China. Since cumin is often used as part of birdseed and exported to many countries, the plant can occur as an introduced species in many territories.", "", "The main producers of cumin are China and India, which produces 70% of the world supply and consumes 90% of that (which means that India consumes 63% of the world's cumin). Mexico is another major producer. In total, around 300,000 tons of cumin per year are produced worldwide.", "Cumin is a drought-tolerant, tropical, or subtropical crop. It has a growth season of 100 to 120 days. The optimum growth temperature ranges are between 25 and 30 °C. The Mediterranean climate is most suitable for its growth. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of three to four months. At low temperatures, leaf colour changes from green to purple. High temperature might reduce growth period and induce early ripening. In India, cumin is sown from October until the beginning of December, and harvesting starts in February. In Syria and Iran, cumin is sown from mid-November until mid-December (extensions up to mid-January are possible) and harvested in June/July.", "The three noteworthy sorts of cumin seed in the market vary in seed shading, amount of oil, and flavor.", "Cumin is grown from seeds. The seeds need for emergence, an optimum of is suggested. Cumin is vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed formation stages. Methods to reduce frost damage are spraying with sulfuric acid (0.1%), irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting up windbreaks, or creating an early-morning smoke cover. The seedlings of cumin are rather small and their vigor is low. Soaking the seeds for 8 hours before sowing enhances germination. For an optimal plant population, a sowing density of is recommended. Fertile, sandy, loamy soils with good aeration, proper drainage, and high oxygen availability are preferred. The pH optimum of the soil ranges from 6.8 to 8.3. Cumin seedlings are sensitive to salinity and emergence from heavy soils is rather difficult. Therefore, a proper seedbed preparation (smooth bed) is crucial for optimal establishment of cumin. Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing. For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of. The seeds are then placed in these furrows and covered with soil. Line sowing offers advantages for intercultural operations such as weeding, hoeing, or spraying. The recommended sowing depth is 1–2 cm and the recommended sowing density is around 120 plants per m. The water requirements of cumin are lower than those of many other species. Despite this, cumin is often irrigated after sowing to be sure that enough moisture is available for seedling development. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on the climate conditions.", "The relative humidity in the center of origin of cumin is rather low. High relative humidity (i.e. wet years) favours fungal diseases. Cumin is especially sensitive to \"Alternaria\" blight and \"Fusarium\" wilt. Early-sown crops exhibit stronger disease effects than late sown crops. The most important disease is \"Fusarium\" wilt, resulting in yield losses up to 80%. \"Fusarium\" is seed- or soil-borne and it requires distinct soil temperatures for development of epidemics. Inadequate fertilization might favour \"Fusarium\" epidemics. Cumin blight (\"Alternaria\") appears in the form of dark brown spots on leaves and stems. When the weather is cloudy after flowering, the incidence of the disease is increased. Another, but less important, disease is powdery mildew. Incidence of powdery mildew in early development can cause drastic yield losses because no seeds are formed. Later in development, powdery mildew causes discoloured, small seeds. Pathogens can lead to high reductions in crop yield. Cumin can be attacked by aphids (\"Myzus persicae\") at the flowering stage. They suck the sap of the plant from tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes yellow, the seed formation is reduced (yield reduction), and the quality of the harvested product decreases. Heavily infested plant parts should be removed. Other important pests are the mites (\"Petrobia latens\") which frequently attack the crop. Since the mites mostly feed on young leaves, the infestation is more severe on young inflorescences. The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. The leaf area index of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and a short stature of cumin favours weed competition additionally. Two hoeing and weeding sessions (30 and 60 days after sowing) are needed for the control of weeds. During the first weeding session (30 days after sowing), thinning should be done, as well, to remove excess plants. The use of preplant or pre-emergence herbicides is very effective in India, but this kind of herbicide application requires soil moisture for a successful weed control.", "Cumin is a diploid species with 14 chromosomes (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of the varieties available today are selections. The variabilities of yield and yield components are high. Varieties are developed by sib mating in enclosed chambers or by biotechnology. Cumin is a cross-pollinator, i.e. the breeds are already hybrids. Therefore, methods used for breeding are \"in vitro\" regenerations, DNA technologies, and gene transfers. The \"in vitro\" cultivation of cumin allows the production of genetically identical plants. The main sources for the explants used \"in vitro\" regenerations are embryos, hypocotyl, shoot internodes, leaves, and cotyledons. One goal of cumin breeding is to improve its resistance to biotic (fungal diseases) and abiotic (cold, drought, salinity) stresses. The potential genetic variability for conventional breeding of cumin is limited and research about cumin genetics is scarce.", "Cumin seed is used as a spice for its distinctive flavour and aroma. Cumin can be found in some cheeses, such as Leyden cheese, and in some traditional breads from France. Cumin can be an ingredient in chili powder (often Tex-Mex or Mexican-style), and is found in \"achiote\" blends, \"adobos\", \"sofrito\", \"garam masala\", curry powder, \"bahaarat\", and is used to flavor numerous commercial food products. In South Asian cooking, it is often combined with coriander seeds in a powdered mixture called \"dhana jeera\". Cumin can be used ground or as whole seeds. It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili. It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries.", "The seeds are powdered and used in different forms like \"kashaya \"(decoction), \"arishta\" (fermented decoction), and \"vati\" (tablet/pills), and processed with \"ghee\" (a semifluid clarified butter). In traditional medicine practices of several countries, dried cumin seeds are believed to have medicinal purposes, although there is no scientific evidence for any use as a drug or medicine. In southern Indian states, a popular drink called \"jira\" water is made by boiling cumin seeds.", "Cuminaldehyde, cymene, and terpenoids are the major volatile components of cumin oil which is used for a variety of flavors, perfumes, and essential oil. Cumin oil may be used as an ingredient in some cosmetics.", "Cumin's distinctive flavour and warm aroma are due to its essential oil content, primarily the aroma compound, cuminaldehyde. Other aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the substituted pyrazines, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-\"sec\"-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Other components include γ-terpinene, safranal, p-cymene, and β-pinene.", "In a 100-g reference amount, cumin seeds provide high amounts of the Daily Value for fat (especially monounsaturated fat), protein, and dietary fiber (table). B vitamins, vitamin E, and several dietary minerals, especially iron, magnesium, and manganese, are present in substantial Daily Value amounts (table). Cumin seeds contain petroselinic acid.", "Cumin is sometimes confused with caraway (\"Carum carvi\"), another spice in the parsley family (Apiaceae). Cumin, though, is hotter to the taste, lighter in color, and larger. Many European languages do not distinguish clearly between the two. Many Slavic and Uralic languages refer to cumin as \"Roman caraway\". The distantly related \"Bunium persicum\" and \"Bunium bulbocastanum\" and the unrelated \"Nigella sativa\" are both sometimes called black cumin (\"q.v.\")." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Etymology.", "Description.", "History.", "Classification.", "Reception.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In many English-speaking countries outside North America, including the United Kingdom, the most common word for a crisp cookie is biscuit. The term cookie is normally used to describe chewier ones. However, in many regions both terms are used. The container used to store cookies may be called a cookie jar. In Scotland the term cookie is sometimes used to describe a plain bun. Cookies that are baked as a solid layer on a sheet pan and then cut, rather than being baked as individual pieces, are called in British English bar cookies or traybakes.", "The word dates from 1730, Scottish usage, but the word meant \"plain bun,\" rather than thin baked good, and so it is not certain whether it is the same word. From 1808, the word \"cookie\" is attested \"...in the sense of \"small, flat, sweet cake\" in American English. The American use is derived from Dutch koekje \"little cake,\" which is a diminutive of \"koek\" (\"cake\"), which came from the Middle Dutch word \"koke\". Another claim is that the American name derives from the Dutch word \"koekje\" or more precisely its informal, dialect variant \"koekie\" which means \"little cake,\" and arrived in American English with the Dutch settlement of New Netherland, in the early 1600s. According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name derives from the diminutive form (+ suffix \"-ie\") of the word \"cook\", giving the Middle Scots \"cookie\", \"cooky\" or \"cu(c)kie\". There was much trade and cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf.", "Cookies are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, but some kinds of cookies are not baked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the cookie may depend on how long it is baked. A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called \"batter\") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness – to better form. In the cookie, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils, whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven. Oils in baked cakes do not behave as baking soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it.", "Cookie-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking is documented, in part because they deal with travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered cookies by modern standards. Cookies appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors. With global travel becoming widespread at that time, cookies made a natural travel companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of the most popular early cookies, which traveled especially well and became known on every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard cookie made largely from nuts, sweetener, and water. Cookies came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s. The Dutch word \"koekje\" was Anglicized to \"cookie\" or cooky. The earliest reference to cookies in America is in 1703, when \"The Dutch in New York provided...'in 1703...at a funeral 800 cookies...'\" The most common modern cookie, given its style by the creaming of butter and sugar, was not common until the 18th century.", "Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed or made, including at least these categories: Other types of cookies are classified for other reasons, such as their ingredients, size, or intended time of serving:", "Leah Ettman from Nutrition Action has criticized the high calorie count and fat content of supersized cookies, which are extra large cookies; she cites the Panera Kitchen Sink Cookie, a supersized chocolate chip cookie, which measures 5 1/2 inches in diameter and has 800 calories. For busy people who eat breakfast cookies in the morning, Kate Bratskeir from the \"Huffington Post\" recommends lower-sugar cookies filled with \"heart-healthy nuts and fiber-rich oats\". A book on nutrition by Paul Insel et al notes that \"low-fat\" or \"diet cookies\" may have the same number of calories as regular cookies, due to added sugar.", "There are a number of slang usages of the term \"cookie\". The slang use of \"cookie\" to mean a person, \"especially an attractive woman\" is attested to in print since 1920. The catchphrase \"that's the way the cookie crumbles\", which means \"that's just the way things happen\" is attested to in print in 1955. Other slang terms include \"smart cookie” and “tough cookie.” According to \"The Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms\", a smart cookie is “someone who is clever and good at dealing with difficult situations.” The word \"cookie\" has been vulgar slang for \"vagina\" since 1970 in the US. The word \"cookies\" is used to refer to the contents of the stomach, often in reference to vomiting (e.g., \"pop your cookies\" a 1960s expression, or \"toss your cookies\", a 1970s expression). The expression \"cookie cutter\", in addition to referring literally to a culinary device to rolled cookie dough into shapes, is also used metaphorically to refer to items or things \"having the same configuration or look as many others\" (e.g., a \"cookie cutter tract house\") or to label something as \"stereotyped or formulaic\" (e.g., an action movie filled with \"generic cookie cutter characters\"). \"Cookie duster\" is a whimsical expression for a mustache. Cookie Monster is a Muppet on the long-running children's television show \"Sesame Street\" who is best known for his voracious appetite for cookies and his famous eating phrases, such as \"Me want cookie!\", \"Me eat cookie!\" (or simply \"COOKIE!\"), and \"Om nom nom nom\" (said through a mouth full of food)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Civil War.", "Western Virginia and Antietam.", "Shenandoah Valley and promotion.", "Legal career and marriage.", "Rising politician 1877–1895.", "Spokesman for protection.", "Gerrymandering and defeat for re-election.", "Governor of Ohio (1892–1896).", "Election of 1896.", "Obtaining the nomination.", "General election campaign.", "Presidency (1897–1901).", "Inauguration and appointments.", "Cuba crisis and war with Spain.", "Peace and territorial gain.", "Expanding influence overseas.", "Tariffs and bimetallism.", "Civil rights.", "1900 election.", "Second term.", "Assassination.", "Funeral, memorials, and legacy.", "Funeral and resting place.", "Other memorials.", "Legacy and historical image.", "Bibliography.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "William McKinley Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, the seventh of nine children of William McKinley Sr. and Nancy (née Allison) McKinley. The McKinleys were of English and Scots-Irish descent and had settled in western Pennsylvania in the 18th century, tracing back to a David McKinley who was born in Dervock, County Antrim, in present-day Northern Ireland. There, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy, settling in New Lisbon (now Lisbon). He met Nancy Allison there and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvania's earliest settlers. The family trade on both sides was iron-making,", "", "When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, thousands of men in Ohio volunteered for service. Among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other small units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohio's earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers; they would", "While the regiment went into winter quarters near Charleston, Virginia (present-day West Virginia), McKinley was ordered back to Ohio with some other sergeants to recruit fresh troops. When they arrived in Columbus, Governor David Tod surprised McKinley with a commission as second lieutenant in recognition of his service at Antietam. McKinley and his comrades saw little action until July 1863, when the division skirmished with John Hunt Morgan's cavalry at the Battle of Buffington Island. Early in 1864, the Army command structure in West Virginia was reorganized, and the division was assigned to George Crook's Army of West Virginia. They soon resumed the offensive, marching", "After the war ended in 1865, McKinley decided on a career in the law and began studying in the office of an attorney in Poland, Ohio. The following year, he continued his studies by attending Albany Law School in New York. After studying there for less than a year, McKinley returned home and was admitted to the bar in Warren, Ohio, in March 1867. That same year, he moved to Canton, the county seat of Stark County, and set up a small office. He soon formed a partnership with George W. Belden, an experienced lawyer and former judge. His practice was successful enough for him to buy a block of buildings on Main Street in Canton, which provided him with a small but consistent rental income for decades to come. When his Army friend Rutherford B. Hayes was nominated for governor in 1867, McKinley made speeches on his behalf in Stark County, his first foray into politics. The county was closely divided between Democrats and Republicans, but Hayes carried it that year in his statewide victory. In 1869, McKinley ran for the office of prosecuting attorney of Stark County, an office usually then held by Democrats, and was unexpectedly elected. When McKinley ran for re-election in 1871, the Democrats nominated William A. Lynch, a prominent local lawyer, and McKinley was defeated by 143 votes. As McKinley's professional career progressed, so too did his social life blossom as he wooed Ida Saxton, the daughter of a prominent Canton family. They were married", "", "McKinley first took his congressional seat in October 1877, when President Hayes summoned Congress into special session. With the Republicans in the minority, McKinley was given unimportant committee assignments, which he undertook conscientiously. McKinley's friendship with Hayes did McKinley little good on Capitol Hill; the President was not well-regarded by many leaders there. The young congressman broke with Hayes on the question of the currency, but it did not affect their friendship. The United States had effectively been placed on the gold standard by the Coinage Act of 1873; when silver prices dropped significantly, many sought to make silver again a legal tender, equally with gold. Such a course would be inflationary,", "Recognizing McKinley's potential, the Democrats, whenever they controlled the Ohio legislature, sought to gerrymander or redistrict him out of office. In 1878, McKinley faced election in a redrawn 17th district; he won anyway, causing Hayes to exult, \"Oh, the good luck of McKinley! He was gerrymandered out and then beat the gerrymander! We enjoyed it as much as he did.\" After the 1882 election, McKinley was unseated on an election contest by a near party-line House vote. Out of office, he was briefly depressed by the setback, but soon vowed to run again. The Democrats again redistricted Stark County for the 1884 election; McKinley was returned to Congress anyway. For 1890, the Democrats gerrymandered McKinley one final time, placing Stark County in the same district as one of the", "Even before McKinley completed his term in Congress, he met with a delegation of Ohioans urging him to run for governor. Governor James E. Campbell, a Democrat, who had defeated Foraker in 1889, was to seek re-election in 1891. The Ohio Republican party remained divided, but McKinley quietly arranged for Foraker to nominate him at the 1891 state Republican convention, which chose McKinley by acclamation. The former congressman spent much of the second half of 1891 campaigning against Campbell, beginning in his birthplace of Niles. Hanna, however, was little seen in the campaign; he spent much of his time raising funds for the election of legislators pledged to vote for Sherman in the 1892 senatorial election. McKinley won the 1891", "", "It is unclear when William McKinley began to seriously prepare a run for president. As Phillips notes, \"no documents, no diaries, no confidential letters to Mark Hanna (or anyone else) contain his secret hopes or veiled stratagems.\" From the beginning, McKinley's preparations had the participation of Hanna, whose biographer William T. Horner noted, \"what is certainly true is that in 1888 the two men began to develop a close working relationship that helped put McKinley in the White House.\" Sherman did not run for president again after 1888, and so Hanna could support McKinley's ambitions for that office wholeheartedly. Backed by Hanna's money and organizational", "Before the Republican convention, McKinley had been a \"straddle bug\" on the currency question, favoring moderate positions on silver such as accomplishing bimetallism by international agreement. In the final days before the convention, McKinley decided, after hearing from politicians and businessmen, that the platform should endorse the gold standard, though it should allow for bimetallism through in coordination with other nations. Adoption of the platform caused some western delegates, led by Colorado Senator Henry M. Teller, to walk out of the convention. However, compared with the Democrats, Republican divisions on the issue were small, especially as McKinley promised future concessions to silver advocates. The bad economic times had continued, and strengthened the hand of forces for free silver. The issue bitterly divided the Democratic Party; President Cleveland firmly supported the gold standard, but an increasing number of rural Democrats wanted silver, especially in the South and West. The silverites took control", "", "McKinley was sworn in as president on March 4, 1897, as his wife and mother looked on. The new President gave a lengthy inaugural address; he urged tariff reform, and stated that the currency issue would have to await tariff legislation. He warned against foreign interventions, \"We want no wars of conquest. We must avoid the temptation of territorial aggression.\" McKinley's most controversial Cabinet appointment was that of John Sherman as Secretary of State. Sherman had an outstanding reputation but old age was fast reducing", "For decades, rebels in Cuba had waged an intermittent campaign for freedom from Spanish colonial rule. By 1895, the conflict had expanded to a war for Cuban independence. As war engulfed the island, Spanish reprisals against the rebels grew ever harsher. American public opinion favored the rebels, and McKinley shared in their outrage against Spanish policies. However while public opinion called for war to liberate Cuba, McKinley favored a peaceful approach, hoping that through negotiation, Spain might be convinced to grant Cuba independence, or at least to allow the Cubans some measure of autonomy. The United States and Spain began negotiations on the subject in 1897, but it became clear that Spain would never concede Cuban independence, while the rebels (and their American supporters) would never settle for anything less.", "McKinley's cabinet agreed with him that Spain must leave Cuba and Puerto Rico, but they disagreed on the Philippines, with some wishing to annex the entire archipelago and some wishing only to retain a naval base in the area. Although public sentiment seemed to favor annexation of the Philippines, several prominent political leaders—including Democrats Bryan, and Cleveland, and the newly formed American Anti-Imperialist League—made their opposition known. McKinley proposed to open negotiations with Spain on the basis of Cuban liberation and Puerto Rican annexation, with the final status of the Philippines subject to further discussion. He stood firmly in that demand even as the military situation on Cuba began to deteriorate when the American army was struck with yellow fever. Spain ultimately agreed to a ceasefire on those terms on August 12, and treaty negotiations began in Paris in September 1898. The talks continued until December 18, when the Treaty of Paris was signed. The United States acquired Puerto Rico and the Philippines as well as the island of", "Even before peace negotiations began with Spain, McKinley asked Congress to set up a commission to examine trade opportunities in Asia and espoused an \"Open Door Policy\", in which all nations would freely trade with China and none would seek to violate that nation's territorial integrity. American missionaries were threatened with death when the Boxer Rebellion menaced foreigners in China. Americans and other westerners in Peking were besieged and, in cooperation with other western powers, McKinley ordered 5000 troops to the city in June 1900 in the China Relief Expedition. The westerners were rescued the next month, but several Congressional Democrats objected to McKinley dispatching troops without consulting the legislature. McKinley's actions set a precedent that led to most of his successors exerting similar independent control over the military. After the rebellion ended,", "McKinley had built his reputation in Congress on high tariffs, promising protection for American business and well-paid American factory workers. With the Republicans in control of Congress, Ways and Means chairman Dingley introduced the Dingley Act which would raise rates on wool, sugar, and luxury goods. McKinley supported it and it became law. American negotiators soon concluded a reciprocity treaty with France, and the two nations approached Britain to gauge British enthusiasm for bimetallism. The Prime Minister, Lord Salisbury, and his government showed some interest in the idea and told the American envoy, Edward O. Wolcott, that he would be amenable to reopening the", "In the wake of McKinley's election in 1896, African Americans were hopeful of progress towards equality. McKinley had spoken out against lynching while governor, and most African Americans who could vote supported him in 1896. McKinley's priority, however, was in ending sectionalism, and they were disappointed by his policies and appointments. Although McKinley made some appointments of African Americans to low-level government posts, and received some praise for that, the appointments were less than they had received under previous Republican administrations. Blanche K. Bruce, an African American who during Reconstruction had served as senator from Mississippi, received the post of register at the Treasury Department; this post was traditionally given to an African American by Republican presidents. McKinley appointed several black postmasters; however, when Democrats protested the appointment of Justin W. Lyons as postmaster of Augusta, Georgia, McKinley asked Lyons to withdraw (he was subsequently given the post of Treasury register after Bruce's death in 1898). The President did appoint George B. Jackson, a", "Republicans were generally successful in state and local elections around the country in 1899, and McKinley was optimistic about his chances at re-election in 1900. McKinley's popularity in his first term assured him of renomination for a second. The only question about the Republican ticket concerned the vice presidential nomination; McKinley needed a new running mate as Hobart had died in late 1899. McKinley initially favored Elihu Root, who had succeeded Alger as Secretary of War, but McKinley decided that Root was", "Soon after his second inauguration on March 4, 1901, William and Ida McKinley undertook a six-week tour of the nation. Traveling mostly by rail, the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest, and then up the Pacific coast and east again, to conclude", "Although McKinley enjoyed meeting the public, Cortelyou was concerned with his security due to recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe, such as the assassination of King Umberto I of Italy the previous year, and twice tried to remove a public reception from the President's rescheduled visit to the Exposition. McKinley refused, and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip. On September 5, the President delivered his address at the fairgrounds, before a crowd of some 50,000 people. In his final speech, McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other", "", "According to Gould, \"The nation experienced a wave of genuine grief at the news of McKinley's passing.\" The stock market, faced with sudden uncertainty, suffered a steep decline—almost unnoticed in the mourning. The nation focused its attention on the casket that made its way by train, first to Washington, where it first lay in the East Room of the Executive Mansion, and then in state in the Capitol, and then was taken to Canton. A hundred thousand people passed by the open casket in the Capitol Rotunda, many having waited hours in the rain; in Canton, an equal number did the same at the Stark County Courthouse on September 18. The following day, a funeral service was held at the First Methodist Church; the casket was then sealed and taken to the McKinley house, where relatives paid their final respects. It was", "In addition to the Canton site there are many memorials to McKinley. There is the \"William McKinley Monument\" in front of the Ohio Statehouse in Columbus, Ohio and a monument at his birthplace in Niles; 20 Ohio schools bear his name. There are several schools in the United States named McKinley School. Nearly a million dollars was pledged by contributors or allocated from public funds for the construction of McKinley memorials in the year after his death. Phillips suggests the significant number of major memorials to McKinley in Ohio reflected", "McKinley's biographer, H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history. However, the young, enthusiastic Roosevelt quickly captured public attention after his predecessor's death. The new president made little effort to secure the trade reciprocity McKinley had intended to negotiate with other nations. Controversy and public interest surrounded Roosevelt throughout the seven and a half years of his presidency as memories of McKinley faded; by 1920, according to Gould, McKinley's administration was deemed no more than \"a mediocre prelude to the vigor and energy of Theodore Roosevelt's\". Beginning in the 1950s, McKinley received more favorable evaluations; nevertheless, in", "Books", "Official Speeches Media coverage Other" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Geography and topography.", "Polar Ural.", "Nether-polar Ural.", "Northern Ural.", "Middle Ural.", "Southern Ural.", "Geology.", "Rivers and lakes.", "Climate.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "Ecology.", "Cultural significance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As attested by Sigismund von Herberstein, in the 16th century Russians called the range by a variety of names derived from the Russian words for rock (stone) and belt. The modern Russian name for the Urals (Урал, \"Ural\"), first appearing in the 16th–17th century when the Russian conquest of Siberia was in its heroic phase, was initially applied to its southern parts and gained currency as the name of the entire range during the 18th century. It might have been a borrowing from either Turkic \"stone belt\" (Bashkir, where the same name is used for the range), or Ob-Ugric. From the 13th century, in Bashkortostan there has been a legend about a hero named Ural. He sacrificed his life for the sake of his people and they poured a stone pile over his grave, which later turned into the Ural Mountains. Possibilities include Bashkir \"үр\" \"elevation; upland\" and Mansi \"ур ала\" \"mountain peak, top of the mountain\", V.N. Tatischev believes that this oronym is set to \"belt\" and associates it with the Turkic verb oralu- \"gird\". I.G. Dobrodomov suggests a transition from Aral to Ural explained on the basis of ancient Bulgar-Chuvash dialects. Geographer E.V. Hawks believes that the name goes back to the Bashkir folklore Ural-Batyr. The Evenk geographical term \"era\" \"mountain\" has also been theorized. Finno-Ugrist scholars consider Ural deriving from the Ostyak word \"urr\" meaning \"chain of mountains\". Turkologists, on the other hand, have achieved majority support for their assertion that 'ural' in Tatar means a belt, and recall that an earlier name for the range was'stone belt'.", "As Middle-Eastern merchants traded with the Bashkirs and other people living on the western slopes of the Ural as far north as Great Perm, since at least the 10th century medieval mideastern geographers had been aware of the existence of the mountain range in its entirety, stretching as far as to the Arctic Ocean in the north. The first Russian mention of the mountains to the east of the East European Plain is provided by the Primary Chronicle, when it describes the Novgorodian expedition to the upper reaches of the Pechora in 1096. During the next few centuries Novgorodians engaged in fur trading with the local population and collected tribute from Yugra and Great Perm, slowly expanding southwards. The rivers Chusovaya and Belaya were first mentioned in the chronicles of 1396 and 1468, respectively. In 1430 the town of Solikamsk (Kama Salt) was founded on the Kama at the foothills of the Ural, where salt was produced in open pans. Ivan III of Moscow captured Perm, Pechora and Yugra from the declining Novgorod Republic in 1472. With the excursions of 1483 and 1499–1500 across the Ural Moscow managed to subjugate Yugra completely. Nevertheless, around that time early 16th century Polish geographer Maciej of Miechów in his influential \"Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis\" (1517) argued that there were no mountains in Eastern Europe at all, challenging the point of view of some authors of Classical antiquity, popular during the Renaissance. Only after Sigismund von Herberstein in his Notes on Muscovite Affairs (1549) had reported, following Russian sources, that there are mountains behind the Pechora and identified them with the Riphean Mountains and Hyperboreans of ancient authors, did the existence of the Ural, or at least of its northern part, become firmly established in the Western geography. The Middle and Southern Ural were still largely unavailable and unknown to the Russian or Western European geographers. In the 1550s, after the Tsardom of Russia had defeated the Khanate of Kazan and proceeded to gradually annex the lands of the Bashkirs, the Russians finally reached the southern part of the mountain chain. In 1574 they founded Ufa. The upper reaches of the Kama and Chusovaya in the Middle Ural, still unexplored, as well as parts of Transuralia still held by the hostile Siberian Khanate, were granted to the Stroganovs by several decrees of the tsar in 1558–1574. The Stroganovs' land provided the staging ground for Yermak's incursion into Siberia. Yermak crossed the Ural from the Chusovaya to the Tagil around 1581. In 1597 Babinov's road was built across the Ural from Solikamsk to the valley of the Tura, where the town of Verkhoturye (Upper Tura) was founded in 1598. Customs was established in Verkhoturye shortly thereafter and the road was made the only legal connection between European Russia and Siberia for a long time. In 1648 the town of Kungur was founded at the western foothills of the Middle Ural. During the 17th century the first deposits of iron and copper ores, mica, gemstones and other minerals were discovered in the Ural. Iron and copper smelting works emerged. They multiplied particularly quickly during the reign of Peter I of Russia. In 1720–1722 he commissioned Vasily Tatishchev to oversee and develop the mining and smelting works in the Ural. Tatishchev proposed a new copper smelting factory in Yegoshikha, which would eventually become the core of the city of Perm and a new iron smelting factory on the Iset, which would become the largest in the world at the time of construction and give birth to the city of Yekaterinburg. Both factories were actually founded by Tatishchev's successor, Georg Wilhelm de Gennin, in 1723. Tatishchev returned to the Ural on the order of Empress Anna to succeed de Gennin in 1734–1737. Transportation of the output of the smelting works to the markets of European Russia necessitated the construction of the Siberian Route from Yekaterinburg across the Ural to Kungur and Yegoshikha (Perm) and further to Moscow, which was completed in 1763 and rendered Babinov's road obsolete. In 1745 gold was discovered in the Ural at Beryozovskoye and later at other deposits. It has been mined since 1747. The first ample geographic survey of the Ural Mountains was completed in the early 18th century by the Russian historian and geographer Vasily Tatishchev under the orders of Peter I. Earlier, in the 17th century, rich ore deposits were discovered in the mountains and their systematic extraction began in the early 18th century, eventually turning the region into the largest mineral base of Russia. One of the first scientific descriptions of the mountains was published in 1770–71. Over the next century, the region was studied by scientists from a number of countries, including Russia (geologist Alexander Karpinsky, botanist Porfiry Krylov and zoologist Leonid Sabaneyev), the United Kingdom (geologist Sir Roderick Murchison), France (paleontologist Édouard de Verneuil), and Germany (naturalist Alexander von Humboldt, geologist Alexander Keyserling). In 1845, Murchison, who had according to \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" \"compiled the first geologic map of the Ural in 1841\", published \"The Geology of Russia in Europe and the Ural Mountains\" with de Verneuil and Keyserling. The first railway across the Ural had been built by 1878 and linked Perm to Yekaterinburg via Chusovoy, Kushva and Nizhny Tagil. In 1890 a railway linked Ufa and Chelyabinsk via Zlatoust. In 1896 this section became a part of the Trans-Siberian Railway. In 1909 yet another railway connecting Perm and Yekaterinburg passed through Kungur by the way of the Siberian Route. It has eventually replaced the Ufa – Chelyabinsk section as the main trunk of the Trans-Siberian railway. The highest peak of the Ural, Mount Narodnaya, (elevation 1,895 m (6,217 ft)) was identified in 1927. During the Soviet industrialization in the 1930s the city of Magnitogorsk was founded in the South-Eastern Ural as a center of iron smelting and steelmaking. During the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941–1942, the mountains became a key element in Nazi planning for the territories which they expected to conquer in the USSR. Faced with the threat of having a significant part of the Soviet territories occupied by the enemy, the government evacuated many of the industrial enterprises of European Russia and Ukraine to the eastern foothills of the Ural, considered a safe place out of reach of the German bombers and troops. Three giant tank factories were established at the Uralmash in Sverdlovsk (as Yekaterinburg used to be known), Uralvagonzavod in Nizhny Tagil, and Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant in Chelyabinsk. After the war, in 1947–1948, Chum – Labytnangi railway, built with the forced labor of Gulag inmates, crossed the Polar Ural. Mayak, 150 km southeast of Yekaterinburg, was a center of the Soviet nuclear industry and site of the Kyshtym disaster.", "The Ural Mountains extend about from the Kara Sea to the Kazakh Steppe along the border of Kazakhstan. Vaygach Island and the island of Novaya Zemlya form a further continuation of the chain on the north. Geographically this range marks the northern part of the border between the continents of Europe and Asia. Its highest peak is Mount Narodnaya, approximately in elevation. By topography and other natural features, the Urals are divided, from north to south, into the Polar (or Arctic), Nether-Polar (or Sub-Arctic), Northern, Central and Southern parts.", "The Polar Urals extend for about from Mount Konstantinov Kamen in the north to the Khulga River in the south; they have an area of about and a strongly dissected relief. The maximum height is at Payer Mountain and the average height is. The mountains of the Polar Ural have exposed rock with sharp ridges, though flattened or rounded tops are also found.", "The Nether-Polar Ural are higher, and up to wider than the Polar Urals. They include the highest peaks of the range: Mount Narodnaya (), Mount Karpinsky () and Manaraga (). They extend for more than south to the Shchugor River. The many ridges are sawtooth shaped and dissected by river valleys. Both Polar and Nether-Polar Urals are typically Alpine; they bear traces of Pleistocene glaciation, along with permafrost and extensive modern glaciation, including 143 extant glaciers.", "The Northern Ural consist of a series of parallel ridges up to in height and longitudinal hollows. They are elongated from north to south and stretch for about from the Usa River. Most of the tops are flattened, but those of the highest mountains, such as Telposiz, and Konzhakovsky Stone, have a dissected topography. Intensive weathering has produced vast areas of eroded stone on the mountain slopes and summits of the northern areas.", "The Central Ural are the lowest part of the Ural, with smooth mountain tops, the highest mountain being (Basegi); they extend south from the Ufa River.", "The relief of the Southern Ural is more complex, with numerous valleys and parallel ridges directed south-west and meridionally. The range includes the Ilmensky Mountains separated from the main ridges by the Miass River. The maximum height is (Mount Yamantau) and the width reaches. Other notable peaks lie along the Iremel mountain ridge (Bolshoy Iremel and Maly Iremel). The Southern Urals extend some up to the sharp westward bend of the Ural River and terminate in the wide Mughalzhar Hills.", "The Urals are among the world's oldest extant mountain ranges. For its age of 250 to 300 million years, the elevation of the mountains is unusually high. They formed during the Uralian orogeny due to the collision of the eastern edge of the supercontinent Laurussia with the young and rheologically weak continent of Kazakhstania, which now underlies much of Kazakhstan and West Siberia west of the Irtysh, and intervening island arcs. The collision lasted nearly 90 million years in the late Carboniferous – early Triassic. Unlike the other major orogens of the Paleozoic (Appalachians, Caledonides, Variscides), the Urals have not undergone post-orogenic extensional collapse and are unusually well preserved for their age, being underlaid by a pronounced crustal root. East and south of the Urals much of the orogen is buried beneath later Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediments. The adjacent Pay-Khoy Ridge to the north and Novaya Zemlya are not a part of the Uralian orogen and formed later. Many deformed and metamorphosed rocks, mostly of Paleozoic age, surface within the Urals. The sedimentary and volcanic layers are folded and faulted. The sediments to the west of the Ural Mountains are formed of limestone, dolomite and sandstone left from ancient shallow seas. The eastern side is dominated by basalts. The western slope of the Ural Mountains has predominantly karst topography, especially in the Sylva River basin, which is a tributary of the Chusovaya River. It is composed of severely eroded sedimentary rocks (sandstones and limestones) that are about 350 million years old. There are many caves, sinkholes and underground streams. The karst topography is much less developed on the eastern slopes. The eastern slopes are relatively flat, with some hills and rocky outcrops and contain alternating volcanic and sedimentary layers dated to the middle Paleozoic Era. Most high mountains consist of weather-resistant rocks such as quartzite, schist and gabbro that are between 570 and 395 million years old. The river valleys are underlain by limestone. The Ural Mountains contain about 48 species of economically valuable ores and economically valuable minerals. Eastern regions are rich in chalcopyrite, nickel oxide, gold, platinum, chromite and magnetite ores, as well as in coal (Chelyabinsk Oblast), bauxite, talc, fireclay and abrasives. The Western Urals contain deposits of coal, oil, natural gas (Ishimbay and Krasnokamsk areas) and potassium salts. Both slopes are rich in bituminous coal and lignite, and the largest deposit of bituminous coal is in the north (Pechora field). The specialty of the Urals is precious and semi-precious stones, such as emerald, amethyst, aquamarine, jasper, rhodonite, malachite and diamond. Some of the deposits, such as the magnetite ores at Magnitogorsk, are already nearly depleted.", "Many rivers originate in the Ural Mountains. The western slopes south of the border between the Komi Republic and Perm Krai and the eastern slopes south of approximately 54°30'N drain into the Caspian Sea via the Kama and Ural River basins. The tributaries of the Kama include the Vishera, Chusovaya, and Belaya and originate on both the eastern and western slopes. The rest of the Urals drain into the Arctic Ocean, mainly via the Pechora basin in the west, which includes the Ilych, Shchugor, and the Usa, and via the Ob basin in the east, which includes the Tobol, Tavda, Iset, Tura and Severnaya Sosva. The rivers are frozen for more than half the year. Generally, the western rivers have higher flow volume than the eastern ones, especially in the Northern and Nether-Polar regions. Rivers are slower in the Southern Urals. This is because of low precipitation and the relatively warm climate resulting in less snow and more evaporation. The mountains contain a number of deep lakes. The eastern slopes of the Southern and Central Urals have most of these, among the largest of which are the Uvildy, Itkul, Turgoyak, and Tavatuy lakes. The lakes found on the western slopes are less numerous and also smaller. Lake Bolshoye Shchuchye, the deepest lake in the Polar Urals, is deep. Other lakes, too, are found in the glacial valleys of this region. Spas and sanatoriums have been built to take advantage of the medicinal muds found in some of the mountain lakes.", "The climate of the Urals is continental. The mountain ridges, elongated from north to south, effectively absorb sunlight thereby increasing the temperature. The areas west of the Ural Mountains are warmer in winter than the eastern regions because the former are warmed by Atlantic winds whereas the eastern slopes are chilled by Siberian air masses. The average January temperatures increase in the western areas from in the Polar to in the Southern Urals and the corresponding temperatures in July are and. The western areas also receive more rainfall than the eastern ones by per year. This is because the mountains trap clouds from the Atlantic Ocean. The highest precipitation, approximately, is in the Northern Urals with up to snow. The eastern areas receive from in the north to in the south. Maximum precipitation occurs in the summer: the winter is dry because of the Siberian High.", "The landscapes of the Urals vary with both latitude and longitude and are dominated by forests and steppes. The southern area of the Mughalzhar Hills is a semidesert. Steppes lie mostly in the southern and especially south-eastern Urals. Meadow steppes have developed on the lower parts of mountain slopes and are covered with zigzag and mountain clovers, \"Serratula gmelinii\", dropwort, meadow-grass and \"Bromus inermis\", reaching the height of 60–80 cm. Much of the land is cultivated. To the south, the meadow steppes become more sparse, dry and low. The steep gravelly slopes of the mountains and hills of the eastern slopes of the Southern Urals are mostly covered with rocky steppes. River valleys contain willow, poplar and caragana shrubs. Forest landscapes of the Urals are diverse, especially in the southern part. The western areas are dominated by dark coniferous taiga forests which change to mixed and deciduous forests in the south. The eastern mountain slopes have light coniferous taiga forests. The Northern Urals are dominated by conifers, namely Siberian fir, Siberian pine, Scots pine, Siberian spruce, Norway spruce and Siberian larch, as well as by silver and downy birches. The forests are much sparser in the Polar Urals. Whereas in other parts of the Ural Mountains they grow up to an altitude of 1000 m, in the Polar Urals the tree line is at 250–400 m. The polar forests are low and are mixed with swamps, lichens, bogs and shrubs. Dwarf birch, mosses and berries (blueberry, cloudberry, black crowberry, etc.) are abundant. The forests of the Southern Urals are the most diverse in composition: here, together with coniferous forests are also abundant broadleaf tree species such as English oak, Norway maple and elm. The Virgin Komi Forests in the northern Urals are recognized as a World Heritage site.", "The Ural forests are inhabited by animals typical of Siberia, such as elk, brown bear, fox, wolf, wolverine, lynx, squirrel, and sable (north only). Because of the easy accessibility of the mountains there are no specifically mountainous species. In the Middle Urals, one can see a rare mixture of sable and pine marten named kidus. In the Southern Urals, badger and black polecat are common. Reptiles and amphibians live mostly in the Southern and Central Ural and are represented by the common viper, lizards and grass snakes. Bird species are represented by capercaillie, black grouse, hazel grouse, spotted nutcracker, and cuckoos. In summers, the South and Middle Urals are visited by songbirds, such as nightingale and redstart. The steppes of the Southern Urals are dominated by hares and rodents such as hamsters, susliks, and jerboa. There are many birds of prey such as lesser kestrel and buzzards. The animals of the Polar Urals are few and are characteristic of the tundra; they include Arctic fox, lemming, and reindeer. The birds of these areas include rough-legged buzzard, snowy owl, tundra partridge, and rock ptarmigan.", "The continuous and intensive economic development of the last centuries has affected the fauna, and wildlife is much diminished around all industrial centers. During World War II, hundreds of factories were evacuated from Western Russia before the German occupation, flooding the Urals with industry. The conservation measures include establishing national wildlife parks. There are nine strict nature reserves in the Urals: the Ilmen, the oldest one, mineralogical reserve founded in 1920 in Chelyabinsk Oblast, Pechora-Ilych in the Komi Republic, Bashkir and its former branch Shulgan-Tash in Bashkortostan, Visim in Sverdlovsk Oblast, Southern Ural in Bashkortostan, Basegi in Perm Krai, Vishera in Perm Krai and Denezhkin Kamen in Sverdlovsk Oblast. The area has also been severely damaged by the plutonium-producing facility Mayak opened in Chelyabinsk-40 (later called Chelyabinsk-65, Ozyorsk), in the Southern Ural, after World War II. Its plants went into operation in 1948 and, for the first ten years, dumped unfiltered radioactive waste into the Techa River and Lake Karachay. In 1990, efforts were underway to contain the radiation in one of the lakes, which was estimated at the time to expose visitors to 500 millirem per day. As of 2006, 500 mrem in the natural environment was the upper limit of exposure considered safe for a member of the general public in an entire year (though workplace exposure over a year could exceed that by a factor of 10). Over of land were contaminated in 1957 from a storage tank explosion, only one of several serious accidents that further polluted the region. The 1957 accident expelled 20 million curies of radioactive material, 90% of which settled into the land immediately around the facility. Although some reactors of Mayak were shut down in 1987 and 1990, the facility keeps producing plutonium.", "The Urals have been viewed by Russians as a \"treasure box\" of mineral resources, which were the basis for its extensive industrial development. In addition to iron and copper the Urals were a source of gold, malachite, alexandrite, and other gems such as those used by the court jeweller Fabergé. As Russians in other regions gather mushrooms or berries, Uralians gather mineral specimens and gems. Dmitry Mamin-Sibiryak (1852–1912) Pavel Bazhov (1879–1950), as well as Aleksey Ivanov and Olga Slavnikova, post-Soviet writers, have written of the region. The region served as a military stronghold during Peter the Great's Great Northern War with Sweden, during Stalin's rule when the Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Complex was built and Russian industry relocated to the Urals during the Nazi advance at the beginning of World War II, and as the center of the Soviet nuclear industry during the Cold War. Extreme levels of air, water, and radiological contamination and pollution by industrial wastes resulted. Population exodus resulted, and economic depression at the time of the collapse of the Soviet Union, but in post-Soviet times additional mineral exploration, particularly in the northern Urals, has been productive and the region has attracted industrial investment." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Macro.", "Micro.", "Essentiality.", "Essential.", "Amino acids.", "Fatty acids.", "Vitamins.", "Minerals.", "Conditionally essential.", "Non-essential.", "Non-nutrients.", "Deficiencies and toxicity.", "Plant." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Macronutrients are defined in several ways. Macronutrients provide energy: Fat has an energy content of 9kcal/g (~37.7 kJ/g) and proteins and carbohydrates 4kcal/g (~16.7 kJ/g).", "Micronutrients support metabolism.", "", "An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body – either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis in mammals, essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and; for the maintenance and function of tissues and organs. In the case of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.", "An essential amino acid is an amino acid that is required by an organism but cannot be synthesized \"de novo\" by it, and therefore must be supplied in its diet. Out of the twenty standard protein-producing amino acids, nine cannot be endogenously synthesized by humans: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, and histidine.", "Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are fatty acids that humans and other animals must ingest because the body requires them for good health but cannot synthesize them. Only two fatty acids are known to be essential for humans: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid).", "Vitamins are organic molecules essential for an organism that are not classified as amino acids or fatty acids. They commonly function as enzymatic cofactors, metabolic regulators or antioxidants. Humans require thirteen vitamins in their diet, most of which are actually groups of related molecules (e.g. vitamin E includes tocopherols and tocotrienols): vitamins A, C, D, E, K, thiamine (B), riboflavin (B), niacin (B), pantothenic acid (B), vitamin B (e.g., pyridoxine), biotin (B), folate (B), and cobalamin (B). The requirement for vitamin D is conditional, as people who get sufficient exposure to ultraviolet light, either from the sun or an artificial source, synthesize vitamin D in the skin.", "Minerals are the exogenous chemical elements indispensable for life. Although the four elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, are essential for life, they are so plentiful in food and drink that these are not considered nutrients and there are no recommended intakes for these as minerals. The need for nitrogen is addressed by requirements set for protein, which is composed of nitrogen-containing amino acids. Sulfur is essential, but again does not have a recommended intake. Instead, recommended intakes are identified for the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cysteine. The essential nutrient elements for humans, listed in order of Recommended Dietary Allowance (expressed as a mass), are potassium, chloride, sodium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, selenium and cobalt (the last as a component of vitamin B). There are other minerals which are essential for some plants and animals, but may or may not be essential for humans, such as boron and silicon.", "Conditionally essential nutrients are certain organic molecules that can normally be synthesized by an organism, but under certain conditions in insufficient quantities. In humans, such conditions include premature birth, limited nutrient intake, rapid growth, and certain disease states. Choline, inositol, taurine, arginine, glutamine and nucleotides are classified as conditionally essential and are particularly important in neonatal diet and metabolism.", "Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health. Insoluble dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. Soluble fiber can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic function with claims for promoting \"healthy\" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of calories.", "Ethanol (CHOH) is not an essential nutrient, but it does supply approximately 7 calories per gram. For spirits (vodka, gin, rum, etc.) a standard serving in the United States is, which at 40%ethanol (80proof) would be 14 grams and 98 calories. At 50%alcohol, 17.5grams and 122.5calories. Wine and beer contain a similar amount of ethanol in servings of and, respectively, but these beverages also contain non-ethanol calories. A 5-ounce serving of wine contains 100 to 130 calories. A 12-ounce serving of beer contains 95 to 200 calories. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, based on NHANES 2013–2014 surveys, women ages 20 and up consume on average 6.8grams of alcohol per day and men consume on average 15.5 grams per day. Ignoring the non-alcohol contribution of those beverages, the average ethanol calorie contributions are 48 and 108 cal/day, respectively. Alcoholic beverages are considered empty calorie foods because, while providing calories, they contribute no essential nutrients. By definition, phytochemicals include all nutritional and non-nutritional components of edible plants. Included as nutritional constituents are provitamin A carotenoids, whereas those without nutrient status are diverse polyphenols, flavonoids, resveratrol, and lignans – often claimed to have antioxidant effects – that are present in numerous plant foods. A number of phytochemical compounds are under preliminary research for their potential effects on human diseases and health. However, the qualification for nutrient status of compounds with poorly defined properties \"in vivo\" is that they must first be defined with a Dietary Reference Intake level to enable accurate food labeling, a condition not established for most phytochemicals that are claimed to be antioxidant nutrients.", "\"See Vitamin, Mineral (nutrient), Protein (nutrient)\" An inadequate amount of a nutrient is a deficiency. Deficiencies can be due to a number of causes including an inadequacy in nutrient intake, called a dietary deficiency, or any of several conditions that interfere with the utilization of a nutrient within an organism. Some of the conditions that can interfere with nutrient utilization include problems with nutrient absorption, substances that cause a greater than normal need for a nutrient, conditions that cause nutrient destruction, and conditions that cause greater nutrient excretion. Nutrient toxicity occurs when excess consumption of a nutrient does harm to an organism. In the United States and Canada, recommended dietary intake levels of essential nutrients are based on the minimum level that \"will maintain a defined level of nutriture in an individual\", a definition somewhat different from that used by the World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization of a \"basal requirement to indicate the level of intake needed to prevent pathologically relevant and clinically detectable signs of a dietary inadequacy\". In setting human nutrient guidelines, government organizations do not necessarily agree on amounts needed to avoid deficiency or maximum amounts to avoid the risk of toxicity. For example, for vitamin C, recommended intakes range from 40 mg/day in India to 155 mg/day for the European Union. The table below shows U.S. Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for vitamins and minerals, PRIs for the European Union (same concept as RDAs), followed by what three government organizations deem to be the safe upper intake. RDAs are set higher than EARs to cover people with higher than average needs. Adequate Intakes (AIs) are set when there is not sufficient information to establish EARs and RDAs. Governments are slow to revise information of this nature. For the U.S. values, with the exception of calcium and vitamin D, all of the data date to 1997-2004. EAR U.S. Estimated Average Requirements. RDA U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowances; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. AI U.S. Adequate Intake; AIs established when there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. PRI Population Reference Intake is European Union equivalent of RDA; higher for adults than for children, and may be even higher for women who are pregnant or lactating. For Thiamin and Niacin, the PRIs are expressed as amounts per MJ of calories consumed. MJ = megajoule = 239 food calories. Upper Limit Tolerable upper intake levels. ND ULs have not been determined. NE EARs, PRIs or AIs have not yet been established or will not be (EU does not consider chromium an essential nutrient).", "Plant nutrients consist of more than a dozen minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed or released through leaves. All organisms obtain all their nutrients from the surrounding environment. Plants absorb carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from air and soil in the form of carbon dioxide and water. Other nutrients are absorbed from soil (exceptions include some parasitic or carnivorous plants). Counting these, there are 17 important nutrients for plants: these are macronutrients; nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), sulfur (S), magnesium (Mg), carbon (C), oxygen(O) and hydrogen (H), and the micronutrients; iron (Fe), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo) and nickel (Ni). In addition to carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur are also needed in relatively large quantities. Together, the \"Big Six\" are the elemental macronutrients for all organisms. They are sourced from inorganic matter (for example, carbon dioxide, water, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, and diatomic molecules of nitrogen and, especially, oxygen) and organic matter (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Peak of popularity.", "World War II and market decline.", "Genres.", "Notable original characters.", "Illustrators.", "Authors and editors.", "Authors featured.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first \"pulp\" was Frank Munsey's revamped \"Argosy\" magazine of 1896, with about 135,000 words (192 pages) per issue, on pulp paper with untrimmed edges, and no illustrations, even on the cover. The steam-powered printing press had been in widespread use for some time, enabling the boom in dime novels; prior to Munsey, however, no one had combined cheap printing, cheap paper and cheap authors in a package that provided affordable entertainment to young working-class people. In six years, \"Argosy\" went from a few thousand copies per month to over half a million. Street & Smith, a dime novel and boys' weekly publisher, was next on the market. Seeing \"Argosy\"'s success, they launched \"The Popular Magazine\" in 1903, which they billed as the \"biggest magazine in the world\" by virtue of its being two pages (the interior sides of the front and back cover) longer than \"Argosy\". Due to differences in page layout however, the magazine had substantially less text than \"Argosy\". \"The Popular Magazine\" did introduce color covers to pulp publishing, and the magazine began to take off when in 1905 the publishers acquired the rights to serialize \"Ayesha\", by H. Rider Haggard, a sequel to his popular novel \"She\". Haggard's Lost World genre influenced several key pulp writers, including Edgar Rice Burroughs, Robert E. Howard, Talbot Mundy and Abraham Merritt. In 1907, the cover price rose to 15 cents and 30 pages were added to each issue; along with establishing a stable of authors for each magazine, this change proved successful and circulation began to approach that of \"Argosy\". Street and Smith's next innovation was the introduction of specialized genre pulps, with each magazine focusing on a particular genre, such as detective stories, romance, etc.", "At their peak of popularity in the 1920s-1940s, the most successful pulps could sell up to one million copies per issue. In 1934, Frank Gruber (writer) said there were some 150 pulp titles. The most successful pulp magazines were \"Argosy\", \"Adventure\", \"Blue Book\" and \"Short Stories\", collectively described by some pulp historians as \"The Big Four\". Among the best-known other titles of this period were \"Amazing Stories\", \"Black Mask\", \"Dime Detective\", \"Flying Aces\", \"Horror Stories\", \"Love Story Magazine\", \"Marvel Tales\", \"Oriental Stories\", \"Planet Stories\", \"Spicy Detective\", \"Startling Stories\", \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\", \"Unknown\", \"Weird Tales\" and \"Western Story Magazine\". During the economic hardships of the Great Depression, pulps provided affordable content to the masses, and were one of the primary forms of entertainment, along with film and radio. Although pulp magazines were primarily an American phenomenon, there were also a number of British pulp magazines published between the Edwardian era and World War II. Notable UK pulps included \"Pall Mall Magazine\", \"The Novel Magazine\", \"Cassell's Magazine\", \"The Story-Teller\", \"The Sovereign Magazine\", \"Hutchinson's Adventure-Story\" and \"Hutchinson's Mystery-Story\". The German fantasy magazine \"Der Orchideengarten\" had a similar format to American pulp magazines, in that it was printed on rough pulp paper and heavily illustrated.", "During the Second World War paper shortages had a serious impact on pulp production, starting a steady rise in costs and the decline of the pulps. Beginning with \"Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine\" in 1941, pulp magazines began to switch to digest size; smaller, thicker magazines. In 1949, Street & Smith closed most of their pulp magazines in order to move upmarket and produce slicks. Competition from comic-books and paperback novels further eroded the pulps’ marketshare, but it was the widespread expansion of television that sounded the death knell of the pulps. In a more affluent post-war America, the price gap compared to slick magazines was far less significant. In the 1950s, men's adventure magazines began to replace the pulp. The 1957 liquidation of the American News Company, then the primary distributor of pulp magazines, has sometimes been taken as marking the end of the \"pulp era\"; by that date, many of the famous pulps of the previous generation, including \"Black Mask,\" \"The Shadow,\" \"Doc Savage,\" and \"Weird Tales,\" were defunct. Almost all of the few remaining pulp magazines are science fiction or mystery magazines now in formats similar to \"digest size\", such as \"Analog Science Fiction and Fact\" and \"Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine\". The format is still in use for some lengthy serials, like the German science fiction weekly \"Perry Rhodan\" (over 3,000 issues as of 2019). Over the course of their evolution, there were a huge number of pulp magazine titles; Harry Steeger of Popular Publications claimed that his company alone had published over 300, and at their peak they were publishing 42 titles per month. Many titles of course survived only briefly. While the most popular titles were monthly, many were bimonthly and some were quarterly. The collapse of the pulp industry changed the landscape of publishing because pulps were the single largest sales outlet for short stories. Combined with the decrease in slick magazine fiction markets, writers attempting to support themselves by creating fiction switched to novels and book-length anthologies of shorter pieces. Some ex-pulp writers like Hugh B. Cave and Robert Leslie Bellem moved on to writing for television by the 1950s.", "Pulp magazines often contained a wide variety of genre fiction, including, but not limited to, The American Old West was a mainstay genre of early turn of the 20th century novels as well as later pulp magazines, and lasted longest of all the traditional pulps. In many ways, the later men's adventure (\"the sweats\") was the replacement of pulps. Many classic science fiction and crime novels were originally serialized in pulp magazines such as \"Weird Tales\", \"Amazing Stories\", and \"Black Mask\".", "While the majority of pulp magazines were anthology titles featuring many different authors, characters and settings, some of the most enduring magazines were those that featured a single recurring character. These were often referred to as \"hero pulps\" because the recurring character was almost always a larger-than-life hero in the mold of Doc Savage or The Shadow. Popular pulp characters that headlined in their own magazines: Popular pulp characters who appeared in anthology titles such as \"All-Story\" or \"Weird Tales\":", "Pulp covers were printed in color on higher-quality (slick) paper. They were famous for their half-dressed damsels in distress, usually awaiting a rescuing hero. Cover art played a major part in the marketing of pulp magazines. The early pulp magazines could boast covers by some distinguished American artists; \"The Popular Magazine\" had covers by N.C. Wyeth, and Edgar Franklin Wittmack contributed cover art to \"Argosy\" and \"Short Stories\". Later, many artists specialized in creating covers mainly for the pulps; a number of the most successful cover artists became as popular as the authors featured on the interior pages. Among the most famous pulp artists were Walter Baumhofer, Earle K. Bergey, Margaret Brundage, Edd Cartier, Virgil Finlay, Frank R. Paul, Norman Saunders, Nick Eggenhofer, (who specialized in Western illustrations), Hugh J. Ward, George Rozen, and Rudolph Belarski. Covers were important enough to sales that sometimes they would be designed first; authors would then be shown the cover art and asked to write a story to match. Later pulps began to feature interior illustrations, depicting elements of the stories. The drawings were printed in black ink on the same cream-colored paper used for the text, and had to use specific techniques to avoid blotting on the coarse texture of the cheap pulp. Thus, fine lines and heavy detail were usually not an option. Shading was by crosshatching or pointillism, and even that had to be limited and coarse. Usually the art was black lines on the paper's background, but Finlay and a few others did some work that was primarily white lines against large dark areas.", "Another way pulps kept costs down was by paying authors less than other markets; thus many eminent authors started out in the pulps before they were successful enough to sell to better-paying markets, and similarly, well-known authors whose careers were slumping or who wanted a few quick dollars could bolster their income with sales to pulps. Additionally, some of the earlier pulps solicited stories from amateurs who were quite happy to see their words in print and could thus be paid token amounts. There were also career pulp writers, capable of turning out huge amounts of prose on a steady basis, often with the aid of dictation to stenographers, machines or typists. Before he became a novelist, Upton Sinclair was turning out at least 8,000 words per day seven days a week for the pulps, keeping two stenographers fully employed. Pulps would often have their authors use multiple pen names so that they could use multiple stories by the same person in one issue, or use a given author's stories in three or more successive issues, while still appearing to have varied content. One advantage pulps provided to authors was that they paid \"upon acceptance\" for material instead of on publication; since a story might be accepted months or even years before publication, to a working writer this was a crucial difference in cash flow. Some pulp editors became known for cultivating good fiction and interesting features in their magazines. Preeminent pulp magazine editors included Arthur Sullivant Hoffman (\"Adventure)\", Robert H. Davis (\"All-Story Weekly\"), Harry E. Maule (\"Short Stories\"), Donald Kennicott (\"Blue Book\"), Joseph T. Shaw (\"Black Mask\"), Farnsworth Wright (\"Weird Tales\", \"Oriental Stories\"), John W. Campbell (\"Astounding Science Fiction\", \"Unknown\") and Daisy Bacon (\"Love Story Magazine\", \"Detective Story Magazine\").", "Well-known authors who wrote for pulps include: Sinclair Lewis, first American winner of the Nobel Prize in Literature, worked as an editor for \"Adventure\", writing filler paragraphs (brief facts or amusing anecdotes designed to fill small gaps in page layout), advertising copy and a few stories.", "The term \"pulp fiction\" can also refer to mass market paperbacks since the 1950s. The Browne Popular Culture Library News noted: Many of the paperback houses that contributed to the decline of the genre–Ace, Dell, Avon, among others–were actually started by pulp magazine publishers. They had the presses, the expertise, and the newsstand distribution networks which made the success of the mass-market paperback possible. These pulp-oriented paperback houses mined the old magazines for reprints. This kept pulp literature, if not pulp magazines, alive. \"The Return of the Continental Op\" reprints material first published in \"Black Mask\"; \"Five Sinister Characters\" contains stories first published in \"Dime Detective\"; and \"The Pocket Book of Science Fiction\" collects material from \"Thrilling Wonder Stories\", \"Astounding Science Fiction\" and \"Amazing Stories\". But note that mass market paperbacks are not pulps. In 1992, Rich W. Harvey came out with a magazine called \"Pulp Adventures\" reprinting old classics. It came out regularly until 2001, and then started up again in 2014. In 1994, Quentin Tarantino directed the film \"Pulp Fiction\". The working title of the film was \"Black Mask\", in homage to the pulp magazine of that name, and it embodied the seedy, violent, often crime-related spirit found in pulp magazines. In 1997 C. Cazadessus Jr. launched PULPDOM, a continuation of his Hugo Award-winning ERB-dom which began in 1960. It ran for 75 issues and featured articles about the content and selected fiction from the pulps. It became PULPDOM ONLINE in 2013 and continues quarterly publication. After the year 2000, several small independent publishers released magazines which published short fiction, either short stories or novel-length presentations, in the tradition of the pulp magazines of the early 20th century. These included \"Blood 'N Thunder\", \"High Adventure\" and a short-lived magazine which revived the title \"Argosy\". These specialist publications, printed in limited press runs, were pointedly not printed on the brittle, high-acid wood pulp paper of the old publications and were not mass market publications targeted at a wide audience. In 2004, Lost Continent Library published \"Secret of the Amazon Queen\" by E.A. Guest, their first contribution to a \"New Pulp Era\", featuring the hallmarks of pulp fiction for contemporary mature readers: violence, horror and sex. E.A. Guest was likened to a blend of pulp era icon Talbot Mundy and Stephen King by real-life explorer David Hatcher Childress. In 2002, the tenth issue of \"McSweeney's Quarterly\" was guest edited by Michael Chabon. Published as \"McSweeney's Mammoth Treasury of Thrilling Tales\", it is a collection of \"pulp fiction\" stories written by such current well-known authors as Stephen King, Nick Hornby, Aimee Bender and Dave Eggers. Explaining his vision for the project, Chabon wrote in the introduction, \"I think that we have forgotten how much fun reading a short story can be, and I hope that if nothing else, this treasury goes some small distance toward reminding us of that lost but fundamental truth.\" The Scottish publisher DC Thomson publishes \"My Weekly Compact Novel\" every week. It is literally a pulp novel, though it does not fall into the hard-edged genre most associated with pulp fiction. From 2006 through 2019, Anthony Tollin's imprint Sanctum Books has reprinted all 182 DOC SAVAGE pulp novels, all 24 of Paul Ernst's AVENGER novels, the 14 WHISPERER novels from the original pulp series and all but three novels of the entire run of THE SHADOW (most of his publications featuring two novels in one book). In 2010, Pro Se Press released three new pulp magazines \"Fantasy & Fear\", \"Masked Gun Mystery\" and \"Peculiar Adventures\". In 2011, they amalgamated the three titles into one magazine \"Pro Se Presents\" which came out regularly until Winter/Spring 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Youth.", "Grand Duke of Lithuania.", "King of Poland.", "Foreign policies.", "Legacy and opinion of reign.", "Culture.", "Curse of the Royal Tomb.", "Sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Casimir Jagiellon was the third and youngest son of King Władysław II Jagiełło and his fourth wife, Sophia of Halshany. His father was around 70 years old at the time of Casimir's birth, and his brother Władysław III, three years his senior, was expected to become king before his majority. Strangely, little was done for his education; he was never taught Latin, nor was he trained for the responsibilities of office, despite the fact he was the only brother of the rightful sovereign. He often relied on his instinct and feelings and had little political knowledge, but shared a great interest in the diplomacy and economic affairs of the country. Throughout Casimir's youth, Bishop Zbigniew Oleśnicki was his mentor and tutor, however, the cleric felt a strong reluctance towards him, believing that he would be an unsuccessful monarch following Władysław's death.", "The sudden death of Sigismund Kęstutaitis left the office of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania empty. The Voivode of Trakai, Jonas Goštautas, and other magnates of Lithuania, supported Casimir as a candidate to the throne. However many Polish noblemen hoped that the thirteen-year-old boy would become a Vice-regent for the Polish King in Lithuania. Casimir was invited by the Lithuanian magnates to Lithuania, and when he arrived in Vilnius in 1440, he was proclaimed as the Grand Duke of Lithuania on 29 June 1440 by the Council of Lords, contrary to the wishes of the Polish noble lords—an act supported and coordinated by Jonas Goštautas. When the news arrived in the Kingdom of Poland concerning the proclamation of Casimir as the Grand Duke of Lithuania, it was met with hostility, even to the point of military threats against Lithuania. Since the young Grand Duke was underage, the supreme control over the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was in the hands of the Council of Lords, presided by Jonas Goštautas. Casimir had been taught Lithuanian language and the customs of Lithuania by appointed court officials. During Casimir's rule the rights of the Lithuanian nobility—dukes, magnates and boyars (lesser nobles), irrespective of their religion and ethnicity—were put on an equal footing to those of the Polish szlachta. Additionally, Casimir promised to protect the Grand Duchy's borders and not to appoint persons from the Polish Kingdom to the offices of the Grand Duchy. He accepted that decisions on matters concerning the Grand Duchy would not be made without the Council of Lords' consent. He also granted the subject region of Samogitia the right to elect its own elder. Casimir was the first ruler of Lithuania baptised at birth, becoming the first native Roman Catholic Grand Duke.", "Casimir succeeded his brother Władysław III (killed at the Battle of Varna in 1444) as King of Poland after a three-year interregnum on 25 June 1447. In 1454, he married Elisabeth of Austria, daughter of King Albert II of Germany and Elizabeth of Luxembourg, a descendant of King Casimir III of Poland. Her distant relative was Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor. The marriage strengthened the ties between the house of Jagiellon and the sovereigns of Hungary-Bohemia and put Casimir at odds with the emperor through internal Habsburg rivalry. That same year, Casimir was approached by the Prussian Confederation for aid against the Teutonic Order, which he promised, by making the separatist Prussian regions a protectorate of the Polish Kingdom. However, when the insurgent cities rebelled against the Order, it resisted and the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466) ensued. Casimir and the Prussian Confederation defeated the Teutonic Order, entering its abandoned capital at Marienburg (Malbork Castle). In the Second Peace of Thorn (1466), the Order recognized Polish sovereignty over the seceded western Prussian regions, Royal Prussia, and the Polish crown's overlordship over the remaining Teutonic Monastic State, transformed in 1525 into a duchy, Ducal Prussia. Elisabeth's only brother Ladislaus, king of Bohemia and Hungary, died in 1457, and after that Casimir and Elisabeth's dynastic interests were directed also towards her brother's kingdoms. King Casimir IV died on 7 June 1492 in the Old Grodno Castle in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which was in a personal union with Poland.", "The intervention of the Roman curia, which hitherto had been hostile to Casimir because of his steady and patriotic resistance to papal aggression, was due to the permutations of European politics. The pope was anxious to get rid of the Hussite King of Bohemia, George Podebrad, as the first step towards the formation of a league against the Ottoman Turks. Casimir was to be a leading factor in this combination, and he took advantage of it to procure the election of his son Vladislaus II as King of Bohemia. But he would not commit himself too far, and his ulterior plans were frustrated by the rivalry of Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary, who even went so far as to stimulate the Teutonic Order to rise against Casimir. The death of Matthias in 1490 was a great relief to Poland, and Casimir employed the two remaining years of his reign in consolidating his position still further. In 1490, Casimir's son John Albert was elected King of Hungary by a party among the Hungarian nobles. He was, however, defeated by his older brother, King Vladislaus II of Bohemia. Casimir, who wanted to secure a separate realm to his each sons, proposed John Albert. Most Hungarian barons and prelates preferred Vladislaus, because his rule in Bohemia had indicated that he would respect their liberties. Vladislaus was crowned King of Hungary on 18 September 1490 in Székesfehérvár. Around 1480 Casimir was allied with the Great Horde against Muscovy and Crimea. His failure to support Khan Akhmed at the Great stand on the Ugra River contributed to Russia's gaining its independence from the steppe nomads.", "In domestic affairs Casimir was relatively passive but anxious to preserve the prerogatives of the crown, notably his right to nominate bishops. In the question of territories in dispute between his two states (Volhynia and Podolia) he favoured Lithuania. During the war against the Teutonic Order he was forced to grant the Polish nobility substantial concessions by the Privilege (statute) of Nieszawa (November 1454). These, however, became important only after his death, and royal power was not greatly diminished during his lifetime. The feature of Casimir's character which most impressed his contemporaries was his extraordinary simplicity and sobriety. He, one of the greatest monarchs in Europe, habitually wore plain cloth from Kraków, drank nothing but water, and kept the most austere of tables. His one passion was the chase. Yet his liberality to his ministers and servants was proverbial, and his vanquished enemies he always treated with magnificent generosity. Casimir was neither a splendid ruler nor a good and wise administrator, but a mistrusting, cautious, and sober head of a large family who regarded Lithuania as his personal estate, however his reign was remembered as being both successful and the most peaceful in the history of Poland.", "During Casimir's rule the cultural progress was striking, with the reconstituted and enlarged Jagiellonian University in Kraków playing a major role. Humanist trends found a promoter at Kraków in the Italian scholar Filippo de Buonacorsi, known as Callimachus. From the pen of Jan Długosz came the first major, royal history of Poland.", "The remains of King Casimir IV and his wife Elisabeth were interred in a tomb situated in a chapel of the Wawel Castle in Kraków, Poland. With the consent of then Cardinal Karol Wojtyła (Archbishop of Kraków, who became Pope John Paul II), a team of scientists was given permission to open the tomb and examine the remains, with restoration as the ultimate objective. Casimir's tomb was opened on Friday 13 April 1973. Twelve researchers were present. Inside the tomb they found a wooden coffin that was heavily rotted. It contained what was left of the king's decayed corpse. Within a few days, four of the twelve scientists and researchers had died. Not long after, there were only two survivors: Dr. Bolesław Smyk, a microbiologist, and Dr. Edward Roszycki. Smyk was to suffer problems with his equilibrium for the next five years. In the course of his microbiological examinations, Smyk found traces of fungi on the royal insignia taken from the tomb. He identified three species - \"Aspergillus flavus\", \"Penicillium rubrum\", and \"Penicillium rugulosum\". These fungi are known to produce aflatoxins that can be deadly when in contact with skin and inhaled into the lungs.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Defining deficiency.", "Prevention.", "Food fortification.", "Genetic engineering.", "Hypervitaminosis.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A number of regions have published guidelines defining vitamin deficiencies and advising specific intakes for healthy people, with different recommendations for women, men, infants, the elderly, and during pregnancy and breast feeding including Japan, the European Union, the United States, and Canada. These documents have been updated as research is published. In the US, Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were first set in 1941 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences. There were periodic updates, culminating in the Dietary Reference Intakes. Updated in 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration published a set of tables that define Estimated Average Requirements (EARs) and (RDAs). RDAs are higher to cover people with higher than average needs. Together, these are part of Dietary Reference Intakes. For a few vitamins, there is not sufficient information to set EARs and RDAs. For these, an Adequate Intake is shown, based on an assumption that what healthy people consume is sufficient. Countries do not always agree on the amounts of vitamins needed to safeguard against deficiency. For example, for vitamin C, the RDAs for women for Japan, the European Union (called Population Reference Intakes) and the US are 100, 95 and 75 mg/day, respectively. India sets its recommendation at 40 mg/day.", "", "Food fortification is the process of adding micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) to food as a public health policy which aims to reduce the number of people with dietary deficiencies within a population. Staple foods of a region can lack particular nutrients due to the soil of the region or from inherent inadequacy of a normal diet. Addition of micronutrients to staples and condiments can prevent large-scale deficiency diseases in these cases. As defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), fortification refers to \"the practice of deliberately increasing the content of an essential micronutrient, i.e., vitamins and minerals in a food irrespective of whether the nutrients were originally in the food before processing or not, so as to improve the nutritional quality of the food supply and to provide a public health benefit with minimal risk to health\", whereas enrichment is defined as \"synonymous with fortification and refers to the addition of micronutrients to a food which are lost during processing\". The Food Fortification Initiative lists all countries in the world that conduct fortification programs, and within each country, what nutrients are added to which foods. Vitamin fortification programs exist in one or more countries for folate, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin B, vitamin D and vitamin E. As of December 21, 2018, 81 countries required food fortification with one or more vitamins. The most commonly fortified vitamin – as used in 62 countries – is folate; the most commonly fortified food is wheat flour.", "Starting in 2000, rice was experimentally genetically engineered to produce higher than normal beta-carotene content, giving it a yellow/orange color. The product is referred to as golden rice (\"Oryza sativa\"). Biofortified sweet potato, maize, and cassava were other crops introduced to enhance the content of beta-carotene and certain minerals. When eaten, beta-carotene is a provitamin, converted to retinol (vitamin A). The concept is that in areas of the world where vitamin A deficiency is common, growing and eating this rice would reduce the rates of vitamin A deficiency, particularly its effect on childhood vision problems. As of 2018, fortified golden crops were still in the process of government approvals, and were being assessed for taste and education about their health benefits to improve acceptance and adoption by consumers in impoverished countries.", "Some vitamins cause acute or chronic toxicity, a condition called hypervitaminosis, which occurs mainly for fat-soluble vitamins if over-consumed by excessive supplementation. Hypervitaminosis A and hypervitaminosis D are the most common examples. Vitamin D toxicity does not result from sun exposure or consuming foods rich in vitamin D, but rather from excessive intake of vitamin D supplements, possibly leading to hypercalcemia, nausea, weakness, and kidney stones. The United States, European Union and Japan, among other countries, have established \"tolerable upper intake levels\" for those vitamins which have documented toxicity.", "In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his \"Treatise on the Scurvy\", which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname \"limey\" for British sailors. Lind's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food. During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat-soluble nutrient was called \"antirachitic A\". Thus, the first \"vitamin\" bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called \"vitamin A\"; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D. In 1881, Russian medical doctor Nikolai I. Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu. He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that substances essential for life must be present in milk other than the known principal ingredients. However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge. In East Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British-trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among low-ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western-style diet. With the support of the Japanese Navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it. That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained \"accessory factors\" — in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats \"etc.\" — that are necessary for the functions of the human body. Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discoveries. In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a water-soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later \"Orizanin\"). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk, working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named \"vitamine\". It was later to be known as vitamin B (niacin), though he described it as \"anti-beri-beri-factor\" (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B). Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the \"vitamine\" name (from \"vital amine\"). The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins' \"accessory factors\", and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final \"e\" be dropped to deemphasize the \"amine\" reference, after researchers began to suspect that not all \"vitamines\" (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component. In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta-carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent-Györgyi's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B, Karrer and Haworth jointly received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937. In 1931, Albert Szent-Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that \"hexuronic acid\" was actually vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbutic activity in his long-established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent-Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for this discovery. In 1938, Richard Kuhn was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on carotenoids and vitamins, specifically B and B. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (jointly with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for the discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Industrial growth.", "Deepening the Upper Clyde.", "Shipbuilding and marine engineering.", "Yachting and yachtbuilding.", "Glasgow Humane Society.", "Shipbuilding decline.", "Regeneration.", "Pollution.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Clyde is formed by the confluence of two streams, the Daer Water (the headwaters of which are dammed to form the Daer Reservoir) and the Potrail Water. The Southern Upland Way crosses both streams before they meet at Watermeetings () to form the River Clyde proper. At this point, the Clyde is only from Tweed's Well, the source of the River Tweed, and is a similar distance from Annanhead Hill, the source of the River Annan. From there, it meanders northeastward before turning to the west, its flood plain used for many major roads in the area, until it reaches the town of Lanark. On the banks of the Clyde, the industrialists David Dale and Robert Owen built their mills and the model settlement of New Lanark. The mills harness the power of the Falls of Clyde, the most spectacular of which is Cora Linn. A hydroelectric power station still generates electricity here, although the mills are now a museum and World Heritage Site. The river then makes its way north-west, past (although not through) the towns of Wishaw on its eastern side and Larkhall on its western, with the surrounding environment becoming increasingly suburban. Between the towns of Motherwell and Hamilton, the course of the river has been altered to create an artificial loch within Strathclyde Park. Part of the original course can still be seen, and lies between the island and the east shore of the loch. The river then flows through Blantyre and Bothwell, where the ruined Bothwell Castle stands on a defensible promontory. Past Uddingston and into the southeast of Glasgow, the river begins to widen, meandering a course through Cambuslang, Rutherglen, and Dalmarnock. Flowing past Glasgow Green, the river is artificially straightened and widened through the centre, and although the new Clyde Arc now hinders access to the traditional Broomielaw dockland area, seagoing ships can still come upriver as far as Finnieston, where the PS \"Waverley\" docks. From there, it flows past the shipbuilding heartlands, through Govan, Partick, Whiteinch, Scotstoun, and Clydebank, all of which housed major shipyards, of which only two remain. The river flows out west of Glasgow, past Renfrew, and under the Erskine Bridge past Dumbarton on the north shore to the sandbank at Ardmore Point between Cardross and Helensburgh. Opposite, on the south shore, the river continues past the last Lower Clyde shipyard at Port Glasgow to Greenock, where it reaches the Tail of the Bank as the river merges into the Firth of Clyde. A significant issue of oxygen depletion in the water column has occurred at the mouth of the River Clyde. The strath of the Clyde was the focus for the G-BASE project from the British Geological Survey in the summer of 2010.", "The success of the Clyde at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution was driven by the location of Glasgow, being a port facing the Americas. Tobacco and cotton trade began the drive in the early 18th century. However, the shallow Clyde was not navigable for the largest ocean-going ships, so cargo had to be transferred at Greenock or Port Glasgow to smaller ships to sail upstream into Glasgow itself.", "In 1768, John Golborne advised the narrowing of the river and the increasing of the scour by the construction of rubble jetties and the dredging of sandbanks and shoals. A particular problem was the division of the river into two shallow channels by the Dumbuck shoal near Dumbarton. After James Watt's report on this in 1769, a jetty was constructed at Longhaugh Point to block off the southern channel. This being insufficient, a training wall called the Lang Dyke was built in 1773 on the Dumbuck shoal to stop water flowing over into the southern channel. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, hundreds of jetties were built out from the banks between Dumbuck and the Broomielaw quay in Glasgow itself. In some cases, this resulted in an immediate deepening as the constrained water flow washed away the river bottom; in others, dredging was required. In the mid-19th century, engineers took on a much greater dredging of the Clyde, removing millions of cubic feet of silt to deepen and widen the channel. The major stumbling block in the project was a massive geological intrusion known as Elderslie Rock. As a result, the work was not completed until the 1880s. At this time, the Clyde also became an important source of inspiration for artists, such as John Atkinson Grimshaw and James Kay, willing to depict the new industrial era and the modern world.", "The completion of the dredging was well-timed; as steelworking grew in the city, the channel finally became navigable all the way up to Glasgow. Shipbuilding replaced trade as the major activity on the river, and shipbuilding companies were rapidly establishing themselves on the river. Soon, the Clyde gained a reputation for being the best location for shipbuilding in the British Empire, and grew to become the world's pre-eminent shipbuilding centre. \"Clydebuilt\" became an industry benchmark of quality, and the river's shipyards were given contracts for prestigious ocean-going liners, as well as warships, including the \"Queen Mary\" and the \"Queen Elizabeth 2\" in later years, all built in the town of Clydebank. From the founding of the Scott family's shipyard at Greenock in 1712 to the present day, over 25,000 ships have been built on the River Clyde and its Firth and on the tributary River Kelvin and River Cart together with boatyards at Maryhill and Kirkintilloch on the Forth & Clyde Canal and Blackhill on the Monkland Canal. In the same time, an estimated over 300 firms have engaged in shipbuilding on Clydeside, although probably a peak of 30 to 40 at any one time. The shipbuilding firms became household names on Clydeside, but also known around the world – Denny of Dumbarton, Scott of Greenock, Lithgows of Port Glasgow, Simon and Lobnitz of Renfrew, Alexander Stephen and Sons of Linthouse, Fairfield of Govan, Inglis of Pointhouse, Barclay Curle of Whiteinch, Connell and Yarrow of Scotstoun, to name but a few. Almost as famous were the engineering firms that supplied the machinery to drive these vessels, the boilers and pumps, and steering gear – Rankin & Blackmore, Hastie's and Kincaid's of Greenock, Rowan's of Finnieston, Weir's of Cathcart, Howden's of Tradeston, and Babcock & Wilcox of Renfrew. One 'Clyde' shipyard was not even located on one of these waterways: Alley & MacLellan's Sentinel Works in Jessie Street at Polmadie is around half a mile from the Clyde, yet it is reputed to have constructed over 500 vessels, many of which were assembled then 'knocked down' to kit form for despatch to some far distant and remote location – one such vessel being the SS \"Chauncy Maples\", still in service on Lake Malawi. Clyde shipbuilding reached its peak in the years just before World War I, and over 370 ships were thought to have been completed in 1913.", "The first recorded Clyde racing yacht, a 46-ton cutter, was built by Scotts of Greenock in 1803, and the great Scottish yacht designer William Fyfe did not start designing yachts until 1807. The first yacht club on the Clyde was the Northern Yacht Club, which appeared in 1824 and received its Royal Charter in 1831. The club was founded to organise and encourage the sport, and by 1825, Scottish and Irish clubs were racing against each other on the Clyde. However, yachting and yacht building did not really take off until the middle of the 19th century. The Clyde became famous worldwide for its significant contribution to yachting and yachtbuilding, and was the home of many notable designers: William Fife III, Alfred Mylne, G. L. Watson, E. McGruer, and David Boyd. It was also the home of many famous yacht yards. Robertson's Yard started repairing boats in a small workshop at Sandbank in 1876, and went on to become one of the foremost wooden boat builders on the Clyde. The 'golden years' of Robertson's yard were in the early 20th century, when they started building classic racing yachts. More than 55 boats were built by Robertson's in preparation for the First World War, and the yard remained busy even during the Great Depression in the 1930s, as many wealthy businessmen developed a passion for yacht racing on the Clyde. During World War II, the yard was devoted to Admiralty work, producing large, high-speed Fairmile Marine motor boats (motor torpedo boats and motor gun boats). After the war, the yard built the successful one-class Loch Longs and two David Boyd-designed challengers for the America's Cup: \"Sceptre\" (1958) and \"Sovereign\" (1964). Due to difficult business conditions in 1965, the yard was turned over to GRP production work (mainly Pipers and Etchells) until it closed in 1980. During its 104-year history, Robertson's Yard built 500 boats, many of which are still sailing today. Other notable boatyards on the Clyde, both situated on the Rosneath peninsula on the banks of the Gare Loch within half a mile of each other, were Silvers (1910-1970) and McGruers (1910-1973). Both yards built many well-known and classic yachts, some of which are still sailing today. McGruers built over 700 boats but both yards are no longer in business as boatbuilders.", "The Glasgow Humane Society is the oldest lifesaving organisation in the world, founded in 1790 and has been responsible for the safety and preservation of life on Glasgow's waterways.", "The downfall of the Clyde as a major industrial centre came during and after World War II. Clydebank in particular was targeted by the Luftwaffe and sustained heavy damage. The immediate postwar period had a severe reduction in warship orders, which was balanced by a prolonged boom in merchant shipbuilding. By the end of the 1950s, however, the rise of other shipbuilding nations, recapitalised and highly productive, made many European yards uncompetitive. Several Clydeside yards booked a series of loss-making contracts in the hope of weathering the storm. However, by the mid-1960s, shipbuilding on the Clyde was becoming increasingly uneconomical and potentially faced collapse. This culminated in the closure of Harland and Wolff's Linthouse yard and a bankruptcy crisis facing Fairfields of Govan. The government responded by creating the Upper Clyde Shipbuilders consortium. After the consortium's controversial collapse in 1971, the Labour government of James Callaghan later passed the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act, which nationalised most of the Clyde's shipyards and grouped them with other major British shipyards such as British Shipbuilders. Today, two major shipyards remain in operation on the Upper Clyde; they are owned by a naval defence contractor, BAE Systems Surface Ships, which specialises in the design and construction of technologically advanced warships for the Royal Navy and other navies around the world. The two yards are the former Yarrow yard at Scotstoun and Fairfields at Govan. Also, the King George V Dock is operated by the Clyde Port Authority. On the Lower Clyde, the Scottish Government owned Ferguson Shipbuilders at Port Glasgow is the last survivor of the many shipyards that once dominated Port Glasgow and Greenock – its mainstay being the construction of car ferries.", "The Clyde Waterfront Regeneration project is expected to attract investment of up to £5.6bn in the area from Glasgow Green to Dumbarton. Market gardens and garden centres have grown up on the fertile plains of the Clyde Valley. Tourism has also brought many back to the riverside, especially in Glasgow, where former docklands have given way to housing and amenities on the banks in the city, for instance, the Glasgow Harbour project, the Glasgow Science Centre, and the creation of the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre. With the migration of the commercial Port of Glasgow downstream to the deeper waters of the Firth of Clyde, the river has been extensively cleaned up, once having a very poor reputation for pollution and sewage, to make it suitable for recreational use. The Clyde Walkway is a foot and mountain bike path that follows the course of the Clyde between Glasgow and New Lanark. It was completed in 2005, and is now designated as one of Scotland's Great Trails by Scottish Natural Heritage.", "Organic chemical pollution contained in sediments of the Clyde estuary have been evaluated by British Geological Survey.<ref name=\"Chemical Signatures of the Anthropocene in the Clyde Estuary, UK: Sediment hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, Polyaromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH) and Polychlorinated Biphenyl (PCB) Pollution Records.\"></ref> Surface sediments from the Glasgow reaches of the Clyde, Cunningar to Milton, contained polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from 630 μg/kg to 23,711 μg/kg and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) in the range of 5 to 130.5 μg/kg, which classifies these sediments as non-toxic. However, a later study showed PCB concentrations as high as 5,797 μg/kg, which is above published threshold levels for the chlorinated compounds. Comparison of individual PAH compounds with different thermal stabilities shows that the source of PAH pollution in the Clyde changes downriver. PAH in the inner Clyde (Cunningar to Milton) are from combustion sources (vehicle exhaust, coal burning), whereas PAH in the outer Clyde are from petroleum spills The amount and type of sedimentary pollution contained in the Clyde is closely related to the area's industrial history. Assessment of the changing type of pollution through time (1750 to 2002) has been gained through the collection of seven sediment cores of one metre's depth which were dated using lead concentrations and changing lead isotope ratios. The sediments showed a long but declining history of coal usage and an increasing reliance on petroleum fuels from about the 1950s. Thereafter, declining hydrocarbon pollution was followed by the onset (1950s), peak (1965–1977), and decline (after 1980s) in total PCB concentrations. Although pollution from heavy industry and power generation is falling, evidence indicates that man-made pollution from new synthetic compounds in electrical products and textiles is on the increase. The amounts of 16 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) compounds used as flame retardants in televisions, computers, and furniture upholstery were measured in sediment cores collected from six sites between Princes Dock and Greenock. Comparison of the amounts of PBDE compounds revealed a decline in certain compounds in line with the European ban on production of mixtures containing environmentally harmful PBDE with eight and nine bromine atoms and a rise in the less harmful mixture composed of ten bromine atoms.", "The Clyde is central to the \"Para Handy\" novels of Neil Munro, and subsequent adaptations, and features in novels by Alasdair Gray, Matthew Fitt, and Robin Jenkins. It appears in the \"Ossian\" poetry of James Macpherson, as well as the works of John Wilson, William McGonagall, Edwin Morgan, Norman McCaig, Douglas Dunn and W.S. Graham. It features in artworks by, amongst others, William McTaggart, J.M.W. Turner, Robert Salmon, John Atkinson Grimshaw, Stanley Spencer, and George Wyllie. The Clyde appears prominently in the films \"Young Adam\", \"Sweet Sixteen\", \"Just a Boys' Game\", and \"Down Where The Buffalo Go\", and was the subject of the Academy Award-winning film documentary \"Seawards the Great Ships\". It is referenced in the traditional folk songs \"Clyde's Water\" and \"Black Is the Color (of My True Love's Hair)\", as well as \"Song of the Clyde\", popularised by Kenneth McKellar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Functions.", "Police.", "Transport.", "Boundaries.", "Sub-regions and districts.", "Name.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area was on the west coast of Scotland and stretched from the Highlands in the north to the Southern Uplands in the south. As a local government region, its population, in excess of 2.5 million, was by far the largest of the regions and contained half of the nation's total. The Region was responsible for education (from nursery to colleges); social work; police; fire; sewage; strategic planning; roads; transport – and, therefore, employed almost 100,000 public servants (almost half were teachers, lecturers and others in the education service). The regional administrative headquarters was in the city of Glasgow, and politics were by and large dominated by the Labour Party. The first regional council convener was the Reverend Geoff Shaw, who died in 1978. It was largely due to his leadership that the Region forged its innovative strategy on multiple deprivation, which remained its central commitment to the end of the Region's life through \"Social Strategy for the Eighties\" (1982) and \"SS for the 90s\". Having lain empty for some years, the Strathclyde Regional Council heaquarters' debating chambers were used for a short period in 2000 by the Scottish Parliament, with its new permanent home at Holyrood under construction and the temporary buildings in Edinburgh booked out. The Strathclyde HQ buildings were eventually demolished in the 2010s.", "Until April 2013, the area was also used as a police force area, covered by Strathclyde Police and a fire service area, covered by Strathclyde Fire and Rescue Service. Both have now been replaced by single services (Police Scotland and Scottish Fire and Rescue Service).", "The name is still in use as a transport area, covered by Strathclyde Partnership for Transport. The area covered by SPT however is smaller than the region, as most of Argyll and Bute lies outside its remit.", "The region was formed from the county of the City of Glasgow, the counties of Ayr, Bute, Dunbarton, Lanark, and Renfrew, and parts of the counties of Argyll (all \"except the district of Ardnamurchan and the electoral divisions of Ballachulish and Kinlochleven\"), and the county of Stirling (the burgh of Kilsyth, Western No. 3 district, the electoral division of Kilsyth West, and the polling district of Kilsyth East (Banton)). Since 1996 the area of the region has been divided between 12 council areas: Argyll and Bute, East Ayrshire, East Dunbartonshire, East Renfrewshire, Glasgow City (created as \"City of Glasgow\"), Inverclyde, North Ayrshire, North Lanarkshire, Renfrewshire, South Ayrshire, South Lanarkshire, and West Dunbartonshire (created as \"Dumbarton and Clydebank\"), all created to be entirely within the area of the region.", "Except for Argyll and Bute and the City of Glasgow, the 19 districts were grouped to form'sub-regions' or 'divisions', each named after a historic county. The Argyll and Bute district and the City of Glasgow district were sub-regions in their own right, and Argyll and Bute was named after two counties.", "The region was named after the ancient British or Brythonic Damnonii Kingdom of Strathclyde. The kingdom broadly covered the northern end of the region, except an area now covered by the Scottish Argyll and Bute council area and the Isle of Arran, which is now within the Scottish North Ayrshire council area, plus the Scottish Dumfries and Galloway council area and part of the English county of Cumbria.", "<br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Episode 1 – \"The Severed Head\".", "Episode 2 – \"The Ring That Kills\".", "Episode 3 – \"The Red Codebook\".", "Episode 4 – \"The Spectre\".", "Episode 5 – \"Dead Man's Escape\".", "Episode 6 – \"Hypnotic Eyes\".", "Episode 7 – \"Satanas\".", "Episode 8 – \"The Thunder Master\".", "Episode 9 – \"The Poisoner\".", "Episode 10 – \"The Terrible Wedding\".", "Production.", "Development and writing.", "Filming and editing.", "Release.", "Promotion.", "Home media.", "Critical reception.", "Contemporary.", "Re-evaluation.", "Accolades.", "Aftermath.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Philippe Guérande (Édouard Mathé), a reporter working for the newspaper \"The Paris Chronicle\" who is investigating a criminal organisation called the Vampires, receives a telegram at work stating that the decapitated body of the national security agent in charge of the Vampire investigations, Inspector Durtal, was found in the swamps near Saint-Clement-Sur-Cher, with the head missing. Being turned down by the local magistrate (Thelès), he spends the night in a nearby castle owned by Dr. Nox (Jean Aymé), an old friend of his father, along with Mrs. Simpson (Rita Herlor), an American multimillionaire who desires the", "Grand Vampire in disguise as Count de Noirmoutier, reads that ballerina Marfa Koutiloff (Stacia Napierkowska), who is engaged to Philippe, will perform a ballet called \"The Vampires\". To prevent her from publicizing the Vampires' activities and to deter Philippe, he gives Marfa a poisoned ring before her performance, which kills her onstage. Amidst the panicking crowds Philippe recognizes the Grand Vampire and follows him to an abandoned fort and is", "While faking illness to get off work, Philippe tries to decode a red booklet that he lifted from the Grand Inquisitor's body, which contains the crimes of the Vampires. He discovers that his house is under surveillance by the Vampires, so he leaves in disguise. Following clues in the booklet he arrives at \"The Howling Cat\" night club. Performing there is Irma Vep (Musidora), whose name Philippe sees is an anagram for vampire. After her act, the Grand Vampire assigns Irma to retrieve the red booklet. As Philippe returns", "The Grand Vampire, under the alias of a real estate broker \"Treps\", meets Juan-José Moréno (Fernand Herrmann), a businessman, who asks for an apartment with a safe. The Grand Vampire puts Moréno into an apartment whose safe is rigged to be opened from the rear through the party wall of an apartment belonging to Irma Vep and the Grand Vampire. However, the case Moréno places inside contains the Vampires’ black attire. Later, in disguise as bank secretary \"Juliette Bertaux\", Irma learns that a man called Mr. Metadier has to bring ₣300,000 to another branch. In the event that he is unable to make the delivery, Irma will. Soon afterward, Mr. Metadier is murdered by the Vampires and his body thrown from a train. When Irma is about to take the money for him a spectre of Mr. Metadier appears and takes it", "The examining magistrate from Saint-Clement-Sur-Cher relocates to Paris and is assigned to the Vampire case and the Moréno affair. After being summoned to the magistrate, Moréno commits suicide using a concealed cyanide capsule. His body is left in his cell, but during the night he wakes up, very much alive. He kills the night-watchman and takes his clothes, escaping from the prison. He is noticed by Mazamette, who is suffering from insomnia. The following morning, Moréno is found to have escaped. While writing an account of the events, Philippe is pulled out of his window by the Vampires and whisked into a large costume box. He is driven away and the box is unloaded, but incompetently, and it slides down a large flight of stairs. The Vampires retreat and Philippe is let out by two bystanders. He visits the costume designer Pugenc whose name and box number (13) are on the costume box, just missing Moréno and his gang who have bought police uniforms for a scheme of their", "Fifteen days have passed since the events at Maillot. Moréno is looking for clues to lead him to the Vampires, and reads in a paper that a Fontainebleau notary has been murdered by them; as he happens to possess a gaze with a terrible hypnotic power, he takes control of his new maid, Laura, to turn her into his slave. Meanwhile, Philippe and Mazamette happen to see a newsreel on the murder inquest, in which they spot Irma Vep and the Grand Vampire. They cycle to Fontainebleau to investigate. En route they spot an American tourist, Horatio Werner, riding fast into the forest, and follow him. He places a box under one of the boulders, and they take it. The Grand Vampire, who is staying in the Royal Hunt Hotel under the pseudonym of Count Kerlor, along with Irma in disguise as his son, Viscount Guy, reads in a paper that George Baldwin (Émile Keppens), an American millionaire, has been robbed of $200,000. Whoever can capture the criminal, Raphael Norton, who has fled to Europe with the actress Ethel Florid, will be awarded the unspent balance of", "A mysterious man (Louis Leubas) arrives at Moréno's home, and shows that he knows that the Grand Vampire's body is inside a trunk. Moréno tries to get rid of him, but he is paralysed by a pin in the man's glove. The man reveals himself to be the true Grand Vampire, Satanas, and that the first was a subordinate. While at a cabaret called the \"Happy Shack\", Moréno and Irma receive a note from Satanas saying they will see proof of his power at two o'clock. At two he fires a powerful cannon at the \"Happy Shack\", largely destroying it. Meanwhile, Philippe decides to visit Mazamette, but he is out \"chasing the girls.\" He hides as Mazamette arrives home, drunk, with two women and a friend, who he later chases out angrily at gunpoint. The next morning, Irma and Moréno go to Satanas’ home to surrender, and Satanas offers them the chance to work with him, informing them", "Irma, sentenced to life imprisonment, has been sent to St. Lazarus’ prison. A transfer order is sent to the prison to send Irma to a penal colony in Algeria. On the day of her departure, Irma finds out that Moréno has been executed. Satanas follows Irma's transportation route, stopping at a seaside hotel in disguise as a priest. At the port, he gives some religious comfort to the prisoners, but Irma's copy contains a secret message saying \"the ship will blow up\" and giving her directions on how to safeguard herself. Satanas destroys the ship with his cannon. Meanwhile, Philippe finds through the red codebook that the explosive shell that landed on the \"Happy Shack\" came from Montmartre, and Mazamette goes to investigate. His son, Eustache Mazamette (René Poyen), is sent home from school for bad behaviour, so they go to \"investigate\" together. They find some men loading boxes into a house,", "Irma is now a devoted collaborator of Venomous, who is set on getting rid of Philippe and Mazamette. He learns that Philippe is engaged to Jane Bremontier (Louise Lagrange), and the following day Irma and Lily Flower rent an apartment above hers. Irma's maid, a Vampire also, hears that Philippe and Jane's engagement party will be catered for by the famous Béchamel House. Venomous cancels their catering order, and on the day of the party the Vampires appear instead. Jane's mother (Jeanne Marie-Laurent) gives the concierges one bottle of the Vampires' champagne as a present, and just as dinner is served the male concierge, Leon Charlet, drinks it, is poisoned and dies. His wife stops the party guests from drinking their champagne just in time, and the Vampires make a hasty escape. A few days later, Mazamette and Philippe's mother pick up Jane and her mother in the night in order to take them to a", "A few months have passed, and Philippe and Jane are now married. Augustine Charlet (Germaine Rouer), widow of the poisoned concierge, is hired by the Guérandes to be their chamber maid. Augustine, still tormented by the mysterious poisoning death of her husband, receives an advertising circular for a psychic, Madame d’Alba of 13 Avenue Junot, and decides to consult her. Madame d’Alba, a Vampire, hypnotises Augustine and instructs her to unlock the door of Philippe's apartment at 2 am. Mazamette, who has taken an attraction to Augustine, awakens that night and sees her descend the stairs to unlock the door. The Vampires enter, tie her up, and feed poisonous gas into the Guérandes’ room. Mazamette shoots at them and they flee, and Augustine explains her actions. As they go to the", "", "The genre of crime serial was popular and prolific at the time, and Feuillade had had a big success with his previous work, the serial \"Fantômas\". It is suspected that production of \"Les Vampires\" started when Gaumont learned that rival company Pathé had acquired the rights to release the serial \"The Mysteries of New York\", known in America as \"The Exploits of Elaine\", and felt they had to fend off competition. Another American serial, \"The Perils of Pauline\", had become massively popular since the release of \"Fantômas\". The idea of the criminal gang was possibly inspired by the Bonnot Gang,", "The film was mostly shot on location in Paris, and is said to have been strenuous, some actors having to leave due to the wartime efforts. It was shot inexpensively, evidenced by the utilization of painted flats for doors and re-use of furniture in the film's sets and its reliance on stock footage for more elaborate shots such as a ferry exploding in \"The Thunder Master\". The episodes were also produced very quickly; estimations have been made that there would have been a three- to four-month period between the filming of an episode and the release. Feuillade makes little use of popular cinematic techniques, most of", "\"Les Vampires\" was serialised in French cinemas as ten episodes of differing length, the first two appearing on 13 November 1915 and the last on 30 June 1916. The film was first shown in Mexico on 24 May 1917 and has an American release at approximately the same time. The rediscovered film made its début in the US at the 1965 New York Film Festival. Despite World War I limiting the audience for the film (unlike Feuillade's earlier work \"Fantômas\") it was a huge success in France, massively outshining the original competition from Pathé and the serial \"The Mysteries of New York\". Much of the film's success is said to have been from the inclusion of Musidora as the antagonist Irma Vep, who fit well with the archetypes of \"vamp\" and \"femme fatale\", often being compared to Theda Bara. The police force, however, condemned the series for its apparent glorification of crime and dubious morality. Some of the episodes were temporarily banned, but these bans were retracted after a personal appeal from Musidora. A 7-volume novelization of \"Les Vampires\" by Feuillade and George Meirs was published in 1916 by Tallandier (as 4 paperbacks followed by 3 magazine-size issues).", "Early advertising for \"Les Vampires\" was done mysteriously; in November 1915, the walls of Paris were plastered with street posters that depicted three masked faces with a question mark", "On 16 May 2000, the film was released on DVD in the US by Image Entertainment on two discs, with music by Robert Israel. Additional features to this version are the short films \"For the Children\" (a wartime fundraiser starring the cast of \"Les Vampires\") and \"Bout de Zan and the Shirker\" (a comedy featuring René Poyen), as well as a supplementary essay on the film \"The Public Is My", "", "\"Les Vampires\", like other Feuillade crime serials, was generally despised by critics of the time. A reviewer for the magazine Hebdo-Film said: \"That a man of talent, an artist, as the director of most of the great films which have been the success and glory of Gaumont, starts again to deal with this unhealthy genre [the crime film], obsolete and condemned by all people of taste, remains for me a", "Since its original release, some critics, among them Richard Abel, Noel Burch, Francis Lacassin, Annette Michelson, and Richard Roud, have re-interpreted the film. It is now arguably Feuillade's most famous work, and his most critically revered. Rotten Tomatoes reports 100% approval among 14 critics. While Mathé and Lévesque as the leads have been called pallid and hammy respectively, many critics have praised Musidora for her performance, being described as acting with \"voluptuous vitality\". In 1987 film critic Jonathan Rosenbaum called it \"one of the supreme delights of film.\" In 2003, Slant Magazine gave it four stars, calling it \"remarkably attuned to the morality of the time\" and \"exhilarating\". It also noted \"...its Machiavellan reflection of a complacent bourgeois order on the brink of collapse makes this realist master-work\". In a later review, for the 2012 Blu-ray Disc version, the magazine gave further praise to the film, commenting on the film's stripped", "In 2002, the film came out joint 30th on the Sight and Sound 'Critics' Top Ten Poll' and 78th on The Village Voice's '250 Best Films of the 20th Century' list. In", "Musidora saw a noticeable raise in her public profile after the film's release, becoming a star of French cinema. She was able to concentrate her career on directing and writing her own films. Édouard Mathé and Marcel Lévesque enjoyed lengthy film careers as a result of their performances. The three leads, as well as many other cast members, were re-cast by Feuillade to appear in his other serials such as \"Judex\", \"Tih Minh\", \"Barrabas\" and \"Parisette\".", "The film is said to have established the genre of crime thriller, creating cinematic thriller techniques used later by Alfred Hitchcock and Fritz Lang. The use of gadgetry such as canons and bombs was also adopted by Lang in films such as \"Dr. Mabuse the Gambler\" and \"The Spiders\". It is also said to have inspired experimental filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel and French New Wave directors such as Alain Resnais and Georges Franju. Some have called it an early example of a gangster film. Olivier Assayas' 1996 movie \"Irma Vep\", with a story line of a director's attempt to remake \"Les Vampires\", is both" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "1972–1977: Activism and political life.", "2004 Nobel Peace Prize.", "AIDS conspiracy theory.", "2005–2011: Later life.", "Wangarĩ Maathai Forest Champion Award.", "Posthumous recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Maathai was born on 1 April 1940 in the village of Ihithe, Nyeri District, in the central highlands of the colony of Kenya. Her family was Kikuyu, the most populous ethnic group in Kenya, and had lived in the area for several generations. Around 1943, Maathai's family relocated to a White-owned farm in the Rift Valley, near the town of Nakuru, where her father had found work. Late in 1947, she returned to Ihithe with her mother, as two of her brothers were attending primary school in the village, and there was no schooling available on the farm where her father worked. Her father remained at the farm. Shortly afterward, at the age of eight, she joined her brothers at Ihithe Primary School. At the age of 11, Maathai moved to St. Cecilia's Intermediate Primary School, a boarding school at the Mathari Catholic Mission in Nyeri. Maathai studied at St. Cecilia's for four years. During this time, she became fluent in English and converted to Catholicism. She was involved with the Legion of Mary, whose members attempted \"to serve God by serving fellow human beings.\" Studying at St. Cecilia's, she was sheltered from the ongoing Mau Mau uprising, which forced her mother to move from their homestead to an emergency village in Ihithe. When she completed her studies there in 1956, she was rated first in her class, and was granted admission to the only Catholic high school for girls in Kenya, Loreto High School in Limuru. As the end of East African colonialism approached, Kenyan politicians, such as Tom Mboya, were proposing ways to make education in Western nations available to promising students. John F. Kennedy, then a United States Senator, agreed to fund such a program through the Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation, initiating what became", "Maathai continued to teach at Nairobi, becoming a senior lecturer in anatomy in 1975, chair of the Department of Veterinary Anatomy in 1976 and associate professor in 1977. She was the first woman in Nairobi appointed to any of these positions. During this time, she campaigned for equal benefits for the women working on the staff of the university, going so far as trying to turn the academic staff association of the university into a union, in order to negotiate for benefits. The courts denied this bid, but many of her demands for equal benefits were later met. In addition to her work at the University of Nairobi, Maathai became involved in a number of civic organizations in the early 1970s. She was a member of the Nairobi branch of the Kenya Red Cross Society, becoming its director in 1973. She was a member of the Kenya Association of University Women. Following the establishment of the Environment Liaison Centre in 1974, Maathai was asked to be a member of the local board, eventually becoming board chair. The Environment Liaison Centre worked to promote the participation of non-governmental organizations in the work of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), whose headquarters was established in Nairobi following the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. Maathai also joined the National Council of Women of Kenya (NCWK). Through her work at these various volunteer associations, it became evident to Maathai that the root of most of Kenya's problems was environmental degradation. In 1974, Maathai's family expanded to include her third child, son Muta. Her husband campaigned again for a seat in Parliament, hoping to represent the Lang'ata constituency, and won. During his campaign, he had promised to find jobs to limit the rising unemployment in Kenya. These promises led Maathai to connect her ideas of environmental restoration to providing jobs for the unemployed and led to the founding of Envirocare Ltd., a business that involved the planting of trees to conserve the environment, involving ordinary people in the process. This led to the planting of her first tree nursery, collocated with a government tree nursery in Karura Forest. Envirocare ran into multiple problems, primarily dealing with funding. The project failed. However, through conversations concerning Envirocare and her work at the Environment Liaison Centre, UNEP made it possible to send Maathai to the first UN conference on human settlements, known as Habitat I, in June 1976. In 1977, Maathai spoke to the NCWK concerning her attendance at Habitat I. She proposed further tree planting, which the council supported. On 5 June 1977, marking World Environment Day, the NCWK marched in a procession from Kenyatta International Conference Centre in downtown Nairobi to Kamukunji Park on the outskirts of the city, where they planted seven trees in honour of historical community leaders. This was the first \"Green Belt\", which was first known as the \"Save the Land Harambee\" and then became the Green Belt Movement. Maathai encouraged the women of Kenya to plant tree nurseries throughout the country, searching nearby forests for seeds to grow trees native to the area. She agreed to pay the women a small stipend for each seedling which was later planted elsewhere. In her 2010 book, \"Replenishing the Earth: Spiritual Values for Healing Ourselves and the World\", she discussed the impact of the Green Belt Movement, explaining that the group's civic and environmental seminars stressed \"the importance of communities taking responsibility for their actions and mobilizing to address their local needs,\" and adding, \"We all need to work hard to make a difference in our neighborhoods, regions, and countries, and in the world as a whole. That means making sure we work hard, collaborate with each other, and make ourselves better agents to change.\"", "Wangarĩ Maathai was awarded the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize for her \"contribution to sustainable development, democracy and peace\".[62] According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who in the preceding year \"shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity", "Controversy arose when it was reported by Kenyan newspaper \"The Standard\" that Maathai had claimed HIV/AIDS was \"deliberately created by Western scientists to decimate the African population.\" Maathai denied making the allegations, but \"The Standard\" has stood by its reports. In a 2004 interview with \"Time\" magazine, in response to questions concerning that report, Maathai replied: \"I have no", "On 28 March 2005, Maathai was elected the first president of the African Union's Economic, Social and Cultural Council and was appointed a goodwill ambassador for an initiative aimed at protecting the Congo Basin Forest Ecosystem. In 2006, she was one of the eight flag-bearers at the 2006 Winter Olympics Opening Ceremony. Also on 21 May 2006, she was awarded an honorary doctorate by and gave the commencement address at Connecticut College. She supported the International Year of Deserts and Desertification program. In November 2006, she spearheaded the United Nations Billion Tree Campaign. Maathai was one of the founders of the Nobel Women's Initiative along with sister Nobel Peace laureates Jody Williams, Shirin Ebadi, Rigoberta Menchú Tum, Betty Williams and Mairead Corrigan Maguire. Six women representing North America and South America, Europe, the Middle East and Africa decided to bring together their experiences in a united effort for peace with justice and equality. It is the goal of the Nobel Women's Initiative to help strengthen work being done in support of women's rights around the world. In", "In 2012, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests CPF, an international consortium of 14 organizations, secretariats and institutions working on international forest issues, launched the inaugural Wangarĩ Maathai Forest Champion Award. The 2012 inaugural winner of the Award was Narayan Kaji Shrestha. Other winners include: The 2017 award", "In 2012, Wangarĩ Gardens opened in Washington, DC. Wangarĩ Gardens is 2.7 acre community garden project for local residents which consists of over 55 garden allotments. This community garden honours the legacy of Wangarĩ Maathai and her mission for community engagement and environmental protection. The Wangarĩ Gardens consist of a community garden, youth garden, outdoor classroom, pollinator hive and public fruit tree orchard, vegetable garden, herb garden, berry garden and strawberry patch. Within the garden complex there are personal garden plots and public gardens. The personal plots are available to residents living within 1.5 miles of the community garden. Personal plot holders are required to contribute 1 hour monthly to the maintenance of the public gardens. The public gardens and orchard are maintained by plot holders and volunteers, and are open to everyone to enjoy and harvest. The Wangarĩ Gardens has no direct affiliation with the Green Belt Movement or the Wangarĩ Maathai Foundation but was inspired by Wangarĩ Maathai and her work and passion for the environment. On 25 September 2013, the Wangarĩ Maathai Trees and Garden was dedicated on the lawn of the University of Pittsburgh's Cathedral of Learning. The memorial includes two red maples symbolizing Maathai's \"commitment to the environment, her founding of the Green Belt Movement, and her roots in Kenya and in Pittsburgh\" and a flower garden planted in a circular shape that representing her \"global vision and dedication to the women and children of the world\" with an ornamental maple tree in the middle signifying \"how one small seed can change the world\". In 2014, at what would have been her 50-year reunion, her Mount St. Scholastica classmates and Benedictine College unveiled a statue of the Nobel laureate at her alma mater's Atchison, Kansas campus. In 2019, with the renovation of the Westerman Hall of Science and Engineering, the college added a mural of Maathai and other scientists to the front entryway of the building. In October 2016, Forest Road in Nairobi was renamed to Wangarĩ Maathai Road for her efforts to oppose several attempts to degrade forests and public parks through the Green Belt Movement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life (1943–1961).", "Radical political activism (1962–1967).", "Nouvelle Droite and media fame (1968–1993).", "Intellectual re-emergence (1994–present).", "Views.", "Identity.", "Ethnopluralism.", "Liberalism.", "United States.", "Islam.", "Paganism and Christianity.", "Influences.", "Critics.", "Private life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Alain de Benoist was born on 11 December 1943 in Saint-Symphorien (now part of Tours), Centre-Val de Loire, the son of a head of sales at Guerlain, also named Alain de Benoist, and Germaine née Langouët. De Benoist grew up in a bourgeois and Catholic family. His mother came from the lower-middle class of Normandy and Brittany, and his father belonged to the Belgian nobility with roots from the Middle Ages. During WWII, his father was a member of the resistance armed group French Forces of the Interior. He was a self-declared Gaullist, whereas his wife Germaine was rather left-leaning, and the de Benoist family was divided between Free France and Vichy France during the war. De Benoist is also the great-nephew of French Symbolist painter Gustave Moreau. De Benoist was still in high school at Lycée Montaigne and Louis-le-Grand during the turmoils of the Algerian war (1954-1962), a period that shaped his political views. In 1957 at 14, he met the daughter of the antisemite journalist and conspiracy theorist Henry Coston. From the age of 15, de Benoist became interested in the nationalist right in the context of the Algerian war, and he started his career as a journalist in 1960 by writing literary pieces and pamphlets for Coston's magazine \"Lectures Françaises\", generally in defence of the French Empire and the pro-colonial paramilitary organization Organisation Armée Secrète (OAS). De Benoist, however, stayed away from Coston’s conspiracy theories on the Freemasonry and the Jews. At 17 in 1961, he met François d'Orcival, with whom he became the editor of \"France Information\", an underground pro-OAS newspaper. The same year, and began to attend the Sorbonne University and joined the student society Federation of Nationalist Students (FEN). In 1962, he became the secretary of the organization's magazine, \"Cahiers universitaires\", in which he wrote the main articles along with D'Orcival. As a student in law and literature, he began a period of political activism and passion for fantastique cinema. According to Pierre-André Taguieff, de Benoist had an intellectual curiosity that was lacking from his elder colleagues Dominique Venner (1935–2013) and Jean Mabire (1927–2006), and the young journalist led them to discover a conceptual universe \"that they could not imagine\", no more than its \"possible ideological exploitations\".", "De Benoist met Dominique Venner in 1962. The following year, he took part in the creation of \"Europe-Action\", a white nationalist magazine created by Venner, in which de Benoist started to work as a journalist. De Benoist published at that times his first essays: \"Salan devant l'opinion\" (\"Salan faces the [public] opinion\", 1963) and \"Le courage est leur patrie\" (\"Braveness is their motherland\", 1965), defending French Algeria and the OAS. Between 1963 and 1965, de Benoist was a member of the Rationalist Union, and he probably began to read Louis Rougier's criticism of Christianity at that time—Rougier was also an adherent of the organization. They maintained a relationship and Rougier's ideas deeply influenced de Benoist's own anti-Christianity. \"We oppose Rougier to Sartre,\" de Benoist wrote in 1965, \"like we oppose verbal delirium to logics [...], because biological realism is the best support against those idealistic chimeras\". De Benoist continued his journalistic career and became in 1964 the editor-in-chief of the weekly publication \"Europe-Action Hebdomaire\", renamed \"L'Observateur Européen\" in October 1966. He also wrote in the neo-fascist magazine \"Défense de l'Occident\", founded in 1952 by Maurice Bardèche. After a visit to South Africa at the invitation of Hendrik Verwoerd's National Party government, de Benoist co-wrote with Gilles Fournier in 965t he essay \"Vérité pour l'Afrique du Sud\" (\"Truth for South Africa\"), in which they endorsed apartheid. The following year, he co-wrote with D'Orcival another essay, \"Rhodésie, pays des lions fidèles\" (\"Rhodesia, country of the faithful lions\", 1966), in defensc of Rhodesia, a breakaway country in southern Africa rthat was uled by a white-minority government. The then prime minister of the unrecognized state, Ian Smith, prefaced the book. Returning from a trip to the United States, de Benoist deplored the suppression of racial segregation and wrote as a prediction that the system would survive outside the law, thus in a more violent way. In two essays published in 1966, \"Les Indo-Européens\" (\"The Indo-Europeans\") and \"Qu'est-ce que le nationalisme?\" (\"What is nationalism?\"), de Benoist contributed to define a new form of European nationalism, in which the European civilization—to be understood as the \"white race\"— would be considered above its constituting ethnic groups, all united in a common empire and civilization including Russia. This theory was embodied in the 1967 legislative program of the European Rally for Liberty (REL), in which de Benoist was member of the national council, and it later became a core idea of GRECE after 1968. The successive failures of the various far-right movements he had supported—from the dissolution of OAS and the Évian Accords in 1962, to the electoral defeat of presidential candidate Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour in 1965 (de Benoist had participated to the grassroots movement \"T.V. Committees\"), and finally the debacle of the REL in March 1967,—led de Benoist to question his political involvement. In the fall of 1967, he decided to make a \"permanent and complete break with political action\", and focus on a meta-political strategy by launching a review. During the May 1968 events, then 25, de Benoist was a journalist for the professional magazine \"L'Écho de la presse et de la publicité\".", "Along with militants of the REL and FEN, de Benoist founded GRECE in 1968, an ethnonationalist think-tank in which he soon became the leader and its \"most authoritative spokesman\". In the 1970s, de Benoist adapted his geopolitical view-points, from a pro-colonial attitude towards an advocacy of third-Worldism against capitalist America and communist Russia; from the defence of the \"last outposts of the West\" towards anti-Americanism; and from a biological to a cultural definition of alterity, an idea developed in his ethnopluralist theories. His works, along with others published by the think tank, led a public fame in the late 1970s, and the media called the movement the \"Nouvelle Droite\". De Benoist became began to write articles for mainstream right-wing magazines, namely \"Valeurs Actuelles\" and \"Le Spectacle du Monde\" from 1970 to 1982, and \"Le Figaro Dimanche\" (renamed in 1978 \"Le Figaro Magazine\") from 1977 to 1982, then writing for the section 'videos' of the magazine until 1992. He received in 1978 the prestigious Prix de l'essai from the Académie française for his book \"View for the Right\" (\"Vu de droite: Anthologie critique des idées contemporaines\"), which sold 30,000 copies. Although de Benoist had announced in 1968 his retirement from political parties and elections to rather focus on meta-politics, he was a candidate for the far-right micro-party Party of New Forces during the 1979 European elections. In the 1984 election to the European Parliament, he announced his intention to vote for the French Communist Party, and justified his choice by describing the party as the most credible anti-capitalist, anti-liberal, and anti-American political force then active in France. De Benoist met Russian writer Alexandr Dugin in 1989. They soon became close collaborators: de Benoist was invited to Moscow by Dugin in 1992, and the latter presented himself as the correspondent of GRECE in Moscow for a time. The two authors eventually broke off their relationship in 1993 after a virulent campaign in French and German media against the \"red and brown threat\" in Russia. While de Benoist acknowledged ideological differences with Dugin, especially on Eurasianism and Heidegger, the two of them have maintained regular exchanges since then.", "In 1979 and 1993, two press campaigns launched in French liberal media against de Benoist, claiming that he was in reality a \"closet Fascist\" or a \"Nazi\", damaged his public reputation and influence in France. They accused him of hiding his racist and anti-egalitarian beliefs in a seemingly acceptable way to the public, by replacing the hierarchy of races with the less suspicious concept of \"ethno-pluralism\". Although he still frequently comments on politics, de Benoist chose in the early 1990s to focus on his intellectual activity and to avoid media attention. Since the 2000s onward, however, public interest for his works have re-emerged. He has made several media appearances in France Culture, Europe 1, Telemadrid, Radio Courtoisie or \"Il Giornale\". His writings have been published in several far-right academic journals such as the \"Journal of Historical Review,\" \"Chronicles\", the \"Occidental Quarterly\", \"Tyr,\" or the New Left \"Telos\". De Benoist was one of the signatories of the 2002 \"Manifesto Against the Death of the Spirit and the Earth\", reportedly because \"it seemed to me that it reacts against the practical materialism that is part of a dominant ideology, an ideology for which there is nothing beyond material concerns\". In a 2002, in a republication of his book \"View from the Right\", de Benoist reiterated what he wrote in 1977: the \"greatest\" danger in the world today was the \"progressive disappearance of diversity from the world,\" including biodiversity of animals, cultures and peoples. De Benoist is now the editor of two magazines: the annual \"Nouvelle École\" (since 1968) and the quarterly \"Krisis\" (since 1988). Although the extent of the relationship is debated by scholars, de Benoist and the Nouvelle Droite are generally viewed as influential on the ideological and political structure of the Identitarian Movement. Part of the alt-right has also claimed to have been inspired by de Benoist's writings.", "From being close to pro-colonial movements and adopting an ethnobiological perspective at the beginning of his writings in the 1960s, when he endorsed apartheid with Gilles Fournier as the \"last outpost of the West\" at a time of \"decolonization and international negrification\", de Benoist gradually moved towards a defense of the Third-World against American imperialism and a more cultural definition of \"difference\", theorized in his concept of ethnopluralism. De Benoist is also an ardent critic of globalization, unrestricted mass immigration, liberalism, postmodern society and what he calls the \"ideology of sameness\". Scholars question if this evolution in de Benoist's concepts should be considered a sincere ideological detachment from a far-right activist youth, or rather a meta-political strategy to reshape non-egalitarian ideas into acceptable, differentialist terms. Political scientist Jean-Yves Camus describes the key idea of de Benoist's writings in those terms: \"through the use of meta-politics, to think the ways and means that are necessary in order for European civilization, based on the cultural values shared on the continent until the advent of globalization, to thrive and be perpetuated.\" Though he embodies the core values of GRECE and the Nouvelle Droite, de Benoist’s works are not always identical to those of other thinkers of the movements. He for instance disavowed Guillaume Faye's \"strongly racist\" ideas regarding Muslims after the publication of \"The Colonization of Europe: Speaking Truth about Immigration and Islam\" in 2000. De Benoist is indeed opposed to political violence, stating that he had been building \"a school of thought, not a political movement.\"", "Inspired by Martin Buber's philosophy of dialogue and his \"Ich und Du\" concept, de Benoist defined \"identity\" as a \"dialogical\" phenomenon in \"We and the Others\" (\"Nous et les autres\", 2006). According to him, one's identity is made of two components: the \"objective part\" that comes from one’s background (ethnicity, religion, family, nationality), and the \"subjective part\", freely chosen by the individual. Identity is therefore a process in constant evolution, rather than a completely fixed notion. In 1992, he consequently dismissed the Front National use of ethnopluralism, on the grounds that it portrayed \"difference as an absolute, whereas, by definition, it exists only relationally.\" De Benoist believes that knowledge of ethnic and religious traditions is a duty, which must be passed on to following generation, and is critical of the idea of a moral imperative to cosmopolitanism. If scholars like Pierre-André Taguieff have labeled the Nouvelle Droite a form of \"mixophobia\", due to its focus on the concept of \"difference\", de Benoist has also criticized what he calls \"the pathology of identity\", that is to say the political use of identity by the populist Right in order to push an \"us versus them\" debate escorted by \"[systematic] and [irrational] hating\". The difficulty of understanding de Benoist’s views on identity lies in the fact that his writings have experienced multiple re-synthesis since the 1960s. In 1974, he said: \"there is no superior race. All races are superior and each of them has its own genius\". Suspicions have arisen of a subtle meta-political guise designed with the aim of re-establishing the original fascist idea around a new framework, and de Benoist has been influenced by Carl Schmitt's distinction between friend and enemy as the core issue of politics. He however sees immigrants as eventually victims of globalization, and also explained that immigration was first of all a consequence of big companies being greedy for profits and preferring to import cheap labor.", "De Benoist rejects the nation state and nationalism, on the ground that both liberalism and nationalism eventually derive from the same metaphysics of subjectivity, and that the centralized and \"Jacobin\" state French Republic had destroyed regional identities in the project of \"one and indivisible\" France. He stands instead for the political autonomy of each and every group, favoring an integral federalism built on the principle of subsidiarity, that would transcend the nation state and give way to regional identities and a common continental one at once.", "De Benoist is a critic of the primacy of individual rights, an ideology he sees embodied in humanism, the French Revolution, and the American Founding Fathers. While not a Marxist, de Benoist has been influenced by the communist analysis of the nature of capitalism and conflicting class interests, exposed by Karl Marx in \"Das Kapital.\" As a result, another of his core ideas is that the world is facing the \"hegemony of capital\" and the \"pursuit of self-interest\", two typical trends of the postmodern era. According to Jean-Yves Camus however, if de Benoist can share anti-capitalist analysis with leftists, the nature of his goal is indeed different, as de Benoist considers the unlimited expansion of the free market and consumerism as key contributors to the erasure of peoples' identities. Furthermore, although he acknowledges their existence, he does not makes an essential distinction between the \"working class\" and the \"bourgeoise\", but rather between the \"new dominant class\" and the \"people\". In 1991, his magazine \"Eléments\" described via its editorial staff how \"too systematic anti-egalitarianism [could] lead to social Darwinism, which might justify free-market economy\".", "De Benoist is opposed to the American liberal idea of a melting pot. A critic of the United States, he has been quoted as saying: \"Some people do not accept the thought of one day having to wear the Red Army cap. In fact, it is a terrible prospect. However, this is not a reason to tolerate the idea of one day having to spend what we have left to live on by eating hamburgers in Brooklyn.\" In 1991, he complained that European supporters of the first Gulf War were \"collaborators of the American order.\"", "De Benoist has supported ties with Islamic culture in the 1980s, on the grounds that the relationship would be distinct from what he saw as the consumerism and materialism of American society, as well as the bureaucracy and repression of the Soviet Union.", "He also opposes Christianity as inherently intolerant, theocratic and bent on persecution.", "De Benoist's influences include Antonio Gramsci, Ernst Jünger, Martin Buber, Jean Baudrillard, Georges Dumézil, Ernest Renan, José Ortega y Gasset, Vilfredo Pareto, Karl Marx, Guy Debord, Arnold Gehlen, Stéphane Lupasco, Helmut Schelsky, Konrad Lorenz, the Conservative Revolutionaries, the non-conformists of the 1930s, Johann Gottfried Herder, Johannes Althusius, interwar Austro-Marxists, and communitarian philosophers such as Alasdair MacIntyre and Charles Taylor.", "His critics, such as Thomas Sheehan, argue that de Benoist has developed a novel restatement of fascism. Roger Griffin, using an ideal type definition of fascism which includes \"populist ultra-nationalism\" and \"palingenesis\" (heroic rebirth), argues that the Nouvelle Droite draws on such fascist ideologues as Armin Mohler in a way that allows Nouvelle Droite ideologues such as de Benoist to claim a \"metapolitical\" stance, but which nonetheless has residual fascist ideological elements. De Benoist's critics also claim his views recall Nazi attempts to replace German Christianity with its own paganism. They note that de Benoist's rejection of the French Revolution's legacy and the allegedly \"abstract\" Rights of Man ties him to the same Counter-Enlightenment right-wing tradition as counter-revolutionary Legitimists, fascists, Vichyites and integral nationalists.", "A neo-pagan, de Benoist married Doris Christians, a German citizen, on 21 June 1972; they have two children. He is a member of the high IQ society Mensa, whose former president for the French branch was a member of the patronage committee of GRECE magazine \"Nouvelle École\". He owns the largest private library in France, with an estimate of 150,000 to 250,000 books." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Filming.", "Post-production.", "Restoration and home video.", "Critical response.", "Legacy and influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On New Year's Eve, dying Salvation Army Sister Edit has one last wish: to speak with David Holm. David, a drunkard, is sitting in a graveyard, telling his two drinking buddies about his old friend Georges, who told him about the legend that the last person to die each year has to drive Death's carriage and collect the souls of everybody who dies the following year. Georges himself died on New Year's Eve the previous year. Gustafsson, a colleague of Edit, finds David, but is unable to convince him to go see her. When his friends try to drag him there, a fight breaks out, and David is struck on the head with a bottle just before the clock strikes twelve. David's soul emerges from his body as the carriage appears. The driver is Georges. Georges reminds David of how the latter once lived a happy life with his wife Anna, their two children and his brother, until Georges led him astray. As shown in a flashback that follows, David was jailed for drunkenness. Before being released from prison, he was shown his brother, who had been sentenced to a long term for killing a man while drunk. When David went home, he found the apartment empty. Furious, he became determined to track Anna down and have his revenge. During his search throughout Sweden, David arrives at a new Salvation Army Mission on New Year's Eve. Maria does not want to answer the bell, as it is very late, but Edit lets him in. Despite his rudeness to her, she mends his coat while he sleeps. The next day, she asks him to return in one year; she had prayed that the first visitor would have good fortune for that period and wants to know the outcome of her prayer. He agrees, but before he leaves, he tears out her patches. Georges informs David that the promise has to be fulfilled and takes him against his will in the carriage to Edit. In another flashback it is shown how Edit once found David in a bar with Gustafsson and another man. Edit persuaded the other man to go home with his wife and gave Gustafsson an advertisement for a Salvation Army meeting. At the meeting, Gustafsson submitted himself to God, but David remained completely unrepentant. Anna was at the meeting, but David did not recognize her. Later, Anna told Edit who she was, and Edit tried to effect a reconciliation. At first, the couple were optimistic, but soon David's behavior drove Anna to despair once again. One night, Anna pleaded with him not to expose their children to his consumption (the same fatal disease Edit caught from him). When he refused, Anna locked him in the kitchen and tried to flee again with their children, but fainted. He broke through the door with an axe, but did not physically hurt her. When Georges arrives in Edit's room, she begs him to let her live until she sees David again. She thinks she is the one to blame for his magnified sins, as she brought the couple together again. When David hears this, he is deeply moved. He kisses her hands, and when Edit sees his regret, she can die in peace. Georges does not take her, saying others will come for her. He then shows David that Anna, afraid of leaving her children alone after she herself dies of consumption, is planning to poison them and herself. David begs Georges to do something, but Georges has no power over the living. Then David regains consciousness in the graveyard. He rushes to Anna before she can act. With great difficulty, he convinces her that he sincerely wishes to reform.", "", "Since 1917, there was a deal between Selma Lagerlöf and A-B Svenska Biografteatern to adapt at least one Lagerlöf novel for film every year. Prior to \"The Phantom Carriage\", Sjöström had made three of these adaptions which had all been well received by critics, the audience and Lagerlöf herself. Since all of them had taken place in a rural setting, Sjöström felt that he wanted a change for the fourth and suggested the urban, gritty Körkarlen. Lagerlöf was initially sceptical about the possibility to adapt the novel's elements of occultism and mysticism, and Sjöström was well aware of the difficulties. The script took eight days to finish and in April 1920 Sjöström travelled to Lagerlöf's mansion Mårbacka in Värmland to present it. After two hours of Sjöström reading loud and performing the whole script by himself, Lagerlöf responded by offering him dinner, which Sjöström took as an approval.", "Shooting took place from May to July 1920 in the newly started Filmstaden studios in Solna. The set design was inspired by the southern Swedish town Landskrona, which corresponded to what Lagerlöf had in mind when writing the novel. Lagerlöf's original wish was to film it on location in Landskrona, but Sjöström chose to do it in the studio for technical reasons.", "Post-production was famously long and intense due to the extensive use of special effects, developed by cinematographer Julius Jaenzon and lab executive Eugén Hellman. Double exposures made in the camera (optical printing wasn't available until the early 1930s), had been used before by Jaenzon, already in \"Sir Arne's Treasure\" from 1919, but were here developed to be far more advanced with several layers. This allowed the ghost characters to walk around in three dimensions, being able to first be covered by an object in the foreground, but when in the same take walking up in front of the object, it would be seen through the ghost's semi-transparent body. One difficulty was that the cameras were hand-cranked, meaning that the camera had to be cranked at exactly the same speed in different exposures for the end result to appear natural.", "For decades, \"The Phantom Carriage\" was only available in poor quality, black and white prints, often of the retitled US release version, with English intertitles. 1975: The Swedish Film Institute combined two incomplete positive nitrate prints, one B&W with Swedish intertitles and the other colour-tinted with English intertitles, to make a complete 35mm B&W duplicate negative with Swedish intertitles (approx. 6438 ft at 16fps). New viewing prints were struck from this restored negative, using the tinted nitrate print as a colour reference. 1995: An incomplete (approx. 6057 ft at 18fps) but good quality, colour tinted print with a custom score by Elena Kats-Chernin was broadcast on ZDF/Arte, and later released on German VHS (1995) and DVD (2009). 1998: The tinted Swedish restoration was released domestically on VHS with a brand new custom score by Swedish musician Matti Bye. In 2007, it was also released on Swedish DVD with the Bye score. In 2008, it was simultaneously released on two UK DVDs, one with Bye's score and the other featuring a new score by electronic duo KTL. 2011: In collaboration with the Swedish Film Institute, the Criterion Collection released a new digital scan of the Swedish Film Institute's restoration on US Blu-ray and DVD, featuring both the Bye and KTL scores. 2015: The Swedish Film Institute carried out a further digital transfer of their restoration; this version is only available as a DCP, with or without Bye's recorded score.", "Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports an approval rating of 100%, based on, with a rating average of 9/10. Jonathan Rosenbaum from \"Chicago Reader\" praised the film, calling it a masterpiece.", "\"The Phantom Carriage\" was an influence on the later Swedish film director Ingmar Bergman who also utilised the figure of Death in \"The Seventh Seal\", where the referring to him as a \"strict master\" is a reference to \"The Phantom Carriage\". Bergman also cast Sjöström in the leading role for \"Wild Strawberries\", which also features references to the film. Bergman has said that he first saw it at 15 and watched it at least once every year. The television play \"The Image Makers\" (2000), directed by Bergman, is a historical drama depicting the making of \"The Phantom Carriage\". It is listed in the film reference book \"1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die\", which says \"\"The Phantom Carriage\" not only cemented the fame of director-screenwriter-actor Victor Sjöström and Swedish silent cinema, but also had a well-documented, artistic influence on many great directors and producers.\" Stanley Kubrick's 1980 horror film \"The Shining\" features several thematic similarities, as well as the famous sequence where Jack Nicholson uses an axe to break through a wooden door to reach his fleeing wife and child." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification and evolution.", "Fossil record." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "There are five living species, and all are placed in the genus \"Gavia\". The loons were formerly often considered to be the most ancient of the northern hemisphere bird families; this idea grew basically out of the perceived similarity of shape and (probably) habits between loons and the entirely unrelated extinct Cretaceous order Hesperornithiformes. In particular \"Enaliornis\", which was apparently an ancestral and plesiomorphic member of that order, was sometimes used to support claims of Albian (Early Cretaceous) Gaviiformes. More recently, it has become clear that the Anseriformes (waterfowl) and the Galliformes are the most ancient groups of modern birds, and these being distinct by the end of the Albian 100 million years ago (Ma), while just possible, is not at all well-supported. Loons belong to a more modern radiation. They were once believed to be related to grebes, which are also foot-propelled diving birds, and both groups were once classified together under the order Colymbiformes. However, as recently as the 1930s, it was determined that the two groups are not that closely related at all and are merely the product of convergent evolution and adapted in a similar way to a similar ecological niche. The similarity is so strong that even the most modern cladistic analyses of general anatomical features are easily misled into grouping loons and grebes. The Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy still allied the loons with the grebes in its massively paraphyletic \"Ciconiiformes\", and it is almost certain that the relationships of loons lie with \"some\" of the orders placed therein. Namely, other recent authors have considered loons to share a rather close relationship with seabirds such as penguins (Sphenisciformes), tubenoses (Procellariiformes), waders (Charadriiformes) – and perhaps the newly discovered clade Mirandornithes which unites grebes (Podicipediformes) and their closest living relatives, the flamingos (Phoenicopteriformes). It is perhaps notable that some early penguins had skulls and beaks that were in many aspects similar to those of the known living and fossil Gaviiformes.", "In prehistoric times, the loons had a more southerly distribution than today, and their fossils have been found in places such as California, Florida and Italy. The conflicting molecular data regarding their relationships is not much resolved by the fossil record; though they seem to have originated at the end of the Late Cretaceous like their presumed relatives, modern loons are only known with certainty since the Eocene. By that time almost all modern bird orders are at least strongly suspected to have existed – if not known from unequivocally identified specimens – anyway. \"Colymboides\", the oldest unequivocal gaviiform genus known as of 2009, is widely known from early Priabonian – about 37 million years ago (Ma) in the Late Eocene – to Early Miocene (late Burdigalian, less than 20 Ma) limnic and marine rocks of western Eurasia north of the Alpide belt, between the Atlantic and the former Turgai Sea. It is usually placed in the Gaviidae already, but usually in a subfamily Colymboidinae, with the modern-type loons making up the Gaviinae. But the \"Colymboides\" material is generally quite distinct from modern loons, and may actually belong in a now-extinct family of primitive gaviiforms. Furthermore, the supposed genus could well be paraphyletic, so that for example \"Dyspetornis\" – which is now contained therein – might have to be separated again. A leg of an undescribed small diver was found in the Late Oligocene deposits at Enspel (Germany); it too may or may not belong to \"Colymboides\". Of the crown genus \"Gavia\", nearly ten prehistoric species have been named to date, and about as many undescribed ones await further study. The genus is known from the Early Miocene onwards, and the oldest members them are rather small (some are smaller than the red-throated loon). Throughout the late Neogene, the genus by and large follows Cope's Rule. Some older fossils are sometimes assigned to the Gaviiformes. From the Late Cretaceous, the genera \"Lonchodytes\" (Lance Formation, Wyoming) and \"Neogaeornis\" (Quinriquina Formation, Chile) have been described; both are usually allied with orders which are considered related to loons. In particular the latter is still sometimes explicitly proposed as a primitive loon as they both were initially, but other authors consider \"Neogaeornis\" a hesperornithiform; note however that neither Gaviiformes nor Hesperornithiformes are known from the Southern Hemisphere or anywhere near it. \"Lonchodytes\" was more certainly quite close to loons, but probably closer still to some of the loons' relatives. \"Eupterornis\" from the Paleocene of Châlons-sur-Vesle (France) has some features reminiscent of loons, but others seem more similar to Charadriiformes such as gulls (Laridae). A piece of a carpometacarpus supposedly from Oligocene rocks near Lusk, Wyoming was described as \"Gaviella pusilla\", but this handbone also shows some similarities to the plotopterids which were flightless wing-propelled divers and if these are apomorphic would make an unconvincing member of the Gaviidae (though it still could be a small-winged gaviiform in a yet-undescribed family \"Gaviellidae\"): while the carpometacarpus in \"Gavia\" is somewhat convergent to that of wing-propelled divers, enabling the wings to be used as rudders for quick underwater turns, \"Colymboides\" still had an unspecialized plesiomorphic hand. \"Parascaniornis\", sometimes allied to the loons by early authors, was eventually determined to be a junior synonym of the hesperornithiform \"Baptornis\". A supposed mid-Eocene diver fossil form Geiseltal (Germany) was erroneously assigned to \"Gavia\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Styles.", "Romantic style.", "Neoclassicism.", "Jazz-influenced classical composition.", "Movements.", "Impressionism.", "Modernism.", "Futurism.", "Free dissonance and experimentalism.", "Expressionism.", "Postmodern music.", "Minimalism.", "Techniques.", "Atonality and twelve-tone technique.", "Electronic music.", "Other notable 20th-century composers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At the turn of the century, music was characteristically late Romantic in style. Composers such as Gustav Mahler, Richard Strauss and Jean Sibelius were pushing the bounds of post-Romantic symphonic writing. At the same time, the Impressionist movement, spearheaded by Claude Debussy, was being developed in France. Debussy in fact loathed the term Impressionism: \"I am trying to do'something different—in a way realities—what the imbeciles call 'impressionism' is a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by art critics\". Maurice Ravel's music, also often labelled as impressionist, explores music in many styles not always related to it (see the discussion on Neoclassicism, below). Many composers reacted to the Post-Romantic and Impressionist styles and moved in quite different directions. The single most important moment in defining the course of music throughout the century was the widespread break with traditional tonality, effected in diverse ways by different composers in the first decade of the century. From this sprang an unprecedented \"linguistic plurality\" of styles, techniques, and expression. In Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg developed atonality, out of the expressionism that arose in the early part of the 20th century. He later developed the twelve-tone technique which was developed further by his disciples Alban Berg and Anton Webern; later composers (including Pierre Boulez) developed it further still. Stravinsky (in his last works) explored twelve-tone technique, too, as did many other composers; indeed, even Scott Bradley used the technique in his scores for the Tom and Jerry cartoons. After the First World War, many composers started returning to the past for inspiration and wrote works that draw elements (form, harmony, melody, structure) from it. This type of music thus became labelled neoclassicism. Igor Stravinsky (\"Pulcinella\"), Sergei Prokofiev (\"Classical Symphony\"), Ravel (\"Le tombeau de Couperin\"), Manuel de Falla (\"El retablo de maese Pedro\") and Paul Hindemith (\"\") all produced neoclassical works. Italian composers such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo developed musical Futurism. This style often tried to recreate everyday sounds and place them in a \"Futurist\" context. The \"Machine Music\" of George Antheil (starting with his Second Sonata, \"The Airplane\") and Alexander Mosolov (most notoriously his \"Iron Foundry\") developed out of this. The process of extending musical vocabulary by exploring all available tones was pushed further by the use of Microtones in works by Charles Ives, Julián Carrillo, Alois Hába, John Foulds, Ivan Wyschnegradsky, Harry Partch and Mildred Couper among many others. Microtones are those intervals that are smaller than a semitone; human voices and unfretted strings can easily produce them by going in between the \"normal\" notes, but other instruments will have more difficulty—the piano and organ have no way of producing them at all, aside from retuning and/or major reconstruction. In the 1940s and 50s composers, notably Pierre Schaeffer, started to explore the application of technology to music in musique concrète. The term electroacoustic music was later coined to include all forms of music involving magnetic tape, computers, synthesizers, multimedia, and other electronic devices and techniques. Live electronic music uses live electronic sounds within a performance (as opposed to preprocessed sounds that are overdubbed during a performance), Cage's \"Cartridge Music\" being an early example. Spectral music (Gérard Grisey and Tristan Murail) is a further development of electroacoustic music that uses analyses of sound spectra to create music (; ). Cage, Berio, Boulez, Milton Babbitt, Luigi Nono and Edgard Varèse all wrote electroacoustic music. From the early 1950s onwards, Cage introduced elements of chance into his music. Process music (Karlheinz Stockhausen \"Prozession\", \"Aus den sieben Tagen\"; and Steve Reich \"Piano Phase\", \"Clapping Music\") explores a particular process which is essentially laid bare in the work. The term experimental music was coined by Cage to describe works that produce unpredictable results, according to the definition \"an experimental action is one the outcome of which is not foreseen\". The term is also used to describe music within specific genres that pushes against their boundaries or definitions, or else whose approach is a hybrid of disparate styles, or incorporates unorthodox, new, distinctly unique ingredients. Important cultural trends often informed music of this period, romantic, modernist, neoclassical, postmodernist or otherwise. Igor Stravinsky and Sergei Prokofiev were particularly drawn to primitivism in their early careers, as explored in works such as \"The Rite of Spring\" and \"Chout\". Other Russians, notably Dmitri Shostakovich, reflected the social impact of communism and subsequently had to work within the strictures of socialist realism in their music (, ). Other composers, such as Benjamin Britten (\"War Requiem\"), explored political themes in their works, albeit entirely at their own volition. Nationalism was also an important means of expression in the early part of the century. The culture of the United States of America, especially, began informing an American vernacular style of classical music, notably in the works of Charles Ives, John Alden Carpenter, and (later) George Gershwin. Folk music (Vaughan Williams' \"Five Variants of Dives and Lazarus\", Gustav Holst's \"A Somerset Rhapsody\") and Jazz (Gershwin, Leonard Bernstein, Darius Milhaud's \"La création du monde\") were also influential. In the latter quarter of the century, eclecticism and polystylism became important. These, as well as minimalism, New Complexity, and New Simplicity, are more fully explored in their respective articles.", "", "At the end of the 19th century (often called the \"Fin de siècle\"), the Romantic style was starting to break apart, moving along various parallel courses, such as Impressionism and Post-romanticism. In the 20th century, the different styles that emerged from the music of the previous century influenced composers to follow new trends, sometimes as a reaction to that music, sometimes as an extension of it, and both trends co-existed well into the 20th century. The former trends, such as Expressionism are discussed later. In the early part of the 20th century, many composers wrote music which was an extension of 19th-century Romantic music, and traditional instrumental groupings such as the orchestra and string quartet remained the most typical. Traditional forms such as the symphony and concerto remained in use. Gustav Mahler and Jean Sibelius are examples of composers who took the traditional symphonic forms and reworked them. (See Romantic music.) Some writers hold that Schoenberg's work is squarely within the late-Romantic tradition of Wagner and Brahms and, more generally, that \"the composer who most directly and completely connects late Wagner and the 20th century is Arnold Schoenberg\".", "Neoclassicism was a style cultivated between the two world wars, which sought to revive the balanced forms and clearly perceptible thematic processes of the 17th and 18th centuries, in a repudiation of what were seen as exaggerated gestures and formlessness of late Romanticism. Because these composers generally replaced the functional tonality of their models with extended tonality, modality, or atonality, the term is often taken to imply parody or distortion of the Baroque or Classical style. Famous examples include Prokofiev's \"Classical Symphony\" and Stravinsky's \"Pulcinella\", \"Symphony of Psalms\", and Concerto in E-flat \"Dumbarton Oaks\". Paul Hindemith (\"\"), Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc (\"Concert champêtre\"), and Manuel de Falla (\"El retablo de maese Pedro\", Harpsichord Concerto) also used this style. Maurice Ravel's \"Le tombeau de Couperin\" is often seen as neo-baroque (an architectural term), though the distinction between the terms is not always made.", "A number of composers combined elements of the jazz idiom with classical compositional styles, notably:", "", "Impressionism started in France as a reaction, led by Claude Debussy, against the emotional exuberance and epic themes of German Romanticism exemplified by Wagner. In Debussy's view, art was a sensuous experience, rather than an intellectual or ethical one. He urged his countrymen to rediscover the French masters of the 18th century, for whom music was meant to charm, to entertain, and to serve as a \"fantasy of the senses\". Other composers associated with impressionism include Maurice Ravel, Albert Roussel, Isaac Albéniz, Paul Dukas, Manuel de Falla, Charles Martin Loeffler, Charles Griffes, Frederick Delius, Ottorino Respighi, Cyril Scott and Karol Szymanowski. Many French composers continued impressionism's language through the 1920s and later, including Albert Roussel, Charles Koechlin, André Caplet, and, later, Olivier Messiaen. Composers from non-Western cultures, such as Tōru Takemitsu, and jazz musicians such as Duke Ellington, Gil Evans, Art Tatum, and Cecil Taylor also have been strongly influenced by the impressionist musical language.", "", "At its conception, Futurism was an Italian artistic movement founded in 1909 by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti; it was quickly embraced by the Russian avant garde. In 1913, the painter Luigi Russolo published a manifesto, \"L'arte dei rumori\" (The Art of Noises), calling for the incorporation of noises of every kind into music. In addition to Russolo, composers directly associated with this movement include the Italians Silvio Mix, Nuccio Fiorda, Franco Casavola, and Pannigi (whose 1922 \"Ballo meccanico\" included two motorcycles), and the Russians Artur Lourié, Mikhail Matyushin, and Nikolai Roslavets. Though few of the futurist works of these composers are performed today, the influence of futurism on the later development of 20th-century music was enormous. Sergei Prokofiev, Maurice Ravel, Igor Stravinsky, Arthur Honegger, George Antheil, Leo Ornstein, and Edgard Varèse are among the notable composers in the first half of the century who were influenced by futurism. Characteristic features of later 20th-century music with origins in futurism include the prepared piano, integral serialism, extended vocal techniques, graphic notation, improvisation, and minimalism.", "In the early part of the 20th century, Charles Ives integrated American and European traditions as well as vernacular and church styles, while using innovative techniques in his rhythm, harmony, and form. His technique included the use of polytonality, polyrhythm, tone clusters, aleatoric elements, and quarter tones. Edgard Varèse wrote highly dissonant pieces that utilized unusual sonorities and futuristic, scientific-sounding names. He pioneered the use of new instruments and electronic resources (see below).", "By the late 1920s, though many composers continued to write in a vaguely expressionist manner, it was being supplanted by the more impersonal style of the German Neue Sachlichkeit and neoclassicism. Because expressionism, like any movement that had been stigmatized by the Nazis, gained a sympathetic reconsideration following World War II, expressionist music resurfaced in works by composers such as Hans Werner Henze, Pierre Boulez, Peter Maxwell Davies, Wolfgang Rihm, and Bernd Alois Zimmermann.", "Postmodernism is a reaction to modernism, but it can also be viewed as a response to a deep-seated shift in societal attitude. According to this latter view, postmodernism began when historic (as opposed to personal) optimism turned to pessimism, at the latest by 1930. John Cage is a prominent figure in 20th-century music, claimed with some justice both for modernism and postmodernism because the complex intersections between modernism and postmodernism are not reducible to simple schemata. His influence steadily grew during his lifetime. He often uses elements of chance: Imaginary Landscape No. 4 for 12 radio receivers, and Music of Changes for piano. Sonatas and Interludes (1946–48) is composed for a prepared piano: a normal piano whose timbre is dramatically altered by carefully placing various objects inside the piano in contact with the strings. Currently Postmodernism includes composers who react against the Avant-Garde and experimental styles of the late 20th century such as Astor Piazzolla, Argentina and Miguel del Aguila, USA.", "In the later 20th century, composers such as La Monte Young, Arvo Pärt, Philip Glass, Terry Riley, Steve Reich, and John Adams began to explore what is now called minimalism, in which the work is stripped down to its most fundamental features; the music often features repetition and iteration. An early example is Terry Riley's \"In C\" (1964), an aleatoric work in which short phrases are chosen by the musicians from a set list and played an arbitrary number of times, while the note C is repeated in eighth notes (quavers) behind them. Steve Reich's works \"Piano Phase\" (1967, for two pianos), and \"Drumming\" (1970–71, for percussion, female voices and piccolo) employ the technique called phasing in which a phrase played by one player maintaining a constant pace is played simultaneously by another but at a slightly quicker pace. This causes the players to go \"out of phase\" with each other and the performance may continue until they come back in phase. Philip Glass's \"1 + 1\" (1968) employs the additive process in which short phrases are slowly expanded. La Monte Young's \"Compositions 1960\" employs very long tones, exceptionally high volumes and extra-musical techniques such as \"draw a straight line and follow it\" or \"build a fire\". Michael Nyman argues that minimalism was a reaction to and made possible by both serialism and indeterminism. (See also experimental music.)", "", "Arnold Schoenberg is one of the most significant figures in 20th-century music. While his early works were in a late Romantic style influenced by Wagner (\"Verklärte Nacht\", 1899), this evolved into an atonal idiom in the years before the First World War (\"Drei Klavierstücke\" in 1909 and \"Pierrot Lunaire\" in 1912). In 1921, after several years of research, he developed the twelve-tone technique of composition, which he first described privately to his associates in 1923. His first large-scale work entirely composed using this technique was the Wind Quintet, Op. 26, written in 1923–24. Later examples include the Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31 (1926–28), the Third and Fourth String Quartets (1927 and 1936, respectively), the Violin Concerto (1936) and Piano Concerto (1942). In later years, he intermittently returned to a more tonal style (\"Kammersymphonie no. 2\", begun in 1906 but completed only in 1939; \"Variations on a Recitative\" for organ in 1941). He taught Anton Webern and Alban Berg and these three composers are often referred to as the principal members of the Second Viennese School (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven—and sometimes Schubert—being regarded as the First Viennese School in this context). Webern wrote works using a rigorous twelve-tone method and influenced the development of total serialism. Berg, like Schoenberg, employed twelve-tone technique within a late-romantic or post-romantic style (Violin Concerto, which quotes a Bach Choral and uses Classical form). He wrote two major operas (\"Wozzeck\" and \"Lulu\").", "The development of recording technology made all sounds available for potential use as musical material. Electronic music generally refers to a repertory of art music developed in the 1950s in Europe, Japan, and the Americas. The increasing availability of magnetic tape in this decade provided composers with a medium which allowed recording sounds and then manipulating them in various ways. All electronic music depends on transmission via loudspeakers, but there are two broad types: acousmatic music, which exists only in recorded form meant for loudspeaker listening, and live electronic music, in which electronic apparatus are used to generate, transform, or trigger sounds during performance by musicians using voices, traditional instruments, electro-acoustic instruments, or other devices. Beginning in 1957, computers became increasingly important in this field. When the source material was acoustical sounds from the everyday world, the term musique concrète was used; when the sounds were produced by electronic generators, it was designated electronic music. After the 1950s, the term \"electronic music\" came to be used for both types. Sometimes such electronic music was combined with more conventional instruments, Stockhausen's \"Hymnen\", Edgard Varèse's \"Déserts\", and Mario Davidovsky's series of \"Synchronisms\" are three examples.", "Various prominent composers from the 20th century are not associated with any widely recognised compositional movement. The list below includes some of those, along with several notable classifiable composers who are not mentioned in the preceding parts of this article:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Setting.", "Synopsis.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This novel takes place in South Africa amongst the diamond fields in the district of Griqualand. Most of the land is owned by a fictitious wealthy miner, Mr. John Watkins. A shanty town filled with miners has sprung up, all with the hope to get rich. The main area of diamond mining is the Vandergaart Kopje.", "The protagonist is a French mining engineer, Victor Cyprien (in the original French version: Cyprien Méré). He moves to the Griqualand district to study the formation of diamonds. While he is there he falls in love with wealthy landowner Mr. John Watkins' daughter, Alice. He asks him for her hand in marriage but is denied on his lack of money and stature in the community. He decides that he could amass a fortune by mining with a partner, Thomas Steel. They buy a mining claim and proceed to dig. Victor hires a team of Africans to mine the claim. The claim collapses when Victor's team of hired help is digging. He manages to rescue one of them, Mataki. Achieving no great finds, Victor is disheartened for there are many more eligible suitors than he. Alice begs Cyprien to return to his studies. So Victor decides to attempt to artificially make a diamond. His experiment seems to work as a 243 carat (48.6 g) diamond is produced. He gives it to Mr. Watkins for Alice. Mr. Watkins holds a banquet in honor of Cyprien and his accomplishment. The diamond, christened as The Star of the South by Alice, is on display during this banquet. Midway through the banquet, the diamond vanishes as well as Victor's African hired help, Mataki. Mataki appears to flee with the diamond and Mr. Watkins, enraged, offers Alice's hand to whoever brings the diamond back. Victor and three other suitors set off to hunt Mataki down. They prepare to travel across the Veld. Victor brings along two companions his laundry man, Li, and a member of his digging team, Bardik. Along the way, the other three of his companions perish at the hands of animals or disease. Victor captures Mataki, who states he does not have the diamond. The only reason he ran was because he was afraid he would be hanged unjustly for the diamond's disappearance. Victor returns to Griqualand and finds the diamond in the stomach of Alice's ostrich, Dada. Cyprien is almost hung because his discovery of making artificial diamonds threatened the livelihood of the miners. He is only saved by Mataki's confession. Mataki found the diamond when he was covered by the landslide and stuck it in Victor's experiment in gratitude. Victor is shocked. Not caring about the diamond's origin, Mr. Watkins is glad for the recovery and holds another banquet. Mr. Vandergaart, the original owner of the land bursts in with a certificate saying that the land is once again his. John Watkins is devastated and is even more devastated when the Star of the South disintegrates. Shocked he dies the next day. Victor and Alice marry and live happily ever after.", "\"The Southern Star\" (French title: \"L'Étoile du sud\") is a 1969 British-French comedy crime film based on the novel, directed by Sidney Hayers and starring George Segal, Ursula Andress and Orson Welles. French cartoonist Jacques Rémise adapted the story into a newspaper comic between 1956-1957." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The sling in antiquity.", "Origins.", "Archaeology.", "Ancient representations.", "Written history.", "Biblical accounts.", "Combat.", "Construction.", "Ammunition.", "\"Whistling\" bullets.", "The sling in medieval period.", "Europe.", "The Americas.", "Variants.", "Staff sling.", "Kestros.", "Siege engines.", "Today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The sling is an ancient weapon known to Neolithic peoples around the Mediterranean, but is likely much older. It is possible that the sling was invented during the Upper Paleolithic at a time when new technologies such as the spear-thrower and the bow and arrow were emerging. With the exception of Australia, where spear throwing technology such as the woomera predominated, the sling became common all over the world, although it is not clear whether this occurred because of cultural diffusion or as an independent invention.", "Whereas sling-bullets are common finds in the archaeological record, slings themselves are rare. This is both because a sling's materials are biodegradable and because slings were lower-status weapons, rarely preserved in a wealthy person’s grave. The oldest-known surviving slings—radiocarbon dated to c. 2500 BC—were recovered from South American archaeological sites located on the coast of Peru. The oldest-known surviving North American sling—radiocarbon dated to c. 1200 BC—was recovered from Lovelock Cave, Nevada. The oldest known extant slings from the Old World were found in the tomb of Tutankhamen, who died about 1325 BC. A pair of finely plaited slings were found with other weapons. The sling was probably intended for the departed pharaoh to use for hunting game. Another Egyptian sling was excavated in El-Lahun in Al Fayyum Egypt in 1914 by William Matthew Flinders Petrie, and now resides in the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology—Petrie dated it to about 800 BC. It was found alongside an iron spearhead. The remains are broken into three sections. Although fragile, the construction is clear: it is made of bast fibre (almost certainly flax) twine; the cords are braided in a 10-strand elliptical sennit and the cradle seems to have been woven from the same lengths of twine used to form the cords.", "Representations of slingers can be found on artifacts from all over the ancient world, including Assyrian and Egyptian reliefs, the columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius, on coins and on the Bayeux Tapestry. The oldest representation of a slinger in art may be from Çatalhöyük, from approximately 7,000 BC, though it is the only such depiction at the site, despite numerous depictions of archers.", "The sling is mentioned by Homer and by other Greek authors. Xenophon in his history of the retreat of the Ten Thousand, 401 BC, relates that the Greeks suffered severely from the slingers in the army of Artaxerxes II of Persia, while they themselves had neither cavalry nor slingers, and were unable to reach the enemy with their arrows and javelins. This deficiency was rectified when a company of 200 Rhodians, who understood the use of leaden sling-bullets, was formed. They were able, says Xenophon, to project their missiles twice as far as the Persian slingers, who used large stones. Ancient authors seemed to believe, incorrectly, that sling-bullets could penetrate armour, and that lead projectiles, heated by their passage through the air, would melt in flight. In the first instance, it seems likely that the authors were indicating that slings could cause injury through armour by a percussive effect rather than by penetration. In the latter case we may imagine that they were impressed by the degree of deformation suffered by lead sling-bullet after hitting a hard target. Various ancient peoples enjoyed a reputation for skill with the sling. Thucydides mentions the Acarnanians and Livy refers to the inhabitants of three Greek cities on the northern coast of the Peloponnesus as expert slingers. Livy also mentions the most famous of ancient skillful slingers: the people of the Balearic Islands, who often worked as mercenaries. Of these people Strabo writes: \"And their training in the use of slings used to be such, from childhood up, that they would not so much as give bread to their children unless they first hit it with the sling.\" The late Roman writer Vegetius, in his work \"De Re Militari\", wrote: According to description of Procopius, the sling had an effective range further than a Hun bow and arrow. In his book \"Wars of Justinian\", he recorded the felling of a Hun warrior by a slinger: Strabo extends the usage of the sling to the Iberians, Lusitanians and even some Gauls. He also mentions Persians and Arabs among those who used them.", "The sling is mentioned in the Bible, which provides what is believed to be the oldest textual reference to a sling in the Book of Judges, 20:16. This text was thought to have been written about 6th century BC, but refers to events several centuries earlier. The Bible provides a famous slinger account, the battle between David and Goliath from the First Book of Samuel 17:34–36, probably written in the 7th or 6th century BC, describing events having occurred around the 10th century BC. The sling, easily produced, was the weapon of choice for shepherds fending off animals. Due to this, the sling was a commonly used weapon by the Israelite militia. Goliath was a tall, well equipped and experienced warrior. In this account, the shepherd David convinces Saul to let him fight Goliath on behalf of the Israelites. Unarmoured and equipped only with a sling, 5 smooth rocks, and his staff; David defeats the champion Goliath with a well-aimed shot to the head. Use of the sling is also mentioned in Second Kings 3:25, First Chronicles 12:2, and Second Chronicles 26:14 to further illustrate Israelite use.", "Ancient peoples used the sling in combat—armies included both specialist slingers and regular soldiers equipped with slings. As a weapon, the sling had several advantages; a sling bullet lobbed in a high trajectory can achieve ranges in excess of. Modern authorities vary widely in their estimates of the effective range of ancient weapons. A bow and arrow could also have been used to produce a long range arcing trajectory, but ancient writers repeatedly stress the sling's advantage of range. The sling was light to carry and cheap to produce; ammunition in the form of stones was readily available and often to be found near the site of battle. The ranges the sling could achieve with molded lead sling-bullets was surpassed only by the strong composite bow. Caches of sling ammunition have been found at the sites of Iron Age hill forts of Europe; some 22,000 sling stones were found at Maiden Castle, Dorset. It is proposed that Iron Age hill forts of Europe were designed to maximise the effective defense of slingers. The hilltop location of the wooden forts would have given the defending slingers the advantage of range over the attackers, and multiple concentric ramparts, each higher than the other, would allow a large number of men to create a hailstorm of stone. Consistent with this, it has been noted that defenses are generally narrow where the natural slope is steep, and wider where the slope is more gradual.", "A classic sling is braided from non-elastic material. The traditional materials are flax, hemp or wool. Sling by Balearic islanders were said to be made from a rush. Flax and hemp resist rotting, but wool is softer and more comfortable. Polyester is an excellent material for modern slings, because it does not rot or stretch and is soft and free of splinters. Braided cords are used in preference to twisted rope, as a braid resists twisting when stretched. This improves accuracy. The overall length of a sling can vary. A slinger may have slings of different lengths. A longer sling is used when greater range is required. A length of about is typical. At the centre of the sling, a cradle or pouch is constructed. This may be formed by making a wide braid from the same material as the cords or by inserting a piece of a different material such as leather. The cradle is typically diamond shaped (although some take the form of a net,) and will fold around the projectile in use. Some cradles have a hole or slit that allows the material to wrap around the projectile slightly, thereby holding it more securely. At the end of one cord (called the retention cord) a finger-loop is formed. At the end of the other cord (the release cord), it is a common practice to form a knot or a tab. The release cord will be held between finger and thumb to be released at just the right moment, and may have a complex braid to add bulk to the end. This makes the knot easier to hold, and the extra weight allows the loose end of a discharged sling to be recovered with a flick of the wrist. Braided construction resists stretching, and therefore produces an accurate sling. Modern slings are begun by plaiting the cord for the finger loop in the center of a double-length set of cords. The cords are then folded to form the finger-loop. The retained cord is then plaited away from the loop as a single cord up to the pocket. The pocket is then plaited, most simply as another pair of cords, or with flat braids or a woven net. The remainder of the sling, the released cord, is plaited as a single cord, and then finished with a knot or plaited tab.", "The simplest projectile was a stone, preferably well-rounded. Suitable ammunition is frequently from a river. The size of the projectiles can vary dramatically, from pebbles massing no more than to fist-sized stones massing or more. Projectiles could also be purpose-made from clay; this allowed a very high consistency of size and shape to aid range and accuracy. Many examples have been found in the archaeological record. The best ammunition was cast from lead. Leaden sling-bullets were widely used in the Greek and Roman world. For a given mass, lead, being very dense, offers the minimum size and therefore minimum air resistance. In addition, leaden sling-bullets are small and difficult to see in flight. In some cases, the lead would be cast in a simple open mould made by pushing a finger or thumb into sand and pouring molten metal into the hole. However, sling-bullets were more frequently cast in two part moulds. Such sling-bullets come in a number of shapes including an ellipsoidal form closely resembling an acorn; this could be the origin of the Latin word for a leaden sling-bullet: \"glandes plumbeae\" (literally leaden acorns) or simply \"glandes\" (meaning acorns, singular \"glans\"). Other shapes include spherical and (by far the most common) biconical, which resembles the shape of the shell of an almond nut or a flattened American football. The ancients do not seem to have taken advantage of the manufacturing process to produce consistent results; leaden sling-bullets vary significantly. The reason why the almond shape was favoured is not clear: it is possible that there is some aerodynamic advantage, but it seems equally likely that there is some more prosaic reason, such as the shape being easy to extract from a mould, or the fact that it will rest in a sling cradle with little danger of rolling out. Almond shaped leaden sling-bullets were typically about long and about wide, massing approximately. Very often, symbols or writings were moulded into lead sling-bullets. Many examples have been found including a collection of about 80 sling-bullets from the siege of Perusia in Etruria from 41 BC, to be found in the museum of modern Perugia. Examples of symbols include a stylised lightning bolt, a snake, and a scorpion – reminders of how a sling might strike without warning. Writing might include the name of the owning military unit or commander or might be more imaginative: \"Take this\", \"Ouch\", \"get pregnant with this\" and even \"For Pompey's backside\" added insult to injury, whereas \"dexai\" (\"take this\" or \"catch!\") is merely sarcastic. Julius Caesar writes in \"De bello Gallico\", book 5, about clay shot being heated before slinging, so that it might set light to thatch.", "Some bullets have been found with holes drilled in them. It was thought the holes were to contain poison. John Reid of the Trimontium Trust, finding holed Roman bullets excavated at the Burnswark hillfort, has proposed that the holes would cause the bullets to \"whistle\" in flight and the sound would intimidate opponents. The holed bullets were generally small and thus not particularly dangerous. Several could fit into a pouch and a single slinger could produce a terrorizing barrage. Experiments with modern replicas demonstrate they produce a whooshing sound in flight.", "", "The Bayeux Tapestry of the 1070s portrays the use of slings in a hunting context. Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor employed slingers during the Siege of Tortona in 1155 to suppress the garrison while his own men built siege engines. On the Iberian peninsula, the Spanish and Portuguese infantry favoured it against light and agile Moorish troops. The staff sling continued to be used in sieges and the sling was used as a part of large siege engines.", "The sling was known throughout the Americas. In ancient Andean civilizations such as the Inca Empire, slings were made from llama wool. These slings typically have a cradle that is long and thin and features a relatively long slit. Andean slings were constructed from contrasting colours of wool; complex braids and fine workmanship can result in beautiful patterns. Ceremonial slings were also made; these were large, non-functional and generally lacked a slit. To this day, ceremonial slings are used in parts of the Andes as accessories in dances and in mock battles. They are also used by llama herders; the animals will move away from the sound of a stone landing. The stones are not slung to hit the animals, but to persuade them to move in the desired direction. The sling was also used in the Americas for hunting and warfare. One notable use was in Incan resistance against the conquistadors. These slings were apparently very powerful; in 1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus, historian Charles C. Mann quoted a conquistador as saying that an Incan sling \"could break a sword in two pieces\" and \"kill a horse\". Some slings spanned as much as long and weighed an impressive.", "", "The staff sling, also known as the stave sling, \"fustibalus\" (Latin), \"fustibale\" (French), consists of a staff (a length of wood) with a short sling at one end. One cord of the sling is firmly attached to the stave and the other end has a loop that can slide off and release the projectile. Staff slings are extremely powerful because the stave can be made as long as two meters, creating a powerful lever. Ancient art shows slingers holding staff slings by one end, with the pocket behind them, and using both hands to throw the staves forward over their heads. The staff sling has a similar or superior range to the shepherd's sling, and can be as accurate in practiced hands. It is generally suited for heavier missiles and siege situations as staff slings can achieve very steep trajectories for slinging over obstacles such as castle walls. The staff itself can become a close combat weapon in a melee. The staff sling is able to throw heavy projectiles a much greater distance and at a higher arc than a hand sling. Staff slings were in use well into the age of gunpowder as grenade launchers, and were used in ship-to-ship combat to throw incendiaries.", "The kestros (also known as the kestrosphendone, cestrus or cestrosphendone) is a sling weapon mentioned by Livy and Polybius. It seems to have been a heavy dart flung from a leather sling. It was invented in 168 BC and was employed by some of the Macedonian troops of King Perseus in Third Macedonian war.", "The traction trebuchet was a siege engine which uses the power of men pulling on ropes or the energy stored in a raised weight to rotate what was, again, a staff sling. It was designed so that, when the throwing arm of the trebuchet had swung forward sufficiently, one end of the sling would automatically become detached and release the projectile. Some trebuchets were small and operated by a very small crew; however, unlike the onager, it was possible to build the trebuchet on a gigantic scale: such giants could hurl enormous rocks at huge ranges. Trebuchets are, in essence, mechanised slings.", "Traditional slinging is still practiced as it always has been in the Balearic Islands, and competitions and leagues are common. In the rest of the world, the sling is primarily a hobby weapon, and a growing number of people make and practice with them. In recent years'slingfests' have been held in Wyoming, USA, in September 2007 and in Staffordshire, England, in June 2008. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the current record for the greatest distance achieved in hurling an object from a sling is, using a long sling and a ovoid stone, set by Larry Bray in Loa, Utah, USA on 21 August 1981. The sling is of interest to athletes who desire to break distance records; the best modern material is UHMWPE (trade name Spectra/Dyneema). The principles of the sling may find use on a larger scale in the future; proposals exist for tether propulsion of spacecraft, which functionally is an oversized sling to propel a spaceship. The sling is used today as a weapon primarily by protestors, to launch either stones or incendiary devices, such as Molotov cocktails. Classic woolen slings are still in use in the Middle East by Arab nomads and Bedouins to ward off jackals and hyenas. International Brigades used slings to throw grenades during the Spanish Civil War. Similarly, the Finns made use of sling-launched Molotov cocktails in the Winter War against Soviet tanks. Slings were used during the various Palestinian riots against modern army personnel and riot police. They were also used in the 2008 disturbances in Kenya." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Relief.", "Geology and minerals.", "Geology.", "Minerals.", "Climate.", "Rivers and lakes.", "Soils.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "History.", "Economy.", "Industry.", "Energy.", "Agriculture.", "Transport.", "Government and awards.", "Science.", "Sport.", "Culture and recreation.", "Environment.", "Population.", "Administrative and municipal divisions.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The oblast is mostly flat, with some hills with the height of about in the western and extensive lowlands in the eastern part. From the southwest to northeast, the oblast is crossed by the border of the Moscow glacier to the north of the common ice-erosion form with moraine ridges, and to the south – only erosional landforms. The western and northern parts of the oblast contain the Moscow Uplands. Their average height peaks at about near Dmitrov and the upper point of lies near the village of Shapkino in Mozhaysky District. The northern part of the Moscow Uplands is steeper than the southern part. The uplands contain lakes of glacial origin, such as Lakes Nerskoye and Krugloye. To the north of the Moscow Uplands lies the alluvial Verhnevolzhsk Depression; It is marshy and flat with the height varying between about and. To the south stretches a hilly area of the Moskvoretsko-Oksk plain. Its greatest height of lies in the area of Tyoply Stan, within the Moscow city limits. The plain has clearly defined river valleys, especially in the south parts, and occasional karst relief, mostly in Serpukhovsky District. In the extreme south, after the Oka River, lies the Central Russian Upland. It contains numerous gullies and ravines and has average height above 200 m with the maximum of 236 m near Pushchino. Most of the eastern part of Moscow Oblast is taken by the vast Meshchera Lowlands with much wetland in their eastern part. Their highest hill peaks at but the average heights are. Most lakes of the lowlands, such as Lakes Chyornoye and Svyatoye, are of glacial origin. Here lies the lowest natural elevation of the region, the water level of Oka River at.", "", "Moscow Oblast is located in the central part of the East European craton. Like all cratons, the latter is composed of the crystalline basement and sedimentary cover. The basement consists of Archaean and Proterozoic rocks and the cover is deposited in the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras. The lowest depth of the basement () is to the south of Serebryanye Prudy, in the very south area of the oblast, and the largest () is to the east of Sergiyev Posad, in the northeast region. Tertiary deposits are almost absent within the oblast. Significantly more abundant are deposits of the Carboniferous and Jurassic periods. In the Cretaceous period, a sea was covering Moscow Oblast, as evidenced by phosphate deposits and a variety of sands. Cretaceous sediments are most common in the north of the oblast. The sea was wider in Jurassic than in Cretaceous period. Typical Jurassic deposits, in the form of black clay, are found within and around the city of Moscow and in the valley of the Moscow River. Carboniferous deposits in Moscow Oblast are represented by dolomite, limestone, and marl. Coal deposits rich in organic remains occur in the south, especially in Serpukhovsky District, and in the western regions. Devonian deposits were also found within the region. Quaternary deposits are widely distributed in Moscow Oblast; their thickness decreases from the northwest to southeast. It is believed that there were four glaciations in the area. The first occurred in the Lower Pleistocene and spread to the east-west part of the Oka River valley, it left almost no trace in the region. In the Middle Pleistocene, there were two powerful glaciations. The Dnieper glacier covered a large part of the Russian Plain, whereas the Moscow glaciation stopped just south of the present city of Moscow. The last glaciation, the Valdai glaciation, occurred in the Late Pleistocene; it did not directly affect the territory of Moscow Oblast, but left traces in the form of fluvioglacial deposits, mainly in the north area. The glaciers left behind a moraine loam with pebbles and boulders of various rocks, such as granite, gneiss, quartzite, dolomite, limestone and sandstone. Its thickness varies between a few meters at watersheds and 100 m at moraine ridges.", "Moscow Oblast is rich in minerals. Sands from the sediments of different periods (mainly Quaternary and Cretaceous) are of high quality and are widely used in construction. Quartz sand (milled quartz) is used in the glass industry, their production is conducted from the end of 17th century near Lyubertsy. Much of the production is currently halted due to environmental concerns, and only the Yeganovskoye field is being exploited; its silica sand reserves are 33 million tonnes and annual production reaches 675,000 tonnes. Sand and gravel deposits are abundant within the Smolensk-Moscow Upland. Sandstone deposits are developed in Klinsky and Dmitrovsky Districts. There are numerous clay deposits within the oblast; fusible clay is excavated in Sergiyev Posad. The Yeldiginskoye field near the village of Sofrino has reserves estimated at 30 million cubic meters; its annual production reaches. Refractory white clay occurs in the eastern region, in the Carboniferous and Jurassic sediments, and is extracted from the 14th century near Gzhel. The largest (Kudinovskoye) deposit is near the town of Elektrougli with the reserves of 3 billion tonnes. Also widespread are loams which are used in brick manufacture and limestones (\"white stone\"). The famous Myachkovo deposit of carboniferous limestone provided material that went for cladding of such buildings in Moscow as the Bolshoi Theater. The mining in Myachkovo had been stopped and currently, limestone is provided by the quarries of Podolsky, Voskresensky, and Kolomensky Districts. The latter district also provides marble-like limestone. Other industrial minerals of Moscow Oblast are dolomite, limestone tuff, and marl; mostly in the southern and eastern parts. Dolomite is used in the cement industry. Its mining is concentrated mainly near Shchyolkovo, the reserves exceed 20 million tonnes and the annual production is about 650 tonnes. Phosphates are produced in the Yegorevskoye and Severskoye fields. Meshchera and Verkhnevolzhsk Lowlands are rich in peat. The largest mines are \"Ryazanovskoe\" (840,000 tonnes per year) and \"Radovitsky moss\" (760,000 tonnes per year), both around Yegoryevsk. There are deposits of brown coal beyond the Oka River, but they have no commercial value. There are also minor deposits of titanium and iron ore in Serpukhovsky and Serebryano-Prudsky Districts. Salts of potassium salt are being developed around Serpukhov and Yegoryevsk. There are also numerous mineral springs near Zvenigorod, Klin, and Serpukhov. They include surface springs and reservoirs at the depth of. Deeper, at there is a large sea of salt extending beyond Moscow Oblast. Waters with the salt concentration up to 300 g/L are used in the local food industry and spas.", "The climate of Moscow Oblast is humid continental, with clearly expressed seasonality – short but warm summers and long, cold winters; the continentality increases from northwest to southeast. The period of the average temperature below lasts 130–150 days, beginning in early or mid-November and ending in late March (or very early April). The average annual temperature varies from to. The coldest months are January and February with the average temperature of in the west and in the east. With the arrival of arctic air, the temperature drops to below that may last up to twenty days during the winter, with the temperatures reaching. The minimum temperature of was observed in Naro-Fominsk. Thaws often occur in December and February due to the Atlantic, and rarely the Mediterranean cyclones. The thaws usually last several days, and their total number from November to March can reach fifty. Snow starts accumulating in November, though sometimes in late October or early December, and disappears in mid-April (sometimes in late March). The snow depth is and the soil freezes to. The warmest month is July with the average temperature of in the northwest and in the southeast. The maximum temperature of was recorded in Kolomna during 2010 Northern Hemisphere summer heat waves. The average annual rainfall is, the precipitation is maximal in the northwestern and minimal in the southeastern regions. The summer precipitation is usually, but severe droughts occur once in 25–30 years, with less than of rain over June–August.", "There are more than three hundred rivers with the length above in Moscow Oblast. All rivers are calm and have well-developed valleys and floodplains. They are mostly fed by melting snow and the flood falls on April–May. The water level is low in summer and increases only with heavy rain. The rivers freeze over from late November until mid-April. The only navigable rivers are the Volga, the Oka, and the Moskva River. Most rivers belong to the basin of the Volga, which itself only crosses a small part in the north of Moscow Oblast, near the border with Tver Oblast. The second largest river of the region is the Oka. The northern part of Moscow Oblast includes such Volga tributaries as the Shosha, the Lama, the Dubna, the Sestra, and the Yakhroma. On the south flow the tributaries of the Oka, including the Nara, the Protva, and the Lopasnya Rivers. The Moskva River, which almost entirely flows within the oblast, also belongs to the Oka basin. The eastern and northeastern regions, including much of Meschersk Depression, are irrigated by the tributaries of the Klyazma River, which itself is a main tributary of the Oka. The Moscow Canal crosses the northern part of Moscow Oblast through the Ikshinskyoe, Klyazminskoye, Pyalovskoye, and Pestovskoye Reservoirs. In the basin of the Moskva River, there are also Ozerninskoye, Mozhayskoye, Istrinskoye, and Ruza Reservoirs, providing Moscow with drinking water. There are about 350 lakes in the oblast, almost all are shallow (5–10 m) and many are of glacial origin. The largest are Senezh () and Svyatoe () whereas the deepest () is Lake Glubokoye in Ruzsky District. There are also many marshes, especially within the Meshchersk and Verkhnevolzhsk lowlands.", "The oblast is dominated by relatively infertile podsol soils which require fertilizers for commercial agriculture. On the hills there is more loam and the low-lying areas have more of bog, sandy loam and sand. Chernozem is scarce and occurs only south of the Oka River. Gray forest soils are spread between the Oka, Moskva, and Klyazma Rivers, mostly in Ramensky and Voskresensky Districts. Marshy soils are common in Meshchersk and Verkhnevolzhsk lowlands. Valleys of large rivers are rich in alluvial soils. In general, soils are heavily polluted with chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and household and industrial waste, especially around Moscow, Orekhovo-Zuyevo, Noginsk, and Voskresensk.", "Moscow Oblast lies within the zone of forests and steppes with forests covering over 40% of the region. Coniferous (mainly fir) trees dominate the northern (Verkhnevolzhsk lowlands) and western parts (Mozhaysky, Lotoshinsky, and Shakhovsky Districts). Forests of Meshchora consist primarily of pine; in waterlogged lowlands, there are individual alder forests. Central and eastern regions have coniferous-deciduous forests with the main tree species of spruce, pine, birch, and aspen often mixed with bushes of hazel. To the south lies the subzone of broad-leaved forests of oak, lime, maple and elm. Moscow-Oka Upland is the transition zone which is dominated by spruce, for example, in the upper reaches of the Lopasnya River. Valleys of the Oka are covered in pine forests of the steppe type and the far south regions (Serebryano-Prudsky and partially Serpukhovsky Districts) are cultivated steppes with occasional lime and oak groves. The intensive cutting of Moscow region forests in the 18–19th centuries reduced them and changed their species: conifers were replaced by birch and aspen. There is almost no logging nowadays and the forests are being restored, especially around Moscow. Swamps are prevalent in the eastern areas, such as Shatursky and Lukhovitsky Districts. The natural floodplain meadows are almost gone. The number of native plant species is reduced, but some foreign species flourish, such as Canadian maple. Endemic species include water caltrop and lady's slipper.", "The mammals of Moscow Oblast include badger, squirrel, beaver, otter, muskrat, stoat, Russian desman, raccoon dog, hedgehog, hare (mountain and European), shrews (common shrew, Eurasian pygmy shrew, lesser white-toothed shrew, Eurasian water shrew, etc.), weasel, fox, moose, wild boar, European mole, brown and black rats, marten, mice and voles (wood mouse, yellow-necked mouse, house mouse, Eurasian harvest mouse, northern birch mouse, bank vole, field vole, tundra vole, European water vole), European mink, deer (roe, red, spotted), hazel and fat dormouse, and European polecat. At the borders there are occasional bears, lynxes and wolves. In the southern areas there are also speckled ground squirrel, dwarf hamster, great jerboa and beech marten. Some areas contain stable populations of imported animals, such as flying squirrel, American mink and Siberian roe deer. In the oblast, there are more than a dozen kinds of bat and moth. There are more than 170 species of birds in the area with large numbers of crows, sparrows, ducks, magpies, woodpeckers, thrushes, grouses, bullfinches, nightingales, corncrakes, northern lapwings, white storks, grey herons, seagulls and grebes. Over forty species are being hunted. Rivers and lakes of Moscow Oblast are rich in fish, such as ruff, carp, bream, bass, roaches, Chinese sleeper, perch and pike. There are six species of reptiles: three lizards (slowworm, viviparous lizard and sand lizard) and three snakes (European adder, grass snake and smooth snake). There is evidence for bog turtles in some areas. Amphibians are represented by 11 species including smooth newt, great crested newt, common toad, European green toad, common frog, moor frog, marsh frog, common spadefoot and European fire-bellied toad. Insects are numerous, with bees alone accounting for more than 300 species. In Serpukhovsky District, there is the Prioksko-Terrasny Nature Reserve which contains protected wisents. Near Moscow lies Losiny Ostrov National Park of federal significance.", "The territory of what is now Moscow Oblast had been inhabited for more than twenty thousand years. Numerous mounds and settlements from Iron Age were discovered there. Up to the 9–10th centuries, the Moskva River basin and adjacent lands were inhabited by Finno-Ugric peoples. Slavs populated the area only in the 10th century. In mid-12th century, the lands became part of Vladimir-Suzdal Principality. Several important cities were founded around that time, including Volokolamsk (1135), Moscow (1147), Zvenigorod (1152), and Dmitrov (1154). In the first half of the 13th century, the entire Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, including the Moscow area, was conquered by the Mongols. In the 13th century, the land around Moscow was part of Grand Duchy of Moscow, which subsequently was the center of the unification of Russian lands, in particular the Mongol raids. In 1380, from Kolomna the prince Dmitry Donskoy led his troops to defeat the Mongols at the Battle of Kulikovo. The southern part of Moscow Oblast was then part of the Principality of Ryazan; it was attached to Moscow only in the 1520. In 1708, Moscow Governorate was established by the decree of Peter the Great; the area included most of the present Moscow Oblast. The Battle of Borodino, which decided the outcome of the French invasion of Russia was fought in 1812 near Mozhaysk. Industries developed in Moscow Oblast in the 17–19th centuries. They were centered in Bogorodsk, Pavlovsky Posad, and Orekhovo-Zuyevo and were dominated by textile production. The first railway in Russia was constructed in the Moscow Oblast in 1851, connecting Moscow and Saint Petersburg, and in 1862 the line to Nizhny Novgorod was opened. In the RSFSR, \"Central Industrial Oblast\" was established on January 14, 1929. It included the abolished Moscow, Ryazan, Tver, Tula, Vladimir, and Kaluga Governorates. The oblast was divided into ten okrugs and had the administrative center in Moscow. On June 3, 1929, the oblast was renamed \"Moscow Oblast\" and on July 30, 1930, the division into ten okrugs was abolished. Parts of the then bulky \"Moscow Oblast\" were gradually transferred to other divisions. In particular, twenty-six districts became part of Kalinin Oblast in January 1935, and another seventy-seven districts were separated in September 1937 as Tula and Ryazan Oblasts. Borovsky,, Maloyaroslavetsky, Ugodsko-Zavodsky, and Petushinsky Districts were transferred in 1944 to Kaluga and Vladimir Oblasts. In 1941–1942, one of the most significant military operations of World War II – the Battle of Moscow was fought in the Moscow Oblast. Germany reached Solnechnogorsky, Klinsky, Istrinsky, Lobninsky, Khimkinsky, Naro-Fominsky, Volokolamsky, Kolomensky, Kashirsky, Serybryano-Prudsky Districts and others. According to the Constitution of Russia, adopted in December 1993, Moscow Oblast is one of the 83 federal subjects of Russia.", "", "In terms of industrial production, Moscow Oblast is second in Russia, after the city of Moscow. The industry of the Oblast relies on imported raw materials, strong scientific and technological base and highly skilled workforce; it is closely linked with the industry of Moscow. Well developed are machinery and metalworking. There are plants for the thermal and nuclear power engineering (ZiO-Podolsk in Podolsk), nuclear fuel (TVEL in Elektrostal), space and missile (Energia in Korolyov, Lavochkin in Khimki, NGO engineering in Reutov, FTSDT \"Union\" in Dzerzhinsky – development of solid rocket fuel, etc., IBC \"Horizon\" in Dzerzhinsky – power plants for aircraft, etc.); locomotives (Kolomna factory), metro cars (Metrowagonmash in Mytischi), electric trains (Demikhovsky Engineering Works), cars (SeAZ), buses (Likinsky bus plant in Likino-Dulyovo); agricultural machines, excavators and cranes (Lyubertsy, Dmitrov, Balashikha); stainless steel (Elektrostal), cables (Podolsk), optical devices (Krasnogorsky plant, Lytkarino Optical Glass Factory). There are many defense enterprises, such as Russian Center for demonstrations of weapons, military equipment and technology in Krasnoarmeysk; Kamov, Phazotron, Bazalt, NPP Zvezda, MKB Fakel, MKB Raduga, National Research Institute of Aviation Systems, Krasnozavodsk Chemical Plant, Tikhomirov Scientific Research Institute of Instrument Design, Moscow Research Institute \"Agat\", Dolgoprudnenskoe Scientific Production Plant, and many others. Chemical industry of the Oblast produces acids (Shchyolkovo), mineral fertilizers (plants named \"Phosphates\" and \"Mineral fertilizers\" in Voskresensk), synthetic fibers (Serpukhov and Klin), plastics (Orekhovo-Zuyevo), varnishes and paints (Sergiyev Posad, Odintsovsky paint factories), pharmaceuticals (Staraya Kupavna). There is a well-developed industry of construction materials with production of cement in Voskresensk and Kolomna (Shchurovsky cement factory), earthenware, porcelain in the Likino-Dulyovo (Dulevo Porcelain Factory) and Verbilki and dry mortar plant in Krasnogorsk. Light industry is the oldest in the region; it was started in the 17th century and with 35% contribution was leading the gross industrial production. There is still production of cotton (in Yegoryevsk, Noginsk, Orekhovo-Zuyevo), wool (in Pavlovsky Posad and Pushkino) and jerseys (in Ivanteyevka and Dmitrov). The silk production in Naro-Fominsk had been stopped. Traditional and renowned crafts include Gzhel, Zhostovo painting and Fedoskino miniature. Large foreign investment projects include the plant for manufacturing household appliances (TV sets, washing machines, refrigerators, etc.) by the South Korean company LG built near the village of Dorokhovo.", "In 1999, Moscow Oblast consumed 15.4 billion m of natural gas, 3.32 million tonnes of oil, 2.13 million tonnes of coal and 8.5 billion kWh of electricity. Electricity for the Oblast is provided by the Kashirskaya thermal power plant (TPP, 1910 MW), Dzerzhynskaya TPP No 22 (1300 MW), Thermal Power Plant 27 (1100 MW), Shatura Power Station (1100 MW), Zagorskaya hydroelectric power plant (1200 MW), Elektrogorsk TPP (623 MW) and several smaller plants. Major new energy project in the region is the construction of Zagorsk hydroelectric plant with the capacity of 840 MW. The deficit of energy is provided by powerlines connecting the region with Saint Petersburg, Volga Hydroelectric Station and other energy suppliers.", "Agriculture has a relatively minor role in the economy of the Oblast. Only 25% of land is cultivated and another 15% are used for other activities such as livestock farming. Agriculture is the least developed in the northern, eastern and western border regions. In the southern region, especially south of the Oka River, more than 50% of land is used in agriculture. Horticulture is typical for the southern region with most of the sown area (more than 3/5) occupied by forage crops. Large areas are reserved for grains, especially wheat, barley, oats and rye, and significant role plays potato. Greenhouses are very common and Moskovsky city hosts the largest greenhouse complex in Europe. Also grown are flowers and mushrooms. Livestock farming predominates over the crop, and is primarily aimed at the production of milk and meat. In addition to cattle, commonly bred are pigs and chickens. The economic crisis of the 1990s in Russia had severely affected the agriculture of Moscow Oblast. In particular, in the 2000s, as compared with 1970–80s, the grain production has fallen by more than 3 times; potatoes by 2.5 times; vegetables, livestock and poultry by 30%; milk by 2 times and eggs by 4 times.", "Moscow Oblast has a dense transport network, including roads, railways and waterways along the largest rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Land routes are radially diverging from Moscow and crossed by one railway and two highway rings. Neither railways nor roads, built for the most part many years ago, can cope with the steadily mounting traffic flows. About half of the roads are overloaded and three quarters do not meet modern requirements. Insufficient width of the roads and frequent repairs cause traffic jams. Moscow Oblast has the highest density of railways in Russia. Eleven major radial lines originate in Moscow and run through the Oblast; the total length of the railways reaches 2,700 km. Almost all railroads are electrified. The largest rail hubs are Orekhovo-Zuyevo and Bekasovo. Regular navigation is carried on the rivers Volga, Oka and Moscow, as well as on the Moscow Canal. Major river ports are in Serpukhov and Kolomna. Also well-developed is pipeline transport. There are two major oil lines, two natural gas rings and numerous radial lines connecting Moscow with the largest gas producing regions of the country. Moscow and Moscow Oblast have several international passenger airports, namely Sheremetyevo (with two terminals), Vnukovo, Domodedovo and Ostafyevo. There is also Bykovo Airport, which is used for freight. The largest military airport is Chkalovsky (near Shchyolkovo) which also processes some civilian passenger and cargo flights. Major highways of Moscow Oblast are as follows:", "Moscow Oblast was awarded three Orders of Lenin, on 3 January 1934, 17 December 1956 and 5 December 1966. The highest executive organ is the Government of Moscow Oblast. Eighteen ministries act as the executive bodies of state authority. The powers, tasks, functions and competence of the Government are defined by the Charter of the Moscow Region. The Governor of the Moscow Oblast will be elected with the term of 5 years. The Regional Duma of Moscow Oblast was formed on 12 December 1993. It consists of 50 deputies also serving a 5-year term. Sergey Shoygu was elected as Governor of Moscow Oblast in April 2012 by the Moscow Oblast Duma. Shoygu left office after only six months with his appointment when he was appointed as Minister of Defence by Vladimir Putin. Andrei Vorobyov was appointed as acting governor and won a full term to the office in the 2013 elections.", "Moscow Oblast has a high density of scientific research institutions, especially related to engineering and military technologies. The latter started developing in the region in 1930–1940s in Zhukovsky (aeronautical engineering), Klimovsk (development of small arms), Reutov (Missile Engineering), Fryazino (microwave electronics) and Korolyov (space technology). They were later joined by famous centers for basic sciences in Troitsk, Chernogolovka (physics and chemistry), Dubna and Protvino (nuclear physics) and Pushchino (biology). Moscow Oblast hosts Mission Control Centers for spacecraft (in Korolyov) and military satellites (Krasnoznamensk), as well as a number of test sites.", "Zorky from Krasnogorsk has become national bandy champions three times. In the 2017–18 season, Zorky is back in Super League, after one season in the second tier league. Obukhovo is the only location in Russia without a Super League team which has a bandy venue with artificial ice. A plan for artificial ice also existed in Korolyov. However, the project was abandoned. Although an indoor ice hockey-sized arena entered the plans instead, the official reason given was financial problems. The Russian Rink Bandy Cup 2017 was played in Balashikha. The 2008 European Speed Skating Championships and the 2016 World Single Distance Speed Skating Championships were held in Kolomna.", "Moscow Oblast has numerous therapeutic and recreational facilities located mainly in western, northwestern and northern parts, and also near Moscow. Of great importance for recreation are forests, which occupy over 40% of the region, as well as horticultural activities. The region has the highest number (over 1 million) of dachas with associated individual gardens. Also numerous are manor complexes, such as those in Abramtsevo, Muranovo, Ostafievo, historical towns (Vereya, Volokolamsk, Dmitrov, Zaraysk, Zvenigorod, Istra, Kolomna, Sergiyev Posad, Serpukhov, etc.), monasteries (Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius, Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery, Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, Nikolo-Ugresh monastery, etc.), and museums (Chekhov museum in Melikhovo, Tchaikovsky museum in Klin, Serpukhov Historical and Art Museum, etc.).", "Ecological situation in the Moscow Oblast is serious. The areas adjacent to Moscow, and industrial zones in the east and south-east regions are heavily polluted. Most contamination originates from emissions from Kashira and Shatura Power Stations and disposal of household and industrial waste. For example, the Timohovskaya dump is one of the largest in Europe; other objects of concern are aging oil storage tanks, and nuclear waste in the Sergiyevo-Posadsky District. Contamination level is highest in Moscow, Voskresensk and Klin, high in Dzerzhinsky, Kolomna, Mytishchi, Podolsk, Serpukhov, Shchyolkovo, and Elektrostal, and low in Prioksko-Terrasny Biosphere Reserve. The major contaminants are formaldehyde and phenol in Moscow; ammonia and hydrogen fluoride in Voskresensk; formaldehyde in Klin, Kolomna, Mytishchi and Podolsk, phenol in Serpukhov. The most polluted rivers are Moscow, Oka and Klyazma. In the Moscow area and in major cities (in particular, in Podolsk, Orekhovo-Zuyevo, Serpukhov, Lukhovitsy and Stupino) also heavily polluted are groundwaters.", "After the population decline from 6,693,623 as of the 1989 Census to 6,618,538 in the 2002 Census the population of the oblast grew to 7,095,120 (2010 Census). The average population density, at 147.4 inhabitants/km (2010), is the largest in Russia, due to a high proportion of urban population (80.85% in 2010). The highest density occurs in and around Moscow (Lyubertsy, Balashikha, Khimki, Krasnogorsk, etc.) and the lowest – about 20 people/km – is in the outlying areas of Lotoshinsky, Shakhovskoy, Mozhaysk and Meshchersk lowlands.", "Administratively, the oblast is divided into 38 cities/towns under oblast jurisdiction and 36 administrative districts, consisting of 46 towns of district significance, 72 urban-type settlements, and 6,119 rural localities. As of 2011, Moscow Oblast is municipally subdivided into 38 urban okrugs and 36 municipal districts, which consist of 114 urban settlements and 193 rural settlements. The three largest cities of the oblast are Balashikha (215,494), Khimki (207,425), and Podolsk (186,961). Most other towns have ten to fifty thousand people. The smallest town is Vereya in Naro-Fominsky District with the population of. Among the urban-type settlements, the largest is Nakhabino (36,546) followed by Tomilino (30,605). The oldest populated place in the oblast is Volokolamsk, first mentioned in 1135; slightly younger towns are Zvenigorod (1152), Dmitrov (1154), and Kolomna (1177). The most intensive formation of towns occurred in 1938–1940. The youngest towns are Golitsyno and Kubinka. They existed for quite some time, but were granted town status only in 2004. Some recent towns separated from the other towns, such as Yubileyny and Peresvet. New projects have been announced at the beginning of the 21st century. One of them is Rublyovo-Arkhangelsk, which is designed for 30,000 inhabitants with high income and is called by the media the \"city for millionaires\". Another is \"Great Domodedovo, south of the Moscow Ring Road, which is designed for 450,000 residents. The new city A101 was designed for 300,000 residents in 2009 and the sale of its land in Leninsky District has already begun; the city's construction is planned to take thirty-five years. A part of Moscow Oblast's former territory, mainly to the southwest of the city of Moscow, was merged with the federal city of Moscow on July 1, 2012. The housing stock of the oblast is approximately 125 million square meters. Almost all the houses are equipped with water supply, sewerage, gas, central heating and hot water. However, the telephone network is underdeveloped in rural areas. In the competition for the most comfortable city of 2006 in the Moscow Oblast the winner was Kolomna followed by Balashikha (for cities with population over 100,000) and Vidnoye (<100,000) and then by Mytishchi and Noginsk.", "According to a 2012 survey 45.5% of the population of Moscow Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 3% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 2% are Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to church or belong to non-Russian Orthodox churches, 1% are adherents of Rodnovery (the Slavic folk religious movement) and 1% to Islam. In addition, 29% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 9% is atheist, and 9.5% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Overview.", "History.", "The benefits of using KG(Knowledge Graph).", "Components.", "Types.", "Domain ontology.", "Upper ontology.", "Hybrid ontology.", "Visualization.", "Engineering.", "Editors.", "Learning.", "Languages.", "Published examples.", "Libraries.", "Examples of applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The compound word \"ontology\" combines \"onto-\", from the Greek ὄν, \"on\" (gen. ὄντος, \"ontos\"), i.e. \"being; that which is\", which is the present participle of the verb εἰμί, \"eimí\", i.e. \"to be, I am\", and -λογία, \"-logia\", i.e. \"logical discourse\", see classical compounds for this type of word formation. While the etymology is Greek, the oldest extant record of the word itself, the New Latin form \"ontologia\", appeared in 1606 in the work \"Ogdoas Scholastica\" by Jacob Lorhard (\"Lorhardus\") and in 1613 in the \"Lexicon philosophicum\" by Rudolf Göckel (\"Goclenius\"). The first occurrence in English of \"ontology\" as recorded by the \"OED\" (\"Oxford English Dictionary\", online edition, 2008) came in \"Archeologia Philosophica Nova\" or \"New Principles of Philosophy\" by Gideon Harvey.", "What ontologies in both information science and philosophy have in common is the attempt to represent entities, ideas and events, with all their interdependent properties and relations, according to a system of categories. In both fields, there is considerable work on problems of ontology engineering (e.g., Quine and Kripke in philosophy, Sowa and Guarino in computer science), and debates concerning to what extent normative ontology is possible (e.g., foundationalism and coherentism in philosophy, BFO and Cyc in artificial intelligence). Applied ontology is considered a spiritual successor to prior work in philosophy, however many current efforts are more concerned with establishing controlled vocabularies of narrow domains than first principles, the existence of fixed essences or whether enduring objects (e.g., perdurantism and endurantism) may be ontologically more primary than processes. Every field uses ontological assumptions to frame explicit theories, research and applications. For instance, the definition and ontology of economics is a primacy concern in Marxist economics, but also in other subfields of economics. An example of economics relying on information science occurs in cases where a simulation or model is intended to enable economic decisions, such as determining what capital assets are at risk and by how much (see risk management). Artificial intelligence has retained the most attention regarding applied ontology in subfields like natural language processing within machine translation and knowledge representation, but ontology editors are being used often in a range of fields like education without the intent to contribute to AI.", "Ontologies arise out of the branch of philosophy known as metaphysics, which deals with questions like \"what exists?\" and \"what is the nature of reality?\". One of five traditional branches of philosophy, metaphysics, is concerned with exploring existence through properties, entities and relations such as those between particulars and universals, intrinsic and extrinsic properties, or essence and existence. Metaphysics has been an ongoing topic of discussion since recorded history. Since the mid-1970s, researchers in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) have recognized that knowledge engineering is the key to building large and powerful AI systems. AI researchers argued that they could create new ontologies as computational models that enable certain kinds of automated reasoning, which was only marginally successful. In the 1980s, the AI community began to use the term \"ontology\" to refer to both a theory of a modeled world and a component of knowledge-based systems. In particular, David Powers introduced the word \"ontology\" to AI to refer to real world or robotic grounding, publishing in 1990 literature reviews emphasizing grounded ontology in association with the call for papers for a AAAI Summer Symposium Machine Learning of Natural Language and Ontology, with an expanded version published in SIGART Bulletin and included as a preface to the proceedings. Some researchers, drawing inspiration from philosophical ontologies, viewed computational ontology as a kind of applied philosophy. In 1993, the widely cited web page and paper \"Toward Principles for the Design of Ontologies Used for Knowledge Sharing\" by Tom Gruber used \"ontology\" as a technical term in computer science closely related to earlier idea of semantic networks and taxonomies. Gruber introduced the term as \"a specification of a conceptualization\": An ontology is a description (like a formal specification of a program) of the concepts and relationships that can formally exist for an agent or a community of agents. This definition is consistent with the usage of ontology as set of concept definitions, but more general. And it is a different sense of the word than its use in philosophy. Attempting to distance ontologies from taxonomies and similar efforts in knowledge modeling that rely on classes and inheritance, Gruber stated (1993): Ontologies are often equated with taxonomic hierarchies of classes, class definitions, and the subsumption relation, but ontologies need not be limited to these forms. Ontologies are also not limited to conservative definitions — that is, definitions in the traditional logic sense that only introduce terminology and do not add any knowledge about the world. To specify a conceptualization, one needs to state axioms that do constrain the possible interpretations for the defined terms. As refinement of Gruber's definition Feilmayr and Wöß (2016) stated: \"An ontology is a formal, explicit specification of a shared conceptualization that is characterized by high semantic expressiveness required for increased complexity.\"", "In the case of integrating supplemental data source, In the case of reinforcing targeting algorithm based on machine learning,", "Contemporary ontologies share many structural similarities, regardless of the language in which they are expressed. Most ontologies describe individuals (instances), classes (concepts), attributes and relations. In this section each of these components is discussed in turn. Common components of ontologies include: Ontologies are commonly encoded using ontology languages.", "", "A domain ontology (or domain-specific ontology) represents concepts which belong to a part of the world, such as biology or politics. Each domain ontology typically models domain-specific definitions of terms. For example, the word \"card\" has many different meanings. An ontology about the domain of poker would model the \"playing card\" meaning of the word, while an ontology about the domain of computer hardware would model the \"punched card\" and \"video card\" meanings. Since domain ontologies are written by different people, they represent concepts in very specific and unique ways, and are often incompatible within the same project. As systems that rely on domain ontologies expand, they often need to merge domain ontologies by hand-tuning each entity or using a combination of software merging and hand-tuning. This presents a challenge to the ontology designer. Different ontologies in the same domain arise due to different languages, different intended usage of the ontologies, and different perceptions of the domain (based on cultural background, education, ideology, etc.). At present, merging ontologies that are not developed from a common upper ontology is a largely manual process and therefore time-consuming and expensive. Domain ontologies that use the same upper ontology to provide a set of basic elements with which to specify the meanings of the domain ontology entities can be merged with less effort. There are studies on generalized techniques for merging ontologies, but this area of research is still ongoing, and it's a recent event to see the issue sidestepped by having multiple domain ontologies using the same upper ontology like the OBO Foundry.", "An upper ontology (or foundation ontology) is a model of the common relations and objects that are generally applicable across a wide range of domain ontologies. It usually employs a core glossary that contains the terms and associated object descriptions as they are used in various relevant domain ontologies. Standardized upper ontologies available for use include BFO, BORO method, Dublin Core, GFO, Cyc, SUMO, UMBEL, the Unified Foundational Ontology (UFO), and DOLCE. WordNet has been considered an upper ontology by some and has been used as a linguistic tool for learning domain ontologies.", "The Gellish ontology is an example of a combination of an upper and a domain ontology.", "A survey of ontology visualization methods is presented by Katifori et al. An updated survey of ontology visualization methods and tools was published by Dudás et al. The most established ontology visualization methods, namely indented tree and graph visualization are evaluated by Fu et al. A visual language for ontologies represented in OWL is specified by the \"Visual Notation for OWL Ontologies (VOWL)\".", "Ontology engineering (also called ontology building) is a set of tasks related to the development of ontologies for a particular domain. It is a subfield of knowledge engineering that studies the ontology development process, the ontology life cycle, the methods and methodologies for building ontologies, and the tools and languages that support them. Ontology engineering aims to make explicit the knowledge contained in software applications, and organizational procedures for a particular domain. Ontology engineering offers a direction for overcoming semantic obstacles, such as those related to the definitions of business terms and software classes. Known challenges with ontology engineering include:", "Ontology editors are applications designed to assist in the creation or manipulation of ontologies. It is common for ontology editors to use one or more ontology languages. Aspects of ontology editors include: visual navigation possibilities within the knowledge model, inference engines and information extraction; support for modules; the import and export of foreign knowledge representation languages for ontology matching; and the support of meta-ontologies such as OWL-S, Dublin Core, etc.", "Ontology learning is the automatic or semi-automatic creation of ontologies, including extracting a domain's terms from natural language text. As building ontologies manually is extremely labor-intensive and time-consuming, there is great motivation to automate the process. Information extraction and text mining have been explored to automatically link ontologies to documents, for example in the context of the BioCreative challenges.", "An ontology language is a formal language used to encode an ontology. There are a number of such languages for ontologies, both proprietary and standards-based:", "The W3C Linking Open Data community project coordinates attempts to converge different ontologies into worldwide Semantic Web.", "The development of ontologies has led to the emergence of services providing lists or directories of ontologies called ontology libraries. The following are libraries of human-selected ontologies. The following are both directories and search engines.", "In general, ontologies can be used beneficially in several fields." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Scientific work." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There has been controversy over both the location and year of Mayow's birth, with both Cornwall and London claimed, along with birth years from 1641 to 1645. Proctor's extensive research led him to conclude that Mayow was born in 1641 near Morval in Cornwall and that he was admitted to Wadham College, Oxford at age 17 in 1658. A year later Mayow became a scholar at Oxford, and in 1660 he was elected to a fellowship at All Souls. He graduated in law (bachelor, 1665, doctor, 1670), but made medicine his profession, and became noted for his practice therein, especially in the summer time, in the city of Bath. In 1678, on the proposal of Robert Hooke, Mayow was appointed a fellow of the Royal Society. The following year, after a marriage which was not altogether to Mayow's content, he died in London and was buried in the Church of St Paul, Covent Garden.", "Mayow also discovered that there were two constituents of air. Inactive and active. Mayow published at Oxford in 1668 two tracts, on respiration and rickets, and in 1674 these were reprinted, the former in an enlarged and corrected form, with three others \"De sal-nitro et spiritu nitro-aereo\", \"De respiratione foetus in utero et ovo\", and \"De motu musculari et spiritibus animalibus\" as \"Tractatus quinque medico-physici\". The contents of this work, which was several times republished and translated into Dutch, German and French, show him to have been an investigator much in advance of his time. Accepting as proved by Boyle's experiments that air is necessary for combustion, Mayow showed that fire is supported not by the air as a whole but by a more active and subtle part of it. This part he called \"spiritus igneo-aereus,\" or sometimes \"nitro-aereus\", for he identified it with one of the constituents of the acid portion of nitre (now called potassium nitrate, KNO) which he regarded as formed by the union of fixed alkali with a spiritus acidus. In combustion the particulae nitro-aereae – either pre-existent in the thing consumed or supplied by the air – combined with the material burnt; as Mayow inferred from his observation that antimony, strongly heated with a burning glass, undergoes an increase of weight which can be attributed to nothing else but these particles. Mayow argued that the same particles are consumed in respiration, because he found that when a small animal and a lighted candle were placed in a closed vessel full of air the candle first went out and soon afterwards the animal died. However, if there was no candle present the animal lived twice as long. He concluded that this constituent of the air is absolutely necessary for life, and supposed that the lungs separate it from the atmosphere and pass it into the blood. It is also necessary, Mayow inferred, for all muscular movements, and he thought there was reason to believe that the sudden contraction of muscle is produced by its combination with other combustible (salino-sulphureous) particles in the body; hence the heart, being a muscle, ceases to beat when respiration is stopped. Animal heat also is due to the union of nitro-aerial particles, breathed in from the air, with the combustible particles in the blood, and is further formed by the combination of these two sets of particles in muscle during violent exertion. In effect, therefore, Mayow – who also gives a remarkably correct anatomical description of the mechanism of respiration – preceded Priestley and Lavoisier by a century in recognising the existence of oxygen, under the guise of his \"spiritus nitro-aereus,\" as a separate entity distinct from the general mass of the air. Mayow perceived the part \"spiritus nitro-aereus\" plays in combustion and in increasing the weight of the calces (oxides) of metals as compared with metals themselves. Rejecting the common notions of his time that the use of breathing is to cool the heart, or assist the passage of the blood from the right to the left side of the heart, or merely to agitate it, Mayow saw in inspiration a mechanism for introducing oxygen into the body, where it is consumed for the production of heat and muscular activity. He even vaguely conceived of expiration as an excretory process. Using bell-jars over water Mayow showed that the active substance that we today call oxygen constitutes about a fifth part of the air. Parts of Mayow's work seem to agree with modern ideas regarding air and combustion. Mayow noted, as had others before him, that some materials gain weight on strong heating. Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) and others later interpreted this gain in terms of a reaction with a gaseous material (oxygen) in the air. See Holmyard and others for critiques of Mayow's work and comparisons to modern chemical thought." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Budapest Treaty.", "Limited project.", "Parts of the waterworks.", "Nagymaros.", "Lawsuit.", "Environmental consequences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The joint Hungarian–Czechoslovak project was agreed upon on 16 September 1977 in the \"Budapest Treaty\". The treaty envisioned a cross-border barrage system between the towns of Gabčíkovo, Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (now Slovak Republic) and Nagymaros, People's Republic of Hungary (now Hungary). The dams would eliminate regular flooding (like the disastrous ones of 1954 and 1965) and provide a clean source of electric power. They would also allow year-long navigability of the river and serve as a part of the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal system of inland navigation. The plan was to divert part of the river into an artificial canal at Dunakiliti (a village in Hungary) to the hydroelectric power plant near Gabčíkovo (eight turbines, 720 MW). The canal would return the water into a deepened original riverbed and at Nagymaros a smaller dam and power-plant (158 MW) would be constructed. The plant in Gabčíkovo was to be a peak-power plant and the dam in Nagymaros, about 100 km downstream, was to limit fluctuations of the water level. Because most of the construction was planned to occur in Slovak territory, the Hungarian government was obligated to participate in some construction in Slovakia, to ensure equal investment by both sides. Electricity produced was to be shared equally between the two countries. An important provision of the treaty was its Article 15.1, which stated: \"\"the Contracting Parties shall ensure, by the means specified in the joint contractual plan, that the quality of the water in the Danube is not impaired as a result of the construction and operation of the System of Locks\"\".", "In 1981 the two countries agreed to slow down the project because of their economic problems. In 1984 a movement protesting against the dam, the \"Danube Circle\" (Duna Kör), was founded in Hungary, which was later awarded the Right Livelihood Award and the Goldman Environmental Prize for protecting the Danube. The group objected to the withholding of information on the project from the public by the Communist government to avoid debate on its environmental impact. Biologists worried that the dams would damage both the treasured scenery of the Danube Bend and the underground water reserves on which more than a million Hungarians depend, especially around Budapest. After an intensive campaign the project became widely hated in Hungary as a symbol of the old regime. In Slovakia, construction continued and many people were involved in building the hydro-electric plant. The Hungarian government eventually decided to suspend work until the environmental effects of the project were fully assessed. Soon after, the Slovak authorities decided to unilaterally proceed with an alternative solution, called \"Variant C\". This effectively diverted the Danube into Slovak territory and kept the development entirely within its borders. This scheme dramatically reduced the amount of water flowing into Hungary and had a significant impact on that nation's water supply and environment. As a result, the Hungarian government attempted to terminate the 1977 Treaty. The 7 proposals originally put forward by experts from Czechoslovakia in 1992 were as follows. In the end it was decided to switch to an alternative solution on a smaller scale, Proposal C. The artificial canal would start at Čunovo, part of the Slovak capital city Bratislava, and the Gabčíkovo power plant would operate in run-of-the-river mode with no water level fluctuation. Construction started in November 1991. In October 1992 diversion of part of the water into the canal started and the Čunovo reservoir was filled; the secondary structures (such as the power-plant) were finished and made operational in 1996.", "", "The waterworks on the Danube were designed to have an additional level at Nagymaros, consisting of a reservoir 95 km long and the Nagymaros power plant. This level was to be located between the Hungarian towns of Visegrád and Nagymaros and its purpose was to use the gradient of the reservoir for production of electricity and also to allow ships to pass. The Gabčíkovo works were designed for control and peak running of the power plant, and the Nagymaros works as an equalising power plant to provide better conditions for shipping and to regulate peak outflow from Gabčíkovo. Because the Nagymaros works were not built, the Gabčíkovo power plant cannot work at peak efficiency, which causes appreciable economic damage. Non-existence of Nagymaros dam also causes main obstacle of inland navigation on the 2400 km Danube Pan-European corridor due to low levels of water. Hungary requests Slovakia to manage regulation works on problematic stretch of Danube that had to be solved by Nagymaros backwater. Transportation damages include also missing upgrade of river Váh waterway in Slovakia.", "After Czechoslovakia split up in 1993, the newly established Slovak Republic carried on with the project. In 1989 Hungary abandoned the site when scientists on both sides of the border expressed fears about the environmental consequences. After Hungary tried to terminate the 1977 treaty in May 1992 both parties (Hungary and Slovakia) agreed to take their dispute to the International Court of Justice in The Hague. In 1994, the Socialists came back into power in Hungary but could hardly back out of the court case, which was hailed as a landmark: for the first time, the court would rule over an environmental dispute. Hearings on the case were held between 3 March and 15 April 1997, and the Court paid a site visit (the first ever in its history). Besides other issues, the Hungarian representatives wanted the court to decide whether or not Czechoslovakia was entitled to embark on Proposal C, and to rule that the 1977 treaty was not binding on Slovakia and Hungary. The court handed down a decision in 1997: Another four months of negotiations between Slovakia and Hungary led to a treaty between the two countries about the ICJ judgment. In March 1998 the government of Slovakia approved this treaty, but the government of Hungary, which was supposed to build Nagymaros or a Pilismarót waterworks, delayed approving the treaty and proclaimed a competition for the project. After elections in Hungary, the new government cancelled this competition. In 1998, after two appeals to Hungary, the Slovak government turned to the International Court, demanding the Nagymaros part be built. The international dispute was not resolved for more than a decade. In June 2017, the Slovak Government requested that the International Court of Justice “place on record the discontinuance of the proceedings”. In a letter dated 12 July 2017, the Agent of Hungary stated that his Government “did not oppose the discontinuance of the proceedings instituted by means of the Request of Slovakia of 3 September 1998 for an additional judgment”.", "Regarding the environmental consequences of the dam, results of a 1996–2002 study by K. Holubová, Z. Capeková and J. Szolgay were: Annual joint studies of the Slovak-Hungarian governments claim: Differences between 2002 study and newer works may be attributed to size of studied area. As 1996–2002 study was done on area from Vienna to end of Slovak-Hungarian Danube. Government studies are targeting only Gabčíkovo waterworks and immediate area around it. Groundwater levels are dependent on big floods, like in 2002, which removed fine silt from river bottom and allowed increased filtration. After that groundwater levels on many places reached pre-reservoir filling levels, on some places reached even higher. Damming of the Danube improved ground water quality at Rusovce and Čuňovo water supply which are on right side of Danube. It was due changed infiltration conditions and changed groundwater flow direction from NW-SE to N-S. The ground water quality at water supplies situated on the left side of the Danube were not influenced to the same extent as on the right side. One of the same problems identified is increased sedimentation upstream and riverbed erosion downstream from reservoir, which is a typical problem of water reservoirs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and location.", "Religious significance.", "Oracle of Delphi.", "History.", "Ancient Delphi.", "Abandonment and rediscovery.", "Buildings and structures.", "Temple of Apollo.", "Amphictyonic Council.", "Treasuries.", "Altar of the Chians.", "Stoa of the Athenians.", "Sibyl rock.", "Theatre.", "Tholos.", "Gymnasium.", "Stadium.", "Hippodrome.", "Polygonal wall.", "Castalian spring.", "Athletic statues.", "Architectural traditions.", "Delphi Archaeological Museum.", "Excavations.", "5th-century Delphi.", "Depiction in art.", "In literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Delphi is located in upper central Greece, on multiple plateaux along the slope of Mount Parnassus, and includes the Sanctuary of Apollo (the god of light, knowledge and harmony), the site of the ancient Oracle. This semicircular spur is known as Phaedriades, and overlooks the Pleistos Valley. In myths dating to the classical period of Ancient Greece (510–323 BC), Zeus determined the site of Delphi when he sought to find the centre of his \"Grandmother Earth\" (Gaia). He sent two eagles flying from the eastern and western extremities, and the path of the eagles crossed over Delphi where the omphalos, or navel of Gaia was found. Earlier myths include traditions that Pythia, or the Delphic oracle, already was the site of an important oracle in the pre-classical Greek world (as early as 1400 BC) and, rededicated from about 800 BC, when it served as the major site during classical times for the worship of the god Apollo. Apollo was said to have slain Python, a \"drako\" a serpent or a dragon who lived there and protected the navel of the Earth. \"Python\" (derived from the verb πύθω (\"pythō\"), \"to rot\") is claimed by some to be the original name of the site in recognition of Python which Apollo defeated. The Homeric Hymn to Delphic Apollo recalled that the ancient name of this site had been \"Krisa\". Others relate that it was named", "The name \"Delphi\" comes from the same root as δελφύς \"delphys\", \"womb\" and may indicate archaic veneration of Gaia at the site. Apollo is connected with the site by his epithet Δελφίνιος \"Delphinios\", \"the Delphinian\". The epithet is connected with dolphins (Greek δελφίς,-ῖνος) in the Homeric \"Hymn to Apollo\" (line 400), recounting the legend of how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying Cretan priests on his back. The Homeric name of the oracle is \"Pytho\" (Πυθώ). Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at Tempe, a city in Thessaly, to pick laurel (also known as bay tree) which he considered to be a sacred plant. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the Pythian Games received a wreath of laurel picked in the temple. Delphi became the site of a major temple to Phoebus Apollo, as well as the Pythian Games and the prehistoric oracle. Even in Roman times, hundreds of votive statues remained, described by Pliny the Younger and seen by Pausanias. Carved into the temple were three phrases: (\"gnōthi seautón\" = \"know thyself\") and (\"mēdén ágan\" = \"nothing in excess\"), and (\"engýa pára d'atē\" = \"make a pledge and mischief is nigh\"), In antiquity, the origin of these phrases was attributed to one or more of the Seven Sages of Greece by authors such as Plato and Pausanias. Additionally, according to Plutarch's essay on the meaning of the \"\"E at Delphi\"\"—the only literary source for the inscription—there was also inscribed at the temple a large letter E. Among other things epsilon signifies the number 5. However, ancient as well as modern scholars have doubted the legitimacy of such", "Delphi is perhaps best known for its oracle, the Pythia, the sibyl or priestess at the sanctuary dedicated to Apollo. According to Aeschylus in the prologue of the \"Eumenides\", the oracle had origins in prehistoric times and the worship of Gaea, a view echoed by H.W. Parke. One tale of the sanctuary's discovery states that a goatherd, who grazed his flocks on Parnassus, one day observed his goats playing with great agility upon nearing a chasm in the rock; the goatherd noticing this held his head over the chasm causing the fumes to go to his brain; throwing him into a strange trance. Apollo spoke through his oracle. She had to be an older woman of blameless life chosen from among the peasants of the area. Alone in an enclosed inner sanctum (Ancient Greek \"adyton\" - \"do not enter\") she sat on a tripod seat over an opening in the earth (the \"chasm\"). According to legend, when Apollo slew Python its body fell into this fissure and fumes arose from its decomposing body. Intoxicated by the vapours, the sibyl would fall into a trance, allowing Apollo to possess her spirit. In this state she prophesied. The oracle could not be consulted during the winter months, for this was traditionally the time when Apollo would live among the Hyperboreans. Dionysus would inhabit the temple during his absence. The time to consult pythia for an oracle during the year is determined from astronomical and geological grounds related to the constellations of Lyra and Cygnus but the hydrocarbon vapours emitted from the chasm. Similar practice was followed in other Apollo oracles too. While in a trance the Pythia \"raved\" – probably a form of ecstatic speech – and her ravings were \"translated\" by the priests of the temple into elegant hexameters. It has been speculated that the ancient writers, including Plutarch who had worked as a priest at Delphi, were correct", "", "Delphi was since ancient times a place of worship for Gaia, the mother goddess connected with fertility. The town started to gain pan-Hellenic relevance as both a shrine and an oracle in the 7th century BC. Initially under the control of Phocaean settlers based in nearby Kirra (currently Itea), Delphi was reclaimed by the Athenians during the First Sacred War (597–585 BC). The conflict resulted in the consolidation of the Amphictyonic League, which had both a military and a religious function revolving around the protection of the Temple of Apollo. This shrine was destroyed by fire in 548 BC and then fell under the control of the Alcmaeonids banned from Athens. In 449–448 BC, the Second Sacred War (fought in the wider context of the First Peloponnesian War between the Peloponnesian League led by Sparta and the Delian-Attic League led by Athens) resulted in the Phocians gaining control of Delphi and the management of the Pythian Games. In 356 BC the Phocians under Philomelos captured and sacked Delphi, leading to the Third Sacred War", "The Ottomans finalized their domination over Phocis and Delphi in about 1410CE. Delphi itself remained almost uninhabited for centuries. It seems that one of the first buildings of the early modern era was the monastery of the Dormition of Mary or of Panagia (the Mother of God) built above the ancient gymnasium at Delphi. It must have been towards the end of the 15th or in the 16th century that a settlement started forming there, which eventually ended up forming the village of Kastri. Ottoman Delphi gradually began to be investigated. The first Westerner to describe the remains in Delphi was Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli (Cyriacus of Ancona), a 15th-century merchant turned diplomat and antiquarian. He visited Delphi in March 1436 and remained there for six days. He recorded all the visible archaeological remains based on Pausanias for identification. He described the stadium and the theatre at that date as well as some free standing", "Occupation of the site at Delphi can be traced back to the Neolithic period with extensive occupation and use beginning in the Mycenaean period (1600–1100 BC). Most of the ruins that survive today date from the most intense period of activity at the site in the 6th century BC.", "The ruins of the Temple of Delphi visible today date from the 4th century BC, and are of a peripteral Doric building. It was erected", "The Amphictyonic Council was a council of representatives from six Greek tribes that controlled Delphi and also the quadrennial Pythian", "From the entrance of the site, continuing up the slope almost to the temple itself, are a large number of votive statues, and numerous so-called treasuries. These were built by many of the Greek city states to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for her advice which was thought to have contributed to those victories. These buildings held the rich offerings made to Apollo; these were frequently a \"tithe\" or tenth of the spoils of a battle. The most impressive is the now-restored Athenian Treasury, built to", "Located in front of the Temple of Apollo, the main altar of the sanctuary was paid for and built by the people of Chios. It", "The stoa leads off north-east from the main sanctuary. It was built in the Ionic order and consists of seven fluted columns, unusually carved from single pieces of stone (most columns", "The Sibyl rock is a pulpit-like outcrop of rock between the Athenian Treasury and the Stoa of the Athenians upon the sacred", "The ancient theatre at Delphi was built further up the hill from the Temple of Apollo giving spectators a view of the entire sanctuary and the valley below. It was originally built in the 4th century BC but was remodeled on several occasions, particularly in 160/159 B.C. at the expenses of king Eumenes II of Pergamon and in 67 A.D. on the occasion of emperor Nero's visit. The koilon (cavea) leans against the natural slope of the mountain whereas its eastern part overrides a little torrent which led the water of the fountain Cassotis right underneath the temple of Apollo. The orchestra was initially a full circle with a diameter measuring 7 meters. The rectangular scene building ended up in two arched openings, of which the foundations are preserved today. Access to the theatre was possible through the parodoi, i.e. the side corridors. On the support walls of the parodoi", "The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronoia (Ἀθηνᾶ Πρόνοια, \"Athena of forethought\") is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 BC. It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diameter of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior.", "The gymnasium, which is half a mile away from the main sanctuary, was a series of buildings used by the youth of Delphi. The building consisted", "The stadium is located further up the hill, beyond the \"via sacra\" and the theatre. It was originally built in the 5th century BC but was altered in later", "It was at the Pythian games that prominent political leaders, such as Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sikyon, and Hieron, tyrant of Syracuse, competed with their chariots. The hippodrome where", "The retaining wall was built to support the terrace housing the construction of the second temple of Apollo in 548 BC. Its name is taken from", "The sacred spring of Delphi lies in the ravine of the Phaedriades. The preserved remains of", "Delphi is famous for its many preserved athletic statues. It is known that Olympia originally housed far more of these statues, but time brought ruin to many of them, leaving Delphi as the main site of athletic statues. Kleobis and Biton, two brothers renowned for their strength, are modeled in two of the earliest known athletic statues at Delphi. The statues commemorate their feat of pulling their", "Ancient tradition accounted for four temples that successively occupied the site before the 548/7 BC fire, following which the Alcmaeonids built a fifth. The poet Pindar celebrated the Alcmaeonid's temple in \"Pythian\" 7.8-9 and he also provided details of the third building (\"Paean\" 8. 65-75). Other details are given by Pausanias (10.5.9-13) and the Homeric Hymn to Apollo (294 ff.). The first temple was said to have been constructed out of olive branches from Tempe. The", "The Delphi Archaeological Museum is at the foot of the main archaeological complex, on the east side of the village, and on the north side of the main road. The museum houses an impressive collection associated with ancient Delphi, including the earliest known notation of a melody, the famous Charioteer of Delphi,", "The site had been occupied by the village of Kastri since medieval times. Before a systematic excavation of the site could be undertaken, the village had to be relocated but the residents resisted. The opportunity to relocate the village occurred when it was substantially damaged by an earthquake, with villagers offered a completely new village in exchange for the old site. In 1893 the French Archaeological School removed vast quantities of soil from numerous landslides to reveal both the major buildings and structures of the sanctuary of Apollo and of Athena Pronoia along with thousands of objects, inscriptions and sculptures. The site is now an archaeological one, and a very popular tourist destination. It is easily accessible from Athens as a day trip, and is often combined with the winter sports facilities available on Mount Parnassus, as well as the beaches and summer sports facilities of the nearby coast of Phocis. The site is also protected as a site of extraordinary natural beauty, and the views from it are also protected: no industrial artefacts are to be seen from Delphi other than roads and traditional architecture residences (for example high voltage power lines and the like are routed so as to be invisible from the area of the sanctuary).", "During the Great Excavation were discovered architectural members from a 5th-century Christian basilica, when Delphi was a bishopric. Other important Late Roman buildings are the Eastern Baths, the house with the peristyle, the Roman Agora, the large cistern usw. At the outskirts of the city there were located late Roman cemeteries. To the southeast of the precinct of Apollo lay the so-called Southeastern Mansion, a building with a 65-meter-long façade, spread over four levels, with four triclinia and private baths. Large storage jars kept the provisions, whereas other pottery vessels and luxury items were discovered in the rooms. Among the finds stands out a tiny leopard made of", "From the 16th century onward, West Europe developed an interest in Delphi. In the mid-15th century Strabo was first translated in Latin. The earliest depictions of Delphi were totally imaginary, created by the German N. Gerbel, who published in 1545 a text based on the map of Greece by N. Sofianos. The ancient sanctuary was depicted as a fortified city. The first travelers with archaeological interests, apart from the precursor Cyriacus of Ancona, were the British George Wheler and the French Jacob Spon, who visited Greece in a joint expedition in 1675–1676. They published their impressions separately. In Wheler's \"Journey into Greece\", published in 1682, a sketch of the region of Delphi appeared, where the settlement of Kastri and some ruins were depicted. The illustrations in Spon's publication \"Voyage d'Italie, de Dalmatie, de Grèce et du Levant, 1678\" are considered original and groundbreaking. Travelers continued to visit Delphi throughout the 19th century and published their books which contained diaries, sketches, views of the site as well as pictures of coins. The illustrations often reflected the spirit of romanticism, as evident by the works of Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, where, apart from the landscapes (\"La Grèce. Vues pittoresques et topographiques\", Paris 1834) are depicted also human types (\"Costumes et usages des peuples de la Grèce moderne dessinés sur les lieux\", Paris 1828). The philhellene", "Delphi inspired literature as well. In 1814 W. Haygarth, friend of Lord Byron, refers to Delphi in his work \"Greece, a Poem\". In 1888 Charles Marie René Leconte de Lisle published his lyric drama L’Apollonide, accompanied by music by Franz Servais. More recent French authors used Delphi as a source of inspiration such as Yves Bonnefoy (Delphes du second jour) or Jean Sullivan (nickname of Joseph Lemarchand) in L'Obsession de Delphes (1967), but also Rob MacGregor's Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi (1991). The presence of Delphi in Greek literature is very intense. Poets such as Kostis Palamas (The Delphic Hymn, 1894), Kostas Karyotakis (Delphic festival, 1927), Nikephoros Vrettakos (return from Delphi, 1957), Yannis Ritsos (Delphi, 1961–62) and Kiki Dimoula (Gas omphalos and Appropriate terrain 1988), to mention only the most renowned ones. Angelos Sikelianos wrote The Dedication (of the Delphic speech) (1927), the Delphic Hymn (1927) and the tragedy Sibylla (1940), whereas in the context of the Delphic idea and the Delphic festivals he published an essay titled \"The Delphic union\" (1930). The nobelist George Seferis wrote an essay under the title \"Delphi\", in the book \"Dokimes\". The importance of Delphi for the Greeks is significant. The site has been recorded on the collective memory and have been expressed through tradition. Nikolaos Politis, the famous Greek ethnographer, in his Studies on the life and language of the Greek people - part A, offers two examples from Delphi: When Christ was born a priest of Apollo was sacrificing below the monastery of Panayia, on the road of Livadeia, on a site called Logari. Suddenly he abandoned the sacrifice and says to the people: \"in this moment was born the son of God, who will be very powerful, like Apollo, but then Apollo will beat him\". He didn't have time to finish his speech and a thunder came down and burnt him, opening the rock nearby into two. [p. 99] The Mylords are not Christians, because nobody ever saw them cross themselves. They originate from the old pagan inhabitants of Delphi who kept their property in castle called Adelphi, named after the two brother princes who built it. When Christ and his mother came to the site, and all people around converted to Christianity they thought that they should better leave; thus the Mylords left for the West and took all their belongings with them. The Mylords come here now and worship these stones. [p. 59]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Physiological effects.", "Exercise.", "Emotional response.", "Memory.", "Pathology.", "Terminology.", "Mechanism of action.", "Measurement in biological fluids.", "Biosynthesis and regulation.", "Regulation.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Adrenaline junkie.", "Strength." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "As a medication, it is used to treat a number of conditions including anaphylaxis, cardiac arrest, and superficial bleeding. Inhaled adrenaline may be used to improve the symptoms of croup. It may also be used for asthma when other treatments are not effective. It is given intravenously, by injection into a muscle, by inhalation, or by injection just under the skin. Common side effects include shakiness, anxiety, and sweating. A fast heart rate and high blood pressure may occur. Occasionally it may result in an abnormal heart rhythm. While the safety of its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding is unclear, the benefits to the mother must be taken into account. A case has been made for the use of adrenaline infusion in place of the widely accepted treatment of inotropes for preterm infants with clinical cardiovascular compromise. Although there is sufficient data which strongly recommends Adrenaline infusions as a viable treatment, more trials are needed in order to conclusively determine that these infusions will successfully reduce morbidity and mortality rates among preterm, cardiovascularly compromised infants.", "The adrenal medulla is a minor contributor to total circulating catecholamines (-DOPA is at a higher concentration in the plasma), though it contributes over 90% of circulating adrenaline. Little adrenaline is found in other tissues, mostly in scattered chromaffin cells. Following adrenalectomy, adrenaline disappears below the detection limit in the blood stream. The adrenal glands contribute about 7% of circulating noradrenaline, most of which is a spillover from neurotransmission with little activity as a hormone. Pharmacological doses of adrenaline stimulate α, α, β, β, and β adrenoceptors of the sympathetic nervous system. Sympathetic nerve receptors are classified as adrenergic, based on their responsiveness to adrenaline. The term \"adrenergic\" is often misinterpreted in that the main sympathetic neurotransmitter is noradrenaline, rather than adrenaline, as discovered by Ulf von Euler in 1946. Adrenaline does have a β adrenoceptor-mediated effect on metabolism and the airway, there being no direct neural connection from the sympathetic ganglia to the airway. The concept of the adrenal medulla and the sympathetic nervous system being involved in the flight, fight and fright response was originally proposed by Cannon. But the adrenal medulla, in contrast to the adrenal cortex, is not required for survival. In adrenalectomized patients hemodynamic and metabolic responses to stimuli such as hypoglycemia and exercise remain normal.", "One physiological stimulus to adrenaline secretion is exercise. This was first demonstrated using the denervated pupil of a cat as an assay, later confirmed using a biological assay on urine samples. Biochemical methods for measuring catecholamines in plasma were published from 1950 onwards. Although much valuable work has been published using fluorimetric assays to measure total catecholamine concentrations, the method is too non-specific and insensitive to accurately determine the very small quantities of adrenaline in plasma. The development of extraction methods and enzyme-isotope derivate radio-enzymatic assays (REA) transformed the analysis down to a sensitivity of 1 pg for adrenaline. Early REA plasma assays indicated that adrenaline and total catecholamines rise late in exercise, mostly when anaerobic metabolism commences. During exercise the adrenaline blood concentration rises partially from increased secretion from the adrenal medulla and partly from decreased metabolism because of reduced hepatic blood flow. Infusion of adrenaline to reproduce exercise circulating concentrations of adrenaline in subjects at rest has little haemodynamic effect, other than a small β-mediated fall in diastolic blood pressure. Infusion of adrenaline well within the physiological range suppresses human airway hyper-reactivity sufficiently to antagonize the constrictor effects of inhaled histamine. A link between what we now know as the sympathetic system and the lung was shown in 1887 when Grossman showed that stimulation of cardiac accelerator nerves reversed muscarine-induced airway constriction. In experiments in the dog, where the sympathetic chain was cut at the level of the diaphragm, Jackson showed that there was no direct sympathetic innervation to the lung, but that bronchoconstriction was reversed by release of adrenaline from the adrenal medulla. An increased incidence of asthma has not been reported for adrenalectomized patients; those with a predisposition to asthma will have some protection from airway hyper-reactivity from their corticosteroid replacement therapy. Exercise induces progressive airway dilation in normal subjects that correlates with work load and is not prevented by beta blockade. The progressive dilation of the airway with increasing exercise is mediated by a progressive reduction in resting vagal tone. Beta blockade with propranolol causes a rebound in airway resistance after exercise in normal subjects over the same time course as the bronchoconstriction seen with exercise induced asthma. The reduction in airway resistance during exercise reduces the work of breathing.", "Every emotional response has a behavioral component, an autonomic component, and a hormonal component. The hormonal component includes the release of adrenaline, an adrenomedullary response that occurs in response to stress and that is controlled by the sympathetic nervous system. The major emotion studied in relation to adrenaline is fear. In an experiment, subjects who were injected with adrenaline expressed more negative and fewer positive facial expressions to fear films compared to a control group. These subjects also reported a more intense fear from the films and greater mean intensity of negative memories than control subjects. The findings from this study demonstrate that there are learned associations between negative feelings and levels of adrenaline. Overall, the greater amount of adrenaline is positively correlated with an arousal state of negative feelings. These findings can be an effect in part that adrenaline elicits physiological sympathetic responses including an increased heart rate and knee shaking, which can be attributed to the feeling of fear regardless of the actual level of fear elicited from the video. Although studies have found a definite relation between adrenaline and fear, other emotions have not had such results. In the same study, subjects did not express a greater amusement to an amusement film nor greater anger to an anger film. Similar findings were also supported in a study that involved rodent subjects that either were able or unable to produce adrenaline. Findings support the idea that adrenaline does have a role in facilitating the encoding of emotionally arousing events, contributing to higher levels of arousal due to fear.", "It has been found that adrenergic hormones, such as adrenaline, can produce retrograde enhancement of long-term memory in humans. The release of adrenaline due to emotionally stressful events, which is endogenous adrenaline, can modulate memory consolidation of the events, ensuring memory strength that is proportional to memory importance. Post-learning adrenaline activity also interacts with the degree of arousal associated with the initial coding. There is evidence that suggests adrenaline does have a role in long-term stress adaptation and emotional memory encoding specifically. Adrenaline may also play a role in elevating arousal and fear memory under particular pathological conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder. Overall, \"Extensive evidence indicates that epinephrine (EPI) modulates memory consolidation for emotionally arousing tasks in animals and human subjects.” Studies have also found that recognition memory involving adrenaline depends on a mechanism that depends on β adrenoceptors. Adrenaline does not readily cross the blood–brain barrier, so its effects on memory consolidation are at least partly initiated by β adrenoceptors in the periphery. Studies have found that sotalol, a β adrenoceptor antagonist that also does not readily enter the brain, blocks the enhancing effects of peripherally administered adrenaline on memory. These findings suggest that β adrenoceptors are necessary for adrenaline to have an effect on memory consolidation. For noradrenaline to be acted upon by PNMT in the cytosol, it must first be shipped out of granules of the chromaffin cells. This may occur via the catecholamine-H exchanger VMAT1. VMAT1 is also responsible for transporting newly synthesized adrenaline from the cytosol back into chromaffin granules in preparation for release. In liver cells, adrenaline binds to the β adrenergic receptor, which changes conformation and helps G, a G protein, exchange GDP to GTP. This trimeric G protein dissociates to G alpha and G beta/gamma subunits. Gs alpha binds to adenyl cyclase, thus converting ATP into cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP binds to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A: Protein kinase A phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Meanwhile, Gs beta/gamma binds to the calcium channel and allows calcium ions to enter the cytoplasm. Calcium ions bind to calmodulin proteins, a protein present in all eukaryotic cells, which then binds to phosphorylase kinase and finishes its activation. Phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase, which then phosphorylates glycogen and converts it to glucose-6-phosphate.", "Increased adrenaline secretion is observed in pheochromocytoma, hypoglycemia, myocardial infarction and to a lesser degree in essential tremor (also known as benign, familial or idiopathic tremor). A general increase in sympathetic neural activity is usually accompanied by increased adrenaline secretion, but there is selectivity during hypoxia and hypoglycaemia, when the ratio of adrenaline to noradrenaline is considerably increased. Therefore, there must be some autonomy of the adrenal medulla from the rest of the sympathetic system. Myocardial infarction is associated with high levels of circulating adrenaline and noradrenaline, particularly in cardiogenic shock. Benign familial tremor (BFT) is responsive to peripheral β adrenergic blockers and β-stimulation is known to cause tremor. Patients with BFT were found to have increased plasma adrenaline, but not noradrenaline. Low, or absent, concentrations of adrenaline can be seen in autonomic neuropathy or following adrenalectomy. Failure of the adrenal cortex, as with Addison's disease, can suppress adrenaline secretion as the activity of the synthesing enzyme, phenylethanolamine-\"N\"-methyltransferase, depends on the high concentration of cortisol that drains from the cortex to the medulla.", "In 1901, Jōkichi Takamine patented a purified extract from the adrenal glands, and called it \"adrenalin\" (from the Latin \"ad\" and \"renal\", \"near the kidneys\"), which was trademarked by Parke, Davis & Co in the US. The British Approved Name and European Pharmacopoeia term for this drug is hence \"adrenaline\". However, the pharmacologist John Abel had already prepared an extract from adrenal glands as early as 1897, and coined the name \"epinephrine \" to describe it (from the Greek \"epi\" and \"nephros\", \"on top of the kidneys\"). In the belief that Abel's extract was the same as Takamine's (a belief since disputed), epinephrine became the generic name in the US, and remains the pharmaceutical's United States Adopted Name and International Nonproprietary Name (though the name adrenaline is frequently used). The terminology is now one of the few differences between the INN and BAN systems of names. Although European health professionals and scientists preferentially use the term \"adrenaline\", the converse is true among American health professionals and scientists. Nevertheless, even among the latter, receptors for this substance are called \"adrenergic receptors\" or \"adrenoceptors\", and pharmaceuticals that mimic its effects are often called \"adrenergics\". The history of adrenaline and epinephrine is reviewed by Rao.", "As a hormone, adrenaline acts on nearly all body tissues. Its actions vary by tissue type and tissue expression of adrenergic receptors. For example, high levels of adrenaline causes smooth muscle relaxation in the airways but causes contraction of the smooth muscle that lines most arterioles. Adrenaline acts by binding to a variety of adrenergic receptors. Adrenaline is a nonselective agonist of all adrenergic receptors, including the major subtypes α, α, β, β, and β. Adrenaline's binding to these receptors triggers a number of metabolic changes. Binding to α-adrenergic receptors inhibits insulin secretion by the pancreas, stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver and muscle, and stimulates glycolysis and inhibits insulin-mediated glycogenesis in muscle. β adrenergic receptor binding triggers glucagon secretion in the pancreas, increased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion by the pituitary gland, and increased lipolysis by adipose tissue. Together, these effects lead to increased blood glucose and fatty acids, providing substrates for energy production within cells throughout the body. Its actions are to increase peripheral resistance via α receptor-dependent vasoconstriction and to increase cardiac output via its binding to β receptors. The goal of reducing peripheral circulation is to increase coronary and cerebral perfusion pressures and therefore increase oxygen exchange at the cellular level. While adrenaline does increase aortic, cerebral, and carotid circulation pressure, it lowers carotid blood flow and end-tidal CO or ECO levels. It appears that adrenaline may be improving macrocirculation at the expense of the capillary beds where actual perfusion is taking place.", "Adrenaline may be quantified in blood, plasma or serum as a diagnostic aid, to monitor therapeutic administration, or to identify the causative agent in a potential poisoning victim. Endogenous plasma adrenaline concentrations in resting adults are normally less than 10 ng/L, but may increase by 10-fold during exercise and by 50-fold or more during times of stress. Pheochromocytoma patients often have plasma adrenaline levels of 1000–10,000 ng/L. Parenteral administration of adrenaline to acute-care cardiac patients can produce plasma concentrations of 10,000 to 100,000 ng/L.", "In chemical terms, adrenaline is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines. Adrenaline is synthesized in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla of the adrenal gland and a small number of neurons in the medulla oblongata in the brain through a metabolic pathway that converts the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine into a series of metabolic intermediates and, ultimately, adrenaline. Tyrosine is first oxidized to -DOPA by Tyrosine hydroxylase, this is the rate-limiting step. Then it is subsequently decarboxylated to give dopamine by DOPA decarboxylase (aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase). Dopamine is then converted to noradrenaline by dopamine beta-hydroxylase which utilizes ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and copper. The final step in adrenaline biosynthesis is the methylation of the primary amine of noradrenaline. This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme phenylethanolamine \"N\"-methyltransferase (PNMT) which utilizes \"S\"-adenosyl methionine (SAMe) as the methyl donor. While PNMT is found primarily in the cytosol of the endocrine cells of the adrenal medulla (also known as chromaffin cells), it has been detected at low levels in both the heart and brain.", "The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high or low ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in the central nervous system. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of adrenaline precursors by enhancing the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine β-hydroxylase, two key enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing adrenaline synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress. The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of adrenaline. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and, thus, the release of adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the bloodstream. Unlike many other hormones adrenaline (as with other catecholamines) does not exert negative feedback to down-regulate its own synthesis. Abnormally elevated levels of adrenaline can occur in a variety of conditions, such as surreptitious adrenaline administration, pheochromocytoma, and other tumors of the sympathetic ganglia. Its action is terminated with reuptake into nerve terminal endings, some minute dilution, and metabolism by monoamine oxidase and catechol-\"O\"-methyl transferase.", "Extracts of the adrenal gland were first obtained by Polish physiologist Napoleon Cybulski in 1895. These extracts, which he called \"nadnerczyna\" (\"adrenalin\"), contained adrenaline and other catecholamines. American ophthalmologist William H. Bates discovered adrenaline's usage for eye surgeries prior to 20 April 1896. Japanese chemist Jōkichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka independently discovered adrenaline in 1900. In 1901, Takamine successfully isolated and purified the hormone from the adrenal glands of sheep and oxen. Adrenaline was first synthesized in the laboratory by Friedrich Stolz and Henry Drysdale Dakin, independently, in 1904.", "", "An \"adrenaline junkie\" is somebody who engages in sensation-seeking behavior through \"the pursuit of novel and intense experiences without regard for physical, social, legal or financial risk\". Such activities include extreme and risky sports, substance abuse, unsafe sex, and crime. The term relates to the increase in circulating levels of adrenaline during physiological stress. Such an increase in the circulating concentration of adrenaline is secondary to activation of the sympathetic nerves innervating the adrenal medulla, as it is rapid and not present in animals where the adrenal gland has been removed. Although such stress triggers adrenaline release, it also activates many other responses within the central nervous system reward system which drives behavioral responses, so while the circulating adrenaline concentration is present, it may not drive behavior. Nevertheless, adrenaline infusion alone does increase alertness and has roles in the brain including the augmentation of memory consolidation.", "Adrenaline has been implicated in feats of great strength, often occurring in times of crisis. For example, there are stories of a parent lifting part of a car when their child is trapped underneath." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Objectives.", "Adoption and entry into force.", "Protocol I: Non-Detectable Fragments.", "Protocol II: Mines, Booby Traps and Other Devices.", "Protocol III: Incendiary Weapons.", "Protocol IV: Blinding Laser Weapons.", "Protocol V: Explosive Remnants of War.", "Other proposals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The aim of the Convention and its Protocols is to provide new rules for the protection of civilians from injury by weapons that are used in armed conflicts and also to protect combatants from unnecessary suffering. The convention covers fragments that are undetectable in the human body by X-rays, landmines and booby traps, and incendiary weapons, blinding laser weapons and the clearance of explosive remnants of war. Parties to the convention must take legislative and other actions to ensure compliance with the convention. CCWC along with the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) serves as an umbrella for protocols dealing with specific weapons. The Convention and its annexed Protocols apply in all types of armed conflict, both international and non-international. This was not the case when the convention was first adopted, but the scope was expanded by two conferences in 1996 and 2001. Some provisions also apply after open hostilities has ended, such as the rules in protocols II and V about minimizing the dangers from mines and other ordnance. CCWC lacks verification and enforcement mechanisms and spells out no formal process for resolving compliance concerns. A state-party can refute its commitment to the convention or any of the protocols, but it will remain legally bound until one year after notifying the treaty depositary, the UN Secretary-General, of its intent to be free of its obligations.", "The CCWC consist of a set of \"additional protocols\" first formulated on October 10, 1980, in Geneva and entered into force on December 2, 1983. As of the end of April 2017, there are 124 state parties to the convention. Some of those countries have only adopted some of the five protocols, with two being the minimum required to be considered a party. The convention has five protocols: Protocol II was amended in 1996 (extending its scope of application), and entered in force on December 3, 1998. The amendment extended the restrictions on landmine use to internal conflicts; established reliability standards for remotely delivered mines; and prohibited the use of non-detectable fragments in anti-personnel landmines (APL). The failure to agree to a total ban on landmines led to the Ottawa Treaty.", "Protocol I on Non-Detectable Fragments prohibits the use of any weapon the primary effect of which is to injure by fragments which are not detectable in human body by X-rays. The reason is that such fragments are difficult to remove and cause unnecessary suffering. The protocol applies when the \"primary effect\" is to injure by non-detectable fragments and does not prohibit all use of e.g. plastic in weapons design.", "Protocol II on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices was amended on May 3, 1996, to strengthen its provisions and extend the scope of application to cover both international and internal armed conflicts. The protocol regulates, but does not ban, land mines. It prohibits the use of non-detectable anti-personnel mines and their transfer; prohibits the use of non-self-destructing and non-self-deactivating mines outside fenced, monitored and marked areas; prohibits directing mines and booby traps against civilians; requires parties to the conflict to remove mines and booby traps when the conflict ends; broadens obligations of protecting peacekeeping and other missions of the United Nations and its agencies; requires States to enforce compliance with its provisions within their jurisdiction; and calls for penal sanctions in case of violation.", "Protocol III on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Incendiary Weapons prohibits, in all circumstances, making the civilian population as such, individual civilians or civilian objects, the object of attack by any weapon or munition which is primarily designed to set fire to objects or to cause burn injury to persons through the action of flame, heat or a combination thereof, produced by a chemical reaction of a substance delivered on the target. The protocol also prohibits the use of air-delivered incendiary weapons against military targets within a concentration of civilians, and limits the use of incendiary weapons delivered by other means. Forest and other plants may not be a target unless they are used to conceal combatants or other military objectives. Protocol III lists certain munition types like smoke shells which only have a secondary or additional incendiary effect; these munition types are not considered to be incendiary weapons.", "Protocol IV on Blinding Laser Weapons prohibits the use of laser weapons specifically designed to cause permanent blindness. The parties to the protocol also agree to not transfer such weapons to any state or non-state entity. The protocol does not prohibit laser systems where blinding is an incidental or collateral effect, but parties that agree to it must take all feasible precautions to avoid such effects.", "Protocol V on Explosive Remnants of War requires the clearance of UXO (unexploded ordnance), such as unexploded bomblets from cluster bombs and abandoned explosive weapons. At the cessation of active hostilities, Protocol V establishes a responsibility on parties that have used explosive weapons to assist with the clearance of unexploded ordnance that this use has created. Parties are also required, subject to certain qualifications, to provide information on their use of explosive weapons. Each party is responsible for the territory in their control after a conflict. The protocol doesn't apply to mines and other weapons covered by protocol II. The protocol came about as a result of a growing awareness during the 1990s that the protection against unexploded ordnance was insufficient. The protocol was adopted in 2003 and entered into force in 2006.", "As of 2017, the CCW has failed to achieve consensus to open negotiations on adding a compliance mechanism to help ensure parties honor their commitments, as well as negotiations on banning oversized-caliber bullets. (5.56 or smaller) China and Russia have opposed restrictions on anti-vehicle mines, such as a requirement that such mines self-deactivate. In the 2010s the CCW opened talks on restricting lethal autonomous weapons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and marriage.", "Rape.", "Consequences.", "Revolution.", "In literature and music.", "Subject in art.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lucretia is the daughter of Spurius Lucretius and wife of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus. Prior to the rape, while her husband was a man of excellent social standing, he had no political power or standing in Rome. He lacked both the power and the wealth of his Tarquinius relatives. Her marriage was depicted as being the ideal Roman marriage as both Lucretia and Lucius were faithfully devoted to one another. She was described as beautiful and virtuous by Roman writer Livy. While her husband was away at battle, Lucretia would stay at home and pray for his safe return. Similar to Livy, Dionysius' depiction of Lucretia, separates her from the rest of Roman women in a story about the men returning home from a battle. The narrative begins with a bet between the sons of Tarquinius and their kinsmen, Brutus and Collantinus. The men fight over which of their wives best exemplified sophrosyne. The men return home to find the women socializing with each other, presumably drinking and in conversation. In contrast, they find Lucretia home alone working with her wool in silence. Roman writers such as Livy, Ovid and Dionysus, described Lucretia as being the role model for Roman girls because of her devotion to her husband.", "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, last king of Rome, being engaged in the siege of Ardea, sent his son, Tarquin, on a military errand to Collatia. Tarquin was received with great hospitality at the governor's mansion, home of Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, son of the king's nephew, Arruns Tarquinius, former governor of Collatia and first of the Tarquinii Collatini. Collatinus' wife, Lucretia, daughter of Spurius Lucretius, prefect of Rome, \"a man of distinction,\" made sure that the king's son was treated as became his rank, although her husband was away at the siege. In a variant of the story, Tarquin and Collatinus, at a wine party on furlough, were debating the virtues of wives when Collatinus volunteered to settle the debate by all of them riding to his home to see what Lucretia was doing. She was weaving with her maids. The party awarded her the palm of victory and Collatinus invited them to visit, but for the time being they returned to camp. At night, Tarquin entered her bedroom by stealth, quietly going around the slaves who were sleeping at her door. She awakened. He identified himself and offered her two choices: she could submit to his sexual advances and become his wife and future queen, or he would kill her and one of her slaves and place the bodies together, then claim he had caught her having adulterous sex (see sexuality in ancient Rome for Roman attitudes toward sex). In the alternative story, he returned from camp a few days later with one companion to take Collatinus up on his invitation to visit and was lodged in a guest bedroom. He entered Lucretia's room while she lay naked in her bed and started to wash her belly with water, which woke her up.", "In Dionysius of Halicarnassus' account, the following day Lucretia dressed in black and went to her father's house in Rome and cast herself down in the supplicant's position (embracing the knees), weeping in front of her father and husband. She asked to explain herself and insisted on summoning witnesses before she told them about her rape. After disclosing the rape, she asked them for vengeance, a plea that could not be ignored because she was speaking to the chief magistrate of Rome. While the men debated the proper course of action, Lucretia drew a concealed dagger and stabbed herself in the heart. She died in her father's arms, with the women present keening and lamenting on her death. Dionysius' depiction of her suicide he stated that: \"This dreadful scene struck the Romans who were present with so much horror and compassion that they all cried out with one voice that they would rather die a thousand deaths in defence of their liberty than suffer such outrages to be committed by the tyrants.\" In Livy's version, Lucretia did not go to Rome, but instead sent for her father and her husband asking them to bring one friend each to act as an witness. Those selected were Publius Valerius Publicola from Rome and Lucius Junius Brutus from the camp at Ardea. The men found Lucretia in her room and she explained what had happened to her. After exacting an oath of vengeance—\"Pledge me your solemn word that the adulterer shall not go unpunished.\"— and while the men were discussing the matter, she drew a poignard and stabbed herself in her heart. In Dio's version, Lucretia's request for revenge is: \"And, whereas I (for I am a woman) shall act in a manner which is fitting for me: you, if you are men, and if you care for your wives and children, exact vengeance on my behalf and free your selves and show the tyrants what sort of woman they outraged, and what sort of men were her menfolk!\" She follows her statement by plunging the dagger into her chest and promptly dying. In this version Collatinus and Brutus were encountered returning to Rome unaware of the incident, were briefed, and were brought to the death scene. Brutus happened to be a politically motivated participant. By kinship he was a Tarquin on his mother's side, the son of Tarquinia, daughter of Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the third king before last. He was a candidate for the throne if anything should happen to Superbus. By law, however, as he was a Junius on his father's side, and thus he was not a Tarquin and therefore could later propose the exile of the Tarquins without fear for himself. Superbus had taken his inheritance and left him a pittance, keeping him at court for entertainment. Collatinus, seeing his wife dead, became distraught. He held her, kissed her, called her name and spoke to her. Dio stated that after seeing the hand of Destiny in these events, Brutus called the grieving party to order, explained that his simplicity had been a sham, and proposed that they drive the Tarquins from Rome. Grasping the bloody dagger, he swore by Mars and all the other gods that he would do everything in his power to overthrow the dominion of the Tarquinii and that he would neither be reconciled to the tyrants himself nor tolerate any who should be reconciled to them, but would look upon every man who thought otherwise as an enemy and till his death would pursue with unrelenting hatred both the tyranny and its abettors; and if he should violate his oath, he prayed that he and his children might meet with the same end as Lucretia. He passed the dagger around and each mourner swore the same oath by it. The primary sources of both Dio and Livy agree on this point: Livy's version is: By this blood—most pure before the outrage wrought by the king's son—I swear, and you, O gods, I call to witness that I will drive hence Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his cursed wife and his whole blood, with fire and sword and every means in my power, and I will not suffer them or anyone else to reign in Rome.", "The newly sworn revolutionary committee paraded the bloody corpse of Lucretia to the Roman Forum where it remained on display as a reminder of the dishonor committed. At the form, the committee heard grievances against the Tarquins and began to enlist an army to abolish the monarchy. Brutus \"urged them to act as men and Romans and take up arms against their insolent foes.\" The gates of Rome were blockaded by the new revolutionary soldiers and more were sent to guard Collatia. By now a crowd had gathered in the forum; the presence of the magistrates among the revolutionaries kept them in good order. Brutus was the Tribune of the Celeres, a minor office of some religious duties, which as a magistracy gave him the theoretical power to summon the curiae, an organization of patrician families used mainly to ratify the decrees of the king. Summoning them on the spot he transformed the crowd into an authoritative legislative assembly and began to address them in one of the more noted and effective speeches of ancient Rome. He began by revealing that his pose as fool was a sham designed to protect him against an evil king. He levelled a number of charges against the king and his family: the outrage against Lucretia, whom everyone could see on the dais, the king's tyranny, the forced labor of the plebeians in the ditches and sewers of Rome. In his speech, he pointed out that Superbus had come to rule by the murder of Servius Tullius, his wife's father, next-to-the-last king of Rome. He \"solemnly invoked the gods as the avengers of murdered parents.\" He suggested that as the king's wife, Tullia, was in fact in Rome and probably was a witness to the proceedings from her palace near the forum. Seeing herself the target of so much animosity she fled from the palace in fear of her life and proceeded to the camp at Ardea. Brutus opened a debate on the form of government Rome ought to have, a debate at which many patricians spoke. In summation he proposed the banishment of the Tarquins from all the territories of Rome and appointment of an interrex to nominate new magistrates and conduct an election of ratification. They decided on a republican form of government with two consuls in place of a king executing the will of a patrician senate. This was a temporary measure until they could consider the details more carefully. Brutus renounced all right to the throne. In subsequent years the powers of the king were divided among various elected magistracies. A final vote of the curiae carried the interim constitution. Spurius Lucretius was swiftly elected interrex; he was prefect of the city already. He proposed Brutus and Collatinus as the first two consuls and that choice was ratified by the curiae. Needing to acquire the assent of the population as a whole, they paraded Lucretia through the streets summoning the plebeians to legal assembly in the forum. Once there they heard a constitutional speech by Brutus not unlike many speeches and documents of western civilization subsequently. It began: A general election was held and the vote won in favor of the republic. This ended the monarchy, and during these proceedings Lucretia was still displayed in the forum. The constitutional consequences of this event were, prevented Rome from having another hereditary \"king,\" later emperors were absolute rulers in all but name. This constitutional tradition prevented both Julius Caesar and Octavian Augustus from accepting a crown; instead they had to devise a confluence of several republican offices onto their persons in order to secure absolute power. Their successors both in Rome and in Constantinople adhered to this tradition in form if not in essence, and the office of German Holy Roman Emperor remained elective rather than hereditary—up to its abolition in the Napoleonic Wars, over 2300 years later.", "Livy's account in \"Ab Urbe Condita Libri\" (c. 25–8 BC) is the earliest surviving full historical treatment. In his account her husband has boasted of the virtue of his wife to Tarquin and others. Livy contrasts the virtue of the Roman Lucretia, who remained in her room weaving, with the Etruscan ladies who feasted with friends. Ovid recounts the story of Lucretia in Book II of his \"Fasti\", published in 8 AD, concentrating on the bold over-reaching character of Tarquin. Later, St. Augustine made use of the figure of Lucretia in \"The City of God\" (published 426 AD) to defend the honour of Christian women who had been raped in the sack of Rome and had not committed suicide. The story of Lucretia was a popular moral tale in the later Middle Ages. Lucretia appears to Dante in the section of Limbo reserved to the nobles of Rome and other \"virtuous pagans\" in Canto IV of the \"Inferno\". Christine de Pizan used Lucretia just as St. Augustine of Hippo did in her \"City of Ladies\", defending a woman's sanctity. The myth is recounted in Geoffrey Chaucer's \"The Legend of Good Women\", and it follows a similar story line to Livy's. Lucretia calls for her father and husband, but Chaucer's tale also has her call for her mother and attendants as well, whereas Livy's has both her father and husband bring an friend as witness. The tale also deviated from Livy's account as it begins with her husband coming home to surprise her, rather than the men placing a bet on the virtue of their wives. John Gower's \"Confessio Amantis\" (Book VII),and John Lydgate's \"Fall of Princes recount the myth of Lucretia\". Gower's work is a collection of narritive poems. In Book VII, he tells the \"Tale of the Rape of Lucrece.\" Lydgate's work is a long poem containing stories and myths about various kings and princes who fell from power. It follows their lives from their rise into power and their fall into adversity. Lydgate's poem mentions the fall of Tarquin, the rape and suicide of Lucretia and her speech prior to death. Lucretia's rape and suicide is also the subject of William Shakespeare's 1594 long poem \"The Rape of Lucrece\", which draws extensively on Ovid's treatment of the story; he also mentioned her in \"Titus Andronicus\", in \"As You Like It\", and in \"Twelfth Night\" in which Malvolio authenticates his fateful letter by spotting Olivia's Lucrece seal, and alludes to her in \"Macbeth\", and in \"Cymbeline\" he further refers to the story, though without mentioning Lucretia by name. Shakespeare's poem, based off the rape of Lucretia, draws on the beginning of the Livy's account of the incident. The poem begins with a bet between husbands about the virtuousness of their wives. Shakespeare draws on the idea of Lucretia as a moral agent, as Livy did, when he explores his characters response to death and her unwillingness to yield to her rapist. A direct excerpt from Livy is used when Shakespeare prefaces his poem with a brief prose called \"Argument\". This is the internal deliberation Lucrece suffered from, following the rape. Niccolò Machiavelli's comedy \"La Mandragola\" is loosely based on the Lucretia story. She is also mentioned in the poem \"Appius and Virginia\" by John Webster and Thomas Heywood, which includes the following lines: Thomas Heywood's play \"The Rape of Lucretia\" dates from 1607. The subject also enjoyed a revival in the mid twentieth century; André Obey's 1931 play \"\" was adapted by librettist Ronald Duncan for \"The Rape of Lucretia\", a 1946 opera by Benjamin Britten which premiered at Glyndebourne. Ernst Krenek set Emmet Lavery's libretto \"Tarquin\" (1940), a version in a contemporary setting. Jacques Gallot (died ) composed the allemandes \"Lucrèce\" and \"Tarquin\" for baroque lute. In Samuel Richardson's 1740 novel \"Pamela\", Mr. B. cites the story of Lucretia as a reason why Pamela ought not fear for her reputation, should he rape her. Pamela quickly sets him straight with a better reading of the story. Colonial Mexican poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz also mentions Lucrecia in her poem \"Redondillas,\" a commentary on prostitution and who is to blame. In 1769, doctor Joan Ramis wrote a tragedy in Menorca entitled \"Lucrecia\". The play is written in the Catalan language using a neoclassical style and is the most important work of the eighteenth century written in this language. In 1932, the play \"Lucrece\" was produced on Broadway starring legendary actress Katharine Cornell in the title part. It was mostly performed in pantomime. In Donna Leon's 2009 Venetian novel, \"About Face\", Franca Marinello refers to the tale of Tarquin and Lucrezia, as recounted in Ovid's \" Fasti \" (Book II, for February 24, \"Regifugium\") to explain her actions to Commissario Brunetti.", "Since the Renaissance, the suicide of Lucretia has been an enduring subject for visual artists, including Titian, Rembrandt, Dürer, Raphael, Botticelli, Jörg Breu the Elder, Johannes Moreelse, Artemisia Gentileschi, Damià Campeny, Eduardo Rosales, Lucas Cranach the Elder, and others. Most commonly, either the moment of the rape is shown or Lucretia is shown alone at the moment of her suicide. In either situation, her clothing is loosened or absent, while Tarquin is normally clothed. The subject was one of a group showing women from legend or the Bible who were either powerless, such as Susanna and Verginia, or only able to escape their situations by suicide, such as Dido of Carthage and Lucretia. These formed a counterpoint to, or sub-group of, the set of subjects known as the Power of Women, showing female violence against, or domination of, men. These were often depicted by the same artists, and especially popular in Northern Renaissance art. The story of Esther lay somewhere between these two extremes. The subject of Lucretia spinning, with her ladies, is sometimes depicted, as in a series of four engravings of her story by Hendrick Goltzius, which also includes a banquet.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Discovery and naming.", "Possible glaciers.", "Honeycomb terrain." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "With a diameter of about, it is the largest unambiguous impact structure on the planet; the obscured Utopia Planitia is slightly larger. (The Borealis Basin, if it proves to be an impact crater, is considerably larger.) Hellas Planitia is thought to have been formed during the Late Heavy Bombardment period of the Solar System, approximately 4.1 to 3.8 billion years ago, when a protoplanet or large asteroid hit the surface. The altitude difference between the rim and the bottom is over. The crater's depth of below the topographic datum of Mars explains the atmospheric pressure at the bottom: 12.4 mbar (0.0124 bar) during winter, when the air is coldest and reaches its highest density. This is 103% higher than the pressure at the topographical datum (610 Pa, or 6.1 mbar or 0.09 psi) and above the triple point of water, suggesting that the liquid phase could be present under certain conditions of temperature, pressure, and dissolved salt content. It has been theorized that a combination of glacial action and explosive boiling may be responsible for gully features in the crater. Some of the low elevation outflow channels extend into Hellas from the volcanic Hadriacus Mons complex to the northeast, two of which Mars Orbiter Camera images show contain gullies: Dao Vallis and Reull Vallis. These gullies are also low enough for liquid water to be transient around Martian noon, if the temperature were to rise above 0 Celsius. Hellas Planitia is antipodal to Alba Patera. It and the somewhat smaller Isidis Planitia together are roughly antipodal to the Tharsis Bulge, with its enormous shield volcanoes, while Argyre Planitia is roughly antipodal to Elysium, the other major uplifted region of shield volcanoes on Mars. Whether the shield volcanoes were caused by antipodal impacts like that which produced Hellas, or if it is mere coincidence, is unknown.", "Due to its size and its light coloring, which contrasts with the rest of the planet, Hellas Planitia was one of the first Martian features discovered from Earth by telescope. Before Giovanni Schiaparelli gave it the name Hellas (which in Greek means 'Greece'), it was known as 'Lockyer Land', having been named by Richard Anthony Proctor in 1867 in honor of Sir Joseph Norman Lockyer, an English astronomer who, using a refractor, produced \"the first really truthful representation of the planet\" (in the estimation of E. M. Antoniadi).", "Radar images by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) spacecraft's SHARAD radar sounder suggest that features called lobate debris aprons in three craters in the eastern region of Hellas Planitia are actually glaciers of water ice lying buried beneath layers of dirt and rock. The buried ice in these craters as measured by SHARAD is about thick on the upper crater and about and on the middle and lower levels respectively. Scientists believe that snow and ice accumulated on higher topography, flowed downhill, and is now protected from sublimation by a layer of rock debris and dust. Furrows and ridges on the surface were caused by deforming ice. Also, the shapes of many features in Hellas Planitia and other parts of Mars are strongly suggestive of glaciers, as the surface looks as if movement has taken place.", "These relatively flat-lying \"cells\" appear to have concentric layers or bands, similar to a honeycomb. This \"honeycomb\" terrain was first discovered in the northwestern part of Hellas. The geologic process responsible for creating these features remains unresolved. Some calculations indicate that this formation may have been caused by ice moving up through the ground in this region. The ice layer would have been between 100 m and 1 km thick. When one substance moves up through another denser substance, it is called a diapir. So, it seems that large masses of ice have pushed up layers of rock into domes that were eroded. After erosion removed the top of the layered domes, circular features remained." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Turkish rule of central Hungary.", "Modern era.", "Religious law.", "Demographics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In the old form of the Hungarian language, Muslims were called \"Böszörmény\", cognates with \"Turkish\" Bozulmamış, which in turn descends from, \"Muslim\", a term preserved as both a family name, and as that of the town Hajdúböszörmény. The first Islamic author to speak of this Muslim community was Yaqut al-Hamawi (575-626 AH/1179-1229 CE), he writes about a famous Hungarian student who studied in Aleppo, according to the student there were 30 Muslim villages in Hungary. Yaqut writes in his famous geographical dictionary, \"Mu'ajam al-Buldan\", about his meeting with a Hungarian Muslim youth in Syria who was studying Islam there and brought some details of the history and life of their people in Hungary. The Spaniard Muslim traveler Abu Hamid al Garnati wrote of two types of Muslims in Hungary, the first being the Böszörmény of the Carpathian Basin and Volga Bulgars (Khwarezmians). In the 11th century, St. Ladislaus and later Coloman passed laws against the non-Christians (Synod of Szabolcs). These laws subdued Islam by coercing Muslims to eat pork, go to Church and intermarry and to forbid them from celebrating Friday. Some of Coloman's laws include: László (Saint Ladislaus) passed the following law: These laws discriminated severely against the small minority and eventually led to the disappearance of the community and its professions altogether.", "The Turks entered Hungary after the Battle of Mohács in 1526. From 1541 they started to control the central part directly and organized five eyalets: Budin, Kanije, Eğri, Varat (Oradea) and Temeşvar. In the 16th century, during the Ottoman rule, numerous Muslim personalities were born in Hungary. Among them, the most important were the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Kanijeli Siyavuş Pasha (from Nagykanizsa) who held the function three times between 1582 and 1593, and the famous Mevlevian dervish Pecsevi Árifi Ahmed Dede, a Turk native of Pécs. Most Islamic studies in Hungary were taught at the Hanafi madhhab, or Hanafi school of thought, of Sunni Islam.", "In the 19th century, after the collapse of the revolution of 1848-9, more than 6,000 emigrated Poles and Hungarians followed General Józef Bem (Murat Paşa) into Turkish exile. Among them were such Hungarian officers such as Richard Guyon (Kurşid Paşa), György Kmety (Ismail Paşa) and Maximilian Stein (Ferhad Paşa). These personalities were afterwards raised to the post of General. Guyon is described in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography as \"the first Christian to obtain the rank of pasha and a Turkish military command without being obliged to change his religion\", a sign of modernizing meritocracy under the 19th-century Ottomans. The council of Újbuda has given permission for the Muslim community in Hungary to build the first Islamic centre in Budapest. The new Islamic centre will hold a library containing 50,000 volumes. In 2013 Hungarian Islamic Council requested for the Grand Mufti of Bosnia and Herzegovina Husein Kavazović to also become Grand Mufti of Hungary.", "Hungary's new \"Law on the Right to Freedom of Conscience and Religion, and on Churches, Religions and Religious Communities\" was enacted 12 July 2011 and recognizes only 14 religious groups. Islam is not included in this list and Muslims have to apply to get official recognition under the new law. Under the law, only 14 of 358 registered churches and religious associations will be granted legal recognition, while others will have to reapply for legal registration after two-thirds approval in parliament. On 27 February 2012, Hungary's parliament amended the country's controversial law on religious organizations to expand the list of officially recognized the Hungarian Islamic Council.", "According to the 2011 Hungarian census, there were 5,579 Muslims in Hungary, making up only about 0.057% of the total population. Of these, 4,097 (73.4%) declared themselves as Hungarian, while 2,369 (42.5%) as Arab by ethnicity. In Hungary people can declare more than one ethnicity (sum is greater than the whole), Data from 2011 does not show the Turkish population (which was 1,565 in the 2001 census). However, the majority of Muslims in Hungary are of Arab or Turkish origin. Moreover, there is also a growing number of ethnic Hungarian converts to Islam. The actual number of Muslims in Hungary seems to be largely above 5,579 Muslims, following an important influx of asylum seekers since 2014, as there arrived about 200,000 asylum seekers in Hungary, largely from the Muslim countries Afghanistan and Syria.." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Family and education.", "Early career.", "Seville.", "Voyages.", "\"First voyage\" (14971498).", "\"Second voyage\" (14991500).", "\"Third voyage\" (15011502).", "\"Fourth voyage\" (15031504).", "Return to Seville.", "Naming of America.", "Vespucci letters.", "Historiography.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vespucci was born on 9 March 1454, in Florence, a medieval and early-modern state centred in Tuscany. It was considered the epitome of a Renaissance city.", "He was the third son of Nastagio Vespucci, a Florentine notary for the Money-Changers Guild, and Lisa di Giovanni Mini. The family resided in the District of Santa Lucia d'Ognissanti along with other families of the Vespucci clan. Earlier generations of Vespucci had funded a family chapel in the Ognissanti church, and the nearby Hospital of San Giovanni di Dio was founded by Simone di Piero Vespucci in 1380. Amerigo's immediate family was not especially prosperous but they were politically well-connected. Amerigo's grandfather, also named Amerigo Vespucci, served a total of 36 years as the chancellor of the Florentine government, known as the \"Signoria\"; and Nastagio also served in the \"Signoria\" and in other guild offices. More importantly, the Vespuccis had good relations with Lorenzo de' Medici, the powerful de-facto ruler of Florence. Amerigo's two older brothers, Antonio and Girolamo, were sent to the University of Pisa for their education; Antonio followed his father to become a notary, while Girolamo entered the Church and joined the Knights Templar in Rhodes. Amerigo's career path seemed less certain; instead of following his brothers to the university, he remained in Florence and was tutored by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a Dominican friar in the monastery of San Marco. Fortunately for Amerigo, his uncle was one of the most celebrated humanist scholars in Florence at the time and provided him with a broad education in literature, philosophy, rhetoric, and Latin. He was also introduced to geography and astronomy, subjects that played an essential part in his career. Amerigo's later writings demonstrated a familiarity with the work of the classic Greek cosmographers, Ptolemy and Strabo, and the more recent work of Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli.", "In 1478, Guido Antonio Vespucci led a Florentine diplomatic mission to Paris and invited his younger cousin, Amerigo Vespucci, to join him. Amerigo's role is not clear, but it was likely as an attache or private secretary. Along the way they had business in Bologna, Milan, and Lyon. Their objective in Paris was to obtain French support for Florence's war with Naples. Louis XI was noncommittal and the diplomatic mission returned to Florence in 1481 with little to show for their efforts. After his return from Paris, Amerigo worked for a time with his father and continued his studies in science. In 1482, when his father died, Amerigo went to work for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, head of a junior branch of the Medici family. Although Amerigo was ten years older, they had been schoolmates under the tutelage of Giorgio Antonio Vespucci. Amerigo served first as a household manager and then gradually took on increasing responsibilities, handling various business dealings for the family both at home and abroad. Meanwhile he continued to show an interest in geography, at one point buying an expensive map made by the master cartographer Gabriel de Vallseca.", "In 1488, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco became dissatisfied with his Seville business agent, Tomasso Capponi. He dispatched Vespucci to investigate the situation and provide an assessment of a suggested replacement, Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi. Vespucci's findings have been lost but Capponi returned to Florence around this time and Berardi took over the Medici business in Seville. In addition to managing Medici's trade in Seville, Berardi had his own business in African slavery and ship chandlery. By 1492 Vespucci had settled permanently in Seville. His motivations for leaving Florence are unclear; he continued to transact some business on behalf of his Medici patrons but more and more he became involved with Berardi's other activities, most notably providing investment and support for Christopher Columbus and his voyages of discovery. Barardi invested half a million \"maravedis\" in Columbus's first voyage, and he won a potentially lucrative contract to provision Columbus's large second fleet. However, profits proved to be elusive. In 1495, Berardi signed a contract with the crown to send 12 resupply ships to Hispaniola but then died unexpectedly in December without completing the terms of the contract. Vespucci was the executor of Berardi's will, collecting debts and paying outstanding obligations for the firm. Afterwards he was left owing 140,000 \"maravedis\". He continued to provision ships bound for the West Indies, but his opportunities were diminishing; Columbus's expeditions were not providing the hoped-for profits, and his patron, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco Medici, was using other Florentine agents for his business in Seville. Sometime after he settled in Seville, Vespucci married a Spanish woman, Maria Cerezo. Very little is known about her; Vespucci's will refers to her as the daughter of Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba. Historian Fernández-Armesto speculates that she may have been the illegitimate offspring of celebrated military leader, the \"Grand Captain\", a connection that would have been very useful to Vespucci. She was an active participant in his business and held power of attorney for Vespucci when he was away.", "The evidence for Vespucci's voyages of exploration consists almost entirely of a handful of letters written by him or attributed to him. Historians have differed sharply on the authorship, the accuracy and veracity of these documents. Consequently, opinions also vary widely regarding the number of voyages undertaken, their routes, and Vespucci's roles and accomplishments. Starting in the late 1490s Vespucci participated in two voyages to the New World that are relatively well-documented in the historical record. Two others have been alleged but the evidence is more problematical. Traditionally, Vespucci's voyages are referred to as the \"first\" through \"fourth\", even by historians who refute one or more of the trips.", "A letter, written to Piero Soderini and published in 1504, purports to be an account by Vespucci of a voyage to the New World, leaving Spain on 10 May 1497 and returning in October 1498. This is perhaps the most controversial of Vespucci's voyages and many historians doubt that it took place as described. Some writers question the authorship and accuracy of the letter and consider it to be a forgery. Others point to the inconsistencies in the narrative of the voyage, particularly the alleged course, starting near Honduras and proceeding northwest for 870 leagues (about )–a course that would have taken them across Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. Feelings also ran high among earlier historians who felt that Vespucci lied about this voyage to gain primacy over Columbus as the first explorer to encounter the mainland.", "In 1499, Vespucci joined an expedition licensed by Spain and led by Alonso de Ojeda as fleet commander and Juan de la Cosa as chief navigator. Their intention was to explore the coast of a new landmass found by Columbus on his third voyage and in particular investigate a rich source of pearls that Columbus had reported. Vespucci and his backers financed two of the four ships in the small fleet. His role on the voyage is not clear. Writing later about his experience, Vespucci gave the impression that he had a leadership role but that is unlikely because of his inexperience. Instead, he may have served as a commercial representative on behalf of the fleet's investors. Years later, Ojeda recalled that \"Morigo Vespuche\" was one of his pilots on the expedition. The armada left Spain on 18 May 1499 and stopped first in the Canary Islands before reaching the mainland somewhere near present-day Surinam or French Guiana. From there the fleet split up: Ojeda proceeded northwest toward Venezuela while two ships headed south with Vespucci aboard. The only record of the southbound journey comes from Vespucci. He assumed they were on the coast of Asia and hoped by heading south they would round the Cape of Cattigara and, according to Ptolemy, reach the Indian Ocean. They passed two huge rivers (the Amazon and the Para) which poured freshwater out to sea. They continued south for another 40 leagues (about ) before encountering a very strong adverse current which they could not overcome. Forced to turn around, the ships headed north retracing their course to the original landfall. From there Vespucci continued up the South American coast to the Gulf of Paria and along the shore of what is now Venezuela. At some point they may have rejoined Ojeda but the evidence is unclear. In the late summer, they decided to head north for the Spanish colony at Hispaniola to resupply and repair their ships before heading home. After Hispaniola they made a brief slave raid in the Bahamas, capturing 232 natives and then returned to Spain.", "In 1501, Manuel I of Portugal commissioned an expedition to investigate a landmass encountered unexpectedly by Pedro Álvares Cabral on his voyage to India. That land would eventually become present-day Brazil. The king wanted to know the extent of this new discovery and determine where it lay in relation to the line established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Any land the lay to the east of the line could be claimed by Portugal. Vespucci's reputation as an explorer and presumed navigator had already reached Portugal, and he was hired by the king to serve as pilot under the command of Gonçalo Coelho. Coelho's armada of three ships left Lisbon in May 1501. Before crossing the Atlantic they resupplied at Cape Verde where they encountered Cabral on his way home from his voyage to India. This was the same expedition that had found Brazil on their outward-bound journey the previous year. Coelho left Cape Verde in June and from this point, Vespucci's account is the only surviving record of their explorations. On 17 August 1501 they reached Brazil at a latitude of about 6° south. Upon landing they encountered a hostile band of natives who killed and ate one of the crewmen. Sailing south along the coast they found friendlier natives and were able to engage in some minor trading. At 23° S they found a bay which they named Rio de Janeiro because it was 1 January 1502. On 13 February 1502, they left the coast to return home. Vespucci estimated their latitude at 32° S but experts now estimate they were closer to 25° S. Their homeward journey is unclear since Vespucci left a confusing record of astronomical observations and distances travelled.", "In 1503, Vespucci may have participated in a second expedition for the Portuguese crown, again exploring the east coast of Brazil. There is evidence that a voyage was led by Coelho at about this time but no independent confirmation that Vespucci took part. The only source for this last voyage is the Soderini Letter; but several modern scholars dispute Vespucci's authorship of that letter and it is uncertain whether Vespucci undertook this trip. There are also difficulties with the reported dates and details in the account of this voyage.", "By early 1505, Vespucci was back in Seville. His reputation as an explorer and navigator continued to grow and his recent service in Portugal did not seem to damage his standing with King Ferdinand. On the contrary, the king was likely interested in learning about the possibility of a western passage to India. In February, he was summoned by the king to consult on matters of navigation. During the next few months he received payments from the crown for his services and in April he was declared by royal proclamation a citizen of Castile and Leon. From 1505 until his death in 1512, Vespucci remained in service to the Spanish crown. He continued his work as a chandler, supplying ships bound for the Indies. He was also hired to captain a ship as part of a fleet bound for the \"spice islands\" but the planned voyage never took place. In March 1508, he was named chief pilot for the \"Casa de Contratación\" or House of Commerce which served as a central trading house for Spain's overseas possessions. He was paid an annual salary of 50,000 \"maravedis\" with an extra 25,000 for expenses. In his new role, Vespucci was responsible for ensuring that ships' pilots were adequately trained and licensed before sailing to the New World. He was also charged with compiling a \"model map\" based on input from pilots who were obligated to share what they learned after each voyage. Vespucci wrote his will in April 1511. He left most of his modest estate, including five household slaves, to his wife. His clothes, books, and navigational equipment were left to his nephew Giovanni Vespucci. He requested to be buried in a Franciscan habit in his wife's family tomb. Vespucci died on 22 February 1512. Upon his death, Vespucci's wife was awarded an annual pension of 10,000 \"maravedis\" to be deducted from the salary of the successor chief pilot. His nephew Giovanni was hired into the \"Casa de Contratación\" where he spent his subsequent years spying on behalf of the Florentine state.", "Vespucci's voyages became widely known in Europe after two accounts attributed to him were published between 1503 and 1505. The \"Soderini Letter\" (1505) came to the attention of a group of humanist scholars studying geography in Saint-Dié, a small French town in the Duchy of Lorraine. Led by Walter Lud, the academy included Matthias Ringmann and Martin Waldseemüller. In 1506, they obtained a French translation of the \"Soderini Letter\" as well as a Portuguese maritime map that detailed the coast of lands recently discovered in the western Atlantic. They surmised that this was the \"new world\" or the \"antipodes\" hypothesized by classical writers. The \"Soderini Letter\" gave Vespucci credit for discovery of this new continent and implied that the Portuguese map was based on his explorations. In April 1507, Ringmann and Waldseemüller published their \"Introduction to Cosmography\" with an accompanying world map. The \"Introduction\" was written in Latin and included a Latin translation of the \"Soderini Letter\". In a preface to the \"Letter\", Ringmann wrote A thousand copies of the world map were printed with the title \"Universal Geography According to the Tradition of Ptolemy and the Contributions of Amerigo Vespucci and Others\". It was decorated with prominent portraits of Ptolemy and Vespucci and, for the first time, the name America was applied to a map of the New World. The \"Introduction\" and map were a great success and four editions were printed in the first year alone. The map was widely used in universities and was influential among cartographers who admired the craftsmanship that went into its creation. In the following years, other maps were printed that often incorporated the name America. In 1538, Gerardus Mercator used America to name both the North and South continents on his influential map. By this point the name had been securely fixed on the New World. Many supporters of Columbus felt that Vespucci had stolen an honour that rightfully belonged to Columbus. However most historians now believe that he was unaware of Waldseemüller's map before his death in 1512 and many assert that he was not even the author of the Soderini Letter.", "Knowledge of Vespucci's voyages relies almost entirely on a handful of letters written by him or attributed to him. Two of these letters were published during his lifetime and received widespread attention throughout Europe. Several scholars now believe that Vespucci did not write the two published letters in the form in which they circulated during his lifetime. They suggest that they were fabrications based in part on genuine Vespucci letters. The remaining documents were unpublished manuscripts; handwritten letters uncovered by researchers more than 250 years after Vespucci's death. After years of controversy, the authenticity of the three complete letters was convincingly demonstrated by Alberto Magnaghi in 1924. Most historians now accept them as the work of Vespucci but aspects of the accounts are still disputed.", "Vespucci has been called \"the most enigmatic and controversial figure in early American history.\" The debate has become known among historians as the \"Vespucci question.\" How many voyages did he make? What was his role on the voyages and what did he learn? The evidence relies almost entirely on a handful of letters attributed to him. Many historians have analysed these documents and have arrived at contradictory conclusions. In 1515, Sebastian Cabot became one of the first to question Vespucci's accomplishments and express doubts about his 1497 voyage. Later, Bartolomé de las Casas argued that Vespucci was a liar and stole the credit that was due Columbus. By 1600 most regarded Vespucci as an impostor and not worthy of his honours and fame. In 1839, Alexander von Humboldt after careful consideration asserted the 1497 voyage was impossible but accepted the two Portuguese-sponsored voyages. Humboldt also called into question the assertion that Vespucci recognized that he had encountered a new continent. According to Humboldt, Vespucci (and Columbus) died in the belief that they had reached the eastern edge of Asia. Vespucci's reputation was perhaps at its lowest in 1856 when Ralph Waldo Emerson called Vespucci a \"thief\" and \"pickle dealer\" from Seville who managed to get \"half the world baptized with his dishonest name.\" Opinions began to shift somewhat after 1857 when Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen wrote that everything in the \"Soderini Letter\" was true. Other historians followed in support of Vespucci including John Fiske and Henry Harrisse. In 1924, Alberto Magnaghi published the results of his exhaustive review of Vespucci's writings and relevant cartography. He denied Vespucci's authorship of the 1503 \"Mundus Novus\" and the 1505 \"Soderini Letter\", the only two texts published during his lifetime. He suggested that the Soderini letter was not written by Vespucci, but was cobbled together by unscrupulous Florentine publishers who combined several accounts – some from Vespucci, others from elsewhere. Magnaghi determined that the manuscript letters were authentic and based on them he was the first to propose that only the second and third voyages were true, and the first and fourth voyages (only found in the Soderini letter) were fabrications. While Magnaghi has been one of the chief proponents of a two-voyage narrative, Roberto Levellier was an influential Argentinian historian who endorsed the authenticity of all Vespucci's letters and proposed the most extensive itinerary for his four voyages. Other modern historians and popular writers have taken varying positions on Vespucci's letters and voyages, espousing two, three, or four voyages and supporting or denying the authenticity of his two printed letters. Most authors believe that the three manuscript letters are authentic while the first voyage as described in the Soderini letter draws the most criticism and disbelief. A two-voyage thesis was accepted and popularized by Frederick Pohl (1944), and rejected by Germán Arciniegas (1955), who posited that all four voyages were truthful. Luciano Formisiano (1992) also rejects the Magnaghi thesis (acknowledging that publishers probably tampered with Vespucci's writings) and declares all four voyages genuine, but differs from Arciniegas in details (particularly the first voyage). Samuel Morison (1974) flatly rejected the first voyage but was noncommittal about the two published letters. Felipe Fernández-Armesto (2007) calls the authenticity question \"inconclusive\", and hypothesizes that the first voyage was probably another version of the second; the third is unassailable, and the fourth is probably true.", "Vespucci's historical importance may rest more with his letters (whether or not he wrote them all) than his discoveries. Within a few years of the publication of his two letters, the European public became aware of the newly discovered continents of the Americas. According to Vespucci: Concerning my return from those new regions which we found and explored...we may rightly call a new world. Because our ancestors had no knowledge of them, and it will be a matter wholly new to all those who hear about them, for this transcends the view held by our ancients, inasmuch as most of them hold that there is no continent to the south beyond the equator, but only the sea which they named the Atlantic and if some of them did aver that a continent there was, they denied with abundant argument that it was a habitable land. But that this their opinion is false and utterly opposed to the truth...my last voyage has made manifest; for in those southern parts I have found a continent more densely peopled and abounding in animals than our Europe Asia or Africa, and, in addition, a climate milder and more delightful than in any other region known to us, as you shall learn in the following account." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Iron Age.", "Norwegian rule.", "Absorbed by Scotland.", "20th century.", "Overview of population trends.", "Geography.", "Demographics.", "Islands.", "The Mainland.", "The North Isles.", "The South Isles.", "Geology.", "Climate.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Power.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Ferry.", "Media.", "Festivals.", "Language, literature, and folklore.", "Orcadians.", "Natural history.", "Protected areas." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Pytheas of Massilia visited Britain – probably sometime between 322 and 285 BC – and described it as triangular in shape, with a northern tip called \"Orcas\". This may have referred to Dunnet Head, from which Orkney is visible. Writing in the 1st century AD, the Roman geographer Pomponius Mela called the islands, as did Tacitus in 98 AD, claiming that his father-in-law Agricola had \"discovered and subjugated the Orcades hitherto unknown\" (although both Mela and Pliny had previously referred to the islands). Etymologists usually interpret the element as a Pictish tribal name meaning \"young pig\" or \"young boar\". Speakers", "", "A charred hazelnut shell, recovered in 2007 during excavations in Tankerness on the Mainland has been dated to 6820–6660 BC indicating the presence of Mesolithic nomadic tribes. The earliest known permanent settlement is at Knap of Howar, a Neolithic farmstead on the island of Papa Westray, which dates from 3500 BC. The village of Skara Brae, Europe's best-preserved Neolithic settlement, is believed to have been inhabited from around 3100 BC. Other remains from that", "Excavations at Quanterness on the Mainland have revealed an Atlantic roundhouse built about 700 BC and similar finds have been made at Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray. The most impressive Iron Age structures of Orkney are the ruins of later round towers called \"brochs\" and their associated settlements such as the Broch of Burroughston and Broch of Gurness. The nature and origin of these buildings is a subject of ongoing debate. Other structures from this period include underground storehouses, and aisled roundhouses, the latter usually in association with earlier broch sites. During the Roman invasion of Britain the \"King of Orkney\" was one of 11 British leaders who is said to have submitted to the Emperor Claudius in AD 43 at Colchester. After the Agricolan fleet had come and gone, possibly anchoring at Shapinsay, direct Roman influence seems to", "Both Orkney and Shetland saw a significant influx of Norwegian settlers during the late 8th and early 9th centuries. Vikings made the islands the headquarters of their pirate expeditions carried out against Norway and the coasts of mainland Scotland. In response, Norwegian king Harald Fairhair (Harald Hårfagre) annexed the Northern Isles, comprising Orkney and Shetland, in 875. (It is clear that this story, which appears in the \"Orkneyinga Saga\", is based on the later voyages of Magnus Barelegs and some scholars believe it to be apocryphal.) Rognvald Eysteinsson received Orkney and Shetland", "In 1468 Orkney was pledged by Christian I, in his capacity as King of Norway, as security against the payment of the dowry of his daughter Margaret, betrothed to James III of Scotland. However the money was never paid, and Orkney was absorbed by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1472. The history of Orkney prior to this time is largely the history of the ruling aristocracy. From now on the ordinary people emerge with greater clarity. An influx of Scottish entrepreneurs helped to create a diverse and independent community that included farmers, fishermen and merchants that called themselves \"comunitas Orcadie\" and who proved themselves increasingly able to defend their rights against their feudal overlords. From at least the 16th century, boats from mainland Scotland and the Netherlands dominated the local herring fishery. There is little evidence of an Orcadian fleet until the 19th century but it grew rapidly and 700 boats were involved by the 1840s with Stronsay and later Stromness becoming leading centres of development. White fish never", "Orkney was the site of a Royal Navy base at Scapa Flow, which played a major role in World War I and II. After the Armistice in 1918, the German High Seas Fleet was transferred in its entirety to Scapa Flow to await a decision on its future. The German sailors opened the sea-cocks and scuttled all the ships. Most ships were salvaged, but the remaining wrecks are now a favoured haunt of recreational divers. One month into World War II, a German U-boat sank the Royal Navy battleship in Scapa Flow. As a result,", "In the modern era, population peaked in the mid 19th century at just over 32,000 and declined for a century thereafter to a low of fewer than 18,000 in the 1970s. Declines were particularly significant in the outlying islands, some of", "Orkney is separated from the mainland of Scotland by the Pentland Firth, a wide seaway between Brough Ness on the island of South Ronaldsay and Duncansby Head in Caithness. Orkney lies between 58°41′ and 59°24′ North, and 2°22′ and 3°26′ West, measuring from northeast to southwest and from east to west, and covers. Orkney is separated from the Shetland Islands, a group farther out, by a body of water called the Fair Isle Channel.", "Genetic studies have shown that 25% of the gene pool", "", "The Mainland is the largest island of Orkney. Both of Orkney's burghs, Kirkwall and Stromness, are on this island, which is also the heart of Orkney's transportation system, with ferry and air connections to the other islands and to the outside world. The island is more densely populated (75% of Orkney's population) than the other islands and has much fertile farmland. The Mainland is split into areas called East and West Mainland. These areas are determined by whether they lie East or West of Kirkwall. The bulk of the mainland lies West of Kirkwall, with comparatively little land lying East of Kirkwall.", "The northern group of islands is the most extensive and consists of a large number of moderately sized islands, linked to the Mainland by ferries and by air services. Farming, fishing and tourism are the main sources of income for most of the islands. The most northerly is North Ronaldsay, which lies beyond its nearest neighbour, Sanday. To the west is Westray, which has a population of 550. It is connected by ferry and air to Papa Westray, also known as \"Papay\". Eday is at the centre of the North Isles. The centre of the island", "The southern group of islands surrounds Scapa Flow. Hoy is the second largest of the Orkney Isles and Ward Hill at its northern end is the highest elevation in the archipelago. The Old Man of Hoy is a well-known seastack. Burray lies to the east of Scapa Flow and is linked by causeway to South Ronaldsay, which hosts the cultural events, the Festival of the Horse and the Boys' Ploughing Match on", "The superficial rock of Orkney is almost entirely Old Red Sandstone, mostly of Middle Devonian age. As in the neighbouring mainland county of Caithness, this sandstone rests upon the metamorphic rocks of the Moine series, as may be seen on the Mainland, where a narrow strip is exposed between Stromness and Inganess, and again in the small island of Graemsay; they are represented by grey gneiss and granite. The Middle Devonian is divided into three main groups. The lower part of the sequence, mostly Eifelian in age, is dominated by lacustrine beds of the lower and upper Stromness Flagstones that were deposited in Lake Orcadie. The later Rousay flagstone formation is found throughout much of the North and", "Orkney has a cool temperate climate that is remarkably mild and steady for such a northerly latitude, due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. The average temperature for the year is ; for winter and for summer. The average annual rainfall varies from to. Winds are a key feature of the climate and even in summer there are almost constant breezes. In winter, there are frequent strong", "Orkney is represented in the House of Commons as part of the Orkney and Shetland constituency, which elects one Member of Parliament (MP), the current incumbent being Alistair Carmichael. This seat has been held by the Liberal Democrats or their predecessors the Liberal Party since 1950, longer than any other they represent in Great Britain. In the Scottish Parliament the Orkney constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system. The current MSP is Liam McArthur of the Liberal Democrats. Before McArthur the MSP was Jim Wallace, who was previously Deputy First Minister. Orkney is within the Highlands and Islands electoral region. Orkney Islands Council consists of", "The soil of Orkney is generally very fertile and most of the land is taken up by farms, agriculture being by far the most important sector of the economy and providing employment for a quarter of the workforce. More than 90% of agricultural land is used for grazing for sheep and cattle, with cereal production utilising about 4% () and woodland occupying only. Fishing has declined in importance, but still employed 345 individuals in 2001, about 3.5% of the islands' economically active population, the modern industry concentrating on herring, white fish, lobsters, crabs and other shellfish, and salmon fish farming. Today, the traditional sectors of the economy export beef, cheese, whisky, beer, fish and other seafood. In recent years there has been growth in other areas including tourism, food and beverage manufacture, jewellery, knitwear, and other crafts production, construction and oil transportation through the Flotta oil terminal. Retailing accounts for 17.5% of total employment, and public services also play a significant role, employing a third of the islands' workforce. In 2007, of the 1,420 VAT registered enterprises 55% were in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 12% in manufacturing and construction, 12% in wholesale, retail and repairs, and 5% in hotels and restaurants. A further 5% were public service related. 55% of these businesses employ between 5 and 49 people.", "Orkney has significant wind and marine energy resources, and renewable energy has recently come into prominence. Although Orkney is connected to the mainland, it generates over 100% of its net power from renewables. This comes mainly from wind turbines situated across Orkney. The European Marine Energy Centre (EMEC) is a research facility operating a grid-connected wave test site at Billia Croo, off the west coast of the Orkney Mainland, and a tidal power test site in the Fall of Warness, off the", "", "Highland and Islands Airports operates the main airport in Orkney, Kirkwall Airport. Loganair provides services to the Scottish mainland (Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Inverness), as well as to Sumburgh Airport in Shetland. Within Orkney, the council", "Ferries serve both to link Orkney to the rest of Scotland, and also to link together the various islands of the Orkney archipelago. Ferry services operate between Orkney and the Scottish mainland and Shetland on the following routes: Inter-island ferry services connect all the inhabited islands to Orkney Mainland, and are operated by Orkney Ferries, a company owned by Orkney Islands Council. Orkney has one of the highest uptakes of electric vehicles in the UK with more than 2% of the vehicles on the road being electric.", "Orkney is served by a weekly local newspaper, \"The Orcadian\", published on Thursdays. A local BBC radio station, BBC Radio Orkney, the local opt-out of BBC Radio Scotland, broadcasts twice daily, with local news and entertainment. Orkney also had a commercial radio station, The Superstation Orkney, which broadcast to Kirkwall and parts of the mainland and also to most of Caithness until its closure in November 2014. Moray Firth Radio broadcasts throughout", "The islands are the home of several international festivals, including the Orkney", "At the beginning of recorded history, the islands were inhabited by the Picts, whose language was Brythonic. The Ogham script on the Buckquoy spindle-whorl is cited as evidence for the pre-Norse existence of Old Irish in Orkney. After the Norse occupation, the toponymy of Orkney became almost wholly West Norse. The Norse language changed into the local Norn, which lingered until the end of the 18th century, when it eventually died out. Norn was replaced by the Orcadian dialect of Insular Scots. This dialect is at a low ebb due to the pervasive influences of television, education, and the large number of", "An Orcadian is a native of Orkney, a term that reflects a strongly held identity with a tradition of understatement. Although the annexation of the earldom by Scotland took place over five centuries ago in 1472, some Orcadians regard themselves as Orcadians first and Scots second. However in response to the national identity question in the 2011 Scotland Census, self-reported levels of Scottish identity in Orkney were in line with the national average.", "Orkney has an abundance of wildlife, especially of grey and common seals and seabirds such as puffins, kittiwakes, tysties, ravens, and bonxies. Whales, dolphins, and otters are also seen around the coasts. Inland the Orkney vole, a distinct subspecies of the common vole introduced by Neolithic humans, is an endemic. There are five distinct varieties, found on the islands of Sanday, Westray, Rousay, South Ronaldsay, and the Mainland, all the more remarkable as the species is absent on mainland Britain. The coastline is well known for its colourful flowers including sea aster, sea squill, sea thrift, common sea-lavender, bell and common heather. The Scottish primrose is found only on the coasts of Orkney and nearby Caithness and Sutherland. Although stands of trees are generally rare, a small forest named Happy Valley with 700 trees and lush gardens was created from a boggy hillside near Stenness during the second half of the 20th century. The North Ronaldsay sheep is an unusual breed of domesticated animal, subsisting largely on a diet of seaweed, since they are confined to the foreshore for most of the year to conserve the limited grazing inland. The island was also a habitat for the Atlantic walrus until the mid-16th century. The Orkney char (\"Salvelinus inframundus\") used to live in Heldale Water on Hoy. It has been considered locally extinct since 1908. The introduction of alien stoats just prior to 2015, a natural predator of the common vole and thus of the Orkney vole, may be harming native bird populations.", "There are 13 Special Protection Areas and 6 Special Areas of Conservation in Orkney. One of Scotland's 40 national scenic areas, the Hoy and West Mainland National Scenic Area, is" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Host city selection.", "Organization.", "Sports/Events.", "Venues.", "Participating nations.", "Medal count." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In March 1912, during the 13th session of the IOC, the bid on the behalf of Belgium to host the 1920 Summer Olympics. It was made by Baron Édouard de Laveleye, president of the Belgian Olympic Committee and of the Royal Belgian Football Association. No fixed host city was proposed at the time. The organising committee was created on 9 August 1913. It had four presidents: Among the 22 vice-presidents of the committee were people with a military or industrial background, and further people from sports organizations like Paul Havenith, president of the football and athletics club K. Beerschot V.A.C. and Nicolaas Jan Cupérus, president of the Belgian Gymnastics Federation. The first action of the committee was to send an official letter to the IOC in Paris, confirming Antwerp as the city for the Belgian Olympic bid. On 13 September 1913, Pierre de Coubertin, president of the IOC, visited the grounds of the future Olympic Stadion in Beerschot. In 1914, a 109-page brochure was created to promote the idea of Antwerp as a host city for the Olympics: \"Aurons-nous la VIIème Olympiade à Anvers?\" (\"Will we have the 7th Olympiad at Antwerp?\"). It was sent to all IOC members and was used during the 6th Olympic Congress in Paris in 1914, where the candidacies of Amsterdam, Antwerp, Budapest, and Rome were discussed. Despite a slight preference at the time for Budapest, no final choice was made, and the outbreak of World War I soon afterwards prevented any further progress. In 1915, Lyon made a bid for the 1920 games, but after some discussion, they agreed to support Antwerp and postpone their bid until 1924 if Antwerp was liberated in time to organize the games. The support for Belgium by cousin country France, then the leading country of the IOC, also meant that Amsterdam, and Budapest, in an enemy state, made no chance for the 1920 games against Antwerp. New candidacies from American cities did not have that disadvantage and bids were received from Cleveland, Philadelphia, and Atlanta (which would eventually host the 1996 Summer Olympics), and Cuba also planned a bid for Havana. But shortly after the armistice in November 1918, the IOC decided to give Antwerp the first choice, if they still wanted to host the 1920 Games. In March 1919, the Belgian Olympic Committee decided to go ahead with the organization, and on 5 April 1919, in a meeting in Lausanne, Antwerp was officially declared the host city for the games of the VIIth Olympiad.", "An executive committee was established on 17 April 1919, with Henri de Baillet-Latour as chairman and Alfred Verdyck, the secretary of the Belgian Union of Football Clubs, as general secretary. Seven commissions were created, to deal with finances, accommodation, press relations, propaganda, schedules, transport, and festivities. Finances and scheduling proved to be the two hardest parts to tackle: the program of events only was published in February 1920, six months before the official start of the Games. Between 23 and 30 April 1920, an ice hockey tournament marked the early start of the Games. Held in the \"Palais de Glace\" or Ice Palace in Antwerp, it was the first time that ice hockey was an Olympic sport. The first stone of the new Olympic Stadium at Beerschot was laid on 4 July 1919 by Jan De Vos, mayor of Antwerp, and inaugurated less than a year later on 23 May 1920 with a gymnastics demonstration. The nautical stadium or Stade Nautique d'Antwerp was built at the end of the Jan Van Rijswijcklaan, using the city ramparts there as a spectator's stand. Other events, like shooting, boxing, and equestrian sports, were held at pre-existing locations in and around Antwerp and as far away as Ostend.", "156 events in 29 disciplines, comprising 22 sports, were part of the Olympic program in 1920. The Sailing program was open for a total of 16 sailing classes, but actually only 14 sailing events were contested. The number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses.", "Seventeen sports venues were used in the 1920 Summer Olympics. This marked the first time that the football tournament was spread throughout the country, which has mostly been the case since.", "A total of 29 nations participated in the Antwerp Games, only one more than in 1912, as Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Ottoman Empire were not invited, having lost World War I. From the newly created European states, only Estonia took part, and Czechoslovakia, succeeding Bohemia which had sent athletes prior to World War I as part of the Austrian Empire. Poland was busy with the Polish-Soviet War and therefore was unable to form an Olympic team. Soviet Russia was also not invited as part of its political embargo by the West. Argentina, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Brazil, and Monaco competed as nations at the Olympic Games for the first time. New Zealand, which had competed as part of a combined team with Australia in 1908 and 1912, competed on its own for the first time. As the local Olympic Organizing Committee went bankrupt during the Antwerp 1920 Games, no official report of the Games was ever produced. The documents of the Games were archived at the Belgium Olympic Committee headquarters in Brussels.", "These are the top ten nations that won medals at the 1920 Games. These were the first Olympics where the host nation did not win the most medals overall." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Youth clubs.", "Real Madrid.", "Schalke 04.", "Al Sadd.", "New York Cosmos.", "International career.", "1998 FIFA World Cup.", "UEFA Euro 2000.", "2002 FIFA World Cup.", "UEFA Euro 2004.", "2006 FIFA World Cup.", "Managerial career.", "Real Madrid U15s.", "Real Madrid Castilla.", "Style of play.", "Media.", "Personal life.", "Honours.", "Club.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Raúl's career began at his local team CD San Cristóbal de los Ángeles playing for their \"Alevín\" team and the \"Infantil\" the next season. He signed with Atlético Madrid's \"Infantil\" team and won a national title with the \"Cadete\" team the following season. Following Atlético's then-president Jesús Gil decision to close their youth academy as a cost-saving measure, Raúl moved on to Real Madrid's \"Cadete\" team in La Fabrica. The following season, he was promoted to the \"Juvenil C\" team and subsequently went on to play for their \"Juvenil B\" and \"Juvenil A\" team. While with the Real youth set-up, Raúl won the Dallas Cup in 1993 and 1994.", "He started his professional career in the 1994–95 season with Real Madrid C; he scored 16 goals in just seven games and was swiftly promoted to the first team by coach Jorge Valdano, replacing Emilio Butragueño in a symbolic \"passing of the crown.\" He became the youngest player – 17 years and 124 days – ever to play for the senior side, though the record was broken by Alberto Rivera later that same season. On 29 October 1994, in an away game against Real Zaragoza at La Romareda, he created a goal for strike partner Iván Zamorano, heralding the demise of Butragueño in the process. The very next week, Raúl scored his first goal in his second senior game on a home debut against Madrid rivals and former youth club Atlético Madrid in a bitter derby match. Fully establishing himself as a fixture in the first team, Raúl registered a total of nine goals in 28 appearances to help Real Madrid win the 1994–95 league championship in his first season. With Real Madrid, he won several honours, including further La Liga titles in 1996–97 (scoring 21 La Liga goals), 2000–01 (scoring 24 La Liga goals), and 2002–03 (scoring 16 La Liga goals in a campaign truncated by a bout of appendicitis for which Raúl was hospitalised). During the period from 1998 to 2002, Raúl and Real Madrid also won three UEFA Champions League trophies in 1998, 2000, and 2002. For most of this time, Raúl struck up a prolific scoring partnership with Fernando Morientes and later Ronaldo. During a La Liga game against fierce rivals Barcelona at the Nou Camp in October 1999, Raúl silenced the hostile home crowd of almost 100,000 fans when he scored and then memorably celebrated his goal by putting a finger to his lips as though to tell them to be quiet. Raúl took over the captaincy of Real Madrid when Fernando Hierro was transferred in 2003, a responsibility he held until leaving the club in 2010. Despite appearing in two finals, in 2002 (in which he scored) and 2004, Raúl never lifted the Copa del Rey. He became the first player to score 50 Champions League goals when he converted in a 2–1 group stage win over Olympiacos on 28 September 2005, and was also the first to make 100 appearances in the tournament. He was also the first player to score in two Champions League finals, netting in the finals of both 2000 against Valencia in the Stade de France, Saint-Denis, and 2002 against Bayer Leverkusen in Hampden Park, Glasgow. Samuel Eto'o later equaled this feat, scoring in the 2006 final against Arsenal and in 2009 against Manchester United, with Lionel Messi also scoring in the same match and later in 2011 against the same team. Raúl holds the distinction of having never received a red card throughout his 17 years at the professional level. On 11 November 2008, Raúl scored his 300th goal for Real Madrid with a hat-trick against Real Unión, with Real winning the match 4–3 but being eliminated on away goals after drawing 6–6 on aggregate. In total, Raúl scored 323 goals for Real Madrid, breaking the long-standing club record of Alfredo Di Stéfano (307) with a volleyed goal against Sporting de Gijón on 15 February 2009. He is presently fifth on the all-time list of La Liga goalscorers, behind Argentine Lionel Messi, Portuguese Cristiano Ronaldo, Spaniard Telmo Zarra and Mexican Hugo Sánchez. Raúl and fellow long-serving teammate Iker Casillas were both awarded \"contracts for life\" in 2008, the terms of which stipulate the contract will be renewed annually for as long as they play 30 matches each season. On 23 September 2009, Raúl equalled former veteran and legend Manolo Sanchís' league appearance record for Real Madrid, and is second in La Liga behind Andoni Zubizarreta, who played in 622 matches. Along with years of captaincy for both Real Madrid and Spain, Raúl was known as \"\"El Capitan\"\" (\"The Captain\"). Raúl's last touch with the ball as a Real Madrid player before an injury ruled him out of action for the rest of that season was to score his last goal, the opening goal scored on 24 April 2010 in a 2–1 away victory against Real Zaragoza in La Romareda, coincidentally the stadium where he made his debut in 1994. It was scored in the 50th minute after Raúl (himself only on the pitch as a substitute for Rafael van der Vaart after 15 minutes) had signalled he could not physically continue and was prepared to be substituted off for Karim Benzema one minute after the goal. Before the substitution could be made, Real Madrid launched a counter-attack to create a goal. Though Raúl ran to a slow hobble, he shuffled into the box and was able to poke the ball from Cristiano Ronaldo's pass. Having spent the rest of the season recovering from that injury, the club confirmed on 25 July 2010 that Raúl would be leaving the club, a day after his teammate Guti confirmed he was also leaving after a 15-year spell.", "Raúl signed a two-year contract with Schalke 04 on 28 July 2010. Schalke head coach Felix Magath hailed the signing and told the club website, \"It's great news for FC Schalke 04, I am pleased that we have succeeded in signing such an exceptional footballer and world-class striker switching to the Bundesliga for Schalke 04.\" Previously, it was expected Raúl would have finished his career in the United States or Qatar, and that he also received a lucrative offer from an unnamed Russian club. Raúl chose Schalke because they qualified for the 2010–11 UEFA Champions League. Raúl scored his first goal for the club during his first match on 1 August 2010 with a brace in a 3–1 victory over Bayern Munich in the final match of the pre-season competition LIGA total! Cup 2010. One week later, he made his competitive debut in the 2010 DFL-Supercup on 7 August 2010 again against Bayern, but this time he failed to score in the 2–0 defeat. Raúl made his Bundesliga debut on 21 August 2010 in a 2–1 defeat against Hamburger SV. and scored his first goal for Schalke in the Bundesliga against Borussia Mönchengladbach on 25 September 2010 in a 2–2 draw. After a quiet start, he rediscovered his goalscoring form in the Bundesliga with a brace against FC St. Pauli on 5 November in a 3–0 win, and on 20 November, he scored his first hat-trick for the club in a 4–0 win over Werder Bremen. On 18 December, he scored his second hat-trick for Schalke in a 3–0 win against 1. FC Köln. Raúl scored another crucial goal on 2 March 2011 in a 1–0 victory over Bayern Munich in the semi-final of 2010–11 DFB-Pokal. After being absent for six years, Schalke ultimately reached the finals since 2005. In the final match, they played against MSV Duisburg, the first 2. Bundesliga team which reached the final since 2004. Raúl never won a domestic cup with Real Madrid (the Copa del Rey), but on 21 May 2011, in his first season, he finally won a domestic cup and got his maiden trophy with his new club. They won the tournament with a 5–0 win at the Olympiastadion in Berlin. This success was followed with victory two months later on 23 July 2011 in the 2011 DFL-Supercup against the league champions and rivals Borussia Dortmund. In European play, Raúl has since become the highest goal scorer in all UEFA competitions with 73 goals, ahead of Milan veteran Filippo Inzaghi with 70 goals. He scored 71 goals in the Champions League (66 goals with Real Madrid and five with Schalke 04) and in addition his two goals with \"Los Blancos\", one goal in the 2000 UEFA Super Cup and the other one in the 1998 Intercontinental Cup. On 22 October 2010, Raúl scored twice against Hapoel Tel Aviv in a 3–1 win, which tied him with German legend Gerd Müller for the most number of European goals. Raúl fully broke this record on 15 February 2011 on his return to Spain with a crucial away goal in the round of 16 tie against Valencia at the Mestalla Stadium in a 1–1 draw. In the quarter-finals, Raúl scored two goals against Internazionale: one goal in the first leg, a 5–2 away win at the San Siro, and one in the second leg, a 2–1 home win at the Veltins-Arena. Schalke progressed to the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in their history, where they played against Manchester United. Schalke lost the first match 2–0, which was their first home defeat this season in the tournament, and lost again 4–1 in Old Trafford. Despite the defeat, Raúl considered it an honour that he had swapped shirts with Ryan Giggs. On 19 November 2011, he captained Schalke for the first time due to an injury to Benedikt Höwedes in a 4–0 home win against 1. FC Nürnberg. He also scored the second goal and assisted the fourth in that match. Raúl scored another hat-trick against Werder Bremen on 17 December 2011. The goals came in a 5–0 win that cemented Schalke's position in third place going into the winter break. On 19 February 2012, he scored the 400th goal of his career, at that time, 323 with Real Madrid, 44 with Spain and 33 with Schalke. On 5 April 2012, in the second leg of the UEFA Europa League match against Athletic Bilbao, he scored his 77th goal in a European competition. At a press conference on 19 April 2012, Raúl announced he would leave Schalke after his contract expired in June, and that \"[his] future is not in Europe\". Raúl had such an impact at Schalke that, on his departure, the club opted to retire the number 7 shirt for an indefinite period. However, in 2013, the number 7 shirt was eventually reinstated and given to Max Meyer, Schalke's new prodigy.", "On 12 May 2012, it was announced Raúl had signed a deal with Qatari side Al Sadd for the 2012–13 Qatar Stars League season. He played his first competitive match for the club on 5 August in the 2012 Sheikh Jassem Cup, scoring a penalty in extra time in order to secure a 2–0 win against Mesaimeer. The veteran also took on the role of captain after Abdulla Koni was substituted. On 13 April 2013, Raúl captained Al Sadd to the 2012–13 Qatar Stars League title. Raúl scored 9 goals in 22 appearances to help Al Sadd win their first title in five years. He was also presented with the post-season QFA-sanctioned Fair Play Award in May 2013. On 22 August 2013, Raúl played for Real Madrid in the first half of the Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu and scored in the 23rd minute. He then played the second half for Al Sadd as Real Madrid won 5–0. On 5 March 2014, Raúl announced he would retire from professional football at the end of the Qatari football season, marking the end of a 20-year-long senior career.", "On 30 October 2014, Raúl returned to professional football and signed with the New York Cosmos in the United States. He made his North American Soccer League (NASL) debut on 4 April 2015 in a 1–0 win against the Fort Lauderdale Strikers, partially owned by his former Real Madrid strike partner Ronaldo, leaving with a hamstring injury in the second half. The following week, at the Indy Eleven, he scored his first goal to equalise in a 1–1 draw. Raúl scored four times as the undefeated Cosmos won the spring season with five wins and five draws. On 16 October 2015, it was announced Raúl would retire at the end of the season. The Cosmos finished with the best regular season record, winning the North American Supporters' Trophy. On 7 November, he scored the winning goal as his team came from behind to win 2–1 against the Strikers in the semi-finals, earning a place at Soccer Bowl 2015, which his team won 3–2 against the Ottawa Fury eight days later. He communicated his decision to retire following the conclusion of the Soccer Bowl.", "Raúl began his Spain career at the youth level and represented the nation at the 1995 FIFA U-20 World Cup, scoring three goals from five matches. He was also part of the under-21 side that reached the final of the 1996 UEFA European Under-21 Championship, and even scored his side's temporary equaliser in the final, although he later missed his penalty in the resulting shoot-out, which was won by Italy. In total, he scored 17 goals at the various youth levels for Spain. With the senior team, Raúl went on for many years to score a national record 44 goals in 102 caps for Spain. However, David Villa later equaled Raúl's record in 2010 and surpassed it on 25 March 2011 in a UEFA Euro 2012 qualifier. Of his 44 international goals, Raúl scored 32 goals in competitive matches, six of which were in the finals of major tournaments and 12 from friendly matches.", "Raúl earned his first senior cap against the Czech Republic on 9 October 1996, playing the full 90 minutes of a goalless draw in 1998 FIFA World Cup qualification at the Letná Stadion in Prague. In his third match, on 14 December against Yugoslavia at the Mestalla Stadium, he recorded his first international goal in a 2–0 qualifying win. At the final tournament in France, Raúl featured in every match as Spain were eliminated from Group D. He scored in their opening match to put them 2–1 up in an eventual 2–3 loss to Nigeria in Nantes.", "On 27 March 1999, in a UEFA Euro 2000 qualifier, Raúl scored four goals in Spain's 9–0 rout of Austria. Four days later, he scored three goals in a 6–0 away win against San Marino during the same qualifying tournament. On 5 June, against the same opponents in Villarreal, he was again on target in a 9–0 rout. Raúl played every minute of Spain's Euro 2000 finals campaign in Belgium and the Netherlands, opening their 2–1 win over Slovenia at the Amsterdam Arena before a quarter-final elimination by eventual champions France, in which Raúl missed a last minute penalty which would have taken the tie to extra-time.", "At the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan, Raúl opened a 3–1 win over the Slovenes in Spain's first Group B match, and added two more in a 3–2 win over South Africa in Daejeon to advance as group winners. He suffered a groin injury in the round of 16 win over the Republic of Ireland, and missed the remainder of the tournament, in which Spain went out to South Korea in the quarter-finals.", "On 7 September 2002, Raúl scored in a 2–0 away win over Greece in Euro 2004 qualifying, putting him on 29 goals in 56 international games, equalling the national goalscoring record set by the recently retired Fernando Hierro. He broke the record on 12 February 2003 when he scored twice in a 3–1 friendly win over Germany at Son Moix in Palma, Mallorca. He started every match at the Euro 2004 finals in Portugal, in which Spain crashed out at the group stage.", "Raúl earned his 89th cap on 8 October 2005 in a 2–0 away win over Belgium in 2006 World Cup qualifying, levelling with Hierro as Spain's most-capped outfield player. However, he played less frequently across the campaign as new manager Luis Aragonés preferred to partner David Villa and Fernando Torres. At the final tournament in Germany, he came on at half-time for Luis García in the second group match in Stuttgart, with Spain trailing Tunisia 0–1. When goalkeeper Ali Boumnijel could not retain Cesc Fàbregas' shot in the 72nd minute, Raúl equalised from close range as Spain eventually won 3–1. On 15 August 2006, Raúl won his 100th cap for Spain, in a goalless friendly draw with Iceland in Reykjavík. He was last chosen for the national team on 6 September, in a 3–2 defeat against Northern Ireland in Belfast, a match in which he hit the post late on.", "", "On 17 August 2018, Raúl was appointed youth coach at Real Madrid, taking charge of the \"Cadete B\" (under-15) squad.", "On 20 June 2019, he was appointed manager of Real Madrid Castilla. He began the season with three wins, five draws, and five losses.", "A prolific goalscorer and a highly creative forward, Raúl is regarded as one of the greatest and most consistent strikers of his generation. Wearing the number 7 jersey for most of his club and international career, he was capable of playing anywhere along the front line, although he was primarily deployed as a centre-forward, or as a supporting striker. Raúl was a quick, left-footed player, who was capable of scoring both in and outside the penalty area with his accurate and powerful shot. He possessed excellent ball control and technical ability, and was effective in the air as well. Although primarily renowned for prolific goalscoring, Raúl was also a highly creative and hardworking player, capable of playing off of his teammates, creating chances and assisting goals, and was occasionally deployed as an attacking midfielder in his later career. In addition to these characteristics, Raúl is remembered for his leadership and discipline – throughout his extensive career, he never received a red card, and he was rarely booked. For his technical skills, elegance, goalscoring and performances, he was nicknamed \"\"El Ferrari\"\", or \"The Ferrari,\" by compatriot Fernando Hierro, another emblematic Real Madrid player. He was also an accurate penalty taker. In 2013, former England centre-back Rio Ferdinand praised Raúl for his clever movement off the ball, and his ability to exploit gaps or draw out defenders in order to create space for his teammates' runs, describing him as: \"the most intelligent player [he'd] played against.\"", "Raúl has been sponsored by German sportswear company Adidas during his career and has appeared in Adidas commercials. He has advertised Adidas Predator football boots, and in 2004 he starred in an Adidas commercial featuring a number of other stars on mopeds, including Zinedine Zidane, Michael Ballack, Alessandro Del Piero and David Trezeguet. Raúl has featured in Pepsi commercials, including an advertisement for the 2002 World Cup in Korea and Japan where he lined up alongside players including David Beckham, Roberto Carlos and Gianluigi Buffon in taking on a team of Sumo players. Raúl features in EA Sports' \"FIFA\" video game series. His regular goal celebration of kissing the ring finger – a show of affection to his wife – appears in \"FIFA 18\".", "Throughout his career, Raúl's goal celebration consisted of kissing his wedding ring as an acknowledgment to his wife Mamen Sanz, whom he married in 1999 and with whom he has four sons and a daughter: Jorge, Hugo, twins Héctor and Mateo, and María. Jorge and Hugo are both footballers; Jorge at Fordham Preparatory School in New York City, and Hugo in New York City FC's academy.", "", "Real Madrid Youth Real Madrid Schalke 04 Al Sadd New York Cosmos", "Spain U21" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Theories.", "Relation to mainstream society.", "Examples.", "Music.", "Theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term was originally used by the French military to refer to a small reconnoitre group that scouted ahead of the main force. It also became associated with left-wing French radicals in the nineteenth century who were agitating for political reform. At some point in the middle of that century the term was linked to art through the idea that art is an instrument for social change. Only toward the end of the nineteenth did \"l'art d'avant-garde\" begin to break away from its identification with left-wing social causes to become more aligned with cultural and artistic issues. This trend toward increased emphasis on aesthetic issues has continued to the present. \"Avant-garde\" today generally refers to groups of intellectuals, writers, and artists, including architects, who voice ideas and experiment with artistic approaches that challenge current cultural values. \"Avant-garde\" ideas, especially if they embrace social issues, often are gradually assimilated by the societies they confront. The radicals of yesterday become mainstream, creating the environment for a new generation of radicals to emerge.", "Several writers have attempted to map the parameters of avant-garde activity. The Italian essayist Renato Poggioli provides one of the earliest analyses of vanguardism as a cultural phenomenon in his 1962 book \"Teoria dell'arte d'avanguardia\" (\"The Theory of the Avant-Garde\"). Surveying the historical, social, psychological and philosophical aspects of vanguardism, Poggioli reaches beyond individual instances of art, poetry, and music to show that vanguardists may share certain ideals or values which manifest themselves in the non-conformist lifestyles they adopt: He sees vanguard culture as a variety or subcategory of Bohemianism. Other authors have attempted both to clarify and to extend Poggioli's study. The German literary critic Peter Bürger's \"Theory of the Avant-Garde\" (1974) looks at the Establishment's embrace of socially critical works of art and suggests that in complicity with capitalism, \"art as an institution neutralizes the political content of the individual work\". Bürger's essay also greatly influenced the work of contemporary American art-historians such as the German Benjamin H. D. Buchloh (born 1941). Buchloh, in the collection of essays \"Neo-avantgarde and Culture Industry\" (2000) critically argues for a dialectical approach to these positions. Subsequent criticism theorized the limitations of these approaches, noting their circumscribed areas of analysis, including Eurocentric, chauvinist, and genre-specific definitions.", "The concept of avant-garde refers primarily to artists, writers, composers and thinkers whose work is opposed to mainstream cultural values and often has a trenchant social or political edge. Many writers, critics and theorists made assertions about vanguard culture during the formative years of modernism, although the initial definitive statement on the avant-garde was the essay \"Avant-Garde and Kitsch\" by New York art critic Clement Greenberg, published in \"Partisan Review\" in 1939. Greenberg argued that vanguard culture has historically been opposed to \"high\" or \"mainstream\" culture, and that it has also rejected the artificially synthesized mass culture that has been produced by industrialization. Each of these media is a direct product of Capitalism—they are all now substantial industries—and as such they are driven by the same profit-fixated motives of other sectors of manufacturing, not the ideals of true art. For Greenberg, these forms were therefore \"kitsch\": phony, faked or mechanical culture, which often pretended to be more than they were by using formal devices stolen from vanguard culture. For instance, during the 1930s the advertising industry was quick to take visual mannerisms from surrealism, but this does not mean that 1930s advertising photographs are truly surreal. Various members of the Frankfurt School argued similar views: thus Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer in their essay \"The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass-Deception\" (1944), and also Walter Benjamin in his highly influential \"The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction\" (1935, rev. 1939). Where Greenberg used the German word \"kitsch\" to describe the antithesis of avant-garde culture, members of the Frankfurt School coined the term \"mass culture\" to indicate that this bogus culture is constantly being manufactured by a newly emerged culture industry (comprising commercial publishing houses, the movie industry, the record industry, and the electronic media). They also pointed out that the rise of this industry meant that artistic excellence was displaced by sales figures as a measure of worth: a novel, for example, was judged meritorious solely on whether it became a best-seller, music succumbed to ratings charts and to the blunt commercial logic of the Gold disc. In this way the autonomous artistic merit so dear to the vanguardist was abandoned and sales increasingly became the measure, and justification, of everything. Consumer culture now ruled. The avant-garde's co-option by the global capitalist market, by neoliberal economies, and by what Guy Debord called \"The Society of the Spectacle\", have made contemporary critics speculate on the possibility of a meaningful avant-garde today. Paul Mann's \"Theory-Death of the Avant-Garde\" demonstrates how completely the avant-garde is embedded within institutional structures today, a thought also pursued by Richard Schechner in his analyses of avant-garde performance. Despite the central arguments of Greenberg, Adorno, and others, various sectors of the mainstream culture industry have co-opted and misapplied the term \"avant-garde\" since the 1960s, chiefly as a marketing tool to publicise popular music and commercial cinema. It has become common to describe successful rock musicians and celebrated film-makers as \"avant-garde\", the very word having been stripped of its proper meaning. Noting this important conceptual shift, major contemporary theorists such as Matei Calinescu in \"Five Faces of Modernity: Modernism, Avant-garde, Decadence, Kitsch, Postmodernism\" (1987), and Hans Bertens in \"The Idea of the Postmodern: A History\" (1995), have suggested that this is a sign our culture has entered a new post-modern age, when the former modernist ways of thinking and behaving have been rendered redundant. Nevertheless, an incisive critique of vanguardism as against the views of mainstream society was offered by the New York critic Harold Rosenberg in the late 1960s. Trying to strike a balance between the insights of Renato Poggioli and the claims of Clement Greenberg, Rosenberg suggested that from the mid-1960s onward progressive culture ceased to fulfill its former adversarial role. Since then it has been flanked by what he called \"avant-garde ghosts to the one side, and a changing mass culture on the other\", both of which it interacts with to varying degrees. This has seen culture become, in his words, \"a profession one of whose aspects is the pretense of overthrowing it.\"", "", "Avant-garde in music can refer to any form of music working within traditional structures while seeking to breach boundaries in some manner. The term is used loosely to describe the work of any musicians who radically depart from tradition altogether. By this definition, some avant-garde composers of the 20th century include Arnold Schoenberg, Richard Strauss (in his earliest work), Charles Ives, Igor Stravinsky, Anton Webern, Edgard Varèse, Alban Berg, George Antheil (in his earliest works only), Henry Cowell (in his earliest works), Harry Partch, John Cage, Iannis Xenakis, Morton Feldman, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Pauline Oliveros, Philip Glass, Meredith Monk, Laurie Anderson, and Diamanda Galás. There is another definition of \"Avant-gardism\" that distinguishes it from \"modernism\": Peter Bürger, for example, says avant-gardism rejects the \"institution of art\" and challenges social and artistic values, and so necessarily involves political, social, and cultural factors. According to the composer and musicologist Larry Sitsky, modernist composers from the early 20th century who do not qualify as avant-gardists include Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, and Igor Stravinsky; later modernist composers who do not fall into the category of avant-gardists include Elliott Carter, Milton Babbitt, György Ligeti, Witold Lutosławski, and Luciano Berio, since \"their modernism was not conceived for the purpose of goading an audience.\" The 1960s saw a wave of free and avant-garde music in jazz genre, represented by artists such as Ornette Coleman, Sun Ra, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, John Coltrane and Miles Davis. In the rock music of the 1970s, the \"art\" descriptor was generally understood to mean \"aggressively avant-garde\" or \"pretentiously progressive\". Post-punk artists from the late 1970s rejected traditional rock sensibilities in favor of an avant-garde aesthetic.", "Whereas the avant-garde has a significant history in 20th-century music, it is more pronounced in theatre and performance art, and often in conjunction with music and sound design innovations, as well as developments in visual media design. There are movements in theatre history that are characterized by their contributions to the avant-garde traditions in both the United States and Europe. Among these are Fluxus, Happenings, and Neo-Dada." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient and early Byzantine periods.", "Ottoman period.", "Independence of Albania.", "Culture and religion.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In August 2010 archaeologists discovered two Illyrian graves near the walls of the castle of Elbasan. In the second century BC, a trading post called \"Mansio Scampa\" near the site of modern Elbasan developed close to a junction of two branches of an important Roman road, the Via Egnatia, which connected the Adriatic coast with Byzantium. It was one of the most important routes of the Roman Empire. By the third or fourth century AD, this place had grown into a real city protected by a substantial Roman fortress with towers; the fort covered around 300 square meters. This city appears on late antique itineraries like the \"Tabula Peutingeriana\" and \"Itinerarium Burdigalense\" as \"Scampis\" or \"Hiscampis\". It took part in the spread of Christianity along the Via, and had a bishop, cathedral and basilicas as early as the fifth century. As a town in a wide river valley it was vulnerable to attacks once the legions were withdrawn but Emperor Justinian made an effort to improve the fortifications. The city survived attacks by the Bulgars and Ostrogoths and was mentioned in the work of Procopius of Cæsarea. Ruins of a Paleochristian basilica, built in the 5th or 6th century AD, were found in Bezistan area.", "The site seems to have been abandoned until the Ottoman army built a military camp there, followed by urban reconstruction under Sultan Mehmet II in 1466. Mehmet constructed a massive four-sided castle with a deep moat and three gates. He named it Elbasan, meaning 'conquered country' in Turkish. He had built the castle in order to fight Skanderbeg, due to an ongoing conflict between the Ottomans and Albanians. It became the seat of Sanjak of Elbasan, a centre of Ottoman urban civilisation over the next 445 years. Although Halil Inalcik explains that the Sanjak of Elbasan was established as soon as the fortress of Elbasan was constructed in 1466, based on Tursun Beg's records there is a possibility that Elbasan initially was part of the Sanjak of Ohrid. In 1467 many Christians from Skopje, Ohrid, Serres and Kastoria were forcibly deported to Elbasan. In the late 17th century, the Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi passed through Elbasan and noted that \"all the inhabitants speak Albanian\" having knowledge of Turkish with Muslim clergy being literate in Persian, while merchants also used the Greek and \"\"Frankish\"\" languages. By the end of the 17th century it had 2,000 inhabitants. The fortress was dismantled by Reshit Pasha in 1832. In 1864, the Sanjak of Elbasan became a part of Monastir Vilayet. In the late nineteenth century, Elbasan was inhabited by 3,000 Muslim families and 280 Orthodox Christian families, of which 100 were old Orthodox Albanian families living in the old Christian neighbourhood within the fortress and 180 Aromanian families residing in the St. Nicholas neighbourhood on the edge of town. At the beginning of the 20th century it was estimated that 15,000 people lived in Elbasan. In 1909, after the Young Turks revolution in Istanbul, an Albanian National Congress was held in Elbasan to study educational and cultural questions. The delegates, all from central and southern Albania, endorsed the decision of the Congress of Monastir, which was held in Monastir (modern Bitola, North Macedonia) to use the Latin alphabet rather than the Arabic script in written Albanian. In Elbasan there were living Albanians, Turkish, Aromunian and Sephardic Jews. Before the Second World War, Elbasan was a city with a mixture of eastern and medieval buildings, narrow cobbled streets and a large bazaar. There was a clearly defined Muslim settlement within the castle walls, a Vlach district on the outskirts of the city and several fine mosques and Islamic buildings. At the time the population was about 15,000 people.", "The very first teachers' training college in Albania, the Shkolla Normale e Elbasanit, was established in Elbasan. During First Balkan War, it was occupied by Serbian troops on 29 November 1912. They withdrew from Elbasan on 25 October 1913 due to United Kingdom and Austria Hungary's ultimatum. The Muslim majority of Elbasan opposed the installation of Prince Wied in 1914. Elbasan was occupied successively by Serbs, Bulgarians, Austrians and Italians between 1915 and 1918. The Bulgarian army occupied Elbasan on January 29, 1916, during Bulgarian occupation of Albania In March 1916 the army of Austria-Hungary took over control of Elbasan From June 1916 to March 1917 Stanislav Kostka Neumann fought with the Austrian army there and called his war memoirs about the occupation in \"Elbasan\". Industrial development began in the Zogist period when tobacco and alcohol factories were established. The city was also noted for its good public buildings, advanced educational provisions, public gardens and timber-built shops. There was much wartime damage, which was followed by an intensive programme of industrial development in the Communist period that boosted the city to around 75,000 inhabitants. The culmination of this process was the construction of the huge \"Steel of the Party\" () metallurgical complex outside the city, in the Shkumbini valley, built with Chinese assistance in the 1970s. It was emphatically called \"The Second National Liberation of Albanian\" by Enver Hoxha. The cost of the complex in environmental impact was high for the Shkumbin valley. Elbasan Railway Station was opened in 1950. In 2014, the Albanian government reconstructed former Ruzhdi Bizhuta Stadium. The renovated Elbasan Arena became the home stadium of the Albanian national football team and Albania's de facto stadium meeting FIFA's criteria.", "Elbasan has been occupied by several different groups, including the Serbs, Bulgarians, Austrians and Italians. Elbasan remained a center of Islam in Albania even after the Ottoman occupation. After the 1908 Congress of Monastir (in modern Bitola, North Macedonia) decided to use the Latin alphabet for the written Albanian language, Muslim clerics influenced by the Young Turks held various demonstrations in favor of the Arabic script in Elbasan. In the middle of the city is found the Saint Mary Orthodox Church. The church was built in 1830 on the foundations of an older church, which had partially burned in 1819. Paintings and frescoes of Onufri, restored by David Selenicasi and Kostadin Shelcani can still be seen. The church has been an important religious and cultural center for the Albanian language. Teodor Haxhifilipi, Kostandin Kristoforidhi, and Aleksandër Xhuvani have served in the church. They are the authors of translations into Albanian of many psalms. The church building served as the first Albanian school of Elbasan in modern times, which opened in 1909. Other orthodox churches in the Elbasan District include the Mameli church (built in the 17th century), the Saint Nicholas church () in Shelcan (built in 1554), the Saint Nicholas church in Valesh (built in 1604), the Saints Cosmas and Damian church in Sterstan (built in the 18th century), the Saint Michael () church in Shalës (built in the 17th century), the Saint Mary church in Dragot (built in the 18th century), the Saint Nicholas church of Elbasan (17th century), and the Elbasan Saint Athanasius church of Elbasan (built in 1554). About 7 km away from Elbasan there is an old monastery and orthodox church where notably Saint Jovan Vladimir was buried until 1995 when his remains were transferred to the Orthodox Cathedral in Tirana, being brought back to the monastery only for his feast days. Elbasan is home to the National Autocephalous Albanian Church (), a relatively new Orthodox Autocephalous church that split from the Albanian Orthodox Church in 1995. Father Nikolle Marku is the leader of the new denomination. Elbasan is also home to a Catholic church. Elbasan has four museums: Elbasan is home to the Summer Day festivities, a pagan feast celebrating the end of winter and the coming of summer. \"Ballokume\", cookies made from butter and corn wheat, is the traditional dessert served in this day. Since 2004, it has become a national holiday being celebrated nationwide, in all Albania.", "In recent years Elbasan, like the rest of Albania, has had to deal not only with local pollution, but also with what environmentalists call \"imported pollution\", because of the waste imported from abroad for the recycling process in private companies.", "Industrial development began during the Zog regime with the production of tobacco and alcoholic beverages, and culminated during the communist regime. The city gained prominence after the Chinese built a steel mill in 1974. One travel writer relayed from conversation that during the communist regime, most everyone in the country seemed to have a gun, likely manufactured by this Chinese-financed factory in Elbasan, although the country did not seem to have tractors, plows, or sewing machines. There were also other industries operating in the city during the communist regime. The city was a hub for heavy industry during the communist regime, mostly metallurgic and metal processing factories. All these industries caused big pollution and Elbasan is considered today to be one of the most polluted cities of Albania.", "Elbasan is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Hydrography.", "Fauna.", "Industry.", "Etymology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The river begins at the slopes of the Kruglaya Mountain of the Uraltau mountain ridge in South Ural, on the territory of the Uchalinsky District of Bashkortostan. There it has an average width of and flows as a typical mountain river. It then falls into the Yaik Swamp and after exiting it widens up to. Below Verkhneuralsk, its flow is characteristic of a flatland river; there it enters Chelyabinsk and Orenburg Oblasts. From Magnitogorsk to Orsk its banks are steep and rocky and the bottom has many rifts. After Orsk, the river abruptly turns west and flows through a long canyon in the Guberlinsk Mountains. After Uralsk, it flows from north to south, through the territory of West Kazakhstan Region and Atyrau Region of Kazakhstan. There, the river widens and has many lakes and ducts. Near the mouth, it splits into the Yaik and Zolotoy distributaries and forms vast wetlands. The Yaik distributary is shallow, with almost no trees on the shores, and is rich in fish; whereas Zolotoy is deeper and is navigable. Ural River has a spectacular tree-like (or “digitate”) shape of the delta (see image). This type of delta forms naturally in the slow rivers which deliver a great deal of sediments and flow into a quiet sea. In the delta, from the mouth of the Zolotoy distributary lies Shalyga Island, which is long, with heights of and maximum widths of. The tributaries, in order going upstream, are Kushum, Derkul, Chagan, Irtek, Utva, Ilek (major, left), Bolshaya Chobda, Kindel, Sakmara, Tanalyk (major, right), Salmys, Or (major, left) and Suunduk. The entire length of the Ural River is considered the Europe-Asia boundary by most authoritative sources. Rarely, the smaller, shorter Emba River is claimed as the continental boundary, but that pushes \"Europe\" much further into \"Central Asian\" Kazakhstan. The Ural River bridge in Orenburg is even labeled with permanent monuments carved with the word \"Europe\" on one side, \"Asia\" on the other. Regardless, Kazakhstan has some European territory and is at times included in European political and sports organizations", "The river is mostly fed by melting snow (60–70%); the contribution of precipitation is relatively minor. Most of its annual discharge (65%) occurs during the spring floods, which occur in March and April near the mouth and in late April through June upstream; 30% drain during the summer and autumn and 5% in winter. During the floods, the river widens to above near Uralsk and to several tens of kilometers near the mouth. Water level is highest in later April upstream and in May downstream. Its fluctuation is in the upper stream, in the middle of the river and about in the delta. The average water discharge is near Orenburg, and at the Kushum village, which is from the mouth. The maximum discharge is and the minimum is. Average turbidity is at Orenburg and near Kushum. The river freezes at the source in early November and in the middle and lower reaches in late November. It opens in the lower reaches in late March and in early April in the upper reaches. The ice drift is relatively short. The average depth is near the source, and it increases in the middle reaches and especially near the mouth. The density of underwater vegetation also increases from the source to the mouth, so as the richness of the fauna. The bottom in the upper stream is rocky, with pebble and sand; it changes to silt-sand and occasionally clay downstream. The basin is asymmetrical – its left side from the river is 2.1 times larger in area than the right side; however, the right side is more important for feeding the river. The density of the tributaries is 0.29 km/km in the right and 0.19 km/km in the left side of the basin. The right-side tributaries are typical mountain rivers whereas the left-side tributaries have flatland character. About from the mouth there is a dangerous spot for shipping called Kruglovskaya prorva ( meaning Kruglovsk abyss). Here the river narrows and creates a strong vortex over a deep pit. The climate is continental with frequent and strong winds. Typical annual precipitation is.", "The wetlands at and near the delta of the Ural River are especially important to migrating birds as an important stop-over along the Asian flyway. They host many endemic and endangered species, such as great white pelican, Dalmatian pelican, pygmy cormorant, cattle egret, little egret, greater flamingo, white-headed duck, ferruginous duck, Eurasian spoonbill, glossy ibis, houbara bustard, great black-headed gull, slender-billed gull, squacco heron, common crane, demoiselle crane, slender-billed curlew, black stork, red-breasted goose, lesser white-fronted goose, lesser kestrel, whooper swan, tundra swan, osprey, pallid harrier, short-toed eagle and many others. The pygmy cormorant was observed sporadically before 1999 and more regularly after that. Cattle egret is observed since 1990 between April and September (as most other migratory birds in this area), with the total population of several dozen couples. It feeds on frogs, mollusks and small fish. Upstream, there are more of the resident bird species, such as grouse, wild pigeon and partridge. Ural River is also important for many fish species of the Caspian Sea which visit its delta and migrate upstream for spawning. In the lower reaches of the river there are 47 species from 13 families. The family Cyprinidae account for 40%, sturgeon and herring make up 11%, perch and herring 9% and salmon 4.4%. The main commercial species are sturgeon, roach, bream, perch, carp, asp and Wels catfish. The rare species include Caspian salmon, sterlet, white salmon and kutum. In the delta of the river and nearby regions live about 48 animal species belonging to 7 orders; most common are rodents (21 species) and predators (12). Among them, Bobrinski's serotine and marbled polecat are endemic. Key species are raccoon dog, muskrat (appeared recently), European hare, house mouse, brown rat, and wild boar. Wild boars had a density of 1.2–2.5 per hectare in 2000 and are hunted commercially. Others include elk, fox, wolf, dwarf fat-tailed jerboa, great gerbil, northern mole vole and saiga antelope. The Turkmenian kulan (\"Equus hemionus kulan\") used to live at the Ural River. It might be extinct from that region. The reptiles are represented by bog turtles, common water snakes, rat snakes and sand lizard. Bog turtles are found in all waters. Common water snakes live on the banks of canals. Rat snakes and sand lizards are few and inhabit relatively high areas of land. Two more reptiles, Caspian whipsnake and \"Coluber spinalis\", are extremely rare. Among amphibians common are lake frog and green frog. With an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 species, insects exceed all other animals of the region by diversity and biomass. Terrestrial and aquatic insects make up a significant proportion of the diet of birds. Many species are parasitic on birds and transmit infection. Other dominating inhabitants of the river are protozoa, rotifers, Cladocera and copepods. Mollusks are mostly represented by gastropods and bivalves.", "Water from the upper reaches of the Ural River is used to supply the prominent Magnitogorsk (Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works, built in the early 1930s) and Orsk-Khalilovsk metallurgical plants, and the low reaches are used for irrigation. Two reservoirs were created near Magnitogorsk, and there is a hydroelectric plant near the village of Iriklinskaya with the corresponding reservoir. Below Uralsk, there is another reservoir and the Kushumsky channel. The river is navigated up to Uralsk and there is a port in Atyrau. Fishery is well developed; the commercial fish species include sturgeon, perch, herring, bream, carp and catfish. The delta of Ural River accounts for about half of the fish catchment in Kazakhstan. Also widespread is agriculture, especially growth of melons and watermelons. The city of Atyrau is a major oil producing center of Kazakhstan.", "The river was called (Daïkos) by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. Yulian Kulakovsky reads this as Turkic \"Jajyk\" or \"Яик\" and on this basis identifies the Huns as Turkic speakers. However, Gerard Clauson disputes that the name could be of Turkic origin as early as the 2nd century, and instead attributes it to Sarmatian origin. The name Яйыҡ (Yayıq) is currently used in the Bashkir language and Жайық (Zhayıq) in Kazakhstan. In later European texts it is sometimes mentioned as \"Rhymnus fluvius\" and in the Russian chronicle of 1140 as Yaik. The river was renamed Ural in the Russian language in 1775, by Catherine II of Russia.", "In the 10th to 16th centuries, the city of Saray-Jük (or Saraichik, meaning \"small Sarai\") on the Ural River (now in Atyrau Province of Kazakhstan) was an important trade center on the Silk Road. In the 13th century, it became a stronghold of the Golden Horde. It was destroyed in 1395 by the army of Timur but then rebuilt to become the capital of Nogai Horde in the 15th and 16th centuries. It was finally reduced to a village in 1580 by the Ural Cossacks. After the Russian conquest of the Ural basin in the late 16th century, the shores of the Ural became home to the Yaik Cossacks. One of their main activities was fishing for the sturgeon and related fishes (including the true sturgeon, starry sturgeon, and beluga) in the Ural River and the Caspian. A great variety of fishing techniques existed; the most famous of them was \"bagrenye\" (, from \"bagor\", meaning pike pole): spearing hibernating sturgeons in their underwater lairs in mid-winter. The \"bagrenye\" was allowed only on one day of the year. On the appointed day, a large number of Cossacks with pike poles were gathering on the shore; after a signal was given, they rushed on the ice, broke it with their poles, and speared and pulled the fish. Another fishing technique was constructing a weir, known as the \"uchug\" () across the river, to catch fish going upstream to spawn. Until 1918, an \"uchug\" was set up in the summer and autumn near Uralsk, so that the fish would not go upstream beyond the Cossacks' land. While the \"uchug\" weirs were also known in the Volga Delta, the \"bagrenye\" was thought to be a uniquely Ural technique. The Ural Cossacks (known originally as the Yaik Cossacks) resented the attempts by the central government to impose rules and regulations on them, and on occasions rose in rebellions. The largest rebellion, the Pugachev's Rebellion of 1773–75, involved not only the Ural, but much of south-eastern Russia, and resulted in a loss of the government control there. After its suppression, Empress Catherine issued a decree of 15 January 1775 to rename most of the places involved in the revolt, in order to erase the memory of it. Thus the Yaik River and the city of Yaitsk were renamed to the Ural River and Uralsk, respectively, and the Yaik Cossacks became the Ural Cossacks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Instrumental properties.", "Instrumental combinations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Writing for any instrument requires a composer or arranger to know the instrument's properties, such as:", "Whereas \"orchestration\" refers to the deployment and combination of instruments in large ensembles, \"instrumentation\" is a wider term that also embraces the ingenuity of composers and arrangers in the handling of small ensembles. J. S. Bach experimented with a variety of instrumental groups throughout his composing life. A striking example is the band that he selected to accompany the solo bass singer in the \"Quoniam\" movement from his Mass in B minor. According to George Stauffer, \"The 'Quoniam' is one of Bach's most extraordinary arias. The setting—bass voice, horn, two bassoons and continuo—is unique in his oeuvre. Indeed, one is hard pressed to find the combination elsewhere in the Baroque repertory.\" The haunting second movement of Schubert's Trio in E-flat major exemplifies the variety and interest that is possible with just three instruments. Writing of this movement Charles speaks of how Schubert \"often concentrated, not on the motif, but on the space outlined by the motif, rearranging the elements within that space in different permutations.\" The movement opens with the main theme played on the cello with the piano providing a trudging accompaniment consisting of repeated chords: When the theme repeats a few bars later, these roles are exchanged. The piano plays the melody in octaves, while the violin and cello play the accompaniment: Later in the movement, the piano plays both the theme in the right hand and the accompaniment in the left, leaving the violin and cello free to provide decorative countermelodies: The concluding bars of the movement ring the changes in instrumentation yet again, adding further ideas, such as the falling octave figure in the first and final bars, while varying and enriching the harmony and instrumental color. The strings here accompany the piano playing pizzicato, before returning to their bows for the deeply expressive final bars:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Life and military career.", "Theory of war.", "Principal ideas.", "Interpretation and misinterpretation.", "Influence.", "Late 20th and early 21st century.", "In popular culture.", "See also.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Clausewitz's Christian names are sometimes given in non-German sources as \"Karl,\" \"Carl Philipp Gottlieb,\" or \"Carl Maria.\" He spelled his own given name with a \"C\" in order to identify with the classical Western tradition; writers who use \"Karl\" are often seeking to emphasize his German (rather than European) identity. \"Carl Philipp Gottfried\" appears on Clausewitz's tombstone. Nonetheless, sources such as military historian Peter Paret and \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" continue to use Gottlieb instead of Gottfried.", "Clausewitz was born on 1 June 1780 in Burg bei Magdeburg in the Prussian Duchy of Magdeburg as the fourth and youngest son of a family that made claims to noble status which Carl accepted. Clausewitz's family claimed descent from the Barons of Clausewitz in Upper Silesia, though scholars question the connection. His grandfather, the son of a Lutheran pastor, had been a professor of theology. Clausewitz's father, once a lieutenant in the army of Frederick the Great, King of Prussia, held a minor post in the Prussian internal-revenue service. Clausewitz entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve as a lance-corporal, eventually attaining the rank of major general. Clausewitz served in the Rhine Campaigns (1793–1794) including the Siege of Mainz, when the Prussian army invaded France during the French Revolution, and fought in the Napoleonic Wars from 1806 to 1815. He entered the \"Kriegsakademie\" (also cited as \"The German War School\", the \"Military Academy in Berlin\", and the \"Prussian Military Academy,\" later the \"War College\") in Berlin in 1801 (aged 21), probably studied the writings of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and/or Fichte and Schleiermacher and won the regard of General Gerhard von Scharnhorst, the future first chief-of-staff of the newly reformed Prussian Army (appointed 1809). Clausewitz, Hermann von Boyen (1771–1848) and Karl von Grolman (1777–1843) were among Scharnhorst's primary allies in his efforts to reform the Prussian army between 1807 and 1814. Clausewitz served during the Jena Campaign as aide-de-camp to Prince August. At the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt on 14 October 1806—when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed Prussian-Saxon army commanded by Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick—he was captured, one of the 25,000 prisoners taken that day as the Prussian army disintegrated. He was 26. Clausewitz was held prisoner with his prince in France from 1807 to 1808. Returning to Prussia, he assisted in the reform of the Prussian army and state. On 10 December 1810 he married the socially prominent Countess Marie von Brühl, whom he had first met in 1803. She was a member of the noble German von Brühl family originating in Thuringia. The couple moved in the highest circles, socialising with Berlin's political, literary and intellectual élite. Marie was well-educated and politically well-connected—she played an important role in her husband's career progress and intellectual evolution. She also edited, published, and introduced his collected works. Opposed to Prussia's enforced alliance with Napoleon I, Clausewitz left the Prussian army and served in the Imperial Russian Army from 1812 to 1813 during the Russian Campaign, taking part in the Battle of Borodino (1812). Like many Prussian officers serving in Russia, he joined the Russian-German Legion in 1813. In the service of the Russian Empire, Clausewitz helped negotiate the Convention of Tauroggen (1812), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and the United Kingdom that ultimately defeated Napoleon and his allies. In 1815 the Russian-German Legion became integrated into the Prussian Army and Clausewitz re-entered Prussian service as a colonel. He was soon appointed chief-of-staff of Johann von Thielmann's III Corps. In that capacity he served at the Battle of Ligny and the Battle of Wavre during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. An army led personally by Napoleon defeated the Prussians at Ligny (south of Mont-Saint-Jean and the village of Waterloo) on 16 June 1815, but they withdrew in good order. Napoleon's failure to destroy the Prussian forces led to his defeat a few days later at the Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815), when the Prussian forces arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon to support the Anglo-Dutch-Belgian forces pressing his front. Napoleon had convinced his troops that the field grey uniforms were those of Marshall Grouchy's Granadiers. Clausewitz's unit fought heavily outnumbered at Wavre (18–19 June 1815), preventing large reinforcements from reaching Napoleon at Waterloo. After the war Clausewitz served as the director of the \"Kriegsakademie\", where he served until 1830. In that year he returned to active duty with the army. Soon afterwards, the outbreak of several revolutions around Europe and a crisis in Poland appeared to presage another major European war. Clausewitz was appointed chief of staff of the only army Prussia was able to mobilise in this emergency, which was sent to the Polish border. Its commander, Gneisenau, died of cholera (August 1831), and Clausewitz took command of the Prussian army's efforts to construct a \"cordon sanitaire\" to contain the great cholera outbreak (the first time cholera had appeared in modern heartland Europe, causing a continent-wide panic). Clausewitz himself died of the same disease shortly afterwards, on 17 November 1831. His widow edited, published, and wrote the introduction to his \"magnum opus\" on the philosophy of war in 1832. (He had started working on the text in 1816, but had not completed it.) She wrote the preface for \"On War\" and by 1835 had published most of his collected works. She died in January 1836.", "Clausewitz was a professional combat soldier who was involved in numerous military campaigns, but he is famous primarily as a military theorist interested in the examination of war, utilising the campaigns of Frederick the Great and Napoleon as frames of reference for his work. He wrote a careful, systematic, philosophical examination of war in all its aspects. The result was his principal book, \"On War,\" a major work on the philosophy of war. It was unfinished when Clausewitz died and contains material written at different stages in his intellectual evolution, producing some significant contradictions between different sections. The sequence and precise character of that evolution is a source of much debate, as are exact meaning behind his seemingly contradictory claims (discussions pertinent to the tactical, operational and strategic levels of war are one example). Clausewitz constantly sought to revise the text, particularly between 1827 and his departure on his last field assignments, to include more material on \"people's war\" and forms of war other than high-intensity warfare between states, but relatively little of this material was included in the book. Soldiers before this time had written treatises on various military subjects, but none had undertaken a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of those written by Clausewitz and Leo Tolstoy, both of which were inspired by the events of the Napoleonic Era. Clausewitz's work is still studied today, demonstrating its continued relevance. More than sixteen major English-language books that focused specifically on his work were published between 2005 and 2014, whereas his 19th-century rival Jomini faded from influence. The historian Lynn Montross said the outcome, \"may be explained by the fact that Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy. The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons.\" Jomini did not attempt to define war but Clausewitz did, providing (and dialectically comparing) a number of definitions. The first is his dialectical thesis: \"War is thus an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will.\" The second, often treated as Clausewitz's 'bottom line,' is in fact merely his dialectical antithesis: \"War is merely the continuation of politics with other means.\" The synthesis of his dialectical examination of the nature of war is his famous \"trinity,\" saying that war is \"a fascinating trinity—composed of primordial violence, hatred, and enmity, which are to be regarded as a blind natural force; the play of chance and probability, within which the creative spirit is free to roam; and its element of subordination, as an instrument of policy, which makes it subject to pure reason.\" Christopher Bassford says the best shorthand for Clausewitz's trinity should be something like \"violent emotion/chance/rational calculation.\" However, it is frequently presented as \"people/army/government,\" a misunderstanding based on a later paragraph in the same chapter. This misrepresentation was popularised by U.S. Army Colonel Harry Summers' Vietnam-era interpretation, facilitated by weaknesses in the 1976 Howard/Paret translation. The degree to which Clausewitz managed to revise his manuscript to reflect that synthesis is the subject of much debate. His final reference to war and \"Politik\", however, goes beyond his widely quoted antithesis: \"War is simply the continuation of political intercourse with the addition of other means. We deliberately use the phrase 'with the addition of other means' because we also want to make it clear that war in itself does not suspend political intercourse or change it into something entirely different. In essentials that intercourse continues, irrespective of the means it employs. The main lines along which military events progress, and to which they are restricted, are political lines that continue throughout the war into the subsequent peace.\" Clausewitz introduced systematic philosophical contemplation into Western military thinking, with powerful implications not only for historical and analytical writing but also for practical policy, military instruction, and operational planning. He relied on his own experiences, contemporary writings about Napoleon, and on deep historical research. His historiographical approach is evident in his first extended study, written when he was 25, of the Thirty Years War. He rejects the Enlightenment's view of the war as a chaotic muddle and instead explains its drawn-out operations by the economy and technology of the age, the social characteristics of the troops, and the commanders' politics and psychology. In \"On War\", Clausewitz sees all wars as the sum of decisions, actions, and reactions in an uncertain and dangerous context, and also as a socio-political phenomenon. He also stressed the complex nature of war, which encompasses both the socio-political and the operational and stresses the primacy of state policy. The word \"strategy\" had only recently come into usage in modern Europe, and Clausewitz's definition is quite narrow: \"the use of engagements for the object of war.\" Clausewitz conceived of war as a political, social, and military phenomenon which might — depending on circumstances — involve the entire population of a nation at war. In any case, Clausewitz saw military force as an instrument that states and other political actors use to pursue the ends of policy, in a dialectic between opposing wills, each with the aim of imposing his policies and will upon his enemy. Clausewitz's emphasis on the inherent superiority of the defence suggests that habitual aggressors are likely to end up as failures. The inherent superiority of the defence obviously does not mean that the defender will always win, however: there are other asymmetries to be considered. He was interested in co-operation between the regular army and militia or partisan forces, or citizen soldiers, as one possible — sometimes the only — method of defence. In the circumstances of the Wars of the French Revolution and with Napoleon, which were energised by a rising spirit of nationalism, he emphasised the need for states to involve their entire populations in the conduct of war. This point is especially important, as these wars demonstrated that such energies could be of decisive importance and for a time led to a democratisation of the armed forces much as universal suffrage democratised politics. While Clausewitz was intensely aware of the value of intelligence at all levels, he was also very sceptical of the accuracy of much military intelligence: \"Many intelligence reports in war are contradictory; even more are false, and most are uncertain... In short, most intelligence is false.\" This circumstance is generally described as part of the fog of war. Such sceptical comments apply only to intelligence at the tactical and operational levels; at the strategic and political levels he constantly stressed the requirement for the best possible understanding of what today would be called strategic and political intelligence. His conclusions were influenced by his experiences in the Prussian Army, which was often in an intelligence fog due partly to the superior abilities of Napoleon's system but even more to the nature of war. Clausewitz acknowledges that friction creates enormous difficulties for the realisation of any plan, and the \"fog of war\" hinders commanders from knowing what is happening. It is precisely in the context of this challenge that he develops the concept of military genius, whose capabilities are seen above all in the execution of operations. 'Military genius' is not simply a matter of intellect, but a combination of qualities of intellect, experience, personality, and temperament (and there are many possible such combinations) that create a very highly developed mental aptitude for the waging of war.", "Key ideas discussed in \"On War\" include:", "Clausewitz used a dialectical method to construct his argument, leading to frequent misinterpretation of his ideas. British military theorist B. H. Liddell Hart contends that the enthusiastic acceptance by the Prussian military establishment – especially Moltke the Elder, a former student of his – of what they believed to be Clausewitz's ideas, and the subsequent widespread adoption of the Prussian military system worldwide, had a deleterious effect on military theory and practice, due to their egregious misinterpretation of his ideas: As so often happens, Clausewitz's disciples carried his teaching to an extreme which their master had not intended... [Clausewitz's] theory of war was expounded in a way too abstract and involved for ordinary soldier-minds, essentially concrete, to follow the course of his argument – which often turned back from the direction in which it was apparently leading. Impressed yet befogged, they grasped at his vivid leading phrases, seeing only their surface meaning, and missing the deeper current of his thought. As described by Christopher Bassford, then-professor of strategy at the National War College of the United States: One of the main sources of confusion about Clausewitz's approach lies in his dialectical method of presentation. For example, Clausewitz's famous line that \"War is a mere continuation of politics by other means,\" (\"Der Krieg ist eine bloße Fortsetzung der Politik mit anderen Mitteln\") while accurate as far as it goes, was not intended as a statement of fact. It is the antithesis in a dialectical argument whose thesis is the point – made earlier in the analysis – that \"war is nothing but a duel [or wrestling match, a better translation of the German \"Zweikampf\"] on a larger scale.\" His synthesis, which resolves the deficiencies of these two bold statements, says that war is neither \"nothing but\" an act of brute force nor \"merely\" a rational act of politics or policy. This synthesis lies in his \"fascinating trinity\" [wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit]: a dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation. Another example of this confusion is the idea that Clausewitz was a proponent of total war as used in the Third Reich's propaganda in the 1940s. In fact, he never used the term \"total war\": rather, he discussed \"absolute war,\" a concept which evolved into the much more abstract notion of \"ideal war\" discussed at the very beginning of \"Vom Kriege\"—the purely \"logical\" result of the forces underlying a \"pure,\" Platonic \"ideal\" of war. In what he called a \"logical fantasy,\" war cannot be waged in a limited way: the rules of competition will force participants to use all means at their disposal to achieve victory. But in the \"real world\", he said, such rigid logic is unrealistic and dangerous. As a practical matter, the military objectives in \"real\" war that support political objectives generally fall into two broad types: \"war to achieve limited aims\"; and war to \"disarm\" the enemy, \"to render [him] politically helpless or militarily impotent.\" Thus the complete defeat of the enemy may not be necessary, desirable, or even possible. In modern times the reconstruction of Clausewitzian theory has been a matter of much dispute. One analysis was that of Panagiotis Kondylis, a Greek writer and philosopher, who opposed the interpretations of Raymond Aron in \"Penser la Guerre, Clausewitz\", and other liberal writers. According to Aron, Clausewitz was one of the first writers to condemn the militarism of the Prussian general staff and its war-proneness, based on Clausewitz's argument that \"war is a continuation of politics by other means.\" In \"Theory of War,\" Kondylis claims that this is inconsistent with Clausewitzian thought. He claims that Clausewitz was morally indifferent to war (though this probably reflects a lack of familiarity with personal letters from Clausewitz, which demonstrate an acute awareness of war's tragic aspects) and that his advice regarding politics' dominance over the conduct of war has nothing to do with pacifist ideas. For Clausewitz, war is simply one unique means that is sometimes applied to the eternal quest for power, of \"raison d'État\" in an anarchic and unsafe world. Other notable writers who have studied Clausewitz's texts and translated them into English are historians Peter Paret of the Institute for Advanced Study and Sir Michael Howard, and the philosopher, musician, and game theorist Anatol Rapoport. Howard and Paret edited the most widely used edition of \"On War\" (Princeton University Press, 1976/1984) and have produced comparative studies of Clausewitz and other theorists, such as Tolstoy. Bernard Brodie's \"A Guide to the Reading of \"On War\"\", in the 1976 Princeton translation, expressed his interpretations of the Prussian's theories and provided students with an influential synopsis of this vital work. The British military historian John Keegan attacked Clausewitz's theory in his book \"A History of Warfare\". Keegan argued that Clausewitz assumed the existence of states, yet 'war antedates the state, diplomacy and strategy by many millennia.'", "Clausewitz died without completing \"On War\", but despite this his ideas have been widely influential in military theory and have had a strong influence on German military thought specifically. Later Prussian and German generals, such as Helmuth Graf von Moltke, were clearly influenced by Clausewitz: Moltke's widely quoted statement that \"No campaign plan survives first contact with the enemy\" is a classic reflection of Clausewitz's insistence on the roles of chance, friction, \"fog,\" uncertainty, and interactivity in war. Clausewitz's influence spread to British thinking as well, though at first more as a historian and analyst than as a theorist. See for example Wellington's extended essay discussing Clausewitz's study of the Campaign of 1815—Wellington's only serious written discussion of the battle, which was widely discussed in 19th-century Britain. Clausewitz's broader thinking came to the fore following Britain's military embarrassments in the Boer War (1899–1902). One example of a heavy Clausewitzian influence in that era is Spenser Wilkinson, journalist, the first Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, and perhaps the most prominent military analyst in Britain from c. 1885 until well into the interwar period. Another is naval historian Julian Corbett (1854–1922), whose work reflected a deep if idiosyncratic adherence to Clausewitz's concepts and frequently an emphasis on Clausewitz's ideas about 'limited war' and the inherent strengths of the defensive form of war. Corbett's practical strategic views were often in prominent public conflict with Wilkinson's – see, for example, Wilkinson's article \"Strategy at Sea,\" \"The Morning Post\", 12 February 1912. Following the First World War, however, the influential British military commentator B. H. Liddell Hart in the 1920s erroneously attributed to him the doctrine of \"total war\" that during the First World War had been embraced by many European general staffs and emulated by the British. More recent scholars typically see that war as so confused in terms of political rationale that it in fact contradicts much of \"On War.\" One of the most influential British Clausewitzians today is Colin S. Gray; historian Hew Strachan (like Wilkinson also the Chichele Professor of Military History at Oxford University, since 2001) has been an energetic proponent of the \"study\" of Clausewitz, but his own views on Clausewitz's ideas are somewhat ambivalent. With some interesting exceptions (e.g., John McAuley Palmer, Robert M. Johnston, Hoffman Nickerson), Clausewitz had little influence on American military thought before 1945 other than via British writers, though Generals Eisenhower and Patton were avid readers. He did influence Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and Mao Zedong, and thus the Communist Soviet and Chinese traditions, as Lenin emphasised the inevitability of wars among capitalist states in the age of imperialism and presented the armed struggle of the working class as the only path toward the eventual elimination of war. Because Lenin was an admirer of Clausewitz and called him \"one of the great military writers\", his influence on the Red Army was immense. The Russian historian A.N. Mertsalov commented that \"It was an irony of fate that the view in the USSR was that it was Lenin who shaped the attitude towards Clausewitz, and that Lenin's dictum that war is a continuation of politics is taken from the work of this [allegedly] anti-humanist anti-revolutionary.\" The American mathematician Anatol Rapoport wrote in 1968 that Clausewitz as interpreted by Lenin formed the basis of all Soviet military thinking since 1917, and quoted the remarks by Marshal V.D. Sokolovsky: In describing the essence of war, Marxism-Leninism takes as its point of departure the premise that war is not an aim in itself, but rather a tool of politics. In his remarks on Clausewitz's \"On War\", Lenin stressed that \"Politics is the reason, and war is only the tool, not the other way around. Consequently, it remains only to subordinate the military point of view to the political\". Henry A. Kissinger, however, described Lenin's approach as being that politics is a continuation of war by other means, thus turning Clausewitz's argument \"on its head.\" Rapoport argued that: As for Lenin's approval of Clausewitz, it probably stems from his obsession with the struggle for power. The whole Marxist conception of history is that of successive struggles for power, primarily between social classes. This was constantly applied by Lenin in a variety of contexts. Thus the entire history of philosophy appears in Lenin's writings as a vast struggle between \"idealism\" and \"materialism\". The fate of the socialist movement was to be decided by a struggle between the revolutionists and the reformers. Clausewitz's acceptance of the struggle for power as the essence of international politics must have impressed Lenin as starkly realistic. Clausewitz directly influenced Mao Zedong, who read \"On War\" in 1938 and organised a seminar on Clausewitz for the Party leadership in Yan'an. Thus the \"Clausewitzian\" content in many of Mao's writings is not merely a regurgitation of Lenin but reflects Mao's study. The idea that war involves inherent \"friction\" that distorts, to a greater or lesser degree, all prior arrangements, has become common currency in fields such as business strategy and sport. The phrase \"fog of war\" derives from Clausewitz's stress on how confused warfare can seem while immersed within it. The term center of gravity, used in a military context derives from Clausewitz's usage, which he took from Newtonian mechanics. In U.S. military doctrine, \"center of gravity\" refers to the basis of an opponent's power at the operational, strategic, or political level, though this is only one aspect of Clausewitz's use of the term.", "The deterrence strategy of the United States in the 1950s was closely inspired by President Dwight Eisenhower’s reading of Clausewitz as a young officer in the 1920s. Eisenhower was greatly impressed by Clausewitz’s example of a theoretical, idealised “absolute war” in \"Vom Krieg\" as a way of demonstrating how absurd it would be to attempt such a strategy in practice. For Eisenhower, the age of nuclear weapons had made what was for Clausewitz in the early 19th century only a theoretical vision an all too real possibility in the mid-20th century. From Eisenhower's viewpoint, the best deterrent to war was to show the world just how appalling and horrific a nuclear “absolute war” would be if it should ever occur, hence a series of much publicised nuclear tests in the Pacific, giving first priority in the defence budget to nuclear weapons and delivery systems over conventional weapons, and making repeated statements in public that the United States was able and willing at all times to use nuclear weapons. In this way through the massive retaliation doctrine and the closely related foreign policy concept of brinkmanship, Eisenhower hoped to hold out a creditable vision of Clausewitzian nuclear “absolute war” in order to deter the Soviet Union and/or China from ever risking a war or even conditions that might lead to a war with the United States. After 1970, some theorists claimed that nuclear proliferation made Clausewitzian concepts obsolete after the 20th-century period in which they dominated the world. John E. Sheppard, Jr., argues that by developing nuclear weapons, state-based conventional armies simultaneously both perfected their original purpose, to destroy a mirror image of themselves, and made themselves obsolete. No two powers have used nuclear weapons against each other, instead using conventional means or proxy wars to settle disputes. If such a conflict did occur, presumably both combatants would be annihilated. Heavily influenced by the war in Vietnam and by antipathy to American strategist Henry Kissinger, the American biologist, musician, and game-theorist Anatol Rapoport argued in 1968 that a Clausewitzian view of war was not only obsolete in the age of nuclear weapons, but also highly dangerous as it promoted a \"zero-sum paradigm\" to international relations and a \"dissolution of rationality\" amongst decision-makers. The end of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century have seen many instances of state armies attempting to suppress insurgencies, terrorism, and other forms of asymmetrical warfare. Clausewitz did not focus solely on wars between countries with well-defined armies. The era of the French Revolution and Napoleon was full of revolutions, rebellions, and violence by \"non-state actors\", such as the wars in the French Vendée and in Spain. Clausewitz wrote a series of “Lectures on Small War” and studied the rebellion in the Vendée (1793–1796) and the Tyrolean uprising of 1809. In his famous “Bekenntnisdenkschrift” of 1812, he called for a “Spanish war in Germany” and laid out a comprehensive guerrilla strategy to be waged against Napoleon. In \"On War\" he included a famous chapter on “The People in Arms.” One prominent critic of Clausewitz is the Israeli military historian Martin van Creveld. In his book \"The Transformation of War\", Creveld argued that Clausewitz's famous \"Trinity\" of people, army, and government was an obsolete socio-political construct based on the state, which was rapidly passing from the scene as the key player in war, and that he (Creveld) had constructed a new \"non-trinitarian\" model for modern warfare. Creveld's work has had great influence. Daniel Moran replied, 'The most egregious misrepresentation of Clausewitz's famous metaphor must be that of Martin van Creveld, who has declared Clausewitz to be an apostle of Trinitarian War, by which he means, incomprehensibly, a war of'state against state and army against army,' from which the influence of the people is entirely excluded.\" Christopher Bassford went further, noting that one need only \"read\" the paragraph in which Clausewitz defined his Trinity to see \"that the words 'people,' 'army,' and 'government' appear nowhere at all in the list of the Trinity’s components... Creveld's and Keegan's assault on Clausewitz's Trinity is not only a classic 'blow into the air,' i.e., an assault on a position Clausewitz doesn't occupy. It is also a pointless attack on a concept that is quite useful in its own right. In any case, their failure to read the actual wording of the theory they so vociferously attack, and to grasp its deep relevance to the phenomena they describe, is hard to credit.\" Some have gone further and suggested that Clausewitz's best-known aphorism, that war is a continuation of politics with other means, is not only irrelevant today but also inapplicable historically. For an opposing view see the sixteen essays presented in \"Clausewitz in the Twenty-First Century\" edited by Hew Strachan and Andreas Herberg-Rothe. In military academies, schools, and universities worldwide, Clausewitz's literature is often mandatory reading.", "Literature Film Video games", "August Otto Rühle von Lilienstern – Prussian officer from whom Clausewitz allegedly took, without acknowledgement, several important ideas (including that about war as pursuing political aims) made famous in \"On War\". However, such ideas as Clausewitz and Lilienstern shared in common derived from a common influence, i.e., Scharnhorst, who was Clausewitz's \"second father\" and professional mentor.", "Informational notes Citations Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Jiří Šlitr went to gymnasium in Jilemnice, then in Rychnov nad Kněžnou. He graduated in 1943 and worked as a clerk in Bělá pod Bezdězem until the end of World War II. He then studied Law at Charles University in Prague and in 1949 received a doctorate in Law (academic degree JUDr. — he never practiced as a lawyer, but was later nicknamed \"Doctor Piano\"). In 1948 he founded the \"Czechoslovak Dixieland Jazz Band\" with former classmates from Rychnov. He occasionally played with \"Akord Club\", and toured with the Miroslav Horníček theatre ensemble as pianist. In 1957 Horníček introduced him to Jiří Suchý, and the Suchý + Šlitr duo began to perform in the Reduta theatre and Vltava café. Next year was the Brussels Expo 58: Šlitr was there as part of the Laterna Magika theatre. In 1959 he began to perform in the newly founded Semafor theatre, which became his principal venue. Jiří Šlitr, with lyricist-playwright Jiří Suchý and clarinetist Ferdinand Havlík, was a key exponent of the \"golden era\" of the Semafor Theatre. His first work with Jiří Suchý was \"Píseň o Hamletovi\" (Song about Hamlet). \"Člověk z půdy\" (Man from Attic) — their first play for the Semafor, with music by Šlitr – was a remarkable success. The 1962 play \"Jonáš a tingl tangl\" (Jonáš and Tingl Tangl) featured Šlitr in his first acting role; he and Suchý became a well-known acting duo. In 1964 Šlitr won the 6th place in the Czechoslovak singer contest \"Zlatý slavík\" (The Golden Nightingale). The double-act of Šlitr and Suchý made film appearances, firstly in \"Bylo nás deset\" (There Were Ten Of Us, 1963) and later in the successful musical comedy \"Kdyby 1000 klarinetů\" (If a Thousand Clarinets, 1964). In 1965 Šlitr composed the jazz opera \"Dobře placená procházka\" (A Walk Worthwhile), which was staged in 2007 by the Czech-American director Miloš Forman at the National Theatre in Prague. Šlitr's attempt to stage \"A Walk Worthwhile\" on Broadway was unsuccessful. Šlitr wanted to play and compose in a modern \"rock\" style at the Semafor but Havlík disagreed. In 1966 Šlitr fired the \"Ferdinand Havlík Orchestra\", but in the end he wound down his own involvement with the Semafor and with Suchý. The duo parted company for a short time, and Šlitr put on a new play \"Ďábel z Vinohrad\" (The Devil from Vinohrady). Meanwhile he exhibited his drawings in Wiesbaden, Dortmund, and New York City. In 1967 he attended Expo 67 in Montreal, where he presented the show \"Stars of Prague\", and during his stay in America he exhibited drawings in Hollywood and Houston. In 1968 he reunited with Suchý and after the events of the Prague Spring he restaged his earlier work \"The Devil from Vinohrady\" as a pointed response to the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia. Šlitr and Suchý also signed the anti-communist 2000 Words manifesto by Ludvík Vaculík. In 1968, Šlitr appeared in his last film, \"Zločin v šantánu\" (Crime in the Night Club). Šlitr died on 26 December 1969, under circumstances that have never been fully explained. He was last seen going to his atelier in Prague. Several hours later, members of his family found his car outside the building. Inside the atelier they found the bodies of Šlitr and his young girlfriend, who were later found to have died of coal gas poisoning. Public speculations of suicide were unproven." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Publication history.", "Quote." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Texar and Burbank are bitter enemies, Burbank's northern view of slavery as an evil being an unpopular stance with Texar and the rest of the community, deep in the Confederate States of America. On top of this disagreement, though, Texar is angry at Burbank for past legal troubles Burbank has brought upon Texar, and, despite Texar inventing a perfect alibi that allows him to escape conviction, Texar feels the need for vengeance and eventually becomes a prominent and powerful member of the Jacksonville community. Using this newfound power, Texar turns the townsfolk against Burbank and leads a mob that destroys the Burbank plantation, known as Camdless Bay. Burbank's daughter Dy and caretaker Zermah are both kidnapped by a man claiming to be Texar and are purportedly taken to a place in the Everglades called Carneral Island. En route, and after enlisting the help of the United States Navy, they find a separate group searching for Texar in response to crimes that apparently happened in the same time as the ones at Camdless Bay but in a distant location. This opens up the realization that there is one real Texar and one who is not, and the search continues now, not only for Dy and Zermah, but for the answer to this mystery.", "\"Nord Contre Sud\", the original French title of the book, was first published in its fully illustrated edition in November, 1887, by J. Hetzel et Cie, Paris. In the first American (and first English) translation, \"Nord Contre Sud\" (North Against South) was relegated to a subtitle and the book's title was made \"Texar's Vengeance\", quickly re-translated as \"Texar's Revenge\". This edition was published by George Munro, New York (1887), a translation by Laura E. Kendall as part of the \"Seaside Library\". Since then, however, there have been more minor variations on the title, some editions referring to the title as \"The Texar's Revenge\", others omitting the title completely in favor of the more simple \"North Against South\". The most common and generally most accepted American version of the title is the full \"Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South\". There have also been a handful of editions that have split the book into two volumes, those being \"Burbank the Northerner\" and \"Texar the Southerner\", both of which are contained in most editions of the book. Various cheap editions were published in the U.S. for the next 20 years by W. L. Allison, Hurst, and others. The first fully illustrated edition in English was \"North against South\" published by Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington, London, December 1887. This is a different anonymous translation from the one published by George Munro. In 2007 the first fully illustrated edition of \"North against South\" in the U.S. was published by the Choptank Press of St. Michaels, Maryland as a Lulu Press book, a replica re-publication of the Sampson Low first edition.", "[In Jules Verne's] story of \"Texar\"... a very thin streak of narrative is padded to almost unwieldy proportions by a quantity of remarkably inaccurate information about the rebellion. If anyone thought the game worth the candle it would be easy to point out the various comical inaccuracies in the historical part of the story... [quoted in T&M]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Rise to power.", "Losing power, changing sides.", "Life in the United States.", "Facts and fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "During the 1950s and 1960s, Šejna rose through the ranks of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia \"(KSČ)\" thanks to his political contacts and friends – like with Antonín Novotný Jr., the son of President Antonín Novotný and General Lomský at the Ministry of National Defence \"(Ministerstvo národní obrany, MNO)\" – built up a privileged position in the Czechoslovak People's Army \"(Československá lidová armáda, ČSLA). In 1956, he became Chief of the Secretariat of the MNO, in 1963 the Chief Secretary of the Main Committee of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia at the MNO. In October 1967, he was promoted to the rank of General. He fully supported Stalinist practices of suppression and intimidation. Before the Prague Spring of 1968 began, the Czechoslovak Communist Party and affiliated members of the Soviet regime sought change through new leadership. Novotný's position as First Secretary (since 1953) and President (since 1957) weakened. There were soon speculations about Šejna's personal participation in the planned military action of the army to support Novotný in the first weeks of 1968. Expecting backlash from reformers, \"... General Jan Šejna convinced the presidium of the Main Party Committee in the Ministry of Defense to send to the Central Committee a petition... insisting on Novotný's retention as first secretary.\" When Šejna failed to bring about Novotný's reinstatement, he began plotting a military coup, a plan which failed to gain support as well. Novotný was finally replaced by Alexander Dubček, a reform-minded member of the Czechoslovak party presidium, as leader of the party.", "Losing his political influence, Šejna was under investigation for corruption: \"... the official case against General Šejna was limited to charges that he had allegedly misappropriated 300,000 crowns ($20,000) worth of state-owned alfalfa and clover seed\". However, before he could be arrested he defected in February 1968 with his son and his son's fiancée to Italy and settled in the US. News of Šejna's indictment and defection quickly spread through Czechoslovakia's increasingly open press. He soon came to be known as \"Clover Seed General\" for his alleged massive embezzlement of clover. Šejna was granted asylum in the United States, much to the dismay of Soviet authorities and became an intelligence source for American agencies and policy makers. According to Czechoslovak ambassador Duda, it was ironic that, \"Šejna, who represented the worst elements of the conservative clique in Prague, should find haven in the United States\". In 1970, Šejna was sentenced by Czechoslovak courts \"in absentia\" to ten years in prison, to the forfeiture of his property and loss of all of his official titles and decorations. ČSSR unsuccessfully requested the US to extradite him.", "In the following three decades in the United States, Šejna worked as a counterintelligence analyst for the Central Intelligence Agency later as a consultant to the Defense Intelligence Agency until his death in 1997. He spoke out in interviews and appeared before U.S. Congressional committees.", "He claimed, \"that the Soviet intelligence agency directed terrorist training camps in Czechoslovakia in the mid-60s... the Soviet Union collaborated with North Korea in the capture of the U.S. intelligence ship Pueblo from Pacific waters in 1968 and that Cuba and Czechoslovakia worked together to establish drug-trafficking networks throughout Latin America and to infiltrate those in existence... the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia tested drugs on U.S. prisoners of war during the Korean and Vietnam wars\". In his book \"We will bury you\", Šejna gave an insight into Soviet Cold War strategies, quoting Konstantin Katushev, secretary of the Soviet Central Committee: \"If we can impose on the U.S.A. the external restraints proposed in our Plan, and seriously disrupt the American economy, the working and the lower middle classes will suffer the consequences and they will turn on the society that has failed them. They will be ready for revolution\". He provided a lot of interesting facts about the communist power system and its protagonists. However, he also fabricated some mere speculations. Along with the information he provided concerning covert Soviet strategy, he also gave the West an otherwise shrouded picture of political strife and reform in the Communist state of Czechoslovakia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Veneration.", "Patronage.", "In English speaking countries.", "Central Europe.", "Spain, Portugal and former colonies.", "Eastern Europe, Eastern Orthodox Church.", "The Order of Saint Barbara.", "Cultural legacy.", "Gallery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the hagiographies, Barbara, the daughter of a rich pagan named Dioscorus, was carefully guarded by her father who kept her locked up in a tower in order to preserve her from the outside world. Having secretly become a Christian, she rejected an offer of marriage that she received through her father. Before going on a journey, her father commanded that a private bath-house be erected for her use near her dwelling, and during his absence, Barbara had three windows put in it, as a symbol of the Holy Trinity, instead of the two originally intended. When her father returned, she acknowledged herself to be a Christian; upon this he drew his sword to kill her, but her prayers created an opening in the tower wall and she was miraculously transported to a mountain gorge, where two shepherds watched their flocks. Dioscorus, in pursuit of his daughter, was rebuffed by the first shepherd, but the second betrayed her. For doing this, he was turned to stone and his flock was changed to locusts. Dragged before the prefect of the province, Martinianus, who had her cruelly tortured, Barbara held true to her Christian faith. During the night, the dark prison was bathed in light and new miracles occurred. Every morning, her wounds were healed. Torches that were to be used to burn her went out as soon as they came near her. Finally, she was condemned to death by beheading. Her father himself carried out the death-sentence. However, as punishment, he was struck by lightning on the way home and his body was consumed by flame. Barbara was buried by a Christian, Valentinus, and her tomb became the site of miracles. This summary omits picturesque details, supplemented from Old French accounts. According to the \"Golden Legend\", her martyrdom took place on December 4 \"in the reign of emperor Maximianus and Prefect Marcien\" (r. 286–305); the year was given as 267 in the French version edited by Father Harry F. Williams of the Anglican Community of the Resurrection (1975).", "The name of Saint Barbara was known in Rome in the 7th century; her cult can be traced to the 9th century, at first in the East. Since there is no mention of her in the earlier martyrologies, her historicity is considered doubtful. Her legend is included in Vincent of Beauvais' \"Speculum historiale\" (xii.64) and in later versions of the \"Golden Legend\" (and in William Caxton's version of it). Various versions, which include two surviving mystery plays, differ on the location of her martyrdom, which is variously given as Tuscany, Rome, Antioch, Baalbek, and Nicomedia. Saint Barbara is one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers. Her association with the lightning, which killed her father has caused her to be invoked against lightning and fire; by association with explosions, she is also the patron of artillery and mining. Her feast on December 4 was introduced in Rome in the 12th century and included in the Tridentine Calendar. In 1729, that date was assigned to the celebration of Saint Peter Chrysologus, reducing that of Saint Barbara to a commemoration in his Mass. In 1969, it was removed from that calendar, because the accounts of her life and martyrdom were judged to be entirely fabulous, lacking clarity even about the place of her martyrdom. But she is still mentioned in the Roman Martyrology, which, in addition, lists another ten martyr saints named Barbara. In the 12th century, the relics of Saint Barbara were brought from Constantinople to the St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery in Kyiv, where they were kept until the 1930s, when they were transferred to St. Volodymyr's Cathedral in the same city. In November 2012, Patriarch Filaret of The Ukrainian Orthodox Church – Kiev Patriarchate brought a small part of St. Barbara's relics to St. Andrew Ukrainian Orthodox Cathedral in Bloomingdale, Illinois. Her feast day for Roman Catholics, and Anglicans is December 4.", "Saint Barbara is venerated by Catholics who face the danger of sudden and violent death at work. She is the patron of miners, tunnellers, armourers, military engineers, gunsmiths, and anyone else who worked with cannon and explosives. She is invoked against thunder and lightning and all accidents arising from explosions of gunpowder. She became the patron saint of artillerymen. The Spanish word \"\", the corresponding Italian word \"santabarbara\", and the obsolete French \"Sainte-Barbe\" signify the powder magazine of a ship or fortress. It was customary to have a statue of Saint Barbara at the magazine to protect the ship or fortress from suddenly exploding. Saint Barbara is the patron of the Italian Navy. Within the tunnelling industry, as a long-standing tradition, one of the first tasks for each new tunnelling projects is to establish a small shrine to Santa Barbara at the tunnel portal or at the underground junction into long tunnel headings. This is often followed with a dedication and an invocation to Santa Barbara for protection of all who work on the project during the construction period.", "Saint Barbara is the Patron Saint of the Gunnery Branch of the British Royal Navy. The church at HMS Excellent (also known as Whale Island) Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, the former Gunnery School of the Royal Navy, is called St. Barbara's. From 'Britain's Glorious Navy': 'On the dining-table in the ward-room at Whale Island, a delightful silver statuette of Saint Barbara, the patron saint of Artillerists, smiles down on successive generations of gunnery officers who will not let her, or the Navy, down. Their job is to get straddles with full-gun salvoes of a reasonable spread; Saint Barbara herself arranges the hits.' St Barbara was also the Patron saint of the Royal Army Ordnance Corps of the British Army, a church being dedicated to her initial at Hilsea Barracks Portsmouth later being moved to Backdown in Surrey, when the Corps moved its training establishment there. The Irish Army venerates her as the patron saint of the Artillery Corps where she appears on the corps insignia, half dressed, holding a harp, sitting on a field cannon. Saint Barbara's Day, December 4, is celebrated by the British (Royal Artillery, RAF Armourers, Royal Engineers), Australian (Royal Regiment of Australian Artillery, RAAF Armourers), Canadian (Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technicians (EOD), Canadian Air Force Armourers, Royal Canadian Artillery, Canadian Military Field Engineers, Royal Canadian Navy Weapons Engineering Technicians), and New Zealand (RNZN Gunners Branch, RNZA, Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps, RNZAF Armourers) armed forces. It is celebrated by the Norwich University Artillery Battery with a nighttime fire mission featuring multiple M116 howitzers. Saint Barbara's Day is celebrated by United States Army and Marine Corps Field and Air Defense Artillery, many Marine Corps Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technicians. The units and sub-units celebrate the day with church parades, sports days, guest nights, cocktail parties, dinners and other activities. Several mining institutions also celebrate it, such as some branches of the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. The West Australian Mining Club celebrate St Barbara's Day and use it to remember those people who have died working in the mining industry during the year. Although they do not celebrate her saint's day, she is also the patron saint of US Navy and Marine Corps Aviation Ordnancemen. In the mining town Kalgoorlie, Australia, as patron saint of miners she is venerated in the annual St. Barbara's Day parade.", "In Germany, Saint Barbara is revered as a patron saint of miners and in extension, the geosciences in general, including the tunelling industry. This connection is particularly strong in the Catholic areas of Germany, as for example Bavaria. Some university geology departments hold annual 'Barabarafests' if not on the 4th then the closest Friday, or within Baden-Württemberg, see University of Tübingen or University of Freiburg or University of Bonn or applied geosciences of the Technische Universität Darmstadt in Hesse. In the Czech Republic, a statue of Saint Barbara is placed near the future tunnel portal during the groundbreaking ceremony of most major tunneling projects, owing to her being the patron saint of miners.. In Poland, the salt mine at Wieliczka honours Saint Barbara in Saint Kinga's chapel.", "The Spanish military artillerymen, mining engineers and miners also venerate her as patron saint. Parades, masses, dinners and other activities are held in her honour. A portion of the coast of California, now occupied by the city of Santa Barbara, California and located approximately 100 miles northwest of Los Angeles, is named after her. It was given the name in 1602, after a maritime explorer, Sebastián Vizcaíno, survived a violent storm just offshore on the eve of her feast day. A Roman Catholic missionary church, the Mission Santa Barbara, was founded there on her feast day in 1786, and is one of the twenty-one such churches that were operated by the Franciscan Order and collectively known as the \"California missions\". The Presidio of Santa Barbara was built in 1782, with the mission of defending the Second Military District in Spanish California. Santa Barbara County was one of the twenty-seven original counties of California, formed in 1850 at the time of statehood. The county's territory was later divided to create Ventura County in 1873. Other Spanish and Portuguese settlements named Santa Barbara were established in Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Honduras, Mexico, Venezuela, and the Philippines. Many churches in Russia are dedicated in her name, including one in Moscow, next to Saint Basil's Cathedral, and in Yaroslavl. In the Afro-Cuban religion of Santería she is syncretized with Chango, the deity of fire, lightning, and thunder. In Afro-Brazilian religions of Candomblé and Umbanda, she is often identified as Yansan, the orisha of wind and storms.", "In Ukraine, a church in Kiev has been dedicated to her veneration. Temple of Great-Martyr Barbara (\"Храм великомучениці Варвари\") of Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) is located near Kyrylivsky Hai (\"Кирилівський Гай\") park. In Georgia, Saint Barbara's Day is celebrated as \"Barbaroba\" on December 17 (which is December 4 in the old style calendar). The traditional festive food is \"lobiani\", bread baked with a bean stuffing. In Greece, the day is celebrated by the Artillery Corps of the Greek Army and the Cypriot National Guard. Artillery camps throughout the two countries host celebrations in honor of the saint, where the traditional sweet of loukoumades is offered to soldiers and visitors, allegedly because it resembles cannonballs. Saint Barbara is also the patron saint of the northern Greek city of Drama, where a sweet called \"varvara\", which resembles a more liquid form of koliva, is prepared and consumed on her feast day. In North Macedonia Saint Barbara's day is celebrated by the Orthodox, as \"Варвара (Varvara)\" on 17 December. Some Macedonians celebrate with their closest family and friends at home, while others refrain, believing that people who step in their house on Saint Barbara's day will give them either good or bad luck for the rest of the year. In Armenia, a cave shrine to Saint Barbara (Kuys Varvara) is located on the slopes of Mount Ara and lit candles and flower garlands are used as tribute. Eid il-Burbara or \"Saint Barbara's day\" is celebrated in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan and Palestine, Israel among Arab Christians annually on December 4, in a feast day similar to that of North American Halloween. The traditional food for the occasion is \"Burbara\", a bowl of boiled barley, pomegranate seeds, raisins, anise and sugar. Walnuts or almonds can be added. The general belief among Lebanese Christians is that Saint Barbara disguised herself in numerous characters to elude the Romans who were persecuting her. In the Christian village of Aboud in the West Bank, there is a shrine in a cave that the saint reportedly took refuge in. It is celebrated on December 17.", "The United States Army Field Artillery Association and the United States Army Air Defense Artillery Association maintain the \"Order of Saint Barbara\" as an honorary military society of the United States Army Field Artillery and the United States Army Air Defense Artillery. Members of both the United States Army and United States Marine Corps, along with their military and civilian supporters, are eligible for membership. There are two levels of membership in the order. \"The Honorable Order of St. Barbara\", a silver medallion with red ribbon, is granted for long-term distinguished service in the Field Artillery or Air Defense Artillery corps. Appointment to the Honorable Order may be approved by the first colonel or the seniormost lieutenant-colonel in the chain of command. The most distinguished level is \"The Ancient Order of Saint Barbara\", a gold-colored medallion with red ribbon. Those who are selected for this honor have achieved long-term, exceptional service to the field artillery surpassing even their brethren in the Honorable Order of Saint Barbara. The Ancient order must be approved of by the Commanding General, United States Army Fires Center of Excellence at Fort Sill.", "The name of the barbiturate family of pharmaceutical drugs is believed to derive from the suggestion by an artilleryman commemorating the feast of Saint Barbara in 1864, whom the chemist Adolf von Baeyer encountered at a local tavern whilst celebrating his recent discovery of the parent compound. Saint Barbara is mentioned in Thomas Pynchon's novel \"Against the Day\". The December fourth holiday is compared to the Fourth of July, as being more celebrated by the Dynamiters. Saint Barbara is mentioned in Federico García Lorca's play, \"La Casa de Bernarda Alba\" (1936). According to this drama, a popular Spanish phrase regarding this saint in the early 20th century was: Blessed Santa Barbara, / Your story is written in the sky, / With paper and holy water. The first Spanish-language \"Telenovela\" filmed in color for TV in the US, was the 1973 production of \"Santa Bárbara, Virgen y Mártir,\" filmed entirely on location in Hialeah, Florida. GK Chesterton wrote the Ballad of Saint Barbara, interweaving the Legend of the Saint with the contemporary account of the huge artillery barrages that turned the First Battle of the Marne. Major Barbara is a play by George Bernard Shaw in which the title character is an officer in the Salvation Army and grapples with the moral dilemma of whether this Christian denomination should accept donations from her father, who is an armaments manufacturer. In \"Time Bomb,\" an episode of The Closer, the LAPD deploy a bomb-squad robot named Babs, after St. Barbara in her role as patron saint of artillery and explosives personnel. Saint Barbara's story is mentioned in a live version of The Hold Steady's song \"Don't Let Me Explode\" from Lollapalooza.", "Saint Barbara is usually depicted in art as standing by a tower with three windows and two tables with any chair, carrying a palm branch and a chalice, sometimes with cannons depicted by her side." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Characteristics.", "Types.", "Origins.", "19th century: operetta, incidental music, and salon entertainment.", "Opera.", "Czech.", "Victorian.", "Generic offshoots.", "Modern.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term originated from the early 19th-century French word \"mélodrame\". It is derived from Greek μέλος \"mélos\", \"song, strain\" (compare \"melody\", from \"μελωδία melōdia\", \"singing, song\"), and French \"drame\", drama (from Late Latin \"drāma\", eventually deriving from classical Greek δράμα \"dráma\", \"theatrical plot\", usually of a Greek tragedy).", "The relationship of melodrama compared to realism is complex. The protagonists of melodramatic works may either be ordinary (and hence realistically drawn) people who are caught up in extraordinary events, or highly exaggerated and unrealistic characters. Peter Brooks writes that melodrama, in its high emotions and dramatic rhetoric, represents a \"victory over repression.\" According to Singer, late Victorian and Edwardian melodrama combined a conscious focus on realism in stage sets and props with \"anti-realism\" in character and plot. Melodrama in this period strove for \"credible accuracy in the depiction of incredible, extraordinary\" scenes. Novelist Wilkie Collins is noted for his attention to accuracy in detail (e.g. of legal matters) in his works, no matter how sensational the plot. Melodramas were typically 10 to 20,000 words in length. Melodramas put most of their attention on the victim and a struggle between good and evil choices, such as a man being encouraged to leave his family by an \"evil temptress\". Other stock characters are the \"fallen woman\", the single mother, the orphan and the male who is struggling with the impacts of the modern world. The melodrama examines family and social issues in the context of a private home, with its intended audience being the female spectator; secondarily, the male viewer is able to enjoy the onscreen tensions in the home being resolved. Melodrama generally looks back at ideal, nostalgic eras, emphasizing \"forbidden longings\".", "", "The melodrama approach was revived in the 18th- and 19th-century French romantic drama and the sentimental novels that were popular in both England and France. These dramas and novels focused on moral codes in regards to family life, love, and marriage, and they can be seen as a reflection of the issues brought up by the French Revolution, the industrial revolution and the shift to modernization. Many melodramas were about a middle-class young woman who experienced unwanted sexual advances from an aristocratic miscreant, with the sexual assault being a metaphor for class conflict. The melodrama reflected post-industrial revolution anxieties of the middle class, who were afraid of both aristocratic power brokers and the impoverished working class \"mob\". Beginning in the 18th century, melodrama was a technique of combining spoken recitation with short pieces of accompanying music. In such works, music and spoken dialogue typically alternated, although the music was sometimes also used to accompany pantomime. The earliest known examples are scenes in J. E. Eberlin's Latin school play \"Sigismundus\" (1753). The first full melodrama was Jean-Jacques Rousseau's \"Pygmalion\", the text of which was written in 1762 but was first staged in Lyon in 1770. The overture and an Andante were composed by Rousseau, but the bulk of the music was composed by Horace Coignet. A different musical setting of Rousseau's \"Pygmalion\" by Anton Schweitzer was performed in Weimar in 1772, and Goethe wrote of it approvingly in \"Dichtung und Wahrheit\". \"Pygmalion\" is a monodrama, written for one actor. Some 30 other monodramas were produced in Germany in the fourth quarter of the 18th century. When two actors were involved, the term duodrama could be used. Georg Benda was particularly successful with his duodramas \"Ariadne Auf Naxos\" (1775) and \"Medea\" (1778). The sensational success of Benda's melodramas led Mozart to use two long melodramatic monologues in his opera \"Zaide\" (1780). Other later, and better-known examples of the melodramatic style in operas are the grave-digging scene in Beethoven's \"Fidelio\" (1805) and the incantation scene in Weber's \"Der Freischütz\" (1821). After the English Restoration of Charles II in 1660, most British theatres were prohibited from performing \"serious\" drama, but were permitted to show comedy or plays with music. Charles II issued letters patent to permit only two London theatre companies to perform \"serious\" drama. These were the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane and Lisle's Tennis Court in Lincoln's Inn Fields, the latter of which moved to the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden in 1720 (now the Royal Opera House). The two patent theatres closed in the summer months. To fill the gap, the Theatre Royal, Haymarket became a third patent theatre in London in 1766. Further letters patent were eventually granted to one theatre in each of several other English towns and cities. To get around the restriction, other theatres presented dramas that were underscored with music and, borrowing the French term, called it melodrama. The Theatres Act 1843 finally allowed all the theatres to play drama.", "In the early 19th century, the influence of opera led to musical overtures and incidental music for many plays. In 1820, Franz Schubert wrote a melodrama, \"Die Zauberharfe\" (\"The Magic Harp\"), setting music behind the play written by G. von Hofmann. It was unsuccessful, like all Schubert's theatre ventures, but the melodrama genre was at the time a popular one. In an age of underpaid musicians, many 19th-century plays in London had an orchestra in the pit. In 1826, Felix Mendelssohn wrote his well-known overture to Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", and later supplied the play with incidental music. In Verdi's \"La Traviata\", Violetta receives a letter from Alfredo's father where he writes that Alfredo now knows why she parted from him and that he forgives her (\"Teneste la promessa...\"). In her speaking voice, she intones the words of what is written, while the orchestra recapitulates the music of their first love from Act I: this is technically melodrama. In a few moments Violetta bursts into a passionate despairing aria (\"Addio, del passato\"): this is opera again. In a similar manner, Victorians often added \"incidental music\" under the dialogue to a pre-existing play, although this style of composition was already practiced in the days of Ludwig van Beethoven (\"Egmont\") and Franz Schubert (\"Rosamunde\"). (This type of often-lavish production is now mostly limited to film (see film score) due to the cost of hiring an orchestra. Modern recording technology is producing a certain revival of the practice in theatre, but not on the former scale.) A particularly complete version of this form, Sullivan's incidental music to Tennyson's \"The Foresters\", is available online, complete with several melodramas, for instance, No. 12 found here. A few operettas exhibit melodrama in the sense of music played under spoken dialogue, for instance, Gilbert and Sullivan's \"Ruddigore\" (itself a parody of melodramas in the modern sense) has a short \"melodrame\" (reduced to dialogue alone in many productions) in the second act; Jacques Offenbach's \"Orpheus in the Underworld\" opens with a melodrama delivered by the character of \"Public Opinion\"; and other pieces from operetta and musicals may be considered melodramas, such as the \"Recit and Minuet\" in Gilbert and Sullivan's \"The Sorcerer\". As an example from the American musical, several long speeches in Lerner and Loewe's \"Brigadoon\" are delivered over an accompaniment of evocative music. The technique is also frequently used in Spanish zarzuela, both in the 19th and 20th centuries, and continued also to be used as a \"special effect\" in opera, for instance Richard Strauss's \"Die Frau ohne Schatten\". In Paris, the 19th century saw a flourishing of melodrama in the many theatres that were located on the popular Boulevard du Crime, especially in the Gaîté. All this came to an end, however, when most of these theatres were demolished during the rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann in 1862. By the end of the 19th century, the term melodrama had nearly exclusively narrowed down to a specific genre of salon entertainment: more or less rhythmically spoken words (often poetry) – not sung, sometimes more or less enacted, at least with some dramatic structure or plot – synchronised to an accompaniment of music (usually piano). It was looked down on as a genre for authors and composers of lesser stature (probably also the reason why virtually no realizations of the genre are still remembered). Probably also the time when the connotation of cheap overacting first became associated with the term. As a cross-over genre-mixing narration and chamber music, it was eclipsed nearly overnight by a single composition: Schoenberg's \"Pierrot Lunaire\" (1912), where Sprechgesang was used instead of rhythmically spoken words, and which took a freer and more imaginative course regarding the plot prerogative.", "The great majority of operas are melodramas. The emotional tensions are both communicated and amplified by the appropriate music. The majority of plots involve characters overcoming or succumbing to larger than life events of war, betrayal, monumental love, murder, revenge, filial discord or similar grandiose occurrences. Most characters are simplistically drawn with clear distinctions between virtuous and evil ones and character development and subtlety of situations is sacrificed. Events are arranged to fit with the character's traits to best demonstrate their emotional effects on the character and others. The predominance of melodrama in bel canto works of Donizzetti, Bellini and virtually all Verdi and Puccini is clear with examples too numerous to list. The great multitude of heroines needing to deal with and overcome situations of love impossible in the face of grandiose circumstances is amply exemplified by Lucia, Norma, Leonora, Tosca, Turandot, Mimi, Cio-Cio-San Violetta, Gilda and many others.", "Within the context of the Czech National Revival, the melodrama took on a specifically nationalist meaning for Czech artists, beginning roughly in the 1870s and continuing through the First Czechoslovak Republic of the interwar period. This new understanding of the melodrama stemmed primarily from such nineteenth-century scholars and critics as Otakar Hostinský, who considered the genre to be a uniquely \"Czech\" contribution to music history (based on the national origins of Georg Benda, whose melodramas had nevertheless been in German). Such sentiments provoked a large number of Czech composers to produce melodramas based on Czech romantic poetry such as the \"Kytice\" of Karel Jaromír Erben. The romantic composer Zdeněk Fibich in particular championed the genre as a means of setting Czech declamation correctly: his melodramas \"Štědrý den\" (1874) and \"Vodník\" (1883) use rhythmic durations to specify the alignment of spoken word and accompaniment. Fibich's main achievement was \"Hippodamie\" (1888–1891), a trilogy of full-evening staged melodramas on the texts of Jaroslav Vrchlický with multiple actors and orchestra, composed in an advanced Wagnerian musical style. Josef Suk's main contributions at the turn of the century include melodramas for two-stage plays by Julius Zeyer: \"Radúz a Mahulena\" (1898) and \"Pod Jabloní\" (1901), both of which had a long performance history. Following the examples of Fibich and Suk, many other Czech composers set melodramas as stand-alone works based on poetry of the National Revival, among them Karel Kovařovic, Otakar Ostrčil, Ladislav Vycpálek, Otakar Jeremiáš, Emil Axman, and Jan Zelinka. Vítězslav Novák included portions of melodrama in his 1923 opera \"Lucerna\", and Jaroslav Ježek composed key scenes for the stage plays of the Osvobozené divadlo as melodrama (most notably the opening prologue of the anti-Fascist farce \"Osel a stín\" (1933), delivered by the character of Dionysus in bolero rhythm). The practice of Czech melodramas tapered off after the Nazi Protectorate.", "The Victorian stage melodrama featured six stock characters: the hero, the villain, the heroine, an aged parent, a sidekick and a servant of the aged parent engaged in a sensational plot featuring themes of love and murder. Often the good but not very clever hero is duped by a scheming villain, who has eyes on the damsel in distress until fate intervenes at the end to ensure the triumph of good over evil. Two central features were the coup de théàtre, or reversal of fortune, and the claptrap: a back-to-the-wall oration by the hero which \"forces\" the audience to applaud. English melodrama evolved from the tradition of populist drama established during the Middle Ages by mystery and morality plays, under influences from Italian commedia dell'arte as well as German \"Sturm und Drang\" drama and Parisian melodrama of the post-Revolutionary period. A notable French melodramatist was Pixérécourt whose \"La Femme à deux maris\" was very popular. The first English play to be called a melodrama or'melodrame' was \"A Tale of Mystery\" (1802) by Thomas Holcroft. This was an example of the Gothic genre, a previous theatrical example of which was \"The Castle Spectre\" (1797) by Matthew Gregory Lewis. Other Gothic melodramas include \"The Miller and his Men\" (1813) by Isaac Pocock, \"The Woodsman's Hut\" (1814) by Samuel Arnold and \"The Broken Sword\" (1816) by William Dimond. Supplanting the Gothic, the next popular subgenre was the nautical melodrama, pioneered by Douglas Jerrold in his \"Black-Eyed Susan\" (1829). Other nautical melodramas included Jerrold's \"The Mutiny at the Nore\" (1830) and \"The Red Rover\" (1829) by Edward Fitzball (Rowell 1953). Melodramas based on urban situations became popular in the mid-nineteenth century, including \"The Streets of London\" (1864) by Dion Boucicault; and \"Lost in London\" (1867) by Watts Phillips, while prison melodrama, temperance melodrama, and imperialist melodrama also appeared – the latter typically featuring the three categories of the 'good' native, the brave but wicked native, and the treacherous native. The sensation novels of the 1860s and 1870s not only provided fertile material for melodramatic adaptations but are melodramatic in their own right. A notable example of this genre is \"Lady Audley's Secret\" by Elizabeth Braddon adapted, in two different versions, by George Roberts and C.H. Hazlewood. The novels of Wilkie Collins have the characteristics of melodrama, his best-known work \"The Woman in White\" being regarded by some modern critics as \"the most brilliant melodrama of the period\". The villain is often the central character in melodrama and crime was a favorite theme. This included dramatizations of the murderous careers of Burke and Hare, Sweeney Todd (first featured in \"The String of Pearls\" (1847) by George Dibdin Pitt), the murder of Maria Marten in the Red Barn and the bizarre exploits of Spring Heeled Jack. The misfortunes of a discharged prisoner are the theme of the sensational \"The Ticket-of-Leave Man\" (1863) by Tom Taylor. Early silent films, such as \"The Perils of Pauline\" had similar themes. Later, after silent films were superseded by the 'talkies', stage actor Tod Slaughter, at the age of 50, transferred to the screen the Victorian melodramas in which he had played a villain in his earlier theatrical career. These films, which include \"Maria Marten or Murder in the Red Barn\" (1935), \"\" (1936) and \"The Ticket of Leave Man\" (1937) are a unique record of a bygone art-form.", "", "Classic melodrama is less common than it used to be on television and in movies in the Western world. However, it is still widely popular in other regions, particularly in Asia and in Hispanic countries. Melodrama is one of the main genres (along with romance, comedy and fantasy) used in Latin American television dramas (telenovelas), particularly in Venezuela, Mexico, Colombia, Argentina and Brazil, and in Asian television dramas, particularly in South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Pakistan, Thailand, India, Turkey and (in a fusion of the Hispanic and Asian cultures) the Philippines. Expatriate communities in the diaspora of these countries give viewership a global market.", "Melodrama films are a subgenre of drama films characterised by a plot that appeals to the heightened emotions of the audience. They generally depend on stereotyped character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes. Melodramatic films tend to use plots that often deal with crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship. Victims, couples, virtuous and heroic characters or suffering protagonists (usually heroines) in melodramas are presented with tremendous social pressures, threats, repression, fears, improbable events or difficulties with friends, community, work, lovers, or family. The melodramatic format allows the character to work through their difficulties or surmount the problems with resolute endurance, sacrificial acts, and steadfast bravery. Film critics sometimes use the term pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, pathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal to feminine audiences.\" Melodramas focus on family issues and the themes of duty and love. As melodramas emphasize the family unit, women are typically depicted in a subordinate, traditional role, and the woman is shown as facing self-sacrifice and repression. In melodramas, men are shown in the domestic, stereotypically female home environment; as such, to resolve the challenges presented by the story, the male must learn to negotiate this \"female\" space. Since men who are learning to operate in the domestic sphere appear \"less male...and more feminized\", this makes melodramas appealing to female viewers. Melodramas place their attention on a victim character. Since melodramas are set in the home and in a small town, it can be challenging for the filmmaker to create a sense of action given that it all takes place in one claustrophobic sphere; one way to add in more locations is through flashbacks to the past.The sense of being trapped often causes challenges for children, teen and female characters. The sense of being trapped leads to obsessions with unobtainable objects or other people, and to inner aggressiveness or \"aggressiveness by proxy\". Feminists have noted four categories of themes: those with a female patient, a maternal figure, an \"impossible love\", and the paranoid melodrama. Most film melodramas from the 1930s and 1940s, known as \"weepies\" or \"tearjerkers\", were adaptations of women's fiction, such as romance novels and historical romances. Melodramas focus on women's subjectivity and perspective and female desire; however, due to the Hay's Code, this desire could not be explicitly shown on screen from the 1930s to the late 1960s, so female desire is de-eroticized. During the 1940s the British Gainsborough melodramas were successful with audiences. A director of 1950s melodrama films was Douglas Sirk who worked with Rock Hudson on \"Written on the Wind\" and \"All That Heaven Allows\", both staples of the genre. Melodramas like the 1990s TV \"Moment of Truth\" movies targeted audiences of American women by portraying the effects of alcoholism, domestic violence, rape and the like. Typical of the genre is Anjelica Huston's 1999 film \"Agnes Browne\". In the 1970s, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, who was very much influenced by Sirk, contributed to the genre by engaging with class in \"The Merchant of Four Seasons\" (1971) and \"Mother Küsters Goes to Heaven\" (1975), with sexual orientation and codependency in \"The Bitter Tears of Petra von Kant\" (1972) and with racism, xenophobia and ageism in \"Fear Eats the Soul\" (1974). More recently, Todd Haynes has renewed the genre with his 2002 film \"Far from Heaven\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Flora classifications.", "Documentation of floras." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"flora\" comes from the Latin name of Flora, the goddess of plants, flowers, and fertility in Roman mythology. The technical term \"flora\" is then derived from a metonymy of this goddess at the end of the sixteenth century. It was first used in poetry to denote the natural vegetation of an area, but soon also assumed the meaning of a work cataloguing such vegetation. Moreover, \"Flora\" was used to refer to the flowers of an artificial garden in the seventeenth century. The distinction between vegetation (the general appearance of a community) and flora (the taxonomic composition of a community) was first made by Jules Thurmann (1849). Prior to this, the two terms were used indiscriminately.", "Plants are grouped into floras based on region (floristic regions), period, special environment, or climate. Regions can be distinct habitats like mountain vs. flatland. Floras can mean plant life of a historic era as in \"fossil flora\". Lastly, floras may be subdivided by special environments:", "The flora of a particular area or time period can be documented in a publication also known as a \"flora\" (often capitalized as \"Flora\" to distinguish the two meanings when they might be confused). Floras may require specialist botanical knowledge to use with any effectiveness. Traditionally they are books, but some are now published on CD-ROM or websites. Simon Paulli's \"Flora Danica\" of 1648 is probably the first book titled \"Flora\" to refer to the plant world of a certain region. It mainly describes medicinal plants growing in Denmark. The \"Flora Sinensis\" by the Polish Jesuit Michał Boym is another early example of a book titled \"Flora\". However, despite its title it covered not only plants, but also some animals of the region, that is China and India. A published flora often contains diagnostic keys. Often these are \"dichotomous\" keys, which require the user to repeatedly examine a plant, and decide which one of two alternatives given best applies to the plant." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Worship.", "Literary sources.", "Homer.", "Hesiod.", "Pseudo-Apollodorus.", "Hyginus.", "Hesychius." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Dione (Διώνη \"Diṓnē\", from earlier *Διϝωνᾱ \"Diwōnā\") is essentially the feminine of the genitive form of Greek Ζεύς \"Zeús\", that is, Διός \"Diós\" (from earlier Διϝός \"Diwós\"), \"of Zeus\". Other goddesses were called by this name (see Dione). Due to her being a daughter of Dione, Aphrodite was sometimes called \"Dionaea\" (Διωναίη \"Diōnaíē\") and even \"Dione\". Following the deciphering of Linear B by Ventris and Chadwick in the 1950s, a goddess named \"Di-u-ja\" was found in the tablets. This was considered to be a female counterpart of Zeus and identified with Dione by some scholars.", "By the time of Strabo, Dione was worshiped at a sacred grove near Lepreon on the west coast of the Peloponnesus. She was also worshiped as a consort at the temples of Zeus, particularly his oracle at Dodona(perhaps the original, Indo-European consort of Zeus). Herodotus called this the oldest oracle in Greece and recorded two related accounts of its founding: the priests at Thebes in Egypt told him that two priestesses had been taken by Phoenician pirates, one to Libya and the other to Dodona and continued their earlier rites; the priestesses of Dodona claimed that two black doves had flown to Libya and Dodona and commanded the creation of oracles to Zeus. Homer and Herodotus both make Zeus the principal deity of the site, but some scholars propose Dodona originally served as a cult center of an earth goddess. In the 2nd-century BC sculptural frieze of the Great Altar of Pergamum, Dione is inscribed in the cornice directly above her name and figures in the eastern third of the north frieze, among the Olympian family of Aphrodite. This placementmaking her the offspring of Uranus and Gaiais Homeric and contradicts the theory put forth by Erika Simon that the altar's organization was Hesiodic. Dione's possible appearance in the east pediment of the Parthenon would likewise place her among the children of Uranus and Gaia.", "The mythology concerning Dione is not consistent across the existing sources.", "In Book V of the \"Iliad\", during the last year of the Trojan War, Aphrodite attempts to save her son Aeneas from the rampaging Greek hero Diomedes as she had previously saved her favorite Paris from his duel with Menelaus in Book III. Enraged, Diomedes chases her and drives his spear into her hand between the wrist and palm. Escorted by Iris to Ares, she borrows his horses and returns to Olympus. Dione consoles her with other examples of gods wounded by mortalsAres bound by the Aloadae and Hera and Hades shot by Heraclesand notes that Diomedes is risking his life by fighting against the gods. In fact, Diomedes subsequently fought both Apollo and Ares but lived to an old age; his wife Aegialia, however, took other lovers and never permitted him to return home to Argos after the war. Dione then heals her wounds and Zeus, while admonishing her to leave the battlefield, calls her daughter.", "Dione is not mentioned in Hesiod's treatment of the Titans, although the name does appear in the \"Theogony\" among his list of Oceanids, the daughters of Oceanus and Tethys, and according to Hesiod, Aphrodite was born from the foam created by the severed genitals of Uranus, when they were thrown into the sea by Cronus, after he castrated Uranus.", "The \"Bibliotheca\" of the Pseudo-Apollodorus includes Dione among the Titans and makes her the child of Gaia and Uranus. He makes her the mother of Aphrodite by Zeus but clearly describes Dione as one of the god's adulterous partners and not his wife.", "The Genealogy or Preface of Gaius Julius Hyginus's \"Fabulae\", lists Dione among the children of Gaia and Aether.", "The 5th-century grammarian Hesychius of Alexandria described Dione as the mother of Bacchus in her entry from his \"Alphabetical Collection of All Words\". This is separately supported by one of the scholiasts on Pindar." ] }

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{ "title": [ "As part of economic strategy.", "In zoning.", "Greenhouse gas emissions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Many East Asian countries rely on heavy industry as key parts of their overall economies. This reliance on heavy industry is typically a matter of government economic policy. Among Japanese and Korean firms with \"heavy industry\" in their names, many are also manufacturers of aerospace products and defense contractors to their respective countries' governments such as Japan's Fuji Heavy Industries and Korea's Hyundai Rotem, a joint project of Hyundai Heavy Industries and Daewoo Heavy Industries. In 20th-century communist states, the planning of the economy often focused on heavy industry as an area for large investments, even to the extent of painful opportunity costs on the production–possibility frontier (classically, \"lots of guns and not enough butter\"). This was motivated by fears of failing to maintain military parity with foreign capitalist powers. For example, the Soviet Union's manic industrialization in the 1930s, with heavy industry as the favored emphasis, sought to bring its ability to produce trucks, tanks, artillery, aircraft, and warships up to a level that would make the country a great power. China under Mao Zedong pursued a similar strategy, eventually culminating in the Great Leap Forward of 1958–1960, an attempt to rapidly industrialize and collectivize. This industrialization attempt failed to create industrialization and instead caused the Great Chinese Famine, in which 25-30 million people died prematurely.", "Heavy industry is also sometimes a special designation in local zoning laws. This allows industries with heavy impacts (on environment, infrastructure, and employment) to be sited with forethought. For example, the zoning restrictions for landfills usually take into account the heavy truck traffic that will exert expensive wear on the roads leading to the landfill.", "heavy industry emits about 22% of global greenhouse gas emissions: high temperature heat for heavy industry being about 10% of global emissions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Network.", "Tram fleet.", "History.", "Horse trams.", "Electric trams.", "More war and its aftermath.", "Minsk Metro." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The focus of the network is two sets of lines crossing through the city centre, with a small ring/loop section in the central district. There are five terminus turning loops at the ends of the lines (one of which splits shortly before reaching its western end points). There are also three terminus-style turning loops positioned approximately mid-way along a couple of the lines: these serve additional, shorter, routes.", "In recent years the network has been operated mainly by trams from the local manufacturer, Belkommunmash. Before that, most of the vehicles came from the Latvian RVR company, some of which have been rebuilt. The RVR-6 was introduced to the network in 1966 and by 1981 was said to have become the only tram type in regular use. 24 Tatra T6B5 trams were acquired in 1991, followed in 2003, by ten twenty year old from the city of Karlsruhe: the Germans handed over the trams for free, stating that this was cheaper than paying to scrap them, while the Belarusians were confident of being able to undertake cost-effectively the principal modification, which involved adapting the axles for the wider Russian gauge. The local Belkommunmash company is currently completing development of a low-floor fourth generation tram for the city: the first examples are currently in service on a test basis.", "", "The history of the tram network starts with the opening of a horse tram on 22 May 1892, following two years of construction by the \"Company for city and suburb horse-railways in Minsk\". This came in the wake of massive population growth, from 5,500 in the 1860s to 91,000 by the end of the century, and after several decades during which horse-drawn omnibus services had proliferated across the booming city. Horse trams were already well established in other major Russian cities, and were considered safer and more comfortable than the horse omnibuses at a time when city streets were generally unpaved. By 1900 a horse-tram line connected two of the principal main-line rail stations, and a slow process now began creating a wider network centred on this. In 1909 the network was taken over by the \"Russian Company of Urban and Suburban trams\" and in 1913 it was transferred into the ownership of the city authorities. Between May 1918 and 7 August 1921 the trams stopped, thanks to the First World War and the Civil War that followed the 1917 Russian Revolution.", "A major upgrade, which some sources identify as the beginning of the modern tram network in Minsk, started on 20 January 1928 and concluded on 13 October 1929. This marked the formal opening of a new system, now using electrically powered trams. The old one meter gauge had been replaced with standard Russian broad gauge. At this stage there were two routes: In 1929 approximately 18-19,000 passengers used the trams each day, and the tram cars were also being used for carrying freight. The early 1930s saw a steady expansion of the network. By 1934 the system had been extended further and was organised into seven routes, serviced by 6 tramcars over a total line distance of. In 1939 there were 70 tramcars for passengers and the total length of the tramlines had grown to.", "The trams stopped again with the German invasion in June 1941. Under occupation, one line was restarted in May 1943, but as the tide turned of war turned the trams stopped running again in June 1944, and the retreating German armies took with them substation equipment and blew up important tram infrastructure as they left. After the war it took some time for services to get back to normal. The post war years saw a big growth in motor bus and trolleybus operations in Minsk. In August 1951 the city sent 26 workers from the tram department to retrain as trolleybus drivers and in March 1952 the city's tram and trolleybus services were merged into a single operation. Nevertheless, work on extending the Minsk tram network also continued, and by there were tram routes totalling, serviced by 122 tramcars. A major investment in the 1960s funded a new tram depot, completed in 1966, with capacity for 250 tramcars, and there was also investment in electrically heated points for the tram network.", "Work started on the Minsk Metro in 1977, and the first of its two lines opened in 1984. The second opened in 1990. On 30 June 1984 tram lines were removed from main streets in the busy centre of Minsk, and the tram network assumed the configuration which it currently (2015) retains." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Africa.", "South Africa.", "Latin America and the Caribbean.", "Mulattoes in colonial Spanish America.", "Mulattoes in the modern era.", "Brazil.", "Hispaniola.", "Puerto Rico.", "United States.", "Colonial and Antebellum eras.", "Influence.", "Contemporary era." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The English term \"mulatto\" is derived from the Spanish and Portuguese \"mulato\". The origin of \"mulato\" is uncertain, though it may derive from Portuguese \"mula\" (from the Latin \"mūlus\"), meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse and a donkey. The Real Academia Española traces its origin to \"mulo\" in the sense of hybridity; originally used to refer to any mixed race person. Jack D. Forbes suggests it originated in the Arabic term \"muwallad\", which means \"a person of mixed ancestry\". \"Muwallad\" literally means \"born, begotten, produced, generated; brought up\", with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, but not of Arab blood. \"Muwallad\" is derived from the root word \"WaLaD\" (Arabic: ولد direct Arabic transliteration: \"waw, lam, dal\"), and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. \"Walad\" means, \"descendant, offspring, scion; child; son; boy; young animal, young one\". In al-Andalus, \"Muwallad\" referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Specifically, the term was historically applied to the descendants of indigenous Christian Iberians who, after several generations of living among a Muslim majority, adopted their culture and religion. Notable examples of this category include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. According to Lisan al-Arab, one of the earliest Arab dictionaries (c. 13th century AD), applied the term to the children of Non-Muslim (often Christian) slaves, or Non-Muslim children who were captured in a war and were raised by Muslims to follow their religion and culture. Thus, in this context, the term \"Muwalad\" has a meaning close to \"the adopted\". According to the same source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood and local culture. In English, printed usage of \"mulatto\" dates to at least the 16th century. The 1595 work \"Drake's Voyages\" first used the term in the context of intimate unions producing biracial children. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" defined mulatto as \"one who is the offspring of a European and a Black\". This earliest usage regarded \"black\" and \"white\" as discrete \"species\", with the \"mulatto\" constituting a third separate \"species\". According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources \"muwallad\" is the etymological origin of \"mulato.\" These sources specify that \"mulato\" would have been derived directly from \"muwallad\" independently of the related word \"muladí,\" a term that was applied to Iberian Christians who had converted to Islam during the Moorish governance of Iberia in the Middle Ages. The Real Academia Española (Spanish Royal Academy) casts doubt on the \"muwallad\" theory. It states, \"The term \"mulata\" is documented in our diachronic data bank in 1472 and is used in reference to livestock mules in \"Documentacion medieval de la Corte de Justicia de Ganaderos de Zaragoza,\" whereas \"muladí\" (from \"mullawadí\") does not appear until the 18th century, according to [Joan] Corominas\". Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and Josiah Nott began to assert that mulattoes were sterile like mules. They projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollors points out that this etymology is anachronistic: \"The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word 'Mulatto.'\"", "Of São Tomé and Príncipe's 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as \"mestiço,\" or mixed race. 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such. The great majority of their current populations descend from unions between the Portuguese, who settled the islands from the 15th century onward, and black Africans they brought from the African mainland to work as slaves. In the early years, mestiços began to form a third-class between the Portuguese colonists and African slaves, as they were usually bilingual and often served as interpreters between the populations. In Angola and Mozambique, the \"mestiço\" constitute smaller but still important minorities; 2% in Angola and 0.2% in Mozambique. Mulatto and \"mestiço\" are not terms commonly used in South Africa to refer to people of mixed ancestry. The persistence of some authors in using this term, anachronistically, reflects the old-school essentialist views of race as a \"de facto\" biological phenomenon, and the'mixing' of race as legitimate grounds for the creation of a 'new race'. This disregards cultural, linguistic and ethnic diversity and/or differences between regions and globally among populations of mixed ancestry. In Namibia, an ethnic group known as Rehoboth Basters, descend from historic liaisons between the Cape Colony Dutch and indigenous African women. The name Baster is derived from the Dutch word for \"bastard\" (or \"crossbreed\"). While some people consider this term demeaning, the Basters proudly use the term as an indication of their history. In the early 21st century, they number between 20,000 and 30,000 people. There are, of course, other people of mixed race in the country.", "In South Africa, Coloured is a term used to refer to individuals with some degree of sub-Saharan ancestry but subjectively 'not enough' to be considered black-African under the Apartheid era law of South Africa. Today people self-identify as 'Coloured'. Other Afrikaans terms used include \"Bruinmense\" (translates to \"brown people\"), \"Kleurlinge\" (translates to \"Coloured\") or \"Bruin Afrikaners\" (translates to \"brown Africans\" and is used to distinguish them from the main body of \"Afrikaners\" (translates to \"African\") who are white). Under Apartheid law through the latter half of the 20th century, the government established seven categories of Coloured people: Cape Coloured, Cape Malay, Griqua and Other Coloured - the aim of subdivisions was to enhance the meaning of the larger category of Coloured by making it all encompassing. Legally and politically speaking, all people of colour were classified \"black\" in the non-racial terms of anti-Apartheid rhetoric of the Black Consciousness Movement. In addition to European ancestry, the Coloured people usually had some portion of Asian ancestry from immigrants from India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Malaysia, Mauritius, Sri Lanka, China and/or Saint Helena. Based on the Population Registration Act to classify people, the government passed laws prohibiting mixed marriages. Many people who classified as belonging to the \"Asian\" category could legally intermarry with \"mixed-race\" people because they shared the same nomenclature. There was extensive combining of these diverse heritages in the Western Cape. In other parts of South Africa and neighboring states, the coloured usually were descendants of two primary ethnic groups - primarily Africans of various tribes and European colonists of various tribes, with generations of coloured forming families. The use of the term 'Coloured' has changed over the course of history. For instance, in the first census after the South African war (1912), Indians were counted as 'Coloured'. But before and after this war, they were counted as 'Asiatic'. In KwaZulu-Natal, most Coloureds (that were classified as \"other coloureds\") had British and Zulu heritage. Zimbabwean coloureds were descended from Shona or Ndebele mixing with British and Afrikaner settlers. Griqua, on the other hand, are descendants of Khoisan and Afrikaner trekboers, with contributions from central Southern African groups. The Griqua were subjected to an ambiguity of other creole people within Southern African social order. According to Nurse and Jenkins (1975), the leader of this \"mixed\" group, Adam Kok I, was a former slave of the Dutch governor. He was manumitted and provided land outside Cape Town in the eighteenth century. With territories beyond the Dutch East India Company administration, Kok provided refuge to deserting soldiers, refugee slaves, and remaining members of various Khoikhoi tribes.", "", "Africans were transported by Portuguese slave traders to Spanish America starting in the early 16th century. Offspring of European Spaniards and African women resulted early on in mixed-race children, termed Mulattos. In Spanish law, the status of the child followed that of the mother, so that despite having a Spanish parent, their offspring were enslaved. The label Mulatto was recorded in official colonial documentation, so that marriage registers, censuses, and court documents allow research on different aspects of mulattos’ lives. Although some legal documents simply label a person a Mulatto/a, other designations occurred. In the sales of casta slaves in 17th-century Mexico City, official notaries recorded gradations of skin color in the transactions. These included \"mulato blanco\" or \"mulata blanca\" (white mulatto), for light-skinned slave. These were usually American-born (\"criollo\") slaves. Some said categorized persons i.e.m'mulata blanca.' used their light skin to their advantage if they escpaped their unlawful and bruatal incarceration from their criminal slave owners, thus 'passing' as free persons on color. \"Mulatos blancos\" often emphasized their Spanish parentage, and considered themselves and were considered separate from \"negros\" or \"pardos\" and ordinary mulattos. Darker mulatto slaves were often termed \"mulatos prietos\" or sometimes \"mulatos cochos\". In Chile, along with \"mulatos blancos\", there were also \"españoles oscuros\" (dark Spaniards). There was considerable malleability and manipulation of racial labeling, including the seemingly stable category of mulatto. In a case that came before the Mexican Inquisition, a woman publicly identified as a mulatta was described by a Spanish priest, Diego Xaimes Ricardo Villavicencio, as \"a white mulata with curly hair, because she is the daughter of a dark-skinned mulata and a Spaniard, and for her manner of dress she has flannel petticoats and a native blouse (\"huipil\"), sometimes silken, sometimes woolen. She wears shoes, and her natural and common language is not Spanish, but Chocho [an indigenous Mexican language], as she was brought up among Indians with her mother, from which she contracted the vice of drunkenness, to which she often succumbs, as Indians do, and from them she has also received the crime of [idolatry].\" Community members were interrogated as to their understanding of her racial standing. Her mode of dress, very wavy hair and light skin confirmed for one witness that she was a mulatta. Ultimately though, her rootedness in the indigenous community persuaded the Inquisition that she was an \"India\", and therefore outside of their jurisdiction. Even though the accused physical features of a mulatta, her cultural category was more important. In colonial Latin America, \"mulatto\" could also refer to an individual of mixed African and Native American ancestry. English Dominican friar Thomas Gage spent over a decade in Mexico and Central America in the early 17th century, who converted to Anglicanism and later wrote of his travels, often disparaging Spanish American society and culture. In Mexico City, he observed in considerable detail the opulence of dress of women, saying \"The attire of this baser sort of people of blackamoors and mulattoes (which are of a mixed nature, of Spaniards and blackamoors) is so light, and their carriage so enticing, that many Spaniards even of the better sort (who are too too [sic] prone to venery) disdain their wives for them...Most of these are or have been slaves, though love have set them loose, at liberty to enslave souls to sin and Satan.\" In the late 18th century, some mixed-race persons sought legal \"certificates of whiteness\" (\"cédulas de gracias al sacar\"), in order to rise socially and practice professions. American-born Spaniards (\"criollos\") sought to prevent the approval of such petitions, since the \"purity\" of their own whiteness would be in jeopardy. They asserted their \"purity of blood (\"limpieza de sangre\") as white persons who had \"always been known, held and commonly reputed to be white persons, Old Christians of the nobility, clean of all bad blood and without any mixture of commoner, Jew, Moor, Mulatto, or converso in any degree, no matter how remote.\" Spaniards both American- and Iberian-born discriminated against pardos and mulattoes because of their \"bad blood.\" One Cuban sought the grant of his petition in order to practice as a surgeon, a profession from which he was barred because of his mulatto designation. Royal laws and decrees prevented pardos and mulattoes from serving as a public notary, lawyer, pharmacist, ordination to the priesthood, or graduation from university. Mulattas declared white could marry a Spaniard.", "Mulattoes represent a significant part of the population of various Latin American and Caribbean countries: Dominican Republic (73%; all mixed-race people), Brazil (49.1% mixed-race, Gypsy and Black, Mulattoes (20.5%), Mestiços, Mamelucos or Caboclos (21.3%), Blacks (7.1%) and Eurasian (0.2%)), Belize (25%), Colombia (10,4%), Cuba (24.86%), Haiti (15%). In the 21st century, persons with indigenous and black African ancestry in Latin America are more frequently called \"zambos\" in Spanish or \"cafuzo\" in Portuguese.", "Studies carried out by the geneticist Sergio Pena conclude the average white Brazilian is 80% European, 10% Amerindian, and 10% African/black. Another study, carried out by the \"Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research\", concludes the average white Brazilian is (>70%) European. According to the IBGE 2000 census, 38.5% of Brazilians identified as \"pardo\", i.e. of mixed ancestry. This figure includes mulatto and other multiracial people, such as people who have European and Amerindian ancestry (called \"caboclos\"), as well as assimilated, westernized Amerindians, and mestizos with some Asian ancestry. A majority of mixed-race Brazilians have all three ancestries: Amerindian, European, and African. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics census 2006, some 42.6% of Brazilian identify as \"pardo,\" an increase over the 2000 census. According to genetic studies, some of those who identify as White Brazilians (48.4%) also have some mixed-race ancestry (both Subsaharan African and Amerindian ancestry). Brazilians who identify as \"de raça negra\" or \"de cor preta\", i.e. Brazilians of Black African origin, make up 6.9% of the population; genetic studies show their average total ancestry is still mixed: 40% African, 50% European, and 10% Amerindian, but they likely grew up within visibly black communities. Such autosomal DNA studies, which measure total genetic contribution, continue to reveal differences between how individuals identify, which is usually based in family and close community, with genetic ancestry, which may relate to a distant past they know little about. Such DNA studies were conducted of students at a school in the poor periphery of Rio de Janeiro. It found that the multiracial \"pardos\" were genetically more than 80% European in ancestry. \"The results of the tests of genomic ancestry are quite different from the self made estimates of European ancestry\", say the researchers. The test results showed that the proportion of European genetic ancestry was higher than students expected. When questioned before the test, students who identified as \"pardos\", for example, identified as 1/3 European, 1/3 African and 1/3 Amerindian. On the other hand, students classified as \"white\" tended to overestimate their proportion of African and Amerindian genetic ancestry.", "Mulattoes account for up to 5% of Haiti's population. In Haitian history, such mixed-race people, known in colonial times as free people of color, gained some education and property before the Revolution. In some cases, their white fathers arranged for multiracial sons to be educated in France and join the military, giving them an advance economically. Free people of color gained some social capital and political power before the Revolution, were influential during the Revolution and since then. The people of color have retained their elite position, based on education and social capital, that is apparent in the political, economic and cultural hierarchy in present-day Haiti. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been people of color. The struggle within Haiti between the people of color led by André Rigaud and the black Haitians led by Toussaint Louverture devolved into the War of Knives. In the early period of independence, former slaves of majority-black ancestry led the government, as it was the many more numerous slaves who had done most of the fighting in the North, where the largest plantations were, to achieve independence. In 1806, Haiti divided into a black-controlled north and a mulatto-ruled south. Jean-Pierre Boyer (1818–43), the son of a Frenchman and a former African slave, managed to unify a divided Haiti but excluded blacks from power. In 1847, a black military officer named Faustin Soulouque was made president, with the mulattoes supporting him; but, instead of proving a tool in the hands of the senators, he showed a strong will, and, although by his antecedents belonging to the mulatto party, he began to attach the blacks to his interest. The mulattoes retaliated by conspiring; but Soulouque began to decimate his enemies by confiscation, proscriptions, and executions. The black soldiers began a general massacre in Port-au-Prince, which ceased only after the French consul, Charles Reybaud, threatened to order the landing of marines from the men-of-war in the harbor. Ambitious to unite the two parts of the island, Soulouque invaded the Dominican territory in March, 1849, but was defeated in a decisive battle by Pedro Santana near Ocoa on 21 April and compelled to retreat. Haitian strategy was ridiculed by the American press: Despite the failure of the campaign, he caused himself to be proclaimed emperor on 26 August 1849, under the name of Faustin I. Toward the close of 1855, he invaded the Dominican territory again at the head of an army of 30,000 men, but was again defeated by Santana, and barely escaped being captured. His treasure and crown fell into the hands of the enemy. Soulouque was ousted in a military coup led by mulatto General Fabre Geffrard in 1858–59. In the eastern two-thirds of Hispaniola, the mulattoes were an ever-growing majority group, and in essence they took over the entire Dominican Republic, with no organized black opposition.", "In a 2002 genetic study of maternal and paternal direct lines of ancestry of 800 Puerto Ricans, 61% had mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from an Amerindian female ancestor, 27% inherited MtDNA from a female African ancestor and 12% had MtDNA from a female European ancestor. Conversely, patrilineal direct lines, as indicated by the Y chromosome, showed that 70% of Puerto Rican males in the sample have Y chromosome DNA from a male European ancestor, 20% inherited Y-DNA from a male African ancestor, and less than 10% inherited Y-DNA from a male Amerindian ancestor. As these tests measure only the DNA along the direct matrilineal and patrilineal lines of inheritance, they cannot tell what total percentage of European, Indigenous, or African ancestry any individual has. In keeping with Spanish practice, for most of its colonial period, Puerto Rico had laws such as the \"Regla del Sacar\" or \"Gracias al Sacar.\" A person with African ancestry could be considered legally white if he could prove that at least one person per generation in the last four generations had been legally white. People of black ancestry with known white lineage were classified as white, in contrast to the \"one-drop rule\" put into law in the early 20th century in the United States. In colonial and antebellum times in certain locations, persons of three-quarters or more white ancestry were considered legally white. If born to slave mothers, however, this status did not overrule their being considered slaves, like Sally Hemings, who was three-quarters white, and her children by Thomas Jefferson, who were seven-eighths white, and all born into slavery.", "", "Historians have documented sexual abuse of slave women during the colonial and post-revolutionary slavery times by white men in power: planters, their sons before marriage, overseers, etc., which resulted in many multiracial children born into slavery. Starting with Virginia in 1662, colonies adopted the principle of \"partus sequitur ventrem\" in slave law, which said that children born in the colony were born into the status of their mother. Thus, children born to slave mothers were born into slavery, regardless of who their fathers were and whether they were baptized as Christians. Children born to white mothers were free, even if they were mixed-race. Children born to free mixed-race mothers were also free. Paul Heinegg has documented that most of the free people of color listed in the 1790–1810 censuses in the Upper South were descended from unions and marriages during the colonial period in Virginia between white women, who were free or indentured servants, and African or African-American men, servant, slave or free. In the early colonial years, such working-class people lived and worked closely together, and slavery was not as much of a racial caste. Slave law had established that children in the colony took the status of their mothers. This meant that multi-racial children born to white women were born free. The colony required them to serve lengthy indentures if the woman was not married, but nonetheless, numerous individuals with African ancestry were born free, and formed more free families. Over the decades, many of these free people of color became leaders in the African-American community; others married increasingly into the white community. His findings have been supported by DNA studies and other contemporary researchers as well. A daughter born to a South Asian father and Irish mother in Maryland in 1680, both of whom probably came to the colony as indentured servants, was classified as a \"mulatto\" and sold into slavery. Historian F. James Davis says, Historically in the American South, the term mulatto was also applied at times to persons with mixed Native American and African American ancestry. For example, a 1705 Virginia statute reads as follows: \"And for clearing all manner of doubts which hereafter may happen to arise upon the construction of this act, or any other act, who shall be accounted a mulatto, Be it enacted and declared, and it is hereby enacted and declared, That the child of an Indian and the child, grand child, or great grand child, of a negro shall be deemed, accounted, held and taken to be a mulatto.\"But southern colonies began to prohibit Indian slavery in the eighteenth century, so, according to their own laws, even mixed-race children born to Native American women should be considered free. The societies did not always observe this distinction. Certain Native American tribes of the Inocoplo family in Texas referred to themselves as \"mulatto\". At one time, Florida's laws declared that a person from any number of mixed ancestries would be legally defined as a mulatto, including White/Hispanic, Black/Native American, and just about any other mix as well. In the United States, due to the influence and laws making slavery a racial caste, and later practices of hypodescent, white colonists and settlers tended to classify persons of mixed African and Native American ancestry as black, regardless of how they identified themselves, or sometimes as Black Indians. But many tribes had matrilineal kinship systems and practices of absorbing other peoples into their cultures. Multiracial children born to Native American mothers were customarily raised in her family and specific tribal culture. Federally recognized Native American tribes have insisted that identity and membership is related to culture rather than race, and that individuals brought up within tribal culture are fully members, regardless of whether they also have some European or African ancestry. Many tribes have had mixed-race members who identify primarily as members of the tribes. If the multiracial children were born to slave women (generally of at least partial African descent), they were classified under slave law as slaves. This was to the advantage of slaveowners, as Indian slavery had been abolished. If mixed-race children were born to Native American mothers, they should be considered free, but sometimes slaveholders kept them in slavery anyway. Multiracial children born to slave mothers were generally raised within the African-American community and considered \"black\".", "Some mixed-race people in the South became wealthy enough to become slave owners themselves. At times they held family members in slavery when there were many restrictions against freeing slaves. By the time of the Civil War, many mixed-race persons, or free people of color, who were accepted in the society supported the Confederacy. For example, William Ellison owned 60 slaves. Andrew Durnford of New Orleans, which had a large population of free people of color, mostly of French descent and Catholic culture, was listed in the census as owning 77 slaves. In Louisiana free people of color constituted a third class between white colonists and the mass of slaves. Other multiracial people became abolitionists and supported the Union. Frederick Douglass escaped slavery and became nationally known as an abolitionist in the North. In other examples, Mary Ellen Pleasant and Thomy Lafon of New Orleans used their fortunes to support the abolitionist cause. Francis E. Dumas, also a free person of color in New Orleans, emancipated all his slaves and organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of the Louisiana Native Guards. The men of color below spanned the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.", "Mulatto was used as an official census racial category in the United States, to acknowledge multiracial persons, until 1930. (In the early 20th century, several southern states had adopted the one-drop rule as law, and southern Congressmen pressed the US Census Bureau to drop the mulatto category: they wanted all persons to be classified as \"black\" or \"white\".) In the 2000 United States Census, 6,171 Americans self-identified as having mulatto ancestry. Since then, persons responding to the census have been allowed to identify as having more than one type of ethnic ancestry." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Fw 190.", "High-altitude fighters.", "Japanese version.", "Design.", "High-altitude features.", "Armament.", "Performance.", "Operational history.", "Production.", "Surviving aircraft.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Fw 190's BMW 801 engine was originally designed for bomber and transport aircraft flying at medium altitudes in the range. In keeping with this role it used a relatively simple single-stage supercharger that lacked performance above altitude. This presented a problem for fighter use, where high-altitude performance was desirable. Through careful tuning, the Fw 190 instead emerged as a powerful medium altitude design. Several experimental models of the 190 with different engines were tested with improved high altitude performance, but these were not high priority projects. Allied heavy bombers and escort fighters began flying operations at higher altitudes, around. At these altitudes, the 190 found itself at a disadvantage, becoming acute in early 1944 when the long range P-51 Mustang arrived in quantity. This led to the introduction of the Fw 190D-9, mounting the Junkers Jumo 213E engine. This engine had a two-stage supercharger and much better altitude performance. However, the rest of the aircraft's design, especially the relatively short wings, made it difficult to fly at high altitudes. While the D-9 upgrade was expedient, it was not ideal.", "Rumors of the B-29, which would cruise at altitudes at which no German aircraft could comfortably operate, added impetus for a dedicated high-altitude design. The \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (German Air Ministry, or \"RLM\") requested proposals from both Focke-Wulf and Messerschmitt for a high-altitude interceptor. Messerschmitt answered with the Bf 109H, and Focke-Wulf entered a range of designs; the Fw 190 \"Raffat-1\" (Ra-1) fighter would replace the existing 190D series, the Ra-2 was a dedicated high altitude fighter, and the Ra-3 was a ground-attack aircraft. These designs developed into the Fw 190 V20 (Ta 152A), V21 (Ta 152B) and V30 (Ta 152H) prototypes, all based on the 190D-9 but with varying degrees of improvement. The V20 used the same Jumo 213E engine as the Fw 190D-9, while the V21 used the DB 603E. Neither of these offered any significant improvement over the 190D-9, and further development of the Ta 152A and B was cancelled. The V21 airframe, however, was further modified as the V21/U1 and became the prototype for the Ta 152C.", "The IJAAF acquired, in April 1945, the licence, schemes and technical drawings for manufacturing the Ta 152 in Japan. During the last stages of the conflict in Germany, with the plight of the Japanese armed forces growing ever bleaker, a large volume of the latest aviation technology Germany had to offer was given to or bought by both the Japanese army and naval air arms in the hopes that it would stem the tide of defeats and ever increasing pressure by the superior Allied air forces.", "Kurt Tank originally designed the Ta 152 using the 44.52 litre displacement Daimler-Benz DB 603 engine as it offered better high-altitude performance and also a greater developmental potential. The DB 603 had been used in the Fw 190C prototypes but had many problems and was considered too difficult to implement in the Ta 152 by RLM officials. With this in mind, Tank focused his efforts on the 213E as the Ta 152H's power plant. However, he insisted that the DB 603 be retained for the Ta 152C versions and as an option for later versions of the Ta 152H. In 1944, the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (German Air Ministry) decided that new fighter aircraft designations must include the chief designer's name. The aircraft design was therefore given the prefix Ta. The Ta 152's fuselage was an extended version of the Fw 190D-9 fuselage with wider-chord fixed vertical tail surfaces (especially the top half), and hydraulic rather than electrically controlled undercarriage and flaps. Due to the changes in the center of gravity and overall balance, the nose was also lengthened. The D-9 retained the wingspan of the original pre-war Fw 190 models, but this was slightly extended for the C model to, and greatly extended for the H model to, which gave it much better control at high altitudes at the cost of speed at lower altitudes. Due to the war's impact on aluminum availability, the wing was built around two steel spars, the front extending from just past the landing gear attachment points, and the rear spar spanning the entire wing. The wing itself was designed with 3° of washout, from the root to the flap-aileron junction, to prevent the ailerons from stalling before the center section of the wing. The Ta 152 also featured the FuG 16ZY and FuG 25a radio equipment (some aircraft were issued with FuG 125 Hermine D/F for navigation and blind landing, LGW-Siemens K 23 autopilot, and a heated armor glass windscreen for bad-weather operations).", "To reach higher altitudes, a pressurized cockpit was added to the H models. The canopy was sealed by a circular tube filled with rubber foam which was inflated by a compressed air bottle, while the engine compartment was also sealed from the cockpit with a rubber foam ring. A Knorr 300/10 air compressor provided the pressure, maintaining the cockpit at 0.36 atmospheres (5.29 psi) above 8,000 m (26,250 ft). To prevent fogging, the windscreen was of a double-glazed style with a 6 mm (.236 in) thick outer pane and a 3 mm (.118 in) inner pane with a 6 mm (.236 in) gap. The gap was fitted with several silica gel capsules to absorb any moisture forming between the panes. The cockpit was not pressurized in the C models.", "The H model had heavy armament to allow it to deal quickly with enemy aircraft. It had three weapons: one 30 mm (1.18 in) MK 108 \"Motorkanone\" cannon centered within the propeller hub and two 20 mm MG 151/20 cannons, synchronized to fire through the propeller, located in the wing roots. The C model was designed to operate at lower altitudes than the H-model with the same armament package, while adding two more of the MG 151/20 cannons, likewise synchronized as these additional autocannon for the C-model were mounted just ahead of the windscreen, and above the engine's upper rear crankcase. The Ta 152C could destroy the heaviest enemy bombers with a short burst but the added weight decreased speed and rate of turn.", "The Ta 152H-1 was among the fastest piston-engined fighters of the war, with a top speed comparable to the twin-engined Dornier Do 335. It was capable of at using the GM-1 nitrous oxide boost and at sea level using the MW 50 methanol-water boost. It used the MW 50 system mainly for altitudes up to about and the GM-1 system for higher altitudes, although both systems could be engaged at the same time. Kurt Tank was flying an unarmed Ta 152H in late 1944 to a meeting at the Focke-Wulf plant in Cottbus when ground controllers warned him of two P-51 Mustangs. The enemy aircraft appeared behind Tank, but he escaped by applying full power and engaging the MW 50 boost \"until they were no more than two dots on the horizon\".", "By October 1944, the war was going very badly for Germany. RLM realised the urgency pushing Focke-Wulf to quickly have the Ta 152 into production. As a result, several Ta 152 prototypes crashed early into the test program. It was found that critical systems were lacking sufficient quality control. Problems arose with superchargers, pressurized cockpits leaked, the engine cooling system was unreliable at best due in part to unreliable oil temperature monitoring, and in several instances the landing gear failed to properly retract. A total of up to 20 pre-production Ta 152 H-0s were delivered from November 1944 to \"Erprobungskommando\" Ta 152 to service test the aircraft. It was reported that test pilots were able to conduct a mere 31 hours of flight tests before full production started. By the end of January 1945, only 50 hours or so had been completed. III./\"Jagdgeschwader\" 301, initially a Luftwaffe \"Wilde Sau\" unit, was ordered to convert to the type in January 1945, which it did (and flew them operationally for a short time). In the end, available Ta 152s were pooled in a special \"Stabstaffel\" JG 301, first based at Alteno Air Base near Luckau, then at Neustadt-Glewe in Mecklenburg. The \"Stabstaffel\" never had more than 15 Ta 152Hs available, both H-0s and H-1s. Since the usual transfer system had broken down, replacement parts became nearly impossible to obtain. An early Ta 152 combat occurred on 14 April 1945 when \"Oberfeldwebel\" Willi Reschke tried to intercept a De Havilland Mosquito over Stendal, but failed to catch up due to engine trouble. On the evening of that same day, Reschke was to demonstrate that the Ta 152H could be used as a low altitude fighter. A section of four Hawker Tempest Vs of 486 (NZ) Squadron were out on patrol. After attacking a train near Ludwigslust, the section split up into pairs; Wing Commander Brooker ordered the Tempests flown by Flying Officer S. J. Short and Warrant Officer Owen J. Mitchell to make their own way back to base. On the way back, this pair, which was strafing targets along the railway tracks near Ludwigslust, was spotted by lookouts posted at Neustadt-Glewe. Three Ta 152s – flown by Reschke, \"Oberstleutnant\" Aufhammer and \"Oberfeldwebel\" Sepp Sattler – were scrambled, catching the Tempests by surprise. Reschke recalled: It is assumed that Sattler was shot down either by Sid Short or Bill Shaw of 486 Sqn, who claimed a Bf 109 E in the same area. Operational missions were flown in April 1945 from Neustadt, mostly escorting close support aircraft to the Battle of Berlin. Reschke claimed two Yakovlev Yak-9s near Berlin on 24 April, while Obfw. Walter Loos, claimed four air victories on 24, 25 and 30 April. The Ta 152 score at the end of the war was likely seven victories and four losses in air combat, although a degree of uncertainty about those numbers exists. Four victories were achieved by Josef Keil, from 1 March 1945 to 21 April 1945, and at least three victories were achieved by Willi Reschke. The Ta 152 was delivered to JG 301 on 27 January 1945 and the first Ta 152 mission against American bombers took part on 2 March 1945. However, there was no contact with the enemy, and the 12 Ta 152s were forced to fend off repeated attacks by the Bf 109s of another unit. There were no losses, as the climbing ability and manoeuvrability of the Ta 152s enabled them to evade these attacks. The shape of the Ta-152 was virtually unknown to other \"Jagdgeschwader\". The four losses in air combat were: Hptm. Hermann Stahl, killed on 11 April 1945; Obfw. Sepp Sattler, killed on 14 April 1945; two unknown JG11 pilots, downed by Spitfires in the last days of April 1945 during transfer from Neustadt-Glewe to Leck airfield.", "The total number of Ta 152 aircraft produced is unknown. Malcolm Lowe notes: By February 1945, all Ta 152 production had ceased. According to Peter Rodeike, 44 Ta 152 H-0/V and 25 Ta 152 H-1 were built; total Ta 152 production is unknown.", "There is only one surviving Ta 152, a 152 H-0 variant flown by III./\"Jagdgeschwader\" 301, a Luftwaffe \"Wilde Sau\" unit. The aircraft is housed at the National Air and Space Museum Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland, Maryland, United States, where it is expected to be restored. The aircraft is believed to be Werk-Nummer (serial number) 150020, which was a pre-production H-0 model transitioning to full production Ta 152H-1 series aircraft. It was probably built at Focke-Wulf's production facility at Cottbus, Germany, in December 1944, and delivered to Erprobungskommando Ta 152 at Rechlin, Germany, for service testing.", "Notes Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Research.", "Science and education.", "Public service.", "2016 endorsement for President of USA.", "Family.", "Awards and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Herschbach was born in San Jose, California on June 18, 1932. The eldest of six children, he grew up in a rural area. He graduated from Campbell High School, where he played football. Offered both athletic and academic scholarships to Stanford University, Herschbach chose the academic. His freshman advisor, Harold S. Johnston, hired him as a summer research assistant, and taught him chemical kinetics in his senior year. His master's research involved calculating Arrhenius A-factors for gas-phase reactions. Herschbach received a B.S. in mathematics in 1954 and an M.S. in chemistry in 1955 from Stanford University. Herschbach then attended Harvard University, where he earned an A.M. in physics in 1956 and a Ph.D. in chemical physics in 1958 under the direction of Edgar Bright Wilson. At Harvard, Herschbach examined tunnel splitting in molecules, using microwave spectroscopy. He was awarded a three-year Junior Fellowship in the Society of Fellows at Harvard, lasting from 1957 to 1959.", "In 1959, Herschbach joined the University of California at Berkeley, where he was appointed an Assistant Professor of Chemistry and became an Associate Professor in 1961. At Berkeley, he and graduate students George Kwei and James Norris constructed a cross-beam instrument large enough for reactive scattering experiments involve alkali and various molecular partners. His interest in studying elementary chemical processes in molecular-beam reactive collisions challenged an often-accepted belief that \"collisions do not occur in crossed molecular beams\". The results of his studies of K + CHI were the first to provide a detailed view of an elementary collision, demonstrating a direct rebound process in which the KI product recoiled from an incoming K atom beam. Subsequent studies of K + Br resulted in the discovery that the hot-wire surface ionization detector they were using was potentially contaminated by previous use, and had to be pre-treated to obtain reliable results. Changes to the instrumentation yielded reliable results, including the observation that the K + Br reaction involved a stripping reaction, in which the KBr product scattered forward from the incident K atom beam. As the research continued, it became possible to correlate the electronic structure of reactants and products with the reaction dynamics. In 1963, Herschbach returned to Harvard University as a professor of chemistry. There he continued his work on molecular-beam reactive dynamics, working with graduate students Sanford Safron and Walter Miller on the reactions of alkali atoms with alkali halides. In 1967, Yuan T. Lee joined the lab as a postdoctoral student, and Herschbach, Lee, and graduate students Doug MacDonald and Pierre LeBreton began to construct a \"supermachine\" for studying collisions such as Cl + Br and hydrogen and halogen reactions. His most acclaimed work, for which he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1986 with Yuan T. Lee and John C. Polanyi, was his collaboration with Yuan T. Lee on crossed molecular beam experiments. Crossing collimated beams of gas-phase reactants allows partitioning of energy among translational, rotational, and vibrational modes of the product molecules—a vital aspect of understanding reaction dynamics. For their contributions to reaction dynamics, Herschbach and Lee are considered to have helped create a new field of research in chemistry. Herschbach is a pioneer in molecular stereodynamics, measuring and theoretically interpreting the role of angular momentum and its vector properties in chemical reaction dynamics. In the course of his life's work in research, Herschbach has published over 400 scientific papers. Herschbach has applied his broad expertise in both the theory and practice of chemistry and physics to diverse problems in chemical physics, including theoretical work on dimensional scaling. One of his studies demonstrated that methane is, in fact, spontaneously formed at high-pressure and high-temperature environments such as those deep in the Earth's mantle; this finding is an exciting indication of abiogenic hydrocarbon formation, meaning that the actual amount of hydrocarbons available on Earth might be much larger than conventionally assumed under the assumption that all hydrocarbons are fossil fuels. His recent work also includes a collaboration with Steven Brams studying approval voting.", "Hershbach's teaching ranges from graduate seminars on chemical kinetics to an introductory undergraduate course in general chemistry that he taught for many years at Harvard, and described as his \"most challenging assignment.\" Herschbach has been a strong proponent of science education and science among the general public, and frequently gives lectures to students of all ages, imbuing them with his infectious enthusiasm for science and his playful spirit of discovery. Herschbach has also lent his voice to the animated television show \"The Simpsons\" for the episode \"Treehouse of Horror XIV\" where he is seen presenting the Nobel Prize in Physics to Professor Frink. In October 2010, Herschbach participated in the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Lunch with a Laureate program where middle and high school students will get to engage in an informal conversation with a Nobel Prize-winning scientist over a brown-bag lunch. Herschbach is also a member of the USA Science and Engineering Festival's Advisory Board. Furthermore, Herschbach has participated in the Distinguished Lecture Series of the Research Science Institute (RSI), a summer research program for high school students held at MIT. Although still an active research professor at Harvard, he joined the Texas A&M University faculty September 1, 2005 as a Professor of Physics, teaching one semester per year in the chemical physics program. As of 2010, he holds the title of Professor Emeritus at Harvard, and remains well known for his involvement as a lecturer and mentor in the Harvard research community. He and his wife Georgene Herschbach also served for several years as the co-Masters of Currier House, where they were highly involved in undergraduate life in addition to their full-time duties.", "He is a board member of the Center for Arms Control and Non-Proliferation and was the chairman of the board for Society for Science & the Public from 1992-2010. Herschbach is a member of the Board of Sponsors of The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel Laureates who signed the Humanist Manifesto. He is also an Eagle Scout and recipient of the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award (DESA).", "Professor Herschbach publicly endorsed Hillary Clinton for President in 2016.", "Herschbach's wife, Georgene Herschbach, served as the Associate Dean of Harvard College for Undergraduate Academic Programs. Prior to retirement in 2009, she chaired Harvard College's influential Committee on Undergraduate Education.", "Herschbach is a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, the American Philosophical Society and the Royal Chemical Society of Great Britain. In addition to the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, he has received a wide variety of national and international awards. These include the National Medal of Science, the ACS Award in Pure Chemistry, the Linus Pauling Medal, the Irving Langmuir Award, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, and the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Academia Gustaviana.", "Universität Dorpat.", "University of Tartu (1919–).", "Buildings.", "Research.", "Entrepreneurship.", "Structure.", "Studies.", "Bachelor's studies.", "Master's studies.", "Doctoral studies.", "Rankings and reputation.", "Alumni.", "International cooperation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Academia Gustaviana\" in the then-Swedish province of Livonia was the second university founded in the Swedish Empire, following Uppsala University (in Uppsala, Sweden proper) and preceding the Academy of Åbo (in Turku, Finland). A precursor to the academy had been a Jesuit grammar school \"Gymnasium Dorpatense\", founded by Stefan Batory (then king of Poland–Lithuania) in 1583 and existing to 1601, when Tartu (Dorpat) was under Polish–Lithuanian rule. The first students matriculated between 20 and 21 April 1632. The opening ceremony of Academia Dorpatensis (Academia Gustaviana) took place on 15 October in the same year. The academy in Tartu functioned with philosophy, law, theology, and medical faculties enjoying the privileges of the University of Uppsala. On account of the Russian–Swedish war, the University of Tartu moved to Tallinn in 1656, and in 1665, it closed down. In the 17th century, the future outstanding Swedish scholars Urban Hiärne, Olof Verelius,, and others studied at the university. Among the academic staff were Friedrich Menius, professor of history (the history of Livonia, the first scientific approach to Estonian folklore) and Georg Mancelius, professor of theology (author of the first Latvian-German dictionary in 1638). With the reestablishment of the university in 1690 as the \"Academia Gustavo-Carolina\", Tartu became a university town again. Academic staff of the new university included, professor of mathematics (the first in the world to deliver lectures based on Newton's theory),, professor of rhetoric and poetry,, professor of medicine (founder of balneology, and discoverer of natural mineral water springs) and Michael Dau, professor of philosophy as well as of rhetoric and poetry. Just under a decade after being reconstituted, as a result of the coalition against Sweden (Russia, Denmark-Norway, and Saxony-Poland-Lithuania) and the Great Famine of 1695–1697, the university moved from Tartu to Pärnu. Eventually, Academia Gustavo-Carolina, which had opened in Pärnu on 28 August 1699, was closed as a result of the surrender of Pärnu to Russian forces on 12 August 1710 during the Great Northern War. According to the terms of the capitulation, the Russians agreed to maintain the university in Pärnu. However, the university was only reopened in 1802 by the Baltic German \"Ritterschaften\", when the new German-speaking University was relaunched and had its new charter confirmed by the reform-minded Tsar Alexander I of Russia.", "The university was reopened by the Baltic Germans in Estonia in April 1802. The language of instruction at Dorpat was German from 1802 to 1893. During that time, Dorpat had a dual nature in that it belonged both to the set of German(-language) and Russian universities. Financially and administratively, the latter was more important; intellectually and regarding the professoriate and students, the former was more important (over half the professors came from Germany, at least another third were Baltic Germans). Among the 30 German-language universities, of which 23 were inside the German Empire, Dorpat was the 11th in size. In teaching, the university educated the local Baltic German leadership and professional classes, as well as staff, especially for the administration and health system of the entire Russian Empire. In scholarship, it was an international university; the time between 1860 and 1880 was its \"golden age\". The freedom to be a half-German university ceased with the rise of nationalist tendencies in Russia, which held homogenization more important than retaining a bilingual university. Between 1882 and 1898, russification in language, appointments, etc., was imposed, with some exceptions (such as the Divinity School, which the state feared would be used by the Orthodox clergy to teach dangerous Protestant views and was thus allowed to continue in German until 1916). By 1898, when both the town and the university were renamed Yuryev, virtually all distinguished scholars from Germany had left. The University of Yuryev existed until 1918, when during part of the fall term, it was reopened, under German occupation, as Dorpat. Russian academic staff and students took refuge in Voronezh in Russia, giving rise to the foundation of Voronezh State University, which traces its own history back to the foundation of the University of Tartu and still holds several physical properties of the latter.", "Since Estonia became independent in 1918, the University of Tartu has been an Estonian-language institution since 1919. The university was named Ostland-Universität in Dorpat during the German occupation of Estonia in 1941–1944 and Tartu State University (Estonian: \"Tartu Riiklik Ülikool\") in 1940–1941 and 1944–1989, during the Soviet occupation. During Soviet rule, although Estonian remained the principal language of instruction, some courses were taught in Russian, with several Russian curricula. Estonia regained independence in 1991, and the full recovery of academic autonomy of the university can be dated to 1992. Presently, no courses are taught in Russian. The last decade has been marked by organizational and structural changes, as well as adaptations to various university models (American, Scandinavian, German) against the background of the Soviet and Baltic German past. Most recently, the university has been and is still being marked by the adaptation of the Bologna declaration in Estonia generally and Tartu specifically, leading to major changes in curricula and studies, as well as by strong organizational centralization attempts. Recent plans also include the abolition of the Chair system (an Americanization) and of the faculties, which is supposed to lead to four large divisions (humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and medicine) under briefly serving deans and rector-appointed financial administrators.", "The university's four museums, its Botanical Gardens, and sports facilities are, by and large, open to the general public. The university possesses some 150 buildings, 30 of which are outside of Tartu. 31 of its buildings decorate the city as architectural monuments. However, the current reforms include attempts to sell, or have the state co-sponsor, several of these buildings and monuments, as well as sports facilities, as they are not seen as part of the university's mission proper. At the same time, numerous university buildings and student dormitories have been recently constructed or renovated, such as the Von Bock House. Many of the new buildings are built to Maarjamõisa (about 2 km southwest of the historical university centre), such as the Technology Institute, the Biomedical Center, the Chemistry building, and the new Physics building.", "Lectinology, the science of lectins, was founded at the University of Tartu in 1888 with the publication of Peter Hermann Stillmark's thesis about the isolation of ricin. According to the university administration, the most remarkable recent research achievements have been in the fields of molecular and cell biology, laser medicine, materials science, laser spectroscopy, biochemistry, and psychology. UT is the flagship of Estonian science, ranking in the top 1% of the world’s most-cited universities and research institutions in the following ten fields (as of March 2018): › Clinical Medicine › Chemistry › Environment & Ecology › Geoscience › Plant & Animal Science › Social Sciences › Molecular Biology & Genetics › Biology & Biochemistry › Neuroscience & Behaviour › Psychiatry & Psychology. UT accounts for 56% of Estonia’s national research output. Also, more than half of the PhD theses in Estonia are defended at UT and over 2,000 high-level research articles (those covered by citation indices like \"SCI Expanded\", \"SSCI\" or \"A&HCI\") are published annually. About 50 UT scientists are among the top 1% of the most-cited scientists in the world. UT has excelled among the Baltic universities in winning European Research Council grants. The prestigious ERC grant has been awarded to Professor of Molecular Systems Biology Mart Loog, Professor of Nanomedicine Tambet Teesalu, and Professor of International Law Lauri Mälksoo.", "University of Tartu has contracts with 154 business partners in the amount of 10.2 million euros. UT is one of the largest development partners for the private and public sector in the Baltics. The university also works closely with international businesses such as Swedbank, The Linde Group, Pfizer, ABB Corporate Research, SUPER APPLI Inc, Eesti Energia Group, Telia AS, and many more. UT has spun off more than 60 start-ups, including software companies Reach-U and Positium providing location-based solutions, biotechnology company Icosagen etc. The success story of the last 15 years is the technology for the ME-3 strain of \"Lactobacillus fermentum bacterium\", allowing its use in the food industry. Student satellite ESTCube-1, developed collectively by UT staff and students, and successfully deployed into orbit in 2013, made Estonia the 41st space nation in the world. Scientists from UT and the Estonian University of Life Sciences have developed a new peat-based material that enables building inexpensive energy-efficient 3D-printed houses. The innovative robotic mannequin technology known as Rakuten Fits Me, a virtual dressing room, was originally developed in cooperation with researchers of UT Institute of Technology. UT encourages its students and scholars to develop an entrepreneurial mindset and apply their knowledge to the economy. The University has set a goal to integrate entrepreneurship courses into every curriculum.", "The academic structure of the university consists of institutes and colleges of four faculties (\"valdkond\"). While mainly located in Tartu, the university also operates in Narva, Pärnu, Tallinn, and Viljandi. Narva and Pärnu Colleges are part of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Viljandi Culture Academy belongs to the Faculty of Arts and Humanities. The School of Law Tallinn office, University of Tartu Tallinn representation and the Estonian Marine Institute are located in the Estonian capital.", "Nearly a quarter of the whole Estonian university student population studies at the University of Tartu. While most of the curricula are taught in Estonian, a number of degree programmes have English as a medium of instruction. 35% of UT’s study courses are offered partly or fully online – as web-based courses in Moodle, video lectures, webinars, e-portfolios, massive open online courses (MOOCs). 56 bachelor’s and 72 master’s programmes are available, including 26 programmes in English.", "The university offers 56 different curricula on the bachelor's level, including the open university curricula. Three bachelor's degree programmes out of 56 are fully taught in English:", "University of Tartu has 72 study programmes on master's level. These programmes include 24 international master's programmes in English:", "Around 120 doctoral degrees are defended annually, which make up more than half of the total number in Estonia. The language of instruction for most of the PhD programmes (35) is English. Four programmes at least partly have Estonian as a medium of instruction. These programmes are: Estonian and Finno-Ugric Linguistics, Law, History and Pharmacy. In addition, over 45,000 learners enrolled in lifelong learning courses each year.", "The QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Tartu 301st in the world in 2018, and the top-ranked university in the Baltics. The university is also ranked 3rd in the Emerging Europe and Central Asia region. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed it in the 301–350 range among world universities. It is the only university in the Baltic countries to place among the top 200 universities in Europe. UT belongs to top 1% of world's most cited universities in 10 research areas.", "According to the university, as of 2016, Tartu alumni comprise 100% of Estonian judges; 99% of Estonian doctors, dentists, and pharmacists; 95% of Estonian judicial prosecutors; 87% of members of the Estonian Bar Association; 60% of the ministers in the Estonian government; and 40% of the members of the Riigikogu (Estonian Parliament).", "University of Tartu has around 1,200 international students from 90 countries. The vast majority comes from Russia, Finland and Ukraine. In the Erasmus programme for student exchange, the University of Tartu cooperates with more than 800 universities. University has also received good reviews from foreign students and an International Student Satisfaction Award based on student feedback. The University of Tartu participates in the LERU-CE7 (LERU and a group of Central-European universities), the European University Association EUA, Coimbra Group, The Guild of European Research Intensive Universities and the Utrecht Network. It has signed bilateral co-operation agreements with about 70 universities" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ibrox Park.", "Post-war.", "Ibrox Stadium.", "Club Deck.", "21st century.", "Structure and facilities.", "Future developments.", "Other uses.", "Football.", "Non-football.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Rangers played its first match in May 1872, on Glasgow Green. The club then played home matches on public pitches across Glasgow, first moving to a regular home ground at Burnbank in 1875. A year later, Rangers played at the Clydesdale cricket ground in Kinning Park. This ground was improved to give a capacity of 7,000, but it was not owned by Rangers. After hints by the landlords that they wished to develop the site, Rangers left in February 1887. The club shared Cathkin Park with Third Lanark for the remainder of the 1886–87 season. Rangers first moved to the Ibrox area later in 1887, playing on a site immediately to the east of the current stadium. The first match at this stadium was an 8–1 defeat to English side Preston North End on 20 August 1887, watched by a capacity crowd of over 15,000. This inaugural match had to be abandoned after 70 minutes due to a pitch invasion. The first Ibrox Park was a success in the short term, as three Scotland international matches and the 1890 Scottish Cup Final were played at the ground. Celtic Park, built in 1892, was more advanced, however. Rangers opted to construct a new stadium, raising funds by forming a limited company. The last match at the old ground was played on 9 December 1899. The new Ibrox Park was formally opened with a 3–1 victory over Hearts on 30 December.", "Ibrox Park, as it was known between 1899 and 1997, is almost completely different from the Ibrox Stadium of today. It followed the model of most Scottish stadiums of the time, comprising an oval track around the pitch, with a pavilion and one stand along one side. The ground had a capacity of 40,000. Celtic Park, Ibrox and Hampden Park all competed with each other to host Scottish Cup Finals and Scotland matches, one of which could generate up to £1,000 in revenue for the host club. To aid their chances of gaining that revenue, Rangers constructed a large terracing, holding 36,000 people, behind the western goalmouth. The terracing, designed by Archibald Leitch, was formed by wooden planks bolted onto a framework made of iron. A similar wooden terracing was constructed at the eastern end, giving a total capacity of 75,000. The structure was passed by the Govan Burgh Surveyor in March 1902, but there were newspaper reports that it was unstable. A crowd of 68,114 assembled for a Scotland v England match on 5 April 1902, but shortly after the kick-off one section of the terracing \"collapsed like a trap door\". A gap of 20 square yards appeared, causing about 125 people to fall to the ground 50 feet below the terracing. Most survived due to the fact they fell on top of other bodies, but 25 people were killed. 517 people were injured, some due to being crushed in the panic caused by the collapse. Most people in the stadium were unaware that the (first) Ibrox disaster had happened. People even re-occupied the damaged area, despite the danger of further collapse. A definite reason for the disaster was not agreed upon, partly because there was no public inquiry held. Some experts blamed the quality of wood and the supplier was tried for culpable homicide, but was acquitted. The design was also cited as a possible cause. Generally, wooden structures of that size were not trusted. Rangers removed the wooden terraces, reducing capacity to 25,000. The criticism of the design did not deter Rangers from hiring Leitch in the future. He designed an expansion of Ibrox to a 63,000 capacity by 1910, using slopes made of earth. By this point, the city of Glasgow had the three largest purpose-built football grounds in the world. The next major redevelopment occurred in 1928, after Rangers had won their first double. A new Main Stand, to the south side of the ground, was opened on 1 January 1929. The Main Stand, which has the familiar Leitch style criss-cross balcony and a red-brick facade, seated 10,000 people and provided standing accommodation in an enclosure. Simon Inglis, a writer on football stadia, commented in 2005 that the Main Stand is Leitch's \"greatest work\" and is \"still resplendent today in its red brick glory under a modern mantle of glass and steel\". The architectural significance of the Main Stand was reflected when it became a Category B listed building in 1987. Original seats in the Main Stand were made of cast iron and oak. One was auctioned in 2011 for £1,080. The banking of the terracing continued to increase in the 1930s. On 2 January 1939, the Old Firm game against Celtic attracted a crowd of 118,567, the record attendance for any league match played in Britain. At this point, Ibrox was the second-largest stadium in Britain.", "Floodlights were first used at Ibrox in December 1953, for a friendly match against Arsenal. The first floodlit Scottish league match was played at Ibrox, in March 1956. Covers were built over the north and east terracing during the 1960s. No structural changes were made to Ibrox, but capacity was cut to approximately 80,000 by safety legislation. Ibrox Park had the worst fan safety record in Britain before its complete redesign and renaming in 1997. Two fans died in September 1961 when a barrier collapsed on Stairway 13, resulting in a crush. Stairway 13 was a popular, often overcrowded, and very steep exit from the East Terracing due to its proximity to Copland Road subway station and parking areas for the Rangers supporters' coaches. After this incident, Rangers installed safety measures, but further injuries were sustained in crushes on Stairway 13 in both 1967 and 1969. On 23 October 1968, the main stand at Ibrox was hit by fire. Just seven months later there was another fire, which destroyed more than 200 seats behind the directors box. The worst disaster to date to affect football in Britain happened after the Old Firm game on 2 January 1971, when 66 people died of asphyxiation due to another crush on Stairway 13. The game itself ended in a 1–1 draw, with Colin Stein scoring a late equalising goal for Rangers. This led to a widespread belief that the crush had been caused by fans who had left the game early, but had turned back when they heard the roar that greeted the Rangers goal. A public inquiry discounted this initial story. It established that the crowd had been travelling in the same direction when the crush happened, with it perhaps being precipitated by some bending over to pick up items that had been discarded during the goal celebrations. The downward force of the crowd leaving the stadium meant that when people started to fall there was no means of preventing a crush. The inquiry and subsequent compensation cases found that Rangers had been inept in their administration and complacent after the incidents in the 1960s. The disaster also highlighted, however, the fact that there were no established safety standards that should be adhered to, let alone any means of enforcing such standards. This had been first recommended nearly 50 years earlier, after the 1923 FA Cup Final. The Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds was published in 1973, and legislation was enacted with the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975. This law cut the capacity of Ibrox to 65,000. In the short term, Rangers took the stopgap measure of installing benches in the North Stand, which was renamed the Centenary Stand.", "The 1971 Ibrox disaster led to the club developing a modern, safe stadium. Willie Waddell visited modern grounds in West Germany during the 1974 World Cup and believed that steep terracing and exits, such as Stairway 13, had to be replaced. The cut in capacity and boardroom changes led to radical plans by architects Miller Partnership, which were published in November 1977. The plans were modelled on the Westfalenstadion, home ground of Borussia Dortmund. They involved a radical reshaping of the stadium, with the old bowl-shaped terracing to be replaced by three new all-seated structures. Only the old Main Stand would remain, with its enclosure providing the only standing room in the ground. Although later events, such as the Hillsborough disaster and the subsequent Taylor Report, vindicated this plan, Rangers were taking a significant risk. The whole plan was estimated to cost £6 million, which no other club could have afforded in a short period of time. The development was funded by the Rangers football pools operation, which was the largest club-based scheme in Britain. The first phase of the plan, which began in 1978, was the removal of the east terracing and its replacement with the Copland Road stand. The same process was repeated on the west side of the ground a year later, with the two identical stands each holding 7,500 seats. The redevelopment was completed in 1981 with the replacement of the Centenary Stand by the 10,300 capacity Govan Stand. The new Ibrox had a capacity of 44,000 and was opened with an Old Firm game played on 19 September 1981. By this time, however, the development cost had risen to £10 million, which depleted the club financially. This resulted in a difficult period in the history of Rangers, as the average attendance fell to 17,500 in the 1981–82 season, including a crowd of only 4,500 for a game against St Mirren. The redeveloped stadium was partly blamed for this, as some fans felt that the new ground lacked atmosphere due to the spaces between the stands. This was during a period of low attendances in Scottish football in general. Despite the relatively low attendance at Ibrox, Rangers had the highest average home attendances in the Premier Division in both 1983–84 and 1984–85. This all changed when a new regime, chaired by David Holmes, took control of Rangers in 1986. Graeme Souness was appointed player–manager, while several English stars, including Terry Butcher and Chris Woods, were signed. Season ticket sales rose from 7,000 in 1986 to over 30,000 in the 1990s, while commercial income increased from £239,000 in 1986 to over £2 million in 1989. The introduction of computerised ticketing, zonal public address systems and closed-circuit television for monitoring turnstile areas meant that Ibrox was at the forefront of stadium management. Rangers also adopted the American technique of analysing the types of fans in each area of the stadium and adjusted their food stalls accordingly. Greater success on the pitch meant that Ibrox demonstrated that seated stadiums would be welcomed by most fans, if designed and fitted well.", "David Murray acquired control of Rangers in November 1988. Argyle House, a £4 million extension behind the Govan Stand, was opened in 1990. This added executive boxes, office space and hospitality suites. A further series of developments was started in the early 1990s to increase capacity to over 50,000. Murray commissioned architect Gareth Hutchison to find a way of adding a third tier to the Main Stand. This was a highly complex process, as the Main Stand facade had become a listed building and Murray wanted the existing structure to remain open during construction. The contractors removed the original roof and added a temporary cover while the work carried on above. The Club Deck, which cost approximately £20 million, was opened with a league match against Dundee United in December 1991. The redevelopment of the Main Stand was partially financed by a Football Trust grant of £2 million and a debenture issue that raised £8.5 million. Ordinary fans bought debentures for between £1,000 and £1,650 each, which guaranteed the right to buy season tickets for at least 30 years, along with some other minor benefits. Four columns were built through the existing Main Stand to support the Club Deck, which resulted in approximately 1,000 seats having a restricted view. After opening the Club Deck, Ibrox had a capacity of 44,500. When a new playing surface was installed in 1992, Rangers were able to add a further 1,300 seats to the front of three stands by lowering the pitch slightly. The only standing area of the ground, the enclosure of the Main Stand, was seated in 1994 to comply with the Taylor Report and UEFA regulations. The multi-coloured seats were replaced in 1995 with uniform blue seats. A further 1,200 seats were added in this process by reconfiguring passageways, giving a total capacity of 47,998. The two spaces between the Govan, Copland and Broomloan Stands were filled in with seats and Jumbotron screens. The ground was officially renamed Ibrox Stadium after renovations were completed in 1997, when Ibrox had a capacity of just over 50,000.", "Three rows of seating were added to the front of the Govan Stand upper tier in 2006, linked to a new 'Bar 72' area, increasing the capacity to its present figure of. The Main Stand was renamed the Bill Struth Main Stand in September 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death. The Jumbotron screens were replaced in 2011 with modern LED screens. Rangers became insolvent in February 2012 and was unable to reach a company voluntary arrangement with its creditors, principally HM Revenue and Customs. Ibrox Stadium, along with the business and other assets of Rangers, was sold in June 2012 to a new company run by Charles Green. The new company obtained the SFA membership of the old Rangers FC company and gained entry to the Scottish Football League Third Division. On 9 April 2013 it was announced that the Jumbotron screens were to be replaced; the previous screens were inferior and had become pixelated. On 16 July 2014 the club paid a lasting tribute to Sandy Jardine by renaming the Govan Stand in his honour. In 2016, the club added large banners to the stadium exterior (covering the separate Edmiston House office building, then the Copland Stand/Sandy Jardine Stand corner) depicting images of past players, entitled 'Icons Of Ibrox'. The following year, some supporters were displeased when further banners were added over the glass block-walled staircase towers on either side of the main stand leading up to the Club Deck; the banners were removed within a few months, with the club stating it was a marketing exercise to highlight the potential of the staircases as advertising space.", "The Ibrox pitch is surrounded by four covered all-seater stands, officially known as the Bill Struth Main (south), Broomloan Road (west), Sandy Jardine (north) and Copland Road (east) Stands. Each stand has two tiers, with the exception of the Bill Struth Main Stand, which has had three tiers since the Club Deck was added in 1991. The two corner areas, known as the West and East areas of the Sandy Jardine Stand, have one tier of seating below a JumboTron screen. The Bill Struth Main Stand, formerly known as the Main Stand, faces onto Edmiston Drive (A8 road). The red-brick facade, designed by Archibald Leitch, is a Category B listed building. Simon Inglis, writing in 1996, described it as an \"imposing red-brick facade, with its mock neo-classical arched, square and pedimented windows, exudes prestige and power.\" On each end wall the club crest is depicted in a blue and gold mosaic. Stairtowers leading to the Club Deck (third tier) stand at each end of the Main Stand. These towers are also framed in red-brick, but deliberately contrast with the main body of the stand. The two stairtowers also support a long and truss, claimed to be the longest and heaviest clear span girder in the world. Through the main doors of the Main Stand is a wood-panelled hallway. A marble staircase leads to the boardroom and trophy room. Inglis compared Ibrox to Highbury, in that it combined corporate power with a sense of tradition and solidity. It was originally constructed as a 10,000-seat stand above a standing enclosure. It was redeveloped in the early 1990s with the addition of the Club Deck and seating in the enclosure. It is now a three-tier all-seated structure, accommodating approximately 21,000 spectators. The front wall of the middle tier is one of the last surviving examples of the Leitch style of criss-cross detailing. The middle tier is split into front and rear sections, while the enclosure is split into east and west sections, either side of the retractable tunnel cover. Opposite the Bill Struth Main Stand is the Sandy Jardine Stand formerly known as the Govan Stand. It is a two-tier stand, similar in style to the two end stands, which was completed in 1981. To the rear of the Govan Stand is the Argyle House extension, completed in 1990, which provides executive boxes, hospitality areas and office space. The Bar 72 area was added to the rear section of the Govan Stand in 2006. The Copland Road Stand, at the east end of the stadium, was completed in 1979 and now accommodates just over 8,000 fans. It is traditionally the 'Rangers end' of the ground and the team normally chooses to attack that end in the second half of matches. The western Broomloan Road Stand, which was completed in 1980, is identical to the opposite end. Although constructed as separate structures, the three stands have been linked since the mid-1990s, when two additional areas of seating were added to the corner areas. All of the stands are designed using the 'goalpost' structure, in which a large portal frame supports perpendicular beams on which roof cladding is secured. A Rangers Megastore is located in the corner between the Copland Road and Govan Stands. Away fans are normally accommodated in the corner of the ground between the Broomloan and Govan Stands. Ibrox is seen as being an intimidating ground for visiting supporters. Rangers banned Celtic fans in 1994 from attending games at Ibrox, citing the damage caused to the Broomloan Stand by the visitors in previous derbies. The ban was lifted after one game, as the Scottish Football League passed a resolution preventing clubs from taking that action. Before the corners were filled in, away fans were accommodated in the lower tier of the Broomloan Stand. Rangers had to take action in 1996 to prevent their fans in the upper deck from throwing items at visitors. Celtic fans were normally given the whole of the Broomloan Stand for Old Firm derbies until 2018, when Rangers opted to restrict their allocation to the much smaller corner section.", "Since the redevelopments to Celtic Park and Hampden Park were completed in the late 1990s, Ibrox has had the smallest capacity of the three major stadiums in Glasgow. Rangers have since explored options to increase capacity. After opening the Bar 72 area in 2006, chief executive Martin Bain said that the scheme could be replicated in the Copland Stand. A report in the \"Daily Record\" in April 2007 claimed that Rangers were planning to increase capacity to 57,000, principally by removing the JumboTron screens and lowering the pitch to accommodate more seating. These plans were said to be dependent for finance upon improved performance by the team. In January 2008, Rangers announced that they were investigating three options to further develop Ibrox. One of the proposals would have resulted in a capacity of 70,000, by replacing three of the stands with a bowl-type structure. These plans were shelved by October 2008, however, due to the late-2000s financial crisis. Alongside changes to the stadium itself, Rangers have also sought to develop land around Ibrox. In partnership with the Las Vegas Sands corporation, the club received outline planning permission from Glasgow City Council for the development of land adjoining Ibrox as the home of a super casino. The casino was planned to be accompanied by a Rangers-themed leisure complex. Britain's Casino Advisory Panel reviewed bids from eight short-listed cities, including Glasgow, and in 2007 awarded the first licence to Manchester. There is no immediate prospect of the Ibrox proposal being resurrected, as Gordon Brown dropped the plans for super casinos soon after becoming Prime Minister. Rangers were given approval by Glasgow City Council in October 2008 to purchase land around Ibrox and redevelop the area with hotel and retail outlets. This scheme stalled, however, as regulations constrained what could be built in the area.", "", "Ibrox has been a home venue for the Scotland national football team 18 times, the third most of any ground. The first Ibrox Park (1887–99) hosted three internationals, giving an overall Ibrox total of 21. The ground most recently hosted a Scotland game in October 2014 (a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Georgia, won 1–0) when Hampden Park was unavailable due to its temporary conversion to hold athletics in the 2014 Commonwealth Games. Ibrox hosted several internationals during the 1990s, particularly when Hampden was being redeveloped. Hampden was redeveloped in two phases. Ibrox hosted four Scotland games in the first phase, starting with a 1994 World Cup qualifier against Portugal in October 1992. It was not a happy interlude for Scotland fans, however, as the team failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. Although the attendances at Ibrox were higher than at Hampden, some fans resented the fact that they were helping the finances of Rangers. Fans also complained that the ticket prices were too high. During the second period of redevelopment, however, Scotland won an important 1998 World Cup qualifier against Sweden at Ibrox. During these periods of redevelopment to Hampden, Ibrox also hosted the 1997 Scottish Cup Final, and the 1994 and 1997 Scottish League Cup Finals. Ibrox was on the approved UEFA list to host major European finals in the 1990s, but it lost out in a bid to host the 1996 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final because a convention threatened a shortage of hotel rooms in Glasgow. Ibrox continued to hold the top UEFA rating, but the Scottish Football Association put forward the redeveloped Hampden for European finals in the 2000s.", "King George V & Queen Mary visited Ibrox Park on 17 September 1917, to thank Glasgow and Clydeside for its efforts in the First World War. In the first ever public investiture in Scotland, and in front of 100,000, the King awarded medals to servicemen including three Victoria Crosses, 46 Military Medals and 33 Military Crosses. Four-fifths of the gathering were women - munitions workers, nurses and other war workers. For the 1938 Empire Exhibition being held in Bellahouston Park and which attracted over 13 million visitors, his son King George VI suggested the official opening ceremony be held in Ibrox Park, allowing 146,000 spectators to see the opening. His speech was broadcast live to the nation and throughout the Empire on the morning of 3 May 1938. This was used as source material by Colin Firth for his performance in \"The King's Speech\" movie. Ibrox has been used for athletics competitions, Empire Games, and concerts, including performances by Simple Minds (1986), Frank Sinatra (1990), Rod Stewart (1995), Elton John and Billy Joel (1998). In 1980, Ibrox hosted a world championship boxing match between Jim Watt and Howard Davis. Ibrox hosted the rugby sevens event at the 2014 Commonwealth Games, won by South Africa. There was a total attendance of 171,000 for the four sessions of play, which set a new record for a rugby sevens tournament. The stadium hosted the 1983 Centenary Celebrations of The Boys' Brigade.", "The main railway stations in Glasgow, Central and Queen Street, are both approximately two miles from Ibrox. The Ibrox and Cessnock stations on the Glasgow Subway both serve Ibrox. It is also served by First Glasgow buses on Paisley Road West. Ibrox sits near to the M8 motorway, with junction 23 being the closest exit, but the roads around Ibrox become congested on matchdays. There was an Ibrox railway station, on the main line linking Glasgow and Paisley, which was closed in 1967 under the Beeching Plan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Precursor.", "Chain bridges.", "Wire-cable.", "Structure.", "Bridge main components.", "Structural analysis.", "Variations.", "Underspanned.", "Suspension cable types.", "Suspender cable terminations.", "Deck structure types.", "Forces.", "Use other than road and rail.", "Construction sequence (wire strand cable type).", "Longest spans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The earliest suspension bridges were ropes slung across a chasm, with a deck possibly at the same level or hung below the ropes such that the rope had a catenary shape.", "The Tibetan siddha and bridge-builder Thangtong Gyalpo originated the use of iron chains in his version of simple suspension bridges. In 1433, Gyalpo built eight bridges in eastern Bhutan. The last surviving chain-linked bridge of Gyalpo's was the Thangtong Gyalpo Bridge in Duksum en route to Trashi Yangtse, which was finally washed away in 2004. Gyalpo's iron chain bridges did not include a suspended deck bridge, which is the standard on all modern suspension bridges today. Instead, both the railing and the walking layer of Gyalpo's bridges used wires. The stress points that carried the screed were reinforced by the iron chains. Before the use of iron chains it is thought that Gyalpo used ropes from twisted willows or yak skins. He may have also used tightly bound cloth.", "The first iron chain suspension bridge in the Western world was the Jacob's Creek Bridge (1801) in Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, designed by inventor James Finley. Finley's bridge was the first to incorporate all of the necessary components of a modern suspension bridge, including a suspended deck which hung by trusses. Finley patented his design in 1808, and published it in the Philadelphia journal, The Port Folio, in 1810. Early British chain bridges included the Dryburgh Abbey Bridge (1817) and 137 m Union Bridge (1820), with spans rapidly increasing to 176 m with the Menai Bridge (1826), \"the first important modern suspension bridge\". The first chain bridge on the German speaking territories was the Chain Bridge in Nuremberg. The Clifton Suspension Bridge (designed in 1831, completed in 1864 with a 214 m central span) is one of the longest of the parabolic arc chain type. The current Marlow suspension bridge was designed by William Tierney Clark and was built between 1829 and 1832, replacing a wooden bridge further downstream which collapsed in 1828. It is the only suspension bridge across the non-tidal Thames. The Széchenyi Chain Bridge, (designed in 1840, opened in 1849), spanning the River Danube in Budapest, was also designed by William Clark and it is a larger scale version of Marlow bridge. An interesting variation is Thornewill and Warham's Ferry Bridge in Burton-on-Trent, Staffordshire (1889), where the chains are not attached to abutments as is usual, but instead are attached to the main girders, which are thus in compression. Here, the chains are made from flat wrought iron plates, eight inches (203 mm) wide by an inch and a half (38 mm) thick, rivetted together.", "The first wire-cable suspension bridge was the Spider Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1816), a modest and temporary footbridge built following the collapse of James Finley's nearby Chain Bridge at Falls of Schuylkill (1808). The footbridge's span was 124 m, although its deck was only 0.45 m wide. Development of wire-cable suspension bridges dates to the temporary simple suspension bridge at Annonay built by Marc Seguin and his brothers in 1822. It spanned only 18 m. The first permanent wire cable suspension bridge was Guillaume Henri Dufour's Saint Antoine Bridge in Geneva of 1823, with two 40 m spans. The first with cables assembled in mid-air in the modern method was Joseph Chaley's Grand Pont Suspendu in Fribourg, in 1834. In the United States, the first major wire-cable suspension bridge was the in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Designed by Charles Ellet Jr. and completed in 1842, it had a span of 109 m. Ellet's Niagara Falls suspension bridge (1847–48) was abandoned before completion. It was used as scaffolding for John A. Roebling's double decker railroad and carriage bridge (1855). The Otto Beit Bridge (1938–39) was the first modern suspension bridge outside the United States built with parallel wire cables.", "", "Two towers/pillars, two suspension cables, four suspension cable anchors, multiple suspender cables, the bridge deck.", "The main forces in a suspension bridge of any type are tension in the cables and compression in the pillars. Since almost all the force on the pillars is vertically downwards, and the bridge is also stabilized by the main cables, the pillars can be made quite slender, as on the Severn Bridge, on the Wales-England border. In a suspended deck bridge, cables suspended via towers hold up the road deck. The weight is transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the ground. Assuming a negligible weight as compared to the weight of the deck and vehicles being supported, the main cables of a suspension bridge will form a parabola (very similar to a catenary, the form the unloaded cables take before the deck is added). One can see the shape from the constant increase of the gradient of the cable with linear (deck) distance, this increase in gradient at each connection with the deck providing a net upward support force. Combined with the relatively simple constraints placed upon the actual deck, that makes the suspension bridge much simpler to design and analyze than a cable-stayed bridge in which the deck is in compression.", "", "In an underspanned suspension bridge, the main cables hang entirely below the bridge deck, but are still anchored into the ground in a similar way to the conventional type. Very few bridges of this nature have been built, as the deck is inherently less stable than when suspended below the cables. Examples include the Pont des Bergues of 1834 designed by Guillaume Henri Dufour; James Smith's Micklewood Bridge; and a proposal by Robert Stevenson for a bridge over the River Almond near Edinburgh. Roebling's Delaware Aqueduct (begun 1847) consists of three sections supported by cables. The timber structure essentially hides the cables; and from a quick view, it is not immediately apparent that it is even a suspension bridge.", "The main suspension cables in older bridges were often made from a chain or linked bars, but modern bridge cables are made from multiple strands of wire. This not only adds strength but improves reliability (often called redundancy in engineering terms) because the failure of a few flawed strands in the hundreds used pose very little threat of failure, whereas a single bad link or eyebar can cause failure of an entire bridge. (The failure of a single eyebar was found to be the cause of the collapse of the Silver Bridge over the Ohio River.) Another reason is that as spans increased, engineers were unable to lift larger chains into position, whereas wire strand cables can be formulated one by one in mid-air from a temporary walkway.", "Poured sockets are used to make a high strength, permanent cable termination. They are created by inserting the suspender wire rope (at the bridge deck supports) into the narrow end of a conical cavity which is oriented in-line with the intended direction of strain. The individual wires are splayed out inside the cone or 'capel', and the cone is then filled with molten lead-antimony-tin (Pb80Sb15Sn5) solder.", "Most suspension bridges have open truss structures to support the roadbed, particularly owing to the unfavorable effects of using plate girders, discovered from the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) bridge collapse. In the 1960s, developments in bridge aerodynamics allowed the re-introduction of plate structures as shallow box girders, first seen on the Severn bridge built 1961–6. In the picture of the Yichang Bridge, note the very sharp entry edge and sloping undergirders in the suspension bridge shown. This enables this type of construction to be used without the danger of vortex shedding and consequent aeroelastic effects, such as those that destroyed the original Tacoma Narrows bridge.", "Three kinds of forces operate on any bridge: the dead load, the live load, and the dynamic load. Dead load refers to the weight of the bridge itself. Like any other structure, a bridge has a tendency to collapse simply because of the gravitational forces acting on the materials of which the bridge is made. Live load refers to traffic that moves across the bridge as well as normal environmental factors such as changes in temperature, precipitation, and winds. Dynamic load refers to environmental factors that go beyond normal weather conditions, factors such as sudden gusts of wind and earthquakes. All three factors must be taken into consideration when building a bridge.", "The principles of suspension used on a large scale also appear in contexts less dramatic than road or rail bridges. Light cable suspension may prove less expensive and seem more elegant for a cycle or footbridge than strong girder supports. An example of this is the Nescio Bridge in the Netherlands, and the Roebling designed 1904 Riegelsville suspension pedestrian bridge across the Delaware River in Pennsylvania. Where such a bridge spans a gap between two buildings, there is no need to construct special towers, as the buildings can anchor the cables. Cable suspension may also be augmented by the inherent stiffness of a structure that has much in common with a tubular bridge.", "Typical suspension bridges are constructed using a sequence generally described as follows. Depending on length and size, construction may take anywhere between a year and a half (construction on the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge took only 19 months) up to as long as a decade (the Akashi-Kaikyō Bridge's construction began in May 1986 and was opened in May 1998 – a total of twelve years).", "Suspension bridges are typically ranked by the length of their main span. These are the ten bridges with the longest spans, followed by the length of the span and the year the bridge opened for traffic:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Life on Ruhnu today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first archaeological artifacts of human activity in Ruhnu, assumed to be related to seasonal seal hunting, date back to around 5000 BC. The time of arrival of the first ancient Scandinavians in Ruhnu and the beginning of a permanent Swedish-speaking settlement is not known. It probably did not precede the Northern Crusades at the beginning of the 13th century, when the indigenous peoples of all the lands surrounding the Gulf of Riga were converted to Christianity and subjugated to the Teutonic Order. The first documented record of the island of Ruhnu, and of its Swedish population, is a 1341 letter sent by the Bishop of Courland which confirmed the islanders' right to reside and manage their property in accordance with Swedish law. Ruhnu was controlled by the Kingdom of Sweden (1621–1708, formally until 1721) and after that by Imperial Russia until World War I, when it was occupied by Imperial Germany (1915–1918). After the war, despite some local initiatives to rejoin Sweden, and territorial claims by Latvia, the islanders agreed to become part of newly independent Estonia in 1919 (possibly due to the existence of a Swedish minority in Estonia). According to a census taken in 1934, Ruhnu had a population of 282: 277 ethnic Swedes and 5 ethnic Estonians. During World War II, Ruhnu, along with the rest of Estonia, was first occupied by Soviet Union (1940–1941) and then Nazi Germany (1941–1944). In November 1943, the first group of about 75 islanders relocated to Sweden. In August 1944, shortly before the Red Army of the Soviet Union reoccupied Estonia, the remaining population of the island, except for two families, fled by ship to Sweden. The islanders in Sweden established an association, \"Runöbornas förening\", to preserve the history and culture of Ruhnu's original population. During the period of Soviet occupation after 1944, the island was repopulated by Estonian civilians and also hosted a unit of the Soviet Air Defence Forces. The property of the former islanders was declared property of the state and a collective farm was established. In 1965 the first Ruhnu-Kihnu Games were held, this cultural and sports festival attracting attention throughout Estonia. Following a severe storm in 1969 and the closure of the local fishery collective in 1970, the population declined from 222 to only 58.", "After Estonia regained independence in 1991, buildings, land, and other property on Ruhnu Island were returned to those with ownership claims that went back to before to the Soviet occupation of Estonia, or to their descendants. In case of Ruhnu, those descendants were mostly resident in Sweden. Most of them did not return to Ruhnu, but they still occasionally visit the land of their forefathers. Ruhnu is served by the Ruhnu Airfield which has scheduled flights from Pärnu and Kuressaare from October to April. Passenger ferries operate from May to October from Pärnu, Roomassaare and Munalaid. The island has a quadripod tower lighthouse, which stands on the highest point of the island, Haubjerre hill. It was prefabricated in France and shipped to Ruhnu for assembly in 1877. The structure was designed by Gustave Eiffel. The Ruhnu wooden church, built in 1644, is one of the oldest wood constructed buildings in Estonia. The church's baroque-style tower was finished in 1755. The stone Lutheran church next to the wooden one was built in 1912 and is currently where services are held. Limo beach is one of the island's most popular and accessible beaches for tourists. Geologically the island is the higher part of a submarine drumlin-like ridge. Ruhnu is home to a rare native breed of sheep called the Estonian Ruhnu (). The breed numbers approximately 33 individuals and are used primarily for wool. A herd of fifty highland cattle were introduced to Ruhnu in 2013, in an attempt to restore the semi-natural coastal meadows in the southwestern part of the island. In the spring of 2006, a brown bear arrived on Ruhnu via an ice floe across the Gulf of Riga from the mainland of Latvia, some away. The bear's journey and resettlement on the island became a highly publicized media sensation in both the Estonian and Latvian press, as Ruhnu has been devoid of any large carnivores for many centuries. The bear continued to evade capture for months and environment ministry officials reported that tourists hoping to catch a glimpse of the elusive bear outnumbered permanent residents. The bear is believed by authorities to have since returned to Latvia. In April 2007, Latvian chocolate producer Laima presented Ruhnu islanders with a chocolate statue of the bear to go on display before being eaten by islanders. This chocolate bear was finally eaten on 20 December 2007." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "In Belgium.", "Dutch-speaking part of Belgium.", "History.", "Early history.", "Historical Flanders.", "Low Countries.", "Beeldenstorm.", "The Eighty Years' War and its consequences.", "Southern Netherlands (1581–1795).", "French Revolution and Napoleonic France (1795–1815).", "United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1830).", "Kingdom of Belgium.", "Rise of the Flemish Movement.", "World War I and its consequences.", "Right-Wing Nationalism in the interbellum and World War II.", "Flemish autonomy.", "Government and politics.", "Geography.", "Administrative divisions.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Infrastructure.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Education.", "Healthcare.", "Culture.", "Language and literature.", "Media.", "Sports.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The term \"Flanders\"", "The significance of the County of Flanders and its counts eroded through time, but the designation survived with a broader cultural meaning which could be applied also to neighbouring areas. In the Early modern period, the term Flanders was associated with the southern part of the Low Countries: the Southern Netherlands. During the 19th and 20th centuries, it became increasingly common to refer to the whole Dutch-speaking part of Belgium as \"Flanders\". The linguistic limit between French and Dutch was recorded in the early '60s, from Kortrijk to Maastricht. Now, Flanders extends over the northern part of Belgium, including Belgian Limburg (corresponding closely to the medieval County of Loon), and the Dutch-speaking Belgian parts of the medieval Duchy of Brabant. The ambiguity between this wider cultural area and", "", "When Julius Caesar conquered the area he described it as the less economically developed and more warlike part of \"Gallia Belgica\". His informants told him that especially in the east, the tribes claimed ancestral connections and kinship with the \"Germanic\" peoples then east of the Rhine. Under the Roman empire the whole of \"Gallia Belgica\" became an administrative province. The future counties of Flanders and Brabant remained part of this province connected to what is now France, but in the east modern Limburg became part of the Rhine frontier province of \"Germania Inferior\" connected to what is now the Netherlands and Germany. \"Gallia Belgica\" and \"Germania Inferior\" were the two most northerly continental provinces of the Roman empire. In the future county of Flanders, the main Belgic tribe in early Roman times was the Menapii, but also on the coast were the Marsacii and Morini. In the central part of modern Belgium were the Nervii and in the east were the Tungri. The Tungri especially were understood to have links to", "The County of Flanders was a feudal fief in West Francia. The first certain Count in the comital family, Baldwin I of Flanders, is first reported in a document of 862 when he eloped with a daughter of his king Charles the Bald. The region developed as a medieval economic power with a large degree of political autonomy. While its trading cities remained strong, it was weakened and divided when districts fell under direct French royal rule in the late 12th century. The remaining parts of Flanders came under the rule of the counts of neighbouring imperial Hainaut under Baldwin V of Hainaut in 1191. During the late Middle Ages Flanders' trading towns (notably Ghent, Bruges and Ypres) made it one of the richest and most urbanized parts of Europe, weaving the wool of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export. As a consequence, a sophisticated culture developed, with impressive art and architecture, rivaling those of northern Italy. Ghent, Bruges, Ypres and the Franc of Bruges formed the Four Members, a form of parliament that exercised", "", "In 1500, Charles V was born in Ghent. He inherited the Seventeen Provinces (1506), Spain (1516) with its colonies and in 1519 was elected Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction of 1549, which established the Low Countries as the Seventeen Provinces (or Spanish Netherlands in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the Holy Roman Empire and from France. In 1556 Charles V abdicated due to ill health (he suffered from crippling gout). Spain and the Seventeen Provinces went to his son, Philip II of Spain. Over the first half of the 16th century Antwerp grew to become the second-largest European city north of the Alps by 1560. Antwerp was the richest city in Europe at this time. According to Luc-Normand Tellier \"It is estimated that the port of Antwerp was earning the Spanish crown seven", "Subsequently, Philip II pf Spain sent the Duke of Alba to the Provinces to repress the revolt. Alba recaptured the southern part of the Provinces, who signed the Union of Atrecht, which meant that they would accept the Spanish government on condition of more freedom. But the northern part of the provinces signed the Union of Utrecht and settled in 1581 the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands. Spanish troops quickly started fighting the rebels, and the Spanish armies conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent. Antwerp, which was then the most important port in the world, also had to be conquered. But before the revolt was defeated, a war between Spain and England broke out, forcing Spanish troops to halt their advance. On 17 August 1585, Antwerp fell. This ended the Eighty Years' War for the (from now on) Southern Netherlands. The United Provinces (the Northern Netherlands) fought on", "Although arts remained relatively impressive for another century with Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640) and Anthony van Dyck, Flanders lost its former economic and intellectual power under Spanish, Austrian, and French rule. Heavy taxation and rigid imperial political control compounded the effects", "In 1794, the French Republican Army started using Antwerp as the northernmost naval port of France. The following year, France officially annexed Flanders as the \"départements\" of Lys,", "After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte at the 1815 Battle of Waterloo in Brabant, the Congress of Vienna (1815) gave sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands – Belgium minus the East Cantons and Luxembourg – to the United Netherlands (Dutch: \"Verenigde Nederlanden\") under Prince William I of Orange Nassau, making him William I of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. William I started rapid industrialisation of the southern parts of the Kingdom. But the political system failed to forge a true union between the north and south. Most of the southern bourgeoisie was Roman Catholic and French-speaking, while the north was mainly Protestant and Dutch-speaking. In", "In 1830, the Belgian Revolution led to the splitting up of the two countries. Belgium was confirmed as an independent state by the Treaty of London of 1839, but deprived of the eastern half of Limburg (now Dutch Limburg), and the Eastern half of Luxembourg (now the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg). Sovereignty over Zeelandic Flanders, south of the Westerscheldt river delta, was left with the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was allowed to levy a toll on all traffic to Antwerp harbour until 1863.", "The Belgian Revolution was not supported in Flanders and even on 4 October 1830, when the Belgian independence was declared, Flemish authorities refused to take orders from the new Belgian government in Brussels. But a large French military force led by the Count de Pontécoulant helped to subdue Flanders one month later, and Flanders become a true part of Belgium. The French-speaking bourgeoisie showed little respect for the Dutch-speaking part of the population. French became the only official language in Belgium and all secondary and higher education in Dutch was abolished. In 1834, anyone suspected of being \"Flemish minded\" or calling for the reunification of the Netherlands", "Flanders (and Belgium as a whole) saw some of the greatest loss of life on the Western Front of the First World War, in particular from the three battles of Ypres. The war strengthened Flemish identity and consciousness. The occupying German authorities took several Flemish-friendly measures.", "During the interbellum and World War II, several right-wing fascist and/or national-socialistic parties emerged in Belgium. Since these parties were promised more rights for the Flemings by the German government during World War II, many of", "After World War II, the differences between Dutch-speaking and French-speaking Belgians became clear in a number of conflicts, such as the Royal Question, the question whether King Leopold III should return (which most Flemings supported but Walloons did not) and the use of Dutch in the Catholic University of Leuven. As a result, several state reforms took place in the second half of the 20th century, which transformed the unitary Belgium into a federal state with communities, regions and language areas. This resulted also in the establishment of a Flemish Parliament and Government. During the 1970s, all major political parties split into a Dutch and French-speaking party. Several Flemish parties still advocate for more Flemish autonomy, some even for Flemish independence (see Partition of Belgium), whereas the French-speakers would like to keep the current state as it is. Recent governments (such as Verhofstadt I Government) have transferred", "Both the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region are constitutional institutions of the Kingdom of Belgium, exercising certain powers within their jurisdiction, granted following a series of state reforms. In practice, the Flemish Community and Region together form a single body, with its own parliament and government, as the Community legally absorbed the competences of the Region. The parliament is a directly elected legislative body composed of 124 representatives. The government consists of up to 11 members and is presided by a Minister-President, currently Geert Bourgeois (New Flemish Alliance) leading a coalition of his party (N-VA) with Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams (CD&V) and Open Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten (Open VLD). The area of the Flemish Community is represented on the maps above, including the area of the Brussels-Capital Region (hatched on the relevant map). Roughly, the Flemish Community exercises competences originally oriented towards the individuals of the Community's language: culture (including audiovisual media), education, and the use of the language. Extensions to personal matters less directly associated with language comprise sports, health policy (curative and preventive medicine), and assistance to individuals (protection of youth, social welfare, aid to families, immigrant assistance services, etc.) The area of the Flemish Region is represented on the maps above. It has a population of more than 6 million (excluding the Dutch-speaking community in the Brussels Region, grey on the map for it is not a part of the Flemish Region). Roughly, the Flemish Region is responsible for territorial issues in a broad sense, including economy, employment, agriculture, water policy, housing, public works, energy, transport, the environment, town and country planning, nature conservation, credit, and foreign trade. It supervises the provinces, municipalities, and intercommunal utility companies. The number of Dutch-speaking Flemish people in the Capital Region is estimated to be between 11% and 15% (official figures do not exist as there is no language census and no official subnationality). According to a survey conducted by the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) in Louvain-la-Neuve and published in June 2006, 51% of respondents from Brussels claimed to be bilingual, even if they do not have Dutch as their first language. They are governed by the Brussels Region for economics affairs and by the Flemish Community for educational and cultural issues. As mentioned above, Flemish institutions such as the Flemish Parliament and Government, represent the Flemish Community and the Flemish Region. The region and the community thus \"de facto\" share the same parliament and the same government. All these institutions are based in Brussels. Nevertheless, both types of subdivisions (the Community and the Region) still exist legally and the distinction between both is important for the people living in Brussels. Members of the Flemish Parliament who were elected in the Brussels Region cannot vote on affairs belonging to the competences of the Flemish Region. The official language for all Flemish institutions is Dutch. French enjoys a limited official recognition in a dozen municipalities along the borders with French-speaking Wallonia, and a large recognition in the bilingual Brussels Region. French is widely known in Flanders, with 59% claiming to know French according to a survey conducted by UCLouvain in Louvain-la-Neuve and published in June 2006.", "Flanders shares its borders with Wallonia in the south, Brussels being an enclave within the Flemish Region. The rest of the border is shared with the Netherlands (Zeelandic Flanders in Zeeland, North Brabant and Limburg) in the north and east, and with France (French Flanders in Hauts-de-France) and the North Sea in the west. Voeren is an exclave of Flanders between Wallonia and the Netherlands, while Baarle-Hertog in Flanders forms a complicated series of enclaves and exclaves with Baarle-Nassau in the Netherlands. Germany, although bordering Wallonia and close to Voeren in Limburg, does not share a border with Flanders. The German-speaking Community of Belgium, also close to Voeren, does not border Flanders either. (The commune of Plombières, majority French speaking, lies between them.) Flanders is a highly urbanised area, lying completely within the Blue Banana. Antwerp, Ghent, Bruges and Leuven are the largest cities of the Flemish Region. Antwerp has a population of more than 500,000 citizens and is the largest city, Ghent has a population of 250,000 citizens, followed by Bruges with 120,000 citizens and Leuven counts almost 100,000 citizens. Brussels is a part of Flanders as far as community matters are concerned, but does not belong to the Flemish Region. Flanders has two main geographical regions: the coastal Yser basin plain in the north-west and a central plain. The first consists mainly of sand dunes and clayey alluvial soils in the polders. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by dikes or, a little further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. With similar soils along the lowermost Scheldt basin starts the central plain, a smooth, slowly rising fertile area irrigated by many waterways that reaches an average height of about five metres (16.4 ft) above sea level with wide valleys of its rivers upstream as well as the Campine region to the east having sandy soils at altitudes around thirty metres. Near its southern edges close to Wallonia one can find slightly rougher land richer of calcium with low hills reaching up to and small valleys, and at the eastern border with the Netherlands, in the Meuse basin, there are marl caves (\"mergelgrotten\"). Its exclave around Voeren between the Dutch border and the Walloon province of Liège attains a maximum altitude of above sea level.", "The present-day Flemish Region covers and is divided into five provinces, 22 arrondissements and 308 cities or municipalities. The province of Flemish Brabant is the most recent one, being formed in 1995 after the splitting of the province of Brabant. Most municipalities are made up of several former municipalities, now called \"deelgemeenten\". The largest municipality (both in terms of population and area) is Antwerp, having more than half a million inhabitants. Its nine \"deelgemeenten\" have a special status and are called districts, which have an elected council and a college. While any", "The climate is maritime temperate, with significant precipitation in all seasons (Köppen climate classification: \"Cfb\"; the", "Total GDP of the Flemish Region in 2004 was €165,847 billion (Eurostat figures). Per capita GDP at purchasing power parity was 23% above the EU average. Flemish productivity per capita is about 13% higher than that in Wallonia, and wages are about 7% higher than in Wallonia. Flanders was one of the first continental European areas to undergo the Industrial Revolution, in the 19th century. Initially, the modernization relied heavily on food processing and textile. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846–50). After World War II, Antwerp and Ghent experienced a fast expansion of the chemical and petroleum industries. Flanders also attracted a large majority of foreign investments in Belgium. The 1973 and 1979 oil crises sent the economy into a recession. The steel industry remained in relatively good shape. In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of Belgium continued to shift further to Flanders and is now concentrated in the populous Flemish Diamond area. Nowadays, the Flemish economy is mainly service-oriented. Belgium is a founding member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1951, which evolved into the present-day European Union. In 1999, the euro, the single European currency, was introduced in Flanders. It replaced the Belgian franc in 2002. The Flemish economy is strongly export-oriented, in particular of high value-added goods. The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and non-ferrous metals. Since 1922, Belgium and Luxembourg have been a single trade market within a customs and currency union—the Belgium–Luxembourg Economic Union. Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States, and Spain. Antwerp is the number one diamond market in the world, diamond exports account for roughly 1/10 of Belgian exports. The Antwerp-based BASF plant is the largest BASF-base outside Germany, and accounts on its own for about 2% of Belgian exports. Other industrial and service activities in Antwerp include car manufacturing, telecommunications, photographic products. Flanders is home to several science and technology institutes, such as IMEC, VITO, Flanders DC and Flanders Make.", "Flanders has developed an extensive transportation infrastructure of ports, canals, railways and highways. The Port of Antwerp is the second-largest in Europe, after Rotterdam. Other ports are Bruges-Zeebrugge, Ghent and Ostend, of which Zeebrugge and Ostend are located at the. Whereas railways", "The highest population density is found in the area circumscribed by the Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent-Leuven agglomerations that surround Mechelen and is known as the Flemish Diamond, in other important urban centres as Bruges, Roeselare and Kortrijk to the west, and notable centres Turnhout and Hasselt to the east. On 1 January 2015, the Flemish Region had a population of 6,444,127 and about 15% of the 1,175,173 people in the Brussels Region are also considered Flemish.", "The Belgian constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the various governments in general respect this right in practice. Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong freethought movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, since the 20th century in Flanders mainly via the Christian trade union ACV and the Christian Democratic and Flemish party (CD&V). According to the \"2001 Survey and Study of Religion\", about 47", "Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but most Flemings continue to study until around 23. Among the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development countries in 1999, Flanders had the third-highest proportion of 18- to 21-year-olds enrolled in postsecondary education. Flanders also scores very high in international comparative studies on education. Its secondary school students consistently rank among the top three for mathematics and science. However, the success is not evenly spread: ethnic minority youth score consistently lower, and the difference is larger than in most comparable countries. Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the secular and Catholic segments of the population, the Flemish educational system is split into a secular branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a subsidised religious—mostly Catholic—branch. For the subsidised schools, the main costs such as the teacher's wages and building maintenance completely borne by the Flemish government. Subsidised schools are also free to determine their own teaching and examination methods, but in exchange, they must be able to prove that certain minimal terms are achieved by keeping records of the", "Healthcare is a federal matter, but the Flemish Government is responsible for", "At first sight, \"Flemish culture\" is defined by the Dutch language and its gourmandic mentality, as compared to the more Calvinistic Dutch culture. Dutch and Flemish paintings enjoyed more equal international admiration.", "The standard language in Flanders is Dutch; spelling and grammar are regulated by a single authority, the Dutch Language Union (\"Nederlandse Taalunie\"), comprising a committee of ministers of the Flemish and Dutch governments, their advisory council of appointed experts, a controlling commission of 22 parliamentarians, and a secretariate. The term Flemish can be applied to the Dutch spoken in Flanders; it shows many regional and local variations. The biggest difference between Belgian Dutch and Dutch used in the Netherlands is in the pronunciation of words. The Dutch spoken in the north of the Netherlands is typically described as being \"sharper\", while Belgian Dutch is \"softer\". In Belgian Dutch, there are also fewer vowels pronounced as diphthongs. When it comes to spelling, Belgian Dutch language purists historically avoided writing words using a French spelling, or searched for specific translations of words derived from French, while the Dutch prefer to stick with French spelling, as it differentiates Dutch more from the neighbouring German. For example, the Dutch word \"punaise\" (English: \"Drawing pin\") is derived directly from the French language. Belgian Dutch language purists have lobbied to accept the word \"duimspijker\" (literally: \"thumb spike\") as official Dutch, though the Dutch Language Union never accepted it as standard Dutch. Other proposals by purists were sometimes accepted, and sometimes reverted again in later spelling revisions. As language purists were quite often professionally involved in language (e.g. as a teacher), these unofficial purist translations are found more often in Belgian Dutch texts. The earliest example of literature in non-standardized dialects in the current area of Flanders is Hendrik van Veldeke's \"Eneas Romance\", the first courtly romance in a Germanic language (12th century). With a writer of Hendrik Conscience's stature, Flemish literature rose ahead of French literature in Belgium's early history. Guido Gezelle not only explicitly referred to his writings as Flemish but used it in many of his poems, and strongly defended it: Original <poem> \"Gij zegt dat 't vlaamsch te niet zal gaan:\" \"'t en zal!\" \"dat 't waalsch gezwets zal boven slaan:' \"'t en zal!\" \"Dat hopen, dat begeren wij:\" \"dat zeggen en dat zweren wij:\" \"zoo lange als wij ons weren, wij:\" \"'t en zal, 't en zal,\" \"'t en zal!\" </poem> Translation. For explanations, continue along \"It shan't!\" \"This we hope, for this we hanker:\" \"this we say and this we vow:\" \"as long as we fight back, we:\" \"It shan't, It shan't,\" \"It shan't!\" </poem> The distinction between Dutch and Flemish literature, often perceived politically, is also made on intrinsic grounds by some experts such as Kris Humbeeck, professor of Literature at the University of Antwerp. Nevertheless, most Dutch-language literature read (and appreciated to varying degrees) in Flanders is the same as that in the Netherlands. Influential Flemish writers include Ernest Claes, Stijn Streuvels and Felix Timmermans. Their novels mostly describe rural life in Flanders in the 19th century and at beginning of the 20th. Widely read by the older generations, they are considered somewhat old-fashioned by present-day critics. Some famous Flemish writers of the early 20th century wrote in French, including Nobel Prize winners (1911) Maurice Maeterlinck and Emile Verhaeren. They were followed by a younger generation, including Paul van Ostaijen and Gaston Burssens, who \"activated\" the Flemish Movement. Still widely read and translated into other languages (including English) are the novels of authors such as Willem Elsschot, Louis Paul Boon and Hugo Claus. The recent crop of writers includes the novelists Tom Lanoye and Herman Brusselmans, and poets such as the married couple Herman de Coninck and Kristien Hemmerechts.", "The public radio and television broadcaster in Flanders is VRT, which operates the TV channels één, Canvas, Ketnet, OP12 and (together with the Netherlands) BVN. Flemish provinces each have up to two TV channels as well. Commercial television broadcasters include vtm and Vier (VT4). Popular TV series are for example \"Thuis\" and \"F.C. De Kampioenen\". The five most successful Flemish films were \"Loft\" (2008; 1,186,071 visitors), \"Koko Flanel\" (1990; 1,082,000 tickets sold), \"Hector\" (1987;", "Association football (soccer) is one of the most popular sports in both parts of Belgium, together with cycling, tennis, swimming and judo. In cycling, the Tour of Flanders is considered one of the five \"Monuments\". Other \"Flanders Classics\" races include \"Dwars door Vlaanderen\" and Gent–Wevelgem. Eddy Merckx is widely regarded as the greatest cyclist of all time, with five victories in the Tour de France and numerous other cycling records.", "Flanders is known for its music festivals, like the annual Rock Werchter, Tomorrowland and Pukkelpop. The Gentse Feesten is another very large yearly event. The best-selling Flemish group or" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use and design." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The canopic jars were four in number, each for the safekeeping of particular human organs: the stomach, intestines, lungs, and liver, all of which, it was believed, would be needed in the afterlife. There was no jar for the heart: the Egyptians believed it to be the seat of the soul, and so it was left inside the body. Many Old Kingdom canopic jars were found empty and damaged, even in undisturbed tombs. Therefore it seems that they were never used as containers. Instead, it seems that they were part of burial rituals and were placed after these rituals, empty. The design of canopic jars changed over time. The oldest date from the Eleventh or the Twelfth dynasty, and are made of stone or wood. The last jars date from the New Kingdom. In the Old Kingdom the jars had plain lids, though by the First Intermediate Period jars with human heads (assumed to represent the dead) began to appear. Sometimes the covers of the jars were modeled after (or painted to resemble) the head of Anubis, the god of death and embalming. By the late Eighteenth dynasty canopic jars had come to feature the four sons of Horus. Many sets of jars survive from this period, in alabaster, aragonite, calcareous stone, and blue or green glazed porcelain. The sons of Horus were also the gods of the cardinal compass points. Each god was responsible for protecting a particular organ and was himself protected by a companion goddess. They were: Early canopic jars were placed inside a canopic chest and buried in tombs together with the sarcophagus of the dead. Later, they were sometimes arranged in rows beneath the bier, or at the four corners of the chamber. After the early periods there were usually inscriptions on the outsides of the jars, sometimes quite long and complex. The scholar Sir Ernest Budge quoted an inscription from the Saïte or Ptolemaic period that begins: \"Thy bread is to thee. Thy beer is to thee. Thou livest upon that on which Ra lives.\" Other inscriptions tell of purification in the afterlife. In the Third Intermediate Period and later, dummy canopic jars were introduced. Improved embalming techniques allowed the viscera to remain in the body; the traditional jars remained a feature of tombs, but were no longer hollowed out for storage of the organs. Copious jars were produced, and surviving examples of them can be seen in museums around the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design/history.", "Colour scheme.", "Historical flags.", "Banning of the flag." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the 1992 constitution: \"The National Flag of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam is rectangular in shape, its width is equal to two thirds of its length, in the middle of fresh red background is a bright five-pointed golden star\". The flag first appeared in the southern uprising () of 23 November 1940, against French rule in southern Vietnam. A series of articles by Sơn Tùng on the origin of the flag were published in the state media in 1981. Sơn Tùng stated that the flag was designed by Nguyễn Hữu Tiến, a leader of the uprising who was arrested by the French in advance of the failed uprising and executed 28 August 1941. Tiến, who was born in the northern village of Lũng Xuyên, was unknown to the Vietnamese public before Tùng's research was published. According to a poem Tiến wrote, the red background represents blood while the yellow foreground represents \"the color of our race’s skin\", the five points of the star represent intellectuals, peasants, workers, traders and soldiers. Tiến's poem reads in part: <poem>... All those of red blood and yellow skin Together we fight under the nation’s sacred flag The flag is soaked with our crimson blood, shed for the nation The yellow star is the colour of our race’s skin Stand up, quickly! The nation’s soul is calling for us Intellectuals, peasants, workers, traders and armymen United as a five-pointed yellow star... </poem> In April 2001, Vietnam's Ministry of Culture reported that there was no documentation to support the claim that Tiến designed the flag. In 2005, Lê Minh Đức, an official of Tiền Giang province, suggested that the flag was designed by another cadre, Lê Quang Sô, a native of Mỹ Tho Province in the Mekong delta. Đức's theory is based on statements by Sô's son as well as Sô's 1968 memoir. According to Đức, yellow was chosen to represent Vietnam while the red background was inspired by the flag of the Communist Party and represents revolution. Sô experimented with stars in various positions and sizes before choosing a large star in the center for aesthetic reasons. In April 1940, the flag was approved by Phan Văn Khỏe, the Communist party chief of Mỹ Tho. It was subsequently approved by the national party in July. As of 2006, the state media has not commented on Đức's version of events. The flag was displayed at a conference on 19 May 1941, at which the Viet Minh was founded. The Viet Minh proclaimed it a \"national flag\" on 17 August 1945, at a meeting held in the village of Tân Trào in the North. When the Japanese surrendered at the end of World War II, the Viet Minh entered Hanoi and proclaimed the \"Democratic Republic of Vietnam\" on 2 September. On 5 September, DRV President Ho Chi Minh signed a decree adopting the Vietminh flag. French troops returned in October and restored colonial rule in the South. The National Assembly voted unanimously to adopt the flag on 2 March 1946. Following the Geneva Accord between Viet Minh and France in 1954, the DRV became the government of North Vietnam. On 30 November 1955, the flag's design was modified slightly to make the star smaller and its rays straighter. This followed a similar modification of the flag of the Soviet Union. The flag was adopted in the South after the end of the Vietnam war, and North and South were unified as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 2 July 1976.", "The colours approximation is listed below:", "Traditional images show the Trung sisters wearing yellow turbans during their revolt against China in AD 40. These were unwrapped and waved to signal the beginning of a fight. A yellow banner with a red circle in the center was adopted as a standard by Emperor Gia Long (r. 1802–1820). The flag of South Vietnam was originally designed by Emperor Thành Thái in 1890, and was revived by Lê Văn Đệ and re-adopted by Emperor Bảo Đại in 1948. The three stripes represented the \"Quẻ Càn\", or Qian trigram, one of eight trigrams used in the \"I-Ching,\" a Taoist scripture. \"Quẻ Càn\" is the divination sign for heaven. Later, the stripes were reinterpreted to represent the northern, central and southern regions of Vietnam. The French, who gradually gained control of Vietnam in the late 19th century, flew the national flag of France. As the colony of Cochinchina (1864–1945), the South was under exclusive French authority. In contrast, North and Central Vietnam were protectorates with parallel systems of Vietnamese and French administration. Several flags were flown in these regions: the French flag, the Vietnamese imperial flag, and a \"protectorate flag.\" From 1920 to 1945, the Vietnamese imperial flag had a yellow background with a single, broad red stripe. Japan occupied Vietnam in 1941–1945. In March 1945, the Japanese deposed the French colonial authorities and proclaimed an Empire of Vietnam with Bảo Đại as emperor. The \"Quẻ Ly\" Flag, also a red trigram on a yellow background, was adopted in June. Among other things, \"Quẻ Ly\" symbolizes the direction south. Bảo Đại abdicated in August when Japan surrendered. The French returned in October 1945, but were challenged by the Vietminh, especially in the North. The French proclaimed Cochinchina a republic in June 1946. This puppet state adopted a \"Quẻ Càn\" flag with blue stripes on a yellow background. In May 1948, the name of the Cochinchina government was changed to \"Provisional Central Government of Vietnam\" in preparation for a merger with the North outlined in the Hạ Long Bay agreements between France and Bảo Đại. Artist Lê Văn Đệ (1906–1966) met Bảo Đại in Hong Kong in 1948 and proposed that the Quẻ Càn flag of Emperor Thành Thái be restored. On 2 June 1948, Chief of State Nguyễn Văn Xuân, signed an ordinance to adopt this flag: \"The national emblem is a flag of yellow background, the height of which is equal to two-thirds of its width. In the middle of the flag and along its entire width, there are three horizontal red bands. Each band has a height equal to one-fifteenth of the width. These three red bands are separated from one another by a space of the band's height.\" This flag was used in the South until 1975. It continues to be used by many Vietnamese expatriates as the \"Heritage and Freedom Flag\", but is \"de facto\" banned in Vietnam.", "In January 2017, San Jose, which has the largest population of Vietnamese émigrés in the United States, banned the Vietnamese flag from being displayed on city flagpoles. This was inspired by a 2016 policy adopted by Westminster, California forbidding the display of the flag on city property. Nearby Milpitas also banned the flag from municipal display on 5 September 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life and education.", "Early career.", "\"A Dictionary of the English Language\".", "Later career.", "Final works.", "Final years.", "Literary criticism.", "Character sketch.", "Health.", "Legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Samuel Johnson was born on 18 September 1709, to Sarah (née Ford) and Michael Johnson, a bookseller. The birth took place in the family home above his father's bookshop in Lichfield, Staffordshire. His mother was 40 when she gave birth to Johnson. This was considered an unusually late pregnancy, so precautions were taken, and a \"man-midwife\" and surgeon of \"great reputation\" named George Hector was brought in to assist. The infant Johnson did not cry, and there were concerns for his health. His aunt exclaimed that \"she would not have picked such a poor creature up in the street\". The family feared that Johnson would not survive, and summoned the vicar of St Mary's to perform a baptism. Two godfathers were chosen, Samuel Swynfen, a physician and graduate of Pembroke College, Oxford, and Richard Wakefield, a lawyer, coroner, and Lichfield town clerk. Johnson's health improved and he was put to wet-nurse with Joan Marklew. Some time later he contracted scrofula, known at", "Little is known about Johnson's life between the end of 1729 and 1731. It is likely that he lived with his parents. He experienced bouts of mental anguish and physical pain during years of illness; his tics and gesticulations associated with Tourette syndrome became more noticeable and were often commented upon. By 1731 Johnson's father was deeply in debt and had lost much of his standing in Lichfield. Johnson hoped to get an usher's position, which became available at Stourbridge Grammar School, but since he did not have a degree, his application was passed over on 6 September 1731. At about this time, Johnson's father became ill and developed an \"inflammatory fever\" which led to his death in December 1731. Johnson eventually found employment as undermaster at a school in Market Bosworth, run by Sir Wolstan Dixie, who allowed Johnson to teach without a degree. Although Johnson was treated as a servant, he found pleasure in teaching even though he considered it boring. After an argument with Dixie he left the school, and by June 1732 he had returned home. Johnson continued to look for a position at a Lichfield school. After being turned down for", "In 1746, a group of publishers approached Johnson with an idea about creating an authoritative dictionary of the English language. A contract with William Strahan and associates, worth 1,500 guineas, was signed on the morning of 18 June 1746. Johnson claimed that he could finish the project in three years. In comparison, the Académie Française had 40 scholars spending 40 years to complete their dictionary, which prompted Johnson to claim, \"This is the proportion. Let me see; forty times forty is sixteen hundred. As three to sixteen hundred, so is the proportion of an Englishman to a Frenchman.\" Although he did not succeed in completing the work in three years, he did manage to finish it in eight. Some criticised the dictionary, including Thomas Babington Macaulay, who described Johnson as \"a wretched etymologist,\" but according to Bate, the \"Dictionary\" \"easily ranks as one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship, and probably the greatest ever performed by one individual who laboured under anything like the disadvantages in a comparable length of time.\" Johnson's dictionary was not the first, nor was it unique. It was, however, the most commonly used and imitated for the 150 years between its first publication and the completion of the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" in 1928. Other dictionaries, such as Nathan Bailey's \"Dictionarium Britannicum\", included more words, and in the 150 years preceding Johnson's", "On 16 March 1756, Johnson was arrested for an outstanding debt of £5 18s. Unable to contact anyone else, he wrote to the writer and publisher Samuel Richardson. Richardson, who had previously lent Johnson money, sent him six guineas to show his good will, and the two became friends. Soon after, Johnson met and befriended the painter Joshua Reynolds, who so impressed Johnson that he declared him \"almost the only man whom I call a friend\". Reynolds' younger sister Frances observed during their time together \"that men, women and children gathered around him [Johnson]\", laughing at his gestures and gesticulations. In addition to Reynolds, Johnson was close to Bennet Langton and Arthur Murphy. Langton was a scholar and an admirer of Johnson who persuaded his way into a meeting with Johnson which led to a long friendship. Johnson met Murphy during the summer of 1754 after Murphy came to Johnson about the accidental republishing of the \"Rambler\" No. 190, and the two became friends. Around this time, Anna Williams began boarding with Johnson. She was a minor poet who was poor and becoming blind, two conditions that Johnson attempted to change by providing room for her and paying for a failed cataract surgery. Williams, in turn, became Johnson's housekeeper. To occupy himself, Johnson began to work on \"The Literary Magazine, or Universal Review\", the first issue of which was", "On 6 August 1773, eleven years after first meeting Boswell, Johnson set out to visit his friend in Scotland, and to begin \"a journey to the western islands of Scotland\", as Johnson's 1775 account of their travels would put it. The work was intended to discuss the social problems and struggles that affected the Scottish people, but it also praised many of the unique facets of Scottish society, such as a school in Edinburgh for the deaf and mute. Also, Johnson used the work to enter into the dispute over the authenticity of James Macpherson's Ossian poems, claiming they could not have been translations of ancient Scottish literature on the grounds that \"in those times nothing had been written in the Earse [i.e. Scots Gaelic] language\". There were heated exchanges between the two, and", "Although he had recovered his health by August, he experienced emotional trauma when he was given word that Hester Thrale would sell the residence that Johnson shared with the family. What hurt Johnson most was the possibility that he would be left without her constant company. Months later, on 6 October 1782, Johnson attended church for the final time in his life, to say goodbye to his former residence and life. The walk to the church strained him, but he managed the journey unaccompanied. While there, he wrote a prayer for the Thrale family:", "Johnson's works, especially his \"Lives of the Poets\" series, describe various features of excellent writing. He believed that the best poetry relied on contemporary language, and he disliked the use of decorative or purposefully archaic language. He was suspicious of the poetic language used by Milton, whose blank verse he believed would inspire many bad imitations. Also, Johnson opposed the poetic language of his contemporary Thomas Gray. His greatest complaint was that obscure allusions found in works like Milton's \"Lycidas\" were overused; he preferred poetry that could be easily read and understood. In addition to his views on language, Johnson believed that a good poem incorporated new and unique imagery. In his smaller poetic works, Johnson relied on short lines and filled his work with a feeling of empathy, which possibly influenced Housman's poetic style. In \"London\", his first imitation of Juvenal, Johnson uses the poetic form to express his political opinion and, as befits a young writer, approaches the topic in a playful and almost joyous manner. However, his second imitation, \"The Vanity of Human Wishes\", is completely different; the language remains simple, but the poem is more complicated and difficult to read because Johnson is trying to describe complex Christian ethics. These Christian values are not unique to the poem, but contain views expressed in most of Johnson's works. In particular, Johnson emphasises God's infinite love and shows that happiness can be attained through virtuous action. When it came to biography, Johnson disagreed with Plutarch's use of biography to praise and to teach morality. Instead, Johnson believed in portraying the biographical subjects accurately and including any negative aspects of their lives. Because his insistence on accuracy in biography was little short of revolutionary, Johnson had to struggle against a society that was unwilling to accept biographical details that could be viewed as tarnishing a reputation; this became the subject of \"Rambler\" 60. Furthermore, Johnson believed that biography should not be limited to the", "Johnson's tall and robust figure combined with his odd gestures were confusing to some; when William Hogarth first saw Johnson standing near a window in Samuel Richardson's house, \"shaking his head and rolling himself about in a strange ridiculous manner\", Hogarth thought Johnson an \"ideot, whom his relations had put under the care of Mr. Richardson\". Hogarth was quite surprised when \"this figure stalked forwards to where he and Mr. Richardson were sitting and all at once took up the argument... [with] such a power of eloquence, that Hogarth looked at him with astonishment, and actually imagined that this ideot had been at the moment inspired\". Beyond appearance, Adam Smith claimed that \"Johnson knew more books than any man alive\", while Edmund Burke thought that if Johnson were to join Parliament, he \"certainly would have been the greatest speaker that ever was there\". Johnson relied on a unique form of rhetoric, and he is well known for his \"refutation\" of Bishop Berkeley's immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist but only seemed to exist: during a conversation with Boswell, Johnson powerfully stomped a nearby stone and proclaimed of Berkeley's theory, \"I refute it \"thus\"!\" Johnson was a devout, conservative Anglican and a compassionate man who supported a number of poor friends under his own roof, even when unable to fully provide for himself. Johnson's Christian morality permeated his works, and he would write on moral topics with such authority and in such a trusting manner that, Walter Jackson Bate claims, \"no other moralist in history excels or even begins to rival him\". However, Johnson's moral writings do not contain, as Donald Greene points out, \"a predetermined", "Johnson had several health problems, including childhood tuberculous scrofula resulting in deep facial scarring, deafness in one ear and blindness in one eye, gout, testicular cancer, and a stroke in his final year that left him unable to speak; his autopsy indicated that he had pulmonary fibrosis along with cardiac failure probably due to hypertension, a condition then unknown. Johnson displayed signs consistent with several diagnoses, including depression and Tourette syndrome. There are many accounts of Johnson suffering from bouts of depression and what Johnson thought might be madness. As Walter Jackson Bate puts it, \"one of the ironies of literary history is that its most compelling and authoritative symbol of common sense—of the strong, imaginative grasp of concrete reality—should have begun his adult life, at the age of twenty, in a state of such intense anxiety and bewildered despair that, at least from his own point of view, it seemed the onset of actual insanity\". To overcome these feelings, Johnson tried to constantly involve himself with various activities, but this did not seem to help. Taylor said that Johnson \"at one time strongly entertained thoughts of Suicide\". Boswell claimed that Johnson \"felt himself overwhelmed with an horrible melancholia, with perpetual irritation, fretfulness, and impatience; and with a dejection, gloom, and despair, which made existence misery\". Early on, when Johnson", "Johnson was, in the words of Steven Lynn, \"more than a well-known writer and scholar\"; he was a celebrity for the activities and the state of his health in his later years were constantly reported in various journals and newspapers, and when there was nothing to report, something was invented. According to Bate, \"Johnson loved biography,\" and he \"changed the whole course of biography for the modern world. One by-product was the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature, Boswell's \"Life of Johnson\", and there were many other memoirs and biographies of a similar kind written on Johnson after his death.\" These accounts of his life include Thomas Tyers's \"A Biographical Sketch of Dr Samuel Johnson\" (1784); Boswell's \"The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides\" (1785); Hester Thrale's \"Anecdotes of the Late Samuel Johnson\", which drew on entries from her diary and other notes; John Hawkins's \"Life of Samuel Johnson\", the first full-length biography of Johnson; and, in 1792, Arthur Murphy's \"An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson\", which replaced Hawkins's biography as the introduction to a collection of Johnson's \"Works\". Another important source was Fanny Burney, who described Johnson as \"the acknowledged Head of Literature in this kingdom\" and kept a diary containing details missing from other biographies. Above all, Boswell's portrayal of Johnson is the work best known to general readers. Although critics like Donald Greene argue about its status as a true biography, the work became successful as Boswell and his friends promoted it at the expense of the many other works on Johnson's life. In criticism, Johnson had a lasting influence, although not everyone viewed him favourably. Some, like Macaulay, regarded Johnson as an idiot savant who produced some respectable works, and others, like the Romantic poets, were completely opposed to Johnson's views on poetry and literature, especially with regard to Milton. However, some of their contemporaries disagreed: Stendhal's \"Racine et Shakespeare\" is based in part on Johnson's views of Shakespeare, and Johnson influenced Jane", "Specific General" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Uses.", "Phytochemicals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is a small to medium-size tree (unlike most other \"Gnetum\" species, which are lianas), growing to 15–20 m tall. The leaves are evergreen, opposite, 8–20 cm long and 3–10 cm broad, entire, emerging bronze-coloured, maturing glossy dark green. The fruit-like female strobilus consist of little but skin and a large nut-like seed 2–4 cm long inside. Male strobili are small, arranged in long stalks, and are often mistaken for flowers. Fleshy strobili weigh about 5.5 g, the seed alone 3.8 g. Strobili mature mainly from June to September in NE Philippines. The red (ripe) strobili are eaten by birds, mammals and reptiles.", "Melinjo is native to Indonesia and widely used in Indonesian cuisine. The seeds are used for \"sayur asem\" (sour vegetable soup) and also, made into raw chips that later need to be deep-fried as crackers (\"emping\", a type of \"krupuk\"). The crackers have a slightly bitter taste and are frequently served as a snack or accompaniment to Indonesian dishes. The leaves are also commonly used for vegetable dishes in Indonesia and southern Thailand. This plant is commonly cultivated throughout the Aceh region and is regarded as a vegetable of high status. Its male strobili, young leaves and female strobilus are used as ingredients in traditional vegetable curry called \"kuah pliek\". This dish is served on all important traditional occasions, such as \"khanduri\" and \"keureudja\". In the Pidie district, the women pick the red-skinned ripe fruit and make \"keureupuk muling\" from it. In Java, the young leaves and unpeeled seeds are used for ingredients in a dish called sayur asem.", "Recently, it has been discovered that melinjo strobili are rich in a stilbenoid composed of resveratrol and identified as a dimer. This result was published in XXIII International Conference on Polyphenols, Canada, in 2006. Melinjo resveratrol, having antibacterial and antioxidative activity, works as a food preservative, off flavour inhibitor and taste enhancer. This species may have applications in food industries which do not use any synthetic chemicals in their processes. Four new stilbene oligomers, gnemonol G, H, I and J, were isolated from acetone extract of the root of \"Gnetum gnemon\" along with five known stilbenoids, ampelopsin E, cis-ampelopsin E, gnetin C, D and E. The extraction of dried leaf of \"Gnetum gnemon\" with acetone water (1:1) gave \"C\"-glycosylflavones (isovitexin, vicenin II, isoswertisin, swertisin, swertiajaponin, isoswertiajaponin). The separation of a 50% ethanol extract of the dried endosperms yielded gnetin C, gnetin L (new stilbenoid), gnemonosides A, C and D, and resveratrol which were tested for DPPH radical scavenging action, antimicrobial activity and inhibition of lipase and α-amylase from porcine pancreas. Gnetin C showed the best effect among these stilbenoids. Oral administration of the 50% ethanol extract of melinjo fruit at 100 mg/kg/day significantly enhanced the production of the Th1 cytokines IL-2 and IFN-γ irrespective of concanavalin-A stimulation, whereas the production of the Th2 cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 was not affected. New stilbene glucosides gnemonoside L and gnemonoside M, and known stilbenoids resveratrol, isorhapontigenin, gnemonoside D, gnetins C and E were isolated from the extract. Gnemonoside M strongly enhanced Th1 cytokine production in cultured Peyer's patch cells from mice at 10 mg/kg/day." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Tolls." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Construction of the bridge began on April 14, 1969, and it opened to traffic on February 1, 1974. It has a total length of 13,912 feet (4,240 m), and a main span of 1,644 feet (501 m), making the bridge the fourth longest cantilever bridge in the world, and the longest in the United States. The road has a total of five lanes, divided by a zipper barrier, which was added to the bridge in 2002, in which a machine can configure the number of lanes in each direction, depending upon traffic volume or construction. The bridge is designated as part of U.S. Route 322 and has direct connections with PA Route 291 (W. 2nd Street), U.S. Route 13 (W. 9th Street) and Interstate 95 in Chester and U.S. Route 130 in Bridgeport, with a connection to Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike within a radius of the bridge. Originally created to be a connection to one of the then-proposed freeways in New Jersey, the Commodore Barry Bridge was to connect Interstate 95 near Chester to, at one point, the Atlantic City Expressway near Hammonton, but those plans were eventually scrapped when it was realized that many people in the college town of Glassboro would be affected. There are new talks of possibly upgrading US 322 to a freeway from US 130 to Interstate 295's current Exit 11, or even as far as the New Jersey Turnpike's Exit 2. There is no mention if this new freeway would be included in the Interstate Highway System, though it hasn't been ruled out yet, either. In 1978, an intense fire broke out at Wade Dump, a rubber recycling facility and illegal industrial chemical dumping site almost directly under the bridge. The heat, rising flames and noxious fumes shut down the bridge temporarily. The burning chemicals injured 43 firemen and caused long-term health problems for the first responders to the fire. In 1981, the location was declared a Superfund cleanup site and remediation occurred throughout the 1980s. In 1989, the site was deemed safe and removed from the Superfund national priorities list. In 2004 the site was converted to a parking lot for the nearby Barry Bridge Park.", "A $5.00 one-way toll is charged entering Pennsylvania for passenger vehicles (less than gross vehicle weight). A $12 credit will be given on a per tag basis for any DRPA-issued E-ZPass tag that crosses one of the four DRPA bridges 18 times in a calendar month. Trucks, Commercial vehicles, mobile homes and recreation vehicles (weighing at least. gross vehicle weight), pay $7.50 cash per axle. Seniors aged 65 and over with an NJ E-ZPass can use a discount program to pay $2.50 per trip." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Critique." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The static concept of the bridge can be traced back to the 1986 sculpture by Calatrava entitled 'Running Torso', in which inclined stacked marble cubes are balanced by a tensioned wire. The Alamillo Bridge consists of a single straight steel-shell tower, infilled with reinforced concrete and inclined backward, counterbalancing a 200 m span with thirteen pairs of cables. Since the weight of the tower is made to be sufficient to counter-balance the deck, back stays are thus not required, effectively substituting the weight of an inclined tower for one set of stay cables. In this way, a new type of cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge was conceived in 1987. The original intent was to build two symmetrical bridges on either side of the island, but in the end the Alamillo's singular asymmetric design has proved most striking. The bridge deck consists of an hexagonal steel-box-beam spine to which the stay cables are attached. Side steel wings cantilevered off the hexagonal spine support the traffic decks, three lanes on each side. The top of the hexagonal spine, elevated 1.6 meters (5 feet) above the road level, serves as an elevated footway and cycle lane in between the traffic lanes. This bridge represented the soaring aspirations of the city of Seville in preparation for Expo '92, and is visible from the top of La Giralda, the former minaret which is the sentimental roof of the city, linking Seville's past and present. Similar to the Brooklyn Bridge, there is an elevated walkway for pedestrians. In addition to the elevated walkway, the Alamillo Bridge features a lookout at the top of the inclined tower, accessible by an stairway enclosed within the tower. The Alamillo Bridge is the first cable-stayed bridge that is balanced solely through the weight of the massive tower, not requiring any type of back stays or anchorage. There are 54 steel piles under the bridge, acting passively under the tower. Calatrava's Sundial Bridge in Redding, California (2004), the Mesoghion Avenue Footbridge in Athens and Chords Bridge in Jerusalem (2008) are similar in design to the Alamillo Bridge.", "While the Alamillo Bridge is dramatic and widely acclaimed aesthetically, an analysis of its structural engineering show that it has an inefficient dynamic structural form because of the lack of backstays or anchorage to provide a restoring force under changing loads. One indication of this is the extreme weight of the pylon member needed in the Alamillo Bridge compared with other cable-stayed bridges such as the Erasmus Bridge in Rotterdam, which has a backward-inclined pylon and backstays. The total mass of the pylon of the Alamillo Bridge is over 10 times the pylon mass of the Erasmus Bridge, which has even a longer span than the Alamillo." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The sacristy is also where the priest and attendants vest and prepare before the service. They will return there at the end of the service to remove their vestments and put away any of the vessels used during the service. The hangings and altar linens are stored there as well. The Parish registers may be kept in the sacristy and are administered by the parish clerk. Sacristies usually contain a special wash basin, called a piscina, the drain of which is properly called a \"sacrarium\" in which the drain flows directly into the ground to prevent sacred items such as used baptismal water from being washed into the sewers or septic tanks. The piscina is used to wash linens used during the celebration of the Mass and purificators used during Holy Communion. The cruets, chalice, ciborium, paten, altar linens and sometimes the Holy Oils are kept inside the sacristy. Sacristies are usually off limits to the general public. The word \"sacristy\" derives from the Latin \"sacristia\", sometimes spelled \"sacrastia\", which is in turn derived from \"sacrista\" (\"sexton, sacristan\"), from \"sacra\" (\"holy\"). A person in charge of the sacristy and its contents is called a sacrist or a sacristan. The latter name was formerly given to the sexton of a parish church, where he would have cared for these things, the fabric of the building and the grounds. In Eastern Christianity, the functions of the sacristy are fulfilled by the Diaconicon and the Prothesis, two rooms or areas adjacent to the Holy Table (Altar). Work on finding the so-called \"lost medieval sacristy of Henry III\" at Westminster Abbey during an episode of the archaeological television programme \"Time Team\" revealed that the abbey originally had two separate sacristies. As well as a conventional sacristy for storage of ceremonial vessels such as the chalice and paten, the second, described in a 15th-century document as the \"galilee of the sacristy\" was determined to have been used for the robing and formation of the procession." ] }

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{ "title": [ "WAAS objectives.", "Accuracy.", "Integrity.", "Availability.", "Operation.", "Ground segment.", "Reference stations.", "Space segment.", "Satellite History.", "User segment.", "History and development.", "Benefits.", "Drawbacks and limitations.", "Future of WAAS.", "Improvement to aviation operations.", "Software improvements.", "Space segment upgrades." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The WAAS specification requires it to provide a position accuracy of or less (for both lateral and vertical measurements), at least 95% of the time. Actual performance measurements of the system at specific locations have shown it typically provides better than laterally and vertically throughout most of the contiguous United States and large parts of Canada and Alaska. With these results, WAAS is capable of achieving the required Category I precision approach accuracy of laterally and vertically.", "Integrity of a navigation system includes the ability to provide timely warnings when its signal is providing misleading data that could potentially create hazards. The WAAS specification requires the system detect errors in the GPS or WAAS network and notify users within 6.2 seconds. Certifying that WAAS is safe for instrument flight rules (IFR) (i.e. flying in the clouds) requires proving there is only an extremely small probability that an error exceeding the requirements for accuracy will go undetected. Specifically, the probability is stated as 1×10, and is equivalent to no more than 3 seconds of bad data per year. This provides integrity information equivalent to or better than Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM).", "Availability is the probability that a navigation system meets the accuracy and integrity requirements. Before the advent of WAAS, GPS specifications allowed for system unavailability for as much as a total time of four days per year (99% availability). The WAAS specification mandates availability as 99.999% (five nines) throughout the service area, equivalent to a downtime of just over 5 minutes per year.", "WAAS is composed of three main segments: the ground segment, space segment, and user segment.", "The ground segment is composed of multiple Wide-area Reference Stations (WRS). These precisely surveyed ground stations monitor and collect information on the GPS signals, then send their data to three Wide-area Master Stations (WMS) using a terrestrial communications network. The reference stations also monitor signals from WAAS geostationary satellites, providing integrity information regarding them as well. As of October 2007 there were 38 WRSs: twenty in the contiguous United States (CONUS), seven in Alaska, one in Hawaii, one in Puerto Rico, five in Mexico, and four in Canada. Using the data from the WRS sites, the WMSs generate two different sets of corrections: fast and slow. The fast corrections are for errors which are changing rapidly and primarily concern the GPS satellites' instantaneous positions and clock errors. These corrections are considered user position-independent, which means they can be applied instantly by any receiver inside the WAAS broadcast footprint. The slow corrections include long-term ephemeric and clock error estimates, as well as ionospheric delay information. WAAS supplies delay corrections for a number of points (organized in a grid pattern) across the WAAS service area (see User Segment, below, to understand how these corrections are used). Once these correction messages are generated, the WMSs send them to two pairs of Ground Uplink Stations (GUS), which then transmit to satellites in the Space segment for rebroadcast to the User segment.", "Each FAA Air Route Traffic Control Center in the 50 states has a WAAS reference station, except for Indianapolis. There are also stations positioned in Canada, Mexico and Puerto Rico. See List of WAAS reference stations for the coordinates of the individual receiving antennas.", "The space segment consists of multiple communication satellites which broadcast the correction messages generated by the WAAS Master Stations for reception by the user segment. The satellites also broadcast the same type of range information as normal GPS satellites, effectively increasing the number of satellites available for a position fix. The space segment currently consists of three commercial satellites: \"Eutelsat 117 West B\", Telesat's \"Anik F1R\", and \"SES-15\". A fourth satellite, Galaxy 30, is set for launch in 2020.", "The original two WAAS satellites, named \"Pacific Ocean Region\" (POR) and \"Atlantic Ocean Region-West\" (AOR-W), were leased space on Inmarsat III satellites. These satellites ceased WAAS transmissions on July 31, 2007. With the end of the Inmarsat lease approaching, two new satellites (Galaxy 15 and Anik F1R) were launched in late 2005. Galaxy 15 is a PanAmSat, and Anik F1R is a Telesat. As with the previous satellites, these are leased services under the FAA's Geostationary Satellite Communications Control Segment contract with Lockheed Martin for WAAS geostationary satellite leased services, who were contracted to provide up to three satellites through the year 2016. A third satellite was later added to the system. From March to November 2010, the FAA broadcast a WAAS test signal on a leased transponder on the Inmarsat-4 F3 satellite. The test signal was not usable for navigation, but could be received and was reported with the identification numbers PRN 133 (NMEA #46). In November 2010, the signal was certified as operational and made available for navigation. Following in orbit testing, Eutelsat 117 West B, broadcasting signal on PRN 131 (NMEA #44), was certified as operational and made available for navigation on March 27, 2018. The SES 15 satellite was launched on May 18, 2017 and following an in-orbit test of several months, was set operational on July 15, 2019. In 2018, a contract was awarded to place a WAAS L-band payload on the Galaxy 30 satellite, slated to be launched in 2020. The satellite will re-use PRN 135. In the table above, PRN is the satellite's actual Pseudo-Random Noise code. NMEA is the satellite number sent by some receivers when outputting satellite information. (NMEA = PRN - 87).", "The user segment is the GPS and WAAS receiver, which uses the information broadcast from each GPS satellite to determine its location and the current time, and receives the WAAS corrections from the Space segment. The two types of correction messages received (fast and slow) are used in different ways. The GPS receiver can immediately apply the fast type of correction data, which includes the corrected satellite position and clock data, and determines its current location using normal GPS calculations. Once an approximate position fix is obtained the receiver begins to use the slow corrections to improve its accuracy. Among the slow correction data is the ionospheric delay. As the GPS signal travels from the satellite to the receiver, it passes through the ionosphere. The receiver calculates the location where the signal pierced the ionosphere and, if it has received an ionospheric delay value for that location, corrects for the error the ionosphere created. While the slow data can be updated every minute if necessary, ephemeris errors and ionosphere errors do not change this frequently, so they are only updated every two minutes and are considered valid for up to six minutes.", "The WAAS was jointly developed by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) as part of the Federal Radionavigation Program (DOT-VNTSC-RSPA-95-1/DOD-4650.5), beginning in 1994, to provide performance comparable to category 1 instrument landing system (ILS) for all aircraft possessing the appropriately certified equipment. Without WAAS, ionospheric disturbances, clock drift, and satellite orbit errors create too much error and uncertainty in the GPS signal to meet the requirements for a precision approach (see GPS sources of error). A precision approach includes altitude information and provides course guidance, distance from the runway, and elevation information at all points along the approach, usually down to lower altitudes and weather minimums than non-precision approaches. Prior to the WAAS, the U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the ability to provide lateral and vertical navigation for precision approaches for all users at all locations. The traditional system for precision approaches is the instrument landing system (ILS), which used a series of radio transmitters each broadcasting a single signal to the aircraft. This complex series of radios needs to be installed at every runway end, some offsite, along a line extended from the runway centerline, making the implementation of a precision approach both difficult and very expensive. The ILS system is composed of 180 different transmitting antennas at each point built. The newer system is free of huge antenna systems at each airport. For some time the FAA and NASA developed a much improved system, the microwave landing system (MLS). The entire MLS system for a particular approach was isolated in one or two boxes located beside the runway, dramatically reducing the cost of implementation. MLS also offered a number of practical advantages that eased traffic considerations, both for aircraft and radio channels. Unfortunately, MLS would also require every airport and aircraft to upgrade their equipment. During the development of MLS, consumer GPS receivers of various quality started appearing. GPS offered a huge number of advantages to the pilot, combining all of an aircraft's long-distance navigation systems into a single easy-to-use system, often small enough to be hand held. Deploying an aircraft navigation system based on GPS was largely a problem of developing new techniques and standards, as opposed to new equipment. The FAA started planning to shut down their existing long-distance systems (VOR and NDBs) in favor of GPS. This left the problem of approaches, however. GPS is simply not accurate enough to replace ILS systems. Typical accuracy is about, whereas even a \"CAT I\" approach, the least demanding, requires a vertical accuracy of. This inaccuracy in GPS is mostly due to large \"billows\" in the ionosphere, which slow the radio signal from the satellites by a random amount. Since GPS relies on timing the signals to measure distances, this slowing of the signal makes the satellite appear farther away. The billows move slowly, and can be characterized using a variety of methods from the ground, or by examining the GPS signals themselves. By broadcasting this information to GPS receivers every minute or so, this source of error can be significantly reduced. This led to the concept of Differential GPS, which used separate radio systems to broadcast the correction signal to receivers. Aircraft could then install a receiver which would be plugged into the GPS unit, the signal being broadcast on a variety of frequencies for different users (FM radio for cars, longwave for ships, etc.). Broadcasters of the required power generally cluster around larger cities, making such DGPS systems less useful for wide-area navigation. Additionally, most radio signals are either line-of-sight, or can be distorted by the ground, which made DGPS difficult to use as a precision approach system or when flying low for other reasons. The FAA considered systems that could allow the same correction signals to be broadcast over a much wider area, such as from a satellite, leading directly to WAAS. Since a GPS unit already consists of a satellite receiver, it made much more sense to send out the correction signals on the same frequencies used by GPS units, than to use an entirely separate system and thereby double the probability of failure. In addition to lowering implementation costs by \"piggybacking\" on a planned satellite launch, this also allowed the signal to be broadcast from geostationary orbit, which meant a small number of satellites could cover all of North America. On July 10, 2003, the WAAS signal was activated for general aviation, covering 95% of the United States, and portions of Alaska offering minimums. On January 17, 2008, Alabama-based Hickok & Associates became the first designer of helicopter WAAS with Localizer Performance (LP) and Localizer Performance with Vertical guidance (LPV) approaches, and the only entity with FAA-approved criteria (which even FAA has yet to develop). This helicopter WAAS criteria offers as low as 250 foot minimums and decreased visibility requirements to enable missions previously not possible. On April 1, 2009, FAA AFS-400 approved the first three helicopter WAAS GPS approach procedures for Hickok & Associates' customer California Shock/Trauma Air Rescue (CALSTAR). Since then they have designed many approved WAAS helicopter approaches for various EMS hospitals and air providers, within the United States as well as in other countries and continents. On December 30, 2009, Seattle-based Horizon Air flew the first scheduled-passenger service flight using WAAS with LPV on flight 2014, a Portland to Seattle flight operated by a Bombardier Q400 with a WAAS FMS from Universal Avionics. The airline, in partnership with the FAA, will outfit seven Q400-aircraft with WAAS and share flight data to better determine the suitability of WAAS in scheduled air service applications.", "WAAS addresses all of the \"navigation problem\", providing highly accurate positioning that is extremely easy to use, for the cost of a single receiver installed on the aircraft. Ground- and space-based infrastructure is relatively limited, and no on-airport system is needed. WAAS allows a precision approach to be published for any airport, for the cost of developing the procedures and publishing the new approach plates. This means that almost any airport can have a precision approach and the cost of implementation is dramatically reduced. Additionally WAAS works just as well between airports. This allows the aircraft to fly directly from one airport to another, as opposed to following routes based on ground-based signals. This can cut route distances considerably in some cases, saving both time and fuel. In addition, because of its ability to provide information on the accuracy of each GPS satellite's information, aircraft equipped with WAAS are permitted to fly at lower en-route altitudes than was possible with ground-based systems, which were often blocked by terrain of varying elevation. This enables pilots to safely fly at lower altitudes, not having to rely on ground-based systems. For unpressurized aircraft, this conserves oxygen and enhances safety. The above benefits create not only convenience, but also have the potential to generate significant cost savings. The cost to provide the WAAS signal, serving all 5,400 public use airports, is just under US$50 million per year. In comparison, the current ground based systems such as the Instrument Landing System (ILS), installed at only 600 airports, cost US$82 million in annual maintenance. Without ground navigation hardware to purchase, the total cost of publishing a runway's WAAS approach is approximately US$50,000; compared to the $1,000,000 to $1,500,000 cost to install an ILS radio system. Further savings can come from the nighttime closure of airport towers with a low volume of traffic. The FAA is reviewing 48 towers for such a potential reduction of services, which it estimates will save around US$100,000 per year at each tower, for a total annual savings of nearly US$5 million.", "For all its benefits, WAAS is not without drawbacks and critical limitations:", "", "In 2007, WAAS vertical guidance was projected to be available nearly all the time (greater than 99%), and its coverage encompasses the full continental U.S., most of Alaska, northern Mexico, and southern Canada. At that time, the accuracy of WAAS would meet or exceed the requirements for Category 1 ILS approaches, namely, three-dimensional position information down to 200 feet (60 m) above touchdown zone elevation.", "Software improvements, to be implemented by September 2008, significantly improve signal availability of vertical guidance throughout the CONUS and Alaska. Area covered by the 95% available LPV solution in Alaska improves from 62% to 86%. And in the CONUS, the 100% availability LPV-200 coverage rises from 48% to 84%, with 100% coverage of the LPV solution.", "Both Galaxy XV (PRN #135) and Anik F1R (PRN #138) contain an L1 & L5 GPS payload. This means they will potentially be usable with the L5 modernized GPS signals when the new signals and receivers become available. With L5, avionics will be able to use a combination of signals to provide the most accurate service possible, thereby increasing availability of the service. These avionics systems will use ionospheric corrections broadcast by WAAS, or self-generated onboard dual frequency corrections, depending on which one is more accurate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "20th century.", "Geography.", "Coastal path.", "Economy.", "Ecology and conservation.", "Abandoned nuclear plan.", "Culture.", "Welsh language.", "Geology.", "Schools.", "Transport.", "Sport and leisure.", "Association football.", "Rugby Union.", "Anglesey Hunt.", "Athletics.", "Motorsport.", "Cricket.", "Sailing.", "Swimming.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name of the island may be derived from the Old Norse; either \"Ǫngullsey\" \"Hook Island\" or \"Ǫnglisey\" \"Ǫngli's Island\". No record of such an Ǫngli survives, but the place name was used by Viking raiders as early as the 10th century and was later adopted by the Normans during their invasions of Gwynedd. The traditional folk etymology reading the name as the \"Island of the Angles (English)\" may account for its Norman use but has no merit, although the Angles' name itself is probably a cognate reference to the shape of the Angeln peninsula. All of these ultimately derive from the proposed Proto-Indo-European root \"*ank-\" (\"to flex, bend, angle\"). Through the 18th and 19th centuries and into the 20th, it was usually spelt Anglesea in documents. \"Ynys Môn\", the island's Welsh name, was first recorded as Latin \"Mona\" by various Roman sources. It was likewise known to the Saxons as \"Monez\". The Brittonic original was in the past taken to have meant \"Island of the Cow\". This view is untenable according to modern scientific philology, and the etymology remains a mystery. Poetic names for Anglesey include the Old Welsh \"Ynys Dywyll\" (Shady or Dark Isle) for its former groves and \"Ynys y Cedairn\" (Isle of the Brave) for its royal courts; Gerald of Wales' \"Môn Mam Cymru\" (\"Môn, Mother of Wales\") for its productivity; and \"Y fêl Ynys\" (Honey Isle).", "There are numerous megalithic monuments and menhirs on Anglesey, testifying to the presence of humans in prehistory. Plas Newydd is near one of 28 cromlechs that remain on uplands overlooking the sea. The Welsh Triads claim that Anglesey was once part of the mainland. Historically, Anglesey has long been associated with the druids. In AD 60 the Roman general Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, determined to break the power of the druids, attacked the island using his amphibious Batavian contingent as a surprise vanguard assault and then destroying the shrine and the nemeta (sacred groves). News of Boudica's revolt reached him just after his victory, causing him to withdraw his army before consolidating his conquest. The island was finally brought into the Roman Empire by Gnaeus Julius Agricola, the Roman governor of Britain, in AD 78. During the Roman occupation, the area was notable for the mining of copper. The foundations of Caer Gybi, a fort in Holyhead, are Roman, and the present road from Holyhead to Llanfairpwllgwyngyll was originally a Roman road. The island was grouped by Ptolemy with Ireland (\"Hibernia\") rather than with Britain (\"Albion\"). British Iron Age and Roman sites have been excavated and coins and ornaments discovered, especially by the 19th-century antiquarian William Owen Stanley. After the Roman departure from Britain in the early 5th century, pirates from Ireland colonised Anglesey and the nearby Llŷn Peninsula. In response to this, Cunedda ap Edern, a Gododdin warlord from Scotland, came to the area and began to drive the Irish out. This was continued by his son Einion Yrth ap Cunedda and grandson Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion; the last Irish invaders were finally defeated in battle in 470. As an island, Anglesey was in a good defensive position, and so Aberffraw became the site of the court, or \"Llys\", of the Kingdom of Gwynedd. Apart from a devastating Danish raid in 853 it remained the capital until the 13th century, when improvements to the English navy made the location indefensible. Anglesey was also briefly the most southerly possession of the Norwegian Empire. After the Irish, the island was invaded by Vikings — some of these raids were noted in famous sagas (see Menai Strait History) — and by Saxons, and Normans, before falling to Edward I of England in the 13th century. Anglesey (together with Holy Island) is one of the 13 historic counties of Wales. In medieval times, before the conquest of Wales in 1283, \"Môn\" often had periods of temporary independence, as it was frequently bequeathed to the heirs of kings as a sub-kingdom of Gwynedd. The last times this occurred were a few years after 1171, following the death of Owain Gwynedd, when the island was inherited by Rhodri ab Owain Gwynedd, and between 1246 and c. 1255, when it was granted to Owain Goch as his share of the kingdom. After the conquest of Wales by Edward I, Anglesey was created a county under the terms of the Statute of Rhuddlan of 1284. Prior to this it had been divided into the \"cantrefi\" of Aberffraw, Rhosyr and Cemaes.", "During the First World War, the Presbyterian minister and celebrity preacher John Williams toured the island as part of an effort to recruit young men to volunteer for a just war. German POWs were kept on the island. By the end of the war, some 1,000 of the island's men had died while on active service. In 1936 the NSPCC opened its first branch on Anglesey. During the Second World War, Anglesey received Italian POWs. The island was designated a reception zone, and was home to evacuee children from Liverpool and Manchester. The island's location made it an ideal place to monitor German U-Boats operating in the Irish Sea. Around half a dozen airships operated out of Mona airfield to monitor submarine activity. In 1974, Anglesey became a district of the new large county of Gwynedd. The Local Government (Wales) Act 1994 abolished the 1974 county and the five districts on 1 April 1996. Anglesey became a separate unitary authority. In 2011, the Welsh Government appointed a panel of commissioners to administer the council, thus the elected members were not in control. The commissioners remained in control until an election was held in May 2013, restoring an elected Council. Before the period of direct administration, there had been a majority of independent councillors. Though members did not generally divide along party lines, these were organised into five non-partisan groups on the council, containing a mix of party and independent candidates. The position remains substantially unchanged since the election, although the Labour Party has formed a governing coalition with the independents. The principal offices of the Isle of Anglesey County Council are in Llangefni, the county town.", "Anglesey is a relatively low-lying island, with low hills spaced evenly over the north of the island. The highest six are Holyhead Mountain, ; Mynydd Bodafon, ; Mynydd Llaneilian, ; Mynydd y Garn, ; Bwrdd Arthur, ; and Mynydd Llwydiarth,. To the south and south-east, the island is separated from the Welsh mainland by the Menai Strait, which at its narrowest point is about wide. In all other directions the island is surrounded by the Irish Sea. At 714 km, it is the 51st largest island in Europe, (although technically Madeira is part of Africa), and just five square kilometres smaller than Singapore. There are several small towns scattered around the island, making it quite evenly populated. The largest are Holyhead, Llangefni, Benllech, Menai Bridge, and Amlwch. Beaumaris (Welsh: \"Biwmares\"), in the east of the island, features Beaumaris Castle, built by Edward I as part of his Bastide Town campaign in North Wales. Beaumaris is a yachting centre, with many boats moored in the bay or off Gallows Point. The village of Newborough (Welsh: \"Niwbwrch\"), in the south, created when the townsfolk of Llanfaes were relocated to make way for the building of Beaumaris Castle, includes the site of Llys Rhosyr, another of the courts of the medieval Welsh princes, which features one of the oldest courtrooms in the United Kingdom. Llangefni is located in the centre and is the island's administrative centre. The town of Menai Bridge (Welsh: \"Porthaethwy\", in the south-east) expanded when the first bridge to the mainland was being built, to accommodate workers and construction. Until then, Porthaethwy had been one of the principal ferry crossing points from the mainland. A short distance from this town lies Bryn Celli Ddu, a Stone Age burial mound. Nearby is the village with the longest name in Europe, Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch, and Plas Newydd, ancestral home of the Marquesses of Anglesey. The town of Amlwch is situated in the northeast of the island and was once largely industrialised, having grown during the 18th century by supporting an important copper-mining industry at Parys Mountain. Other villages and settlements include Cemaes, Pentraeth, Gaerwen, Dwyran, Bodedern, Malltraeth and Rhosneigr. The Anglesey Sea Zoo is a local tourist attraction, providing a descriptive look at local marine wildlife from common lobsters to congers. All the fish and crustaceans on display are caught around the island and placed in reconstructions of their natural habitat. The zoo also breeds lobsters commercially for food, and oysters, for pearls, both from local stocks. Sea salt (\"Halen Môn\", evaporated from the local sea water), now produced in a modern facility nearby, was formerly produced at the Sea Zoo site. There are a few natural lakes, mostly in the west, such as Llyn Llywenan, the largest on the island, Llyn Coron, and Cors Cerrig y Daran, but rivers are few and small. There are two large water supply reservoirs operated by Welsh Water. These are Llyn Alaw to the north of the island and Llyn Cefni in the centre of the island, which is fed by the headwaters of the Afon Cefni. The climate is humid (though much less so than neighbouring mountainous Gwynedd) and generally equable, being influenced by the Gulf Stream. The land is of variable quality and it was probably much more fertile in the past. Anglesey is the home of the northernmost olive grove in Europe and presumably in the world.", "The rural coastline has been designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It has many sandy beaches, notably along its east coast between the towns of Beaumaris and Amlwch and the west coast from Ynys Llanddwyn through Rhosneigr to the bays around Carmel Head. The north coast has dramatic cliffs with small bays The Anglesey Coastal Path circumscribes the island. It is long and passes by/through 20 towns/villages. The official starting point is St Cybi's Church, Holyhead.", "Tourism is now the major economic activity on the island. Agriculture provides the secondary source of income for the economy, with local dairies being some of the most productive in the region. Major industry is restricted to Holyhead (Caergybi), which until 30 September 2009 supported an aluminium smelter, and the Amlwch area, once a copper mining town. Nearby is the site of the former Wylfa Nuclear Power Station and a former bromine extraction plant. With construction starting in 1963, the two Wylfa reactors began producing electricity in 1971. One reactor was decommissioned in 2012 and the other in 2015. Plans were developed for a replacement reactor, planned by Horizon, a subsidiary of Hitachi, to start production in the 2020s. The replacement has been enthusiastically endorsed by Anglesey Council and Welsh Assembly members, but protesters have raised doubts about the economic and safety claims made for the plant, and in January 2019 Hitachi announced it was putting development work on hold, which meant the plant's future was put in serious doubt. Anglesey also has three wind farms on land, and more than twenty offshore wind turbines near the north coast. There are plans for the world's first Tidal Flow turbines, near The Skerries, off the north coast, and for a major biomass plant on Holy Island (Ynys Gybi). Developing such low-carbon energy assets to their full potential forms part of the Anglesey Energy Island project. When the aluminium smelter closed in September 2009, it reduced its workforce from 450 to 80; this has been a major blow to the island's economy, especially to Holyhead. The Royal Air Force station RAF Valley (Y Fali) is home to the RAF Fast Jet Training School and 22 Sqn Search and Rescue Helicopters, both units providing employment to about 500 civilians. RAF Valley is now the 22 Sqn Search and Rescue headquarters. There is a wide range of smaller industries, mostly in industrial and business parks, especially at Llangefni and Gaerwen. These include an abattoir, fine chemical manufacturing, and factories for timber production, aluminium smelting, fish farming and food processing. The island is on one of the main road routes from Britain to Ireland, via ferries from Holyhead, off the west of Anglesey on Holy Island, serving Dún Laoghaire and Dublin Port.", "Much of Anglesey is used for relatively intensive cattle and sheep farming. However, there are several important wetland sites that have protected status. In addition, the several lakes all have significant ecological interest, including their support for a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic bird species. In the west, the Malltraeth Marshes are believed to support an occasional visiting bittern, and the nearby estuary of the Afon Cefni supports a bird population made internationally famous by the paintings of Charles Tunnicliffe, who lived for many years and died at Malltraeth on the Cefni estuary. The RAF airstrip at Mona is a nesting site for skylarks. The sheer cliff faces at South Stack near Holyhead provide nesting sites for huge numbers of auks, including puffins, razorbills and guillemots, together with choughs and peregrine falcons. Anglesey is home to several species of tern, including the roseate tern. Three sites on Anglesey are important for breeding terns – see Anglesey tern colonies. There are marked occurrences of the \"Juncus subnodulosus\"–\"Cirsium palustre\" fen-meadow plant association, a habitat marked by certain hydrophilic grasses, sedges and forbs. Anglesey supports two of the UK's few remaining colonies of red squirrels, at Pentraeth and Newborough. Almost the entire coastline of Anglesey is designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) to protect the aesthetic appeal and variety of the island's coastal landscape and habitats from inappropriate development. The coastal zone of Anglesey was designated as an AONB in 1966 and confirmed as such in 1967. The AONB is predominantly a coastal designation, covering most of Anglesey's coastline but also encompasses Holyhead Mountain and Mynydd Bodafon. Substantial areas of other land protected by the AONB form the backdrop to the coast. The AONB is about 221 km (85 sq mi) and it is the largest AONB in Wales, covering one third of the island. A number of the habitats in Anglesey gain still greater protection through both UK and European designations of their nature conservation value. These include: These habitats support a variety of wildlife, such as harbour porpoises and marsh fritillary. The AONB also takes in three sections of open, undeveloped coastline designated as Heritage Coast. These non-statutory designations complement the AONB and cover about of the coastline. The sections of Heritage Coast are: Popular recreations include sailing, angling, cycling, walking, wind surfing and jet skiing. They place pressures and demands on the AONB, while contributing to the local economy.", "On 17 January 2019, Hitachi-Horizon Nuclear Power announced it was abandoning plans to build a nuclear plant on the Wylfa Newydd site in Anglesey. There had been concern that the start of the project might involve too much public expenditure, but Hitachi-Horizon say the decision to scrap has cost the company over £2 billion.", "Anglesey hosted the National Eisteddfod in 1957, 1983, 1999, and 2017. It is also a member of the International Island Games Association. Anglesey's biggest successes were at the 1997 Island Games held in Jersey, (11th in the medals table, with two gold, three silver and nine bronze medals) and the 2005 Island Games in the Shetland Islands, (again 11th, with 4 gold, 2 silver and 2 bronze). The annual Anglesey Show is held on the second Tuesday and Wednesday of August. Farmers from around the country compete in livestock rearing contests, including sheep and cattle. Anglesey has featured in the Channel 4 archaeological television programme \"Time Team\" (series 14). The episode was transmitted on 4 February 2007. The island hosts Gottwood, an electronic music and arts festival held each summer at the Carreglwyd estate. The Druidic college at Anglesey is referred to in the metal band Eluveitie's song \"Inis Mona\", an incorrect spelling of Ynys Môn. Capital Cymru, a commercial contemporary hit radio station, also covers Gwynedd. Môn FM, a volunteer community radio station, broadcasts from the county town, Llangefni.", "Anglesey is a stronghold of the Welsh language and according to the 2011 census it was the local authority with the second highest proportion of Welsh speakers. The earlier percentages of Welsh speakers are these: Today, Welsh is less widely used on the island, but remains the dominant language in certain areas, particularly in the centre, including the town of Llangefni, and some areas of the south coast. The island's five secondary schools vary widely in the percentage of their pupils who come from predominantly Welsh-speaking homes, as do the percentages who can speak Welsh:", "The geology of Anglesey is notably complex and frequently targeted for geology field trips by schools and colleges. Younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old Precambrian rocks that appear at the surface in four areas: These Precambrian rocks are schists and phyllites, often contorted and disturbed. The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from north-east to south-west.} A belt of granitic rocks lies immediately north-west of the central Precambrian mass, reaching from Llanfaelog near the coast to the vicinity of Llanerchymedd. Between this granite and the Precambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of Ordovician slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the north of the island between Dulas Bay and Carmel Point. A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris. In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably Precambrian. Between the eastern and central Precambrian masses Carboniferous rocks are found. The Carboniferous Limestone occupies a broad area south of Lligwy Bay and Pentraeth, and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by Llangefni to Malltraeth Sands. The limestone is underlain on the north-west by a red basement conglomerate and yellow sandstone (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age). Limestone occurs again on the north coast around Llanfihangel and Llangoed; and in the south-west round Llanidan near the Menai Strait. Puffin Island is made of carboniferous limestone. Malltraeth marsh is occupied by Coal Measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near Tal-y-foel Ferry on the Menai Strait. A patch of rhyolitic/felsitic rocks form Parys Mountain, where copper and iron ochre have been worked. Serpentine (Mona Marble) is found near Llanfair-yn-Neubwll and upon the opposite shore in Holyhead. Under the name \"GeoMôn\", in recognition of its extraordinary geological heritage, the island gained membership of the European Geoparks Network in spring 2009. and the Global Geoparks Network in September 2010.", "Secondary schools: There are 50 primary schools in Anglesey, all co-educational day schools.", "Anglesey is linked to the mainland by the Britannia Bridge, which carries the A55 from Holyhead, and the Menai Suspension Bridge, which carries the A5. The A5025 round the northern edge of Anglesey and the A4080 round the southern edge form a ring. Anglesey's six railway stations are Holyhead, Valley, Rhosneigr, Ty Croes, Bodorgan and Llanfairpwll. All are on the North Wales Coast Line, with services operated by Avanti West Coast to London Euston, and by Transport for Wales Rail to Chester, Manchester Piccadilly, Birmingham New Street and Cardiff Central. Historically the island was also served by the Anglesey Central Railway which ran from Gaerwen to Amlwch, and the Red Wharf Bay branch line between the Holland Arms railway station and Red Wharf Bay. By air, Anglesey Airport has a twice-daily scheduled service to Cardiff Airport, where connections worldwide can be made. The ferry port of Holyhead handles more than 2 million passengers each year. Stena Line and Irish Ferries sail to Dublin and previously to Dún Laoghaire in Ireland, forming the principal link for surface transport from central and northern England and Wales to Ireland.", "Anglesey is independently represented in the Island Games (under its Welsh name \"Ynys Môn\"). The team finished joint 17th in the 2009 Games hosted by Åland, winning medals in gymnastics, sailing and shooting. Anglesey made an unsuccessful bid to host the 2009 games, led by Ynys Môn MP Albert Owen. The island expected to benefit from more than £3m of spending if it had hosted the event. However, Anglesey currently lacks two facilities necessary for a successful bid: a six-lane competition swimming pool and an athletics track. Several precursors to the modern football codes were highly popular in Anglesey. They had few rules, and were quite violent. Rhys Cox, at the turn of the 18th century, described a game in Llandrygan as ending with \"numbers of players... left here and there on the road, some having limbs broken in the struggle, others severely injured, and some carried on biers to be buried in the churchyard nearest to where they had been mortally injured.\" William Bulkeley, in his April 1734 diary, records that the violence of such games left no hard feelings, with both sides parting \"as good friends as they came, after they had spent half an hour together cherishing their spirits with a cup of ale... having finished Easter Holydays innocently and merrily.\"", "Football arrived on the island in the 1870s. It was initially met with resistance, given its locally perceived associations with drunkenness and rowdiness, and the lower classes. One critic dismissed it as \"un-Christian practice\". The Anglesey League, comprising teams from Amlwch, Beaumaris, Holyhead, Menai Bridge, Llandegfan, and Llangefni, was, however, formed in the 1895–1896 football season. The Ynys Môn football team represent the island of Anglesey at the biannual Island Games, winning gold in 1999. In 2018, the island was chosen to host the 2019 Inter Games Football Tournament, where the men's team won gold and the women's team won silver. For the 2019–2020 season, Llangefni Town is playing in the Cymru North league – in the second tier of the Welsh football league system, after winning the Welsh Alliance League title the previous season. There are seven Anglesey clubs playing in the Welsh Alliance, including Bodedern Athletic and Holyhead Hotspur in Division One. Local clubs also participate in the Gwynedd League and the Anglesey League.", "Llangefni RFC is the island's highest competing team in the WRU Division One North. Llangoed hosts an annual rugby sevens contest. Touring sides have included Manhattan RFC.", "The Anglesey Hunt, formed in 1757, was the second oldest fox hunting association in Wales (the oldest being the Tivyside Hunt in Cardiganshire).", "Every September the Anglesey Festival of Running takes place. It includes a marathon, a half-marathon, 10-km and 5–km races, and children's contests. Its slogan is \"Run the Island\".", "The Anglesey Circuit (Welsh: Trac Môn) is a fully licensed MSA and ACU championship racing circuit that opened in 1997.", "The Beaumaris Cricket Club was formed in 1858. Clubs at Holyhead, Amlwch and Llangefni were formed within the following decade, but it was not until the 1880s that the sport became popular outside the upper classes. Bodedern Cricket Club was formed in 1947.", "The Royal Anglesey Yacht Club hosts the Menai Strait Regatta yearly.", "The Menai Strait hosts two annual open-water swimming contests: the Menai Strait Swim from Foel to Caernarfon (1 mile), and the Pier to Pier Open Water Swim, between Beaumaris and Garth Pier, Bangor.", "Attribution:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and roadmap.", "Satellites and SISNeT.", "Ground stations.", "Aviation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The system started its initial operations in July 2005, with accuracy better than two metres and availability above 99%. As of July 2005, EGNOS has been broadcasting a continuous signal, and at the end of July 2005 the system was again used to track cyclists in the Tour de France road race. In 2009, the European Commission announced it had signed a contract with the company European Satellite Services Provider to run EGNOS. The official start of operations was announced by the European Commission on 1 October 2009. The system was certified for use in safety of life applications in March 2011. An EGNOS Data Access Service became available in July 2012. Initial work to extend EGNOS coverage to the Southern Africa region is being done under a project called ESESA - EGNOS Service Extension to South Africa. The European Commission is defining the roadmap for the evolution of the EGNOS mission. This roadmap should cope with legacy and new missions:", "Similar to WAAS, EGNOS is mostly designed for aviation users who enjoy unperturbed reception of direct signals from geostationary satellites up to very high latitudes. The use of EGNOS on the ground, especially in urban areas, is limited due to relatively low elevation of geostationary satellites: about 30° above horizon in central Europe and much less in the North of Europe. To address this problem, ESA released in 2002 SISNeT, an Internet service designed for continuous delivery of EGNOS signals to ground users. The first experimental SISNeT receiver was created by the Finnish Geodetic Institute. The commercial SISNeT receivers have been developed by Septentrio. PRN #136 was placed into the Operational Platform from 23/08/2018 at 10:00 UTC and PRN #120 was placed into Test Platform from 30/08/2018 at 13:00 UTC.", "More than 40 ground stations are linked together to create EGNOS network which consists:", "In March 2011, the EGNOS Safety-of-Life Service was deemed acceptable for use in aviation. This allows pilots throughout Europe to use the EGNOS system as a form of positioning during an approach, and allows pilots to land the aircraft in IMC using a GPS approach. As of September 2018 LPV (Localizer performance with vertical guidance) landing procedures, which are EGNOS-enabled, were available at more than 180 airports across Europe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Nomenclature and systematics.", "Range and distribution.", "Ecology.", "Habitat.", "Feeding ecology.", "Tortoise turf.", "Behavior.", "Lifespan.", "Breeding.", "Conservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The carapace is a brown or tan color with a high, domed shape. It has stocky, heavily scaled legs to support its heavy body. The neck of the Aldabra giant tortoise is very long, even for its great size, which helps the animal to exploit tree branches up to a meter from the ground as a food source. Similar in size to the famous Galápagos giant tortoise, its carapace averages in length with an average weight of. Females are generally smaller than males, with average specimens measuring in length and weighing. Medium-sized specimens in captivity were reported as in body mass. Another study found body masses of up to most commonplace.", "This species is widely referred to as \"Aldabrachelys gigantea\", but in recent times, attempts were made to use the name \"Dipsochelys\" as \"Dipsochelys dussumieri\", but after a debate that lasted two years with many submissions, the ICZN eventually decided to conserve the name \"Testudo gigantea\" over this recently used name (ICZN 2013) this also affected the genus name for the species, establishing \"Aldabrachelys gigantea\" as \"nomen protectum\". Four subspecies are currently recognized. A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than \"Aldabrachelys\":", "The main population of the Aldabra giant tortoise resides on the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychelles. The atoll has been protected from human influence and is home to some 100,000 giant tortoises, the world's largest population of the animal. Smaller populations of \"A. gigantea\" in the Seychelles exist in the Sainte Anne Marine National Park (e.g. Moyenne Island)., and on La Digue, where they are a popular tourist attraction. Another isolated population of the species resides on the island of Changuu, near Zanzibar, and other captive populations exist in conservation parks in Mauritius and Rodrigues. The tortoises exploit many different kinds of habitat, including grasslands, low scrub, mangrove swamps, and coastal dunes.", "", "A peculiar habitat has coevolved due to the grazing pressures of the tortoises: \"tortoise turf\", a comingling of 20+ species of grasses and herbs. Many of these distinct plants are naturally dwarfed and grow their seeds not from the tops of the plants, but closer to the ground to avoid the tortoises' close-cropping jaws. As the largest animal in its environment, the Aldabra tortoise performs a role similar to that of the elephant. Their vigorous search for food fells trees and creates pathways used by other animals.", "Primarily herbivores, Aldabra giant tortoises eat grasses, leaves, and woody plant stems. They occasionally indulge in small invertebrates and carrion, even eating the bodies of other dead tortoises. In captivity, Aldabra giant tortoises are known to consume fruits such as apples and bananas, as well as compressed vegetable pellets in captivity. Little fresh water is available for drinking in the tortoises' natural habitat, so they obtain most of their moisture from their food. The Aldabra tortoise has two main varieties of shells. Specimens living in habitats with food available primarily on the ground have more dome-shaped shells with the front extending downward over the neck. Those living in an environment with food available higher above the ground have more flattened top shells with the front raised to allow the neck to extend upward freely.", "The Aldabra giant tortoise is a herbivorous animal, spending much of its time browsing for food in its surrounding well-vegetated environment. The Aldabra giant tortoise is known to be found in places that are commonly known as \"tortoise turf\". Tortoise turf is composed of:", "Aldabra tortoises are found both individually and in herds, which tend to gather mostly on open grasslands. They are most active in the mornings, when they spend time browsing for food. They dig burrows or rest in swamps to keep cool during the heat of the day.", "Large tortoises are among the longest-lived animals. Some individual Aldabra giant tortoises are thought to be over 200 years of age, but this is difficult to verify because they tend to outlive their human observers. Adwaita was reputedly one of four brought by British seamen from the Seychelles Islands as gifts to Robert Clive of the British East India Company in the 18th century, and came to Calcutta Zoo in 1875. At his death in March 2006 at the Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) Zoo in India, Adwaita is reputed to have reached the longest ever measured lifespan of 255 years (birth year 1750). As of 2016 Jonathan, a Seychelles giant tortoise, is thought to be the oldest living giant tortoise at the age of years and Esmeralda, an Aldabra giant tortoise, is second at the age of years, since the death of Harriet at 176, a Galapagos giant tortoise.", "Between February and May, females lay between 9 and 25 rubbery fertilized eggs in a shallow, dry nest. Usually, less than half of the eggs are fertile. Females can produce multiple clutches of eggs in a year. After incubating for about eight months, the tiny, independent young hatch between October and December. In captivity, oviposition dates vary. Tulsa Zoo maintains a small herd of Aldabra tortoises and they have reproduced several times since 1999. One female typically lays eggs in November and again in January, providing the weather is warm enough to go outside for laying. The zoo also incubates their eggs artificially, keeping two separate incubators at 27 °C (81 °F) and 30 °C (86 °F). On average, the eggs kept at the latter temperature hatch in 107 days.", "The Aldabra giant tortoise has an unusually long history of organized conservation. Albert Gunther of the British Museum, who later moved to the Natural History Museum of London (enlisting Charles Darwin and other famous scientists to help him) worked with the government of Mauritius to establish a preserve at the end of the 19th century. The related, but distinct, species of giant tortoise from the Seychelles islands (Seychelles giant tortoise \"A. g. hololissa\" and Arnold's giant tortoise \"A. g. arnoldi\") are the subject of a captive-breeding and reintroduction program by the Nature Protection Trust of Seychelles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Miss World Organization.", "1970s–1990s.", "Nigeria 2002.", "Indonesia 2013.", "China 2015.", "Fast track events.", "Miss World Beach Beauty.", "Miss World Beauty With a Purpose.", "Miss World Talent.", "Miss World Top Model.", "Miss World hosts and artists." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1951, Eric Morley organised a bikini contest as part of the Festival of Britain celebrations that he called the Festival Bikini Contest. The event was popular with the press, and was dubbed \"Miss World\" by the media. The swimsuit competition was intended as a promotion for the bikini which had only recently been introduced onto the market, and which was still widely regarded as immodest. When the 1951 Miss World pageant winner, Kerstin \"Kiki\" Hakansson from Sweden, was crowned in a bikini, it added to the controversy. The pageant was originally planned as a Pageant for the Festival of Britain, but Eric Morley decided to make the Miss World pageant an annual event. Morley registered the \"Miss World\" name as a trademark, and all future pageants were held under that name. However, because of the controversy arising from Håkansson's crowning in a bikini, countries with religious traditions threatened not to send delegates to future events, and the bikini was condemned by the Pope. Objection to the bikini led to its replacement in all future pageants with what was accepted as more modest swimwear, and from 1976 swimsuits were replaced by evening gowns for the crowning. Håkansson remains the only Miss World crowned in a bikini. In Miss World 2013 all participants wore a one-piece swimsuit plus a traditional sarong below the waist as a compromise with local culture. Morley announced the Miss World winners in the order No. 3, No. 2 and No. 1. This keeps the tension up and avoids the anticlimax if Nos. 2 and 3 are announced after the winner. In 1959, the BBC started broadcasting the pageant. The pageant's popularity grew with the advent of television. During the 1960s and 1970s, Miss World would be among the most watched programs of the year on British television. However, in 1970, the Miss World contest in London was disrupted by women's liberation protesters armed with flour bombs, stink bombs, and water pistols. More than 18 million people watched the pageant at its peak during the late 1970s and early 1980s. In the 1980s, the pageant repositioned itself with the slogan \"Beauty With a Purpose\", with added tests of intelligence and personality. However, there have been various objections to the contest. Although it still \"enjoys success worldwide\", it was no longer broadcast on BBC with the last mainstream broadcast on UK television in 1988. ITV's Thames Television took over the UK broadcasting rights between 1980 and 1988. During the early 1990s, there was a decline in the popularity of mainstream television broadcasts of the event after it became \"increasingly unfashionable\" in the late 1980s. The pageant returned on satellite channel Sky One in 1997, before moving to Channel 5 for three years (1998–2000).", "Eric Morley died in 2000, and his wife, Julia, succeeded as chairwoman of the Miss World organisation. The first black African Miss World winner, Agbani Darego of Nigeria, was crowned in 2001. As part of its marketing strategy, Miss World came up with a \"Vote For Me\" television special during that edition, featuring the delegates behind the scenes and on the beach, and allowing viewers to either phone in or vote online for their favourites. It also sells its Talent, Beach Beauty and Sports events as television specials to broadcasters. ITV broadcast the 2001 pageant from South Africa on digital channel ITV2, with the special airing a week earlier on the main ITV channel. In 2002 the pageant was slated for Abuja, the capital city of Nigeria to host its final. This choice was controversial, as a northern Nigerian woman, Amina Lawal, was awaiting death by stoning for adultery under Sharia law there, but Miss World chose to use the publicity surrounding its presence to bring greater global awareness and action to Lawal's plight \"(see Controversies section)\". No British channel agreed to broadcast the event. In the Miss World 2014 ceremony, Aishwarya Rai the most successful crowned Miss World by the Miss World Organization attended the celebration with her husband Abhishek Bachchan, daughter Aaradhya and mother Brinda Rai. It has been broadcast on local TV channel London Live since 2014.", "The Miss World Organization owns and manages the annual Miss World Finals, a competition that has grown into one of the world's biggest. Since its launch in 1951, the Miss World organisation has raised more than £250 million for children's charities that help disabled and underprivileged children. Miss World is franchised in more than 100 countries. Miss World, Limited is a privately held firm, and thus figures for its earnings, expenses and charitable contributions are not publicly available.", "The Miss World pageant has been the target of many controversies since its inception.", "In the year leading up the finals in Nigeria, several European title holders lobbied their governments and the EU parliament to support Amina Lawal's cause. A number of contestants followed the lead of Kathrine Sørland of Norway in boycotting the contest (despite the controversy Sørland would go on to become a semi-finalist in both the Miss World and Miss Universe contest), while others such as Costa Rica were instructed by their national governments and parliaments not to attend the contest. Among the other boycotting nations were Denmark, Spain, Switzerland, Panama, Belgium and Kenya. There was further controversy over the possibly suspended participation of France and South Africa, which may or may not have been due to the boycott. For her part, Lawal asked that contestants not suspend their participation in the contest, saying that it was for the good of her country and that they could, as the representative of Sweden had earlier remarked, make a much stronger case for her on the ground in Nigeria. Despite the increasing international profile the boycott was garnering in the world press, the contest went ahead in Nigeria after being rescheduled to avoid taking place during Ramadan, with many prominent nations sending delegates. Osmel Sousa of Venezuela, one of the world's most influential national directors, famously said \"there is no question about it (the participation of Miss Venezuela in the contest).\" The trouble did not end there, however. A \"ThisDay\" (Lagos, Nigeria) newspaper editorial suggesting that Muhammad would probably have chosen one of his wives from among the contestants had he been alive to see it, resulted in inter-religious riots that started on 22 November in which over 200 people were killed in the city of Kaduna, along with many houses of worship being burned by religious zealots. Because of these riots, the 2002 pageant was moved to London, following widely circulated reports that the representatives of Canada and Korea had withdrawn from the contest and returned to their respective countries out of safety concerns. A fatwa urging the beheading of the woman who wrote the offending words, Isioma Daniel, was issued in Nigeria, but was declared null and void by the relevant Saudi Arabian authorities. Upon the pageant's return to England, many of the boycotting contestants chose to attend, including Miss Norway, Kathrine Sørland, who was ironically tipped in the last few days as the number one favourite for the crown she had previously boycotted. The eventual winner of the pageant was Azra Akın of Turkey, the first predominantly Muslim country to hold the title since Egypt in 1954.", "In Miss World 2013, protests by Islamic groups began a few weeks before the contest began, resulting in the pageant's finale and all pre-pageant activities being isolated to Hindu-majority Bali.", "Anastasia Lin, Miss World Canada, was not given visa to travel in China and hence missed the official deadline of 20 November 2015 for entry to the Miss World 2015 pageant, and was declared \"persona non grata\" by the Chinese Embassy in Ottawa since she openly criticized China's human rights violations. She was later allowed by the Miss World Organization to compete at Miss World 2016.", "The winner of these events, called \"fast track\" competitions, automatically make it into the quarter or semifinals of Miss World. The fast track categories are Miss World Beach Beauty, Beauty With a Purpose, Sports Challenge, Talent and Top Model. Miss World Beach Beauty, replacing Miss World Best in Swimsuit, and Miss World Sports were added in 2003. Miss World Top Model was added in 2004. Miss World Multimedia was added in 2012.", "Miss World Beach Beauty was a swimsuit or fast track competition in the Miss World pageant. The Beach Beauty event first started in 2003, when the Miss World Organization decided to have preliminary or \"fast track events\" to automatically give a semifinal spot to some of the delegates. This event allowed the Miss World delegates (over 100) to have a chance of being in the semifinals. The winner goes on to make the semifinals automatically. The Beach Beauty event showcased different swimsuits designed by Miss World 1975, Wilnelia Merced. In 2014, the organisation eliminated the swimsuit competition from the pageant.", "The Beauty with a Purpose is an event established in 1972 that is celebrated during the activities prior to the Miss World pageant. It awards the contestant with the most relevant and important charity project in her nation. Since 2005 the winner automatically makes the quarter finals. Miss World 2017 Manushi Chhillar from India is the first and only Beauty With a Purpose recipient to eventually win the Miss World crown.", "Miss World Talent is a talent or fast track competition in the Miss World pageant, in which a number of contestants show their abilities in singing, dancing, poetry, etc. Introduced in Miss World 1978, the winner of the event automatically makes it into the semifinals starting 2003. The award returned at Miss World 2001.Being a Miss World doesn't just require a person to be beautiful, but also exceptionally smart and a good human being.", "The Miss World Top Model is a modeling fast track competition at the Miss World Pageant. The competition was first held in 2004, but not in 2005-2006. It has been held since 2007; the winner of the competition automatically qualifies for the semifinals.", "The following is a list Miss World hosts and invited artists through the years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Etymology.", "Pre-BCE History.", "8th to 13th centuries.", "13th to 15th centuries.", "16th to 18th centuries.", "18th to 20th centuries.", "World War II.", "U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt.", "Reconstruction and postwar period.", "The era Grieser 1992-2010.", "Present.", "Geography.", "Location.", "New centrality.", "Viticulture.", "Districts.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture and architecture.", "Cityscape.", "Main sights.", "Around Schweinfurt.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "According to the latest research efforts, the name \"Schweinfurt\" has evolved over the course of centuries from the designations \"Suinuurde\", \"Suinfurt\", \"Swinvordi\", \"Sweinvort\" and ultimately \"Sweynfurt\". It is only certain that at no point in time were swine driven across a ford in the Main River. This surely would have reassured Friedrich Rückert. But it will always remain an open question as to whether the name \"Schweinfurt\" actually has anything to do with \"swine\".", "Traces of settlement as early as 7500 years ago can be detected on today's urban area at various places. The first settlement of the historic Schweinfurt \"(Village Old Town)\" was also on the Main, between the two streams \"Höllenbach\" and \"Marienbach\", 1 km east of the later founded imperial city, which corresponds to the old town today. The \"Village Old Town\" is in its origins at least 2100 years old.", "The first documentary mention Schweinfurts (village old town) took place in the year 791. Schweinfurt gained importance in 941 with the mention of Count Berthold as the first member of the House of the Counts of Schweinfurt. He occupied an important position in the central Reich territory, the Duchy of Franconia. Berthold gave the king of East Francia Otto I. (936-973), who in 962 became Roman-German Emperor, valuable weapons aid against rebellious tribal dukes. As thanks Berthold of Otto I received the counties for the Folkfeld- and the Radenzgau and the Margraviate for the Nordgau, about the present-day Upper Palatinate. Thus he was and from 980 his son Henry the most powerful secular nobility in the area of today's northern Bavaria. Later supported Count Henry of Schweinfurt (called: \"Hezilo\") the East Frankish Henry II (1002-1024, from 1014 Roman-German Emperor) in the royal election of 1002 and was awarded the Duke dignity of Bavarians. After the election, however, Henry II did not fulfill the promise. Thereupon it came to the \"Schweinfurt Feud\" in 1003. Count Heinrich lost all his possessions. The confiscated royal goods formed the core of the new bishopric of Bamberg. Hezilo, however, retained his possessions around the castle hill \"Peterstirn\". The family, in which Judith of Schweinfurt became a central figure in the history of the old Schweinfurt city, died in the male line of 1057 and at the latest this year marks the undisputed end of the important role of the Margraves of Schweinfurt. To the beginnings of today's old town from the 12th century, 1 km west of the previous settlement between the both streams \"Marienbach\" and \"Höllenbach\", there are different views. The from a gradual construction to a planned Civitas Imperii (imperial city), so a founding city, by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, using existing royal estate, rich. In the struggle for supremacy in \"Main Franconia\" (region around the River Main) between the Henneberger and the Bishop of Würzburg, the city was destroyed between 1240 and 1250 \"(First City Spoilage)\". However, it is controversial whether this destruction was still in the old settlement between Höllenbach and Marienbach and thus a reason for the rebuilding of the city on the farther west, today's site was or whether the destruction took place here already. In a letter from King William of Holland dated January 9, 1254, it is said that Schweinfurt used to be imperial city \"(... Swinforde, que olim imperii civitas fuerat)\". It remains unclear whether rights have ever been withdrawn from the city or whether only reference is made to the city's destruction. However, this letter is the first documentary evidence of Schweinfurt as imperial city and thus as a place with city rights.", "The (inner) city fortification of the new city was built and first documented in 1258, it is still largely preserved on Marienbach today. A document from 1282 signed by Rudolf I of Habsburg states that Schweinfurt was a free city within the Holy Roman Empire. By pledge 1309 Schweinfurt came to the House of Henneberg, who maintained from 1310 to 1427 a \"Reichsburg\" (castle of the empire) in the old Schweinfurt city district \"Zürch\". The danger of being estranged from the Empire in the long run could only be banned by large financial sacrifices by self-triggering (1361/1385). As a result, numerous royal privileges strengthened the municipality in legal and economic terms. In the 15th century began the construction of a territory around the core city, which lasted until 1620. In 1436, the fishermen's settlement of \"Fischerrain\", which borders on the city wall and lies just to the southwest, whose origins lie in the darkness of history, was incorporated into the city. Due to positive economic development, the city can acquire the suburb of Oberndorf in 1436. 1436/37 received the advice of the city from the Teutonic Knights for 18,000 guilders the castle on the \"Peterstirn\" and the associated land area with the villages Zell and Weipoltshausen, which belongs to Üchtelhausen today.", "Schweinfurt joined the Reformation relatively late, in 1542 since the city, together with neighboring imperial villages and imperial villages, was completely surrounded by the Catholic Hochstift Würzburg. In a confession change had to be expected military assault. The patron of the city, Count Wilhelm von Henneberg, did not offer sufficient support. In the course of the Second Margrave War, the city was looted in 1554 and set on fire. This went as the \"Second City Spoilage\" in the city history (\"First City Spoilage\" see: 8th to 13th centuries). The reconstruction dragged on until 1615. In this form, the old town, with the exception of later modernized fortifications, remained almost unchanged until the early 19th century. In 1609 the city joined the Protestant Union. The imperial city territory was supplemented 1620 also still around Madenhausen, which also belongs to Üchtelhausen today. Due to the acquisitions, the territory of the imperial city now had an extension of 17 km from southwest to northeast. As a result of the city of Schweinfurt on the knight canton of Baunach a nearly continuous Protestant corridor was created by the Hochstifte Würzburg and Bamberg in the Protestant Duchy of Saxony. Schweinfurt joined the Protestant Union in 1609. In the Thirty Years' War it was occupied by Gustavus Adolphus, who erected fortifications, the remains of which are still extant. In 1652 the four doctors Johann Laurentius Bausch, Johann Michael Fehr, Georg Balthasar Wolfahrt and Balthasar Metzger founded the \"Academia Curiosorum\" in Schweinfurt, which is known today as the German Academy of Life Scientists, \"Leopoldina\". Schweinfurt remained a free imperial city until 1802, when it passed to the Electorate of Bavaria. Assigned to the grand duke of Würzburg in 1810, it was granted to the Kingdom of Bavaria four years later. The first railway junction was opened in 1852. In the following years Schweinfurt became a world leading centre for the production of ball bearings. This was to lead to grievous consequences for the city during World War II.", "The year 1770 marked the beginning of the industrialization of the city, with its 250-year-old industrial history. In the first century of industrialization, the chemical and paint industry started in Schweinfurt, with the construction of the Wolf's lead white mill at the Bleiweißmühlenwehr. According to Dr. Ferdinand Gademann (1880-1969), it was the oldest German lead white factory. In 1780 the factory was taken over by Johann Martin Schmidt. Further factory-similar plants of this kind originated at the Bellevue and in the neighboring suburb Niederwerrn. Following the Reichsdeputationshauptschluss, Schweinfurt came to Bavaria in 1803, two years before the Kingdom of Bavaria was founded. 4000 people demonstrated against the Anschluss at the Rossmarkt. After the interim membership of the Grand Duchy of Würzburg (1810-1814), Schweinfurt fell in 1814 to the Kingdom of Bavaria. The villages belonging to the imperial city territory were spun off. As a result, Schweinfurt lost about two thirds of its territory. 1852 took place with the opening of the \"Ludwigs-Westbahn\" from Bamberg to the new Schweinfurt Stadt station the connection to the railway network. With the construction of the line to Bad Kissingen (1871) and the Schweinfurt–Meiningen railway (1874) Schweinfurt became a railway junction. In 1874, a large marshalling and central station was built 3 km west of the city station, at that time on Oberndorf district, the so-called \"Central Station\" and today's Schweinfurt Hauptbahnhof at the Bamberg–Rottendorf railway. It was created in a far-sighted manner amidst fields as a passenger and goods main station, with the aim of leaving as much room for the expected industrialization of the station, which also took place here until the end of the 1930s was. The Schweinfurt tram was the first municipal tram in Bavaria from 1895 to 1921 to connect the Schweinfurt Hauptbahnhof with the town center. Unlike many other cities, the 1930s were one of the most important epochs of urban development in Schweinfurt. The number of employees of major metalworking companies rose to 20,700 by 1939. This led to a construction boom and set the course for modern urban development.", "In 1939, Schweinfurt produced most of Nazi Germany's ball bearings, and factories such as the Schweinfurter Kugellagerwerke became a target of Allied strategic bombing during World War II to cripple tank and aircraft production. Schweinfurt was bombed 22 times during Operation Pointblank by a total of 2,285 aircraft. The Schweinfurt-Regensburg mission caused an immediate 34% loss of production and all plants but the largest were devastated by fire. Efforts to disperse the surviving machinery began immediately and the Luftwaffe deployed large numbers of interceptors along the corridor to Schweinfurt. Bombing also included the Second Raid on Schweinfurt on 14 October 1943 (\"called Black Thursday because of the enormous loss of aircraft (60) and lives (600+)\") and Big Week in February 1944. Although losses of production bearings and machinery were high and much of the industrial and residential areas of the town were destroyed, killing more than a thousand civilians, the factories were restored to production and the industry dispersed. Although German planners initially thought it essential to purchase the entire output of the Swedish ball-bearing industry, losses in the production of bearings were actually made up from surpluses found within Germany in the aftermath of the first raid. The decentralized industry was able to restore output to 85% of its pre-bombing level. Hitler made restoration of ball bearing production a high priority and massive efforts were undertaken to repair and rebuild the factories, partly in bomb-proof underground facilities. The 42nd Infantry Division (United States) entered Schweinfurt on 11 April 1945 and engaged in house-to-house fighting. On 12 April an internment camp at Goethe-Schule held male civilians aged 16–60.", "After the war Schweinfurt became a stronghold of the U.S. military and their dependants. Thus Schweinfurt recovered relatively quickly from its third period of destruction. The tank barracks renamed Ledward Barracks in 1946, became the headquarters of the newly founded U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt (USAG Schweinfurt). The U.S. Army took over the Luftwaffe Airfield as Schweinfurt Army Heliport and renamed the air base to \"Conn Barracks\". In the course of time, until 2014, they were expanded into large barracks with many hangars, administration buildings, a large event hall, church and sports facilities. From the 1950s to the late 1990s, a civilian infrastructure similar to that of a small American town was successively built in the northwest of Schweinfurt. As a result of the closure of many other German U.S. sites, Schweinfurt eventually became one of Europe's largest U.S. locations. Including the \"Brönnhof\" training area the USAG Schweinfurt covered a total area of 29 km2. Schweinfurt formerly hosted the U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt, which the U.S. Army closed on 19 September 2014 due to an ongoing effort to concentrate the U.S. military's footprint in Germany to fewer communities.", "A quick, scheduled rebuilding of the town was not necessary due to the degree of destruction of 40 to 45% (see: Cityscape). Like many other West German cities and communities, Schweinfurt also experienced an unprecedented economic miracle in the 1950s and 1960s, and large-scale industry boomed. To counteract the labor shortage, guest workers were recruited from 1960 onwards. Most of the postwar construction projects were realized under the aegis of Mayor Georg Wichtermann (SPD, 1965-1974), in the city governed by the SPD by an absolute majority. Numerous new residential districts were created. By the \"Jump over the River Main\" (starting from 1963) developed south of the Main River the commercial park \"Port East\" and the new industrial area \"Port West\". The infrastructure was expanded, with the Main Port (1963) and today's University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt (1971). After successful reconstruction and the boom years, the time of Mayor Kurt Petzold (SPD, 1974–1992) was marked by consolidation, but also by the oil crisis and recessions, with job cuts in the local large-scale industry. The old town renovation began in 1979, as the starting point of a 40-year-long transformation of the town that has continued to this day, with a change in image, from the gray mouse industrial town to a town with a high quality of life. In 1991, the large \"Leopoldina Hospital\" was opened.", "In a town dominated by the SPD, the CSU succeeded in 1992 for the first time to make the Lord Mayor, with the political cross-starter Gudrun Grieser. The Bavarian state government under the then Prime Minister Edmund Stoiber (CSU) sympathetically accompanied the historical change of power and parts of the Bavarian State Social Court and the Bavarian State Statistics Office were relocated from Munich to Schweinfurt. During Grieser's term of office, the economic situation stabilized starting in the mid-1990s, with 4,500 new industrial jobs and around 6,000 jobs in the service sector. Trade tax revenue rose to a record high. In the Grieser era, the town's new motto, \"Industry and Art\", was developed. A large number of projects, in cooperation with the construction officer Jochen Müller (SPD) gave the town a new face, set new, nationally recognized symbols in architecture and were honored with numerous architecture prizes. Among the many realized projects are the new Industrial Park \"Gewerbepark Maintal\" (since 1995), the Museum Georg Schäfer (2000), the \"Maininsel Conference Center\" (2004), the \"Stadtbücherei Ebracher Hof\" (2007), the Kunsthalle Schweinfurt (art gallery, 2009), the Stadtgalerie Schweinfurt, a 300 m long shopping mall 2009) with redesign of the Weststadt (westend) and the new Schweinfurt Mitte station, the Youth Hostel (2009), the \"Health Park Schweinfurt\" (2009) and the Campus 2 of the University of Applied Sciences Würzburg-Schweinfurt. The era of Grieser remains to this day shaping the town, like no other epoch after the reconstruction and it changed the town's image lasting positive. In 1998, German and American veterans and survivors of the bombing raids came together to erect a war memorial to the fallen. 2004 startet the Unterfrankenshuttle \"(Lower Franconia Shuttle)\" of the Erfurter Bahn (EB) regional railway with lines from Schweinfurt to other parts of Lower Franconia and to South Thuringia.", "The \"New Hadergasse Project\" was implemented under the current mayor Sebastian Remelé (CSU, since 2010). Trade tax receipts continued to rise and the town was able to save reserves. These are currently being used for the mammoth U.S. conversion project, which is currently one of the five largest military conversion projects in Germany. The i-Campus Schweinfurt in the former Ledward Barracks and the new district of Bellevue in the former Askren Manor Housing Area deserve special mention.", "", "Schweinfurt has a central location in Germany and is located about 40 km from Baden-Württemberg, Hesse and Thuringia, in the middle of Main Franconia, Germanic-speaking Europe and the European Union. Schweinfurt lies on the river Main, which connects the North Sea with the Black Sea via the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal. While not being part of any metropolitan area, the town is situated between the cities of Frankfurt (110 km west) and Nuremberg (90 km southeast), both with international airports. Schweinfurt also has a natural location in the Franconian wine country, at the \"Schweinfurter Rhön\", with the National Natural Heritage \"Brönnhof\" and is surrounded by Haßberge Hills, Steigerwald, Rhön and Spessart, with several natural parks and a biosphere reserve. In sight are Steigerwald, \"Gramschatzer Forest\" and Rhön. The town is located in a climatically contrasting region, between the summer hot \"Mainfränkischen Plates\" in the south and the low mountain range in the north, with international winter sports in Oberhof. Schweinfurt itself is also a town of great contrasts, in terms of topography, use and population structure. The bourgeois east lies on the foothills of the \"Schweinfurter Rhön\", is intersected by valleys with streams, with the above the \"Marienbach\" located old town and numerous detached houses, on the edge with vineyards and the town forest. The west, with the town center, main station and (former) working-class neighborhoods, has a high proportion of migrants. The almost uninhabited south is the largest contiguous industrial area in Bavaria.", "As a result of the fall of the Iron Curtain, the economic and geographical situation of Schweinfurt changed fundamentally. In 2005, the Thuringian Forest Autobahn 71 Erfurt-Schweinfurt was completed as a transport \"Project German Unity\" No. 16. In 2017 Schweinfurt gained further centrality with the 10 billion Euro transport \"Project German Unity\" No. 8. Berlin is now under three and a half hours, Munich from 2:33 hours and Hamburg from 3:57 hours reachable, now two high-speed lines, with change in Bamberg and Würzburg. Berlin and Munich are about three quarters of an hour faster from Schweinfurt than from Frankfurt. Paris is in 6:22 hours reachable. As part of the \"Deutsche Bahn Long-Distance Transport Offensive\" Schweinfurt receives no later than December 2028 a direct \"Inter City\" (IC) connection, through the new IC Bamberg-Stuttgart-Tübingen.", "Viticulture has probably been practiced in the city for well over 1000 years. At the beginning of the 19th century, Schweinfurt was an important Franconian wine-growing and wine-trading town. At the end of the imperial city period in 1802 there were around 320 hectares of vines, which corresponds to today's largest Franconian wine-growing town in Nordheim am Main. Large parts of today's district, right up to the edge of the old town, are located on former vineyards. Goethe appreciated the Schweinfurt wine and had large quantities delivered. Today, with only 3.54 hectares of vineyards (2017), the local viticulture has hardly any economic, but still cultural importance for the self-awareness and way of life of the city. The phylloxera appeared in Franconia in 1902 and hit the Schweinfurt area particularly hard. Since the 1980s, viticulture with the leading variety Silvaner has been carried out as planned in the historic wine locations of \"Peterstirn\" and \"Mainleite\". Due to the almost complete interruption of winegrowing, the vineyards were spared the major land consolidation of the 1970s, during which the historical structures were mostly destroyed. The small wine-cultural landscape at Peterstirn Palace remained intact. There is a family-owned winery on Peterstirn, where a wine festival takes place twice a year.", "In the Bavarian territorial reform no suburbs were incorporated into the city of Schweinfurt, which is why the urban area includes only the core city and incorporated in 1919 Oberndorf. The urban area was divided into 23 statistical districts, which are summarized in 15 districts (bold font in the table). For a long time, the Bergl was the most populous district, with 13,000 inhabitants around 1970. With only 9,163 inhabitants at the end of 2017, it was only second, after the city center, with 11,276 inhabitants.", "In 1939, Schweinfurt had about 49,000 inhabitants. The population reached its highest level in 1970 with 58,500 inhabitants. While thereafter most German cities could compensate for a demographic-related decrease of inhabitants by incorporations, in Schweinfurt the population decreased to about 52,000 in 1987. By 1996, the population rose to 56,000, mainly due to the influx of late repatriates. However, by 2014, the number of inhabitants fell again to 51,600 people, the lowest since the early 1950s. Thereafter, contrary to the forecasts of the Bavarian State Statistics Office and the Bertelsmann Foundation, both of which merely continued the past demographic development, a positive turnaround occurred due to several factors not taken into account: refugees, US conversion, i-Campus Schweinfurt. Since 2015, the number of inhabitants has been rising steadily, most recently to 54,032 at the end of 2018. Not included in the population statistics are members of the U.S. Army Garrison Schweinfurt stationed in and near the city between 1945 and 2014 with their families. These were at times over 12,000 people. The urban agglomeration is in the case of Schweinfurt a better comparison size to the population of other cities. In 1994, it had 105,000 inhabitants, fell to 96,600 inhabitants (Census 9. 5. 2011) and then rose again to 100,200 inhabitants (estimate 31. 12. 2018). Bold: highest level Red: lowest since the early 1950s", "Schweinfurt is known for its metal industry, especially ball bearing plants, FAG Kugelfischer AG, ZF Sachs AG, Bosch Rexroth and SKF. The pigment Schweinfurt Green is manufactured here. SRAM Corporation hosts the world's largest development center of the bicycle industry in Schweinfurt. With a GDP per capita of €78,382, Schweinfurt ranks third in Germany after Wolfsburg and Frankfurt am Main. According to a recent study by the Swiss Institute of Economic Research forecasters Schweinfurt is one of the fastest growing cities in Germany. The study confirmed the city, among other things, the highest concentration of jobs in Germany with particularly high Beschäftigungsanteil (employment share) in the German high-tech sector. The Contor-2010 study, which was commissioned by the \"Manager Magazine\", ranked Schweinfurt as one of the most dynamic cities in Europe in terms of development opportunities. From rank 63 in 2007, the city significantly improved to rank 16 in 2010.", "", "Schweinfurt has a contrasting cityscape with old and modern buildings.", "Schweinfurt's main landmarks include: The marketplace has a large Friedrich Rückert monument in the centre, around which weekly markets and many city festivals are held. Stadtgalerie Schweinfurt, a 300 m long shopping mall, was built 2009. Motherwell Park and Châteaudun Park connects the surrounding medieval buildings to the old town.", "The region around Schweinfurt is a European cultural landscape with two UNESCO cultural heritage sites (Würzburg Residence and the town of Bamberg). The region is also a microcosm with different landscapes and contrasting climate in a small space, accessible on a day trip.", "Vendetta are a thrash metal group from Schweinfurt, founded in 1984." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General Information.", "Tradition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The German Abrogans is a Latin-Old High German thesaurus, which was not, however, produced from a collection of Latin-Old High German translations, but structured on a pure Latin, alphabetically sorted thesaurus. This Latin-Latin glossary, the Latin Abrogans, was probably compiled in Italy (possibly in the important southern Italian monastery Vivarium) of numerous older late-antiquity and early medieval glossaries. Thus arose a dictionary in which rare expressions, above all from biblical Latin, were explained. The dictionary was likely finally translated into German in the second half of the 8th century in the old Bavarian bishopric Freising, which came under control of the bishop Arbeo (he was bishop here from 764 to 783). At the same time both the Latin key word and its Latin reproduction were entered with the Old High German equivalents. For example: This arrangement often led to poor translations around the middle of the 8th century, for example translations in which parts of speech were erroneously exchanged. Nevertheless, the Abrogans offers tremendous material for linguistics, which still today is not yet completely analyzed. So there are about 700 words that otherwise no longer appear in any other Old High German texts.", "No specimens from the time of origin of the glossary in the 8th century have been saved. Only three younger Alemannic copies of the Bavarian document are preserved. The best, albeit mangled handwriting is the direct copy of the archetype that was made around 810 in Murbach for Charlemagne (Baesecke) or in Regensburg under Bishop Baturich (Bernhard Bischoff). (Paris, Bibl. Nat., cod. lat. 7640, f. 124r-132v)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Kibble Palace." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1817 about 8 acres (32,000 m) of land were laid out at Sandyford, near Sauchiehall Street, Glasgow, and run by the Royal Botanic Institution of Glasgow (founded by Thomas Hopkirk of Dalbeth), and were intended to supply the University of Glasgow. William Hooker was regius professor of botany at Glasgow University, and contributed to the development of the Botanic Gardens before his appointment to the directorship of Kew Gardens in London. The Gardens moved to its current location in 1842. The gardens were originally used for concerts and other events, and in 1891 the gardens were incorporated into the Parks and Gardens of the City of Glasgow. The site was once served by a railway line, and Botanic Gardens Railway Station remains today in a derelict state as a remarkable example of a disused station. It is hidden behind some trees and a metal fence blocks access to the platforms. Kirklee railway station also lies just inside the gardens.", "The Kibble Palace is a 19th-century wrought iron framed glasshouse, covering 2137 m. Originally designed for John Kibble by architects James Boucher and James Cousland for his home at Coulport on Loch Long in the 1860s, the components were cast by Walter Macfarlane at his Saracen Foundry in Possilpark. Eventually brought up the River Clyde by barge to the Botanic Gardens, it was fully erected at its current location in 1873 by Boyd of Paisley. The building structure is of curved wrought iron and glass supported by cast iron beams resting on ornate columns, surmounted on masonry foundations. It was initially used as an exhibition and concert venue, before being used for growing plants from the 1880s. Benjamin Disraeli and William Ewart Gladstone were both installed as rectors of the University of Glasgow in the palace, in 1873 and 1879 respectively - its last use as a public events venue, before becoming wholly used for the cultivation of temperate plants. The main plant group is the collection of New Zealand and Australian tree ferns, some of which have lived here for 120 years and which now form the national tree fern collection. In the 1920s a statue was added in the palace to \"King Robert of Sicily\" a figure from the works of Longfellow. This is by the Scottish sculptor George Henry Paulin. In 2004 a £7 million restoration programme was initiated to repair corrosion of the ironwork. The restoration involved the complete dismantling of the Palace, and the removal of the parts to Shepley Engineers' Shafton Works, South Yorkshire for specialised repair and conservation. The plant collection was removed completely for the first time ever and the ironwork was rebuilt over a rearranged floorplan, giving the Palace a prolonged life. It re-opened to the public in November 2006. The building contains a large collection of orchids, carnivorous plants and tree ferns." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Frets.", "Materials.", "Parameters.", "Radius.", "Examples.", "Scalloping.", "Advantages and disadvantages.", "Scoop of fretless bowed-string fingerboards.", "Dip of guitar fretboards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A fingerboard may be fretted, having raised strips of hard material perpendicular to the strings, which the player presses the strings against to stop the strings. On modern guitars, frets are typically made of metal. Frets let the player stop the string consistently in the same place, which enables the musician to play notes with the correct intonation. As well, frets do not dampen string vibrations as much as fingers alone on an unfretted fingerboard. Frets may be fixed, as on a guitar or mandolin, or movable, as on a lute. Fingerboards may also be unfretted, as they usually are on bowed instruments, where damping by the finger is of little consequence because of the sustained stimulation of the strings by the bow. Unfretted fingerboards allow a musician more control over subtle changes in pitch than fretted boards, but are generally considered harder to master. Fingerboards may also be, though uncommon, a hybrid of these two. Such a construction is seen on the sitar, where arched frets attach at the edges of a smooth fingerboard; unfrettable strings run inside the frets, while frettable ones run outside. The fret arches are sufficiently high that the exterior strings can be fretted without making the finger making contact with the interior strings, and Frets may be marked by inlays to make navigating the fingerboard easier. On six-string guitars and bass guitars, markers are typically single smallish dots on the fingerboard and on its side that indicate the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th frets—and the octaves of those positions higher up the neck. A double dot or some other variation marks the 12th fret and 24th frets. Variations on the standard dot shape can make a guitar more distinctive. Position markers are sometimes made luminescent (through using paint, or illuminated with light emitting diodes) to make them more visible on stage. Position markers are also sometimes repeated on the edge of the fingerboard for easy viewing. Over time, strings wear frets down, which can cause buzzing and deaden the sound. Fixing this occasionally requires replacing the frets—but more often they just need \"dressing\". In fret dressing, a luthier levels and polishes the frets, and crowns (carefully rounds and shapes) the ends and edges. Stainless steel guitar frets may never need dressing, because of the density of the material. Not having frets carefully and properly aligned with the fingerboard can cause severe intonation issues and constant detuning. The ultimate way of determining the source of a buzz and detuning problem is to measure the levelness of the frets. A straightedge positioned on the neck in the \"lie\" of one of the strings should show nearly level frets. (There should be a slight \"relief\" to compensate for the elliptical shape of the vibrating strings.)", "On bowed string instruments, (such as violin, viola, cello, and double bass), the fingerboard is usually made of ebony, rosewood or other hardwood. On some guitars a maple neck and fingerboard are made from one piece of wood. A few modern luthiers have used lightweight, non-wood materials such as carbon-fiber in their fingerboards.", "Typically, the fingerboard is a long plank with a rectangular profile. On a guitar, mandolin, ukulele, or similar plucked instrument, the fingerboard appears flat and wide, but may be slightly curved to form a cylindrical or conical surface of relatively large radius compared to the fingerboard width. The \"radius\" quoted in the specification of a string instrument is the radius of curvature of the fingerboard at the head nut. Most bowed string instruments use a visibly curved fingerboard, nut and bridge to provide bow clearance for each individual string. The length, width, thickness and density of a fingerboard can affect timbre. Most fingerboards can be fully described by these parameters:", "Depending on values of radius \"r\" and their transition over the length of the fingerboard, all fingerboards usually fit into one of the following four categories: Notes: Classical guitars, some 12-string guitars, banjos, dobros, pedal steel, and a few steel stringed acoustic guitars have flat fingerboards. Almost all other guitars have at least some curvature. However some recent five and six string electric basses have flat fingerboards. For guitars, some players feel that smaller radii (7.25–10\") are more comfortable for chord and rhythm playing, while larger radii (12\"-16\" and up to flat) are better for fast soloing. Conical and compound radius fingerboards try to merge both these features. The nut end of the fingerboard has a smaller radius to ease in forming chords. The bridge end of the fingerboard has a larger radius to make soloing more comfortable and prevent \"noting out\" (\"fretting out\"), in which a string comes in contact with a higher fret during bends. \"A Brief History Of Discovering The Conical Fingerboard\" in 1978 by luthier Denny Rauen can be found in American Lutherie #8/Winter 1986 and String Instrument Craftsman May/June 1988 under the title \"Multi-Radius Fingerboards\". This special radiusing is a standard on many of Denny's custom-built guitars and refret work beginning in 1978. Denny Rauen's articles on the \"Multi Radius Fingerboard\" are the first published documents on using a conical fingerboard to improve string bending while retaining comfortable chording. Bowed string instruments usually have curved fingerboards, to allow the player to bow single strings. Those of the modern violin family and the double bass are strongly curved, however those of some archaic bowed instruments are flat.", "Examples of some instruments' fingerboard radius parameters:", "A fretted fingerboard can be scalloped by \"scooping out\" the wood between each of the frets to create a shallow \"U\" shape. The result is a playing surface wherein the players' fingers come into contact with the strings only, and do not touch the fingerboard. The process of \"scalloping\" a fingerboard well, if done by hand, is tedious work, usually done by careful filing of wood between the frets, and requires a large investment of time. Consequently, it is relatively expensive to have done. Generally, luthiers scallop fingerboards with a special milling machine that has 22 or 24 (according to neck dimensions and number of frets) wood cutting tools. This equipment saves time and adds precision to the process of scalloping the wood in the neck's radius the same in all fret spaces. Scalloped fingerboards are most commonly used by shred guitarists, most notably, Ritchie Blackmore and Yngwie Malmsteen, who have signature models developed with Fender. Ibanez JEM series guitars, designed and played by Steve Vai, come standard with the last 4 frets scalloped. In 2008 Ibanez made available their E-Gen model, a Herman Li signature, which includes four scalloped frets (21st to 24th). Karl Sanders of the death metal band Nile also uses several guitars with scalloped frets, including several Deans, and KxK Guitars. In the 1970s, English guitarist John McLaughlin played with Shakti, along with Indian violinist L. Shankar, using an acoustic guitar with a fully scalloped fretboard. He also used an electric guitar with scalloped fretboard on album and live performances from 1978 till 1979. McLaughlin explained that this feature increased the ease and range of string bends by eliminating friction between finger and fretboard. The scalloped fretboard also facilitates the rapid, microtonal variation that is important in Indian music, as exemplified by classical Indian Sitar music. Without scallops, the guitarist must play microtones by sliding the string sideways on the fret. Experimental luthier Yuri Landman made an electric guitar for John Schmersal of Enon called the Twister with a partial scalloped neck for only the thin strings, (like little playground slides). Other examples of lutes with scalloped fretboards include the South Indian veena and Vietnamized guitar (called \"đàn ghi-ta\", \"lục huyền cầm\", or \"ghi-ta phím lõm\").The Japanese multi-instrumentalist and experimental musical instrument builder Yuichi Onoue made a deeply scalloped electric guitar for Vietnamese microtonal playing techniques. Scalloping can be: Note that filing away wood to scallop a fingerboard also touches inlays—so ornately inlaid fingerboards are not usually good candidates for scalloping. Simple dot or block markers survive the procedure well.", "The \"scooped out\" nature of scalloped fingerboards creates a number of changes in the way the guitar plays. Most obvious, is that the fingertip only contacts the string, not the fingerboard itself, creating less friction for bends and vibratos, which results in more overall control while playing. However, that is also one of the main disadvantages. Many players, especially new players, may find a scalloped fingerboard too different to play easily, especially if the strings are light for the player or the player tends to press too hard. It takes practice to play in tune on a scalloped fingerboard. The player must first become accustomed to not actually touching the fingerboard. Playing a scalloped fingerboard requires a careful application of pressure: too much sharps the fretted note, as during a bend, and too little pressure causes fret buzz. As a result, most guitar players use a traditional fingerboard on their instruments.", "Fretless bowed-string fingerboards are usually scooped lengthwise in a smooth curve, so that if a straight edge is held next to the board parallel to a string, some daylight shows between them, towards the centre of the board. Usually the scoop is slightly greater on the bass side, less on the treble side of the fingerboard. Different string materials or different styles of playing may call for differing amounts of scoop. Nylon or gut strings require the most, and solid steel-core strings the least. A typical full-size (4/4) violin with synthetic-core G, D, and A strings shows 0.75 mm of scoop under the G string, and between 0.5 mm and zero scoop under the E, which is usually a solid steel core on modern instruments.", "On guitars, specifically steel-string and electric guitars, the relief (or \"dip\") is adjustable by altering the tension on the steel truss rod inside the neck. Relaxing the truss rod allows the pull of the strings to increase the dip, and vice versa. Classical guitars do not need truss rods due to the lower tension of nylon strings, but should still exhibit some degree of dip." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Host city selection.", "Medals awarded.", "Participating National Olympic Committees.", "Medal count.", "Broadcast rights.", "Terrorism.", "Effect on the city.", "Cost and cost overrun.", "Songs and themes.", "Mascot.", "Corporate image and identity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Barcelona is the second-largest city in Spain and the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, and the hometown of then-IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch. The city was also a host for the 1982 FIFA World Cup. On 17 October 1986, Barcelona was selected to host the 1992 Summer Olympics over Amsterdam, Netherlands; Belgrade, Yugoslavia; Birmingham, United Kingdom; Brisbane, Queensland, Australia; and Paris, France, during the 91st IOC Session in Lausanne, Switzerland. With 85 out of 89 members of the IOC voting by secret ballot, Barcelona won a majority of 47 votes. Samaranch abstained from voting. In the same IOC meeting, Albertville, France, won the right to host the 1992 Winter Games. Barcelona had previously bid for the 1936 Summer Olympics, that were held in Berlin.", "The 1992 Summer Olympic programme featured 257 events in the following 25 sports:", "A total of 169 nations sent athletes to compete in the 1992 Summer Games. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, twelve of the fifteen new states chose to form a Unified Team, while the Baltic States of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania each entered their own teams for the first time since 1936. For the first time, Croatia, Slovenia and Bosnia-Herzegovina competed as independent nations after their separation from Socialist Yugoslavia, and Namibia and the unified team of Yemen (previously North and South Yemen) also made their Olympic debuts. The 1992 Summer Olympics notably marked Germany competing as a unified team for the first time since 1964, while South Africa returned to the Games for the first time in 32 years. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was banned due to UN sanctions, but individual Yugoslav athletes were allowed to take part as Independent Olympic Participants. Four National Olympic Committees did not send any athletes to compete: Afghanistan, Brunei, Liberia and Somalia.", "The following table reflects the top ten nations in terms of total medals won at the 1992 Games (the host nation is highlighted).", "The 1992 Summer Olympics were covered by the following television and radio broadcasters:", "The Basque nationalist group ETA attempted to disrupt the Barcelona Games with terrorist attacks. It was already feared beforehand that ETA would use the Olympics to gain publicity for their cause in front of a worldwide audience. As the time of the Games approached, ETA committed attacks in Barcelona and the Catalonia region as a whole, including the deadly 1991 Vic bombing. On 10 July 1992, the group offered a two-month truce covering the Olympics in exchange for negotiations, which the Spanish government rejected. However, the Games went ahead successfully without an attack.", "The celebration of the 1992 Olympic Games had an enormous impact on the urban culture and outward projection of Barcelona. The Games provided billions of dollars for infrastructure investments, which are considered to have improved the quality of life in the city, and its attraction for investment and tourism. Barcelona became one of the most visited cities in Europe after Paris, London, and Rome. Barcelona's nomination for the 1992 Summer Olympics sparked the implementation of an ambitious plan for urban transformation that had already been developed previously. Barcelona was opened to the sea with the construction of the Olympic Village and Olympic Port in Poblenou. New centres were created, and modern sports facilities were built in the Olympic zones of Montjuïc, Diagonal, and Vall d'Hebron; hotels were also refurbished and new ones built. The construction of ring roads around the city helped to reduce traffic density, and El Prat airport was modernized and expanded with the opening of two new terminals.", "The \"Oxford Olympics Study\" estimates the direct costs of the Barcelona 1992 Summer Olympics to be US$9.7 billion (expressed in 2015 U.S. dollars) with a cost overrun of 266%. This includes only sports-related costs, that is: (i) \"operational costs\" incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e.g., expenditures for technology, direct transportation, workforce, administration, security, catering, ceremonies, and medical services; and (ii) \"direct capital costs\" incurred by the host city and country or private investors to build the competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, media and press center, and similar structures required to host the Games. Costs \"excluded\" from the study are indirect capital and infrastructure costs, such as for road, rail, or airport infrastructure, or for hotel upgrades or other business investment incurred in preparation for the Games. The costs for Barcelona 1992 may be compared with those of London 2012, which cost US$15 billion with a cost overrun of 76%, and those of Rio 2016 which cost US$4.6 billion with a cost overrun of 51%. The average cost for the Summer Olympics since 1960 is US$5.2 billion, with an average cost overrun of 176%.", "There were two main musical themes for the 1992 Games. The first one was \"Barcelona\", a classical crossover song composed five years earlier by Freddie Mercury and Mike Moran; Mercury was an admirer of lyric soprano Montserrat Caballé, both recorded the official theme as a duet. Due to Mercury's death eight months earlier, the duo was unable to perform the song together during the opening ceremony. A recording of the song instead played over a travelogue of the city at the start of the opening ceremony, seconds before the official countdown. \"Amigos Para Siempre\" (\"Friends for Life\") was the other musical theme. It was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Don Black, and sung by Sarah Brightman and José Carreras during the closing ceremonies. Ryuichi Sakamoto composed and conducted the opening ceremony musical score. The Opening Olympic fanfare was composed by Angelo Badalamenti and with orchestrations by Joseph Turrin.", "The official mascot was Cobi, a Catalan sheepdog in cubist style designed by Javier Mariscal.", "A renewal in Barcelona's image and corporate identity could be seen in the publication of posters, commemorative coins, stamps minted by the FNMT in Madrid, and the Barcelona 1992 Olympic Official Commemorative Medals, designed and struck in Barcelona." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lighthouse.", "History.", "World War I.", "Between the wars.", "World War II.", "Post-war.", "Post-Soviet period." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The island received a lighthouse in 1788, though the present lighthouse dates to 1960. It is 47 meters tall.", "The island's name means \"island of women\". It is possible, therefore, that Naissaar is the island the chronicle of Adam of Bremen mentioned around 1075 under the name \"Terra Feminarum\". Estonian Swedish fishermen were well-established on the island by the 15th Century, and the Swedes erected a small fortress there in 1705 during the Great Northern War. After the war Estonia became part of the Russian Empire. The Tsar had a new fortress, with five bastions, built in 1720, for the defense of Tallinn and St. Petersburg. An epic single-ship action took place off the north end of the island on 1808 when the 14-gun Russian cutter \"Opyt\" put up an heroic though ultimately unsuccessful fight against the British 44-gun frigate. In 1850 the island's population was 155 people and by 1858 it had grown to 188, most of whom were Estonian Swedes. Between 1853 and 1856 the inhabitants built a new chapel that was part of the Swedish parish of St. Michael in Tallinn. In the early twentieth century, Russia began the process of a modernization of its fortifications in the Gulf of Finland. However, the outbreak of the First World War stopped the planned improvements for Naissaar. Still, in 1914 the Russians opened a narrow-gauge railway line, with a total trackage of 37.7 km.", "The Ukrainian anarcho-syndicalist Stepan Petrichenko was taken into the Russian navy in 1913 and assigned to the battleship Petropavlovsk. During the February Revolution the ship was based on Naissaar, which had been emptied of its inhabitants in 1914. The Russians built a new fort on the island during the First World War, stationing 80-90 sailors there. Estonia acquired some autonomy in April 1917 by a decree of the Russian provisional government, though Estonia remained under the suzerainty of the Russian Empire. However, after the October Revolution the Bolshevik rebels suspended Estonia's provisional government, the Maapäev. A local Council of Workers and Soldiers' Ambassadors convened on Naissaar, declaring the local People's Commissar Council on 17 December, which included the Commissioner for War, Home Affairs, Labor, Finance and Health; they were later joined by an Education Commissioner. Petrichenko was elected Chairman of the Council. The Council declared: \"In constitutional terms, Naissaar has been designed to be an independent Soviet republic.\", naming it the Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar. The Council began drafting a constitution, the capital was designated the Southern Village and the anthem \"The Internationale\". The flag became the red-black flag of anarcho-syndicalism. It was also intended to issue its own money, but the name of the units is unknown. The Soviet Republic of Naissaar was also recognized, at least \"de-facto\", by the workers' government in mainland Estonia, who sent prisoners to the island \"to fortify some of the castles, clear the railroads, carry snow and dig sand.\" At this point the newly formed Estonian Provisional Government appealed to the German army for assistance. The Republic fought both the Bolsheviks and the Germans alike. However, after German forces occupied the island on February 26, 1918, the Baltic fleet evacuated most of its population, moving towards Helsinki and then to Kronstadt. Thus the \"soviet republic\" ceased to exist. The few remaining people were imprisoned in the harbor barracks, and military buildings were destroyed. However, some of the sites were rescued by a local forest ranger who disconnected wires to the explosives. A week later, the Bolsheviks ceded the Baltics to the German Empire, in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Stepan Petrichenko became widely known in 1921, as the leader of the Kronstadt uprising against the Bolsheviks, after which he fled to Finland. The Estonian government executed forty Bolshevik prisoners of war here in February 1919. As the result of the German revolution and capitulation of Germany in World War I, the German occupiers handed over rule of Naissaar to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918. After the Estonian Constituent Assembly met on April 23, 1919, and the first elected government of the Republic of Estonia took office, the Estonian Provisional Government resigned on May 8, 1919. The island then became part of the new Estonian Republic in 1920.", "The Estonian Republic too used Naissaar as a naval base. In 1934, 450 people lived on the island, of whom 291 were Estonians, most of whom in turn were in the Estonian army. The army of the Republic of Estonia continued to use the railway for military purposes throughout the 1930s.", "The Red Army occupied Naissar in 1940, only to have the Wehrmacht displace it a few months later. The population of Swedish fishermen preferred the Germans, and when the Red Army drove the Germans out in 1944, the last of the Swedish-speaking fishermen took refuge in Sweden.", "During the period of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic, the Soviet Union established its largest factory for naval mines in the Baltic on the island. The Soviets therefore declared the island a military area and off-limits to the public. The Soviets also used the railway to connect the factory to the port.", "When the Soviets left Naissaar in early 1993, they burned the explosives in the naval mines, leaving a multitude of metal casings scattered throughout the island. Many of these were scavenged as scrap iron, but a field of mines is still visible near the wharf at Mädasadam. Another legacy of the arms industry is that the soil of the island remains contaminated by oil and heavy metals. In 1995 Naissaar was converted into a nature reserve." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Writing and production.", "Release and promotion.", "Critical reception.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It was first reported in November 2000 that Jennifer Lopez was in talks to star in the Michael Apted-directed thriller \"Enough\". Sandra Bullock had originally signed on to portray the lead, but was forced to back out of the film due to scheduling conflicts. Lopez's casting in the film was confirmed by MTV News on May 19, 2001. Filming began two days later and took place on location in Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle. Recording music and filming \"Enough\" at the same time, Lopez became overworked and had a nervous breakdown. She suffered from a lack of sleep and froze up in her trailer. In 2008, Lopez confessed: \"I was like – I don't want to move, I don't want to talk, I don't want to do anything\". Lopez stars in \"Enough\" as Slim, a waitress whose life is severely altered after she marries Mitch, a wealthy contractor portrayed by Billy Campbell. She flees her increasingly abusive husband with their daughter following her birth. Slim soon discovers that she is being followed by Mitch. While on the run, she \"trains herself for a final, violent confrontation\" with her husband. For the final act, which required Lopez to \"become a believable lean, mean fighting machine\", she considered learning tai chi or taekwondo, but was worried about learning it at an expert level in a short period of time. Her personal trainer then suggested that she study Krav Maga, the \"official self-defense system of the Israeli Defense Forces which has recently become trendy in the States\", according to MTV News. \"Enough\" was initially scheduled to be released in September 2001, but was later pushed back to \"early 2002\" and eventually saw a release on May 24, 2002.", "The producers of \"Enough\" wanted Lopez to write a new song for the film. According to the entertainer, writing a song is something that cannot be forced; \"It kinda just has to happen\". While on their honeymoon in October 2001, her then-husband Cris Judd played her a melody that he had written on the piano. Lopez thought that the melody was \"really beautiful\" and that it would make a \"wonderful song\". She felt that a \"little bit of it sounded like the movie, a little haunting\". When she heard the melody, she said to herself: \"I can write something to that right now. And we can use it in \"Enough\"\". Lopez then began to think about the film and the character that she portrays and what she had been through. She also thought about the things that she had gone through in her own life. According to Lopez, it was easy to be inspired by the melody Judd had written, \"and just kind of that grateful feeling, to just be here [...] And keeping it simple. Because life can get so crazy and everything. And then you realize, it's all just kinda about the simplicity of being here, and being healthy. And being alive. So that's where the song came from\". \"Alive\" was written by Lopez, Judd and her frequent collaborator Cory Rooney. The song was produced by Rooney and Dan Shea, who also provided programming for the song. Lopez's vocals were recorded at Sony Music Studios and The Hit Factory in New York City. Her vocals were engineered by Robert Williams, with assistance from Jamie Gudewicz, Jason Dale and Kyle White. Pat Webe acted as the stage engineer for the song. Humberto Gatica provided audio engineering for the strings, which were arranged and conducted by Bill Ross. They were recorded by Bill Smith at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, with assistance from Jason Lloyd, Mark Eshelman and Julianne Masted. \"Alive\" was mixed by Mick Guzauski at Barking Doctor Studios in Mount Kisco, with assistance from Tom Bender. The song was mastered by Herb Powers at Hit Factory Mastering in New York City. After the song was completed, Lopez played it for the producers of \"Enough\" and they \"loved it\". \"Alive\" is not \"the type of music\" that the singer is used to making. According to Lopez, she knew that there was something \"inside of me that I have to offer to this [\"Alive\"]. And then, you know, things happen. Things have a weird way of happening naturally and organically when they're supposed to. And I feel that this song was just meant to be, for this movie. Basically, I wrote the song for me to go through all these kinds of things as an actress with this character. You draw from all different experiences in your life. From way back to the present, to whatever, to make it really true and honest\". \"Alive\" means \"the world\" to Lopez because of its positive message and the fact that it was something that she created with Judd.", "\"Alive\" was serviced to radio in the United States on May 21, 2002, as the second single from \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\". The song was released commercially on a 12\" vinyl as a double a-side along with \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" on July 30, 2002. Chris Cox and Barry Harris, known collectively as Thunderpuss, remixed \"Alive\" into a \"club-ready\" dance track. The song managed to reach number two on the US \" Billboard\" Dance Music/Club Play Singles chart, staying behind \"You Gotta Believe\" by Tommy Boy Silver. It topped the Maxi-Single Sales chart for three weeks. The song also managed to reach number 18 on the Adult Contemporary chart. At the 2003 \"Billboard\" Latin Music Awards the Thunderpuss Remix of \"Alive\" received an award for Latin Dance Single of the Year and Latin Dance Club Play Track of the Year. The accompanying music video for \"Alive\" was directed by Jim Gable and edited by Scott C. Wilson. The video opens with Lopez composing the melody and writing the lyrics for \"Alive\" on a piano in her living room, which overlooks a pier. Behind her, a flashing screen displays scenes from \"Enough\", along with Lopez recording the song in a studio with her band. After walking away from the piano, she lies optimistically on her sofa. She is then seen singing amid a large body of outdoor water. At the instrumental passage for \"Alive\", Lopez embraces the music being played by the band and changes a few chords with Rooney, who is seated at a piano. She then emotionally finishes recording the song during its final chorus. Throughout the entire video, clips from the film continue to be inter cut with these settings. The music video for \"Alive\" was included on a special edition DVD re-release of \"Enough\", as well as Lopez's first music video compilation \"The Reel Me\" (2003). Lopez performed the song for the first and only time on \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\" on May 17, 2002.", "Music critics were divided on \"Alive\". Chuck Taylor of \"Billboard\" stated that: \"Remember that 'Oh, my' feeling the first time you heard Madonna sing her first ballad, 'Crazy for You'? It's déjà vu with 'Alive'.\" According to Taylor, Lopez instills a \"vulnerable spirit of romanticism\" in the track. He wrote that Lopez \"does her best\" with the song, a \"regal ballad\". He called \"Alive\" a \"bold new terrain\" for Lopez, \"an artist who is heralded more for her videogenics than her voice.\" Taylor wrote that \"it's nice to have top 40's leading staple artist diversify her portfolio with a musical summer fling that will maintain programmers' and fans' love affair with Lopez\". He stated that the radio remix of \"Alive\" is \"made more luxurious\" with the addition of a \"cascade of fluttering strings\". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called \"Alive\" the \"biggest surprise\" of \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\". William Ruhlmann of Allmusic gave the song a negative review, writing that her vocal limitations \"come to the fore when she is spotlighted on such a song without a dance arrangement to support her\". He stated, however, that her vocal limitations are not \"as big a deal\" as her lack of emotional involvement: \"Though she tries to fake it here and there, she still sounds like she's singing her grocery list instead of the song's clichéd lyrics\". David Browne of \"Entertainment Weekly\" called the song a \"syrupy ballad\" that is \"neither alive nor a remix\". He stated that if you listen to the song long enough, \"you may actually be conned into thinking Lopez's voice and songs are passable\". He concluded by stating as a result of \"Alive\", \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\" may be the most insidious album ever made.", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The king's banker, Piotr Tepper, made efforts to build the church and in 1777 he obtained the appropriate privilege from King Stanisław August Poniatowski. The king however reserved for himself the right of choosing the design of the building. The church was designed by Szymon Bogumił Zug and constructed in 1777–1782. Already on 30 December 1781 the congregation's pastor celebrated the inauguration of the church. It is a Classical rotunda based partly on the Roman Pantheon. The Lutheran church was the highest and at the same time one of the biggest buildings of 18th century Warsaw. The diameter of the dome was 33.4 meters and the height was 58 meters. The huge dome with magnificent lantern tower still dominates the nearby buildings. It upholds the spirit of pure classicism. As the tallest building in Warsaw at that time it served as vantage point for the Polish Army during the Kościuszko Uprising. In the beginning of the 19th century the church was renowned of the music performances accompanying the service. Among the famous musicians, who gave concerts here was Frédéric Chopin. In April 1825 in the presence of tsar Alexander I of Russia, he played on the choralion (\"aeolimelodicon\"). The church fell into ruin when bombed and burnt by the Germans on September 16, 1939. It was rebuilt after the war. Inside, visitors are impressed by its double gallery encircling the interior. Because of its acoustic improvements and a splendid organ, the Warsaw Chamber Opera \"(Warszawska Opera Kameralna)\" regularly organizes concerts of classical music here." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Music and production.", "Controversy.", "Commercial performance.", "Music video.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" has a length of three minutes and forty-four seconds (3:44). It was written by Lopez, Lorraine Cheryl Cook, Ronald LaPread and the song's producers, Cory Rooney and Troy Oliver. She recorded her vocals for the song at Sony Music Studios in New York City with Robert Williams. The song was later mixed by Tony Maserati and mastered by Ted Jensen at Sterling Sound studios. According to \"J.Lo\"'s liner notes, the song contains a re-play of elements from the track \"8th Wonder\" (1980) originally recorded by American hip-hop trio The Sugarhill Gang. Jean-Claude Olivier and Samuel Barnes served as additional writers for the Trackmasters remix single version, with Track Masters serving as producers along with Rooney. It features rapper, Nas. Of working with Nas, Lopez stated: \"I love Nas [sic] I've been a fan of his since his first album. I could [recite] all the words by heart. It was just a dream to be able to work with him. He said he would do it and he did it just like that. [Nas and I] shot the video here in Spanish Harlem a few days ago.\" The remix's beat contains re-adaptions of the instrumental used on Luniz's 1995 song \"I Got 5 on It\" featuring Michael Marshall, a song which itself sampled Club Nouveau's 1987 song \"Why You Treat Me So Bad\".", "Controversy ensued over the radio and album versions. Epic Records decided to place Nas on the radio version due to his popularity at the time instead of 50 Cent. 50 Cent became angry at \"former\" friend Nas. Nas threatened him, stating: \"So he's like a kid living in a hip-hop fantasy world. J.Lo is a friend of mine, if she wants to do a record, I'm doing a record with her [sic] 50 was like a little brother to me.\" In response to 50 Cent's constant slamming of the collaboration, Nas stated: \"To sum it all up, 50 is still a new artist. I would say he's got a good five to six more albums before I can really respond to him. With my other battles, it was different. This is not really my thing right here.\" 50 Cent held no hard feelings towards Lopez, but towards Nas only. According to Epic Records, the switch in artists made on the radio version was \"purely business.\" The 50 Cent-featured version appears on the \"J to tha L-O!: The Remixes\" album (however, the European version features a no-rap version) while the Nas-featured version appears on the European pressing of Lopez's 2002 album \"This Is Me... Then\". The 2002 U.S. compilation \"Now That's What I Call Music! Volume 10\" also contains the version featuring Nas. The iTunes & Apple Music version only contains a no-rap version, despite the artists title. Of the original song from \"J.Lo\", Tom Sinclair of \"Entertainment Weekly\" called the song \"upbeat\" but noted that: \"I'm Gonna Be Alright for instance — which is based on the Sugarhill Gang's \"8th Wonder\" — is attributed to Lopez and eight other writers (presumably making Jen the ninth wonder.)\"", "On the week ending April 27, 2002, \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" debuted at number 69 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. The following week, it jumped to 52, and to 36 the next week. On the week ending May 18, it moved three places to 33 on the Hot 100 and the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Airplay chart. On the week ending June 1, it broke the top twenty, shifting 26-18 on the Hot 100 and moving to 20 on the Airplay chart. Two weeks later, it moved 14-11. The following week, \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" peaked at number 10 on the Hot 100, becoming Lopez's sixth top-ten hit, and Nas' fourth top-ten. It remained at number ten for five consecutive weeks. It peaked at 29 on the Canadian Hot 100 and six on the \"Billboard\" Pop Songs chart. The song also achieved considerable success elsewhere. In Australia, \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" debuted and peaked at sixteen on July 21, 2002. It was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales exceeding 35,000 copies. It debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart, selling nearly 45,000 copies in its first week on the chart. The song peaked at number nine in Belgian Flanders and six in Germany. In Norway, the song debuted at fifteen and peaked at ten. In New Zealand, \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" debuted at 46 on the charted date of July 28, 2002, and peaked at 30 for two weeks. In France, the song debuted at 91 on September 14, 2002 and peaked at twelve, having charted for a total of sixteen weeks. Additionally, it entered the top ten in Denmark, Hungary, Netherlands, and Switzerland.", "Lopez said that the music video of \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" was reminiscent of her thriller film, \"Enough\" (2002). During the video, she had to leave a relationship with a \"baddy\". Lopez explained: \"The song relates to the movie that's coming out at the same time [sic] It's about being in a relationship that you know is not good for you but you know you're gonna be OK [once you end it]. [The video] is basically about a day in the life of this girl who has this going on in her head. I also wanted the set in a neighborhood that was real and capture the essence of how I grew up. I grew up in the Bronx — it had the same kind of urban, city flavor. [The video captures] all the essences — guys playing dominoes, girls sunning on the side of the street because they don't wanna take the bus to the beach.\" The music video was shot on April 16 and 17, 2002. The music video for \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\" was directed by Dave Meyers and filmed in the Bronx, New York City, featuring Nas. The video begins with the atmosphere of a hot day in Spanish Harlem. Lopez and Nas appear singing in front of a barbed wire fence. Lopez sings in the neighborhood about letting go of a relationship that is not good for her, as the local male residents look on and stare. She appears at a barber shop with her then-husband, Cris Judd, and later at a coin laundry and record shop. She is also playing baseball with men on the street. She later dumps one of her lovers on the street. The clip ends with Lopez winning the baseball game. In 2011, a writer from \"Daily Express\" likened the sex appeal from her music video for \"On the Floor\" to that of \"I'm Gonna Be Alright\", writing: \"[Lopez] once told us in song that I’m Gonna Be Alright and now she’s proved it. The curves she displayed when she recorded the hit video nine years ago have been replaced by a leaner, fitter look.\"", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"J.Lo\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Bidding process.", "Development and preparation.", "Venues.", "Public transport.", "International transport.", "Cost and financing.", "Volunteers.", "Ticketing.", "Countdown.", "Security.", "Medals.", "Torch relay.", "Environmental policy.", "Cultural Olympiad.", "Opening ceremony.", "Closing ceremony.", "The Games.", "Participating National Olympic Committees.", "National houses.", "Sports.", "Calendar.", "Records.", "Medal table.", "Broadcasting.", "Marketing.", "Motto.", "Logo and graphics.", "Colours.", "Mascots.", "\"Chariots of Fire\".", "Sponsors.", "Controversies.", "Drug testing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "By 15 July 2003, the deadline for interested cities to submit bids to the International Olympic Committee (IOC), nine cities had submitted bids to host the 2012 Summer Olympics: Havana, Istanbul, Leipzig, London, Madrid, Moscow, New York City, Paris, and Rio de Janeiro. On 18 May 2004, as a result of a scored technical evaluation, the IOC reduced the number of cities to five: London, Madrid, Moscow, New York and Paris. All five submitted their candidate files by 19 November 2004 and were visited by the IOC inspection team during February and March 2005. The Paris bid suffered two setbacks during the IOC inspection visit: a number of strikes and demonstrations coinciding with the visits, and a report that a key member of the bid team, Guy Drut, would face charges over alleged corrupt party political finances. Throughout the process, Paris was widely seen as the favourite, particularly as this was its third bid in recent years. London was initially", "The London Organising Committee of the Olympic Games (LOCOG) was created to oversee the staging of the Games after the success of the bid, and held its first board meeting on 3 October 2005. The committee, chaired by Lord Coe, was in charge of implementing and staging the Games, while the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) was in charge of the construction of the venues and infrastructure. The latter was established in April 2006. The Government Olympic Executive (GOE), a unit within the Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), was the lead government body for coordinating the London 2012 Olympics. It focused on oversight of the Games, cross-programme programme management and the London 2012 Olympic Legacy before and after the Games that would benefit London and the United Kingdom. The organisation was also responsible for the supervision of the £9.3 billion of public sector funding. In August 2011, security concerns arose surrounding the hosting of the Olympic Games in London due to the 2011 England riots, with a few countries expressing fear over the safety of the Games, in spite of the International Olympic Committee's assurance that the riots would not affect the Games. The IOC's Coordination Commission for the 2012 Games completed its tenth and final visit to London in March 2012. Its members concluded that \"London is ready to host the world this summer\".", "The 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games used a mixture of new venues, existing and historic facilities, and temporary facilities, some of them in well-known locations such as Hyde Park and Horse Guards Parade. After the Games, some of the new facilities will be reused in their Olympic form, while others will be resized or relocated. The majority of venues have been divided into three zones within Greater London: the Olympic Zone, the River Zone and the Central Zone. In addition there are a few venues that, by necessity, are outside the boundaries of Greater London, such as the Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy some southwest of London, which hosted the sailing events. The football tournament was staged at several grounds around the UK. Work began on the Park in December 2006, when a sports hall in Eton Manor was pulled down. The athletes' village in Portland was completed in September 2011. In November 2004, the 200-hectare (500-acre) Olympic Park plans were revealed. The plans for the site were approved in September 2004 by Tower Hamlets, Newham, Hackney", "London's public transport scored poorly in the IOC's initial evaluation; however, it felt that, if the improvements were delivered in time for the Games, London would cope. Transport for London (TfL) carried out numerous improvements in preparation for 2012, including the expansion of the London Overground's East London Line, upgrades to the Docklands Light Railway and the North London Line, and the introduction of a new \"Javelin\" high-speed rail service. According to Network Rail, an additional 4,000 train services operated during the Games, and train operators ran longer trains during the day. During the Games, Stratford International station was not served by", "The 2012 games were a unique operational task and a massive challenge for Heathrow airport. A temporary terminal was created at Heathrow Airport, to be used by 10,100", "A study from Oxford University found that the sports-related costs of London 2012 was US$15 billion, compared to $4.6 billion for Rio 2016, $40–44 billion for Beijing 2008 and $51 billion for Sochi 2014, the most expensive Olympics in history. London 2012 went over budget by 76% in real terms, measured from bid to completion. Cost per athlete was $1.4 million. This does not include wider costs for urban and", "Unpaid volunteers known as Games Makers performed a variety of tasks before and during the Games. A target of 70,000 volunteers was set as early as 2004. When recruitment took place in 2010, over 240,000 applications were received. Sebastian Coe said in February 2012, \"Our Games Makers will contribute a total", "Organisers estimated that some 8 million tickets would be available for the Olympic Games, and 1.5 million tickets for the Paralympic Games. LOCOG aimed to raise £375–£400 million in ticket sales. There were also free events such as marathon, triathlon and road cycling, although, for the first time in Olympic history, the sailing events were ticketed. Eventually, more than 7,000,000 tickets were sold. Following IOC rules, people applied for tickets from the NOC of their country of residence. European Union residents were able to apply for tickets in any EU country. In Great Britain, ticket prices ranged from £20 for many events to £2,012 for the most expensive seats at", "During the closing ceremony of the 2008 Olympics, the Olympic Flag was formally handed over from the Mayor of Beijing to the Mayor of London. This was followed by a section highlighting London, One month later, the Olympic and Paralympic flags were raised", "The security operation was led by the police, with 10,000 officers available, supported by 13,500 members of the armed forces. Naval and air assets, including ships situated in the Thames, Eurofighter jets and surface-to-air missiles, were deployed as part of the security operation; the biggest security operation Britain had faced for decades. The cost of security increased from £282 million to £553 million, and the figure of 13,500 armed forces personnel was more than", "Approximately 4,700 Olympic and Paralympic medals were produced by the Royal Mint at Llantrisant. They were designed by David Watkins (Olympics) and Lin Cheung (Paralympics). 99% of the gold, silver and copper was donated by Rio Tinto from a mine in Salt Lake County, Utah in the U.S. The remaining 1% came from a Mongolian mine. Each medal weighs, has a diameter of and is thick, with the sport and discipline engraved on the rim. The obverse, as is traditional, features Nike, the Greek goddess of victory, stepping from the Panathinaiko", "The Olympics torch relay ran from 19 May to 27 July 2012, before the Games. Plans for the relay were developed in 2010–11, with the torch-bearer selection process announced on 18 May 2011. On 18 May 2012 the Olympic flame arrived at RNAS Culdrose in Cornwall from Greece on flight BA2012, operated by a British Airways Airbus A319 named \"Firefly\". The relay lasted 70 days, with 66 evening celebrations and six island visits, and involved some 8,000 people carrying the torch about, starting from Land's End in Cornwall. The torch had three days outside the", "The Olympic Park was planned to incorporate 45 hectares of wildlife habitat, with a total of 525 bird boxes, and 150 bat boxes. Local waterways and riverbanks were enhanced as part of the process. Renewable energy also features at the Olympics. It was originally planned to provide 20% of the energy for the Olympic Park and Village from renewable technologies; however, this may now be as little as 9%. Proposals to meet the original target included large-scale on-site wind turbines and hydroelectric generators in the River Thames. These plans were scrapped for safety reasons. The focus has since moved to installing solar panels on some buildings, and providing the opportunity to recover energy from waste. Food packaging at the Olympics is made from compostable materials – like starch and cellulose-based bioplastics – where it cannot be re-used or recycled. This includes fast food wrappers,", "The Olympic Charter, the set of rules and guidelines for the organization of the Olympic Games and for governing the Olympic Movement, states that LOCOG shall organise a programme of", "The opening ceremony officially began at 9:00 pm British Summer Time (UTC+1) on 27 July in the Olympic Stadium and was called \"Isles of Wonder\". Oscar-winning director Danny Boyle was its artistic director, with music direction by Rick Smith of Underworld. The Games were officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II, accompanied by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. It was the second", "The closing ceremony was held on 12 August. It featured a flashback fiesta to British music with The Who closing the performance.", "", "Around 10,700 athletes from 205 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) took part, (79 countries acquired at least one medal: gold, silver or bronze) surpassing the 1948 Summer Olympics in London and the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester as the largest multi-sport event ever to be held in the United Kingdom. Three athletes from the Netherlands Antilles Olympic Committee, which the IOC Executive Committee had ceased to recognise at the IOC session of July 2011, and one athlete from South Sudan, which had no recognized NOC, participated independently under the Olympic flag.", "During the Games some countries and continents had a national house. These temporary meeting places for supporters, athletes and other followers were located throughout London.", "The 2012 Summer Olympics featured 26 different sports encompassing 39 disciplines and 302 events. In the list below, the number of events in each discipline is noted in parentheses. Women's boxing was included in the programme for the first time, and 36 women competed in three weight classes. There was a special dispensation for the shooting events, which would otherwise have been illegal under UK gun law. In tennis, mixed doubles returned to the Olympic programme for the first time since 1924. London's bid featured the same 28 sports that had been included in other recent", "The final official schedule", "These Olympic Games resulted in 32 world records in eight sports. The largest number", "A total of 85 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) won medals, 54 of those countries winning at least one gold medal. Bahrain, Botswana, Cyprus, Gabon, Grenada (a gold medal), Guatemala, and Montenegro won their first ever Olympic medals. The United States finished at the top of the table winning", "The host broadcaster was Olympic Broadcasting Services (OBS), an agency of the IOC. The OBS used its own cameras, and crews subcontracted from other Olympic broadcasters, to cover the events. The base video and audio were sold to other broadcasters, who added their own commentary and presentation. The official recording format of the 2012 Summer Olympics used Panasonic's digital technologies. The official video was produced and distributed from the International Broadcast Centre in 1080/50i High-Definition (HD) format. Panasonic announced that DVCPRO HD would be the official recording format. OBS London used P2 HD shoulder-mount camcorders. The IOC's wanted television coverage to reach as broad a worldwide audience as possible, and London 2012 was covered by several national and regional broadcasters. In the UK, the BBC carried the Olympics and Channel 4 the Paralympics. The BBC aimed to broadcast all 5,000 hours of the Games. BBC Parliament's Freeview channel was suspended, BBC Three's on-air time was extended so that it could show Olympic events in the daytime, and 24 additional BBC Olympics channels were available via cable, satellite and the internet in the UK. The US television rights, owned by NBC, accounted for over half the rights revenue for the IOC. Thousands of Americans, however, accessed the BBC's omnibus coverage using proxy servers or VPNs. Despite high viewership, many viewers were disappointed with NBC's coverage. The operations of broadcasters granted rights to the Games were hosted in the dedicated International Broadcast Centre inside the security cordon of the Olympic Park. YouTube planned to stream the Games in 64 territories in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa where there were no official broadcasters. In Sri Lanka a dispute occurred between Sri Lanka Rupavahini Corporation (SLRC) and MBC Networks (MTV/MBC) as to who was the official broadcaster of the Games. This problem was caused as Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union (ABU) had offered the official broadcasting rights to both networks, as both of the networks were ABU members. So SLRC filed a case against MBC Networks for broadcasting rights at the Colombo Magistrate's Court. Considering the case, the court issued a special court order preventing MBC Networks' Olympic broadcast and stated that SLRC should be the sole broadcaster. However, when the Games started, both networks broadcast most of the events simultaneously. Another dispute had previously occurred between Carlton Sports Network (CSN) and SLRC, but the Sports Minister, Mahindananda Aluthgamage, had stated that SLRC had the exclusive rights.", "\"Survival\" by Muse was announced as the official song of the Olympics, to be played by international broadcasters reporting on the Games. In August 2009, the Royal Mail commissioned artists and illustrators to design 30 stamps, which were released in batches of 10 between 2009 and 2011. The last ones were released on 22 July 2011. Two £5 coins designed by Saiman Miah have been made to commemorate the Olympics. As with other Olympics since 1952, the Royal Mint will strike a set of commemorative one-kilogram gold and silver coins.", "The official motto for the 2012 Summer Olympics is \"Inspire a generation\". It was chosen", "There have been two London 2012 logos: one created by Kino Design for the bidding process and a second as the brand for the Games themselves. The former was a ribbon with blue, yellow, black, green and red stripes winding through the text \"LONDON 2012\", making the shape of the River Thames in East London. The latter, designed by Wolff Olins, was published on 4 June 2007. It is a representation of the number 2012, with the Olympic Rings embedded within the zero. Public reaction to the main logo in a June 2007 BBC poll was largely negative; more than 80% of votes gave it the lowest possible rating. Several newspapers ran their own logo competitions, displaying alternative submissions from their readers, and", "The 4 primary colours used in the branding of the games are Pink,", "The official mascots for the 2012 Summer Olympics and Paralympic Games were unveiled on 19 May 2010. Wenlock and Mandeville are animations depicting two drops of steel from a steelworks in Bolton. They are named after Much Wenlock, a town in Shropshire that holds a forerunner of the current Olympic Games, and Stoke Mandeville, a village in Buckinghamshire where a forerunner of the Paralympic Games was first held. The writer", "The 1981 Best Picture Oscar–winning film \"Chariots of Fire\", which tells the story of two British athletes in the 1924 Olympics, was a recurring theme in promotions for the 2012 Olympics. A digitally re-mastered version of \"Chariots of Fire\" was released on 13 July 2012 and screened in over 100 UK cinemas", "LOCOG and the IOC agreed sponsorship deals with several companies, each assigned to one of four categories; worldwide, tier one, tier two and tier three. The worldwide partners were: Acer, Atos, Coca-Cola, Dow, General Electric, McDonald's, Omega SA, Panasonic, Procter & Gamble, Samsung and Visa. Tier one partners were: Adidas, BMW, BP, British Airways, BT Group, EDF Energy and", "During the lead-up to the Games, there were controversies over sponsorship, the athletes' use of social media, and several political issues. After a complicated lottery process, thousands of people failed to secure seats for the events they wanted, but a large number of empty seats were observed throughout the games, even at some of the most popular events. There was speculation that this was due to a failure of corporate sponsors to make use of tickets they had received. During the Games, eight competitors in the badminton women's doubles were disqualified for \"not using best efforts\", when they tried to lose matches in the group stage to obtain more favourable fixtures in the knockout rounds. A number of results in boxing, gymnastics and judo were overturned by officials after initial decisions were appealed against.", "It was announced before the Summer Games that half of all the competitors would be tested for drugs, with 150 scientists set to take 6,000 samples between the start of the Games and the end of the Paralympic Games. Every competitor who won a medal was also tested. The Olympic laboratory tested up to 400 samples every day for more than 240 prohibited substances. As of late 2017, 31 medals have been stripped due to doping violations, 15 of which were originally awarded to Russian athletes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Geography and geology.", "Transport and tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The island's Swedish name \"Odensholm\" (or \"Odinsholm\") derives from the Vikings' chief god, Odin, who, according to a legend, is buried on the island. The origin of the Estonian name \"Osmussaar\" is not clear.", "The continuous settlement of Estonian Swedes on Osmussaar, which lasted until World War II, goes back at least to the 14th century, though little is known of the island's history before the 18th century. The exact time of colonisation is also unknown and the island was possibly inhabited already in the Viking Age. The island's population varied considerably with time, for example the plague epidemic of 1710 left according to popular stories only a few people alive. In the 20th century the island's population continued to rise and was the highest at the beginning of the 1930s. During the Estonian census of 1934 131 people lived on Osmussaar, all of them Swedes except for the lighthouse keeper and his family. In 1765 the first lighthouse was built on the northern coast of Osmussaar. In 1850 it was replaced with a new one, which was demolished in 1941 by the retreating Soviet garrison. The current lighthouse was completed in 1954. In 1914, during World War I, the German light cruiser \"Magdeburg\" ran aground and sank near the northern tip of Osmussaar. All inhabitants of Osmussaar were forced to leave the island during World War II. On 12 June 1940 the islanders were evacuated to Vormsi as the island was set aside as a Soviet military base. The next year Osmussaar was the last foothold in Estonia that was given up by the Red Army to the advancing German army. In 1942, during the Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany, the islanders could return to their homes, but the approaching Red Army forced them soon to leave permanently. The last 46 people left for Sweden in February 1944. According to the Moscow intermediate peace treaty between Finland and the Soviet Union starting 19 September 1944 (Article 17), Finland was obliged to hand over all commercial vessels for the use of the Allies. In late September 1944, the Soviet Union ordered 50 galeas and 50 motor boats to be delivered with Finnish crews to Osmussaar on 2 October 1944. This Finnish navy unit on the Soviet service was called detachment Arho after its commander, Olavi Arho. The chief of this \"galeage navy\" was Lieutenant Commander Paul Hongisto. The galeas and motor boats were taken into the state service involuntarily, but the crews were offered voluntariy pay of 250 Finnish marks per day. From 2–8 October, 50 galeas towed one motor boat to Estonia with a ten-day food supply for the crews. Detachment Arho served the Soviet military logistics on Hiiumaa and Saaremaa establishing connections to Tallinn. Every galeas had a captain, chief machine operator and two other crew members. The motor boats had two member crew. In Estonia all the military badges were removed from uniforms and the detachment acted like a civilian one. Also any marks of the Finnish nationality like the flags were removed. From Osmussaar many vessels sailed to Rohuküla of Haapsalu to support the Moonsund Landing Operation on the occupied Hiiumaa and Saaremaa islands. On 4 October the Finnish galeas shipped Soviet soldiers, horses and cannons to Heltermaa of Hiiumaa. Every galeas shipped about one Soviet infantry company. The same day later, the Finnish vessels were ordered to Saarenmaa proper, where the Germans had retreated from Muhu. On 5 October 1944, two Soviet detachments and two brigades were shipped to Taaliku and Triigi. The last galeases and motor boats came back to Finland on 7 November 1945. Nine of the fifty galeases were lost at sea due to rough water; additionally, seven were destroyed during the war. In total, sixteen galeases were destroyed or lost. Also one galeas more, Greta I, had disappeared either on 4 or 5 October on its way to Osmussaar. On 16 October the German submarine, U-481, sank the galeases Endla, Dan and Maria with its gun fire and ramming them. On 25 October U-958 sank the galeas Linnea with a torpedo. Eight Finnish soldiers were killed in these operations with the galeases. The other German attacks were not successful. Of all the 50 motorboats were lost 22, but without the loss of the human lives. The vessels of the detachment Arho were returned to Finland to Hanko and 2 November 1944, the headquarters of the Finnish navy ordered the liquidation of the unit. The crews were released from service and the vessels were returned to their civilian owners. Some navy activities were undertaken on the waters near Osmussaar as late as 1945. One German submarine, U-745 was destroyed by a sea mine, 4 February 1945 and later U-676 for the same reason, 19 February 1945. During the Soviet occupation the island was used by the Soviet Navy. Originally there were plans to house on the island a unit consisting of up to 1200 men, but the large unit was probably disbanded already in 1947 and later the island was home to a small navy unit consisting of a maximum of 40 men. After Estonia regained independence, the military left in 1993, leaving behind ruins of different fortifications and military buildings. During the property reform the pre-1940 landowners of Osmussaar were not allowed to directly reclaim their land and property, because a cadastral survey had never been conducted on the island and until the Swedes left during World War II, land ownership had been based on old customs. After the departure of Soviet army Osmussaar was uninhabited until 2001, when 2 people moved to the island. In 1996 the Osmussaar Landscape Protection Area, covering the whole island, was formed for the protection of local geological formations, plant communities and bird fauna.", "Osmussaar is the 14th largest island in Estonia. The island is 4.6 km long and 1.3 km wide, with its longer axis in a northwest–southeast direction. The island is located in the mouth of the Gulf of Finland and the Hanko-Osmussaar line is considered the border of the gulf. The highest elevation of the island is 8 m. Osmussaar is the westernmost point before Öland where the Baltic Klint emerges from the Baltic Sea. Essentially Osmussaar is a relict island of the klint. The height of the cliff on the island's north and east coast is up to 6 meters, but compared to the surrounding seabed, the height of the island is 60 meters. The island has a relatively thin (up to 2 m) cover of Quaternary marine sediments overlying the Ordovician limestone bedrock. The island arose from the sea 2000–3000 years ago, the uplift continues at a rate of about 3 mm/year. Extensive shingle fields, consisting of limestone pebbles, have developed on the western coast of the island. A number of large erratic boulders can be found scattered on the island. Their diameter reaches 10–20 meters, but more remarkable is their petrological composition – a relatively unique type of breccia (Neugrund breccia), which formed in the course of the impact that created the Neugrund crater. The most powerful recorded earthquake in Estonia, measuring 4.7 on the Richter magnitude scale, occurred on 25 October 1976 near Osmussaar and is known as the Osmussaar earthquake (). The earthquake caused the collapse of some sections of the cliff on the island's northeast coast and damaged some buildings on the island. The focus of the earthquake was 5–7 km northeast of the island at a depth of 10 or 13 km.", "Osmussaar has no regular connection to the Estonian mainland. The nearest port is Dirhami 9 km to southeast, which is the starting point of most boat trips to the island. Until 2008, when a floating wharf was installed, the island itself had no decent landing facilities. The popularity of Osmussaar as a tourist destination increased remarkably in 2002, when around 2000 people visited the island. Since then up to 3000 people visit the island every summer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Autodesk trademark.", "DWG Support in Freemium and Free Software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "DWG (denoted by the.dwg filename extension) was the native file format for the Interact CAD package, developed by Mike Riddle in the late 1970s, and subsequently licensed by Autodesk in 1982 as the basis for AutoCAD. From 1982 to 2009, Autodesk created versions of AutoCAD which wrote no fewer than 18 major variants of the DWG file format, none of which is publicly documented. The DWG format is probably the most widely used format for CAD drawings. Autodesk estimates that in 1998 there were in excess of two billion DWG files in existence. There are several claims to control of the DWG format. As the biggest and most influential creator of DWG files it is Autodesk who designs, defines, and iterates the DWG format as the native format for their CAD applications. Autodesk sells a read/write library, called RealDWG, under selective licensing terms for use in non-competitive applications. Several companies have attempted to reverse engineer Autodesk's DWG format, and offer software libraries to read and write Autodesk DWG files. The most successful is Open Design Alliance, a non-profit consortium created in 1998 by a number of software developers (including competitors to Autodesk), released a read/write/view library called the OpenDWG Toolkit, which was based on the MarComp AUTODIRECT libraries. (ODA has since rewritten and updated that code.) In 1998, Autodesk added file verification to AutoCAD R14.01, through a function called DWGCHECK. This function was supported by an encrypted checksum and product code (called a \"watermark\" by Autodesk), written into DWG files created by the program. In 2006 Autodesk modified AutoCAD 2007, to include \"TrustedDWG technology\", a function which would embed a text string within DWG files written by the program: \"Autodesk DWG. This file is a Trusted DWG last saved by an Autodesk application or Autodesk licensed application.\" This helped Autodesk software users ensure that the files they were opening were created by an Autodesk, or RealDWG application, reducing risk of incompatibilities. AutoCAD would pop up a message, warning of potential stability problems, if a user opened a 2007 version DWG file which did not include this text string. In 2008 the Free Software Foundation asserted the need for an open replacement for the DWG format, as neither RealDWG nor DWGdirect are licensed on terms that are compatible with free software license like the GNU GPL. Therefore, the FSF placed the goal 'Replacement for OpenDWG libraries' in 10th place on their High Priority Free Software Projects list. Created in late 2009, GNU LibreDWG is a free software library released under the terms of the GNU GPLv3 license. Despite being currently under development, it can read most parts of DWG files from version R13 up to 2004. Also in 2008 Autodesk and Bentley Systems agreed on exchange of software libraries, including Autodesk RealDWG, to improve the ability to read and write the companies' respective DWG and DGN formats in mixed environments with greater fidelity. In addition, the two companies will facilitate work process interoperability between their AEC applications through supporting the reciprocal use of available Application Programming Interfaces (APIs).", "On November 13, 2006, Autodesk sued the Open Design Alliance alleging that its DWGdirect libraries infringed Autodesk's trademark for the word \"Autodesk\", by writing the TrustedDWG watermark (including the word \"AutoCAD\") into DWG files it created. Nine days later, Autodesk's attorneys won a broad and deep temporary restraining order against the Open Design Alliance. In April 2007, the suit was settled, essentially on Autodesk's terms, with Autodesk modifying the warning message in AutoCAD 2008 (to make it somewhat less alarming), and the Open Design Alliance removing support for writing the TrustedDWG watermark from its DWGdirect libraries. The effect of the temporary restraining order and subsequent consent decree was to render the Open Design Alliance's DWGdirect libraries, from one point of view, incapable of creating DWG files that are 100% compatible with AutoCAD Unsubstantiated claim.. Others point out that the failure of \"100% compatibility\" means only that loading such a drawing triggers an essentially irrelevant warning message when the file is opened in AutoCAD. In 2006, Autodesk applied for registration of US trademarks on \"DWG\", \"DWG EXTREME\", \"DWG TRUECONVERT\", \"REALDWG\", \"DWGX\", \"DWG TRUEVIEW\". As early as 1996, Autodesk has disclaimed exclusive use of the DWG mark in US trademark filings. Out of these applications, only TRUSTEDDWG has been registered as a trademark by the USPTO. The REALDWG and DWGX registrations were opposed by SolidWorks. The DWG EXTREME, DWG TRUECONVERT, and DWG TRUEVIEW trademark registration applications all received substantial resistance, with the USPTO examining attorney requiring Autodesk to disclaim exclusive use of DWG as a condition for their registration. In a non-final action in May 2007, the USPTO examining attorney refused to register the two DWG marks, as they are \"merely descriptive\" of the use of DWG as a file format name. In September 2007, Autodesk responded, claiming that DWG has gained a \"secondary meaning,\" separate from its use as a generic file format name. As of June 22, 2008, all of Autodesk's DWG-related trademark registration proceedings were suspended by the USPTO, pending disposition of trademark opposition and cancellation petitions Autodesk had filed against the Open Design Alliance and Dassault Systèmes SolidWorks Corporation. The USPTO office actions notifying Autodesk of this noted that Autodesk was not the exclusive source of files with the format name DWG, and Autodesk does not control the use of DWG by others, either as a trademark or as a file format name, among other points. In 2006, Autodesk filed an opposition with the USPTO to the trademark registration of DWGGATEWAY by SolidWorks. Autodesk subsequently filed a petition for cancellation of SolidWorks' trademark registration for DWGEDITOR. In both cases, Autodesk's basis was that they had \"been using the DWG name with its CAD software products since at least as early as 1983.\" The opposition and cancellation actions were consolidated, and suspended pending disposition of Autodesk's US District Court suit against SolidWorks. In early 2007, Autodesk petitioned the USPTO to cancel the Open Design Alliance's \"OpenDWG\" trademarks, claiming that they had been abandoned. This cancellation action was suspended pending disposition of Autodesk's US District Court suit against SolidWorks. In 2008, Autodesk sued SolidWorks in US District Court, arguing that through its marketing efforts, the term \"DWG\" has lost its original generic meaning and taken on a secondary meaning referring specifically to Autodesk's proprietary drawing file format, and therefore any use of \"DWG\" in competitive products amounted to trademark infringement. In January 2010, on the morning that trial was scheduled to begin, Autodesk and SolidWorks settled the suit, with SolidWorks acknowledging Autodesk's trademark rights for DWG, surrendering its trademark registrations for its DWG related projects, and withdrawing its opposition to Autodesk's DWG-related trademark registrations. In April 2010, Autodesk and the Open Design Alliance settled their suit, with the Open Design Alliance agreeing to cancel its DWG-based trademark registrations and cease use of DWG and DWG-based trademarks in its product marketing and branding. Because there was no adjudication in either case, the agreements between the parties are not binding upon the USPTO. In March 2010, the Office of the Deputy Commissioner for Trademark Examination Policy at the USPTO determined that evidence submitted by the Open Design Alliance two years earlier was relevant and supported a reasonable ground for refusal to register DWG as a trademark. In June 2011 the USPTO issued a final refusal to register DWG as a trademark owned by Autodesk. They were quoted as saying: Autodesk appealed the decision. The USPTO affirmed in 2013 their refusal to recognise DWG as a trademark. Despite this, Autodesk websites still claimed DWG as a trademark after the decision. In late 2014 Autodesk again lost, this time at the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. The judge dismissed all their arguments. In 2015 Autodesk's website has a section title \"About DWG\" in which they try to make a distinction between.dwg as a file format and the \"DWG technology environment\".", "As neither RealDWG nor DWGdirect are licensed on terms that are compatible with free software licenses like the GNU GPL, in 2008 the Free Software Foundation asserted the need for an open replacement for the DWG format. Therefore, the FSF placed the goal 'Replacement for OpenDWG libraries' in 10th place on their High Priority Free Software Projects list. Forked in late 2009 from libDWG as GNU LibreDWG project it can read most parts of DWG files from version R13 up to 2004. But as the libreDWG library is released under the GNU GPLv3 it can't be used by most targeted FOSS graphic software, like FreeCAD, LibreCAD and Blender, due to a GPLv2/GPLv3 license incompatibility. A GPLv2 licensed alternative is the libdxfrw project, which can read simple DWGs. FreeCAD is a free and open-source application that can work with the DWG files by utilizing the proprietary ODA File Converter for.dwg and.dxf files from the Open Design Alliance (ODA). The ODA also provides a freeware stand-alone viewer for.dwg and.dgn files, ODA Drawings Explorer, which runs on Windows, Linux, Mac OS X. LibreCAD is a free and open-source 2D CAD application that can open DWG & DXF files using your own library. Autodesk DWG TrueView is a freeware stand-alone DWG viewer with DWG TrueConvert software included, built on the same viewing engine as AutoCAD software. The freeware Autodesk Design Review software adds a possibility to open DWG files in Design Review to take advantage of measure and markup capabilities, sheet set organization, and status tracking. DWG files can be displayed online by ShareCAD, a free online viewer. This service also offers a free IFrame plug-in for viewing DWG files at a site." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "Early use.", "19th century.", "Early 20th century.", "World War II.", "Cold War era.", "Post Cold War.", "Types.", "Contact mines.", "Limpet mines.", "Moored contact mines.", "Drifting contact mines.", "Remotely controlled mines.", "Influence mines.", "Unusual mines.", "Bouquet mine.", "Anti-sweep mine.", "Oscillating mine.", "Ascending mine.", "Homing mines.", "Mobile mine.", "Nuclear mine.", "Daisy-chained mine.", "Dummy mine.", "Mine laying.", "Aerial mining in World War II.", "Germany.", "Soviet Union.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Clearing WWII aerial mines.", "Damage.", "Direct damage.", "Bubble jet effect.", "Shock effect.", "Countermeasures.", "Passive countermeasures.", "Active countermeasures.", "Mine sweeping.", "Mine hunting.", "Mine running.", "National arsenals.", "US mines.", "Royal Navy.", "Modern mine warfare challenges today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mines can be laid in many ways: by purpose-built minelayers, refitted ships, submarines or aircraft—and even by dropping them into a harbour by hand. They can be inexpensive: some variants can cost as little as US$2000, though more sophisticated mines can cost millions of dollars, be equipped with several kinds of sensors and deliver a warhead by rocket or torpedo. Their flexibility and cost-effectiveness make mines attractive to the less powerful belligerent in asymmetric warfare. The cost of producing and laying a mine is usually between 0.5% and 10% of the cost of removing it, and it can take up to 200 times as long to clear a minefield as to lay it. Parts of some World War II naval minefields still exist because they are too extensive and expensive to clear. Some 1940s-era mines may remain dangerous for many years. Mines have been employed as offensive or defensive weapons in rivers, lakes, estuaries, seas and oceans, but they can also be", "", "Precursors to naval mines were first invented by Chinese innovators of Imperial China and were described in thorough detail by the early Ming dynasty artillery officer Jiao Yu, in his 14th century military treatise known as the \"Huolongjing\". Chinese records tell of naval explosives in the 16th century, used to fight against Japanese pirates (\"wokou\"). This kind of naval mine was loaded in a wooden box, sealed with putty. General Qi Jiguang made several timed, drifting explosives, to harass Japanese pirate ships. The \"Tiangong Kaiwu\" (\"The Exploitation of the Works of Nature\") treatise, written by Song Yingxing in 1637, describes naval mines with a rip cord pulled by hidden ambushers located on the", "In 1812 Russian engineer Pavel Shilling exploded an underwater mine using an electrical circuit. In 1842 Samuel Colt used an electric detonator to destroy a moving vessel to demonstrate an underwater mine of his own design to the United States Navy and President John Tyler. However, opposition from former president John Quincy Adams, scuttled the project as \"not fair and honest warfare\". In 1854, during the unsuccessful attempt of the Anglo-French fleet to seize the Kronstadt fortress, British steamships HMS \"Merlin\" (9 June 1855, the first successful mining in history), HMS \"Vulture\" and HMS \"Firefly\" suffered damage due to the underwater explosions of Russian naval mines. Russian naval specialists set more than 1500 naval mines, or \"infernal machines\", designed", "During the Boxer Rebellion, Imperial Chinese forces deployed a command-detonated mine field at the mouth of the Peiho river before the Dagu forts, to prevent the western Allied forces from sending ships to attack. The next major use of mines was during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Two mines blew up when the struck them near Port Arthur, sending the holed vessel to the bottom and killing the fleet commander, Admiral Stepan Makarov, and most of his crew in the process. The toll inflicted by mines was not confined to the Russians, however. The Japanese Navy lost two battleships, four cruisers, two destroyers and a torpedo-boat to offensively laid mines during the war. Most famously, on 15 May 1904, the Russian minelayer \"Amur\" planted a 50-mine minefield off Port Arthur and succeeded in sinking the Japanese battleships and. Following the end of the Russo-Japanese War, several nations attempted to have mines banned as weapons of war at the Hague Peace Conference (1907). Many early mines were fragile and", "During World War II, the U-boat fleet, which dominated much of the battle of the Atlantic, was small at the beginning of the war and much of the early action by German forces involved mining convoy routes and ports around Britain. German submarines also operated in the Mediterranean Sea, in the Caribbean Sea, and along the U.S. coast. Initially, contact mines (requiring a ship to physically strike a mine to detonate it) were employed, usually tethered at the end of a cable just below the surface of the water. Contact mines usually blew a hole in ships' hulls. By the beginning of World War II, most nations had developed mines that could be dropped from aircraft, some of which floated on the surface, making it possible to lay them in enemy harbours. The use of dredging and nets was effective against this type of mine, but this consumed valuable time and resources, and required harbours to be closed. Later, some ships survived mine blasts, limping into port with buckled plates and broken backs. This appeared to be due to a new type of mine, detecting ships by", "Since World War II, mines have damaged 14 United States Navy ships, whereas air and missile attacks have damaged four. During the Korean War, mines laid by North Korean forces caused 70% of the casualties suffered by U.S. naval vessels and caused 4 sinkings. During the Iran–Iraq War from 1980 to 1988, the belligerents mined several areas of the Persian Gulf and nearby waters. On 24 July 1987, the supertanker \"SS\" Bridgeton was mined by Iran near Farsi Island. On 14 April 1988, struck", "During the Gulf War, Iraqi naval mines severely damaged and. When the war concluded, eight countries conducted", "Naval mines may be classified into three major groups; contact, remote and influence mines.", "The earliest mines were usually of this type. They are still used today, as they are extremely low cost compared to any other anti-ship weapon and are effective, both as a psychological weapon and as a method to sink enemy ships. Contact mines need to be touched by the target before they detonate, limiting the damage to the direct effects of the explosion and usually affecting only the vessel that triggers them. Early mines had mechanical mechanisms to detonate them, but these were superseded in the 1870s by the \"Hertz horn\" (or \"chemical horn\"), which was found to work reliably even after the mine had been in the sea for several years. The mine's upper half is studded with hollow lead protuberances, each containing a glass vial filled", "Limpet mines are a special form of contact mine that are manually attached to", "Generally, this mine type is set to float just below the surface of the water or as deep as five meters. A steel cable connecting the mine to an anchor on the seabed prevents it from drifting away. The explosive and detonating mechanism is contained in a buoyant metal or plastic shell. The depth below the surface at which the mine floats can be set so that only deep draft vessels such as aircraft carriers, battleships or large cargo ships are at risk, saving the mine from being used on a less valuable target. In littoral waters it is important to ensure that the mine does not become visible when the sea level falls at low tide, so the cable length is adjusted to take account of tides. During WWII there were mines that could be moored in 300m-deep", "Drifting mines were occasionally used during World War I and World War II. However, they were more feared than effective. Sometimes floating mines break from their moorings and become drifting mines; modern mines are designed to deactivate in this event. After several years at sea, the deactivation mechanism might not function as intended and the mines may remain live. Admiral Jellicoe's British fleet did not pursue and destroy the outnumbered German High Seas Fleet when it turned away at the Battle of", "Frequently used in combination with coastal artillery and hydrophones, controlled mines (or command detonation mines) can be in place in peacetime, which is a huge advantage in blocking important shipping routes. The mines can usually be turned into \"normal\" mines with a switch (which prevents the enemy from simply capturing the controlling station and deactivating the mines), detonated on a signal or be", "These mines are triggered by the influence of a ship or submarine, rather than direct contact. Such mines incorporate electronic sensors designed to detect the presence of a vessel and detonate when it comes within the blast range of the warhead. The fuses on such mines may incorporate one or more of the following sensors: magnetic, passive acoustic or water pressure displacement caused by the proximity of a vessel. First used during WWI, their use became more general in WWII. The sophistication of influence mine fuses has increased considerably over the years as first transistors and then microprocessors have been incorporated into designs. Simple magnetic sensors have been superseded by total-field magnetometers. Whereas early magnetic mine fuses would respond only to changes in a single component of a target vessel's magnetic field, a total field magnetometer responds to changes in the magnitude of the total background field (thus enabling it to better detect even degaussed ships). Similarly, the original broadband hydrophones of 1940s acoustic mines (which operate on the integrated volume of all frequencies) have been replaced by narrow-band sensors which are much more sensitive and selective. Mines can now be programmed to listen for highly specific acoustic signatures (e.g. a gas turbine powerplant or cavitation sounds from a particular design of propeller) and ignore all others. The sophistication of modern electronic mine fuzes incorporating these digital signal processing capabilities", "Several specialized mines have been developed for other purposes than the common minefield.", "The bouquet mine is a single anchor attached to several floating mines. It is designed", "The anti-sweep mine is a very small mine (40 kg warhead) with as small a floating device as possible. When the wire of a mine sweep hits the anchor wire of the mine, it drags the anchor wire", "The mine is hydrostatically controlled to maintain a pre-set", "The ascending mine is a floating distance mine that may cut its mooring or in", "These are mines containing a moving weapon as a warhead, either a torpedo or a rocket. Rocket mine: a Russian invention, the rocket mine is a bottom distance mine that fires a homing high-speed rocket (not torpedo) upwards towards the target. It is intended to allow a bottom mine to", "The mine is propelled to its intended position by propulsion equipment such as a torpedo. After reaching its destination, it sinks to the seabed and operates like a standard mine. It differs from the homing mine in that its mobile stage is before it lies in wait, rather than as", "During the Cold War a test was conducted with naval mine fitted with tactical nuclear warheads for the \"Baker\" shot of Operation Crossroads. This weapon was", "This comprises two moored, floating contact mines which are tethered together by a length of steel cable or chain. Typically, each mine is situated approximately away from its neighbour, and each floats a few metres below the surface of", "Plastic drums filled with sand or concrete are periodically rolled off the side of ships as real mines are laid in large mine-fields. These inexpensive false targets (designed to be of a similar shape and size as genuine mines) are intended to slow down the process of mine clearance: a mine-hunter is forced to investigate each suspicious sonar contact on the sea bed, whether it is real or not. Often a maker of naval mines will provide both training and dummy versions of their mines.", "Historically several methods were used to lay mines. During WWI and WWII, the Germans used U-boats to lay mines around the UK. In WWII, aircraft came into favour for mine laying with one of the largest examples being the mining of the Japanese sea routes in Operation Starvation. Laying a minefield is a relatively fast process with specialized ships, which is today the most common method. These minelayers can carry several thousand mines and manoeuvre with high precision. The mines are dropped at predefined intervals into the water behind the ship. Each mine is recorded for later clearing, but it is not unusual for these records to be lost together with the ships. Therefore, many countries demand that all mining operations be planned on land and records kept so that the mines can later be recovered more easily. Other methods to lay minefields include: In some cases, mines are automatically activated upon contact with the water. In others, a safety lanyard is pulled (one end attached to the rail of a ship, aircraft or torpedo tube) which starts an automatic timer countdown before the arming process is complete. Typically, the automatic safety-arming process takes some minutes to complete. This allows the people laying the mines sufficient time to move out of its activation and blast zones.", "", "In the 1930s, Germany had experimented with the laying of mines by aircraft. It became a crucial element in their overall mining strategy. Aircraft had the advantage of speed, and they would never get caught in their own minefields. German", "The USSR was relatively ineffective in its use of naval mines in WWII in comparison with its record in previous wars. Small mines were developed for use in rivers and lakes, and special mines for shallow water. A very large", "In September 1939, the UK announced the placement of extensive defensive minefields in waters surrounding the Home Islands. Offensive aerial mining operations began in April 1940 when 38 mines were laid at each of these locations: the Elbe River, the port of Lübeck and the German naval base at Kiel. In", "As early as 1942, American mining experts such as Naval Ordnance Laboratory scientist Dr. Ellis A. Johnson, CDR USNR, suggested massive aerial mining operations against Japan's \"outer zone\" (Korea and northern China) as well as the \"inner zone\", their home islands. First, aerial mines would have to be developed further and manufactured in large numbers. Second, laying the mines would require a sizable air group. The US Army Air Forces had the carrying capacity but considered mining to be the navy's job. The US Navy lacked suitable aircraft. Johnson set about convincing General Curtis LeMay of the efficacy of heavy bombers laying aerial mines. B-24 Liberators, PBY Catalinas and other bomber aircraft took part in localized", "Between 600,000 and 1,000,000 naval mines of all types were laid in WWII. Advancing military forces worked to clear mines from newly-taken areas, but extensive minefields remained in place after the war. Air-dropped mines had an additional problem for mine sweeping operations: they were not meticulously charted. In Japan, much of the B-29 mine-laying work had been performed at high altitude, with the drifting on the wind of mines carried by parachute adding a randomizing factor to their placement. Generalized danger areas were identified, with only the quantity of mines given in detail. Mines used in Operation Starvation were", "The damage that may be caused by a mine depends on the \"shock factor value\", a combination of the initial strength of the explosion and of the distance between the target and the detonation. When taken in reference to ship hull plating, the term \"Hull Shock Factor\" (HSF) is used, while keel damage is termed \"Keel Shock Factor\" (KSF). If the explosion is directly underneath the keel, then HSF is equal to KSF, but explosions that are not directly underneath the ship will have a lower value of KSF.", "Usually only created by contact mines, direct damage is a hole blown in the ship. Among the crew, fragmentation wounds are the most common form of damage. Flooding typically occurs in one or two main watertight compartments,", "The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a", "If the mine detonates at a distance from the ship, the change in water pressure causes the ship to resonate. This is frequently the most deadly type of explosion, if it is strong enough. The whole ship is dangerously shaken and everything on board is tossed around. Engines rip from their beds, cables from their holders, etc.. A badly shaken", "Weapons are frequently a few steps ahead of countermeasures, and mines are no exception. In this field the British, with their large seagoing navy, have had the bulk of world experience, and most anti-mine developments, such as degaussing and the double-L sweep, were British inventions. When on operational missions, such as the recent invasion of Iraq, the US still relies on British and Canadian minesweeping services. The US has worked on some innovative mine-hunting countermeasures, such as the use of military dolphins to detect and flag mines. However, they are of questionable effectiveness. Mines in nearshore environments remain a particular challenge. They are small and as technology has developed they can have anechoic coatings, be non-metallic, and oddly shaped to resist detection. Further, oceanic conditions and the sea bottoms of the area of operations can degrade sweeping and hunting efforts. Mining countermeasures are far more expensive and time-consuming than mining operations, and that gap is only growing with new technologies.", "Ships can be designed to be difficult for mines to detect, to avoid detonating them. This is especially true for minesweepers and mine hunters that work in minefields, where a minimal signature outweighs the need for armour and speed. These ships have hulls of glass fibre or wood instead of steel to avoid magnetic signatures. These ships may use special propulsion systems, with low magnetic electric motors, to reduce magnetic signature, and Voith-Schneider propellers, to limit the acoustic signature. They are built with hulls that produce a minimal pressure signature. These measures create other problems. They are expensive, slow, and vulnerable to enemy fire. Many modern ships have a mine-warning sonar—a simple sonar looking forward and warning the crew if it detects possible mines ahead. It is only effective when the ship is moving slowly. A steel-hulled ship can be \"degaussed\" (more correctly, de-oerstedted or depermed) using a special degaussing station that contains many large coils and induces a magnetic field in the hull with alternating current to demagnetize the hull. This is a rather problematic solution, as magnetic compasses need recalibration", "Active countermeasures are ways to clear a path through a minefield or remove it completely. This is one of the most important tasks of any mine warfare flotilla.", "A sweep is either a contact sweep, a wire dragged through the water by one or two ships to cut the mooring wire of floating mines, or a distance sweep that mimics a ship to detonate the mines. The sweeps are dragged by minesweepers, either purpose-built military ships or converted trawlers. Each run covers between one and two hundred meters, and the ships must move slowly in a straight line, making them vulnerable to enemy fire. This was exploited by the Turkish army in the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915, when mobile howitzer batteries prevented the British and French from clearing a", "As naval mines have become more sophisticated, and able to discriminate between targets, so they have become more difficult to deal with by conventional sweeping. This has given rise to the practice of mine-hunting. Mine hunting is very different from sweeping, although some minehunters can do both tasks. Minehunting pays little attention to the nature of the mine itself. Nor does the method change much. At the current state of the art, Minehunting remains the best way to deal with influence mines proving to be both safer and more effective than sweeping. Specialized high-frequency sonars and high fidelity sidescaning sonar are used for mine location. Mines are hunted using sonar, then", "A more drastic method is simply to run a ship through the minefield, letting other ships safely follow the same path. An early example of this was Farragut's actions at Mobile Bay during the American Civil War. However, as mine warfare became more developed this method became uneconomical. This method was revived by the German \"Kriegsmarine\" during WWII. Left with a surfeit of idle ships due to the Allied blockade, the \"Kriegsmarine\" introduced a ship known as \"Sperrbrecher\" (\"block breaker\"). Typically an old cargo ship, loaded with cargo that made her less vulnerable to sinking (wood for example), the \"Sperrbrecher\" was run ahead of the ship to be protected, detonating any mines that might be in their path. The use of \"Sperrbrecher\" obviated the need to continuous and painstaking sweeping, but the cost was", "", "The United States Navy MK56 ASW mine (the oldest still in use by the United States) was developed in 1966. More advanced mines include the MK60 CAPTOR (short for \"encapsulated torpedo\"), the MK62 and MK63 Quickstrike and the MK67 SLMM (Submarine Launched Mobile Mine). Today, most U.S. naval mines are delivered by aircraft. MK67 SLMM Submarine Launched Mobile Mine The SLMM was developed by the United States as a submarine deployed mine for use in areas inaccessible for other mine deployment techniques or for covert mining of hostile environments. The SLMM", "According to a statement made to the UK Parliament in 2002: ...the Royal Navy does not have any mine stocks and has not had since 1992. Notwithstanding this, the United Kingdom retains the capability to lay mines and continues research into mine exploitation. Practice mines, used for exercises, continue to be laid in order to retain the necessary skills. However, a British company (BAE Systems) does manufacture the Stonefish influence", "Mine warfare remains the most cost-effective of asymmetrical naval warfare. Mines are relatively cheap and being small allows them to be easily deployed. Indeed, with some kinds of mines, trucks and rafts will suffice. At present there are more than 300 different mines available. Some 50 countries currently have mining ability. The number of naval mine producing countries has increased by 75% since 1988. It is also noted that these mines are of an increasing sophistication while even the older type mines present a significant problem. It has been noted that mine warfare may become an issue with terrorist organizations. Mining busy shipping straits and mining shipping harbors remain some of the most serious threats." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Corda was born in Reichenberg (now Liberec), Bohemia on November 15, 1809. Corda's father was a textile seller. Both of Corda's parents died suddenly only a few weeks following his birth, and Corda was raised by his grandmother, attending the Normale School in Reichenberg. Corda's grandmother died in 1819 and Corda was sent to live with an \"unacquainted family\" for two years during which time he did not receive schooling. Two years later, Corda was transferred to the care of an uncle in Prague where he attended the \"Lyceum of New Prague\". As a result of family difficulties, Corda left the Lyceum in 1824 to attend polytechnical school. There, he studied physics under Franz Ignatz Cassian Hallaschka, chemistry under Josef Johann Steinmann, mineralogy under Franz Xaver Zippe, and botany under Ignaz Friedrich Tausch. Corda remained at the Polytechnic only 3 years, long enough to become proficient in chemistry. After leaving the Polytechnic in 1827, Corda took a job in a chemical factory in Prague for a brief time before returning to study surgery at the University of Prague. Shortly thereafter during an outbreak of \"Vibrio cholerae\", Corda served as an assistant surgeon at the General Hospital in Prague. He continued as a cholera doctor in Rokitzan, Reichstadt, Niemes and Zwickau. Late in 1832, dispirited by his seemingly endless struggle against cholera, Corda quit the practice of medicine.", "For six weeks, Corda retreated to Berlin to enjoy the company of his close friend Kurt Sprengel and his many associates in the literati, Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Sigismund Kunth, Johann Horkel and Martin Lichtenstein. Following his return to Reichenberg, Corda was inspired to the study of botany following the receipt of a letter from the Berlin Academy proposing a study of the growth of palms and related plants with a travel grant for a return trip to Berlin. Corda enthusiastically responded by writing \"De incremento stipitis plantarum\" with nearly 100 accompanying illustrations which he completed in 1834 along with a monograph on the \"Anatomy of the Rhyzosperms\". During his return to Prague, Corda collected at the Karlovy Vary Hot Springs where he studied aquatic zooplankton and visited Nees von Esenbeck. Once back in Prague, Corda was invited to take up a position of Curator of the Division of Zoology at the Czech National Museum by the museum's founder and president, the influential Kaspar Maria von Sternberg, whom Corda had met during his time at Karlovy Vary and also at a botanical congress in Vratislavia. Corda's primary interest quickly drifted to the mycological collections which became the primary focus of his work. Corda is best known for his monumental 6 volume \"Icones fungorum hucusque cognitorum\", published from 1837–1842 and finally in 1854, and his \"Prachtflora europäischer Schimmelbildungen\" published in 1839. Corda was one of the first mycologists to document the sizes of spores of the fungi he described. In 1848, Corda was suspected of political agitation during the Prague Barricades and narrowly escaped assassination. Corda remains well known to mycologists, having described many important fungal genera, including \"Stachybotrys\". He perished at sea in 1849 while returning home from a collecting trip in Texas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Organisation.", "Students.", "Culture, sports and traditions.", "Recepção ao Caloiro.", "History.", "Coimbra.", "Events.", "Queima das Fitas.", "Students Lore.", "Business incubator and science park.", "Academics.", "Reputation.", "Organisation and length of courses.", "Admission.", "Notable alumni and students.", "List of faculties.", "List of research units.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "4", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The university was founded, or ratified, in 1290 by King Dinis, having begun its existence in Lisbon with the name Studium Generale (\"Estudo Geral\"). \"Scientiae thesaurus mirabilis\", the royal charter announcing the institution of the University was dated 1 March of that year, although efforts had been made at least since 1288 to create this first University in Portugal; it is thus the second oldest of such establishments in the Iberian Peninsula. The Papal confirmation was also given in 1290 (on 9 August of that year), during the Papacy of the Pope Nicholas IV. In accordance with the Papal Bull, all the \"licit\" Faculties, with the exception of that of Theology, could be established. Thus the Faculties of Arts, Law, Canon Law and Medicine were the first to be created. It was, however, not to remain in Lisbon for long. In 1308, likely due to problems of emancipation from the Church (relations between the latter and the political power being somewhat strained at the time) and conflicts between the inhabitants of the city and the students, the University moved to Coimbra. This town already had old traditions in education, being home to the highly successful school of the Monastery of Santa Cruz. The university was then established on the site known as \"Estudos Velhos\", which corresponds roughly to the area where the Main Library now stands. In 1338, during the reign of Afonso IV, it was once again transferred to Lisbon, from whence it returned in 1354, this time to the centre of the town which was then in full expansion. In 1377, during the reign of King Fernando, it was transferred yet again to Lisbon, where it would remain for over a century and a half. The authorization for a Faculty of Theology probably dates from this period – around 1380. In 1537, during the reign of João III, the university moved definitively to Coimbra, where it was installed in the Alcaçova Palace which was subsequently purchased from the Royal Family in 1597. The university institution, including all the books from its library, were moved from Lisbon to Coimbra. Teachers were not guaranteed a position at the new location and many did not move; in fact, most of the new faculty were previously with the University of Salamanca. For the most part, the curriculum was retained. At the same time, university colleges were created (abolished in the 19th century), a restructuring of the curricula was undertaken and new teachers, both Portuguese and foreign, were admitted. In the 18th century, the Marquis of Pombal, Minister of the kingdom, made radical reforms in the University, especially regarding the teaching of sciences, in accordance to his Enlightenment and anticlerical creed. During many decades it was the only university in Portugal, since its foundation in 1290 until 1559 (a university in Évora operated between 1559 and 1759), and again between 1759 and 1911 (University of Lisbon and University of Porto were created in 1911). The long history and past predominance of the University of Coimbra made it an important focus of influence in Portugal, not only educational, but also political and social. Initial steps towards some convergence of European higher education systems were taken with the signature of the Sorbonne declaration by the Ministers in charge of higher education in France, Italy, the United Kingdom and Germany, in 1998, and later, in 1999, with the signature of the Bologna declaration. The Bologna process, aimed at creating a European Higher Education Area by implementing a comparable degree structure, common quality assurance standards and by promoting the mobility of students and faculty members, was a major revolution in Europe's higher education. Globalization, technological change and increased international competition for scarce high-skilled labor highlighted the importance of making European higher education institutions attractive and competitive worldwide. A more integrated European Higher Education Market enhanced competition between European universities—a necessary condition for producing leading-edge innovations and for catching up with the US economy. In Portugal, the University of Coimbra decided to defer the adoption of the new Bologna Process model from 2006 to 2007/2008 (with exceptions authorized for a few programs on which a national consensus for change had been reached among institutions) in order to make the transition maintaining the highest standards of quality and academic integrity. Only in the 2008/2009 school year did the entire university fully adopt the new programs within its 8 faculties.", "Its governance is assured by the Rector, the Senate and the University Assembly, the last responsible for the election of the Rector and the Senate. The Rector has the main responsibility for the strategic direction and the overall administration of the university, together with the Senate and assisted by the Administrative Council. The university is divided into eight different faculties (Letters, Law, Medicine, Sciences & Technology, Pharmacy, Economics, Psychology & Education Sciences and Sports Sciences & Physical Education), comprising about 25,000 students. The Faculty of Sciences and Technology (FCTUC) is the largest by number of professors and students, awards the highest number of academic degrees, and manages more classrooms and research units than any other in the UC. Both the National Legal Medicine Institute, an organization under direct supervision of the Portuguese Ministry of the Justice, which provides forensic science services to the police forces and government agencies of Portugal, and the University of Coimbra's teaching hospital, HUC (\"Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra\"), a university hospital known as a centre of research with a broad range of clinical services and medical specialties, are managed by the Faculty of Medicine (FMUC). The university harbours a huge central library (University of Coimbra General Library), botanical gardens (Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra), stadiums and other sports facilities (\"Estádio Universitário de Coimbra\" sports complex and \"Campo de Santa Cruz\" stadium), an astronomical observatory, a publishing house, a private chapel (São Miguel Chapel), a theatre (Teatro Académico de Gil Vicente), and many support facilities such as dining halls and studying rooms. In addition, the university manages several museums and other cultural organizations, including a science museum (Science Museum of the University of Coimbra), a museum of sacred art (\"Sacred Art Museum of the University of Coimbra\"), and an academic museum (\"Academic Museum of the University of Coimbra\"). The university has five main campuses or other sites:", "Students are represented by the students' union Associação Académica de Coimbra (AAC). Formed on 3 November 1887, it is the oldest university students' union in Portugal, with a long history of struggle against unpopular state policies, forming notable politicians and intellectuals along the way. It also harbours a very dynamic associative life, with its numerous sports and cultural sections, as well as a number of other autonomous organizations. It is an important structure of extracurricular formation of the University of Coimbra's students and a major institution of the city itself. The AAC develops activities such as theatre, cinema, radio and television broadcast, music, choral singing, journalism or philately, as well as rowing, athletics and many other sports. Every student, and occasionally some non-students, are entitled to belong to these sections.", "The university's academic traditions and institutions color the life of the city. The old \"Republics\" (autonomous students' residences) remain, as well as some traditional festivities, most notably the \"Queima das Fitas\" (a celebration of graduation's end, symbolized by the burning of the ribbons with the colors of each of the eight faculties), the \"Festa das Latas\" (a homecoming), the frequent use of traditional attire, the \"Fado de Coimbra\" (Coimbra's fado, now sung in organized shows rather than the traditional street serenades), and the academic ceremonies (namely the conferring of doctorate degrees). The official colors of the Faculties of the University of Coimbra are: These colors are used in the institutional seal and other symbols of each faculty, in the university ceremonies conferring doctorate degrees, and are also used by the students in their ribbons related with the academic traditions (see Queima das Fitas \"(The Burning of the Ribbons)\"). The color of the university seal and of the Rector's office, representing the entire institution as a whole, is dark green. The flag of the University of Coimbra (white flag with the dark green seal in the middle) is always erected, over the top of the old university tower, on 1 March, which is the day of the university, being an occasion for a week of debates, conferences, workshops, and special events related with multiple aspects of the institution. The Praxe is a body of ritual and custom founded upon ancient traditions and it is a controversial part of Coimbra's academic life to which no university student is indifferent. Part of the attraction of Coimbra's academic life, aside from its recognized excellence is that it is more \"Praxe\", having unique rituals that set it apart from other institutions and give its students a special sense of participation in academic rituals that developed hundreds of years ago. Though these rituals are seen as crude and violent by some, they remain an important reference in the academic experience of the students for others. The rules of the \"Praxe\" are contained in a book (The Code of Academic Praxe, by a committee of older students of the AAC – Associação Académica de Coimbra), which prescribes appropriate student behavior for activities like drafting, evaluation, groups or bands and the Burning of the Ribbons rituals. Even inside the AAC, Coimbra's student organisation, there are \"anti-Praxe\" groups and people who advocate for more thorough reforms in traditional rituals. The Freshman (1st yr.) period (the lowest category in the \"Praxe\" hierarchy) is, for many students, a time of good and lasting memories of never to be repeated events. One of the most visible and distinctive traditions is the use of the academic costume of the University of Coimbra, a black suit and cape worn on special occasions by the students, which was adopted by other Portuguese universities and is actually used by students of almost all higher education institutions in the city and across the country. Praxis almost disappeared in the years after the 25 de Abril revolution of 1974. Timidly it was reinstated in the 1980s. However the significance of the traditional academic attire changed substantially. In earlier centuries it was common practice for a student to wear if for the length of his studies. Students occasionally slept in it when consumption of wine frustrated their efforts to reach home. The cape would get to the end of studies, heavily cut by friends and particularly with a deep cut for each girlfriend. Today the academic attire is a ceremonial dress to use in formal students ceremonial. It is also somewhat expensive, and not the practical dress of time past. A student who had been enrolled more than the years of his course was a \"veteran\". In the past, when University enrollment was a matter of social class, some students would accumulate quite a number of enrollments. The individual who had the most was Dux Veteranorum, a notable figure in the student scene at the University. In the middle 1980s for instance, the Dux Veteranorum had more than 20 enrollments in Law School but had graduated in only 2 or 3 courses. This tradition is disappearing as the University is putting constraints in the number of years a student can enroll. Most student costs are supported with public money and it is no longer found acceptable that some individuals burden finances to extend their stays without graduating. However, with the increasing tuition fees a student has to pay to attend the university and the attraction of new types of mature students (almost always as part-time or evening class students) like employees, businessmen, parents, and pensioners, many departments make a substantial profit from every additional student enrolled in courses, with benefits for the university's gross tuition revenue and without loss of educational quality (teacher per student, computer per student, classroom size per student, etc.). The sports sections of the AAC play a significant role in Coimbra's sport life, often being the city's main representative in that area. They include rugby, handball, basketball, baseball, martial arts, athletics, gymnastic or swimming, among others. Just as with the cultural sections, every student, including professional or semi-professional athletes, may belong to them. The city's main football club, usually known as \"Académica\" or \"Briosa\", is in formal terms an autonomous organism of the AAC and is called AAC-OAF, but in practical terms it is an independent club, only loosely connected to its mother institution. It is a relatively important team, especially as regards to its huge number of followers nationwide, and plays in the top Portuguese football leagues, having been the first winner in history of the Portuguese Football Cup, in 1939.", "In Portugal, the homecoming is known as \"Recepção ao Caloiro\" (The Freshman's Reception). It includes numerous events and traditions born in the 19th century in the University of Coimbra. It is defined as a welcome to the new students, the freshmen (\"caloiros\"), and takes place at the beginning of the academic year in Portuguese university towns. In every classic public university of Portugal the homecoming is celebrated yearly. The events are followed in varying degrees by other less traditional or smaller institutions. A street parade of students, concerts, and sports events are always organized for the freshmen's reception. The street parade organized in several major Portuguese universities is known as \"Latada\", and its name comes from the tradition of tying tin cans to the freshmen's legs (the word \"lata\" is tin can in Portuguese).", "\"The Freshman's Reception\" (\"Recepção ao Caloiro\", the Portuguese name for university homecoming) goes back to the 19th century when the law students of the University of Coimbra felt the need to express their joy at finishing the school year in as loud a way as possible, using everything at their disposal that would make noise, namely tin cans, which is the original root of \"The Tin Can Parade\".", "In Coimbra, where the oldest Portuguese university was founded in the Middle Ages, the \"Recepção ao Caloiro\" (The Freshman's Reception) week, includes the \"Festa das Latas\" (The Tin Can Festival). The Tin Can Festival's name comes from the tradition of tying tin cans to the freshmen's legs for the parade (The Tin Can Parade) which is known as \"Latada\". The events are organized by the students' union of the University of Coimbra, the Associação Académica de Coimbra, and takes place during the fall. It is an important part of the \"praxe académica\" (student praxis) in Coimbra, followed by the city population as an ancient cultural manifestation and local tradition, and has become a tourist attraction for a number of visitors every year.", "The highlight of this homecoming, which now takes place at the beginning of the academic year (October/November) is the special parade known as the Latada. After marching through the streets of the city the new students are baptized in the Mondego River thus entering into the Coimbra academic fraternity. The second-year students are awarded their Grelos (a small ribbon). The Grelo is a small, woollen ribbon with the color(s) of the student's faculty, that is attached to a student's briefcase. Before this, the students must have visited the Dom Pedro V market during the morning, where they must get a turnip to sustain the Caloiros during the day's festivities. Besides the tin cans they have tied to their legs, the new students wear all kinds of costumes made up according to the creativity and imagination of their godmothers or godfathers, who are older students. They also carry placards with ironic criticisms alluding to certain teachers, the educational system, national events and leaders. The homecoming includes the \"Tin Can Festival\" week, with concerts and several other cultural events and sports activities beyond the parade, which always happens on a Tuesday. These include the historical night-time student fado serenade which happens in the stairs of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra to a crowd of thousands of students and other spectators, every year during the celebrations.", "Coimbra's \"Queima das Fitas\" (Burning of the Ribbons), the oldest and most famous in the country, is organized by a students' commission formed by members of the students' union of the University of Coimbra, the Associação Académica de Coimbra. Celebrating the end of graduation courses, symbolized by the ritual burning of the ribbons representing each faculty, it takes place at the second semester (first weekend of May), being among the biggest student festivities in Europe. It lasts for 8 days, one for each Faculty: Letters, Law, Medicine, Sciences & Technology, Pharmacy, Economics, Psychology & Education Sciences and Sports Sciences & Physical Education. During this period, a series of concerts and performances are held, turning Coimbra in a lively and vibrant city.", "Stories passed along over generations of students, the University folklore is plentiful. One student usually asked his father for money, stating \"Rent 20, Food 30\". One day he asked \"Rent 20, Food 30, Hammering 20, Fixing of the hammer and medication 40.\" Another student had oral examinations at Law School. Unresponsive to the simplest of questions, the professor already impatient, turned to the bailiff and asked \"Bring in a stack of hay\" to which the student very quickly added \"And I'll have a glass of water please.\" The years of dictatorship were gruesome. Apart from the students that got 7 years in prison for toasting to freedom which led directly to the foundation of Amnesty International in 1961, in 1968 students would spend the whole night greasing streets and sidewalks with soap so the mounted police would have a hard time chasing them down to break a demonstration. It is said that a student dared a policeman to get his shoes and feet wet chasing after a cigarette lighter, thrown in the duck pond, while he had the license for it in his pocket. In those days one needed a permit to own a cigarette lighter, as imposed by Salazar to protect the matches industry. Other items are plain local knowledge: Freshmen on first day of classes may have rough stuff to go through. In the escalator of the Mathematics Department it is common to see them buying season tickets to take the ride all year round, and at least once, as urban myth has it, a poster announcing \"Flight Insurance For This Elevator, At Sale in The Lobby\", was inquired about by the newcomers.", "The \"Instituto Pedro Nunes\" (IPN), founded by the University of Coimbra, is a business incubator and an innovation and technology transfer center of the university, working for the business and applied research communities. The Coimbra iParque is a science park which has among its several founders and associates the University of Coimbra. Notable startup companies born from the University of Coimbra include ISA, Critical Software, Crioestaminal, Ciberbit and Feedzai.", "", "University of Coimbra's reputation in teaching and research is testified by independent external rankings and reports. According to The Times Higher Education Supplement (2007 QS World University Rankings, by QS – Quacquarelli Symonds), the University of Coimbra is ranked number 3 among the universities in the Portuguese-speaking countries (behind the University of São Paulo and the University of Campinas), and ranked 318 in the overall world rank. It was ranked number one among the universities of the Portuguese-speaking countries in 2006. It is now ranked number one in Portugal, number 3 among the universities in the Portuguese-speaking countries, and number 394 in the world (234 in Natural Sciences, 260 in Engineering & IT, 282 in Social Sciences, 290 in Arts & Humanities, 325 in Life Sciences). In addition, it has students from 70 different nationalities; almost 10% of its students are foreigners, being among Portugal's most international universities. The University of Coimbra is among the major science and technology hubs for applied and fundamental research in Portugal. One of the most powerful supercomputers in Portugal belongs to the University of Coimbra and is managed by the Laboratory for Advanced Computing of the Department of Physics at the University of Coimbra. Built in the mid 2000s, the supercomputer was called \"Milipeia\", using 528 processors and 1000 GB of memory. Its capacity has been expanded since then. The main tasks of the university's supercomputer include modeling and calculus in molecular biology, genetics, particle physics, astrophysics, mathematics, engineering, geophysics, condensed matter physics, etc. Besides University of Coimbra's researchers, other Portuguese scientific community members are allowed to work with \"Milipeia\".", "School year calendar starts in October and finishes in July. In 2004, it was among the first universities in Portugal limiting the time for degree completion. The degree programmes have a specified minimum and maximum time for completion. The time limit is 6 years from the date of first enrolment for the 4 years degrees, and 8 years from the date of first enrolment for 6 years degrees (i.e. Medicine). After that, students have to pay the entire costs of their courses. The tuition fee for undergraduate degrees was €356/year in 2002/2003. It was increased to €880/year in 2004/2005 and to €901,23/year in 2005/2006, the maximum fee allowed to state universities by law. Even with the time limit and the increased tuition fees, the university has had a high number of applicants every year. Like other universities in Portugal, and unlike the polytechnical institutes and many private universities, the university does not have special classes for workers or night classes. Overcrowded classrooms have been frequent in some disciplines at the Faculties of Science and Technology, Law, and Economics. In those occasions, students may stand during the classes or even stay outside the classroom. These faculties have the highest abandon rate and the biggest average time for degree completion. New buildings, campus expansion and modernized infrastructures since the late 1990s and the 2000s, have solved almost all these problems.", "Admission is strictly merit-based, and the university has several departments which are known for higher-than-average selectiveness. Numerus clausus is applied to select among competing applicants. To programmes such as medicine, pharmacy, biomedical engineering, and architecture, admission is an extraordinarily difficult process, and demand a minimum grade point average from high school plus the entrance exams, that usually ranges from 170 to 200 (out of 200). Acceptance rates may vary significantly from faculty to faculty or from department to department. Foreign applicants usually make up more than 10 percent of the applicant pool, and are considered individually by the merits achieved in their respective state of origin or through bilateral protocols between the governments of Portugal and foreign governments. There are also a number of other extraordinary admission processes for older people (admission for candidates older than 23 years old), sportsmen, degree owners from other institutions, students from other institutions (academic transfer), former students (readmission), etc., which are subject to specific standards and regulations set by each department or faculty.", "Many Portuguese historical figures and renowned personalities noted for their activity in fields ranging from politics to culture to the sciences, attended the University of Coimbra as students or lecturers. The long list of personalities includes Luís Vaz de Camões, considered Portugal's greatest poet, the only Portuguese Nobel Prize in Medicine Egas Moniz, Portuguese dictator António de Oliveira Salazar who was the founder and leader of the regime that presided over the last period of the Portuguese Empire from 1933 to 1974, Aristides de Sousa Mendes, consul-general in Bordeaux, who in June 1940 defied Salazar’s regime to issue tens of thousands of visas to fleeing Jewish and other refugees, subsequently stripped of his position and 12 years after his death recognized by Israel as one of the Righteous Among the Nations, the first diplomat honored, or famous 16th century mathematicians like Pedro Nunes, who is considered one of the greatest Portuguese mathematicians ever, and the German Christopher Clavius, who was the main architect of the modern Gregorian calendar.", "The university is organized into 8 faculties and each faculty into departments:", "Research and Studies centers of the University of Coimbra include:", "In chapter 6 of Voltaire's novella \"Candide\", the narrator remarks that the University of Coimbra had decided that \"the burning of a few people alive by a slow fire, and with great ceremony, is an infallible secret to hinder the earth from quaking.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and education.", "Marriage and early career.", "Civil War.", "Post-war career.", "Indiana politics.", "U.S. Senator from Indiana.", "Election of 1888.", "Nomination.", "Election over Cleveland.", "Presidency 1889–1893.", "Inauguration and cabinet.", "Civil service reform and pensions.", "Tariff.", "Antitrust laws and the currency.", "Civil rights.", "National forests.", "Native American policy.", "Technology and naval modernization.", "Foreign policy.", "Latin America and Samoa.", "European embargo of U.S. pork.", "Crises in Aleutian Islands and Chile.", "Annexation of Hawaii.", "Judicial appointments.", "States admitted to the Union.", "Vacations and travel.", "Reelection campaign in 1892.", "Post-presidency and death.", "Historical reputation and memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Harrison was born on August 20, 1833, in North Bend, Ohio, the second of Elizabeth Ramsey (Irwin) and John Scott Harrison's ten children. His paternal ancestors were the Harrison family of Virginia, whose immigrant ancestor, Benjamin Harrison, arrived in Jamestown, Virginia, circa 1630 from England. Harrison was of entirely English ancestry, all of his ancestors having emigrated to America during the early colonial period. Harrison was a grandson of U.S. President William Henry Harrison and a great-grandson of Benjamin Harrison V, a Virginia planter who signed the Declaration of Independence and succeeded Thomas Nelson, Jr. as governor of Virginia. Harrison was seven years old when his grandfather was elected U.S. president, but he did not attend the inauguration. His family was distinguished, but his parents were not wealthy. John Scott Harrison, a two-term U.S. congressman", "After his college graduation in 1852, Harrison studied law with Judge Bellamy Storer of Cincinnati, but before he completed his studies, he returned to Oxford, Ohio, to marry Caroline Scott on October 20, 1853. Caroline's father, a Presbyterian minister, performed the ceremony. The Harrisons had two children, Russell Benjamin Harrison (August 12, 1854 – December 13, 1936) and Mary \"Mamie\" Scott Harrison (April 3, 1858 – October 28, 1930). Harrison and his wife returned to live at The Point, his father's farm in southwestern Ohio, while he finished his law studies. Harrison was admitted to the Ohio bar in early 1854, the same year he sold property that he had inherited after the death of an aunt for $800 (), and used the funds to move with Caroline to Indianapolis, Indiana. Harrison began practicing law in the office of John H. Ray in", "In 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued a call for more recruits for the Union Army; Harrison wanted to enlist, but worried about how to support his young family. While visiting Governor Oliver Morton, Harrison found him distressed over the shortage of men answering the latest call. Harrison told the governor, \"If I can be of any service, I will go.\" Morton asked Harrison if he could help recruit a regiment, although he would not ask him to serve. Harrison recruited throughout northern Indiana to raise a regiment. Morton offered him the command, but Harrison declined, as he had no military experience. He was initially commissioned as a captain and company commander on July 22, 1862. Morton commissioned Harrison as a colonel on August", "", "While serving in the Union Army in October 1864, Harrison was once again elected reporter of the Indiana Supreme Court, although he did not seek the position, and served as the Court's reporter for four more years. The position was not a politically powerful one, but it provided Harrison with a steady income for his work preparing and publishing court opinions, which he sold to the legal profession. Harrison also resumed his law practice in Indianapolis. He became a skilled", "After Harrison led Indiana's Republican delegation at the 1880 Republican National Convention, he was considered the state's presumptive candidate for the U.S. Senate. He gave speeches in favor of Garfield in Indiana and New York, further raising his profile in the party. When the Republicans retook the majority in the state legislature, Harrison's election to a six-year term in the U.S. Senate was threatened by Judge Walter Q. Gresham, his intraparty rival, but Harrison was ultimately chosen. After Garfield's election as president in 1880, his administration offered Harrison a cabinet position, but Harrison declined in favor of continuing his service in the U.S. Senate. Harrison served in the Senate from March 4, 1881, to March 3, 1887, and chaired the U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard (47th Congress) and the U.S. Senate Committee on Territories (48th and 49th Congresses). In 1881, the major issue confronting Senator Harrison was the budget surplus. Democrats wanted to reduce the tariff and limit the amount", "", "The initial favorite for the Republican nomination was the previous nominee, James G. Blaine of Maine. After Blaine wrote several letters denying any interest in the nomination, his supporters divided among other candidates, with John Sherman of Ohio as the leader among them. Others, including Chauncey Depew of New York, Russell Alger of Michigan, and Harrison's old nemesis Walter Q. Gresham, now a federal appellate court judge in Chicago, also sought the delegates' support at the 1888 Republican National", "Harrison's opponent in the general election was incumbent President Grover Cleveland. Harrison reprised a more traditional front-porch campaign, abandoned by his immediate predecessors; he received visiting delegations to Indianapolis and made over 90 pronouncements from his hometown. The Republicans campaigned heavily in favor of protective tariffs, turning out protectionist voters in the important industrial states of the North. The election focused on the swing states of New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, and Harrison's home state of Indiana. Harrison and Cleveland split the four, with Harrison winning New York and Indiana. Voter turnout was 79.3%, reflecting large interest in the campaign; nearly eleven million votes were cast. Harrison received 90,000 fewer popular votes than Cleveland, but carried the Electoral College 233 to 168.", "", "Harrison was sworn into office on Monday, March 4, 1889, by Chief Justice Melville Fuller. His speech was brief—half as long as that of his grandfather, William Henry Harrison, whose speech remains the longest inaugural address of a U.S. president. In his speech, Benjamin Harrison credited the nation's growth to the influences of education and religion, urged the cotton states and mining territories to attain the industrial proportions of the eastern states and promised a protective tariff. Of commerce, he said, \"If our great", "Civil service reform was a prominent issue following Harrison's election. Harrison had campaigned as a supporter of the merit system, as opposed to the spoils system. Although some of the civil service had been classified under the Pendleton Act by previous administrations, Harrison spent much of his first months in office deciding on political appointments. Congress was widely divided on the issue and Harrison was reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of either side. The issue became a political football of the time and was immortalized in a cartoon captioned \"What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?\" Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt and Hugh Smith Thompson, both reformers, to the Civil Service Commission, but otherwise did little to further the reform cause. Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act in 1890, a cause he had championed while in Congress. In addition to", "The tariff levels had been a major political issue since before the Civil War, and they became the most dominant matter of the 1888 election. The high tariff rates had created a surplus of money in the Treasury, which led many Democrats (as well as the growing Populist movement) to call for lowering them. Most Republicans preferred to maintain the rates, spend the surplus on internal improvements and eliminate some internal taxes. Representative William McKinley and Senator", "Members of both parties were concerned with the growth of the power of trusts and monopolies, and one of the first acts of the 51st Congress was to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act, sponsored by Senator John Sherman of Ohio. The Act passed by wide margins in both houses, and Harrison signed it into law. The Sherman Act was the first Federal act of its kind, and marked a new use of federal government power. While Harrison approved of the law and its intent, his administration was not particularly vigorous in enforcing it. However, the government successfully concluded a case during Harrison's time in office (against a Tennessee coal company), and had initiated several other cases against trusts. One of the most volatile questions of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone. The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining", "After regaining the majority in both Houses of Congress, some Republicans, led by Harrison, attempted to pass legislation to protect black Americans' civil rights. Harrison's Attorney General, William H. H. Miller, through the Justice Department, ordered the prosecutions for violation of voting rights in the South; however, white juries often failed to convict or indict violators. This prompted Harrison to urge Congress to pass legislation that would \"secure all our people a free exercise of the right of suffrage and every other civil right under the Constitution and laws\". Harrison endorsed the proposed Federal Elections Bill written by Representative Henry Cabot Lodge and Senator George Frisbie Hoar in 1890, but the bill was defeated in the Senate. Following the failure to pass the bill, Harrison continued to speak in favor of African American civil rights in addresses to Congress. Most notably, on December 3, 1889, Harrison had gone before Congress and stated: The colored", "In March 1891 Congress enacted, and Harrison signed, the Land Revision Act of 1891. This legislation resulted from a bipartisan desire to initiate reclamation of surplus lands that had been, up to that point, granted from the public domain, for potential settlement or use by railroad syndicates. As the law's drafting was finalized, Section 24 was added at the behest of Harrison by his Secretary of the Interior John Noble, which read as follows: That the President of the United States may, from", "During Harrison's administration, the Lakota Sioux, previously confined to reservations in South Dakota, grew restive under the influence of Wovoka, a medicine man, who encouraged them to participate in a spiritual movement called the Ghost Dance. Many in Washington did not understand the predominantly religious nature of the Ghost Dance, and thought it was a militant movement being used to rally Native Americans against the government. On December 29, 1890, troops from the Seventh Cavalry clashed with the Sioux at Wounded Knee. The result was", "During Harrison's time in office, the United States was continuing to experience advances in science and technology. Harrison was the earliest president whose voice is known to be preserved. That was originally made on a wax phonograph cylinder in 1889 by Gianni Bettini. Harrison also had electricity installed in the White House for the first time by Edison General Electric Company, but he and his wife would not touch the light switches for fear of electrocution and would often go to sleep with the lights on. Over the", "", "Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine were often not the most cordial of friends, but harmonized in an aggressive foreign policy and commercial reciprocity with other nations. Blaine's persistent medical problems warranted more of a hands-on effort by Harrison in the conduct of foreign policy. In San Francisco, while on tour of the United States in 1891, Harrison proclaimed that the United States was in a \"new epoch\" of trade and that the expanding navy would protect oceanic shipping and increase American influence and prestige abroad. The First International Conference of American States met in Washington in 1889; Harrison set an aggressive agenda including customs and currency integration and named a bipartisan delegation to the conference, led by John B. Henderson and Andrew Carnegie. The conference failed to achieve", "Throughout the 1880s various European countries had imposed a ban on importation of United States pork out of an unconfirmed concern of trichinosis; at issue was over one billion pounds of pork products with a value of $80 million annually (equivalent to $ billion in ). Harrison engaged Whitelaw Reid, minister to", "The first international crisis Harrison faced arose from disputed fishing rights on the Alaskan coast. Canada claimed fishing and sealing rights around many of the Aleutian Islands, in violation of U.S. law. As a result, the United States Navy seized several Canadian ships. In 1891, the administration began negotiations with the British that would eventually lead to a compromise over fishing rights after international arbitration, with the British government paying compensation in 1898. In 1891, a diplomatic crisis emerged in Chile, otherwise known as the \"Baltimore\" Crisis. The American minister to Chile, Patrick Egan, granted asylum to Chileans who were seeking refuge during the 1891 Chilean Civil War. Egan, previously a militant Irish immigrant to the U.S., was motivated by a personal desire to thwart Great Britain's influence in Chile; his action increased tensions between Chile and the United States, which began in the early 1880s when Secretary Blaine had alienated the Chileans in the War of the", "In the last days of his administration, Harrison dealt with the issue of Hawaiian annexation. Following a coup d'état against Queen Liliuokalani, the new government of Hawaii led by Sanford Dole petitioned for annexation by the United States. Harrison was interested in expanding American influence in Hawaii and in establishing a naval base at Pearl Harbor but had not previously expressed an opinion on annexing the islands. The United States consul in Hawaii, John L. Stevens, recognized the new government on February 1, 1893, and forwarded their proposals to Washington. With just one month left before leaving office, the administration signed a treaty on February 14 and submitted it to the Senate the next day with Harrison's recommendation. The Senate failed to act, and President Cleveland withdrew the treaty shortly after taking office.", "Harrison appointed four justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first was David Josiah Brewer, a judge on the Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit. Brewer, the nephew of Justice Field, had previously been considered for a cabinet position. Shortly after Brewer's nomination, Justice Matthews died, creating another vacancy. Harrison had considered Henry Billings Brown, a Michigan judge and admiralty law expert, for the first vacancy and now nominated him for the second. For the third vacancy, which arose in 1892, Harrison nominated George Shiras. Shiras's appointment was", "Six new states were admitted to the Union while", "Harrison attended a grand, three-day centennial celebration of George Washington's inauguration in New York City on April 30, 1889, and made the following remarks \"We have come into the serious but always inspiring presence of Washington. He was the incarnation of duty and he teaches us today this great lesson: that those who would associate their names with events that shall outlive a century can only do so by high consecration to duty. Self-seeking has no public observance or anniversary.\" The Harrisons made many trips out of the capital, which included speeches at most stops – including Philadelphia, New England,", "The treasury surplus had evaporated and the nation's economic health was worsening – precursors to the eventual Panic of 1893. Congressional elections in 1890 had gone against the Republicans; and although Harrison had cooperated with Congressional Republicans on legislation, several party leaders withdrew their support for him because of his adamant refusal to give party members the nod in the course of his executive appointments. Specifically, Thomas C. Platt, Matthew S. Quay, Thomas B. Reed and James Clarkson quietly organized the Grievance Committee, the ambition of which was to initiate a dump-Harrison offensive. They solicited the support of Blaine, without effect however, and Harrison in reaction resolved to run for re-election – seemingly forced to choose one of two options – \"become a candidate or forever wear the name of a political coward\". It was clear that Harrison would not be re-nominated unanimously. Many of Harrison's detractors persisted in pushing for an incapacitated Blaine, though he announced that he was not a candidate in February 1892. Some party", "After he left office, Harrison visited the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in June 1893. After the Expo, Harrison returned to his home in Indianapolis. Harrison had been elected a companion of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States in 1882, and was elected as commander (president) of the Ohio Commandery on May 3, 1893. For a few months in 1894, Harrison lived in San Francisco, California, where he gave law lectures at Stanford University. In 1896, some of Harrison's friends in the Republican party tried to convince him to seek the presidency again, but he declined. He traveled around the nation making appearances and speeches in support of William McKinley's candidacy for president. From July 1895 to March 1901 Harrison served on the Board of Trustees of Purdue University, where Harrison Hall, a dormitory, was named in his honor. He wrote a series of articles about the federal government and the presidency which were republished in 1897 as a book titled \"This Country of Ours\". In 1896,", "Historian Charles Calhoun gives Harrison major credit for innovative legislation in antitrust, monetary policy and tariffs. Historians have often given Secretary of State Blaine credit for foreign-policy initiatives. However, Calhoun argues that Harrison was even more responsible for the success of trade negotiations, the buildup of the steel Navy, overseas expansion, and emphasis on the American role in dominating the hemisphere through the Monroe Doctrine. The major weakness which Calhoun sees was that the public and indeed the grassroots Republican Party was not fully prepared for this onslaught of major activity. The Democrats scored a sweeping landslide in 1890 by attacking the flagship legislation, especially the McKinley tariff, because it would raise the cost of living of the average American family. McKinley himself was defeated for reelection. According to historian R. Hal Williams, Harrison had a \"widespread reputation for personal and official integrity\". Closely scrutinized by Democrats, Harrison's reputation was largely intact when he left the White House. Having an advantage few 19th-century presidents had, Harrison's own party, the Republicans, controlled Congress, while his administration actively advanced a Republican program of a higher tariff, moderate control of corporations, protecting African American voting rights, a generous Civil War pension, and compromising over the controversial silver issue. Historians have not raised \"serious questions about Harrison's own integrity or the integrity of his administration\". Following the Panic of 1893, Harrison became more popular in retirement. His legacy among historians is scant, and \"general accounts of his period inaccurately treat Harrison as a cipher\". More recently, historians have recognized the importance of the Harrison administration—and Harrison himself—in the new foreign policy of the late nineteenth century. The administration faced challenges throughout the hemisphere, in the Pacific, and in relations with the European powers, involvements that would be taken for granted in the twenty first century. Harrison's presidency belongs properly to the 19th century, but he \"clearly pointed the way\" to the modern presidency that would emerge under William McKinley. The bi-partisan Sherman Anti-Trust Act signed into law by Harrison remains in effect over 120 years later and was the most important legislation passed by the Fifty-first Congress. Harrison's support for African American voting rights and education would be the last significant attempts to protect civil rights until the 1930s. Harrison's tenacity at foreign policy was emulated by politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt. Harrison was memorialized on several postage stamps. The first was a 13-cent stamp issued on November 18, 1902, with the engraved likeness of Harrison modeled after a photo provided by his widow. In all Harrison has been honored on six U.S. Postage stamps, more than most other U.S. Presidents. Harrison also was featured on the five-dollar National Bank Notes from the third charter period, beginning in 1902. In 2012, a dollar coin with his image, part of the Presidential $1 Coin Program, was issued. In 1908, the people of Indianapolis erected the Benjamin Harrison memorial statue, created by Charles Niehaus and Henry Bacon, in honor of Harrison's lifetime achievements as military leader, U.S. Senator, and President of the United States. The statue occupies a site on the south edge of University Park, facing the Birch Bayh Federal Building and United States Courthouse across New York Avenue. In 1951, Harrison's home was opened to the public as a library and museum. It had been used as a dormitory for a music school from 1937 to 1950. The house was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1964. Theodore Roosevelt dedicated Fort Benjamin Harrison in the former president's honor in 1906. It is located in Lawrence, Indiana, a northeastern suburb of Indianapolis. The federal government decommissioned Fort Harrison in 1991 and transferred 1,700 of its 2,500 acres to Indiana's state government in 1995 to establish Fort Harrison State Park. The site has been redeveloped to include residential neighborhoods and a golf course. In 1966, Purdue University opened Harrison Hall, an 8 floor, 400 room residence hall. Harrison served as a Purdue University Trustee for the final six years of his life." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Founding the university.", "Golden age of the Renaissance.", "Decline and near closure after the partitions.", "Modern era.", "International partnerships.", "Libraries.", "Faculties and departments.", "Enrollment.", "Student associations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the mid-14th century, King Casimir III the Great realised that the nation needed a class of educated people, especially lawyers, who could codify the country's laws and administer the courts and offices. His efforts to found an institution of higher learning in Poland were rewarded when Pope Urban V granted him permission to set up a university in Kraków. A royal charter of foundation was issued on 12 May 1364, and a simultaneous document was issued by the City Council granting privileges to the \"Studium Generale\". The King provided funding for one chair in liberal arts, two in Medicine, three in Canon Law and five in Roman Law, funded by a quarterly payment taken from the proceeds of the royal monopoly on the salt mines at Wieliczka. Development of the University of Kraków stalled upon the death of King Casimir, its founder, and lectures were held in various places across the city, including, amongst others, in professors' houses, churches and in the cathedral school on the Wawel Hill. It is believed that, in all likelihood, the construction of a building to house the \"Studium Generale\" began on Plac Wolnica in what is today the district of Kazimierz. After a period of disinterest and lack of funds, the institution was restored in the 1390s by King Władysław II Jagiełło and his wife Saint Hedwig, the daughter of King Louis of Hungary and Poland. The royal couple decided that, instead of building new premises for the university, it would be better to buy an existing edifice; it was thus that a building on Żydowska Street, which had previously been the property of the Pęcherz family, was found and acquired in 1399. The Queen donated all of her personal jewelry to the university, allowing it to enroll 203 students. The faculties of astronomy, law and theology attracted eminent scholars: for example, John Cantius, Stanisław of Skarbimierz, Paweł Włodkowic, Jan of Głogów, and Albert Brudzewski, who from 1491 to 1495 was one of Nicolaus Copernicus' teachers. The university was the first university in Europe to establish independent chairs in Mathematics and Astronomy. This rapid expansion in the university's faculty necessitated the purchase of larger premises in which to house them; it was thus that the building known today as the \"Collegium Maius\", with its quadrangle and beautiful arcade, came into being towards the beginning of the 15th century. The \"Collegium Maius\"' qualities, many of which directly contributed to the sheltered, academic atmosphere at the university, became widely respected, helping the university establish its reputation as a place of learning in Central Europe.", "For several centuries, virtually the entire intellectual elite of Poland were educated at the university, where they enjoyed particular royal favour, often being provided with game from the royal hunt to satisfy their needs at mealtime. Whilst it was, and largely remains, Polish students who make up the greater part of the university's student body, it has, over its long history, educated thousands of foreign students from countries such as Lithuania, Russia, Hungary, Bohemia, Germany, and Spain. During the second half of the 15th century, over 40 percent of students came from outside the Kingdom of Poland. The first chancellor of the University was Piotr Wysz, and the first professors were Czechs, Germans and Poles, many of them trained at the Charles University in Prague in Bohemia. By 1520 Greek philology was introduced by Constanzo Claretti and Wenzel von Hirschberg; Hebrew was also taught. At this time, the \"Collegium Maius\" comprised seven reading rooms, six of which were named for the great ancient scholars: Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Galen, Ptolemy, and Pythagoras. Furthermore, it was during this period that the faculties of Law, Medicine, Theology, and Philosophy were established in their own premises; two of these buildings, the \"Collegium Iuridicum\" and \"Collegium Minus\", survive to this day. The golden era of the University of Kraków took place during the Polish Renaissance, between 1500 and 1535, when it was attended by 3,215 students in the first decade of the 16th century, and it was in these early years that the foundations for the Jagiellonian Library were set, with the addition of a library floor to the \"Collegium Maius\". The library's original rooms, in which all books were chained to their cases in order to prevent theft, are no longer used as such. However, they are still occasionally opened to host visiting lecturers' talks. As the university's popularity, along with that of the ever more provincial Kraków's, declined in later centuries, the number of students attending the university also fell and, as such, the attendance record set in the early 16th century was not again surpassed until the late 18th century. This phenomenon was recorded as part of a more general economic and political decline seen in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was suffering from the effects of poor governance and the policies of hostile neighbors at the time. In fact, despite a number of expansion projects during the late 18th century, many of the university's buildings had fallen into disrepair and were being used for a range of other purposes; in the university's archives there is one entry which reads: 'Nobody lives in the building, nothing happens there. If the lecture halls underwent refurbishment they could be rented out to accommodate a laundry'. This period thus represents one of the darkest periods in the university's history and is almost certainly the one during which the closure of the institution seemed most imminent.", "After the third partition of Poland in 1795 and the ensuing Napoleonic Wars, Kraków became a free city under the protection of the Austrian Empire; this, however, was not to last long. In 1846, after the Kraków Uprising, the city and its university became part of the Austrian Empire. The Austrians were in many ways hostile to the institution and, soon after their arrival, removed many of the furnishings from the \"Collegium Maius\"' \"Auditorium Maximum\" in order to convert it into a grain store. However, the threat of closure of the University was ultimately dissipated by \"Kaiser\" Ferdinand I of Austria's decree to maintain it. By the 1870s the fortunes of the university had improved so greatly that many scholars had returned. The liquefaction of nitrogen and oxygen was successfully demonstrated by professors Zygmunt Wróblewski and Karol Olszewski in 1883. Thereafter the Austrian authorities took on a new role in the development of the university and provided funds for the construction of a number of new buildings, including the neo-gothic \"Collegium Novum\", which opened in 1887. It was, conversely, from this building that in 1918 a large painting of \"Kaiser\" Franz Joseph was removed and destroyed by Polish students advocating the reestablishment of an independent Polish state. For the 500th anniversary of the university's foundation, a monument to Copernicus was placed in the quadrangle of the \"Collegium Maius\"; this statue is now to be found in the direct vicinity of the \"Collegium Novum\", outside the \"Collegium Witkowskiego\", to where it was moved in 1953. Nevertheless, it was in the Grzegórzecka and the Kopernika areas that much of the university's expansion took place up to 1918; during this time the \"Collegium Medicum\" was relocated to a site just east of the centre, and was expanded with the addition of a number of modern teaching hospitals – this'medical campus' remains to this day. By the late 1930s the number of students at the university had increased dramatically to almost six thousand. Now a major centre for education in the independent Republic of Poland, the university attained government support for the purchase of building plots for new premises, as a result of which a number of residencies were built for students and professors alike. However, of all the projects begun during this era, the most important would have to be the creation of the Jagiellonian Library. The library's monumental building, construction of which began in 1931, was finally completed towards the end of the interwar period, which allowed the university's many varied literary collections to be relocated to their new home by the outbreak of war in 1939.", "On November 6, 1939, following the Nazi invasion of Poland, 184 professors were arrested and deported to Sachsenhausen concentration camp during an operation codenamed \"Sonderaktion Krakau\" (Special Operation Krakow). The university, along with the rest of Poland's higher and secondary education, was closed for the remainder of World War II. Despite the university's reopening after the cessation of hostilities in 1945, the new government of Poland was hostile to the teachings of the pre-war university and the faculty was suppressed by the Communists in 1954. By 1957 the Polish government decided that it would invest in the establishment of new facilities near Jordan Park and expansion of other smaller existing facilities. Construction work proved slow and many of the stated goals were never achieved; it was this poor management that eventually led a number of scholars to openly criticise the government for its apparent lack of interest in educational development and disregard for the university's future. A number of new buildings, such as the \"Collegium Biologicum\", were built with funds from the legacy of Ignacy Paderewski. By 1991 Poland had overthrown its Communist government. In that same year the Jagiellonian University successfully completed the purchase of its first building plot in Pychowice, Kraków, where, from 2000, construction of a new complex of university buildings, the so-called Third Campus, began. The new campus, officially named the '600th Anniversary Campus', was developed in conjunction with the new LifeScience Park, which is managed by the Jagiellonian Centre for Innovation, the university's research consortium. Public funds earmarked for the project amounted to 946.5 million zlotys, or 240 million euros. Poland's entry into the European Union in 2004 has proved instrumental in improving the fortunes of the Jagiellonian University, which has seen huge increases in funding from both central government and European authorities, allowing it to develop new departments, research centres, and better support the work of its students and academics.", "The Jagiellonian University maintains an academic partnership with Heidelberg University, Germany's oldest university. In particular, there are close ties between both Heidelberg's and Kraków's law schools. In conjunction with Heidelberg and Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, the Jagiellonian University offers specializations in German law. In the English-speaking world, the Jagiellonian University has international partnerships, among others, with the University of Cambridge, the University of Melbourne, the University of Chicago, and the University of California, Los Angeles. In the French-speaking world, partners include the Sorbonne, and the University of Montpellier. Other cooperation agreements exist with Charles University Prague, the University of Vienna, the University of Tokyo, Saint Petersburg State University, the Technical University of Munich, and the Free University of Berlin.", "The university's main library, the Jagiellonian Library (\"Biblioteka Jagiellońska\"), is one of Poland's largest, with almost 6.5 million volumes; it is a constituent of the Polish National Libraries system. It is home to a world-renowned collection of medieval manuscripts, which includes Copernicus' \"De Revolutionibus\", the \"Balthasar Behem Codex\" and the \"Berlinka.\" The library also has an extensive collection of underground political literature (so-called \"drugi obieg\" or \"samizdat\") from Poland's period of Communist rule between 1945 and 1989. The beginning of the Jagiellonian Library is traditionally considered the same as that of the entire university – in 1364; however, instead of having one central library it had several smaller branches at buildings of various departments (the largest collection was in \"Collegium Maius\", where works related to theology and liberal arts were kept). After 1775, during the reforms of Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, which established the first Ministry of Education in the world, various small libraries of the University were formally centralised into one public collection in \"Collegium Maius\". During the partitions of Poland, the library continued to grow thanks to the support of such people as Karol Józef Teofil Estreicher and Karol Estreicher. Its collections were made public in 1812. Since 1932, it has been recognised as a legal deposit library, comparable to the Bodleian Library at the University of Oxford or Cambridge University Library or Trinity College Library in Dublin, and thus has the right to receive a copy of any book issued by Polish publishers within Poland. In 1940, the library finally obtained a new building of its own, which has subsequently been expanded on two occasions, most recently in 1995–2001. During the Second World War, library workers cooperated with underground universities. Since the 1990s, the library's collection has become increasingly digitised. In addition to the Jagiellonian Library, the university maintains a large medical library (\"Biblioteka Medyczna\") and many other subject specialised libraries in its various faculties and institutes. Finally, the collections of the university libraries' collections are enriched by the presence of the university's archives, which date back to the university's own foundation and record the entire history of its development up to the present day.", "The university is divided into 15 faculties which have different organisational sub-structures which partly reflect their history and partly their operational needs. Teaching and research at UJ is organised by faculties, which may include a number of other institutions:", "As of 2008, the university has 52,445 students (including 1,612 degree students from abroad) and 3,657 academic staff. About 1,130 international non-degree students were enrolled in 2007. Programmes of study are offered in 48 disciplines and 93 specialisations. The university has an exchange programme with The Catholic University of America and its Columbus School of Law. It also hosts a \"semester-abroad\" programme with the University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point and the University of Guelph.", "In 1851, the university's first student scientific association was founded. Now, over 70 student scientific associations exist at the Jagiellonian University. Usually, their purpose is to promote students' scientific achievements by organizing lecture sessions, science excursions, and international student conferences, such as the International Workshop for Young Mathematicians, which is organized by the Zaremba Association of Mathematicians. The links below provide further information on student activities at the Jagiellonian:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Syntax.", "Key concepts.", "Vector decomposition.", "Covariant vector decomposition.", "Contravariant vector decomposition.", "Metric tensor.", "Jacobian.", "Gradient vector." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Tensor notation makes use of upper and lower indexes on objects that are used to label a variable object as covariant (lower index), contravariant (upper index), or mixed covariant and contravariant (having both upper and lower indexes). In fact in conventional math syntax we make use of covariant indexes when dealing with Cartesian coordinate systems formula_1 frequently without realizing this is a limited use of tensor syntax as covariant indexed components. Tensor notation allows upper index on an object that may be confused with normal power operations from conventional math syntax. For example, in normal math syntax, formula_2, however in tensor syntax a parenthesis should be used around an object before raising it to a power to disambiguate the use of a tensor index versus a normal power operation. In tensor syntax we would write, formula_3 and formula_4. The number in the inner parenthesis distinguishes the contravariant component where the outer parenthesis number distinguishes the power to raise the quantities to. Of course this is just an arbitrary equation, we could have specified that c is not a tensor and known that this particular variable does not need a parenthesis around it to take the quality c to a power of 2, however, if c were a vector, then it could be represented as a tensor and this tensor would need to be distinguished from normal math indexes that indicate raising a quantity to a power.", "", "Tensors notation allows a vector (formula_5) to be decomposed into an Einstein summation representing the inner dot product of a basis vector (formula_6 or formula_7) dotted with a component vector(formula_8 or formula_9). formula_10 Every vector has two different representations, one referred to as contravariant component (formula_9) with a covariant basis(formula_6), and the other as a covariant component(formula_8) with a contravariant basis(formula_7). (tensor objects with all upper indexes are referred to as contravariant, and tensor objects will all lower indexes are referred to as covariant.) The need to distinguish between contravariant and covariant arises from the fact that when we dot an arbitrary vector with its basis vector related to a particular coordinate system, there are two ways of interpreting this dot product, either we view it as the projection of the basis vector onto the arbitrary vector, or we view it as the projection of the arbitrary vector onto the basis vector, both views of the dot product are entirely equivalent, but have different component elements and different basis vectors: formula_15 For example, in physics you start with a vector field, you decompose it with respect to the covariant basis, and that's how you get the contravariant coordinates. For orthonormal cartesian coordinates, the covariant and contravariant basis are identical, since the basis set in this case is just the identity matrix, however, for non-affine coodinate system such as polar or spherical is a need to distinguish between decomposition by use of contravariant or covariant basis set for generating the components of the coordinate system.", "formula_16", "formula_17", "The metric tensor represents a matrix with scalar elements (formula_18 or formula_19) and is a tensor object which is used to raise or lower the index on another tensor object by an operation called contraction, thus allowing a covariant tensor to be converted to a contravariant tensor, and vice versa. Example of lowering index using metric tensor: formula_20 Example of raising index using metric tensor: formula_21 The metric tensor is defined as: formula_22 formula_23 This means that if we take every permutation of a basis vector set and dotted them against each other, and then arrange them into a square matrix, we would have a metric tensor. The caveat here is which of the two vectors in the permutation is used for projection against the other vector, that is the distinguishing property of the covariant metric tensor in comparison with the contravariant metric tensor. Two flavors of metric tensors exist: (1) the contravariant metric tensor (formula_19), and (2) the covariant metric tensor (formula_18). These two flavors of metric tensor are related by the identity: formula_26 For an orthonormal Cartesian coordinate system, the metric tensor is just the kronecker delta formula_27 or formula_28, which is just an Identity matrix, and formula_29.", "In addition a tensor can be readily converted from an unbarred(x) to a barred coordinate(formula_30) system having different sets of basis vectors: formula_31 by use of Jacobian matrix relationships between the barred and unbarred coordinate system (formula_32). The Jacobian between the barred and unbarred system is instrumental in defining the covariant and contravariant basis vectors, in that in order for the these vectors to exist they need to satisfy the following relationship relative to the barred and unbarred system: Contravariant vectors are required to obey the laws: formula_33 formula_34 Covariant vectors are required to obey the laws: formula_35 formula_36 There are two flavors of Jacobian matrix: 1. The J matrix representing the change from unbarred to barred coordinates. To find J, we take the \"barred gradient\", i.e. partial derive with respect to formula_37: formula_38 2. The formula_39 matrix, representing the change from barred to unbarred coordinates. To find formula_39, we take the \"unbarred gradient\", i.e. partial derive with respect to formula_41: formula_42", "Tensor calculus provides a generalization to the gradient vector formula from standard calculus that works in all coordinate systems: formula_43 In contrast, for standard calculus, the gradient vector formula is dependent on the coordinate system in use (example: Cartesian gradient vector formula vs. the polar gradient vector formula vs. the spherical gradient vector formula, etc.). In standard calculus, each coordinate system has its own specific formula, unlike tensor calculus that has only one gradient formula that is equivalent for all coordinate systems. This is made possible by an understanding of the metric tensor that tensor calculus makes use of." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Publications.", "Related works.", "\"Guild Wars\" subseries (2005-2007).", "Gameplay.", "Character creation.", "Professions.", "Environment.", "Combat.", "Co-operative gameplay.", "Competitive gameplay.", "Guilds.", "Campaigns.", "Expansions.", "\"Guild Wars 2\" (2012).", "\"Heart of Thorns\" (2015).", "\"Path of Fire\" (2017)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The NCSoft crossover game \"Master X Master\" featured Rytlock from \"Guild Wars 2\" as a playable character.", "The original subseries consisting of the \"Guild Wars Prophecies\", \"Guild Wars Factions\", \"Guild Wars Nightfall\", and \"\" games coexist within a unified game world. The games provide two main modes of gameplay—a cooperative role-playing component that is specific to each campaign, and a competitive PvP component that is shared across all campaigns. Three stand-alone campaigns, one major expansion pack, and several \"mini\"-expansions were released in the series from April 2005 to April 2013. The games depict the fictional fantasy world of \"Tyria\"; each campaign focuses on events in disjointed sections of the world at roughly the same time. A player creates an avatar to play through the cooperative storyline of a campaign, taking on the role of a hero who must save Tyria from its antagonists. Players can group with other players and non-player characters, known as \"henchmen\" and \"heroes\", to perform \"missions\" and \"quests\" found throughout the game-world. PvP combat is consensual, team based, and limited to areas designed for such combat. Players are allowed to create characters at maximum level and with the best equipment specifically for PvP play, which is unusual for MMORPGs. Historically, ArenaNet hosted official \"Guild Wars\" tournaments where the most successful players and guilds competed for the chance to play live at gaming conventions and win prizes up to US$100,000.", "Players use a 3D avatar to interact with the world around them. The game predominantly features a third-person perspective but also has the option of first-person. These characters are able to walk/run and interact with other characters through chat. They can also perform actions such as fighting and picking up objects, as well as interacting with special objects.", "Players can choose from a range of up to ten different professions. When creating a character, players can select their hair style, face, skin tone, height and avatar name—the selection depending upon that profession chosen. As the player progresses through the game, they can unlock different armor and weapons to alter the visual appearance of that avatar. They can also decide whether they want their avatar to start in a Player vs. Environment world (the RPG aspect of the game), or get right into the competitive Player vs. Player and fight live against other players in the game. The maximum level for character development is capped at 20—by this point, the character will also have reached 170 attribute points. Players may also choose to do certain quests to gain another 30 attribute points, making the maximum points available 200. Experience can still be gained and is used to learn more skills or buy consumable items throughout the game.", "A profession is a type of class commonly found in most RPGs and is central to the gameplay in Guild Wars. Each profession has an array of attributes and skills that help narrow a class's proficiency in order to perform a customized role that is determined by the player. The \"Warrior\" profession, for example, has access to the primary \"Strength\" attribute that increases their armor penetration with martial weapons, and is able to wear heavy armor providing the highest protection against physical damage of all professions. \"Elementalists\", on the other hand, wear less protective armor, but can use their primary \"Energy Storage\" attribute to give them a much greater pool of energy than other professions. Guild Wars also introduces the ability to choose a secondary profession, expanding the selection of attributes and skills. A character does not, however, have access to the primary attribute of its secondary profession. Many, but not all, skills become more powerful with more points in a class's primary attribute. A Warrior/Elementalist, therefore, is a warrior who may use spells in combat, although the Elementalist spells used will generally not have as much power as those of a primary Elementalist. This is increased by the fact that runes, which among other things increase attribute levels, can only increase the attribute levels associated with a player's primary profession. There are over a thousand skills in the game that can be acquired by the character over time, but players may only use and equip up to 8 of them at any one time. This introduces levels of strategy, in which one must have a careful selection of skills that work well with one another and with teammates in order to survive. The core professions are Warrior, Monk, Elementalist, Ranger, Necromancer and Mesmer. The Assassin and Ritualist professions are exclusive to Guild Wars: Factions, which can be played along with the aforementioned core professions. The Paragon and Dervish professions are exclusive to Guild Wars: Nightfall, and can also be played with the core professions. Unlike the campaigns, Guild Wars: Eye of the North (the only expansion pack of the Guild Wars franchise) does not offer any new playable professions.", "The Guild Wars universe consists of persistent staging zones known as \"towns\" and \"outposts\". These areas normally contain non-player characters that provide services such as merchandising or storage. Other NPC's provide quests and present rewards to adventurers. These areas are also used when forming groups of people to go out into the world and play cooperatively. Players that venture out from the staging area and into an instanced explorable area are then able to use their weapons and skills to defeat monsters and interact with other objects in the game. As players progress through the game, they gain access to additional staging zones. Players can then transport their characters instantly from one staging area to another using a process commonly referred to as'map traveling'.", "Apart from fighting with weapons, skills make up the majority of combat interaction. Each skill has a different effect when used, and fall under many different categories. They can range from offensive skills such as setting foes on fire and defensive skills which include resurrection and healing allies. Enchantments that include giving players extra health points or Hexes that drain the enemy's life and add it to your own make up part of the skill selection in \"Guild Wars\". Attack skills are used in conjunction with weapons to augment the damage that they can deal and cause different side effects (such as knocking people to the ground with a hammer, causing bleeding wounds that deal additional damage over time with a sword, or striking multiple foes with an axe). Most skills have a governing attribute that determines its power and effect. These attributes are assigned using a number of \"attribute points\" similar to the point buy ability score generation system in \"Dungeons & Dragons\". \"Guild Wars\" skill system is often compared to collectible card games such as \"\" because of the way the different skills interact. While in a town or staging area, a character's skill and attribute selection can be freely modified to construct a \"build\". Once in a combat zone (such as an explorable area or a PvP arena), the build becomes immutable until the character exits the combat zone and returns to a staging area. Players generally either choose a specific build for a given area or role, or use builds that synergize with the builds of other characters in the party. A player's ability to help the party is based on the way a player's \"build\" works. If the skills combine well, such as a hex spell that makes an enemy attack faster and then another one that makes him miss 75% of the time and take damage for each miss, then the build will work effectively. In PvE, monsters that are slain will generate gold and loot which can be traded or sold to players or NPCs. Unique or rare weapon designs are often found from defeating powerful monsters, or by opening treasure chests. In PvP, reputation in the form of \"faction\" is gained based on how well a player performs. \"Balthazar faction\" is gained by the number of wins that you and your team achieve, and for each unique kill. Most PvP in \"Guild Wars\" is fast-paced, while the transition period between games may take longer.", "Player versus Environment (PvE) missions of \"Guild Wars\" use several standard tropes of the MMORPG genre. Players explore the game-world, kill monsters, perform quests and complete missions to earn rewards and advance the story. Rewards include experience points, skill points, skills, gold, faction, reputation and items for the player character. Some of these rewards not only advance the particular character being played at the time, but also unlock features of the game account-wide. In each campaign the player is involved in a linear story with which they interact by performing a series of \"primary quests\" and \"replayable missions\". Quests are given to a player by NPCs via text dialog. As quests and missions are completed, new areas, new quests, and new missions are unlocked for the player's character to access. Missions allow the player character to participate in the major events of the storyline, such as significant battles against the main antagonist. Both quests and missions can feature in-game cut scenes which advance the story and provide context to the actions which follow. Cut scenes are in the third-person, often featuring the party leader's character and revealing elements of the game that the character would not normally be aware of, such as the actions of an antagonist. Players are given the option of skipping the cut scenes if all party members agree upon it. There are different types of PvE in \"Guild Wars\", and it is advisable to prepare a build to meet the challenges of each type:", "Player versus Player (PvP) combat in \"Guild Wars\" is consensual and team-based. Such combat is restricted to special PvP areas, the majority of which are located on the core area known as \"The Battle Isles\". Individual campaigns also have certain campaign-specific PvP arenas. Players may participate in PvP combat with either their role-playing characters or with characters created specifically for PvP. Characters are rewarded with experience points for victories in competitive battle and the player account also acquires \"faction points\" redeemable for in-game rewards. In addition to this victory may also award points which contribute towards completion of character or account based \"titles\". The following are the competitive modes in \"Guild Wars\": Guild Wars has a continuously running \"automated tournament system\". Players or guilds elect to participate in the tournament by buying in-game tokens using their PvP faction points. The participants are divided randomly into groups of 32 that participate daily in up to six Swiss rounds held on a fixed schedule, and the top eight guilds continue on to a single-elimination tournament. Participants who are unable to field a full team automatically forfeit their round. Success in daily automated tournaments qualifies that particular guild for play in the monthly automated tournament, and the final victors of this tournament earn a number of real and in-game rewards. Players who do not participate in the automated tournament were allowed to place bets on the results of these tournaments for a number of in-game rewards prior to February 2010. Many competitive matches may be observed by players by means of an \"observer mode\". Important PvP matches such as matches in the \"Hall of Heroes\" or between highly rated guilds may be observed (after a delay of fifteen minutes) by others in order to see the tactics used by successful teams and attempt to learn or counter them. Guilds may additionally observe their own Guild Battles for a fixed period of time.", "As the name suggests, guilds are a core element of \"Guild Wars\", manifesting not only as social units but also being closely linked with the game mechanics. Although a player is not required to join a guild, it adds value to the gaming time and increases camaraderie. Often, joining a guild is a good way to get help from more experienced players as the in-game guild interface allows communication between guild members. A guild leader creates the guild by registering a guild name and a \"tag\" (between two and four characters long) with a Guild Registrar, found in some major towns. The guild tag is displayed in brackets after the names of guild members. The leader also designs the guild's cape (from a large palette of shapes, patterns and emblems), and purchases a guild hall that serves as the guild headquarters and may be furnished with merchants, traders, and storage NPCs. Each guild hall is an individual instanced outpost located at the same spot on the Battle Isles, but they are not physically accessible to non-allied members as the only way to enter a guild hall is by \"map travel\". The guild leader recruits new players to the guild and can promote a number of them to \"guild officers\", who can then help with the recruitment and further promotion of officers. All player characters on the same \"Guild Wars\" account belong to the same guild. Players may leave their guild whenever they please, but only the leader and officers can dismiss non-officer players from the guild; the leader has the additional power to dismiss officers and disband the guild. Guilds have a membership limit of 100 members; player communities with more than that many members generally create allied sister guilds, often named similarly and using the same tag and cape. Up to ten individual guilds may ally together to form an \"alliance\". Members of an alliance may communicate over a shared chat channel, and visit the guild halls of the other guilds of the alliance. Each alliance has a leader guild that initiates the alliance, the leader of which is also the alliance leader, who may admit or dismiss guilds from the alliance. Each alliance must be devoted to either the Kurzicks or the Luxons, the two Canthan factions (from \"Guild Wars Factions\") locked in perpetual conflict. Players can accumulate \"faction\" (reputation) with either the Kurzicks or the Luxons, which can either be \"donated\" to the alliance or redeemed for certain in-game rewards. The alliances with the highest total amount of donated faction are given control of certain in-game outposts on the Canthan continent; controlling an outpost gives the alliance members access to restricted areas of the outposts, containing, among other things, merchants who sell at a discount. In addition to membership in guilds, a player may be a guest of any number of other guilds. Guest privileges are limited to visiting the guild hall and participating in guild or alliance battles. An accepted invitation expires after 24 hours.", "Full games in the original \"Guild Wars\" sequence were released in episodes known as \"campaigns\". Players must purchase an individual campaign in order to access the game elements specific to that campaign; however, all campaigns are linked in one game world. Each campaign is independent of the others, with its own co-operative storyline, campaign-specific skills, and competitive arenas. Players owning different campaigns may still interact in shared areas, including trading for items specific to the campaigns they have not purchased. Players who own two or more campaigns may transport their characters freely from one campaign to the other, integrating into the storyline as a foreign hero. The first campaign, \"Guild Wars Prophecies\" (originally named \"Guild Wars\"), was released on April 28, 2005. The \"Prophecies\" storyline is situated on the continent of \"Tyria\" and revolves around the \"Flameseeker Prophecy\", a prophecy made by an ancient dragon named Glint. \"Prophecies\" was followed by \"Guild Wars Factions\" on April 28, 2006, released exactly a year after \"Prophecies\". \"Factions\" is situated on the small southern continent of \"Cantha\" that is separated from \"Tyria\" by a vast ocean. The events of the \"Factions\" campaign concern the return from death of a corrupted bodyguard named Shiro Tagachi. \"Factions\" features a global persistent war between the rival vassal nations of Cantha; the Luxons and the Kurzicks, and the notion of guild alliances (see \"guilds\" above). The continent of Cantha is heavily based upon and influenced by eastern Asia. The third campaign, \"Guild Wars Nightfall\", was released on October 27, 2006. \"Nightfall\" features the arid continent of Elona, joined to southern Tyria across a vast desert. \"Nightfall\" introduced heroes, advanced computer-controlled units that can be micro-managed by players, including the ability to customize their skill layout and equipment. The continent of Elona is heavily based on and influenced by North Africa.", "Scrapping their initial plans for a fourth campaign, ArenaNet has released an expansion pack, \"\", to the previous three campaigns on August 31, 2007. Not being a full campaign, this expansion requires one of the other released campaigns, and is only accessible by player characters at level 10 and above. \"Eye of the North\" therefore does not feature new professions, but contains new content for existing characters: dungeons, a number of new skills, armor, and \"heroes\". \"Eye of the North\" is set in previously inaccessible territory from the first Guild Wars campaign, \"Prophecies\". It is intended to be a bridge to the sequel to the \"Guild Wars\" series, \"Guild Wars 2\". As a promotion for their online store and \"Eye of the North\", ArenaNet released a \"Bonus Mission Pack\" for purchase online. It contains playable recreations of four incidents in the history of \"Tyria\", \"Cantha\", and \"Elona\", and each mission expands the backstory for one of four major NPCs. In an effort to resolve plot threads, ArenaNet has released a series of \"mini-expansion\" updates, collectively known as \"Guild Wars Beyond\". This series of storylines and events in \"Guild Wars\" helps set the stage for \"Guild Wars 2\", which takes place 250 years in the future. \"Guild Wars Beyond\" begins with War in Kryta, then Hearts of the North, and continues with Winds of Change. After the \"Guild Wars 2\" release, ArenaNet formally announced that they \"will no longer release any new content, but will continue to update the game. We would like to thank all \"Guild Wars\" players who participated in our active poll, choosing what rewards you would like to see when linking your \"Guild Wars\" accounts\". Some of these scrapped Beyond-updates included: the Ebon Vanguards' withdrawal and establishment of Ebonhawke; the Lunatic Court and their attempts to free Mad King Thorn; expanding on the story of Palawa Joko and continuing that plot thread, which was left dangling in Nightfall; and the disappearance of Evennia, last seen in Old Ascalon during the Krytan civil war.", "\"Guild Wars 2\" is the sequel to the original \"Guild Wars\". It was released on August 28, 2012. The game's campaign centers on the awakening of the elder dragon Zhaitan and the cataclysm that this brings to Tyria. This threat unites the game's major factions to form a Pact. From 2012 to 2014 the game was actively updated with temporary content releases that came to be known as Living World Season 1. From 2014 to 2015 updates were shifted to a permanent content model that integrated with the characters' story progression. These updates, comprising Living World Season 2, featured a plot to awaken Mordremoth, leading to the game's first expansion pack.", "\"Heart of Thorns\" is the first expansion pack for \"GW2\" and was released on October 23, 2015. The campaign follows the struggle of the Pact forces against the elder dragon Mordremoth. Major new features were introduced, including a new Revenant profession, elite specializations for existing professions, gliding, and guild halls. This was followed by two years of content updates, encompassing Living World Season 3. This season dealt with the aftermath of battling Mordremoth and initial forays against the remaining dragons, as well as the return of the god Balthazar, who seeks to kill the elder dragon Kralkatorrik at any cost. It also introduced raid content, a feature that was promised in the marketing of \"HoT\".", "\"Path of Fire\" is the second expansion pack for \"GW2\" and was released on September 22, 2017. In this campaign, the Pact heroes pursue Balthazar and the elder dragon Kralkatorrik to Elona, the continent originally featured in \"Nightfall\". This expansion introduced mounts to the game. Content updates will be divided into both Season 4, which deals primarily with fighting Palawa Joko, and Season 5 of the Living World." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Teachings.", "Contents.", "Volume 5." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Nikodemos and Makarios were monks at Mt. Athos, a mountainous peninsula in northern Greece, historically considered the geographical center of Orthodox spirituality and home to 20 monasteries. The first edition, in Greek, was published in Venice in 1782, with a second Greek edition published in Athens in 1893. All the original texts were in Greek—two of them were first written in Latin and translated into Greek in the Byzantine era. Paisius Velichkovsky's translation into Church Slavonic, \"Dobrotolublye\" (published in Moscow in 1793), included selected portions of the \"Philokalia\" and was the version that the pilgrim in \"The Way of a Pilgrim\" carried on his journey. That book about a Russian pilgrim who is seeking advice on interior prayer helped popularize the \"Philokalia\" and its teachings in Russia. Velichkovsky's translation was the first to become widely read by the public, away from the monasteries—helped by the popularity of \"The Way of a Pilgrim\", and the public influence of the \"startsy\" at Optina Monastery known as the Optina Elders. Two Russian language translations appeared in the 19th century, one by Ignatius Brianchaninov (1857) and another by Theophan the Recluse's \"Dobrotolubiye\" (1877). The latter was published in five volumes and included texts that were not in the original Greek edition. Velichkovsky was initially hesitant to share his translation outside of the Optina Monastery walls. He was concerned that people living in the world would not have the adequate supervision and guidance of the \"startsy\" in the monastery, nor would they have the support of the liturgical life of the monks. He was finally persuaded by the Metropolitan of St. Petersburg to publish the book in 1793. Brianchanivov expressed the same concerns in his work, warning his readers that regular practice of the Jesus Prayer, without adequate guidance, could potentially cause spiritual delusion and pride, even among monks. Their concerns were contrary to the original compiler of the \"Philokalia\", Nicodemos, who wrote that the Jesus Prayer could be used to good effect by anyone, whether monastic or layperson. All agreed that the teachings on constant inner prayer should be practiced under the guidance of a spiritual teacher, or \"starets\". The first partial English and French translations in the 1950s were an indirect result of the Bolshevik revolution, which brought many Russian intellectuals into Western Europe. T. S. Eliot persuaded his fellow directors of the publishing house Faber and Faber to publish a partial translation into English from the Theophan Russian version, which met with surprising success in 1951. A more complete English translation, from the original Greek, began in 1979 with a collaboration between G. E. H. Palmer, Kallistos Ware, and Philip Sherrard. They released four of the five volumes of the \"Philokalia\" between 1979 and 1995. In 1946, the first installment of a ten volume Romanian translation by Father Dumitru Stăniloae appeared. In addition to the original Greek text, Stăniloae added \"lengthy original footnotes of his own\" as well as substantially expanding the coverage of texts by Saint John of the Ladder, Saint Dorotheos of Gaza, Maximus the Confessor, Symeon the New Theologian, and Gregory Palamas. This work is 4,650 pages in length. Writings by the Trappist monk Thomas Merton on hesychasm also helped spread the popularity of the \"Philokalia\", along with the indirect influence of J. D. Salinger's \"Franny and Zooey\", which featured \"The Way of a Pilgrim\" as a main plot element.", "The collection's title is The Philokalia of the Niptic Fathers, or more fully \"The Philokalia of the Neptic Saints gathered from our Holy Theophoric Father, through which, by means of the philosophy of ascetic practice and contemplation, the intellect is purified, illumined, and made perfect.\" \"Niptic\" is an adjective derived from the Greek \"Nipsis\" (or \"Nepsis\") referring to contemplative prayer and meaning \"watchfulness\". Watchfulness in this context includes close attention to one's thoughts, intentions, and emotions, with the aim of resisting temptations and vain and egoistic thoughts, and trying to maintain a constant state of remembrance of God. There are similarities between this ancient practice and the concept of mindfulness as practiced in Buddhism and other spiritual traditions. The \"Philokalia\" teachings have also influenced the revival of interior prayer in modern times through the centering prayer practices taught by Thomas Keating and Thomas Merton. \"Philokalia\" is defined as the \"love of the beautiful, the exalted, the excellent, understood as the transcendent source of life and the revelation of Truth.\" In contemplative prayer the mind becomes absorbed in the awareness of God as a living presence as the source of being of all creatures and sensible forms. According to the authors of the English translation, Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard, the writings of the \"Philokalia\" have been chosen above others because they:...show the way to awaken and develop attention and consciousness, to attain that state of watchfulness which is the hallmark of sanctity. They describe the conditions most effective for learning what their authors call the art of arts and the science of sciences, a learning which is not a matter of information or agility of mind but of a radical change of will and heart leading man towards the highest possibilities open to him, shaping and nourishing the unseen part of his being, and helping him to spiritual fulfilment and union with God.\" The \"Philokalia\" is the foundational text on \"hesychasm\" (\"quietness\" or \"stillness\"), an inner spiritual tradition with a long history dating back to the Desert Fathers. The practices include contemplative prayer, quiet sitting, and recitation of the Jesus Prayer. While traditionally taught and practiced in monasteries, \"hesychasm\" teachings have spread over the years to include laymen. Nikodemos, in his introduction, described the collected texts as \"a mystical school of inward prayer\" which could be used to cultivate the inner life and to \"attain the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ.\" While the monastic life makes this easier, Nikodemos himself stressed that \"unceasing prayer\" should be practiced by all. The hesychasm teachings in the \"Philokalia\" are viewed by Orthodox Christians as inseparable from the sacraments and liturgy of the Orthodox Church, and are given by and for those who are already living within the framework of the Church. A common theme is the need for a spiritual father or guide.", "This listing of texts is based on the English translation of four volumes by Bishop Kallistos Ware, G. E. H. Palmer, and Philip Sherrard. The fifth volume has yet to be published in English. Some works in the \"Philokalia\" are also found in the \"Patrologia Graecae\" and \"Patrologia Latina\" of J. P. Migne. This piece by Anthony was changed to an appendix in the English translation by Palmer, Sherrard, and Ware (1979, p. 327), because of their view that the language and the general idea is not explicitly Christian and may not have been written by Antony.", "This volume has not yet been published in English translation. These are the contents of the modern Greek translation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Middle Ages.", "Renaissance.", "Baroque and modern.", "Republic.", "Geography.", "Ecoregions/protected areas.", "Climate.", "Human geography.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Coimbra fado.", "Student festivals.", "Music acts.", "Media.", "Leisure.", "Accommodation.", "Parks and gardens.", "International relations.", "Sport.", "Notable individuals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The city, located on a hill by the Mondego River, was called \"Aeminium\" in Roman times. It fell under the influence, administratively, of the larger Roman villa of Conímbriga (in Condeixa-a-Nova), until the latter was sacked by the Sueves and Visigoths between 569 and 589 and abandoned. It became the seat of a diocesis, replacing Conímbriga. Although Conimbriga had been administratively important, Aeminium affirmed its position by being situated at the confluence of the north–south traffic that connected the Roman Bracara Augusta (later Braga) and Olisipo (later Lisbon) with its waterway, which enabled connections with the interior and coast. The limestone table on which the settlement grew has a dominant position overlooking the Mondego, circled by fertile lands irrigated by its waters. Vestiges of this early history include the cryptoporticus of the former Roman forum (now part of the Museu Nacional de Machado de Castro). The move of the settlement and bishopric of", "The reconquest of the territory was attained in 1064 by King Ferdinand I of León and Castile, who appointed Dom Sisnando Davides to reorganize the economy and administer the lands encircling the city. The County of Portucale and the County of Coimbra were later integrated into one dominion under the stewardship of Henry of Burgundy by Alfonso VI of León and Castile in 1096, when Henry married Alfonso's illegitimate daughter Theresa. Henry expanded the frontiers of the County, confronting the Moorish forces, and upon his death in 1112, Theresa, Countess of Portucale and Coimbra, unified her possessions. Their son, Afonso Henriques, who took up residence in the ancient seat of the Christian County of Coimbra, sent expeditions to the south and west, consolidating a network of castles that included Leiria, Soure, Rabaçal, Alvorge and Ansião. During the 12th century, Afonso Henriques administered an area of fertile lands with river access and protected by a fortified city, whose population exceeded 6000 inhabitants, including magnates, knights and high clergy. The young Infante encouraged the construction of his seat, funding the Santa Cruz Monastery", "In the 15th and 16th centuries, during the Age of Discovery, Coimbra was again one of the main artistic centres of Portugal thanks to both local and royal patronage. Coimbra bishops, religious orders and King Manuel I supported artists like Diogo Pires (father and son), Marcos Pires, João de Castilho, Diogo de Castilho and the Frenchmen, João de Ruão and Nicholas of Chanterene, among others, who left important Manueline and Renaissance works in the town. Dating from this period are the remodelling (in Manueline style) of the Santa Cruz Monastery, including the tombs of Kings Afonso Henriques and Sancho I, the Renaissance Manga Fountain, and the altarpieces and", "In 1772, the Marquis of Pombal, prime minister of King José I, undertook a major reform of the university, where the study of the sciences assumed vast importance. The collections of scientific instruments and material acquired then are now gathered in the Science Museum of the University of Coimbra, and constitute one of the most important historical science collections in Europe. However, his desire to modernise the university resulted in the complete demolition of Coimbra's medieval city walls and castle. Very little, of which remains today. The first half of the 19th century was a difficult period for Coimbra, being invaded by French troops under the command of Andoche Junot and André Masséna during the Peninsular War. A force of 4,000 Portuguese militia led by Nicholas Trant dealt Masséna a heavy blow when it recaptured the city on 6 October 1810. In March", "On 1January 1911, electric tramways were inaugurated to connect the old quarter with its expanding periphery, which included the residential areas of Celas, Olivais, Penedo da Saudade and Calhabé, all located in the civil parish of Santo António dos Olivais. This was only the initiation of the municipality growth. Civil construction projects throughout the region marked the", "One of the nation's most important crossroads, Coimbra was historically at a junction between Braga and Lisbon, and its river access (the Mondego flows through the municipality) provided a route between the interior communities and the coastal towns (including the seaside city of Figueira da Foz, west of Coimbra). The historic city of Coimbra is located centrally within the municipality, connected to Lisbon () and Porto () by the IC2, IP3 and A1 motorways. The municipality is circled by several of its neighbouring municipalities in the Região de Coimbra, which include Penacova (in the northeast), Vila Nova de Poiares (to the east), Miranda do Corvo (to the southeast), Condeixa-a-Nova (to the south and southwest), Montemor-o-Velho (to the west), Cantanhede (to the northwest) and Mealhada (in the north and northeast). Just outside the municipality, there are also several picturesque mountain towns such as Lousã and Penacova, while spa towns and villages, such as Luso, Buçaco and Curia are commonplace. Although it ceased in the 13th century to serve as the capital of Portugal, Coimbra retains considerable importance as the centre of the former Beira province, now designated the Centro region. It is considered alongside Braga one of the two most important regional centres in Portugal outside the Lisbon and Portos metropoles, the centre for the whole middle region of the country. With a dense urban grid, the municipality is known primarily for the city of Coimbra, itself famous for its monuments, churches, libraries, museums, parks, nightlife, healthcare and shopping facilities. Above all, its cultural life, oriented around the University of Coimbra, has historically attracted the nation's notable writers, artists, academics and aristocracy, securing its reputation as the \"Lusa-Atenas\" (Lusitanian Athens).", "The western edge of Coimbra is covered by the \"Reserva Natural do Paul de Arzila\" (\"Arzila Swamp Natural Reserve\"), which is designated both as a \"Special Protection Zone\" () and \"Special Conservation Zone\" (), coincident with the civil parish of Arzila (sometimes referred to as the \"Paul de Arzila\" or \"marsh of Arzila\"). It is a wetland that has sheltered migratory birds, and supports other animal and plant species; this has included predominantly avian species, such as the: Eurasian reed warbler (\"Acrocephalus scirpaceus\"), sedge warbler (\"Acrocephalus schoenobaenus\"), melodious warbler (\"Hippolais polyglotta\"), willow warbler (\"Phylloscopus trochilus\"), little bittern (\"Ixobrychus minutus\"), great reed warbler (\"Acrocephalus arundinaceus\"), and the Savi's warbler (\"Locustella luscinioides\"). The 482 hectare", "Coimbra has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: \"Csb\") in a transition to a hot-summer (\"Csa\") version of the interior of Central Portugal. In winter, temperatures range between at day and at night in the coldest month and", "Administratively, the municipality is divided into 18 civil parishes (\"freguesias\"): As of 2001, the municipality of Coimbra had a population of 148,443 inhabitants (covering an area of 319.4 km), reflecting a 6.8% increase relative to 1991 (139,052 residents), while the number of families increased 17.1% in the same period. This was mainly concentrated in the parish of Sé Nova, while the remaining administrative divisions accounted for a range of 78.54 to 5069.2 inhabitants per kilometre square. Seniors and youth (age 0 to 14 years) represent a minority of the population (16.5% and 31.1%); the 25 to 64 cohort accounts for 55% of the active population. While per 100 inhabitants, seniors actually comprise 21.6% of this population, the birth rate (9.3%) is superior the mortality rate in the communities of Coimbra, which is actually greater than other municipalities in the Baixo Mondego subregion. The municipality of Coimbra has a resident population of 157,510 inhabitants, and seasonal population of approximately 200,000 residents. Between 1864 and 2001, the municipal population tripled (following the trend in the rest of the country when the nation's population", "The wealth of the city rests mostly on the University of Coimbra with about 20,000 students – the city has a total of 35,000 higher education students considering the other higher education institutions based there – but also in shopping, technology and health sciences industry, administrative offices, financial services, law firms and specialized medical care. The city has many private clinics, medical offices and two large independent state hospital centres: the \"H.U.C. – Hospitais da Universidade de Coimbra\", which is a university hospital, and the \"C.H.C. – Centro Hospitalar de Coimbra\", which includes a general hospital. Coimbra has also the regional branch of the national cancer hospital – the \"I.P.O. – Instituto Português de Oncologia\", as well as a military hospital. The Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal, the state-run forensic science institute of Portugal, is headquartered in Coimbra. Notable companies based in the municipality of Coimbra include software companies Critical Software and Ciberbit which have their global headquarters in the city, mechanical and electronics engineering company Active Space Technologies, telemetry and Machine to Machine company ISA, Cimpor's cement factory in Souselas (CIMPOR Souselas), the pan-European service facility of Olympus Corporation, the pharmaceuticals companies Bluepharma and BASI, the iron foundry Fucoli-Somepal and several ceramics, food processing (Probar produces cold meat", "The two banks of Mondego River at Coimbra, are linked by three main bridges: the \"Ponte do Açude\", the \"Ponte de Santa Clara\" (which is the oldest) and \"Ponte Rainha Santa\", also known as \"Ponte Europa\". The \"Ponte Pedonal de Pedro e Inês\" is the most recently constructed bridge and the only footbridge in the city. The city is internally connected by an extensive bus network, the SMTUC (\"Serviços Municipalizados de Transportes Urbanos de Coimbra\", Coimbra Municipality Urban Transport Services) and the Coimbra trolleybus system (the only such system in Portugal). In the past, the city also had a tram network (some are now parked inside a transportation museum). Taxicabs are also available, and are recognizable as cream or black and green (black car with green rooftop) taxis. The city is a hub for interregional bus services for all the country and abroad. A light-rail metro system, Metro Mondego, was proposed however the project was abandoned at the height of Portuguese financial crisis. Coimbra has several rail stations. The principal station \"Coimbra-B\" is on the main line between Porto and Lisbon.", "Coimbra has been called \"A cidade dos estudantes\" (The city of the students) or \"Lusa-Atenas\" (Lusitan-Athens), mainly because it is the site of the oldest and one of the largest universities in Portugal – the University of Coimbra, a public university whose origins can be traced back to the 13th century. Nowadays, it has students from 70 different nationalities; almost 10% of its students are foreigners, making it Portugal's most international university. Coimbra is also the place where the oldest and biggest university students' union of Portugal was founded – the \"Associação Académica de Coimbra\" (Academic Association of Coimbra), established in 1887. As well, there are some other schools and institutes of higher education in the city: the \"Instituto Politécnico", "Coimbra celebrates its municipal holiday on 4 July, in honour of Queen Elizabeth of Portugal (spouse of the King Denis); a religious and civic celebration that celebrated the life of the former Queen, that includes a fireworks display following the night-time march of the penitents. Coimbra houses the following cultural institutions:", "The \"Fado de Coimbra\" is a highly stylized genre of \"fado\" music originated in Coimbra. Among its most notable and historical adherents are guitarist Carlos Paredes and singer Zeca Afonso, while the \"Orfeon Académico de Coimbra\" (the oldest and most famous academic choir in Portugal) and the \"Associação Académica de Coimbra\" are important organizations that promote the culture and stylings of this subgenre of music. In addition, Coimbra has a contemporary music, boasting several live music venues, and some of", "Coimbra is also known for its university students' festivals. Two are held every year. The first one, \"Latada\" or \"Festa das Latas\" (\"The Tin Can Parade\") is a homecoming parade that occurs at the beginning of the academic year, and is a welcome to the new university students (\"Caloiros\"). The \"Festa das Latas\" goes back to the 19th century when the Coimbra students felt the need to express their joy at finishing the school year in as loud a way as possible, using everything at their disposal that would make noise, namely tin cans. The highlight of this festival, which now takes place at the beginning of the academic year (November) is the special parade known as the \"Latada\". After marching through the streets of the city the new students are \"baptized\" in the Mondego River thus entering into the Coimbra academic fraternity. The students from the penultimate year, normally the 3rd year's students, are awarded their \"Grelos\" (a small ribbon). The \"Grelo\" is a small, woollen ribbon with the color(s)", "Coimbra has a lively music scene that caters for most tastes with lots of festivals and events beyond the academic festivals and the traditional Coimbra fado genre. It boasts several live music venues, and some of the most popular club nights and music festivals", "The Centro region is the third-largest regional media market in Portugal. The Portuguese public radio and television broadcaster \"Rádio e Televisão de Portugal\" has regional offices and studios", "", "There is a wide variety of accommodation available, ranging from the", "Coimbra has many attractive and pleasant green spaces such as parks, playgrounds, gardens and forests. The most famous park in the city is probably the Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra, the fifth oldest in the world. The \"Portugal dos Pequenitos\" park is an educational theme park built during the Estado Novo. Its buildings are scale copies of Portuguese architectural landmarks and were completed in the 1950s. The city's green areas also include the \"Mata Nacional do Choupal\", the \"Mata Nacional de Vale de Canas\", \"Jardim da Sereia\" (also known as Jardim de", "Coimbra", "Coimbra is home to \"Associação Académica de Coimbra - O.A.F.\" (known simply as Académica), a professional football autonomous organism of the University of Coimbra students' union \"Associação Académica de Coimbra\", founded in 1872 and having its current statute of autonomous football organization since the 1980s. Académica football team plays in the Portuguese Liga at the \"Estádio Cidade de Coimbra\". \"Clube de Futebol União de Coimbra\", another sports club with tradition in the city, owner of a football team which plays in the Portuguese Second Division, is other important club of Coimbra. Coimbra also has one of the largest multisports clubs in Portugal:", "The following people were born or died within the municipality of Coimbra:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Founding of the Celestines.", "Election as pope.", "Papacy.", "Retirement, death, and canonization.", "Legacy.", "In literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to tradition, Pietro Angelerio was born to parents Angelo Angelerio and Maria Leone in a town called Sant'Angelo Limosano, in the Kingdom of Sicilia (Sicily). Sant'Angelo Limosano is now part of Provincia di Campobasso, in Molise, Italy. After his father's death he began working in the fields. His mother Maria was a key figure in Pietro's spiritual development: she imagined a different future for her deeply beloved son than becoming just a farmer or a shepherd. From the time he was a child, he showed great intelligence and love for others. He became a Benedictine monk at Faifoli in the Diocese of Benevento when he was 17. He showed an extraordinary disposition toward asceticism and solitude, and in 1239 retired to a solitary cavern on the mountain Morrone, hence his name (Peter of Morrone). Five years later he left this retreat, and went with two companions to a similar cave on the even more remote Mountain of Maiella in the Abruzzi region of central Italy, where he lived as strictly as possible according to the example of John the Baptist. Accounts exist of the severity of his penitential practices.", "While living like this he founded, in 1244, the order subsequently named after him, the Celestines. A new religious community was formed, and Pietro gave them a rule formulated in accordance with his own practices. In 1264 the new institution was approved by Urban IV. Having heard that it was probable that Pope Gregory X, then holding a council at Lyon, would suppress all such new orders as had been founded since the Lateran Council had commanded that such institutions should not be further multiplied, Pietro went to Lyon. There he succeeded in persuading Gregory to approve his new order, making it a branch of the Benedictines and following the rule of Saint Benedict, but adding to it additional severities and privations. Gregory took it under the Papal protection, assured to it the possession of all property it might acquire, and endowed it with exemption from the authority of the ordinary. Nothing more was needed to ensure the rapid spread of the new association and Pietro lived to see himself \"Superior-General\" to thirty-six monasteries and more than six hundred monks. Pietro, however, cannot be accused of ambition or the lust of power when a monastic superior, any more than when he insisted on divesting himself of the Papacy, to which he was subsequently raised. As soon as he had seen his new order thus consolidated he gave up the government of it to a certain Robert, and retired once again to a still more remote solitude to give himself up more entirely to solitary penance and prayer. Shortly afterwards, in a chapter of the order held in 1293, the original monastery of Majella being judged to be too desolate and exposed to too rigorous a climate, it was decided that Abbazia Morronese in the plains of Sulmona should be the headquarters of the order and the residence of the General-Superior, as it has continued to be to the present day.", "The cardinals assembled at Perugia after the death of Pope Nicholas IV in April 1292. After more than two years, a consensus had still not been reached. Pietro, well known to the cardinals as a Benedictine hermit, sent the cardinals a letter warning them that divine vengeance would fall upon them if they did not quickly elect a pope. Latino Malabranca, the aged and ill dean of the College of Cardinals cried out, \"In the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, I elect brother Pietro di Morrone.\" The cardinals promptly ratified Malabranca's desperate decision. When sent for, Pietro obstinately refused to accept the papacy, and even, as Petrarch says, tried to flee, until he was finally persuaded by a deputation of cardinals accompanied by the king of Naples and the pretender to the throne of Hungary. Elected on 5 July 1294, at age 79, he was crowned at Santa Maria di Collemaggio in the city of Aquila in the Abruzzo on 29 August, taking the name Celestine V.", "Shortly after assuming office, Celestine issued a papal bull granting a rare plenary indulgence to all pilgrims visiting Santa Maria di Collemaggio through its holy door on the anniversary of his papal coronation. The Celestinian forgiveness (\"Perdonanza Celestiniana\") festival is celebrated in L'Aquila every 28–29 August in commemoration of this event. With no political experience, Celestine proved to be an especially weak and ineffectual pope. He held his office in the Kingdom of Naples, out of contact with the Roman Curia and under the complete power of King Charles II. He appointed the king's favorites to church offices, sometimes several to the same office. One of these was Louis of Toulouse, whom Celestine ordered given clerical tonsure and minor orders, although this was not carried out. He renewed a decree of Pope Gregory X that had established stringent rules for papal conclaves after a similarly prolonged election. In one decree, he appointed three cardinals to govern the church during Advent while he fasted, which was again refused. Realizing his lack of authority and personal incompatibility with papal duties, he consulted with Cardinal Benedetto Caetani (his eventual successor) about the possibility of resignation. This resulted in one final decree declaring the right of resignation, which he promptly exercised after five months and eight days in office, thus on 13 December 1294, Celestine V resigned. In the formal instrument of renunciation, he recited as the causes moving him to the step: \"The desire for humility, for a purer life, for a stainless conscience, the deficiencies of his own physical strength, his ignorance, the perverseness of the people, his longing for the tranquility of his former life\". Having divested himself of every outward symbol of papal dignity, he slipped away from Naples and attempted to retire to his old life of solitude. The next pope to resign of his own accord was Pope Benedict XVI in 2013, 719 years later.", "The former Celestine, now reverted to Pietro Angelerio, was not allowed to become a hermit once again. Various parties had opposed his resignation and the new Pope Boniface VIII had reason to worry that one of them might install him as an antipope. To prevent this he ordered Pietro to accompany him to Rome. Pietro escaped and hid in the woods before attempting to return to Sulmona to resume monastic life. This proved impossible, and Pietro was captured after an attempt to flee to Dalmatia was thwarted when a tempest forced his ship to return to port. Boniface imprisoned him in the castle of Fumone near Ferentino in Lazio, attended by two monks of his order, where Pietro died after 10 months at about the age of 81. His supporters spread the allegation that Boniface had treated him harshly and ultimately executed Pietro, but there is no clear historical evidence of this. Pietro was buried at Ferentino, but his body was subsequently moved to the Basilica Santa Maria di Collemaggio in L'Aquila. Philip IV of France, who had supported Celestine and bitterly opposed Boniface, nominated Celestine for sainthood following the election of Pope Clement V. The latter signed a decree of dispensation on 13 May 1306 to investigate the nomination. He was canonized on 5 May 1313 after a consistory in which Boniface's Caetani family was outvoted by members of the rival Colonna family.", "Most modern interest in Celestine V has focused on his resignation. He was the first pope to formalize the resignation process and is often said to have been the first to resign. In fact he was preceded in this by Pontian (235), John XVIII (1009), Benedict IX (1045), and Gregory VI (1046). As noted above, Celestine's own decision was brought about by mild pressure from the Church establishment. His reinstitution of Gregory X's conclave system established by the papal bull \"Ubi periculum\" has been respected ever since. A 1966 visit by Pope Paul VI to Celestine's place of death in Ferentino along with his speech in homage of Celestine prompted speculation that the Pontiff was considering retirement. Celestine's remains survived the 2009 L'Aquila earthquake with one Italian spokesman saying it was \"another great miracle by the pope\". They were then recovered from the basilica shortly after the earthquake. While inspecting the earthquake damage during a 28 April 2009 visit to the Aquila, Pope Benedict XVI visited Celestine's remains in the badly damaged Santa Maria di Collemaggio and left the woolen pallium he wore during his papal inauguration in April 2005 on his glass casket as a gift. To mark the 800th anniversary of Celestine's birth, Pope Benedict XVI proclaimed the Celestine year from 28 August 2009 through 29 August 2010. Benedict XVI visited the Sulmona Cathedral, near Aquila, on 4 July 2010 as part of his observance of the Celestine year and prayed before the altar consecrated by Celestine containing his relics, on 10 October 1294. His entry in the \"Martyrologium Romanum\" for 19 May reads as follows:", "A persistent tradition identifies Celestine V as the nameless figure Dante Alighieri sees among those in the antechamber of Hell, in the enigmatic verses: The first commentators to make this identification included Dante's son Jacopo Alighieri, followed by Graziolo Bambaglioli in 1324. The identification is also considered probable by recent scholars (e.g., Hollander, Barbara Reynolds, Simonelli, Padoan). Petrarch was moved to defend Celestine vigorously against the accusation of cowardice and some modern scholars (e.g., Mark Musa) have suggested Dante may have meant someone else (Esau, Diocletian and Pontius Pilate have been variously suggested). In 1346, Petrarch declared in his \"De vita solitaria\" that Celestine's refusal was a virtuous example of solitary life. Pope Celestine V is referenced in Chapter 88 of Dan Brown's \"Angels & Demons\", where he is erroneously referenced as an example of a murdered pope. Celestine V is also mentioned in the film version. The life of Pope Celestine V is dramatised in the plays \"L'avventura di un povero cristiano\" (\"The Story of a Humble Christian\") by Ignazio Silone in 1968 and \"Sunsets and Glories\" by Peter Barnes in 1990. Pope Celestine V's life is the subject of the short story \"Brother of the Holy Ghost\" in Brendan Connell's short story collection \"The Life of Polycrates and Other Stories for Antiquated Children\". Pope Celestine V is the subject of Stefania Del Monte's book \"Celestino V. Papa Templare o Povero Cristiano?\", published in 2009 and translated into English under the title \"The Story and Legacy of Celestine V\" in 2010. Pope Celestine V is the subject of a popular history by author Jon M. Sweeney, \"The Pope Who Quit: A True Medieval Tale of Mystery, Death, and Salvation\", published by Image Books/Random House in 2012. In 2013, HBO optioned the film rights. Pope Celestine V is the subject of the poem \"Che Fece...Il Gran Rifiuto\" by the modern Greek poet Constantine P. Cavafy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The total derivative as a linear map.", "The total derivative as a differential form.", "The chain rule for total derivatives.", "Example: Differentiation with direct dependencies.", "Example: Differentiation with indirect dependencies.", "Total differential equation.", "Application to equation systems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Let formula_4 be an open subset. Then a function formula_5 is said to be (totally) differentiable at a point formula_6 if there exists a linear transformation formula_7 such that The linear map formula_9 is called the (total) derivative or (total) differential of formula_1 at formula_11. Other notations for the total derivative include formula_12 and formula_13. A function is (totally) differentiable if its total derivative exists at every point in its domain. Conceptually, the definition of the total derivative expresses the idea that formula_9 is the best linear approximation to formula_1 at the point formula_11. This can be made precise by quantifying the error in the linear approximation determined by formula_9. To do so, write where formula_19 equals the error in the approximation. To say that the derivative of formula_1 at formula_11 is formula_9 is equivalent to the statement where formula_24 is little-o notation and indicates that formula_19 is much smaller than formula_26 as formula_27. The total derivative formula_9 is the \"unique\" linear transformation for which the error term is this small, and this is the sense in which it is the best linear approximation to formula_1. The function formula_1 is differentiable if and only if each of its components formula_31 is differentiable, so when studying total derivatives, it is often possible to work one coordinate at a time in the codomain. However, the same is not true of the coordinates in the domain. It is true that if formula_1 is differentiable at formula_11, then each partial derivative formula_34 exists at formula_11. The converse is false: It can happen that all of the partial derivatives of formula_1 at formula_11 exist, but formula_1 is not differentiable at formula_11. This means that the function is very \"rough\" at formula_11, to such an extreme that its behavior cannot be adequately described by its behavior in the coordinate directions. When formula_1 is not so rough, this cannot happen. More precisely, if all the partial derivatives of formula_1 at formula_11 exist and are continuous in a neighborhood of formula_11, then formula_1 is differentiable at formula_11. When this happens, then in addition, the total derivative of formula_1 is the linear transformation corresponding to the Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives at that point.", "When the function under consideration is real-valued, the total derivative can be recast using differential forms. For example, suppose that formula_48 is a differentiable function of variables formula_49. The total derivative of formula_1 at formula_11 may be written in terms of its Jacobian matrix, which in this instance is a row matrix (the transpose of the gradient): The linear approximation property of the total derivative implies that if is a small vector (where the formula_54 denotes transpose, so that this vector is a column vector), then Heuristically, this suggests that if formula_56 are infinitesimal increments in the coordinate directions, then In fact, the notion of the infinitesimal, which is merely symbolic here, can be equipped with extensive mathematical structure. Techniques, such as the theory of differential forms, effectively give analytical and algebraic descriptions of objects like infinitesimal increments, formula_58. For instance, formula_58 may be inscribed as a linear functional on the vector space formula_60. Evaluating formula_58 at a vector formula_62 in formula_60 measures how much formula_62 points in the formula_65th coordinate direction. The total derivative formula_9 is a linear combination of linear functionals and hence is itself a linear functional. The evaluation formula_67 measures how much formula_62 points in the direction determined by formula_1 at formula_11, and this direction is the gradient. This point of view makes the total derivative an instance of the exterior derivative. Suppose now that formula_1 is a vector-valued function, that is, formula_72. In this case, the components formula_73 of formula_1 are real-valued functions, so they have associated differential forms formula_75. The total derivative formula_76 amalgamates these forms into a single object and is therefore an instance of a vector-valued differential form.", "The chain rule has a particularly elegant statement in terms of total derivatives. It says that, for two functions formula_1 and formula_78, the total derivative of the composite formula_79 at formula_11 satisfies If the total derivatives of formula_1 and formula_78 are identified with their Jacobian matrices, then the composite on the right-hand side is simply matrix multiplication. This is enormously useful in applications, as it makes it possible to account for essentially arbitrary dependencies among the arguments of a composite function.", "Suppose that \"f\" is a function of two variables, \"x\" and \"y\". If these two variables are independent, so that the domain of \"f\" is formula_84, then the behavior of \"f\" may be understood in terms of its partial derivatives in the \"x\" and \"y\" directions. However, in some situations, \"x\" and \"y\" may be dependent. For example, it might happen that \"f\" is constrained to a curve formula_85. In this case, we are actually interested in the behavior of the composite function formula_86. The partial derivative of \"f\" with respect to \"x\" does not give the true rate of change of \"f\" with respect to changing \"x\" because changing \"x\" necessarily changes \"y\". However, the chain rule for the total derivative takes such dependencies into account. Write formula_87. Then, the chain rule says By expressing the total derivative using Jacobian matrices, this becomes: Suppressing the evaluation at formula_90 for legibility, we may also write this as This gives a straightforward formula for the derivative of formula_86 in terms of the partial derivatives of formula_1 and the derivative of formula_94. For example, suppose The rate of change of \"f\" with respect to \"x\" is usually the partial derivative of \"f\" with respect to \"x\"; in this case, However, if \"y\" depends on \"x\", the partial derivative does not give the true rate of change of \"f\" as \"x\" changes because the partial derivative assumes that \"y\" is fixed. Suppose we are constrained to the line Then and the total derivative of \"f\" with respect to \"x\" is which we see is not equal to the partial derivative formula_100. Instead of immediately substituting for \"y\" in terms of \"x\", however, we can also use the chain rule as above:", "While one can often perform substitutions to eliminate indirect dependencies, the chain rule provides for a more efficient and general technique. Suppose formula_102 is a function of time formula_103 and formula_104 variables formula_105 which themselves depend on time. Then, the time derivative of formula_106 is The chain rule expresses this derivative in terms of the partial derivatives of formula_106 and the time derivatives of the functions formula_105: This expression is often used in physics for a gauge transformation of the Lagrangian, as two Lagrangians that differ only by the total time derivative of a function of time and the formula_104 generalized coordinates lead to the same equations of motion. An interesting example concerns the resolution of causality concerning the Wheeler–Feynman time-symmetric theory. The operator in brackets (in the final expression above) is also called the total derivative operator (with respect to formula_103). For example, the total derivative of formula_113 is Here there is no formula_115 term since formula_1 itself does not depend on the independent variable formula_103 directly.", "A \"total differential equation\" is a differential equation expressed in terms of total derivatives. Since the exterior derivative is coordinate-free, in a sense that can be given a technical meaning, such equations are intrinsic and \"geometric\".", "In economics, it is common for the total derivative to arise in the context of a system of equations. For example, a simple supply-demand system might specify the quantity \"q\" of a product demanded as a function \"D\" of its price \"p\" and consumers' income \"I\", the latter being an exogenous variable, and might specify the quantity supplied by producers as a function \"S\" of its price and two exogenous resource cost variables \"r\" and \"w\". The resulting system of equations determines the market equilibrium values of the variables \"p\" and \"q\". The total derivative formula_120 of \"p\" with respect to \"r\", for example, gives the sign and magnitude of the reaction of the market price to the exogenous variable \"r\". In the indicated system, there are a total of six possible total derivatives, also known in this context as comparative static derivatives:,,,,, and. The total derivatives are found by totally differentiating the system of equations, dividing through by, say, treating and as the unknowns, setting, and solving the two totally differentiated equations simultaneously, typically by using Cramer's rule." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Massacre of Hutus.", "Ebola outbreak.", "Notable places.", "Catholic Mission station and Central African history research centre of Bamanya.", "Botanic Garden of Eala.", "First Habitat for Humanity International housing project.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mbandaka lies on the east bank of the Congo River below the mouth of the Tshuapa River, a tributary of the Congo. South of the Ngiri Reserve, a large area of swamp forest on the opposite bank of the Congo, it lies at the center of the Tumba-Ngiri-Maindombe Ramsar wetland. Mbandaka is the capital of Équateur province, and located only a few miles/kilometres from the equator. It is home to Mbandaka airport and is linked by riverboat to Kinshasa and Boende. The city's population was approximately in 2004. The city was home to almost 1.2 million people in 2018. It lies in a busy travel corridor upstream from the capital, Kinshasa, a city of about 10 million that is an hour's plane ride away or a four- to seven-day trip by river barge. Mbandaka is largely populated by people of the Mongo ethnic group although people from many different tribes and regions live in the city. The main languages spoken in Mbandaka are Lingala, French, and Mongo. Years of war and neglect have taken a heavy toll on the city infrastructure, leaving no electricity or running water in large sectors of the city. Most of the streets and avenues of the city are dirt roads.", "Mbandaka was founded in 1883 by Henry Morton Stanley with the name of \"Équateurville\". The town hall is about north of the equator. Mbandaka is one of the closest to the equator of any substantial city in the world. Stanley placed a large \"Equator Stone\" near the riverbank south of the city to mark the point where he believed the equator crossed the river. It remains there today. Due to its symbolic location close to the equator and the Congo River, there were early plans to locate the capital of the Congo Free State in Mbandaka, but they never came off the drawing board. These plans included infrastructure for an estimated population of 100,000 people, a train station, a Catholic cathedral, a governor's residence, and a palace for future visits of Leopold II of Belgium. In 1886, at the beginning of colonial rule, the Belgians changed the city's name to \"Coquilhatville\" naming it after Camille-Aimé Coquilhat. In 1938, work began on a bridge over the Congo River connecting Mbandaka with the French Congo. Work was abandoned at the outbreak of World War II, and only the foundations of the bridge pillars remain. In the 1930s the Belgian colonial administration began several projects, including factories and a new city hall. The city hall was completed in 1947 after World War II and at that time, with a height of, was the tallest building in the Belgian Congo. On top of the city hall stood a statue of Leopold II. The city hall was destroyed by a fire in 1963. In 1966, the city's name was changed, this time by the new independent government, to \"Mbandaka\" to honor a prominent local leader.", "Hundreds of people (mainly Hutu refugees, women, and children) were massacred on May 13, 1997 near the end of the First Congo War. Congolese soldiers said the order came from Col. Wilson, head of a brigade of Kabila's troops, and Col. Richard, the brigade's operations chief, both Rwandans. A Congolese, Gen. Gaston Muyango, held the title of military commander but had no real power, they said.", "On 16 May 2018, a case of Ebola occurred in the city, spreading there from an outbreak in the countryside. A new outbreak was reported on 1 june 2020. 3 cases have already been confirmed by the WHO and 3 cases are probable, of which, 4 people died, as of June 2nd.", "", "A large research centre for Central African history, originally set up by Fathers Gustaaf Hulstaert (1900–1990) and Honoré Vinck, is at the Catholic mission station of Bamanya (Missionaries of the Sacred Heart (MSC)), east of Mbandaka.", "One of the finest botanical gardens of central Africa is at nearby Eala, about east of the town centre. The Botanic Garden of Eala, founded in 1900, contains between 4,000 and 5,000 species. It covers approximately with special collections (), forest (), marsh () and savanna \"Euobe\" (). The garden is neglected and unfenced and there is illegal logging. The last catalogue was published in 1924.", "Mbandaka is the home of the world's first project of Habitat for Humanity International. Habitat for Humanity's founder Millard Fuller served as missionary with the Disciples of Christ Church in Mbandaka from 1973–1976. The housing project Fuller started in Mbandaka in 1973 became the original project of Habitat for Humanity when Fuller founded Habitat upon his return to the United States.", "The city is located at the center of the Tumba-Ngiri-Maindombe area, designated a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention in 2008. Mbandaka has a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification. Although precipitation in the city does vary considerably, it does not have a dry season; the driest month is January, averaging around of precipitation. The wettest is October with. Temperatures are relatively constant throughout the course of the year, with median temperatures ranging from." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Municipalities.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Politics.", "Provincial council.", "Provincial executive.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Media.", "Namesakes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nehalennia is a mythological goddess of an ancient religion known around the province of Zeeland. Her worship dates back at least to the 2nd century BC, and flourished in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. She was possibly a regional god, either Celtic or pre-Germanic – but sources differ on the culture that first worshipped her. During the Roman era, her main function appeared to be the protection of travelers, especially seagoing travelers crossing the North Sea. Most of what is known about her mythology comes from the remains of carved stone offerings (votives) which have been dredged up from the Oosterschelde (Eastern Scheldt) since 1870. Two more Nehalennia offering stones have also been found in Cologne, Germany. Zeeland was a contested area between the counts of Holland and Flanders until 1299, when the last count of Holland died. The Counts of Hainaut then gained control of the County of Zeeland, followed by the counts of Bavaria, Burgundy, and Habsburg. After 1585 Zeeland followed, as one of the 7 independent provinces, the fate of the Northern part of The Netherlands. In 1432 it became part of the Low Countries possessions of Philip the Good of Burgundy, the later Seventeen Provinces. Through marriage, the Seventeen Provinces became the property of the Habsburgs in 1477. In the Eighty Years' War, Zeeland was on the side of the Union of Utrecht, and became one of the United Provinces. The area now called'(or Zeelandic Flanders) was not part of Zeeland, but a part of the county of Flanders (still under Habsburg control) that was conquered by the United Provinces, hence called'(see: Generality Lands). After the French occupation (see \"\" Bouches-de-l'Escaut) and the formation of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, the present province Zeeland was formed. During World War II, Zeeland was occupied by Nazi Germany between June 1940 and November 1944. In 1944, Zeeland was devastated by the Battle of the Scheldt and the, which brought about the Inundation of Walcheren, between British and Canadian forces, and the occupying Germans. The catastrophic North Sea flood of 1953, which killed over 1800 people in Zeeland, led to the construction of the protective Delta Works.", "The province of Zeeland is a large river delta situated at the mouth of several major rivers, namely Scheldt ('Schelde'), Rhine ('Rijn') and Meuse ('Maas'). Most of the province lies below sea level and was reclaimed from the sea by inhabitants over time. What used to be a muddy landscape, flooding at high tide and reappearing at low tide, became a series of small man-made hills that stayed dry at all times. The people of the province would later connect the hills by creating dikes, which led to a chain of dry land that later grew into bigger islands and gave the province its current shape. The shape of the islands has changed over time at the hands of both people and nature. The North Sea flood of 1953 inundated vast amounts of land that were only partially reclaimed. The subsequent construction of the Delta Works also changed the face of the province. The infrastructure, although very distinct by the number of bridges, tunnels and dams, has not shaped the geography of the province so much as the geography of the province has shaped its infrastructure. The dams, tunnels and bridges that are currently a vital part of the province's road system were constructed over the span of decades and came to replace old ferry lines. The final touch to this process came in 2003 when the Western Scheldt Tunnel was opened. It was the first solid connection between both banks of the Western Scheldt and ended the era of water separating the islands and peninsulas of Zeeland. Zeeland consists of several islands and peninsulas. These are, from north to south, Schouwen-Duiveland, Tholen, Noord-Beveland, Walcheren and Zuid-Beveland. It also includes a strip of land bordering the Belgian region of Flanders, the Zeelandic Flanders.", "The province of Zeeland has 13 municipalities: The largest cities are: Middelburg with 41,000 inhabitants; Vlissingen with 34,000; Goes with 27,000; and Terneuzen with 25,000.", "As of 1 January 2014, Zeeland has a population of 380,621 and a population density of. It is the 12th most populous or least populous province and the 2nd least densely populated province of the Netherlands.", "Zeeland is mainly a Protestant region; Calvinism is dominant. There are also adherents of the Roman Catholic Church. After being long part of the vast Franco-Flemish Roman Catholic Diocese of Cambrai, Zeeland got its own bishopric, the Diocese of Middelburg, on 5 December 1559, which was suppressed in 1603, its territory being merged into the Apostolic Vicariate of Batavia, only to be'restored' on March 22, 1803 as the Apostolic Vicariate of Breda, which was promoted to the present large (yet counting few faithful) Diocese of Breda, whose See is in the other part, western North Brabant, and enlarged further in 1955, gaining territory from the Roman Catholic Diocese of Haarlem-Amsterdam.", "", "The States-Provincial (\"Provinciale Staten\") of Zeeland are the provincial council, called the \"States of Zeeland\".", "The Provincial-Executive (\"Gedeputeerde Staten\") of Zeeland and the King's Commissioner (\"Commissaris van de Koning\") of Zeeland are the provincial executive. Han Polman, member of D66, has been the King's Commissioner of Zeeland since 2013. As of the 2007 provincial election a coalition consisted of CDA, SGP, ChristianUnion and GreenLeft, with 20 of 39 seats. As of the 2011 provincial election a coalition consisted of VVD, PvdA, CDA and SGP, with 24 of 39 seats. As of the 2015 provincial election a coalition consisted of CDA, VVD, SGP and PvdA, with 22 of 39 seats. As of the 2019 provincial election the same coalition consists of CDA, VVD, SGP and PvdA, with 20 of 39 seats.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was 13.6 billion € in 2018, accounting for 1.8% of the Netherlands economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 30,900 € or 102% of the EU27 average in the same year.", "There is one passenger railway, here with municipalities and official station abbreviations: Vlissingen (vs, vss) – Middelburg (mdb, arn) – Goes (gs) – Kapelle (bzl) – Reimerswaal (krg, kbd, rb) – connecting to Bergen op Zoom (bgn) (Noord-Brabant). Bus connections (of Connexxion, except # 395) include:", "\"Provinciale Zeeuwse Courant\" and \"BN/De Stem\" are the regional daily newspapers in the province.", "The first westerners to sight New Zealand were captained by Dutch navigator Abel Tasman in 1642, although he did not land there. Tasman named it \"Staten Landt\", believing it to be part of the land of that name off the coast of Argentina that is now known as Isla de los Estados. When that was shown not to be so, Dutch authorities named it \"Nova Zeelandia\" in Latin, \"Nieuw Zeeland\" in Dutch. The two major seafaring provinces of the Netherlands in its Golden Age were Holland and Zeeland, and the Dutch explorers originally named the largest landmass of Oceania and the two islands to the southeast Nieuw Holland and Nieuw Zeeland, respectively. The former was eventually replaced by the name Australia, but the name New Zealand remained in place for the latter. Captain James Cook of Britain later Anglicised the name to \"New Zealand\" and, after British settlers arrived in New Zealand, English became the main language. The city of Zeeland in the US state of Michigan was settled in 1847 by Dutchman Jannes van de Luyster and was incorporated in 1907. Flushing, a neighborhood within the borough of Queens, New York, is named after the city Flushing (Vlissingen in Dutch) in Zeeland. This dates from the period of the colony of New Netherland, when New York was still known as New Amsterdam. The Dutch colonies of Nieuw Walcheren and Nieuw Vlissingen, both on the Antillian island of Tobago, were both named after parts of Zeeland. The Canadian town of Zealand, New Brunswick, was named for the Zeeland birthplace of Dutchman Philip Crouse who settled in the area in 1789. Zeeland, North Dakota is another town named for this province and whose earliest settlers were of Dutch heritage. Paramaribo, the capital and largest city of Suriname, has a Fort Zeelandia, the former Fort Willoughby during British colonization. Fort Zeelandia was a fortress built over ten years from 1624–1634 by the Dutch East India Company, in the town of Anping (Tainan) on the island of Formosa, present day Taiwan, during their 38-year rule over the western part of it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Colonial era.", "Post-independence.", "Geography.", "Built environment.", "Demographics.", "Infrastructure.", "Education.", "Slum upgrading.", "Clearance.", "References in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The city of Nairobi, where Kibera is located, was founded in 1899 when the Uganda Railway line was built, thereby creating a need for its headquarters and British colonial offices. The colonial administration intended to keep Nairobi as a home for Europeans and temporary migrant workers from Africa and Asia. The migrant workers were brought into Nairobi on short-term contracts, as indentured labor, to work in the service sector, as railway manual labour and to fill lower-level administrative posts in the colonial government. Between 1900 and 1940, the colonial government passed a number of laws – such as the 1922 Vagrancy Act – to segregate people, evict, arrest, expel and limit the movement of the natives and indentured workers. Within Nairobi, Africans could live in segregated \"native reserves\" at the edge of the city. Permits to live in Nairobi were necessary, and these permits separated living areas of non-Europeans by ethnic group. One such group were African soldiers who served the military interests of the British colonial army, and their assigned area developed into a slum, now known as Kibera. Kibera originated as a settlement in the forests at the outskirts of Nairobi, when Nubian soldiers returning from service with the King's African Rifles (KAR) were allocated plots of land there in return for their efforts in 1904. Kibera was situated on the KAR military exercise grounds in close proximity to the KAR headquarters along Thika Road. The British colonial government allowed the settlement to grow informally. The Nubians had no claim on land in \"Native Reserves\" and over time, other tribes moved into the area to rent land from the Nubian landlords. With the increase in railway traffic, Nairobi's economy developed, and an increasing number of rural migrants moved to urban Nairobi in search of wage labour. Kibera and other slums developed throughout Nairobi. Proposals were made in the late 1920s to demolish and relocate Kibera, as it was within the zone of European residential holdings; however, the residents objected to these proposals. The colonial government considered proposals to reorganize Kibera, and the Kenya Land Commission heard a number of cases which referred to the \"Kibera problem\". By then, Kibera was not the only slum. A 1931 Colonial Report noted the segregated nature of housing in Nairobi and other Kenyan towns, with housing for Europeans reported as good, and widespread prevalence of slum property for Africans and other non-European migrants.", "After Kenya became independent in 1963, a number of forms of housing were made illegal by the government. The new ruling affected Kibera on the basis of land tenure, rendering it an unauthorized settlement. Despite this, people continued to live there, and by the early 1970s landlords were renting out their properties in Kibera to significantly greater numbers of tenants than were permitted by law. The tenants, who are highly impoverished, cannot afford to rent legal housing, finding the rates offered in Kibera to be comparatively affordable. The number of residents in Kibera has increased accordingly despite its unauthorized nature. By 1974, members of the Kikuyu tribe predominated the population of Kibera, and had gained control over administrative positions, which were kept through political patronage. A shift in Kenyan demographics has taken place since then, with the Luo and Luhya tribes from the West of Kenya being the primary sources of internal emigration. By 1995 Kibera had become a predominantly Luo slum and Mathare Valley nearby the predominantly Kikuyu slum area. The coincident rise of multi party politics in Kenya has caused the Luo leader and MP for much of Kibera, the parliamentary seat of Langata, Raila Odinga to be known for his ability to bring out a formidable demonstration force instantly. Meanwhile, Mathare Valley has become a hotbed of gang warfare. Political tensions in the nation between the ethnic tribes escalated after the re-election of President Kibaki in 2007. The Nubian community has a Council of Elders who are also the Trustees of its Trust. This Trust now claims all of Kibera. It claims that the extent of their land is over. It claims that owing to State sanctioned allotments the land area is now reduced to. The Government does not accept their claims but its rehousing program envisions a land extent around for the claimed Nubian settlement. Neither side has left any room for negotiation from this position. Presently, Kibera's residents represent all the major Kenyan ethnic backgrounds, with some areas being specifically dominated by peoples of one ethno-linguistic group. Many new residents come from rural areas with chronic underdevelopment and overpopulation issues. The multi-ethnic nature of Kibera's populism combined with the tribalism that pervades Kenyan politics has led to Kibera hosting a number of small ethnic conflicts throughout its century-long history. The Kenyan government owns all the land upon which Kibera stands, though it continues to not officially acknowledge the settlement; no basic services, schools, clinics, running water or lavatories are publicly provided, and the services that do exist are privately owned.", "Kibera is in southwest Nairobi, from the city centre. Much of its southern border is bounded by the Nairobi river and the Nairobi Dam, an artificial lake that used to provide drinking water to the residents of the city, but now there are two main pipes going into Kibera. Kibera is divided into 13 villages, including Kianda, Soweto East, Gatwekera, Kisumu Ndogo, Lindi, Laini Saba, Siranga, Makina and Mashimoni.", "Kibera’s morphology is very dynamic. Between 2006 and 2014 a spatiotemporal change of single buildings and building blocks across the areas of Lindi, Mashimoni, Laina Saba and Soweto East was measured (77% rise in number of buildings, density increase by 10%). Yet, its organic structure and pattern (building blocks, pathways), generally remained unchanged.", "The 2009 Kenya Population and Housing Census reported Kibera's population as 170,070. The Kibera slum was previously thought to be one of the biggest informal urban settlements in the world. Several actors had provided and published over the years growing estimations of the size of its population, most of them stating that it was the largest slum in Africa with the number of people there reaching over 1 million. According to Mike Davis, a well known expert on urban slums, Kibera had a population of about 800,000 people. The International Housing Coalition (IHC) made an estimate of more than half a million people. UN-Habitat had released several estimations ranging between 350,000 and 1 million people. These statistics mainly come out of analysis of aerial pictures of the area. IRIN estimated a population density of 2000 residents per hectare. In 2008 an independent team of researchers began a door-by-door survey named \"Map Kibera Project\" with the aim to map physical and socio-demographic features of the slum. A trained team of locals, after having developed an ad-hoc surveying methodology, has so far gathered census data of over 15,000 people and completed the mapping of 5000 structures, services (public toilets, schools), and infrastructures (drainage system, water and electricity supply) in the village of Kianda. On the basis of data collected in Kianda, the Map Kibera Project team estimated that the whole Kibera slum could be inhabited by a total population ranging from 235,000 to a maximum of 270,000 people, dramatically scaling down all previous figures. The breakdown of ethnic groups inhabiting Kibera and their gender-specific representation is Luo: 34.9% (male), 35.4% (female); Luyia: 26.5% (male), 32.5% (female); Nubian: 11.6% (male), 9.1% (female); Kikuyu: 7.9% (male), 6.4% (female); Kamba: 7.5% (male), 10.3% (female); Kisii: 6.4% (male), 2.2% (female); Other: 5.2% (male), 4.1% (female)", "The Uganda Railway Line passes through the centre of the neighbourhood, providing passengers aboard the train a firsthand view of the slum. Kibera has a railway station, but most residents use buses and \"matatus\" to reach the city centre; carjacking, irresponsible driving, and poor traffic law enforcement are chronic issues. Kibera is heavily polluted by human refuse, garbage, soot, dust, and other wastes. The slum is contaminated with human and animal faeces, due to the open sewage system and the frequent use of \"flying toilets\". The lack of sanitation combined with poor nutrition among residents accounts for many illnesses and diseases. The Umande Trust, a local NGO, is building communal toilets that generate methane gas (biogas) for local residents. A community radio station, Pamoja FM, advocates not only upgrading Kibera slum but also all the slums in Nairobi. \"Kibera Journal\" has existed since November 2006. The paper covers issues affecting the people of Kibera, and it has played an important role in training the youth in basic journalism skills that they use to cover issues in their communities.", "Most education centres in Kibera are classified as informal, but various initiatives have been underway to add schools. Some start as babycare centres, which later develop into schools. Most are not regulated by the government. Some of the notable schools are Olympic Primary School, one of the leading government schools in the country. Other government (public) schools in Kibera include Kibera Primary School (also called Old Kibera), Ayany Primary School and Toi Primary School. Facing the Future School (FaFu), as well as several church-owned and privately owned schools are also in the area. Notable Secondary schools include PCEA Silanga High School, owned by the Presbyterian Church of East Africa, Raila Educational centre, and Olympic secondary School among others. There is the vocational PCEA Emmanuel Technical Training Centre, offering self-employment skills to the residents and the Tunapanda Institute, offering free courses on technology, design and business skills. Several other local youth organisations, like the football (soccer) team the Kibera Black stars, are also concerned and involved in educational projects.", "Kibera is one of the most studied slums in Africa, not only because it sits in the centre of the modern city, but also because UN-HABITAT, the United Nations' agency for human settlements, is headquartered close by. Ban Ki-moon visited the settlement within a month of his selection as UN secretary-general. Kibera, as one of the most pronounced slums within Kenya, is undergoing an intensive slum upgrading process. The government, UN-HABITAT and a contingent of NGOs, notably Maji na Ufanisi, are making inroads into the settlements in an attempt to facelift the housing and sanitary conditions. There are three significant complicating factors to construction or upgrade within Kibera. The first is the rate of petty and serious crime. Building materials cannot be left unattended for long at any time because there is a very high chance of them being stolen. It is not uncommon for owners of storm-damaged dwellings to have to camp on top of the remnants of their homes until repairs can be made, to protect the raw materials from would-be thieves. The second is the lack of building foundations. The ground in much of Kibera is literally composed of refuse and rubbish. Dwellings are often constructed atop this unstable ground, and therefore many structures collapse whenever the slum experiences flooding, which it does regularly. This means that even well-constructed buildings are often damaged by the collapse of nearby poorly constructed ones. The third complicating factor is the unyielding topography and cramped sprawl of the area. Few houses have vehicle access, and many are at the bottoms of steep inclines (which heightens the flooding risk). This means that any construction efforts are made more difficult and costly by the fact that all materials must be brought in by hand.", "On 16 September 2009 the Kenyan government, which claims ownership of the land on which Kibera stands, began a long-term movement scheme which will rehouse the people who live in slums in Nairobi. The clearance of Kibera was expected to take between two and five years to complete. The entire project was planned to take nine years and to rehouse all the slum residents in the city. The project had the backing of the United Nations and former Prime Minister Raila Odinga, who was the area MP, and was expected to cost $1.2 billion. The new communities were planned to include schools, markets, playgrounds and other facilities. The first batch of around 1,500 people to leave the slum were taken away by truck on 16 September 2009 from 6:30 am local time and were rehoused in 300 newly constructed apartments with a monthly rent of around $10. The project start was postponed several times when Prime Minister Odinga was unavailable to oversee the first day. He was joined on the first day by Housing Minister Soita Shitanda and his assistant Margaret Wanjiru, with all three helping residents to load their belongings onto the trucks. Also present were several dozen armed police officers to oversee the arrangements and to deter any resistance. The process has been legally challenged by more than 80 people, and the Kenyan High Court has stated that the government cannot begin demolition works until the case is heard in October but will be able to demolish the homes of people who leave voluntarily before then. The 80 plaintiffs are a mixture of middle-class landlords and Kibera residents, and they claim that the land in Kibera is theirs and hence the government has no right to demolish the shacks. The Nubian community, who have lived on the land for nearly 100 years, are also disappointed with the scheme, and one elder has said that the present housing should be improved instead. The project has also come under fire from urban planners who say that it risks repeating the mistakes of previous schemes, when poor families either shared two-room apartments with one or two other families to pay the rent, or sublet them to middle-class families and moved back into the slums. Workers earning a minimum wage in Kenya make less than US$2 per day. There is also controversy over the timing of the project, with the first phase, rehousing 7,500 people, being delayed by five years and one government official stating that if the project continues at the current pace it will take 1,178 years to complete.", "Kibera is featured in Fernando Meirelles's film \"The Constant Gardener\", which is based on the book of the same name by John le Carré. It is mentioned in the music video \"World on Fire\" by Sarah McLachlan, which profiled the work of Carolina for Kibera, a grassroots organization named a Hero of Global Health in 2005 by \"Time\" magazine. Robert Neuwirth devotes a chapter of his book \"Shadow Cities\" to Kibera and calls it a squatter community, predicting that places like Kibera, Sultanbeyli in Istanbul, Turkey, and Dharavi in Mumbai, India, are the prototypes of the cities of tomorrow. Among other things, Neuwirth points out that such cities should be reconsidered and not viewed merely as slums, because many locals were drawn to them while escaping far worse conditions in rural areas. Michael Holman's 2005 novel \"Last Orders at Harrods\" is based on a fictional version of the slum, called \"Kireba\". Bill Bryson visited Africa for CARE and wrote a companion book called \"Bill Bryson's African Diary\", which includes a description of his visit to Kibera. Kibera is the backdrop for the award-winning short film \"Kibera Kid\", which featured a cast entirely drawn from residents. It has played in film festivals worldwide including the Berlin Film Festival and won a Student Emmy from Hollywood. Recently, Hot Sun Foundation and Hot Sun Films started the first film school in the slum, the Kibera Film School. The school teaches the youth from the slum how to make films and tell their stories. In 2009 through 2010, the Kibera Film School and Hot Sun Foundation collaborated on the feature follow-up to Kibera Kid, which is titled \"Togetherness Supreme\". In his documentary \"Living with Corruption\", Sorious Samura stayed with a family in Kibera to film the corruption that occurs even at the lowest levels of Kenyan society. Furthermore, Kibera is portrayed in the Austrian 2007 documentary. In 2011, the BBC aired a reality show documentary TV program called \"Rich, Famous and in the Slums\" about Kibera. The program showed four famous and rich people, after working at the worst jobs available in the slums, moving in with four local impoverished families and getting to meet the actual conditions in which they live. They were: \"The Economist\" published an article in 2012 suggesting that Kibera \"may be the most entrepreneurial place on the planet\" and that \"to equate slums with idleness and misery is to misunderstand them\". The 2014 novel \"Bingo's Run\" by James A. Levine features a 15-year-old from Kibera. The Netflix 2015 series \"Sense8\" features a character named Capheus based in Kibera, showing the hardships of a fictional matatu driver there." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The band debuted with the 1979 EP \"Lunch with the Adicts\", the first release on the Dining Out label. In 1980, the band recorded the songs \"Sympathy\" and \"Sheer Enjoyment\" for an intended single, but they were not released until the 1984 compilation album \"This Is Your Life\". The band released their debut album, \"Songs of Praise\", in 1981 on their own Dwed Wecords, funded by the band's then-manager Geordie Davison. In 1982, the album was re-released on Fallout Records, who also issued their first single \"Viva la Revolution\", which became one of the band's most iconic songs. That same year, the band began their relationship with Razor Records and released their second album, \"Sound of Music\", featuring the single \"Chinese Takeaway\". In 1983, the band released \"Bad Boy\", their highest-charting single. The success of that single led to the band signing with Warner Bros. Records offshoot Sire Records. At this time, the band changed their name to ADX at the behest of Sire, as the name the Adicts was considered to have too much of a negative connotation. The relationship with Sire only lasted for two singles, \"Tokyo\" (produced by Vapors frontman David Fenton in 1984) and a cover of Marlene Dietrich's \"Falling in Love Again\" in 1985. Their third album, \"Smart Alex\", featuring previous singles \"Bad Boy\" and \"Tokyo\", was issued in 1985 on Razor Records. The band's third release of that year was the \"Bar Room Bop\" EP, for which they returned to Fallout. Their fourth album, 1986's \"Fifth Overture\", was initially released only in Germany, and did not see release in their home country until the following year. The band then entered a period of inactivity, only releasing the live albums \"Live and Loud!!\", recorded in 1981 and released in 1987, and \"Rockers into Orbit\", recorded in 1986 and released in 1990. The band's next studio album finally appeared in 1992, when the US label Cleopatra Records released \"Twenty-Seven\", which was not released in the UK until a year later on Anagram Records. Cleopatra reissued the band's first three albums in 1993, giving those discs their first release in the US. Another period of inactivity ensued, this time lasting until 2002. That year, the band's first album in a decade,\"Rise and Shine\" was released on Captain Oi! Records, who also released expanded reissues of all of the band's previous albums with the exception of \"Songs of Praise\". Two years later, the \"Rollercoaster\" album was released on the US label SOS Records; it has never been officially released in the UK. Over the next couple of years, SOS released their own expanded reissues of \"Sound of Music\", \"Smart Alex\", \"Twenty-Seven\" and \"Rise and Shine\". The Adicts' next album was a newly recorded version of their debut \"Songs of Praise\", which was released in 2008 on the European label People Like You Records. A year later, the band released \"Life Goes On\" on the same label. In 2012, \"All the Young Droogs\" was released on DC-Jam Records. In 2017, the Adicts signed to Nuclear Blast, and announced a fall 2017 release for the album \"And It Was So!\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Demographics.", "History.", "Early history.", "18th century.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Roads and bridges.", "Cruising.", "Airports.", "Public transport.", "Railways.", "Light rail.", "Buses.", "Trams.", "Porto public transportation statistics.", "Culture.", "Entertainment.", "Arts.", "Architecture.", "Gastronomy.", "Education.", "University.", "Public health.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Basketball.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Breaking down the population further shows that there are a higher percentage of females than males. Estimates from 2016 show that the population is 55% female, compared to 45% male. The largest age group, according to 2016 estimates, is 60 to 69, followed by", "", "The history of Porto dates back to around 300 BC with Proto-Celtic and Celtic people being the first known inhabitants. Ruins of that period have been discovered in several areas. During the Roman occupation of the Iberian Peninsula, the city developed as an important commercial port, primarily in the trade between \"Olissipona\" (the modern Lisbon) and \"Bracara Augusta\" (the modern Braga). Porto was also important during the Suebian and Visigothic times, and a centre for the expansion of Christianity during that period. Porto fell under the control of the Moors during the invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 711. In 868, Vímara Peres, an Asturian count from Gallaecia, and a vassal of the King of Asturias, Léon and Galicia, Alfonso III, was sent to reconquer and secure the lands back into Christian hands. This included the area from the Minho to the Douro River: the settlement of \"Portus Cale\" and the area that is known as Vila", "By the 13th century the wine produced in the Douro valley was already transported to Porto in \"barcos rabelos\" (flat sailing vessels). In 1703, the Methuen Treaty established the trade relations between Portugal and England. In 1717, a first English trading post was established in Porto. The production of port wine then gradually passed into the hands of a few English firms. To counter this English dominance, Prime Minister Marquis of Pombal established a Portuguese firm", "The invasion of the Napoleonic troops in Portugal under Marshal Soult brought war to the city of Porto. On 29 March 1809, as the population fled from the advancing French troops and tried to cross the river Douro over the \"Ponte das Barcas\" (a pontoon bridge), the bridge collapsed under the weight. This event is still remembered by a plate at the Ponte D. Luis I. The French army was rooted out of Porto by Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, when his Anglo-Portuguese Army crossed the Douro River from the Mosteiro da Serra do Pilar (a former convent) in a brilliant daylight \"coup de main\", using wine barges to transport the troops, outflanking the French Army. On 24 August 1820, a liberal revolution occurred, quickly spreading without resistance to the rest of the country. In 1822, a liberal constitution was accepted, partly through the efforts of the liberal assembly of Porto (Junta do Porto). When Miguel I of Portugal took the Portuguese throne in 1828, he rejected this constitution and reigned as an absolutist monarch. A Civil War was then fought from 1828 to 1834 between those supporting", "On 19 January 1919, forces favourable to the restoration of the monarchy launched a counter-revolution in Porto known as Monarchy of the North. During this time, Porto was the capital of the restored kingdom, as the movement was contained to the north. The", "In 1996, UNESCO recognised Porto's historic centre as a World Heritage Site. Among the architectural highlights of the city, Porto Cathedral is the oldest surviving structure, together with the small romanesque Church of Cedofeita, the gothic Igreja de São Francisco (Church of Saint Francis), the remnants of the city walls and a few 15th-century houses. The baroque style is well represented in the city in the elaborate gilt work interior decoration of the churches of St. Francis (\"São Francisco\") and St. Claire (\"Santa Clara\"), the churches of Mercy (\"Misericórdia\") and of the Clerics (\"Clérigos\"), the Episcopal Palace of Porto, and others. The neoclassicism and romanticism of the 19th and 20th centuries also added interesting monuments to the landscape of the city, like the magnificent Stock Exchange Palace (\"Palácio da Bolsa\"), the Hospital of Saint Anthony, the Municipality, the buildings in the Liberdade Square and the \"Avenida dos Aliados\", the tile-adorned São Bento Train Station and the gardens of the Crystal Palace (\"Palácio de Cristal\"). A guided visit to the Palácio da Bolsa, and in particular the Arab Room, is a major tourist attraction. Many of the city's oldest houses are at risk of collapsing. The population in Porto municipality dropped by nearly 100,000 since the 1980s, but the number of permanent residents in the outskirts and satellite towns has grown strongly. Administratively, the municipality is divided into 7 civil parishes (\"freguesias\"):", "Porto features a warm-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen: \"Csb\"), with influences of an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\") like the north of Spain. As a result, its climate shares many characteristics with the coastal south: warm, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Cool and rainy days can, occasionally, interrupt the dry season. These occasional summer rainy periods may last a few days and are characterised by showers and cool temperatures around in the afternoon. The annual precipitation is high and concentrated in the winter months, making", "As the most important city in the heavily industrialized northwest, many of the largest Portuguese corporations from diverse economic sectors, like Altri, Ambar, Amorim, Bial, Cerealis, BPI, CIN, EFACEC, Frulact, Lactogal, Millennium bcp, Porto Editora, Grupo RAR, Sonae, Sonae Indústria, and Unicer, are headquartered in the Greater Metropolitan Area of Porto, most notably, in the core municipalities of Maia, Matosinhos, Porto, and Vila Nova de Gaia. The country's biggest exporter (Petrogal) has one of its two refineries near the city, in Leça da Palmeira (13 km) and the second biggest (Qimonda, now bankrupt) has its only factory also near the city in Mindelo (26 km). The city's former stock exchange (Bolsa do Porto) was transformed into the largest derivatives exchange of Portugal, and merged with Lisbon Stock Exchange to create the Bolsa de Valores de Lisboa e Porto, which eventually merged with Euronext, together with Amsterdam, Brussels, LIFFE and Paris stock and futures exchanges. The building formerly hosting the stock exchange is currently one of the city's touristic attractions, the Salão Árabe (Arab Room in English) being its major highlight. Porto hosts a popular Portuguese newspaper, \"Jornal de Notícias\". The building where its offices are located (which has the same name as the newspaper) was up to recently one of the tallest in the city (it has been superseded by a number of modern buildings which have been built since the 1990s). Porto Editora, one of the biggest Portuguese publishers, is also located in Porto. Its dictionaries are among the most popular references used in the country, and the translations are very popular as well. The economic relations between the city of Porto and the Upper Douro River have been documented since the Middle Ages. However, they were greatly deepened in the modern ages. Indeed, sumach, dry fruits and nuts and the Douro olive oils sustained prosperous exchanges between the region and Porto. From the riverside quays at the river mouth, these products were exported to other markets of the Old and New World. However, the greatest lever to interregional trade relations resulted from the commercial dynamics of the Port wine (\"Vinho do Porto\") agro industry. It decidedly bolstered the complementary relationship between the large coastal urban centre, endowed with open doors to the sea, and a region with significant agricultural potential, especially in terms of the production of extremely high quality fortified wines, known by the world-famous label \"Port\". The development of Porto was also closely connected with the left margin of River Douro in Vila Nova de Gaia, where is located the amphitheatre-shaped slope with the Port wine cellars. The city is very much the gateway to Portugal's northern region as well as the northern and western areas of Spain. Within a two-hour drive of Porto's airport there are four Unesco World Heritage sites and popular Spanish tourist hotspots such as Santiago de Compostela. In a study concerning competitiveness of the 18 Portuguese district capitals, Porto was the worst-ranked. The study was made by Minho University economics researchers and was published in Público newspaper on 30 September 2006. The best-ranked cities in the study were Évora, Lisbon and Coimbra. Nevertheless, the validity of this study was questioned by some Porto notable figures (such as local politicians and businesspersons) who argued that the city proper does not function independently but in conurbation with other municipalities. A new ranking, published in the newspaper Expresso (Portuguese Newspaper) in 2007 which can be translated to \"The Best Cities to Live in Portugal\" ranked Porto in third place (tied with Évora) below Guimarães and Lisbon. The two studies are not directly comparable as they use different dependent measures. The Porto metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $43.0 billion, and $21,674 per capita.", "", "The road system capacity is augmented by the \"Via de Cintura Interna\" or A20, an internal highway connected to several motorways and city exits, complementing the \"Circunvalação\" 4-lane peripheric road, which borders the north of the city and connects the eastern side of the city to the Atlantic shore. The city is connected to Valença (Viana do Castelo) by highway A28, to Estarreja (Aveiro) by the A29, to Lisbon by the A1, to Bragança by the A4 and to Braga by the A3. There is also an outer-ring road, the A41, that connects all the main cities around Porto, linking the city to other major metropolitan highways such as the A7, A11, A42, A43 and A44. Since 2011, a new highway, the A32, connects the metropolitan area to São João da Madeira and Oliveira de Azeméis. The Dom Luís I", "In July 2015 a new cruise terminal was opened", "Porto is served by Francisco de Sá Carneiro Airport which is located in Pedras Rubras, Moreira da Maia civil parish of the", "", "Porto's main railway station is Campanhã railway station, located in the eastern part of the city and connected to the lines of Douro (Peso da Régua/Tua/Pocinho), Minho (Barcelos/Viana do Castelo/Valença) and centre of Portugal (on the main line to Aveiro, Coimbra and Lisbon). From Campanhã station, both light rail and suburban rail services connect to the city center. The main central station is São Bento Station, which is itself a notable", "Currently the major project is the Porto Metro, a light rail system. Consequently, the Infante bridge was built for urban traffic, replacing the Dom Luís I, which was dedicated to the light rail on the second and higher of the bridge's two levels. Six lines are open: lines A (blue), B (red), C (green) and E (purple) all begin at", "The city has an extensive bus network run by the STCP (Sociedade dos Transportes Colectivos do Porto, or Porto Public Transport Society) which also operates lines in the neighbouring cities", "A tram (streetcar) network, of which only three lines remain one of them being a tourist line on the shores of the Douro, saw its construction begin on 12 September 1895, therefore being the first in the Iberian Peninsula. The", "The average amount of time people spend commuting with public transit in Porto, for example to and from work, on a weekday is 47 minutes. About 6.5% of public transit riders ride for more than two hours every day. The average time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is 12 minutes, while 17.4% of riders wait for over 20 minutes on average every day. The average distance people ride in a single trip with public transit is 6 km, while 5% travel for over 12 km in a single direction.", "In 2001, Porto shared the designation European Culture Capital. In the scope of these events, the construction of the major concert hall space Casa da Música, designed by the Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas, was initiated and finished in 2005. The first Portuguese moving pictures were taken in Porto by Aurélio da Paz dos Reis and shown there on 12 November 1896 in the Teatro do Príncipe Real do Porto, less than a year after the first public presentation by Auguste and Louis Lumière. The country's first movie studios Invicta Filmes was also erected in Porto in 1917 and was open from 1918 to 1927 in the area of Carvalhido. Manoel de Oliveira, a Portuguese film director and the oldest director in the world to be active until his death in 2015, was from Porto. Fantasporto is an international film festival organized in Porto every year. Many renowned Portuguese music artists and cult bands such as GNR, Rui Veloso, Sérgio Godinho, Clã, Pluto, and Ornatos Violeta are from the city or its metropolitan area. Porto has several museums, concert halls, theaters, cinemas, art galleries, libraries and bookshops. The best-known museums of Porto are the National Museum Soares dos Reis (\"Museu Nacional de Soares dos Reis\"), which is dedicated especially to the Portuguese artistic movements from the 16th to the 20th century, and the Museum of Contemporary Art of the Serralves Foundation (\"Museu de Arte Contemporânea\"). The city has concert halls of a rare beauty and elegance such as the \"Coliseu do Porto\" by the Portuguese architect Cassiano Branco; an exquisite example of the Portuguese decorative arts. Other notable venues include the historical São João National Theatre, the \"Rivoli\" theatre, the \"Batalha cinema\" and \"Casa da Música\", inaugurated in 2005. The city has the Lello Bookshop, which is frequently rated among the top bookstores in the world. Porto houses the largest synagogue in the Iberian Peninsula and one of the largest in Europe – Kadoorie Synagogue, inaugurated in 1938.", "Porto's most popular event is St. John (São João Festival) on the night of 23–24 June. In this season it's a tradition to have a vase with bush basil decorated with a small poem. During the dinner of the great day people usually eat sardines and boiled potatoes together with red wine. Another major event is Queima das Fitas, that starts on the first Sunday of May and ends on the second Sunday of the month. Basically, before the beginning of the study period preceding the school year’s last", "Porto was the birthplace in 1856 of Susanna Roope Dockery, an Anglo-Portuguese watercolour painter who produced many paintings of the city and the people and landscape of the surrounding rural areas. An Englishman, Frederick William Flower, moved to Porto in 1834 at the age of 19 to", "Due to its long history, the city of Porto carries an immense architectural patrimony. From the Romanesque Cathedral to the Social Housing projects developed through the late 20th century, much could be said surrounding architecture. Porto is home to the Porto School of Architecture, one of the most prestigious architecture schools in Europe and the", "Porto is home to a number of dishes from traditional Portuguese cuisine. A typical dish from this city is \"Tripas à Moda do Porto\" (Tripes Porto style). \"Bacalhau à Gomes de Sá\" (cod in the style Gomes de Sá) is another typical codfish dish born in", "The city has a large number of public and private elementary and secondary schools, as well as kindergartens and nurseries. Due to the depopulation of the city's interior, however, the number of students has dropped substantially in the last decade, forcing a closure of some institutions. The oldest and largest international school located in Porto is the Oporto British School, established in 1894. There are more international schools in the city, such as the French School and the Deutsch School, both created in the 20th century.", "Porto has several institutions of higher education, the largest one being the state-managed University of Porto (\"Universidade do Porto\"), which is the second largest", "Porto district has the highest rate of tuberculosis positive cases in Portugal. Porto tuberculosis rates are at Third World proportions (comparatively, London faces a similar phenomenon). The incidence of positive cases was 23/100 000 nationwide in 1994, with a rate of 24/100 000 in Lisbon and 37/100 000 in Porto. Porto", "Porto, in addition to football, is the home to many athletic sports arenas, most notably the city-owned Pavilhão Rosa Mota, swimming pools in the area of \"Constituição\" (between the \"Marquês\" and \"Boavista\"), and other minor arenas, such as the \"Pavilhão do Académico\". Porto is home to northern Portugal's only cricket club, the Oporto Cricket and Lawn Tennis Club. Annually, for more than 100 years, a match (the Kendall Cup) has been played between the Porto Club and the Casuals Club of Lisbon, in addition to regular games against touring teams (mainly from England). The club's pitch is located off the \"Rua Campo Alegre\". In 1958 and 1960, Porto's streets hosted the Formula One Portuguese Grand Prix on the Boavista street circuit, which are reenacted annually, in addition to a World Touring Car Championship race. Every year in October the Porto Marathon is held through the streets of the old city of Porto.", "As in most Portuguese cities, football is the most important sport. There are two main teams in Porto: FC Porto in the parish of Campanhã, in the eastern part of the city and Boavista in the area of Boavista in the parish of Ramalde, in the western part of the city, close to the city centre. FC Porto is one of the \"Big Three\" teams in the Portuguese league, and was European champion in 1987 and 2004, won the UEFA Cup (2003) and Europa League (2011) and the Intercontinental Toyota Cup in 1987 and 2004. Boavista have won the championship once, in the 2000–01 season and reached the semi-finals of the UEFA Cup in 2003, where they lost 2–1 to Celtic. Formerly, Salgueiros from Paranhos was a regular first division club", "The FC Porto (basketball) team plays its home games at the Dragão Caixa. Its squad won", "Porto is twinned with:" ] }