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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Geographical background.", "Overview.", "Paleolithic period.", "Jōmon period.", "Yayoi period.", "Kofun period (c. 250–538).", "Classical Japan.", "Asuka period (538–710).", "Nara period (710–794).", "Heian period (794–1185).", "Feudal Japan.", "Kamakura period (1185–1333).", "Literary developments of the late-Heian and Kamakura periods.", "Muromachi period (1333–1568).", "Azuchi–Momoyama period (1568–1600).", "Early modern Japan.", "Edo period (1600–1868).", "Modern Japan.", "Meiji period (1868–1912).", "Political and social changes.", "Rise of imperialism and the military.", "Economic modernization and labor unrest.", "Taishō period (1912–1926).", "Shōwa period (1926–1989).", "Manchurian Incident and the Second Sino-Japanese War.", "World War II.", "Occupation of Japan.", "Postwar growth and prosperity.", "Heisei period (1989–2019).", "Reiwa period (2019–present).", "Social conditions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The is a group of 6,852 islands that form the country of Japan. It extends over from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and the Philippine Sea in the south along the east coast of the Asian continent. The size of Japan is in 2018. This makes it 1.56 times bigger than the United Kingdom. Japan is the largest island country in East Asia and the fourth largest island country in the world. Japan has the sixth longest coastline () and the eighth largest Exclusive Economic Zone of. The islands of Japan were created by tectonic plate movements over several hundred millions of years from the mid-Silurian (443.8 Mya) to the Pleistocene (11,700 years ago). Japan is located in the northwestern Ring of Fire on multiple tectonic plates. East of the Japanese archipelago are three oceanic trenches. The Japan Trench is created as the oceanic Pacific Plate subducts beneath the continental Okhotsk Plate. The continuous subduction process causes frequent earthquakes, tsunami and stratovolcanoes. The islands are also affected by typhoons. The subduction plates have pulled the Japanese archipelago eastward, created the Sea of Japan and separated it from the Asian continent by back-arc spreading 15 million years ago. Japan", "A commonly accepted periodization of Japanese history:", "Land bridges, during glacial periods when the world sea level is lower, have periodically linked the Japanese archipelago to the Asian continent via Sakhalin Island in the north and via the Ryukyu Islands and Taiwan in the south since the beginning of the current Quaternary glaciation 2.58 million years ago. There may also have been a land bridge to Korea in the southwest, though not in the 125,000 years or so since the start of the last interglacial. The Korea Strait was, however, quite narrow", "The Jōmon period of prehistoric Japan spans from about 12,000 BC (in some cases dates as early as 14,500 BC are given) to about 1,000 BC. Japan was inhabited by a hunter-gatherer culture that reached a considerable degree of sedentism and cultural complexity. The", "The Yayoi people brought new technologies and modes of living to the Japanese archipelago. It took over from the Jōmon culture and spread from northern Kyushu. Yayoi culture quickly spread to the main island of Honshū, mixing with native Jōmon culture. The date of the change was until recently thought to be around 400 BC, but radio-carbon evidence suggests a date up to 500 years earlier, between 1,000 and 800 BC. A recent study that used accelerator mass spectrometry to analyze carbonized remains on pottery and wooden stakes, suggests that they dated", "During the subsequent Kofun period, most of Japan gradually unified under a single kingdom. The symbol of the growing power of Japan's new leaders was the \"kofun\" burial mounds they constructed from around AD 250 onwards. Many were of massive scales, such as the Daisen Kofun, a 500 m-long keyhole-shaped burial mound that took huge teams of laborers fifteen years to complete. It is commonly accepted that the tomb was built for the late Emperor Nintoku. The \"kofun\" were often surrounded by and filled with numerous \"haniwa\" clay sculptures, often in the shape of warriors and horses. The Nintoku-tennō-ryō Kofun, is one grave mound which is a long", "", "The Asuka period began in 538 AD with the introduction of the Buddhist religion from the Korean kingdom of Baekje. Since then, Buddhism has coexisted with Japan's native Shinto religion, in what is today known as Shinbutsu-shūgō. The period draws its name from the \"de facto\" imperial capital, Asuka, in the Kinai region. At the end of the Kofun period and during the Asuka period, Iranian influence reached its maximum. It is suggested that some Scythians and Persians settled in Japan and were granted titles of feudal lords by the emperor.", "In 710, the government constructed a grandiose new capital at Heijō-kyō (modern Nara) modeled on Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang dynasty. During this period, the first two books produced in Japan appeared: the \"Kojiki\" and \"Nihon Shoki\", which contain chronicles of legendary accounts of early Japan and its creation myth, which describes the imperial line as descendants of the gods. The latter half of the eighth century saw the compilation of the \"Man'yōshū\", widely considered the finest collection of Japanese poetry. During this period, Japan suffered a series of natural disasters, including wildfires, droughts, famines, and outbreaks of disease,", "In 784, the capital moved briefly to Nagaoka-kyō, then again in 794 to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto), which remained the capital until 1868. Political power within the court soon passed to the Fujiwara clan, a family of court nobles who grew increasingly close to the imperial family through intermarriage. Between 812–814 CE, a smallpox epidemic killed almost half of the Japanese population. In 858, Fujiwara no Yoshifusa had himself declared \"sesshō\" (\"regent\") to the underage Emperor. His son Fujiwara no Mototsune created the office of \"kampaku\", which could rule in the place of an adult reigning Emperor. Fujiwara no Michinaga, an exceptional statesman who became \"kampaku\" in 996, governed during the height of the Fujiwara clan's power and married four of his daughters to emperors, current and future. The Fujiwara clan held on to power until 1086, when Emperor Shirakawa ceded the throne to his son Emperor Horikawa but continued to exercise political power, establishing the practice of cloistered rule, by which the reigning Emperor would function as a figurehead while the real authority was held by a retired predecessor behind the scenes. Throughout the Heian period, the power of the imperial court declined. The court became so self-absorbed with power struggles, and with the artistic pursuits of court nobles, that it neglected the administration of government outside the capital. The nationalization of land undertaken as part of the \"ritsuryō\" state decayed as various noble families and religious orders succeeded in securing tax-exempt status for their private \"shōen\" manors. By the eleventh century, more land in Japan was controlled by \"shōen\" owners than by the central government. The imperial court was thus deprived of", "", "Upon the consolidation of power, Minamoto no Yoritomo chose to rule in concert with the Imperial Court in Kyoto. Though Yoritomo set up his own government in Kamakura in the Kantō region located in eastern Japan, its power was legally authorized by the Imperial court in Kyoto in several occasions. In 1192, the Emperor declared Yoritomo \"seii tai-shōgun\" (; \"Eastern Barbarian Subduing Great General\"), abbreviated \"shōgun\". Later (in Edo period), the word \"bakufu\" (; originally means a general's house or office, literally a \"tent office\") came to be used to mean a government headed by a shogun. The English term \"shogunate\" refers to the \"bakufu\". Japan remained largely under military rule until 1868. Legitimacy was conferred on the shogunate by", "\"Waka\" poetry flourished in the late Heian and early Kamakura periods. The aristocrat Fujiwara no Shunzei was \"the leading poet of [his] day\" and on a request from Emperor Go-Shirakawa compiled the \"Senzai Wakashū\" the seventh imperial collection. Donald Keene noted that Shunzei was \"the most eminent poet since Tsurayuki to have been charged with the compilation of an imperial collection\". The anthology, commissioned in 1183 but not completed until 1188, after the defeat of the Taira, contained poems by Taira adherents who had been officially denounced as enemies of the throne, as a gesture to calm the vengeful spirits of the Taira. It also contained poems by thirty-three female poets, the most women recognized by any of the late-Heian imperial collections. Teika, Shunzei's son, would become even more important: his \"Hyakunin Isshu\" made him \"the arbiter of the poetic tastes of most Japanese even as late as the twentieth century\". His later work copying manuscripts were of such importance that Keene noted that \"what we know of the literature of Teika's day and earlier is mainly what he", "Takauji and many other samurai soon became dissatisfied with Emperor Go-Daigo's Kenmu Restoration, an ambitious attempt to monopolize power in the imperial court. Takauji rebelled after Go-Daigo refused to appoint him shōgun. In 1338, Takauji captured Kyoto and installed a rival member of the imperial family to the throne, Emperor Kōmyō, who did appoint him shogun. Go-Daigo responded by fleeing to the southern city of Yoshino, where he set up a rival government. This ushered in a prolonged period of conflict between the Northern Court and the Southern Court. Takauji set up his shogunate in the Muromachi district of Kyoto. However, the shogunate was faced with the twin challenges of fighting the Southern Court and of maintaining its authority over its own subordinate governors. Like the Kamakura shogunate, the Muromachi shogunate appointed its allies to rule in the provinces, but these men increasingly styled themselves as feudal lords—called \"daimyōs\"—of their domains and often refused to obey the shogun. The Ashikaga shogun who was most successful at bringing the country together was Takauji's grandson Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who came to power in 1368 and remained influential until his death in 1408. Yoshimitsu expanded the power of the shogunate and in 1392, brokered a deal to bring the Northern and Southern Courts together and end the civil war. Henceforth, the shogunate kept the Emperor and his", "During the second half of the 16th century, Japan gradually reunified under two powerful warlords: Oda Nobunaga; and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The period takes its name from Nobunaga's headquarters, Azuchi Castle, and Hideyoshi's headquarters, Momoyama Castle. Nobunaga was the \"daimyō\" of the small province of Owari. He burst onto the scene suddenly, in 1560, when, during the Battle of Okehazama, his army defeated a force several times its size led by the powerful \"daimyō\" Imagawa Yoshimoto. Nobunaga was renowned for his strategic leadership and his ruthlessness. He encouraged Christianity to incite hatred toward his Buddhist enemies and to forge strong relationships with European arms merchants. He equipped his armies with muskets and trained them with innovative tactics. He promoted talented men regardless of their social status, including his peasant servant Toyotomi Hideyoshi, who became one of his best generals. The Azuchi–Momoyama period began in 1568, when Nobunaga seized Kyoto and thus effectively brought an end to the Ashikaga shogunate. He was well on", "", "The Edo period was characterized by relative peace and stability under the tight control of the Tokugawa shogunate, which ruled from the eastern city of Edo (modern Tokyo). In 1603, Emperor Go-Yōzei declared Tokugawa Ieyasu \"shōgun\", and Ieyasu abdicated two years later to groom his son as the second \"shōgun\" of what became a long dynasty. Nevertheless, it took time for the Tokugawas to consolidate their rule. In 1609, the \"shōgun\" gave the \"daimyō\" of Satsuma Domain permission to invade the Ryukyu Kingdom for perceived insults towards the shogunate; the Satsuma victory began 266 years of Ryukyu's dual subordination to Satsuma and China. Ieyasu led the Siege of Osaka that ended with the destruction of the Toyotomi clan in 1615. Soon after the shogunate promulgated the Laws for the Military Houses, which imposed tighter controls on the \"daimyōs\", and the alternate attendance system, which required each \"daimyō\" to spend every other year in Edo. Even so, the \"daimyōs\" continued to maintain a significant degree of autonomy in their domains. The central government of the shogunate in Edo, which quickly became the most populous city in the world, took counsel from a group of senior advisors known as \"rōjū\" and employed samurai as bureaucrats. The Emperor in Kyoto was funded lavishly by the government but was allowed no political power. The Tokugawa shogunate went to great lengths to suppress social unrest. Harsh penalties, including crucifixion, beheading, and death by boiling, were decreed for even the", "", "The Emperor was restored to nominal supreme power, and in 1869, the imperial family moved to Edo, which was renamed Tokyo (\"eastern capital\"). However, the most powerful men in the government were former samurai from Chōshū and Satsuma rather than the Emperor, who was fifteen in 1868. These men, known as the Meiji oligarchs, oversaw the dramatic changes Japan would experience during this period. The leaders of the Meiji government, who are regarded as some of the most successful statesmen in human history, desired Japan to become a modern nation-state that could stand equal to the Western imperialist powers. Among them were Ōkubo Toshimichi and Saigō Takamori from Satsuma, as well as Kido Takayoshi, Ito Hirobumi, and Yamagata Aritomo from Chōshū.", "The Meiji government abolished the Neo-Confucian class structure and replaced the feudal domains of the \"daimyōs\" with prefectures. It instituted comprehensive tax reform and lifted the ban on Christianity. Major government priorities included the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and a universal education system. The Meiji government promoted widespread Westernization and hired hundreds of advisers from Western nations with expertise in such fields as education, mining, banking, law, military affairs, and transportation to remodel Japan's institutions. The Japanese adopted the Gregorian calendar, Western clothing, and Western hairstyles. One leading advocate of Westernization was the popular writer Fukuzawa Yukichi. As part of its Westernization drive, the Meiji government enthusiastically sponsored the importation of Western science, above all medical science. In 1893, Kitasato Shibasaburō established the Institute for Infectious Diseases, which would soon become world-famous, and in 1913, Hideyo Noguchi proved the link between syphilis and paresis. Furthermore, the introduction", "In December 1871, a Ryukyuan ship was shipwrecked on Taiwan and the crew were massacred. In 1874, using the incident as a pretext, Japan launched a military expedition to Taiwan to assert their claims to the Ryukyu Islands. The expedition featured the first instance of the Japanese military ignoring the orders of the civilian government, as the expedition set sail after being ordered to postpone. Yamagata Aritomo, who was born a samurai in the Chōshū Domain, was a key force behind the modernization and enlargement of the Imperial Japanese Army, especially the introduction of national conscription. The new army was put to use in 1877 to crush the Satsuma Rebellion of discontented samurai in southern Japan led by the former Meiji", "During the Meiji period, Japan underwent a rapid transition towards an industrial economy. Both the Japanese government and private entrepreneurs adopted Western technology and knowledge to create factories capable of producing a wide range of goods. By the end of the period, the majority of Japan's exports were manufactured goods. Some of Japan's most successful new businesses and industries constituted huge family-owned conglomerates called \"zaibatsu\", such as Mitsubishi and Sumitomo. The phenomenal industrial growth sparked rapid urbanization. The proportion of the population working in agriculture shrank from 75 percent in", "During the short reign of Emperor Taishō, Japan developed stronger democratic institutions and grew in international power. The Taishō political crisis opened the period with mass protests and riots organized by Japanese political parties, which succeeded in forcing Katsura Tarō to resign as prime minister. This and the rice riots of 1918 increased the power of Japan's political parties over the ruling oligarchy. The Seiyūkai and Minseitō parties came to dominate politics by the end of the so-called \"Taishō democracy\" era. The franchise for the House of Representatives had been gradually expanded since 1890, and in 1925 universal male suffrage was introduced. However, in the same year the far-reaching Peace Preservation Law also passed, prescribing harsh penalties for political dissidents. Japan's participation in World", "Emperor Hirohito's sixty-three-year reign from 1926 to 1989 is the longest in recorded Japanese history. The first twenty years were characterized by the rise of extreme nationalism and a series of expansionist wars. After suffering defeat in World War II, Japan was occupied by foreign powers for the first time in its history, and then re-emerged as a major world economic power.", "Left-wing groups had been subject to violent suppression by the end of the Taishō period, and radical right-wing groups, inspired by fascism and Japanese nationalism, rapidly grew in popularity. The extreme right became influential throughout the Japanese government and society, notably within the Kwantung Army, a Japanese army stationed in China along the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railroad. During the Manchurian Incident of 1931, radical army officers bombed a small portion of the South Manchuria Railroad and, falsely attributing the attack to the Chinese, invaded Manchuria. The Kwantung Army conquered Manchuria and set up the puppet government of Manchukuo there without permission from the Japanese government. International criticism of Japan following the invasion led to Japan withdrawing from the League of Nations. Prime Minister Tsuyoshi Inukai of the Seiyūkai Party attempted to restrain the Kwantung Army and was assassinated in 1932 by right-wing extremists. Because of growing opposition within the Japanese military and the extreme right to party politicians, who they saw as corrupt and self-serving, Inukai was the last party politician to govern Japan in the pre-World War II era. In", "In late 1941, Japan's government, led by Prime Minister and General Hideki Tojo, decided to break the US-led embargo through force of arms. On December 7, 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy launched a surprise attack on the American fleet at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. This brought the US into World War II on the side of the Allies. Japan then successfully invaded the Asian colonies of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands, including the Philippines, Malaya, Hong Kong, Singapore, Burma, and the Dutch East Indies. In the early stages of the war, Japan scored victory after victory. The tide began to turn against Japan following the Battle of Midway in June 1942 and the subsequent Battle of Guadalcanal, in which Allied troops wrested the Solomon Islands from Japanese control. During this period the Japanese military was responsible for such war crimes as mistreatment of prisoners of war, massacres of civilians, and the use of chemical and biological weapons. The Japanese military earned a", "Japan experienced dramatic political and social transformation under the Allied occupation in 1945–1952. US General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of Allied Powers, served as Japan's \"de facto\" leader and played a central role in implementing reforms, many inspired by the New Deal of the 1930s. The occupation sought to decentralize power in Japan by breaking up the \"zaibatsu\", transferring ownership of agricultural land from landlords to tenant farmers, and promoting labor unionism. Other major goals were the demilitarization and democratization of Japan's government and society. Japan's military was disarmed, its colonies were granted independence, the Peace Preservation Law and Tokkō were abolished, and the International Military Tribunal", "Shigeru Yoshida served as prime minister in 1946–1947 and 1948–1954, and played a key role in guiding Japan through the occupation. His policies, known as the Yoshida Doctrine, proposed that Japan should forge a tight relationship with the United States and focus on developing the economy rather than pursuing a proactive foreign policy. Yoshida was one of the longest serving prime ministers in Japanese history and the third-longest serving Prime Minister in Post-occupation Japan. Yoshida's Liberal Party merged in 1955 into the new Liberal Democratic Party (LDP), which went on to dominate Japanese politics for the remainder of the Shōwa period. Although the Japanese economy was in bad shape in the immediate postwar years, an austerity program implemented in 1949 by finance expert Joseph Dodge ended inflation. The Korean War (1950–1953) was a major boon to Japanese business. In 1949 the Yoshida cabinet created the Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) with a mission to promote economic growth through close cooperation between the government and big business. MITI sought successfully to promote manufacturing and heavy industry, and encourage exports. The factors behind Japan's postwar economic growth included technology and quality control techniques imported from the West, close economic and defense cooperation with the United States, non-tariff barriers to imports, restrictions on labor unionization, long work hours, and a generally favorable global economic environment. Japanese corporations successfully retained a loyal and experienced workforce through the system of lifetime employment, which assured their employees a safe job. By 1955, the", "Emperor Akihito's reign began upon the death of his father, Emperor Hirohito. The economic bubble popped in 1989, and stock and land prices plunged as Japan entered a deflationary spiral. Banks found themselves saddled with insurmountable debts that hindered economic recovery. Stagnation worsened as the birthrate declined far below replacement level. The 1990s are often referred to as Japan's Lost Decade. Economic performance was frequently poor in the following decades and the stock market never returned to its pre-1989 highs. Japan's system of lifetime employment largely collapsed and unemployment rates rose. The faltering economy and several corruption scandals weakened the LDP's dominant political position. Japan was nevertheless governed by non-LDP prime ministers only in 1993–1996 and 2009–2012. Japan's dealing with its war legacy has strained international relations. China", "Emperor Naruhito's reign began upon the", "Social stratification in Japan became pronounced during the Yayoi period. Expanding trade and agriculture increased the wealth of society, which was increasingly monopolized by social elites. By 600 AD, a class structure had developed which included court aristocrats, the families of local magnates, commoners, and slaves. Over 90% were commoners, who included farmers, merchants, and artisans. During the late Heian period, the governing elite consisted of three classes. The traditional aristocracy shared power with Buddhist monks and samurai, though the latter became increasingly dominant in the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. These periods witnessed the rise of the merchant class, which diversified into a greater variety of specialized occupations. Women initially held social and political equality with men, and archaeological evidence suggests a prehistorical preference for female rulers in western Japan. Female Emperors appear in recorded history until the Meiji Constitution declared strict male-only ascension in 1889. Chinese Confucian-style patriarchy was first codified in the 7th–8th centuries with the \"ritsuryō\" system, which introduced a patrilineal family register with a male head of household. Women until then had held important roles in government which thereafter gradually diminished, though even in the late Heian period women wielded considerable court influence. Marital customs and many laws governing private property remained gender neutral. For reasons that are unclear to historians the status of women rapidly deteriorated from the fourteenth century and onwards. Women of all social classes lost the right to own and inherit property and were increasingly viewed as inferior to men. Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s further entrenched the status of men as dominant landholders. During the US occupation following World War II, women gained legal equality with men, but faced widespread workplace discrimination. A movement for women's rights led to the passage of an equal employment law in 1986, but by the 1990s women held only 10% of management positions. Hideyoshi's land survey of the 1590s designated all who cultivated the land as commoners, an act which granted effective freedom to most of Japan's slaves. The Tokugawa shogunate rigidified long-existent class divisions, placing most of the population into a Neo-Confucian hierarchy of four occupations, with the ruling elite at the top, followed by the peasants who made up 80% of the population, then artisans, and merchants at the bottom. Court nobles, clerics, outcasts, entertainers, and workers of the licensed quarters fell outside this structure. Different legal codes applied to different classes, marriage between classes was prohibited, and towns were subdivided into different class areas. The social stratification had little bearing on economic conditions: many samurai lived in poverty and the wealth of the merchant class grew throughout the period as the commercial economy developed and urbanization grew. The Edo-era social power structure proved untenable and gave way following the Meiji Restoration to one in which commercial power played an increasingly significant political role. Although all social classes were legally abolished at the start of the Meiji period, income inequality greatly increased. New economic class divisions were formed between capitalist business owners who formed the new middle class, small shopkeepers of the old middle class, the working class in factories, rural landlords, and tenant farmers. The great disparities of income between the classes dissipated during and after World War II, eventually declining to levels that were among the lowest in the industrialized world. Some postwar surveys indicated that up to 90% of Japanese self-identified as being middle class. Populations of workers in professions considered unclean, such as leatherworkers and those who handled the dead, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries into hereditary outcast communities. These people, later called \"burakumin\", fell outside the Edo-period class structure and suffered discrimination that lasted after the class system was abolished. Though activism has improved the social conditions of those from \"burakumin\" backgrounds, discrimination in employment and education lingered into the 21st century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Heraldry.", "Governance.", "City status.", "Demography.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Landmarks and tourism.", "Sport and recreation.", "Education.", "Judicial system.", "Transport.", "Freedom of the City." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Perth\" derives from a Pictish word for \"wood\" or \"copse\". During much of the later medieval period it was known colloquially by its Scots-speaking inhabitants as \"St John's Toun\" or \"Saint Johnstoun\" because the church at the centre of the parish was dedicated to St John the Baptist. Perth was referred to as \"St Johns ton\" up until the mid-1600s with the name \"Perthia\" being reserved for the wider area. At this time, \"Perthia\" became \"Perth Shyre\" and \"St Johns ton\" became known as Perth. Perth's Pictish name, and some archaeological evidence, indicate that there must have been a settlement here from earlier times, probably at a point where a river crossing or crossings coincided with a slightly raised natural mound on the west bank of the Tay (which at Perth flows north-south), thus giving some protection for settlement from the frequent flooding. Finds in and around Perth show that it was occupied by the Mesolithic hunter-gatherers who arrived in the area more than 8,000 years ago. Nearby Neolithic standing stones and circles followed the introduction of farming from about 4000 BC, and a remarkably well preserved Bronze Age log boat dated to around 1000 BC was found in the mudflats of the River Tay at Carpow to the east of Perth. The presence of Scone two miles (3 km) northeast, the main royal centre of the Kingdom of Alba from at least the reign of Kenneth I mac Ailpín (843–58), later the site of the major Augustinian abbey of the same name founded by Alexander I (1107–24), enhanced Perth's early importance. Perth was considered the effective 'capital' of Scotland, due to the frequent residence of the royal court. Royal Burgh status was soon awarded to the city from King William the Lion in the early 12th century. During the 12th and 13th centuries, Perth was one of the richest trading burghs in the kingdom (along with such places as Berwick-upon-Tweed, Aberdeen and Roxburgh), residence of numerous craftsmen, organised into guilds (e.g. the Hammermen [metalworkers] or Glovers). Perth also carried out an extensive trade with France, The Low Countries and the Baltic Countries with luxury goods being brought back in return, such as Spanish silk and French pottery and wine. The royal castle (on or near the site of the present multi-storey car park adjacent to the new council offices), was destroyed by a flood of the Tay in 1209, one of many that have afflicted Perth over the centuries. It was never rebuilt and Perth was protected at this time only by partial walls and an inventive water system consisting of a Mill lade from the River Almond which divided and flowed to the North on one side and the West and South on the other, eventually joining the Tay. King Edward I brought his armies to Perth in 1296 and with only a ditch for defence and little fortification, the city fell quickly. Stronger fortifications were quickly implemented by the English, and plans to wall the city took shape in 1304. They remained standing until Robert the Bruce's recapture of Perth in 1312. As part of a plan to make Perth a permanent English base within Scotland, Edward III forced six monasteries in Perthshire and Fife to pay for the construction of stone defensive walls, towers and fortified gates around the city in 1336. These defences were the strongest of any city in Scotland in the Middle Ages. King James I of Scotland was assassinated in Perth in 1437, by followers of the Earl of Atholl at Blackfriars church. In May 1559, John Knox instigated the Scottish Reformation at grass-roots level with a sermon against 'idolatry' in the burgh kirk of St John the Baptist. An inflamed mob quickly destroyed the altars in the kirk, and attacked the Houses of the Greyfriars and Blackfriars, and the Carthusian Priory. Scone Abbey was sacked shortly afterwards. The regent of infant Mary, Queen of Scots, her mother Marie de Guise, was successful in quelling the rioting but presbyterianism in Perth remained strong. Perth played a part in the Covenanting struggle and Perth was sacked for two days by Royalist troops after the Battle of Tippermuir in 1644. In 1651, Charles II was crowned at nearby Scone Abbey, the traditional site of the investiture of Kings of Scots. That same year Oliver Cromwell came to Perth following his victory in the Battle of Dunbar and established a fortified citadel on the South Inch, one of five occupation forts built to control Scotland. The restoration of Charles II was not without incident, and with the Act of Settlement in 1701, came the Jacobite uprisings. The city was occupied by Jacobite soldiers in 1689, 1715 and 1745. In 1760, Perth Academy was founded, and major industry came to the city, now with a population of 15,000. Linen, leather, bleached products and whisky were its major exports. Given its location, Perth was perfectly placed to become a key transport centre with the coming of the railways. The first railway station in Perth was built in 1848. Horse-drawn carriages became popular in the 1890s; they were quickly replaced by electric trams of Perth Corporation Tramways. Despite being a garrison city and undergoing major social and industrial developments during the First World War, Perth remained relatively unchanged. In 1829, with the settlement of the Swan River Colony, in Western Australia, Sir George Murray wanted it to be named Perth after the place where he was born. Today, Perth serves as a retail centre for the surrounding area. This includes a main shopping centre along with a pedestrianised high street and many independent and specialist shops. Main employers in the city now include Aviva, Royal Bank of Scotland and Scottish and Southern Energy.", "The coat of arms of Perth is: Gules a Paschal lamb reguardant argent haloed or holding under its right foreleg a flagpole topped with a cross of the second, to which is attached a banner azure a saltire argent, all within a tressure flory-counter-flory of the last. The shield is supported by a double-headed eagle or, and the motto is \"PRO REGE, LEGE ET GREGE\" (Latin: For the King, the Law and the People). The coat of arms dates back to at least the 14th century, and is first recorded, as described, on a seal of 1378. Red and silver are the colours of John the Baptist, the town's patron saint, and the lamb is his symbol. The double-headed eagle, originally a Roman symbol, may refer to a former Roman settlement called \"Bertha\" near where Perth now stands. The double-headed eagle was adopted as the supporter of the arms of Perth and Kinross when that council area was created in 1975.", "Perth forms part of the county constituency of Perth and North Perthshire, electing one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system. Pete Wishart (SNP) is the MP for Perth and North Perthshire. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament, Perth forms part of the constituencies of Perthshire North and Perthshire South and Kinross-shire. These two constituencies were created in 2011 as two of the nine constituencies within the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system of election, and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. Perthshire North is currently represented by John Swinney (SNP) and Perthshire South and Kinross-shire is currently represented by Roseanna Cunningham (SNP).", "The classic definition of Perth has been as a city, and traditional documentation confirms that this has been true since time immemorial. In the late-1990s, the UK Government and the devolved Scottish Executive re-examined the definition of a city and produced a list of approved cities, from which Perth was omitted. It was therefore considered to be a \"former city\", like Brechin and Elgin. Despite this, road signs around the borders used the term \"The City of Perth\", and directional signs within indicated \"City Centre\". In June 2007, Alex Salmond, the-then First Minister of Scotland, backed a campaign to confer city status on Perth, saying it should be granted \"at the next commemorative opportunity\". The local authority, Perth and Kinross, stated that the octennial anniversary of the city in 2009 should create \"a foundation for Perth to bid for formal city status\". Perth was one of the 26 bidders for city status to mark the Queen's Diamond Jubilee in 2012. On 14 March 2012, Perth's city status was successfully reinstated. It became Scotland's seventh city. The Queen visited Perth on 6 July 2012, for what was the culmination of the Scottish leg of her Diamond Jubilee tour. Her previous visit to the city had been to officially open the Perth Concert Hall, in 2005.", "According to the 2001 UK Census, Perth had a total population of 43,450. A more recent population estimate of the city has been recorded as 44,820 in 2008. The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland. The age group from 30–44 forms the largest portion of the population (22%). The median age of males and females living in Perth was 37 and 40 years respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland. The place of birth of the city's residents was 95.42% United Kingdom (including 87.80% from Scotland), 0.52% Republic of Ireland, 1.18% from other European Union countries, and 1.88% from elsewhere in the world. The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 57.10% in full-time employment, 12.90% in part-time employment, 6.08% self-employed, 3.29% unemployed, 2.37% students with jobs, 2.84% students without jobs, 14.75% retired, 4.93% looking after home or family, 5.94% permanently sick or disabled, and 4.07% economically inactive for other reasons. Compared with the average demography of Scotland, Perth has low proportions of people born outside the European Union, but has both higher proportions born within the European Union and those over 75 years old.", "As with most of the British Isles and Scotland, Perth has an oceanic climate (Köppen \"Cfb\") with cool summers and mild winters. The nearest Met Office weather station is at Strathallan. around from the centre of Perth. Perth is one of the mildest places in Scotland. Temperatures extremes since 1960 have ranged from in January 1963 to in July 1995. However, a temperature of was recorded on 14 November 1919. As well as this, the temperature reached on 28 June 2018. The coldest temperature recorded in recent years is in December 2010. In an average year, the warmest day rises to around, and about four days exceed.", "The strength of Perth's economy lies in its diversity, with a balance of large companies, the public sector, a broad range of small and medium-sized enterprises and many self-employed business people. The development in renewable energy, insurance, manufacturing, leisure, health and transport is stimulating employment. The largest employer in the city is Perth and Kinross Council which employ 6,000 people. Other main employers include NHS Tayside, SSE plc, and Perth College UHI (part of the University of the Highlands and Islands). The leading international transportation company, Stagecoach Group also has its global headquarters in the city. Perth was formerly headquarters of insurance firm General Accident. However, since General Accident merged with Norwich Union to form Aviva the office has been primarily used as a call centre. Perth's city centre is situated to the west of the banks of the River Tay. The pedestrianised portion of the High Street, which runs from the junction of St John Street to Scott Street, is the main focus of the shopping area. The centre has a variety of major and independent retailers. The major retailers are largely based on the High Street, St John Street and the St John's Centre. Independent retailers can be found on George Street, the Old High Street and Canal Street. A£3 million pound project for the High Street and King Edward Street provided new seating, lighting and the laying of natural stone in 2010. A retail park, constructed in 1988, exists to the north-west of the city centre on St Catherine's Road, and provides eight purpose built units. Before the credit crisis, Perth's economy was growing at 2.6% per year, considerably above the Scottish average of 2.1%. Since the credit crisis, growth has slowed considerably though still remained above the Scottish average. The Perth economy is ranked in the Top 10 enterprising demographics in Scotland, with an average of 42.6 registered enterprises per 10,000 residents putting it well above the Scottish average of 30.1.", "Perth Museum and Art Gallery at the top end of George Street is recognised as one of the oldest provincial museums in Scotland. Another museum known as the Fergusson Gallery is in the former Perth Waterworks building on Tay Street. This contains the major collection of the works of the artist John Duncan Fergusson. Perth Theatre opened in 1900. It is undergoing a £10 million redevelopment to house new studio space, a youth theatre, construction workshop and a series of front of house performance areas and new main entrance from Mill Street in addition to the main focus of the conservation and restoration of the historic Victorian auditorium. Perth Concert Hall which opened in 2005, was built on the site of the former Horsecross Market and largely funded from Britain's millennium celebrations. Perth City Hall has been used as a venue for several high-profile concerts over the years, including Morrissey, as well as Conservative Party conferences. The hall is currently disused while proposals are considered for its future. The new wave band Fiction Factory had some success with their hit \"(Feels Like) Heaven\" in 1984. The song, which reached number six in the charts, would be their biggest hit, and Perth's biggest to date. The Perth Festival of the Arts is an annual collection of art, theatre, opera and classical music events in the city. The annual event lasts for a couple of weeks and is usually held in May. In recent years, the festival has broadened its appeal by adding comedy, rock and popular music acts to the bill. Perth also has a number of twin cities around the world. These are: Aschaffenburg in Germany, Bydgoszcz in Poland, Haikou, Hainan in China, Perth in Australia, Perth (Ontario) in Canada, Pskov in Russia and Cognac in France. Perth is noted for its lively nightlife, with dozens of bars and several nightclubs. The sole newspaper based in the city is the \"Perthshire Advertiser\", owned by Trinity Mirror. The newspaper's offices are based in Watergate, but the newspaper itself is printed in Blantyre. There is also one local radio in the city – Heartland FM – which broadcasts 24 hours a day to Perthshire from its base in Pitlochry. One of Britain's most successful radio stations, Hospital Radio Perth, broadcasts to Perth Royal Infirmary and Murray Royal Hospital. The Hospital Broadcasting Association have awarded Hospital Radio Perth the title of \"British Station of the Year\" in 1996, 1997, 1999 and 2007. Perth has hosted the National Mòd in 1896, 1900, 1924, 1929, 1947, 1954, 1963, 1980 and 2004.", "Perth has 79 tourist attractions listed on the site TripAdvisor. The Category A listed St John's Kirk on South St John's Place is architecturally and historically one of the most significant buildings in Perth. The settlement of the original church dates back to the mid-12th century. During the middle of the 12th century, the church was allowed to fall into disrepair, when most of the revenues were used by David I to fund Dunfermline Abbey. The majority of the present church was constructed between 1440 and 1500. Though much altered, its tower and lead-clad spire continue to dominate the Perth skyline. The Church has lost its medieval south porch and sacristy, and the north transept was shortened during the course of the 19th century during street-widening. A rare treasure, a unique survival in Scotland, is a 15th-century brass candelabrum, imported from the Low Countries. The survival of this object is all the more remarkable as it includes a statuette of the Virgin Mary. St John's Kirk also had the finest collection of post-Reformation church plate in Scotland (now housed permanently in Perth Museum and Art Gallery). Equally remarkably, the collection of medieval bells is the largest to have survived in Great Britain. The spire of Category B listed St Paul's Church, which was completed in 1807 is a major focus point around St Paul's Square at the junction of Old High Street and North Methven Street. The development of the church led to an expansion of the city to the west. Pullar House on Mill Street was once used by Pullar's dyeworks, the largest industry in Perth at one time and has since been converted into office use for Perth and Kinross Council in 2000. The Category B listed Fair Maid's House on North Port is the oldest surviving secular building in Perth. Built on the foundations of previous buildings, parts of the structure date back from 1475. Purchased by the Glovers Association in 1693 for use as a meeting house, the house was reconstructed in 1893 to its current appearance. This was used as the home of Catherine Glover in the novel, \"The Fair Maid of Perth\" which was written by Sir Walter Scott in 1828. In 2010, the house was converted by the Royal Scottish Geographical Society (RSGS) into a visitor and educational centre reflecting the history of Perth. The work also included the extension of a building between the Fair Maid's House and the neighbouring Lord John Murray's House from which the RSGS have operated their headquarters, when it moved to Perth in 2008. The Scottish Government awarded funding of £450,000 to aid the project, while the other £350,000 was provided by the RSGS themselves. The sensitive conversion of the building was recognised by the Perth Civic Trust, winning its restoration and renovation award in 2011. The nearby City Mills built to serve the lade from the River Almond was once the site of industry until the early 19th century. Only the Upper and Lower Mills survive to this day. The Category A listed Lower Mills which date from 1805 were used for barley and oatmeal, while the Category A listed Upper Mills of 1792 consisted of two wheat mills connected to a granary. The Category A listed former Perth Waterworks completed in 1832, serve as the main focus point on the southern end of the city centre. The waterworks, which have been converted into a gallery dedicated to the works of J.D. Fergusson in 1992, is one of the very few early surviving examples of a cast iron structure.", "St Johnstone is the city's professional football club. The team play in the Scottish Premiership at their home ground, McDiarmid Park, in the Tulloch area of the city. They won the Scottish Cup for the first time in 2014, after 130 years without a major trophy. There are also two East of Scotland League clubs based in Perth – Jeanfield Swifts and Kinnoull. The senior rugby team, Perthshire RFC, play their games on the North Inch in Scottish National League Division Three. Between 1995 and 1998 the professional Caledonia Reds played some of their home matches at McDiarmid Park before they merged with Glasgow Warriors. Perth Leisure Pool, to the west of the railway station on the Glasgow Road, is the city's swimming centre. The modern leisure pool complex was built in the mid-1980s to replace the traditional public swimming baths (established 1887) which used to sit just off the Dunkeld Road. There is a large sports complex, Bell's Sports Centre, to the northwest of the city centre, at the western edge of the North Inch. Prior to the building of the Greenwich Dome, it was the largest domed building in Britain. Perth hosts Scotland's largest volleyball event every May – the Scottish Open Volleyball Tournament. There is a highly competitive indoor competition held inside Bell's Sports Centre alongside both a competitive and fun outdoor event played on the North Inch. Teams competing traditionally camp alongside the outdoor courts with the campsite being administered by local cadets. The Scottish Volleyball Association's annual general meeting is also held at the same time as tournament. Perth is also home to two main parks, namely the North Inch and South Inch (the word \"Inch\" being an anglicisation of the Gaelic \"innis\" meaning island or meadow). The Inches were given to the city in 1377 by King Robert III. The North Inch is directly north of the city centre. It is bordered to the south by Charlotte Street and Atholl Street and to the southwest by Rose Terrace. Its western perimeter consists of part of the exercise path that circumnavigates the entire park. The River Tay bounds it to the east. A little farther to the north is the Inch's eponymous golf course. Situated south of the North Inch, directly across the city centre, is the South Inch. The Inches are linked by Tay Street, which runs along the western banks of the Tay. The South Inch is bordered to the north by Marshall Place and Kings Place; to the east by Shore Road; to the south by South Inch View; and to the west by St Leonards Bridge. The Edinburgh Road passes through its eastern third. The South Inch offers various activities, including bowling, an adventure playground, a skate park, and, in the summer, a bouncy castle. The Perth Show takes place annually on the section of the Inch between the Edinburgh Road and Shore Road.", "There are many primary schools in Perth, while secondary education includes Perth Academy, Perth Grammar School, Perth High School, St John's Academy and Bertha Park High School. Further and higher education, including a range of degrees, is available through Perth College UHI, one of the largest partners in the University of the Highlands and Islands. It runs a network of learning centres across the area, in Blairgowrie, Crieff, Kinross and Pathways in Perth. It also owns AST (Air Service Training) which delivers a range of aircraft engineering courses.", "Perth is home to a Sheriff Court, in a listed building on the banks of the river Tay. The building was designed by London architect Sir Robert Smirke, built in 1819 and stands on the site of Gowrie House, the place where a plot to kill King James VI was hatched in 1600. Perth is also home to a large prison, HM Prison Perth.", "Perth remains a key transport hub for journeys by road and rail throughout Scotland. The M90 motorway runs south from the city to Edinburgh; the A9 road connects it to Stirling and Glasgow in the south west and Inverness in the north. Other major roads serving the city include the A85 to Crieff and Crianlarich (and ultimately Oban), the A93 to Blairgowrie and Braemar, the A94 to Coupar Angus and Forfar and the A90 to Dundee and Aberdeen. The city itself was bypassed to the south and east by the M90 in the 1970s and to the west by the A9 in 1986. The M90, A9 and A93 all meet at Broxden Junction, one of the busiest and most important road junctions in Scotland. Uniquely, all of Scotland's other six cities are signposted from here: Glasgow and Stirling via the A9 southbound, Dundee and Aberdeen via the A90, Edinburgh via the M90, and Inverness via the A9 northbound. The final part of the M90 included the construction of the Friarton Bridge in 1978 to facilitate travel to Dundee and Aberdeen to the east of the city, finally removing inter-city traffic from the centre. The bridge is the most northerly piece of the motorway network in the United Kingdom. There are four bridges that cross the River Tay in Perth. The northernmost structure is Smeaton's Bridge (also known as Perth Bridge and, locally, the Old Bridge), completed in 1771 and widened in 1869, which carries the automotive and pedestrian traffic of West Bridge Street (the A85). Eastbound vehicles are not permitted to make a right turn onto Bridgend's Gowrie Street. Next, some five hundred yards downstream, is Queen's Bridge, which also carries vehicle and pedestrian traffic, this time of South Street and Tay Street. Queen's Bridge was completed in 1960, replacing the old Victoria Bridge (1902–1960), and was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in October of that year. The third bridge in the centre of Perth is a single-track railway bridge, carrying trains to and from the railway station, to the north-west. It was completed in 1863. A pedestrian walkway lies on its northern side. Finally, the southernmost crossing of the Tay inside Perth's boundary is the aforementioned Friarton Bridge. The construction of a fifth bridge farther upstream (north) from the existing bridges is being considered. Perth railway station has regular services to Fife, Edinburgh Waverley via the Forth Bridge, east to Dundee and Aberdeen, south to Stirling and Glasgow Queen Street, and north to Inverness. However, as a result of the Beeching Axe, the main line to Aberdeen through Strathmore via Coupar Angus and Forfar was closed to passenger traffic in 1967; Aberdeen services have since taken the less direct route via Dundee. Similarly, the direct main line to Edinburgh via Glenfarg, Dunfermline and the Forth Bridge was abandoned in 1970 in favour of the longer, more circuitous route via Stirling. This closure was not recommended by Beeching, but allowed the M90 motorway to be built on top of the former the railway alignment in the Glenfarg area. In 1975, most Edinburgh trains were re-routed via Ladybank and the Forth Bridge, with some improvement in journey time. There are two direct trains per day to London, the \"Highland Chieftain\" operated by London North Eastern Railway to King's Cross (from Inverness), while the \"Caledonian Sleeper\" runs overnight to Euston. Local buses are run by Stagecoach East Scotland. Inter-city bus travel is made from Leonard Street bus station and connects to most major destinations in Scotland. The budget Megabus service is centred on Broxden Junction ( outside the city centre) and runs direct buses to Scotland's largest cities plus Manchester and London in England. In addition, there is a park and ride service from the services at Broxden to the city centre. Perth has a small airport; Perth Airport is located at New Scone, north-east of Perth. There are no commercial flights out of this airport, but it is used by private aircraft and for pilot training. The nearest major commercial airports are Edinburgh Airport, Glasgow Airport and Aberdeen Airport. Dundee Airport, which is a 20-minute drive from Perth, offers flights to London Stansted Airport as well as charter, engineering and training facilities.", "The following people and military units have received the Freedom of the City of Perth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Governance.", "Local government.", "Westminster and Holyrood.", "2014 Scottish independence referendum.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Urban environment.", "Climate.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "Modern day.", "Landmarks.", "Transport.", "Education.", "Colleges and universities.", "Schools.", "Religious sites.", "Christian groups.", "Other religious communities.", "Culture.", "Museums and galleries.", "Literature.", "Cinema.", "Music.", "Media.", "Sports and recreation.", "Football.", "Ice hockey.", "Rugby.", "Other sports.", "Public services.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Dundee\" is made up of two parts: the common Celtic place-name element \"dun\", meaning fort; and a second part that may derive from a Celtic element, cognate with the Gaelic \"dè\", meaning 'fire'. While earlier evidence for human occupation is abundant, Dundee's success and growth as a seaport town arguably came as a result of William the Lion's charter, granting Dundee to his younger brother, David (later Earl of Huntingdon) in the late 12th century. The situation of the town and its promotion by Earl David as a trading centre led to a period of prosperity and growth. The earldom was passed down to David's descendants, amongst whom was John Balliol. The town became a Royal Burgh on John's coronation as king in 1292. The town and its castle were occupied by English forces for several years during the First War of Independence and recaptured by Robert the Bruce in early 1312. The original Burghal charters were lost during the occupation and subsequently renewed by Bruce in 1327. The burgh suffered considerably during the conflict known as the Rough Wooing of 1543 to 1550, and was occupied by the English forces of Andrew Dudley from 1547. In 1548, unable to defend the town against an advancing Scottish force, Dudley ordered that the town be burnt to the ground. In 1645, during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, Dundee was again besieged, this time by the Royalist Marquess of Montrose. The town was finally destroyed by Parliamentarian forces led by George Monck in 1651. The town played a pivotal role in the establishment of the Jacobite cause when John Graham of Claverhouse, 1st Viscount Dundee raised the Stuart standard on the Dundee Law in 1689. The town was held by the Jacobites in the 1715–16 rising, and on 6 January 1716 the Jacobite claimant to the throne, James VIII and III (the Old Pretender), made a public entry into the town. Many in Scotland, including many in Dundee, regarded him as the rightful king. A notable resident of Dundee was Adam Duncan, 1st Viscount Duncan of Camperdown, Baron of Lundie (1 July 1731 to 4 August 1804). He was born in Dundee on 1 July 1731, the son of Alexander Duncan of Lundie, Provost of Dundee. Adam was educated in Dundee and later joined the Royal Navy on board the sloop Trial. He rose to be admiral and in October 1797 defeated the Dutch fleet off Camperdown (north of Haarlem). This was seen as one of the most significant actions in naval history. The economy of mediaeval Dundee centred on the export of raw wool, with the production of finished textiles being a reaction to recession in the", "Dundee was granted Royal Burgh status on the coronation of John Balliol as King of Scotland in 1292. The city has two mottos— (\"Gift of God\") and \"Prudentia et Candore\" (With Thought and Purity) although usually only the latter is used for civic purposes. Prior to 1996, Dundee was governed by the City of Dundee District Council. This was formed in 1975, implementing boundaries imposed in the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973. Under these boundaries, the Angus burgh and district of Monifieth, and the Perth electoral division of Longforgan (which included Invergowrie) were annexed to the county of the city of Dundee. In 1996, the Dundee City unitary authority was created following implementation of the Local Government etc. (Scotland) Act 1994. This placed Monifieth and Invergowrie in the unitary authorities of Angus and Perth and Kinross, largely reinstating the pre-1975 county boundaries. Some controversy has ensued as a result of these boundary changes, with Dundee city councillors arguing for the return of Monifieth and Invergowrie.", "Dundee is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, and is represented by the Dundee City Council – a local council composed of 29 elected councillors. Previously the city was a county of a city and later a district of the Tayside region. Council meetings take place in the City Chambers, which opened in 1933 in City Square. The civic head and chair of the council is known as the Lord Provost, a position similar to that of mayor in other cities. The political head of the council is known as the Leader of the Council", "For elections to the British House of Commons at Westminster, the city area and portions of the Angus council area are divided in two constituencies. The constituencies of Dundee East and Dundee West are represented by Stewart Hosie (Scottish National Party) and Chris Law (Scottish National Party), respectively, both of whom were re-elected at the 2019 General Election. For elections to the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, the city area is divided between three constituencies. The Dundee City East constituency and the Dundee City West constituency are entirely within the city area. The Angus South (Holyrood) constituency", "On 18 September 2014, Dundee was one of four council areas to vote \"Yes\" in the Scottish independence referendum, with 57.3% voting \"Yes\" on a 78.8% turnout. With the highest Yes vote for any local authority in Scotland, some in the Yes Scotland campaign nicknamed Dundee the 'Yes City', including former First Minister Alex Salmond.", "Dundee sits on the north bank of the Firth of Tay on the eastern, North Sea Coast of Scotland. The city lies NNE of Edinburgh and NNW of London. The built-up area occupies a roughly rectangular shape long by wide, aligned in an east to west direction and occupies an area of. The town is bisected by a line of hills stretching from Balgay Hill (elevation of 143 m) in the west end of the city, through the Dundee Law (174 m) which occupies the centre of the built up area, to Gallow Hill (83 m), between Baxter Park and the Eastern Cemetery. North of this ridge lies a valley through which cuts the Dighty Water burn, the elevation falling to around 45 m. North of the Dighty valley lie the Sidlaw Hills, the most prominent hill being Craigowl Hill (455 m). The western and eastern boundaries of the city are marked by two burns that are tributaries of the River Tay. On the western-most boundary of the city, the Lochee burn meets the Fowlis burn, forming the Invergowrie burn, which meets the Tay at Invergowrie basin. The Dighty Water enters Dundee from the village of Strathmartine and marks the boundaries of a number of northern districts of the city, joining the Tay between Barnhill and Monifieth. The Scouring burn in the west end of the city and Dens Burn in the east, both of which played important roles in the industrial development of the city, have now been culverted over.", "The city lies within the Sidlaw-Ochil anticline, and the predominant bedrock type is Old Red Sandstone of the Arbuthnott-Garvock group. Differential weathering of a series of igneous intrusions has yielded a number of prominent hills in the landscape, most notably the Dundee Law (a late Silurian/early Devonian Mafic rock intrusion) and Balgay hill (a Felsic rock intrusion of", "Very little of pre-Reformation Dundee remains, the destruction suffered in the War of the Rough Wooing being almost total, with only scattered, roofless shells remaining. The area occupied by the medieval burgh of Dundee extends between East Port and West Port, which formerly held the gates to the walled city. The shoreline has been altered considerably since the early 19th century through development of the harbour area and land reclamation. Several areas on the periphery of the burgh saw industrial development with the building of textile mills from the end of the 18th century. Their placement was dictated by the need for a water supply for the modern steam powered machinery, and areas around the Lochee Burn (Lochee), Scouring Burn (Blackness) and Dens Burn (Dens Road area) saw particular concentrations of mills. The post war period saw expansion of industry to estates along the Kingsway. Working class housing spread rapidly and without control throughout the Victorian era, particularly in the Hawkhill, Blackness Road, Dens Road and Hilltown areas. Despite the comparative wealth of Victorian Dundee as a", "The climate, like the rest of lowland Scotland, is Oceanic (Köppen-Geiger classification Cfb). Mean temperature and rainfall are typical for the east coast of Scotland, and with the city's sheltered estuarine position, mean daily maxima are slightly higher than coastal areas to the North, particularly in spring and summer. The summers are still chilly when compared with similar latitudes in continental", "Dundee's recorded population reached a peak of 182,204 at the 1971 census. According to the 2001 census, the City of Dundee had a population of 154,674. A more recent population estimate of the City of Dundee has been recorded at 156,561 in 2012. The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland. The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population (20%). The median age of males and females living in Dundee was 37 and 40 years, respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland. The place of birth of the town's residents was 94.16% United Kingdom (including 87.85% from Scotland), 0.42% Republic of Ireland, 1.33% from other European Union (EU) countries, and 3.09% from elsewhere in the world. The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 35.92% in full-time employment, 10.42% in part-time employment, 4.25% self-employed, 5.18% unemployed, 7.82% students with jobs, 4.73% students without jobs, 15.15% retired, 4.54% looking after home or family, 7.92% permanently sick or disabled, and 4.00% economically inactive for other reasons. Compared with the average demography of Scotland, Dundee has both low proportions of people born outside the United Kingdom and for people over 75 years", "The period following World War II was notable for the transformation of the city's economy. While jute still employed one-fifth of the working population, new industries were attracted and encouraged. NCR Corporation selected Dundee as the base of operations for the UK in late 1945, primarily because of the lack of damage the city had sustained in the war, good transport links and high productivity from long hours of sunshine. Production started in the year before the official opening of the plant on 11 June 1947. A fortnight after the 10th anniversary of the plant the 250,000th cash register was produced. By the 1960s, NCR had become the principal employer of the city producing cash registers, and later ATMs, at several of its Dundee plants. The firm developed magnetic-strip readers for cash registers and produced early computers. Astral, a Dundee-based firm that manufactured and sold refrigerators and spin dryers was merged into Morphy Richards and rapidly expanded to employ over 1,000 people. The development in Dundee of a Michelin tyre-production facility helped to absorb the unemployment caused by the decline of the jute industry, particularly with the abolition of the jute control by the Board of Trade on 30 April 1969. Employment in Dundee changed dramatically during the 1980s with the loss of nearly 10,000 manufacturing jobs due to closure of the shipyards, cessation of carpet manufacturing and the disappearance of the jute trade. To combat growing unemployment and declining economic conditions, Dundee was declared an Enterprise Zone in January 1984. In 1983, the first Sinclair ZX Spectrum home computers were produced in Dundee by Timex. In the same year the company broke production records, despite a sit-in by workers protesting against job cuts and plans to demolish one of the factory buildings to make way for a supermarket. Timex closed its Dundee plant in 1993 following an acrimonious six-month industrial dispute.", "Dundee is a regional employment and education centre, with around 325,000 people within 30 minutes' drive of the city centre and 860,000 people within one hour. Many people from North East Fife, Angus and Perth and Kinross commute to the city. As of 2015, there were 395 employers who employed 250 or more staff; over a five-year period (2011–2015) the number of registered enterprises in Dundee increased by 20.9% from 2,655 to 3,210. The largest employers in the city are NHS Tayside, Dundee City Council, University of Dundee, Tayside Contracts, Tesco, D. C. Thomson & Co and BT. Other employers include limited and private companies such as NCR, Michelin, Alliance Trust, Aviva, Royal Bank of Scotland, Asda, Stagecoach Strathtay, Tokheim, Scottish Citylink, Rochen Limited, C J Lang & Son (SPAR Scotland), Joinery and Timber Creations, HBOS, Debenhams, Xplore Dundee, and W. L. Gore and Associates. Between 2009 and 2014 the hardest-hit sectors, in terms of jobs, were Information and Communication, Construction and Manufacturing which each lost around 500 full-time jobs. By contrast, the Professional, Scientific and Technical sector saw an upsurge in jobs in addition", "The city and its landscape are dominated by The Law and the Firth of Tay. The Law, a large hill to the north of the City Centre was the site of an Iron Age Hill Fort, upon which the Law War Memorial, designed by Thomas Braddock, was erected in 1921 to commemorate the fallen of World War I. The waterfront, much altered by reclamation in the 19th century, retains several of the docks that once were the hub of the jute and whaling industries, including the Camperdown and Victoria Docks. The Victoria Dock is the home of the frigate HMS \"Unicorn\" and the North Carr Lightship, while Captain Scott's RRS \"Discovery\" occupies Craig Pier, from where the ferries to Fife once sailed. The oldest building in the city is St Mary's Tower, which dates from the late 15th century. This forms part of the City Churches, which consist of St Clement's Church, dating to 1787–8 and built by Samuel Bell, Old St Paul's and St David's Church, built in 1841–42 by William Burn, and St Mary's Church, rebuilt in 1843–44, also by Burn, following a fire. Other significant churches in the city include the Gothic Revival Episcopal Cathedral of St Paul's, built by Sir George Gilbert Scott in 1853 on the former site of Dundee Castle in the High Street, and the Catholic St. Andrew's Cathedral, built in 1835 by George Mathewson in Nethergate. As a result of the destruction suffered during the Rough Wooing, little of the mediaeval city (aside from St Mary's Tower) remains and the earliest surviving domestic structures date from the Early Modern Era. A notable example is the Wishart Arch (or East Port) in Cowgate. It is the last surviving portion of the city walls. Dating from prior to 1548, it owes its continued existence to its association with the Protestant martyr George Wishart, who is said to have preached to plague victims from the East Port in 1544. Another", "Dundee is served by the A90 road which connects the city to the M90 and Perth in the west, and Forfar and Aberdeen in the north. The part of the road that is in the city is a dual carriageway and forms the city's main bypass on its north side, known as the Kingsway. East of the A90's Forfar Road junction, the Kingsway East continues as the A972, and meets the A92 at the Scott Fyffe roundabout. Travelling east, the A92 connects the city to Arbroath and Montrose and to the south with Fife via the Tay Road Bridge. The A930 links the city with coastal settlements to the east, including, Monifieth and Carnoustie. Progressing westward from where the A92 meets the Tay Road Bridge at the Riverside Roundabout, the A85 follows the southern boundary of the city along Riverside Drive and towards the A90 at the Swallow Roundabout. The A85 multiplexes with the A90 and diverges again at Perth. Also meeting the A92 and A85 at the Riverside Roundabout is the A991 Inner Ring Road, which surrounds the perimeter of the city centre,", "", "Dundee is home to two universities and a student population of approximately 20,000. The University of Dundee became an independent entity in 1967, after 70 years of being incorporated into the University of St Andrews. It was founded in 1881 by Mary Ann Baxter and her distant cousin John Boyd Baxter as University College, Dundee, and teaching began in 1883. It fully merged with the University of St Andrews in 1897 and was reorganised as Queen's College, Dundee in 1954. Significant research in biomedical fields is carried out in the School of Life Sciences. The University is also home to Dundee Law School, situated in the Scrymgeour Building on the main campus and the School of Medicine, based at the city's Ninewells Hospital. The university also incorporates the Duncan of Jordanstone College of", "Schools in Dundee have a pupil enrolment of over 20,300. There are 37 primary state schools and 8 secondary state schools in the city. There are 11 primary and 2 secondary Roman Catholic denominational schools which, as in the rest of Scotland, are open to children of all denominations. The remainder are non-denominational. There is also one specialist school that caters for pupils with learning difficulties aged between five and 18 from Dundee and the surrounding area. Dundee has one independent", "", "The Church of Scotland Presbytery of Dundee is responsible for overseeing the worship of 37 congregations in and around the Dundee area, although changing population patterns have led to some of the churches becoming linked charges. Due to their city centre location, the City Churches, Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's) and the Steeple Church, are the most prominent Church of Scotland buildings in Dundee. They are on the site of the medieval parish kirk of St Mary, of which only the 15th-century west tower survives. The attached church was once the largest parish church in medieval Scotland. Dundee was unusual among Scottish medieval burghs in having two parish kirks; the second, dedicated to St Clement, has disappeared, but its site was approximately that of the present City Square. Other presbyterian groups include the Free Church which meet at St. Peters (the historic church of", "Muslims are served by the Dundee Central Mosque built in 2000 to replace their former premises on the Hilltown. There are three other mosques in the city including; Jamia Masjid Tajdare Madina on Victoria Road, Jame Masjid Bilal on Dura Street and Al Maktoum Mosque on Wilkie's Lane. Alongside these there is an Islamic Society on the University of Dundee campus.", "Dundee made a bid to be named the 2017 UK City of Culture, and on 19 June 2013 was named as one of the four short-listed cities alongside Hull, Leicester and Swansea Bay. Ultimately, Dundee's bid was unsuccessful, with Hull winning the contest. Dundee came in fifth place in a newspaper survey regarding numbers of cultural venues in the United Kingdom, ahead of other Scottish cities. Dundee bid to become the European Capital of Culture in 2023 but due to the United Kingdom voting to leave the European Union in June 2016, Dundee's bid, along with those of other British cities submitting bids, was discontinued by the European Commission.", "The city's main museum and art gallery, McManus Galleries, is in Albert Square. The exhibits include work by James McIntosh Patrick, Alberto Morrocco and David McClure amongst the collection of fine and decorative art, items from Dundee's history and natural history artefacts. Dundee Contemporary Arts (abbreviated DCA) opened in 1999 is an international art centre in the Nethergate close to Dundee Rep, which houses two contemporary art galleries, a two-screen arthouse cinema, a print studio, a visual research centre and a café bar. Britain's only full-time public observatory, Mills Observatory at the summit of the city's Balgay Hill, was given to the city by linen manufacturer and keen amateur scientist John Mills in 1935. Sensation Science Centre in the Greenmarket is a science centre based on the five senses with a series of interactive shows and exhibits. Verdant Works is a museum dedicated to the once dominant jute industry in Dundee and is based in a former jute mill. The University of Dundee also runs several public museums and galleries, including the D'Arcy Thompson Zoology Museum and the Tayside Medical History Museum. The university, through Duncan of", "Dundee has a strong literary heritage, with several authors having been born, lived or studied in the city. These include A. L. Kennedy, Rosamunde Pilcher, Kate Atkinson, Thomas Dick, Mary Shelley, Mick McCluskey, John Burnside and Neil Forsyth. The Dundee International Book Prize is a biennial competition open to new authors, offering a prize of £10,000 and publication by Polygon Books. Past winners have included: Andrew Murray Scott, Claire-Marie Watson", "The Dundee Mountain Film Festival (DMFF), held in the last weekend of November, presents the best presenters and films of the year in mountaineering, mountain culture and adventure sport, along with an art and", "Dundee is home to a full-time repertory ensemble, which originated in 1939. One of its alumni, Hollywood actor Brian Cox, is a native of the city. The Dundee Repertory Theatre, built in 1982, is also the base for the Scottish Dance Theatre company. Dundee's principal concert auditorium, the Caird Hall (named after its benefactor, the jute baron James Key Caird) in the City Square regularly hosts the Royal Scottish National Orchestra. Various smaller venues host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual Jazz, Guitar and Blues Festivals. Dundee has hosted the National Mod a number of times – 1902, 1913, 1937, 1959 and 1974. Dundee also hosted BBC Radio", "Dundee is home to DC Thomson & Son Ltd, established in 1905, which produces over 200 million magazines, newspapers and comics every year; these include \"The Beano\", \"The Dandy\" and \"The Press and Journal\". Dundee is home to one of eleven BBC Scotland broadcasting centres, located within the Nethergate Centre. STV North's Tayside news and advertising operations are based in the Seabraes area of the city, from where an \"STV", "", "Dundee has two professional football clubs: Dundee, founded in 1893, and Dundee United, founded in 1909 as Dundee Hibernian. Both teams currently play in the Scottish Championship. Their grounds Dens Park and Tannadice Park are just 100 metres apart, closer together than any other football stadiums in the UK. The Dundee derby is one of the most", "Dundee Stars, the main ice hockey team, play at the Dundee Ice Arena. The team joined the Elite League in the 2010/2011 season. They are one of three professional ice hockey teams in Scotland, and play against teams from England, Wales and Northern Ireland", "The city is also home to six rugby union teams. Dundee High School Former Pupils play in Scottish National League Division One, the second tier of Scottish club", "Local sports clubs include Dundee Handball Club, Grove Menzieshill Hockey Club; Dundee Wanderers Hockey Club, Dundee Northern Lights floorball club, Dundee Hawkhill Harriers, Dundee City Aquatics, Dundee Hurricanes and Dundee & Angus Radio", "Dundee and the surrounding area is supplied with water by Scottish Water. Dundee, along with parts of Perthshire and Angus is supplied from Lintrathen and Backwater reservoirs in Glen Isla. Electricity distribution is by Scottish Hydro Electric plc, part of the Scottish and Southern Energy group. Waste management is handled by Dundee City Council. There is a kerbside recycling scheme that currently only serves 15,500 households in Dundee. Cans, glass and plastic bottles are collected on a weekly basis. Compostable material and non-recyclable material are collected on alternate weeks. Paper is collected for recycling on a four-weekly basis. Recycling centres and points are at a number of locations in Dundee. Items accepted include steel and aluminium cans, cardboard, paper, electrical equipment, engine oil, fridges and", "Chronologically:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and works." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The \"explicit\", or end-tag, of the sole surviving manuscript of his \"De errore profanarum religionum\" (\"On the error of profane religions\") gives his name as \"Iulius Firmicus Maternus V[ir] C[larissimus]\", identifying him as a member of the Senatorial class. He was also author of the most extensive surviving text of Roman astrology, \"Matheseos libri octo\" (\"Eight books of astrology\") written \"c.\" 334-37, of which manuscripts further identify him as \"Iunior\" and \"Siculus\", \"of Sicily.\" The lunar crater Firmicus was named in his honour. The \"Matheseos\" was dedicated to the governor of Campania, Lollianus Mavortius, whose knowledge of the subject inspired Firmicus, and whose encouragement supported him during the composition of this handbook. It is among the last extensive handbooks of a \"scientific\" astrology that circulated in the West before the appearance of Arabic texts in the 12th century. Augustine of Hippo, drawn to astrology in his youth in the mid-fourth century, fulminated against the study's impieties, in part based on the astrologers' view that the planets were divinities, but also on rational grounds, taking, for instance, the divergent careers of twins. The Neoplatonist astrological work was first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1499, and has often been reprinted. About the year 346 he composed \"De errore profanarum religionum\", which he dedicated to Constantius II and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is still extant. He holds up to scorn the religious beliefs and practices of pagans and implores the Emperor to stamp out the old religions as a sacred duty which will be rewarded by God. In the first part (chs. 1‐17) he attacks the false objects of worship among the Oriental cults; in the second (chs. 18‐29) he discusses a number of formulae and rites connected with the mysteries, with particular attention and animus toward alleged homosexual practices, recovering in a certain way the contempt that the senators had at the time of the Republic to the Hellenization of the Roman religion and culture. For 19th-century readers, \"De errore profanarum religionum\" provided such a sharp contrast with Firmicus' book on astrology (commonly referred to as the \"Matheseos\") that the two works were generally attributed to different writers. However, Clifford Herschel Moore soundly identified the single authorship of the two works, by idiosyncratic choices of vocabulary and syntax, in a dissertation overseen by Eduard Wölfflin (1897). Theodor Mommsen has shown that the \"Mathesis\" was composed in the year 336 and not in 354 as was formerly held, thus making it an earlier work than \"De errore profanarum religionum\"; modern readers who find astrology incompatible with Early Christianity argue that it would have been written prior to Firmicus' conversion to Christianity. The Christian work is preserved in a single manuscript from the Bibliotheca Palatina, now in the Vatican library. It was first printed at Strasbourg in 1562, and has been reprinted several times, both separately and combined with the polemical writings of Minucius Felix, Cyprian or Arnobius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Independence.", "War with Rome.", "Divided kingdom.", "Roman provinces.", "Major cities.", "Episcopal sees." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Greek historians referred to these peoples as \"Νομάδες\" (i.e. Nomads), which by Latin interpretation became \"Numidae\" (but cf. also the correct use of \"Nomades\"). Historian Gabriel Camps, however, disputes this claim, favoring instead an African origin for the term. The name appears first in Polybius (second century BC) to indicate the peoples and territory west of Carthage including the entire north of Algeria as far as the river Mulucha (Muluya), about west of Oran. The Numidians were composed of two great tribal groups: the Massylii in eastern Numidia, and the Masaesyli in the west. During the first part of the Second Punic War, the eastern Massylii, under their king Gala, were allied with Carthage (a 'Punic', i.e. Phoenician, Semitic, mercantile sea empire called after its capital in present Tunisia), while the western Masaesyli, under king Syphax, were allied with Rome. However, in 206 BC, the new king of the eastern Massylii, Masinissa, allied himself with Rome, and Syphax of the Masaesyli switched his allegiance to the Carthaginian side. At the end of the war, the victorious Romans gave all of Numidia to Masinissa of the Massylii. At the time of his death in 148 BC, Masinissa's territory extended from Mauretania to the boundary of the Carthaginian territory, and also southeast as far as Cyrenaica, so that Numidia entirely surrounded Carthage (Appian, \"Punica\", 106) except towards the sea. After the death of the long-lived Masinissa around 148 BC, he was succeeded by his son Micipsa. When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Masinissa's illegitimate grandson, Jugurtha, of Ancient Libyan origin, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha had Hiempsal killed, which led to open war with Adherbal.", "By 112 BC, Jugurtha resumed his war with Adherbal. He incurred the wrath of Rome in the process by killing some Roman businessmen who were aiding Adherbal. After a brief war with Rome, Jugurtha surrendered and received a highly favourable peace treaty, which raised suspicions of bribery once more. The local Roman commander was summoned to Rome to face corruption charges brought by his political rival Gaius Memmius. Jugurtha was also forced to come to Rome to testify against the Roman commander, where Jugurtha was completely discredited once his violent and ruthless past became widely known, and after he had been suspected of murdering a Numidian rival. War broke out between Numidia and the Roman Republic and several legions were dispatched to North Africa under the command of the Consul Quintus Caecilius Metellus Numidicus. The war dragged out into a long and seemingly endless campaign as the Romans tried to defeat Jugurtha decisively. Frustrated at the apparent lack of action, Metellus' lieutenant Gaius Marius returned to Rome to seek election as Consul. Marius was elected, and then returned to Numidia to take control of the war. He sent his Quaestor Lucius Cornelius Sulla to neighbouring Mauretania in order to eliminate their support for Jugurtha. With the help of Bocchus I of Mauretania, Sulla captured Jugurtha and brought the war to a conclusive end. Jugurtha was brought to Rome in chains and was placed in the Tullianum. Jugurtha was executed by the Romans in 104 BC, after being paraded through the streets in Gaius Marius' Triumph.", "After the death of Jugurtha, the far west of Numidia was added to the lands of Bocchus I, king of Mauretania. A rump kingdom continued to be governed by native princes. It appears that on the death of King Gauda in 88 BC, the kingdom was divided into a larger eastern kingdom and a smaller western kingdom (roughly the Petite Kabylie). The kings of the east minted coins, while no known coins of the western kings survive. The western kings may have been vassals of the eastern. The civil war between Caesar and Pompey brought an end to independent Numidia in 46 BC. The western kingdom between the Sava (Oued Soummam) and Ampsaga (Oued-el-Kebir) rivers passed to Bocchus II, while the eastern kingdom became a Roman province. The remainder of the western kingdom plus the city of Cirta, which may have belonged to either kingdom, became briefly an autonomous principality under Publius Sittius. Between 44 and 40 BC, the old western kingdom was once again under a Numidian king, Arabio, who killed Sittius and took his place. He involved himself in Rome's civil wars and was himself killed.", "After the death of Arabio, Numidia became the Roman province of Africa Nova except for a brief period when Augustus restored Juba II (son of Juba I) as a client king (29–27 BC). Eastern Numidia was annexed in 46 BC to create a new Roman province, Africa Nova. Western Numidia was also annexed after the death of its last king, Arabio, in 40 BC, and the two provinces were united with Tripolitana by Emperor Augustus, to create Africa Proconsularis. In AD 40, the western portion of Africa Proconsularis, including its legionary garrison, was placed under an imperial \"legatus\", and in effect became a separate province of Numidia, though the \"legatus\" of Numidia remained nominally subordinate to the proconsul of Africa until AD 203. Under Septimius Severus (193 AD), Numidia was separated from Africa Proconsularis, and governed by an imperial procurator. Under the new organization of the empire by Diocletian, Numidia was divided in two provinces: the north became Numidia Cirtensis, with capital at Cirta, while the south, which included the Aurès Mountains and was threatened by raids, became Numidia Militiana, \"Military Numidia\", with capital at the legionary base of Lambaesis. Subsequently, however, Emperor Constantine the Great reunited the two provinces in a single one, administered from Cirta, which was now renamed \"Constantina\" (modern Constantine) in his honour. Its governor was raised to the rank of \"consularis\" in 320, and the province remained one of the seven provinces of the diocese of Africa until the invasion of the Vandals in 428, which began its slow decay, accompanied by desertification. It was restored to Roman rule after the Vandalic War, when it became part of the new praetorian prefecture of Africa.", "Numidia became highly romanized and was studded with numerous towns. The chief towns of Roman Numidia were: in the north, Cirta or modern Constantine, the capital, with its port Russicada (Modern Skikda); and Hippo Regius (near Bône), well known as the see of St. Augustine. To the south in the interior military roads led to Theveste (Tebessa) and Lambaesis (Lambessa) with extensive Roman remains, connected by military roads with Cirta and Hippo, respectively. Lambaesis was the seat of the Legio III \"Augusta\", and the most important strategic centre. It commanded the passes of the Aurès Mountains (Mons Aurasius), a mountain block that separated Numidia from the Gaetuli Berber tribes of the desert, and which was gradually occupied in its whole extent by the Romans under the Empire. Including these towns, there were altogether twenty that are known to have received at one time or another the title and status of Roman colonies; and in the 5th century, the \"Notitia Dignitatum\" enumerates no fewer than 123 sees whose bishops assembled at Carthage in 479.", "Ancient episcopal sees of Numidia listed in the \"Annuario Pontificio\" as titular sees:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work in chemical research.", "Work as journal editor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kolbe was born in Elliehausen, near Göttingen, Kingdom of Hanover (Germany) as the eldest son of a Protestant pastor. At the age of 13, he entered the Göttingen Gymnasium, residing at the home of one of the professors. He obtained the leaving certificate (the Abitur) six years later. He had become passionate about the study of chemistry, matriculating at the University of Göttingen in the spring of 1838 in order to study with the famous chemist Friedrich Wöhler. In 1842, he became an assistant to Robert Bunsen at the Philipps-Universität Marburg. He took his doctoral degree in 1843 at the same university. A new opportunity arose in 1845, when he became assistant to Lyon Playfair at the new \"Museum of Economic Geology\" in London and a close friend of Edward Frankland. From 1847, he was engaged in editing the \"Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie\" (\"Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry\") edited by Justus von Liebig, Wöhler, and Johann Christian Poggendorff, and he also wrote an important textbook. In 1851, Kolbe succeeded Bunsen as professor of chemistry at Marburg and, in 1865, he was called to the Universität Leipzig. In 1864, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1853, he married Charlotte, the daughter of General-Major Wilhelm von Bardeleben. His wife died in 1876 after 23 years of happy marriage. They had four children.", "As late as the 1840s, and despite Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea in 1828, some chemists still believed in the doctrine of vitalism, according to which a special life-force was necessary to create \"organic\" (i.e., in its original meaning, biologically derived) compounds. Kolbe promoted the idea that organic compounds could be derived from substances clearly sourced from outside this \"organic\" context, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. (Hence, while by modern definitions, he was converting one organic molecule to another, by the parlance of his era, he was converting \"inorganic\"—\"anorganisch\"—substances into \"organic\" ones only thought accessible through vital processes.) He validated his theory by converting carbon disulfide to acetic acid in several steps (1843–45). Kolbe also introduced a modified idea of structural radicals, so contributing to the development of structural theory. A dramatic success came when his theoretical prediction of the existence of secondary and tertiary alcohols was confirmed by the synthesis of the first of these classes of organic molecules. Kolbe was the first person to use the word synthesis in its present-day meaning, and contributed a number of new chemical reactions. In particular, Kolbe developed procedures for the electrolysis of the salts of fatty and other carboxylic acids (Kolbe electrolysis) and prepared salicylic acid, a building block of aspirin in a process called Kolbe synthesis or Kolbe-Schmitt reaction. His method for the synthesis of nitriles is called the Kolbe nitrile synthesis, and with Edward Frankland he found that nitriles can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. In addition to his own bench research and scholarly and editorial work, Kolbe oversaw student research at Leipzig and especially at Marburg; students spending time under his tutelage included Peter Griess, Aleksandr Mikhailovich Zaitsev (known for Zaitsev's rule predicting the product composition of elimination reactions), Theodor Curtius (discoverer of diazo compounds, hydrazines, and the Curtius rearrangement), Ernst Otto Beckmann (discoverer of the Beckmann rearrangement), Carl Graebe (discoverer of alizarin), Oscar Loew, Constantin Fahlberg, Nikolai Menshutkin, Vladimir Markovnikov (first to describe carbocycles smaller and larger than cyclohexane, and known for Markovnikov's rule describing addition reactions to alkenes), Jacob Volhard, Ludwig Mond, Alexander Crum Brown (first to describe the double bond of ethylene), Maxwell Simpson, and Frederick Guthrie.", "Besides his work for periodicals he wrote numerous books Kolbe served for more than a decade as what, in modern terms, would be understood the senior editor of the (\"Journal of practical chemistry\", from 1870 to 1884), Kolbe was sometimes so severely critical of the work of others, especially after about 1874, that some wondered whether he might have been suffering a mental illness. He was intolerant of what he regarded as loose speculation parading as theory, and sought through his writings to save his beloved science of chemistry from what he regarded as the scourge of modern structural theory. His rejection of structural chemistry, especially the theories of the structure of benzene by August Kekulé, the theory of the asymmetric carbon atom by J.H. van't Hoff, and the reform of chemical nomenclature by Adolf von Baeyer, was expressed in his vituperative articles in the \"Journal für Praktische Chemie\". Some translated quotes illustrate his manner of articulating the deep conflict between his interpretation of chemistry and that of the structural chemists: \"...Baeyer is an excellent experimentor, but he is only an empiricist, lacking sense and capability, and his interpretations of his experiments show particular deficiency in his familiarity with the principles of true science...\" The violence of his language worked to limit his posthumous reputation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Function.", "Structure.", "Storage polysaccharides.", "Starch.", "Glycogen.", "Inulin.", "Structural polysaccharides.", "Arabinoxylans.", "Cellulose.", "Chitin.", "Pectins.", "Acidic polysaccharides.", "Bacterial capsular polysaccharides.", "Chemical identification tests for polysaccharides.", "Periodic acid-Schiff stain (PAS)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like chitin and arabinoxylans. These carbohydrate types can be metabolized by some bacteria and protists. Ruminants and termites, for example, use microorganisms to process cellulose. Even though these complex polysaccharides are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called dietary fiber, these carbohydrates enhance digestion among other benefits. The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract, and to change how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed. Soluble fiber binds to bile acids in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this in turn lowers cholesterol levels in the blood. Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Although insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown. Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient (as of 2005), dietary fiber is nevertheless regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.", "", "Starch is a glucose polymer in which glucopyranose units are bonded by \"alpha\"-linkages. It is made up of a mixture of amylose (15–20%) and amylopectin (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules, and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by breaking the \"alpha\"-linkages (glycosidic bonds). Both humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store glucose.", "Glycogen serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue. Glycogen is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach. Glycogen is analogous to starch, a glucose polymer in plants, and is sometimes referred to as \"animal starch\", having a similar structure to amylopectin but more extensively branched and compact than starch. Glycogen is a polymer of α(1→4) glycosidic bonds linked, with α(1→6)-linked branches. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in many cell types, and plays an important role in the glucose cycle. Glycogen forms an energy reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact and more immediately available as an energy reserve than triglycerides (lipids). In the liver hepatocytes, glycogen can compose up to 8 percent (100–120 grams in an adult) of the fresh weight soon after a meal. Only the glycogen stored in the liver can be made accessible to other organs. In the muscles, glycogen is found in a low concentration of one to two percent of the muscle mass. The amount of glycogen stored in the body—especially within the muscles, liver, and red blood cells—varies with physical activity, basal metabolic rate, and eating habits such as intermittent fasting. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the kidneys, and even smaller amounts in certain glial cells in the brain and white blood cells. The uterus also stores glycogen during pregnancy, to nourish the embryo. Glycogen is composed of a branched chain of glucose residues. It is stored in liver and muscles.", "Inulin is a naturally occurring polysaccharide.", "", "Arabinoxylans are found in both the primary and secondary cell walls of plants and are the copolymers of two sugars: arabinose and xylose. They may also have beneficial effects on human health.", "The structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units bonded together by \"beta\"-linkages. Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the \"beta\"-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose. Certain animals such as termites can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.", "Chitin is one of many naturally occurring polymers. It forms a structural component of many animals, such as exoskeletons. Over time it is bio-degradable in the natural environment. Its breakdown may be catalyzed by enzymes called chitinases, secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and produced by some plants. Some of these microorganisms have receptors to simple sugars from the decomposition of chitin. If chitin is detected, they then produce enzymes to digest it by cleaving the glycosidic bonds in order to convert it to simple sugars and ammonia. Chemically, chitin is closely related to chitosan (a more water-soluble derivative of chitin). It is also closely related to cellulose in that it is a long unbranched chain of glucose derivatives. Both materials contribute structure and strength, protecting the organism.", "Pectins are a family of complex polysaccharides that contain 1,4-linked α--galactosyl uronic acid residues. They are present in most primary cell walls and in the non-woody parts of terrestrial plants.", "Acidic polysaccharides are polysaccharides that contain carboxyl groups, phosphate groups and/or sulfuric ester groups.", "Pathogenic bacteria commonly produce a thick, mucous-like, layer of polysaccharide. This \"capsule\" cloaks antigenic proteins on the bacterial surface that would otherwise provoke an immune response and thereby lead to the destruction of the bacteria. Capsular polysaccharides are water-soluble, commonly acidic, and have molecular weights on the order of 100,000 to 2,000,000 daltons. They are linear and consist of regularly repeating subunits of one to six monosaccharides. There is enormous structural diversity; nearly two hundred different polysaccharides are produced by \"E. coli\" alone. Mixtures of capsular polysaccharides, either conjugated or native are used as vaccines. Bacteria and many other microbes, including fungi and algae, often secrete polysaccharides to help them adhere to surfaces and to prevent them from drying out. Humans have developed some of these polysaccharides into useful products, including xanthan gum, dextran, welan gum, gellan gum, diutan gum and pullulan. Most of these polysaccharides exhibit useful visco-elastic properties when dissolved in water at very low levels. This makes various liquids used in everyday life, such as some foods, lotions, cleaners, and paints, viscous when stationary, but much more free-flowing when even slight shear is applied by stirring or shaking, pouring, wiping, or brushing. This property is named pseudoplasticity or shear thinning; the study of such matters is called rheology. Aqueous solutions of the polysaccharide alone have a curious behavior when stirred: after stirring ceases, the solution initially continues to swirl due to momentum, then slows to a standstill due to viscosity and reverses direction briefly before stopping. This recoil is due to the elastic effect of the polysaccharide chains, previously stretched in solution, returning to their relaxed state. Cell-surface polysaccharides play diverse roles in bacterial ecology and physiology. They serve as a barrier between the cell wall and the environment, mediate host-pathogen interactions, and form structural components of biofilms. These polysaccharides are synthesized from nucleotide-activated precursors (called nucleotide sugars) and, in most cases, all the enzymes necessary for biosynthesis, assembly and transport of the completed polymer are encoded by genes organized in dedicated clusters within the genome of the organism. Lipopolysaccharide is one of the most important cell-surface polysaccharides, as it plays a key structural role in outer membrane integrity, as well as being an important mediator of host-pathogen interactions. The enzymes that make the \"A-band\" (homopolymeric) and \"B-band\" (heteropolymeric) O-antigens have been identified and the metabolic pathways defined. The exopolysaccharide alginate is a linear copolymer of β-1,4-linked -mannuronic acid and -guluronic acid residues, and is responsible for the mucoid phenotype of late-stage cystic fibrosis disease. The \"pel\" and \"psl\" loci are two recently discovered gene clusters that also encode exopolysaccharides found to be important for biofilm formation. Rhamnolipid is a biosurfactant whose production is tightly regulated at the transcriptional level, but the precise role that it plays in disease is not well understood at present. Protein glycosylation, particularly of pilin and flagellin, became a focus of research by several groups from about 2007, and has been shown to be important for adhesion and invasion during bacterial infection.", "", "Polysaccharides with unprotected vicinal diols or amino sugars (where some hydroxyl groups are replaced with amines) give a positive periodic acid-Schiff stain (PAS). The list of polysaccharides that stain with PAS is long. Although mucins of epithelial origins stain with PAS, mucins of connective tissue origin have so many acidic substitutions that they do not have enough glycol or amino-alcohol groups left to react with PAS." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and naval career.", "Interwar period, 1919–1939.", "Commander of the National Army.", "Regent.", "Seeking redress for the Treaty of Trianon.", "World War II and the Holocaust.", "Uneasy alliance.", "War.", "Occupation.", "Deposition and arrest.", "Exile.", "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "Full title as Regent.", "Legacy.", "Film and television portrayals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya was born at Kenderes to an untitled lower nobility (regarded as equivalent to the British gentry), descended from István Horti, ennobled by King Ferdinand II in 1635. His father, István Horthy de Nagybánya, was a member of the House of Magnates, the upper chamber of the Diet of Hungary, and lord of a 1,500 acre estate. He married Hungarian noblewoman Paula Halassy de Dévaványa in 1857. Miklós was the fourth of their eight children. Horthy entered the Austro-Hungarian \"Imperial and Royal Naval Academy\" (k.u.k. Marine-Akademie) at Fiume (now Rijeka, Croatia) at age 14. Because the official language of the naval academy was German, Horthy spoke Hungarian with a slight, but noticeable, Austro-German accent for the rest of his life. He also spoke Italian, Croatian, English, and French. As a young man, Horthy travelled around the world and served as a diplomat for Austria-Hungary in the Ottoman Empire and other countries. Horthy married Magdolna Purgly de Jószáshely in Arad in 1901. They had 4 children: Magdolna (1902), Paula (1903), István (1904) and Miklós (1907). From", "Historians agree on the conservatism of interwar Hungary, Historian István Deák states:", "Two national traumas that followed the First World War profoundly shaped the spirit and future of the Hungarian nation. The first was the loss, as dictated by the Allies of World War I, of large portions of Hungarian territory that had bordered other countries. These were lands that had belonged to Hungary (then part of Austria-Hungary) but were now ceded mainly to Czechoslovakia, Romania, Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The excisions, eventually ratified in the Treaty of Trianon of 1920, cost Hungary two-thirds of its territory and one-third of its native Hungarian speakers; this dealt the population a terrible psychological blow. The second trauma began in March 1919, when the Communist leader Béla Kun seized power in the capital, Budapest, after the first proto-democratic government in Hungary faltered. Kun and his colleagues proclaimed a Hungarian Soviet Republic and promised the restoration of Hungary's former grandeur. Instead, his efforts at reconquest failed, and Hungarians were treated to a Soviet-style repression in the form of armed gangs who intimidated or murdered enemies of the regime. This period of violence came to be known as the Red Terror. Within weeks of his coup, Kun's popularity plummeted. On 30 May 1919,", "On 1 March 1920, the National Assembly of Hungary re-established the Kingdom of Hungary. It was apparent that the Allies of World War I would not accept any return of King Charles IV (the former Austro-Hungarian emperor) from exile. Instead, with National Army officers controlling the parliament building, the assembly voted to install Horthy as Regent; he defeated Count Albert Apponyi by a vote of 131 to 7. Bishop Ottokár Prohászka then led a small delegation to meet Horthy, announcing, \"Hungary's Parliament has elected you Regent! Would it please you to accept the office of Regent of Hungary?\" To their astonishment, Horthy declined, unless the powers of the office were expanded. As Horthy stalled, the politicians gave in to his demands", "The first decade of Horthy's reign was primarily consumed by stabilizing the Hungarian economy and political system. Horthy's chief partner in these efforts was his prime minister István Bethlen. It was commonly known that Horthy was an Anglophile, and British political and economic support played a significant role in the stabilization and consolidation of the early Horthy era in the Kingdom of Hungary. Bethlen sought to stabilize the economy while building alliances with weaker nations that could advance Hungary's cause. That cause was, primarily, reversing the losses of the Treaty of Trianon. The humiliations of the Trianon treaty continued to occupy a central place in Hungarian foreign policy and the popular imagination. The indignant anti-Trianon slogan \"Nem, nem soha!\" (\"No, no never!\") became a ubiquitous motto of Hungarian outrage. When in 1927 the British newspaper magnate", "", "Hungary now entered into intricate political maneuvers with the regime of Adolf Hitler, and Horthy began to play a greater and more public role in navigating Hungary along this dangerous path. For Horthy, Hitler served as a bulwark against Soviet encroachment or invasion. Horthy was, in the eyes of observers, obsessed with the Communist threat. One American diplomat remarked that Horthy's anti-Communist tirades were so common and ferocious that diplomats \"discounted it as a phobia\". Horthy clearly saw his country as trapped between two stronger powers, both of them dangerous; evidently he considered Hitler to be the more manageable of the two, at least at first. Hitler was able to wield greater influence over Hungary than the Soviet Union could – not only as the country's major trading partner, but also because he could assist with two of Horthy's key ambitions: maintaining Hungarian sovereignty and satisfying the nationwide yearning to recover former Hungarian lands. Horthy's strategy was one of cautious, sometimes even grudging, alliance. The means by which the regent granted or resisted Hitler's demands, especially with regard to Hungarian military action and the treatment of Hungary's Jews, remain the central criteria by which his career has been judged. Horthy's relationship with Hitler was, by his", "The Kingdom of Hungary was gradually drawn into the war itself. In 1939 and 1940, volunteer units fought in Finland's Winter War. In April 1941, Hungary became, in effect, a member of the Axis. Hungary permitted Hitler to send troops across Hungarian territory for the invasion of Yugoslavia and ultimately sent its own troops to claim its share of the dismembered Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Prime Minister Pál Teleki, horrified that he had failed to prevent this collusion with the Nazis against a former ally, committed suicide. In June 1941, the Hungarian government finally yielded to Hitler's demands that the nation contribute", "By 1944, the Axis was losing the war, and the Red Army was at Hungary's borders. Fearing that the Soviets would overrun the country, Kállay, with Horthy's approval, put out numerous feelers to the Allies. He even promised to surrender unconditionally to them once they reached Hungarian territory. An enraged Hitler summoned Horthy to a conference in Klessheim Castle near Salzburg. He pressured Horthy to make greater contributions to the war effort and again commanded him to assist in the killing of more of Hungary's Jews. Horthy now permitted the deportation of a large number of Jews (the generally accepted figure is 100,000), but would not go further. The conference was a ruse. As Horthy was returning home on 19 March, the Wehrmacht invaded and occupied Hungary. Horthy was told he could only stay in office if he dismissed Kállay and appointed a new government that would fully cooperate with Hitler and", "In August 1944, Romania withdrew from the Axis and turned on Hitler and his allies. This development, a sign of the failing German war effort, led Horthy in Budapest to reconsolidate his political position. He ousted Sztójay and the other Nazi-friendly ministers installed the preceding spring, replacing them with a new government under Géza Lakatos. He stopped the mass deportations of Jews and ordered the police to use deadly force if the Germans attempted to resume them. While some smaller groups continued to be deported by train, the Germans did not press Horthy to ramp the pace back up to pre-August levels. Indeed, when Horthy turned down Eichmann's request to restart the deportations, Heinrich Himmler ordered Eichmann to return to Germany. Realizing that Hungary's position was untenable, Horthy also renewed peace feelers to the Allies and began", "After his arrest, Horthy was moved through a variety of detention locations before finally arriving at the prison facility at Nuremberg in late September 1945. There he was asked to provide evidence to the International Military Tribunal in preparation for the trial of the Nazi leadership. Although he was interviewed repeatedly about his contacts with some of the defendants, he did not testify in person. In Nuremberg he was reunited with his son, Miklós. Horthy gradually came to believe that his arrest had been arranged and choreographed by the Americans in order to protect him from the Russians. Indeed, the former regent reported being told that Josip Broz Tito, the new ruler of Yugoslavia, asked that Horthy be charged with complicity with the 1942 Novi Sad raid by Hungarian troops in the Bačka region of Vojvodina. Serbian historian Zvonimir Golubović has claimed that not only was Horthy aware of these genocidal massacres, but had approved of them. American trial officials did not indict Horthy for war crimes. The former ambassador John Montgomery, who had some influence in Washington, also contributed to Horthy's release in Nuremberg. According to the memoirs of Ferenc Nagy, who served for a year as prime minister in post-war Hungary, the Hungarian Communist leadership was also interested in extraditing Horthy for trial. Nagy said that Joseph Stalin was more forgiving: that Stalin told Nagy during a diplomatic meeting in April 1945 not to judge Horthy, because he was old and had offered an armistice in 1944. On 17 December 1945, Horthy was released from Nuremberg prison and allowed to rejoin his family in the German town of Weilheim, Bavaria. The Horthys lived there for four years, supported financially by ambassador John Montgomery, his successor, Herbert Pell, and by Pope Pius XII, whom he knew personally. In March 1948, Horthy returned to testify at the Ministries Trial, the last of the twelve U.S.-run Nuremberg Trials; he testified against Edmund Veesenmayer, the Nazi administrator who had controlled Hungary during the deportations to Auschwitz in the spring of 1944. Veesenmayer was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment, but was released in 1951.", "", "His Serene Highness", "The historiography and reception of Horthy has changed throughout the course of modern Hungarian history. He was officially denounced by the state during the Communist era, while during his own time and in the 21st century, his reception has been more nuanced. Horthy was generally condemned by historians after World War II, but more moderate assessments became possible during the 1970s and 1980s. Historian József Antall, the country's first democratically elected prime minister after the end of Communism, stated in 1993 that Horthy was a \"Hungarian patriot\" who \"should be placed into the community of the nation and the awareness of the people.\" Peter Gosztony's 1973 biography portrayed him as conscientious, traditional, and conservative. He did not seek a dictatorship and during the 1920s he was mostly a figurehead. However he became much more important during the 1930s. Hungary was too weak to deny German passage for the invasion of Yugoslavia in 1941. Horthy blamed his Prime Minister Bárdossy for Hungary's declaration of war on the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1942 Horthy replaced Bárdossy with Miklós Kállay, who accepted parliamentary government, freedom of the press, human rights, and protection for refugees. Thomas Sakmyster was also sympathetic, yet he acknowledged that Horthy was narrow minded. István Deák regards Horthy as typical of other strong men of the time, especially dictators Francisco Franco of Spain and Philippe Pétain of Vichy France. Deák says that during the war, Horthy, \"alternatively promoted and opposed German influence in his country, depending on how he judged the probable outcome of the war...Similarly, Horthy both persecuted and protected his Jewish subjects, depending on the turn of military events and the social status and degree of assimilation of the Jews under his reign. In the end, he was neither tried nor imprisoned but at the urging of Stalin was allowed to go into Exile in Portugal.\" Historian Mária Ormos asks: The interwar period dominated by Horthy's government is known in Hungarian as the \"Horthy-kor\" (\"Horthy age\") or \"Horthy-rendszer\" (\"Horthy system\"). Its legacy, and that of Horthy himself, remain among the most controversial political topics in Hungary today, tied inseparably to the Treaty of Trianon and the Holocaust. According to one school of thought, Horthy was a strong, conservative, but not undemocratic leader and patriot who only entered into an alliance with Hitler's Germany in order to restore lands Hungary lost after the First World War and was reluctant, or even defiant, in the face of Germany's demands to deport the Hungarian Jewry. Others see Horthy's alliance with Germany as foolhardy, or think that a positive view of Horthy serves a revisionist historical agenda, pointing to Horthy's passage of various anti-Jewish laws – the earliest in Europe, in 1920 – as a sign of his anti-Semitism and the prelude for the collaboration in the Holocaust.", "In the 1985 NBC TV film \"\", the role of Horthy was taken by Hungarian-born actor Guy Deghy, who appeared bearded although Horthy (as photographs bore out) appeared consistently clean-shaven throughout his life. In the 2011 Spanish TV film series, \"El ángel de Budapest\" (The angel of Budapest), also set during Wallenberg's time in Hungary in 1944, he is portrayed by actor László Agárdi. In the 2014 American action drama film \"Walking with the Enemy\", Regent Horthy is portrayed by Ben Kingsley. The movie depicts a story of a young man during the Arrow Cross Party takeover in Hungary." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Speakers.", "Revitalization efforts.", "Classification.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Consonants.", "Orthography.", "Grammar.", "Numbers.", "Months.", "Chamorro studies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Chamorro language is threatened, with a precipitous drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during the Spanish–American War (there are no similar language fluency estimates for other areas of the Mariana Islands during this time). A century later, the 2000 U.S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their heritage language fluently, and the vast majority of those were over the age of 55. A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-World War II decline of Chamorro language fluency. There is a long history of colonization in the Marianas, beginning with the Spanish colonization in 1668 and, eventually, the American acquisition of the islands in 1898 (whose hegemony continues to this day). This imposed power structures privileging the language of the region's colonizers. According to estimates, a large majority, as stated above (75%), maintained active knowledge of the Chamorro language even during the Spanish colonial era, but this was all to change with the advent of American imperialism and enforcement of the English language. In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U.S. government banned the Chamorro language in schools and workplaces in 1922. They collected and burned all Chamorro dictionaries. Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese government when they controlled the region during World War II. After World War II, when Guam was recaptured by the United States, the American administrators of the island continued to impose “no Chamorro” language restrictions in local schools, teaching only English and disciplining students for speaking their indigenous tongue. Even though these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, Chamorro usage had substantially decreased. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent. Lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life. There is a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the rest of the Marianas. On Guam (called \"Guåhan\" by Chamorro speakers, from the word \"guaha\", meaning \"have\"; its English gloss \"We have\" references the island's providing everything needed to live) the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled in the last decade or so. In the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI), young Chamorros speak the language fluently. Chamorro is common among Chamorro households in the Northern Marianas, but fluency has greatly decreased among Guamanian Chamorros during the years of American rule in favor of American English, which is commonplace throughout the inhabited Marianas. Today, NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros disagree strongly on each other's linguistic fluency. An NMI Chamorro would say that Guamanian Chamorros speak the language incorrectly or speak \"broken Chamorro\", whereas a Guamanian Chamorro might consider the form used by NMI Chamorros to be archaic.", "Representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote and protect the language. In 2013, \"Guam will be instituting Public Law 31-45, which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools,\" extending instruction to include grades 7–10. Other efforts have been made in recent times, most notably Chamorro immersion schools. One example is the Huråo Guåhan Academy, at the Chamorro Village in Hagåtña, GU. This program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray Arceo. According to Huråo's official YouTube page, \"Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immersion Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language and Self-identity on Guam. Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005.\" The academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language. Other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro language have been found in the use of applications for smartphones, internet videos and television. From Chamorro dictionaries, to the most recent \"Speak Chamorro\" app, efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro language and identity. On YouTube, a popular Chamorro soap opera \"Siha\" has received mostly positive feedback from native Chamorro speakers on its ability to weave dramatics, the Chamorro language, and island culture into an entertaining program. On TV, \"Nihi! Kids\" is a first-of-its-kind show, because it is targeted \"for Guam’s nenis that aims to perpetuate Chamoru language and culture while encouraging environmental stewardship, healthy choices and character development.\"", "Unlike most of its neighbors, Chamorro is not classified as a Micronesian or Polynesian language. Rather, like Palauan, it possibly constitutes an independent branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language family. At the time the Spanish rule over Guam ended, it was thought that Chamorro was a semi-Creole language, with a substantial amount of the vocabulary of Spanish origin and beginning to have a high level of mutual intelligibility with Spanish. It is reported that even in the early 1920s Spanish was reported to be a living language in Guam for commercial transactions, but the use of Spanish and Chamorro was rapidly declining as a result of English pressure. Spanish influences in the language exist due to three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. Many words in the Chamorro lexicon are of Latin etymological origin via Spanish, but their use conforms with indigenous grammatical structures. Furthermore, indigenous pronunciation has \"nativized\" most words of foreign origin that haven't conformed to the ways that indigenous speakers of the language are accustomed to making sounds. By some, it may be considered a mixed language under a historical point of view, even though it remains independent and unique. In his \"Chamorro Reference Grammar\", Donald M. Topping states: \"The most notable influence on Chamorro language and culture came from the Spanish.... There was wholesale borrowing of Spanish words and phrases into Chamorro, and there was even some borrowing from the Spanish sound system. But this borrowing was linguistically superficial. The bones of the Chamorro language remained intact.... In virtually all cases of borrowing, Spanish words were forced to conform to the Chamorro sound system.... While Spanish may have left a lasting mark on Chamorro vocabulary, as it did on many Philippine and South American languages, it had virtually no effect on Chamorro grammar.... Japanese influence on Chamorro was much greater than that of German but much less than Spanish. Once again, the linguistic influence was restricted exclusively to vocabulary items, many of which refer to manufactured objects... In contrast, in the essays found in \"Del español al chamorro. Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico\" (2009), Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga refers to modern Chamorro as a \"mixed language\" of \"Hispanic-Austronesian\" origins, while estimating that approximately 50% of the Chamorro lexicon comes from the Spanish language and that the contribution of this language goes far beyond loanwords. Rodríguez-Ponga (1995) considers Chamorro a Spanish-Austronesian or a Spanish-Austronesian mixed language or at least a language that has emerged from a process of contact and \"creolization\" on the island of Guam, since modern Chamorro is influenced in vocabulary, and it has in its grammar many elements of Spanish origin: verbs, articles, prepositions, numerals, conjunctions, etc. This process, which began in the 17th century and ended in the early 20th century, meant a profound change from the old Chamorro (paleo-Chamorro) to modern Chamorro (neo-Chamorro) in its grammar, phonology and vocabulary.", "Chamorro has 24 phonemes: 18 are consonants and 6 are vowels.", "Chamorro has at least 6 vowels, which include:", "Below is a chart of Chamorro consonants; all are unaspirated.", "Chamorro Alphabet Additionally, some letter combinations in Chamoru sometimes represent single phonemes. For instance, \"ci+[vowel]\" and \"ti+[vowel]\" are both pronounced, as in \"hustisia\" (\"justice\") and the surname \"Concepcion\" (Spanish influence). The letter is usually (though not always) pronounced more like \"dz\" (an approximation of the regional Spanish pronunciation of \"y\" as ); it is also sometimes used to represent the same sound as the letter \"i\" by Guamanian speakers. The phonemes represented by and as well as and are not always distinguished in print. Thus the Guamanian place name spelled \"Yona\" is pronounced \"Dzonia\"/, not as might be expected. is usually pronounced like \"ts\" rather than like English \"ch\". Chamorro is usually a flap, like Spanish \"r\" between vowels, and a retroflex approximant, like English \"r\", at the beginning of words. Chamorro has geminate consonants which are written double (GG, DD, KK, MM, NGNG, PP, SS, TT), native diphthongs AI and AO, plus OI, OE, IA, IU, IE in loanwords; penultimate stress, except where marked otherwise, if marked at all in writing, usually with an acute accent, as in \"asút\" \"blue\" or \"dángkulu\" \"big\". Unstressed vowels are limited to, though they are often spelled A E O. Syllables may be consonant-vowel-consonant, as in \"che’lu\" \"sibling\", \"diskåtga\" \"unload\", \"mamåhlåo\" \"shy\", or \"oppop\" \"lie face down\", \"gåtus\" (Old Chamorro word for 100), \"Hagåtña\" (Capital of Guam); B, D, and G are not distinguished from P, T, and K in that position.. Today, there is an ongoing issue on the Chamorro language orthography between NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros (example: Mt. Tapochau vs. Mt. Tapochao). There is also a movement on Guam to capitalize both letters in a digraph such as “CH” in words like “CHamoru” (Guamanian spelling) or “CHe’lu”, which NMI Chamorros find silly.", "Chamorro is a VSO or verb–subject–object language. However, the word order can be very flexible and so change to SVO (subject-verb-object), like English, if necessary to convey different types of relative clauses depending on context and stressing parts of what someone is trying to say or convey. Again, this is subject to debate as those on Guam believe the language is flexible whereas those in the CNMI do not. Chamorro is also an agglutinative language, grammatically allowing root words to be modified by a number of affixes. For example, \"masanganenñaihon\" \"talked awhile (with/to)\", passive marking prefix \"ma-\", root verb \"sangan\", referential suffix \"i\" \"to\" (forced morphophonemically to change to \"e\") with excrescent consonant \"n\", and suffix \"ñaihon\" \"a short amount of time\". Thus \"Masanganenñaihon gui' \"\"He/she was told (something) for a while\". Chamorro has many Spanish loanwords and other words have Spanish etymological roots (e.g., \"tenda\" \"shop/store\" from Spanish \"tienda\"), which may lead some to mistakenly conclude that the language is a Spanish Creole: Chamorro very much uses its loanwords in a Micronesian way (e.g., bumobola \"playing ball\" from bola \"ball, play ball\" with verbalizing infix -um- and reduplication of the first syllable of root). Chamorro is a predicate-initial, head-marking language. It has a rich agreement system in the nominal and in the verbal domains. The following table gives the possessor-noun agreement suffixes: Chamorro is also known for its wh-agreement in the verb: These agreement morphemes agree with features (roughly, the grammatical case feature) of the question phrase, and'replace' the regular subject–verb agreement: 'Juan washed the car.' 'Who washed the car?'", "Current common Chamorro uses only the number words of Spanish origin: uno, dos, tres, etc. Old Chamorro used different number words based on categories: \"Basic numbers\" (for date, time, etc.), \"living things\", \"inanimate things\", and \"long objects\".", "Before the Spanish-based 12-month calendar became predominant, the Chamoru 13-month lunar calendar was commonly used. The first month in the left column below corresponds with January. On the right are the Spanish-based months.", "Chamorro is studied at the University of Guam and in several academic institutions of Guam and the Northern Marianas. Researchers in several countries are studying aspects of Chamorro. In 2009, the Chamorro Linguistics International Network (CHIN) was established in Bremen, Germany. CHiN was founded on the occasion of the Chamorro Day (27 September 2009) which was part of the programme of the Festival of Languages. The foundation ceremony was attended by people from Germany, Guam, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States of America." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of home runs.", "Out of the park.", "Inside-the-park home run.", "Number of runs batted in.", "Grand slam.", "Specific situation home runs.", "Walk-off home run.", "Leadoff home run.", "Back-to-back.", "Consecutive home runs by one batter.", "Home run cycle.", "History.", "Records.", "Instant replay.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In modern times a home run is most often scored when the ball is hit over the outfield wall between the foul poles (in fair territory) before it touches the ground (in flight), and without being caught or deflected back onto the field by a fielder. A batted ball is also a home run if it touches either foul pole or its attached screen before touching the ground, as the foul poles are by definition in fair territory. Additionally, many major-league ballparks have ground rules stating that a batted ball in flight that strikes a specified location or fixed object is a home run; this usually applies to objects that are beyond the outfield wall but are located such that it may be difficult for an umpire to judge. In professional baseball, a batted ball that goes over the outfield wall \"after\" touching the ground (i.e. a ball that bounces over the outfield wall) becomes an automatic double. This is colloquially referred to as a \"ground rule double\" even though it is uniform across all of Major League Baseball, per MLB rules 5.05(a)(6) through 5.05(a)(9). A fielder is allowed to", "An inside-the-park home run occurs when a batter hits the ball into play and is able to circle the bases before the fielders can put him out. Unlike with an outside-the-park home run, the batter-runner and all preceding runners are liable to be put out by the defensive team at any time while running the bases. This can only happen if the ball does not leave the ballfield. In the early days of baseball, outfields were relatively much more spacious, reducing the likelihood of an over-the-fence home run, while increasing the likelihood of an inside-the-park home run, as a ball getting past an outfielder had more distance that it could roll before a fielder could track it down. Modern outfields are much less spacious and more uniformly designed than in the game's early days, therefore inside-the-park home runs are now a rarity. They usually occur when a fast runner hits the ball deep into the outfield and the", "Home runs are often characterized by the number of runners on base at the time. A home run hit with the bases empty is seldom called a \"one-run homer\", but rather a solo home run, solo homer, or \"solo shot\". With one runner on base, two runs are scored (the baserunner and the batter) and thus the home run is often called a two-run homer or two-run shot. Similarly, a home runs with two runners on base is a three-run homer or three-run shot. The term \"four-run homer\" is seldom used; instead, it is nearly always called a \"grand slam\". Hitting a grand slam is the best possible result for the batter's turn at bat and the worst possible result for the pitcher and his team.", "A grand slam occurs when the bases are \"loaded\" (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. According to \"The Dickson Baseball Dictionary\", the term originated in the card game of contract bridge. An inside-the-park grand slam is a grand slam that is also an inside-the-park home run, a home run without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare, due to the relative rarity of loading the bases along with the significant rarity (nowadays) of inside-the-park home runs. On July 25, 1956, Roberto Clemente became the only MLB", "These types of home runs are characterized by the specific game situation in which they occur, and can theoretically occur on either an outside-the-park or inside-the-park home run.", "A walk-off home run is a home run hit by the home team in the bottom of the ninth inning, any extra inning, or other scheduled final inning, which gives the home team the lead and thereby ends the game. The term is attributed to Hall of Fame relief pitcher Dennis Eckersley, so named because after the run is scored, the losing team has to \"walk off\" the field. Two World Series have ended via the \"walk-off\" home run. The first was the 1960 World Series when Bill Mazeroski of the Pittsburgh Pirates hit a 9th inning solo home run in the 7th game of the series off New York Yankees pitcher Ralph Terry to give the Pirates the World Championship. The second time was the 1993 World Series when Joe Carter of the Toronto Blue Jays hit a 9th inning 3-run home run off Philadelphia Phillies pitcher Mitch Williams in Game 6 of the series, to", "A leadoff home run is a home run hit by the first batter of a team, the leadoff hitter of the first inning of", "When two consecutive batters each hit a home run, this is described as back-to-back home runs. It is still considered back-to-back even if both batters hit their home runs off different pitchers. A third batter hitting a home run is commonly referred to as back-to-back-to-back. Four home runs in a row by consecutive batters has only occurred nine times in the history of Major League Baseball. Following convention, this is called back-to-back-to-back-to-back. The most recent occurrence was on June 9, 2019, when the Washington Nationals hit four in a row against the San Diego Padres in Petco Park as Howie Kendrick, Trea Turner, Adam Eaton and Anthony Rendon homered off pitcher Craig Stammen. Stammen became the fifth pitcher to surrender back-to-back-to-back-to-back home runs, following Paul Foytack on July 31, 1963, Chase Wright on April 22, 2007, Dave Bush on August 10, 2010, and Michael Blazek on July 27, 2017. On August 14, 2008, the Chicago White Sox defeated the Kansas City Royals", "The record for consecutive home runs by a batter under any circumstances is four. Of the sixteen players (through 2012) who have hit four in one game, six have hit them consecutively. Twenty-eight other batters have hit four consecutive across two games. Bases on balls do not count as at-bats, and Ted Williams holds the record for consecutive home runs across the most games, four in four games played, during September 17–22, 1957, for the Red Sox. Williams hit a pinch-hit homer on the 17th; walked as a pinch-hitter on the 18th; there was no game on the 19th; hit another pinch-homer on the 20th; homered and then was lifted for a pinch-runner after at least one walk, on the 21st; and homered after at least one walk on the 22nd. All in all, he had four walks interspersed among his four homers.", "An offshoot of hitting for the cycle, a \"home run cycle\" is when a player hits a solo home run, two-run home run, three-run home run, and grand slam all in one game. This is an extremely rare feat, as it requires the batter not only to hit four home runs in the game, but also to hit the home runs with a specific number of runners already on base. This is largely dependent on circumstances outside of the player's control, such as teammates' ability to get on base, and the order in which the player comes to bat in any particular inning. A further variant of the home run cycle would be the \"natural home run cycle\", should a batter", "In the early days of the game, when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The first home run ever hit in the National League was by Ross Barnes of the Chicago White Stockings (now known as the Chicago Cubs), in 1876. The home \"run\" was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close. Hitters were discouraged from trying to hit home runs, with the conventional wisdom being that if they tried to do so they would simply fly out. This was a serious concern in the 19th century, because in baseball's early days a ball caught after one bounce was still an out. The emphasis was on place-hitting and what is now called \"manufacturing runs\" or \"small ball\". The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the live-ball era began after World War I. First, the materials and manufacturing processes improved significantly, making the now-mass-produced, cork-centered ball somewhat more lively. Batters such as Babe Ruth and Rogers Hornsby took full advantage of rules changes that were instituted during the 1920s, particularly prohibition of the spitball, and the requirement that balls be replaced when worn or dirty. These changes resulted in the baseball being easier to see and hit, and easier to hit out of the park. Meanwhile, as the game's popularity boomed, more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield and increasing the chances of a long fly ball resulting in a home run. The teams with the sluggers, typified by the New York Yankees, became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the \"inside game\" to the \"power game\" in order to keep up. Before, Major League Baseball considered a fair ball that bounced over an outfield fence to be a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence", "Major League Baseball keeps running totals of all-time home runs by team, including teams no longer active (prior to 1900) as well as by individual players. Gary Sheffield hit the 250,000th home run in MLB history with a grand slam on September 8, 2008. Sheffield had hit MLB's 249,999th home run against Gio González in his previous at-bat. The all-time, verified professional baseball record for career home runs for one player, excluding the U.S. Negro Leagues during the era of segregation, is held by Sadaharu Oh. Oh spent his entire career playing for the Yomiuri Giants in Japan's Nippon Professional Baseball, later managing the Giants, the Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks and the 2006 World Baseball Classic Japanese team. Oh holds the all-time home run world record, having hit 868 home runs in his career. In Major League Baseball, the career record is 762, held by Barry Bonds, who broke Hank Aaron's record on August 7, 2007, when he hit his 756th home run at AT&T Park off pitcher Mike Bacsik. Only eight other major league players have hit as many as 600: Hank Aaron (755), Babe Ruth (714), Alex Rodriguez (696), Willie Mays (660), Albert Pujols (654), Ken Griffey, Jr. (630), Jim Thome (612), and Sammy Sosa (609); Pujols holds the record for active MLB players. The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in 2001. Other notable single season records were achieved by Babe Ruth who hit 60 in 1927, Roger Maris, with 61 home runs in 1961, and Mark McGwire, who hit 70 in 1998. Negro League slugger Josh Gibson's Baseball Hall of Fame plaque says he hit \"almost 800\" home runs in his career. The \"Guinness Book of World Records\" lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800. Ken Burns' award-winning series, \"Baseball\", states that his", "Replays \"to get the call right\" have been used extremely sporadically in the past, but the use of instant replay to determine \"boundary calls\"—home runs and foul balls—was not officially allowed until 2008. In a game on May 31, 1999, involving the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins, a hit by Cliff Floyd of the Marlins was initially ruled a double, then a home run, then was changed back to a double when umpire Frank Pulli decided to review video of the play. The Marlins protested that video replay was not allowed, but while the National League office agreed that replay was not to be used in future games, it declined the protest on the grounds it was a judgment call, and the play stood. In November 2007, the general managers of Major League Baseball voted in favor of implementing instant replay reviews on boundary home run calls. The proposal limited the use of instant replay to determining whether a boundary/home run call is: On August 28, 2008, instant replay review became available in MLB for reviewing calls in accordance with the above proposal. It was first utilized on September 3, 2008 in a game between the New York Yankees and the Tampa Bay Rays at Tropicana Field. Alex Rodriguez of the Yankees hit what appeared to be a home run, but the ball hit a", "Career achievements" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.", "Heavenly books opened.", "Prayer service.", "Observance.", "Preceding day.", "General observances.", "Eve.", "Prayer services.", "Reform Judaism.", "Repentance (\"Teshuva\") and confessional (\"Vidui\").", "Avodah: remembering the Temple service.", "Date of Yom Kippur.", "In the Torah.", "Midrashic interpretation.", "Mishnaic and Talmudic literature.", "Temple service.", "Observance in Israel.", "Observance by athletes.", "Recognition by the United Nations.", "Modern scholarship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "() means 'day' in Hebrew and () comes from a root that means 'to atone'. Yom Kippur is usually expressed in English as \"Day of Atonement\".", "Yom Kippur is \"the tenth day of [the] seventh month\" (Tishrei) and is regarded as the \"Sabbath of Sabbaths\". Rosh Hashanah (referred to in the Torah as \"Yom Teruah\") is the first day of that month according to the Hebrew calendar. On this day forgiveness of sins is also asked of God. Yom Kippur completes the annual period known in Judaism as the High Holy Days or \"Yamim Nora'im\" (\"Days of Awe\") that commences with Rosh Hashanah.", "According to Jewish tradition, God inscribes each person's fate for the coming year into a book, the Book of Life, on Rosh Hashanah, and waits until Yom Kippur to \"seal\" the verdict. During the Days of Awe, a Jew tries to amend their behavior and seek forgiveness for wrongs done against God (\"bein adam leMakom\") and against other human beings (\"bein adam lechavero\"). The evening and day of Yom Kippur are set aside for public and private petitions and confessions of guilt (\"Vidui\"). At the end of Yom Kippur, one hopes that they have been forgiven by God.", "The Yom Kippur prayer service includes several unique aspects. One is the actual number of prayer services. Unlike a regular day, which has three prayer services (\"Ma'ariv\", the evening prayer; \"Shacharit\", the morning prayer; and \"Mincha\", the afternoon prayer), or a Shabbat or Yom Tov, which have four prayer services (\"Ma'ariv\"; \"Shacharit\"; \"Mussaf\", the additional prayer; and \"Mincha\"), Yom Kippur has five prayer services (\"Ma'ariv\"; \"Shacharit\"; \"Musaf\"; \"Mincha\"; and \"Ne'ilah\", the closing prayer). The prayer services also include private and public confessions of sins (\"Vidui\") and a unique prayer dedicated to the special Yom Kippur \"avodah\" (service) of the Kohen Gadol (high priest) in the Holy Temple in Jerusalem.", "As one of the most culturally significant Jewish holidays, Yom Kippur is observed by many secular Jews who may not observe other holidays. Many secular Jews attend synagogue on Yom Kippur—for many secular Jews the High Holy Days are the only times of the year during which they attend synagogue—causing synagogue attendance to soar.", "\"Erev Yom Kippur\" (lit. \"eve [of] day [of] atonement\") is the day preceding Yom Kippur, corresponding to the ninth day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei. This day is commemorated with additional morning prayers, asking others for forgiveness, giving charity, performing the kapparot ritual, an extended afternoon prayer service, and two festive meals.", "mandates establishment of this holy day on the 10th day of the 7th month as the day of atonement for sins. It calls it the Sabbath of Sabbaths and a day upon which one must afflict one's soul. Five additional prohibitions are traditionally observed, as detailed in the Jewish oral tradition (\"Mishnah\" tractate \"Yoma\" 8:1). The number five is a set number, relating to: The prohibitions are the following: A parallel has been drawn between these activities and the human condition according to the Biblical account of the expulsion from the garden of Eden. Refraining from these symbolically represents a return to a pristine state, which is the theme of the day. By refraining from these activities, the body is uncomfortable but can still survive. The soul is considered to be the life force in a body. Therefore, by making one’s body uncomfortable, one’s soul is uncomfortable. By feeling pain one can feel how others feel when they are in pain. This is the purpose of the prohibitions. Total abstention from food and drink as well as keeping the other traditions begins at sundown, and ends after nightfall the following day. One should add a few minutes to the beginning and end of the day, called \"tosefet Yom Kippur\", lit. \"addition to Yom Kippur\". Although the fast is required of all healthy men over 13 or women over 12, it is waived in the case of certain medical conditions. Virtually all Jewish holidays involve meals, but since Yom Kippur involves fasting, Jewish law requires one to eat a large and festive meal on the afternoon before Yom Kippur, after the \"Mincha\" (afternoon) prayer. This meal is meant to make up for the inability to eat a large meal on the day of Yom Kippur instead, due to the prohibition from eating or drinking. Wearing white clothing (or a kittel for Ashkenazi Jews), is traditional to symbolize one's purity on this day. Many Orthodox men immerse themselves in a \"mikveh\" on the day before Yom Kippur. In order to gain atonement from God, one must:", "Before sunset on Yom Kippur eve, worshipers gather in the synagogue. The Ark is opened and two people take from it two Sifrei Torah (Torah scrolls). Then they take their places, one on each side of the Hazzan, and the three recite (in Hebrew): In the tribunal of Heaven and the tribunal of earth, we hold it lawful to pray with transgressors. The cantor then chants the Kol Nidre prayer (Aramaic: כל נדרי, English translation: \"All vows\"). It is recited in Aramaic. Its name \"Kol Nidre\" is taken from the opening words, and translates \"All vows\": All personal vows we are likely to make, all personal oaths and pledges we are likely to take between this Yom Kippur and the next Yom Kippur, we publicly renounce. Let them all be relinquished and abandoned, null and void, neither firm nor established. Let our personal vows, pledges and oaths be considered neither vows nor pledges nor oaths. The leader and the congregation then say together three times \"May all the people of Israel be forgiven, including all the strangers who live in their midst, for all the people are in fault.\" The Torah scrolls are then placed back into the Ark, and the Yom Kippur evening service begins.", "Many married Ashkenazi Orthodox men wear a \"kittel\", a white robe-like garment for evening prayers on Yom Kippur, otherwise used by men on their wedding day. They also wear a tallit (prayer shawl), which is typically worn only during morning services. Prayer services begin with the Kol Nidre prayer, which is recited before sunset. Kol Nidre is a prayer that dates back to 9th century Palestine. It is recited in a dramatic manner, before the open ark, using a melody that dates back to the 16th century. Then the service continues with the evening prayers (\"Ma'ariv\" or \"Arvit\") and an extended Selichot service. The morning prayer service is preceded by litanies and petitions of forgiveness called \"selichot\"; on Yom Kippur, many \"selichot\" are woven into the liturgy of the mahzor (prayer book). The morning prayers are followed by an added prayer (\"Mussaf\") as on all other holidays. This is followed by \"Mincha\" (the afternoon prayer) which includes a reading (Haftarah) of the entire Book of Jonah, which has as its theme the story of God's willingness to forgive those who repent. The service concludes with the \"Ne'ila\" (\"closing\") prayer, which begins shortly before sunset, when the \"gates of prayer\" will be closed. Yom Kippur comes to an end with a recitation of \"Shema Yisrael\" and the blowing of the \"shofar\", which marks the conclusion of the fast.", "Reform synagogues generally experience their largest attendance of the year on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah for worship services. The prayer philosophy of Reform, as described in the introduction of the movement's High Holy Day prayerbook, \"Mishkan Hanefesh\", is to reflect \"varied theological approaches that enable a diverse congregation to share religious experience... with a commitment to Reform tradition, as well as [to] the larger Jewish tradition.\" A central feature of Reform these services is the rabbinic sermon. \"For more than a century and a half in the Reform Movement,\" writes Rabbi Lance Sussman, \"High Holiday sermons were among the most anticipated events in synagogue life, especially on the eve of Rosh Hashanah and Kol Nidre night.\"", "The Talmud states, \"Yom Kippur atones for those who repent and does not atone for those who do not repent\". Repentance in Judaism is done through a process called Teshuva, which in its most basic form consists of regretting having committed the sin, resolving not to commit that sin in the future and to confess that sin before God. Confession in Judaism is called \"Vidui\" (Hebrew וידוי). There is also a commandment to repent on Yom Kippur. Accordingly, Yom Kippur is unique for the confessional, or \"Vidui\", that is part of the prayer services. In keeping with the requirement to repent on Yom Kippur, Jews recite the full \"Vidui\" a total of 9 times: once during Mincha on Yom Kippur eve, and on Yom Kippur itself during Ma'ariv (2 times), Shacharit (2 times), Musaf (2 times), and Mincha (2 times); at Ne’eilah, only the short confessional is said. The first time in each service takes place during the personal recitation of the Amidah (standing, silent prayer), and the second time during the cantor's repetition of the Amidah (except during the preceding Mincha), in a public recitation. The Yom Kippur confessional consists of two parts: a short confession beginning with the word \"Ashamnu\" (אשמנו, \"we have sinned\"), which is a series of words describing sin arranged according to the aleph-bet (Hebrew alphabetic order), and a long confession, beginning with the words \"Al Cheyt\" (על חטא, \"for the sin\"), which is a set of 22 double acrostics, also arranged according to the aleph-bet, enumerating a range of sins.", "A recitation of the sacrificial service of the Temple in Jerusalem traditionally features prominently in both the liturgy and the religious thought of the holiday. Specifically, the \"Avodah\" (\"service\") in the Musaf prayer recounts in great detail the sacrificial ceremonies of the Yom Kippur Korbanot (sacrificial offerings) that are recited in the prayers but have not been performed for 2,000 years, since the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. This traditional prominence is rooted in the Babylonian Talmud’s description of how to attain atonement following the destruction of the Temple. According to Talmud tractate Yoma, in the absence of a Temple, Jews are obligated to study the High Priest’s ritual on Yom Kippur, and this study helps achieve atonement for those who are unable to benefit from its actual performance. In Orthodox Judaism, accordingly, studying the Temple ritual on Yom Kippur represents a positive rabbinically ordained obligation which Jews seeking atonement are required to fulfill. In Orthodox synagogues and many Conservative ones a detailed description of the Temple ritual is recited on the day. In most Orthodox and some Conservative synagogues, the entire congregation prostrates themselves at each point in the recitation where the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) would pronounce the Tetragrammaton (God’s holiest name, according to Judaism). The main section of the Avodah is a threefold recitation of the High Priest’s actions regarding expiation in the Holy of Holies. Performing the sacrificial acts and reciting, (\"Your upright children\"). (These three times, plus in some congregations the \"Aleinu\" prayer during the Musaf Amidah on Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah, are the only times in Jewish services when Jews engage in prostration, with the exception of some Yemenite Jews and \"talmedhei haRambam\" (disciples of Maimonides) who may prostrate themselves on other occasions during the year. A variety of liturgical poems are added, including a poem recounting the radiance of the countenance of the Kohen Gadol after exiting the Holy of Holies, traditionally believed to emit palpable light in a manner echoing the Torah's account of the countenance of Moses after descending from Mount Sinai, as well as prayers for the speedy rebuilding of the Temple and the restoration of sacrificial worship. There are a variety of other customs, such as hand gestures to mime the sprinkling of blood (one sprinkling upwards and seven downwards per set of eight). Orthodox liturgies include prayers lamenting the inability to perform the Temple service and petitioning for its restoration, which Conservative synagogues generally omit. In some Conservative synagogues, only the \"Hazzan\" (cantor) engages in full prostration. Some Conservative synagogues abridge the recitation of the Avodah service to varying degrees, and some omit it entirely. Reconstructionist services omit the entire service as inconsistent with modern sensibilities.", "Yom Kippur falls each year on the 10th day of the Jewish month of Tishrei, which is 9 days after the first day of Rosh Hashanah. In terms of the Gregorian calendar, the earliest date on which Yom Kippur can fall is September 14, as happened most recently in 1899 and 2013. The latest Yom Kippur can occur relative to the Gregorian dates is on October 14, as happened in 1967 and will happen again in 2043. After 2089, the differences between the Hebrew calendar and the Gregorian calendar will result in Yom Kippur falling no earlier than September 15. Gregorian calendar dates for recent and upcoming Yom Kippur holidays are:", "The Torah calls the day \"Yom HaKippurim\" (יוֹם הַכִּיפּוּרִים) and in it decrees a strict prohibition of work and affliction of the soul upon the tenth day of the seventh month, later known as Tishrei. The laws of Yom Kippur are mentioned in three passages in the Torah:", "Traditionally, Yom Kippur is considered the date on which Moses received the second set of Ten Commandments. It occurred following the completion of the second 40 days of instructions from God. At this same time, the Israelites were granted atonement for the sin of the Golden Calf; hence, its designation as the Day of Atonement.", "", "The following summary of the Temple service is based on the traditional Jewish religious account described in Mishnah tractate Yoma, appearing in contemporary traditional Jewish prayer books for Yom Kippur, and studied as part of a traditional Jewish Yom Kippur worship service. While the Temple in Jerusalem was standing (from Biblical times through 70 CE), the Kohen Gadol (High Priest) was mandated by the Torah to perform a complex set of special services and sacrifices for Yom Kippur to attain Divine atonement, the word \"kippur\" meaning \"atone\" in Hebrew. These services were considered to be the most important parts of Yom Kippur because through them the Kohen Gadol made atonement for all Jews and the world. During the service, the Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies in the center of the Temple, the only time of the year that anyone went inside. Doing so required special purification and preparation, including five immersions in a \"mikvah\" (ritual bath), and four changes of clothing. Seven days prior to Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol was sequestered in the Palhedrin chamber in the Temple, where he reviewed (studied) the service with the sages familiar with the Temple, and was sprinkled with spring water containing ashes of the Red Heifer as purification. The Talmud (Tractate Yoma) also reports that he practiced the incense offering ritual in the Avitnas chamber. On the day of Yom Kippur, the Kohen Gadol had to follow a precise order of services, sacrifices, and purifications: The Kohen Gadol wore five sets of garments (three golden and two white linen), immersed in the \"mikvah\" five times, and washed his hands and feet ten times. Sacrifices included two (daily) lambs, one bull, two goats, and two rams, with accompanying \"mincha\" (meal) offerings, wine libations, and three incense offerings (the regular two daily and an additional one for Yom Kippur). The Kohen Gadol entered the Holy of Holies four times. The Tetragrammaton was pronounced three times, once for each confession.", "Yom Kippur is a legal holiday in the modern state of Israel. There are no radio or television broadcasts, airports are shut down, there is no public transportation, and all shops and businesses are closed. In 2013, 73% of the Jewish people of Israel said that they were intending to fast on Yom Kippur. It is very common in Israel to wish \"Tsom Kal\" ([an] easy fast) or \"Tsom Mo'il\" ([a] benefiting fast) to everyone before Yom Kippur, even if one does not know whether they will fast or not. It is considered impolite to eat in public on Yom Kippur or to sound music or to drive a motor vehicle. There is no legal prohibition on any of these, but in practice such actions are universally avoided in Israel during Yom Kippur, except for emergency services. Over the last few decades, bicycle-riding and inline skating on the empty streets have become common among secular Israeli youngsters, especially on the eve of Yom Kippur in Tel Aviv and Israel in general. In 1973, an air raid siren was sounded on the afternoon of Yom Kippur and radio broadcasts were resumed to alert the public to the surprise attack on Israel by Egypt and Syria that launched the Yom Kippur War.", "Some notable athletes have observed Yom Kippur, even when it conflicted with playing their sport. In baseball, Sandy Koufax, the Hall of Fame pitcher, decided not to pitch Game 1 of the 1965 World Series because it fell on Yom Kippur. Koufax garnered national attention for his decision, as an example of the conflict between social pressures and personal beliefs. Hall of Fame first baseman Hank Greenberg attracted national attention in 1934, nearly three decades earlier, when he refused to play baseball on Yom Kippur, even though the Tigers were in the middle of a pennant race, and he was leading the league in RBIs. The \"Detroit Free Press\" columnist and poet Edgar A. Guest wrote a poem titled \"Speaking of Greenberg\", which ended with the lines \"\"We shall miss him on the infield and shall miss him at the bat / But he's true to his religion—and I honor him for that.\"\" When Greenberg arrived in synagogue on Yom Kippur, the service stopped suddenly, and the congregation gave an embarrassed Greenberg a standing ovation. Former Los Angeles Dodgers outfielder Shawn Green, similarly, made headlines in 2001 for sitting out a game for the first time in 415 games (then the longest streak among active players), to honor Yom Kippur, even though his team was in the middle of a playoff race. Other baseball players who have similarly sat out games on Yom Kippur include former Boston Red Sox and New York Yankees third baseman Kevin Youkilis, former Houston Astros catcher and former Los Angeles Angels manager Brad Ausmus, and outfielder Art Shamsky. Gabe Carimi, the Consensus All-American left tackle in American football who won the 2010 Outland Trophy as the nation's top collegiate interior lineman, faced a conflict in his freshman year of college in 2007. That year Yom Kippur fell on a Saturday, and he fasted until an hour before his football game against Iowa started that night. Carimi said, \"Religion is a part of me, and I don't want to just say I'm Jewish. I actually do make sacrifices that I know are hard choices.\" In 2004, Matt Bernstein, standout fullback at University of Wisconsin–Madison, fasted on Yom Kippur, then broke his fast on the sidelines before rushing for 123 yards in a game against Penn State. In 2011, golfer Laetitia Beck declined a request to join the UNC Tar-Heels Invitational competition, because it conflicted with Yom Kippur. Instead, she spent the day fasting and praying. She said: \"My Judaism is very important to me, and... on Yom Kippur, no matter what, I have to fast.\" Boris Gelfand, Israel's top chess player, played his game in the prestigious London Grand Prix Chess Tournament on 25 September 2012 (eve of Yom Kippur) earlier, to avoid playing on the holiday. In 2013, the International Tennis Federation fined the Israel Tennis Association \"more than $13,000... for the inconvenience\" of having to reschedule a tennis match between the Israeli and Belgian teams that was originally scheduled on Yom Kippur. Dudi Sela, Israel's # 1 player, quit his quarterfinal match in the third set of the 2017 Shenzhen Open so he could begin observing Yom Kippur by the time the sun set, forfeiting a possible $34,000 in prize money and 90 rankings points.", "Starting 2016 the United Nations officially recognizes Yom Kippur, stating that from then on no official meetings would take place on the day. As well, the United Nations stated that, beginning in 2016, they would have nine official holidays and seven floating holidays which each employee would be able to choose one of. It stated that the floating holidays will be Yom Kippur, Day of Vesak, Diwali, Gurpurab, Orthodox Christmas, Orthodox Good Friday, and Presidents' Day. This was the first time the United Nations officially recognized any Jewish holiday.", "According to textual scholars, the biblical regulations covering Yom Kippur are spliced together from multiple source texts, as indicated by the duplication of the confession over the bullock, and the incongruity in one verse stating that the high priest should not enter the Holy of Holies (with the inference that there are exceptions for certain explicitly identified festivals), and the next verse indicating that they can enter whenever they wish (as long as a specific ritual is carried out first). Although Rashi tried to find a harmonistic explanation for this incongruity, the Leviticus Rabbah maintains that it was indeed the case that the high priest could enter at any time if these rituals were carried out. Textual scholars argue that the ritual is composed from three sources, and a couple of redactional additions: On the basis of their assumptions, these scholars believe that the original ceremony was simply the ritual purification of the sanctuary from any accidental ritual impurity, at the start of each new year, as seen in the Book of Ezekiel. Textual scholars date this original ceremony to before the priestly source, but after JE. According to the Book of Ezekiel, the sanctuary was to be cleansed by the sprinkling of bullock's blood, on the first day of the first and of the seventh months—near the start of the civil year and of the ecclesiastical year, respectively; although the masoretic text of the Book of Ezekiel has the second of these cleansings on the seventh of the first month, biblical scholars regard the Septuagint, which has the second cleaning as being the first of the seventh month, as being more accurate here. It appears that during the period that the Holiness Code and the Book of Ezekiel were written, the new year began on the tenth day of the seventh month, and thus liberal biblical scholars believe that by the time the Priestly Code was compiled, the date of the new year and of the day of atonement had swapped around." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Predation and oscillations.", "Huffaker's experiments on predator–prey interactions (1958).", "The Levins model.", "Stochasticity and metapopulations.", "Stochastic patch occupancy models (SPOMs).", "Microhabitat patches (MHPs) and bacterial metapopulations.", "Life history evolution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first experiments with predation and spatial heterogeneity were conducted by G. F. Gause in the 1930s, based on the Lotka–Volterra equation, which was formulated in the mid-1920s, but no further application had been conducted. The Lotka-Volterra equation suggested that the relationship between predators and their prey would result in population oscillations over time based on the initial densities of predator and prey. Gause's early experiments to prove the predicted oscillations of this theory failed because the predator–prey interactions were not influenced by immigration. However, once immigration was introduced, the population cycles accurately depicted the oscillations predicted by the Lotka-Volterra equation, with the peaks in prey abundance shifted slightly to the left of the peaks of the predator densities. Huffaker's experiments expanded on those of Gause by examining how both the factors of migration and spatial heterogeneity lead to predator–prey oscillations.", "In order to study predation and population oscillations, Huffaker used mite species, one being the predator and the other being the prey. He set up a controlled experiment using oranges, which the prey fed on, as the spatially structured habitat in which the predator and prey would interact. At first, Huffaker experienced difficulties similar to those of Gause in creating a stable predator–prey interaction. By using oranges only, the prey species quickly became extinct followed consequently with predator extinction. However, he discovered that by modifying the spatial structure of the habitat, he could manipulate the population dynamics and allow the overall survival rate for both species to increase. He did this by altering the distance between the prey and oranges (their food), establishing barriers to predator movement, and creating corridors for the prey to disperse. These changes resulted in increased habitat patches and in turn provided more areas for the prey to seek temporary protection. When the prey would become extinct locally at one habitat patch, they were able to reestablish by migrating to new patches before being attacked by predators. This habitat spatial structure of patches allowed for coexistence between the predator and prey species and promoted a stable population oscillation model. Although the term metapopulation had not yet been coined, the environmental factors of spatial heterogeneity and habitat patchiness would later describe the conditions of a metapopulation relating to how groups of spatially separated populations of species interact with one another. Huffaker's experiment is significant because it showed how metapopulations can directly affect the predator–prey interactions and in turn influence population dynamics.", "Levins' original model applied to a metapopulation distributed over many patches of suitable habitat with significantly less interaction between patches than within a patch. Population dynamics within a patch were simplified to the point where only presence and absence were considered. Each patch in his model is either populated or not. Let \"N\" be the fraction of patches occupied at a given time. During a time \"dt\", each occupied patch can become unoccupied with an extinction probability \"edt\". Additionally, 1 − \"N\" of the patches are unoccupied. Assuming a constant rate \"c\" of propagule generation from each of the \"N\" occupied patches, during a time \"dt\", each unoccupied patch can become occupied with a colonization probability \"cNdt\". Accordingly, the time rate of change of occupied patches, \"dN/dt\", is This equation is mathematically equivalent to the logistic model, with a carrying capacity \"K\" given by and growth rate \"r\" At equilibrium, therefore, some fraction of the species's habitat will always be unoccupied.", "Huffaker's studies of spatial structure and species interactions are an example of early experimentation in metapopulation dynamics. Since the experiments of Huffaker and Levins, models have been created which integrate stochastic factors. These models have shown that the combination of environmental variability (stochasticity) and relatively small migration rates cause indefinite or unpredictable persistence. However, Huffaker's experiment almost guaranteed infinite persistence because of the controlled immigration variable.", "One major drawback of the Levins model is that it is deterministic, whereas the fundamental metapopulation processes are stochastic. Metapopulations are particularly useful when discussing species in disturbed habitats, and the viability of their populations, i.e., how likely they are to become extinct in a given time interval. The Levins model cannot address this issue. A simple way to extend the Levins' model to incorporate space and stochastic considerations is by using the contact process. Simple modifications to this model can also incorporate for patch dynamics. At a given percolation threshold, habitat fragmentation effects take place in these configurations predicting more drastic extinction thresholds. For conservation biology purposes, metapopulation models must include (a) the finite nature of metapopulations (how many patches are suitable for habitat), and (b) the probabilistic nature of extinction and colonisation. Also, note that in order to apply these models, the extinctions and colonisations of the patches must be asynchronous.", "By combining nanotechnology with landscape ecology, a habitat landscape can be nanofabricated on-chip by building a collection of nanofabricated bacterial habitats, and connecting them by corridors in different topological arrangements and with nano-scale channels providing them with the local ecosystem service of habitat renewal. These landscapes of MHPs can be used as physical implementations of an adaptive landscape: by generating a spatial mosaic of patches of opportunity distributed in space and time. The patchy nature of these fluidic landscapes allows for the study of adapting bacterial cells in a metapopulation system operating on-chip within a synthetic ecosystem. The metapopulation biology and evolutionary ecology of these bacterial systems, in these synthetic ecosystems, can be addressed using experimental biophysics.", "Metapopulation models have been used to explain life-history evolution, such as the ecological stability of amphibian metamorphosis in small vernal ponds. Alternative ecological strategies have evolved. For example, some salamanders forgo metamorphosis and sexually mature as aquatic neotenes. The seasonal duration of wetlands and the migratory range of the species determines which ponds are connected and if they form a metapopulation. The duration of the life history stages of amphibians relative to the duration of the vernal pool before it dries up regulates the ecological development of metapopulations connecting aquatic patches to terrestrial patches." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Properties.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Fréchet filter on is the set of all subsets of such that the complement of in is finite. That is: This makes a \"filter\" on the lattice ((), ⊆), the power set of with set inclusion, given that denotes the complement of a set, the following two conditions hold:", "If the base set is finite, then = () since every subset of, and in particular every complement, is then finite. This case is sometimes excluded by definition or else called the improper filter on. Allowing to be finite creates a single exception to the Fréchet filter's being free and non-principal since a filter on a finite set cannot be free and a non-principal filter cannot contain any singletons as members. If is infinite, then every member of is infinite since it is simply minus finitely many of its members. Additionally, is infinite since one of its subsets is the set of all { }, where ∈. The Fréchet filter is both free and non-principal, excepting the finite case mentioned above, and is included in every free filter. It is also the dual filter of the ideal of all finite subsets of (infinite). The Fréchet filter is \"not\" necessarily an ultrafilter (or maximal proper filter). Consider (), where is the natural numbers. The set of even numbers is the complement of the set of odd numbers. Since neither of these sets is finite, neither set is in the Fréchet filter on. However, an \"ultrafilter\" is free if and only if it includes the Fréchet filter. The existence of free ultrafilters was established by Tarski in 1930, relying on a theorem equivalent to the axiom of choice and is used in the construction of the hyperreals in nonstandard analysis.", "On the set of natural numbers, the set of infinite intervals = { (,∞) : ∈ } is a Fréchet filter base, i.e., the Fréchet filter on consists of all supersets of elements of." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Origins.", "Production.", "Themes.", "Religion.", "Power.", "Unity.", "Hitler's speeches.", "Response.", "Controversy.", "Wehrmacht objections.", "Influences and legacy.", "Copyright." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The film begins with a prologue, the only commentary in the film. It consists of the following text, shown sequentially, against a grey background: Day 1: The film opens with shots of the clouds above the city, and then moves through the clouds to float above the assembling masses below, with the intention of portraying beauty and majesty of the scene. The cruciform shadow of Hitler's plane is visible as it passes over the tiny figures marching below, accompanied by an orchestral arrangement of the \"Horst-Wessel-Lied\". Upon arriving at the Nuremberg airport, Hitler and other Nazi leaders emerge from his plane to thunderous applause and a cheering crowd. He is then driven into Nuremberg, through equally enthusiastic people, to his hotel where a night rally is later held. Day 2: The second day begins with images of Nuremberg at dawn, accompanied by an extract from the Act III Prelude (\"Wach Auf!\") of Richard Wagner's \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\". Following this is a montage of the attendees preparing for the opening of the Reich Party Congress, and footage of the top Nazi officials arriving at the Luitpold Arena. The film then cuts to the opening ceremony, where Rudolf Hess announces the start of the Congress. The camera then introduces much of the Nazi hierarchy and covers their opening speeches, including Joseph Goebbels, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Fritz Todt, Robert Ley and Julius Streicher. Then the film cuts to an outdoor rally for the \"Reichsarbeitsdienst\" (Labor Service), which is primarily a series of quasi-military drills by men carrying spades. This is also where Hitler gives his first speech on the merits of the Labour Service and praising them for their work in rebuilding Germany. The day then ends with a torchlight SA parade in which Viktor Lutze speaks to the crowds. Day 3: The third day starts with a Hitler Youth rally on the parade ground. Again the camera covers the Nazi dignitaries arriving and the introduction of Hitler by Baldur von Schirach. Hitler then addresses the Youth, describing in militaristic terms how they must harden themselves and prepare for sacrifice. Everyone present, including General Werner von Blomberg, then assemble for a military pass and review, featuring Wehrmacht cavalry and various armored vehicles. That night Hitler delivers another speech to low-ranking party officials by torchlight, commemorating the first year since the Nazis took power and declaring that the party and state are one entity. Day 4: The fourth day is the climax of the film, where the most memorable of the imagery is presented. Hitler, flanked by Heinrich Himmler and Viktor Lutze, walks through a long wide expanse with over 150,000 SA and SS troops standing at attention, to lay a wreath at a First World War memorial. Hitler then reviews the parading SA and SS men, following which Hitler and Lutze deliver a speech where they discuss the Night of the Long Knives purge of the SA several months prior. Lutze reaffirms the SA's loyalty to the regime, and Hitler absolves the SA of any crimes committed by Ernst Röhm. New party flags are consecrated by letting them touch the \"Blutfahne\" (the same cloth flag said to have been carried by the fallen Nazis during the Beer Hall Putsch) and, following a final parade in front of the Nuremberg Frauenkirche, Hitler delivers his closing speech. In it he reaffirms the primacy of the Nazi Party in Germany, declaring, \"All loyal Germans will become National Socialists. Only the best National Socialists are party comrades!\" Hess then leads the assembled crowd in a final \"Sieg Heil\" salute for Hitler, marking the close of the party congress. The entire crowd sings the \"Horst-Wessel-Lied\" as the camera focuses on the giant Swastika banner, which fades into a line of silhouetted men in Nazi party uniforms, marching in formation as the lyrics \"Comrades shot by the Red Front and the Reactionaries march in spirit together in our columns\" are sung.", "Riefenstahl, a popular German actress, had directed her first film called \"Das blaue Licht\" (\"The Blue Light\") in 1932. Around the same time she first heard Hitler speak at a Nazi rally and, by her own admission, was impressed. She later began a correspondence with him that would last for years. Hitler, by turn, was equally impressed with \"Das blaue Licht\", and in 1933 asked her to direct a film about the Nazis' annual Nuremberg Rally. The Nazis had only recently taken power amid a period of political instability (Hitler was the fourth Chancellor of Germany in less than a year) and were considered an unknown quantity by many Germans, to say nothing of the world. In \"Mein Kampf\", Hitler talks of the success of British propaganda in World War I, believing people's ignorance meant simple repetition and an appeal to feelings over reason would suffice. Hitler chose Riefenstahl as he wanted the film as \"artistically satisfying\" as possible to appeal to a non-political audience, but he also believed that propaganda must admit no element of doubt. As such, \"Triumph of the Will\" may be seen as a continuation of the unambiguous World War I-style propaganda, though heightened by the film's artistic or poetic nature. Riefenstahl was initially reluctant to make any documentaries at all for Hitler. This was not because of any moral qualms, but because Riefenstahl had never made a documentary and did not feel that she truly understood the NSDAP. Hitler persisted and Riefenstahl eventually agreed to make a film at the 1933 Nuremberg Rally called \"Der Sieg des Glaubens\" (\"Victory of Faith\"). However the film had numerous technical problems, including a lack of preparation (Riefenstahl reported having just a few days) and Hitler's apparent unease at being filmed. To make matters worse, Riefenstahl had to deal with infighting by party officials, in particular Joseph Goebbels who tried to have the film released by the Propaganda Ministry. Though \"Der Sieg des Glaubens\" apparently did well at the box office, it later became a serious embarrassment to the Nazis after SA Leader Ernst Röhm, who had a prominent role in the film, was executed during the Night of the Long Knives. All references to Röhm were ordered to be erased from German history, which included the destruction of all copies of \"Der Sieg des Glaubens\". It was considered a lost film until a copy turned up in the 1980s in the German Democratic Republic's film archives. In 1934, Riefenstahl had no wish to repeat the fiasco of \"Der Sieg des Glaubens\" and initially recommended fellow director Walter Ruttmann. Ruttmann's film, which would have covered the rise of the Nazi Party from 1923 to 1934 and been more overtly propagandistic (the opening text of \"Triumph of the Will\" was his), did not appeal to Hitler. He again asked Riefenstahl, who finally relented (there is still debate over how willing she was) after Hitler guaranteed his personal support and promised to keep other Nazi organizations, specifically the Propaganda Ministry, from meddling with her film.", "The film follows a script similar to \"Der Sieg des Glaubens\", which is evident when one sees both films side by side. For example, the city of Nuremberg scenes—even to the shot of a cat included in the city driving sequence in both films. Furthermore, Herbert Windt reused much of his musical score for that film in \"Triumph des Willens\", which he also scored. Riefenstahl shot \"Triumph of the Will\" on a budget of roughly 280,000RM (approximately US$110,000 in 1934, $1.54 m in 2015). With that said, there were extensive preparations facilitated by the cooperation of party members, the military, and vital help from high-ranking Nazis like Goebbels. As Susan Sontag observed, \"The Rally was planned not only as a spectacular mass meeting, but as a spectacular propaganda film.\" Albert Speer, Hitler's personal architect, designed the set in Nuremberg and did most of the coordination for the event. Pits were dug in front of the speakers' platform so Riefenstahl could get the camera angles she wanted, and tracks were laid so that her cameramen could get traveling shots of the crowd. When rough cuts weren't up to par, major party leaders and high-ranking public officials reenacted their speeches in a studio for her. Riefenstahl also used a film crew that was extravagant by the standards of the day. Her crew consisted of 172 people, including 10 technical staff, 36 cameramen and assistants (operating in 16 teams with 30 cameras), nine aerial photographers, 17 newsreel men, 12 newsreel crew, 17 lighting men, two photographers, 26 drivers, 37 security personnel, four labor service workers, and two office assistants. Many of her cameramen also dressed in SA uniforms so they could blend into the crowds. Riefenstahl had the difficult task of condensing an estimated 61 hours of film into two hours. She labored to complete the film as fast as she could, going so far as to sleep in the editing room filled with hundreds of thousands of feet of film footage.", "", "\"Triumph of the Will\" is sometimes seen as an example of Nazi political religion. The primary religion in Germany before the Second World War was Christianity. With the primary sects being Roman Catholic and Protestant, the Christian views in this movie are clearly meant to allow the movie to better connect with the intended audience. Religion is a major theme in \"Triumph of the Will\". The film opens with Hitler descending god-like out of the skies past twin cathedral spires. It contains many scenes of church bells ringing, and individuals in a state of near-religious fervor, as well as a prominent shot of Reich Protestant Bishop Ludwig Müller standing in his vestments among high-ranking Nazis. It is probably not a coincidence that the final parade of the film was held in front of the Nuremberg Frauenkirche. In his final speech in the film, Hitler also directly compares the Nazi party to a holy order, and the consecration of new party flags by having Hitler touch them to the \"blood banner\" has obvious religious overtones. Hitler himself is portrayed in a messianic manner, from the opening where he descends from the clouds in a plane, to his drive through Nuremberg where even a cat stops what it is doing to watch him, to the many scenes where the camera films from below and looks up at him: Hitler, standing on his podium, will issue a command to hundreds of thousands of followers. The audience happily complies in unison. As Frank P. Tomasulo comments, \"Hitler is cast as a veritable German Messiah who will save the nation, if only the citizenry will put its destiny in his hands.\"", "Germany had not seen images of military power and strength since the end of World War I, and the huge formations of men would remind the audience that Germany was becoming a great power once again. Though the Labor Service men carried spades, they handled them as if they were rifles. The Eagles and Swastikas could be seen as a reference to the Roman Legions of antiquity. The large mass of well-drilled party members could be seen in a more ominous light, as a warning to dissidents thinking of challenging the regime. Hitler's arrival in an airplane should also be viewed in this context. According to Kenneth Poferl, \"Flying in an airplane was a luxury known only to a select few in the 1930s, but Hitler had made himself widely associated with the practice, having been the first politician to campaign via air travel. Victory reinforced this image and defined him as the top man in the movement, by showing him as the only one to arrive in a plane and receive an individual welcome from the crowd. Hitler's speech to the SA also contained an implied threat: if he could have Röhm, the commander of the hundreds of thousands of troops on the screen, shot, it was only logical to assume that Hitler could get away with having anyone executed.\"", "It was very important to Adolf Hitler that his propaganda messages carry a unified theme. If a country isn't unified in saying the enemy is bad, the audience starts to have doubts. Unity is seen throughout this film, even in the camps where soldiers live. The camp outside of Nuremberg is very uniform and clean; the tents are aligned in perfect rows, each one the same as the next. The men there also make a point not to wear their shirts, because their shirts display their rankings and status. Shirtless they are all equals, unified. When they march, it is in unison and they all carry their weapons identically, one to another. Hitler's message to the workers also includes the notion of unity: Children were also used to convey unity: \"Triumph of the Will\" has many scenes that blur the distinction between the Nazi Party, the German state, and the German people. Germans in peasant farmers' costumes and other traditional clothing greet Hitler in some scenes. The torchlight processions, though now associated by many with the Nazis, would remind the viewer of the medieval Karneval celebration. The old flag of Imperial Germany is also shown several times flying alongside the Swastika, and there is a ceremony where Hitler pays his respects to soldiers who died in World War I (as well as to President Paul von Hindenburg, who had died a month before the convention). There is also a scene where the Labor Servicemen individually call out which town or area in Germany they are from, reminding the viewers that the Nazi Party had expanded from its stronghold in Bavaria to become a pan-German movement.", "Among the themes presented, the desire for pride in Germany and the purification of the German people is well exemplified through the speeches and ideals of the Third Reich in \"Triumph of the Will\". In every speech given and shown in \"Triumph of the Will\", pride is one of the major focuses. Hitler advocates to the people that they should not be satisfied with their current state and they should not be satisfied with the descent from power and greatness Germany has endured since World War I. The German people should believe in themselves and the movement that is occurring in Germany. Hitler promotes pride in Germany through the unification of it. Unifying Germany would force the elimination of what does not amount to the standards of the Nazi regime. To unify Germany, Hitler believes purification would have to take place. This meant not only eliminating the citizens of Germany who are not of the Aryan race, but the sick, weak, handicapped, or any other citizens deemed unhealthy or impure. In \"Triumph of the Will\", Hitler preaches to the people that Germany must take a look at itself and seek out that which does not belong: \"[T]he elements that have become bad, and therefore do not belong with us!\" Though within the context, he seems to be referring to the corrupt elements of the power structure, it later could seem in hindsight to imply that the elimination of the \"inferior\" people of Germany would, in theory, return Germany to its once prideful and powerful former self. Julius Streicher stresses the importance of purification in his speech, a direct reference to his own virulent anti-semitism. Hundreds of thousands of mentally ill and disabled people would be murdered in the Action T4, a programme run directly from Hitler's Chancellery (\"Kanzlei des Führers\"). Hitler preaches to the people in his speeches that they should believe in their country and themselves. The German people are better than what they have become because of the impurities in society. Hitler wants them to believe in him and believe what he wants to do for his people, and what he is doing is for the country's and people's benefit. Hess says in the last scene of \"Triumph of the Will\", \"Heil Hitler, hail victory, hail victory!\" Everyone in attendance cheers in support. This verbal sign represents their faith to their leader and his most trusted advisors that they believe in the Nazi cause. This is directly following Hitler's finale, \"Long live the National Socialist Movement! Long live Germany!\" and the crowd erupts with cheering and the fulfillment of pride for themselves and their political party. In the closing speech of \"Triumph of the Will\", Hitler enters the room from the back, appearing to emerge from the people. After a one sentence introduction, he tells his faithful Nazis how the German nation has subordinated itself to the Nazi Party because its leaders are mostly of Germans. He promises that the new state that the Nazis have created will endure for thousands of years. Hitler says that the youth will carry on after the old have weakened. They close with a chant, \"Hitler is the Party, Hitler.\" The camera focuses on the large Swastika above Hitler and the film ends with the images of this Swastika imposed on Nazis marching in a few columns. His speech brought attention to the rally and created a huge turnout in the following years. He attracted many people in the way that he addressed the issues and his people. He spoke to them as if it were a sermon and engaged the people. In 1934, over a million Germans participated in the Nuremberg Rally.", "\"Triumph of the Will\" premiered on 28 March 1935 at the Berlin Ufa Palace Theater and was an instant success. Within two months the film had earned 815,000 Reichsmark (equivalent to million euros), and Ufa considered it one of the three most profitable films of that year. Hitler praised the film as being an \"incomparable glorification of the power and beauty of our Movement.\" For her efforts, Riefenstahl was rewarded with the German Film Prize (\"Deutscher Filmpreis\"), a gold medal at the 1935 Venice Biennale, and the Grand Prix at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. However, there were few claims that the film would result in a mass influx of \"converts\" to fascism and the Nazis apparently did not make a serious effort to promote the film outside of Germany. Film historian Richard Taylor also said that \"Triumph of the Will\" was not generally used for propaganda purposes inside the Third Reich. \"The Independent\" wrote in 2003: \"\"Triumph of the Will\" seduced many wise men and women, persuaded them to admire rather than to despise, and undoubtedly won the Nazis friends and allies all over the world.\" The reception in other countries was not always as enthusiastic. British documentarian Paul Rotha called it tedious, while others were repelled by its pro-Nazi sentiments. During World War II, Frank Capra helped to create a direct response, through the film series called \"Why We Fight\", a series of newsreels commissioned by the United States government that spliced in footage from \"Triumph of the Will\", but recontextualized it so that it promoted the cause of the Allies instead. Capra later remarked that \"Triumph of the Will\" \"fired no gun, dropped no bombs. But as a psychological weapon aimed at destroying the will to resist, it was just as lethal.\" Clips from \"Triumph of the Will\" were also used in an Allied propaganda short called \"General Adolph Takes Over\", set to the British dance tune \"The Lambeth Walk\". The legions of marching soldiers, as well as Hitler giving his Nazi salute, were made to look like wind-up dolls, dancing to the music. The Danish resistance used to take over cinemas and force the projectionist to show \"Swinging the Lambeth Walk\" (as it was also known); Erik Barrow has said: \"The extraordinary risks were apparently felt justified by a moment of savage anti-Hitler ridicule.\" Also during World War II, the poet Dylan Thomas wrote a screenplay for and narrated \"These Are The Men\", a propaganda piece using \"Triumph of the Will\" footage to discredit Nazi leadership. One of the best ways to gauge the response to \"Triumph of the Will\" was the instant and lasting international fame it gave Riefenstahl. \"The Economist\" said it \"sealed her reputation as the greatest female filmmaker of the 20th century.\" For a director who made eight films, only two of which received significant coverage outside of Germany, Riefenstahl had unusually high name recognition for the remainder of her life, most of it stemming from \"Triumph of the Will\". However, her career was also permanently damaged by this association. After the war, Riefenstahl was imprisoned by the Allies for four years for allegedly being a Nazi sympathizer and was permanently blacklisted by the film industry. When she died in 2003—sixty-eight years after the film's premiere—her obituary received significant coverage in many major publications, including the Associated Press, \"The Wall Street Journal\", \"The New York Times\", and \"The Guardian\", most of which reaffirmed the importance of \"Triumph of the Will\".", "Like American filmmaker D. W. Griffith's \"The Birth of a Nation\", \"Triumph of the Will\" has been criticized as a use of spectacular filmmaking to promote a profoundly unethical system. In her defense, Riefenstahl claimed that she was naïve about the Nazis when she made it and had no knowledge of Hitler's genocidal or anti-semitic policies. She also pointed out that \"Triumph of the Will\" contains \"not one single anti-semitic word\", although it does contain a veiled comment by Julius Streicher, the notorious Jew-baiter (who was hanged after the Nuremberg trials), that \"a people that does not protect its racial purity will perish\". However, Roger Ebert has observed that for some, \"the very absence of anti-semitism in \"Triumph of the Will\" looks like a calculation; excluding the central motif of almost all of Hitler's public speeches must have been a deliberate decision to make the film more efficient as propaganda.\" Riefenstahl also repeatedly defended herself against the charge that she was a Nazi propagandist, saying that \"Triumph of the Will\" focuses on images over ideas, and should therefore be viewed as a \"Gesamtkunstwerk\" (holistic work of art). In 1964, she returned to this topic, saying: However, Riefenstahl was an active participant in the rally, though in later years she downplayed her influence significantly, claiming, \"I just observed and tried to film it well. The idea that I helped to plan it is downright absurd.\" Ebert states that \"Triumph of the Will\" is \"by general consent [one] of the best documentaries ever made\", but added that because it reflects the ideology of a movement regarded by many as evil, it poses \"a classic question of the contest between art and morality: Is there such a thing as pure art, or does all art make a political statement?\" When reviewing the film for his \"Great Movies\" collection, Ebert reversed his opinion, characterizing his earlier conclusion as \"the received opinion that the film is great but evil\" and calling it \"a terrible film, paralyzingly dull, simpleminded, overlong and not even'manipulative', because it is too clumsy to manipulate anyone but a true believer\". Susan Sontag considers \"Triumph of the Will\" the \"most successful, most purely propagandistic film ever made, whose very conception negates the possibility of the filmmaker's having an aesthetic or visual conception independent of propaganda.\" Sontag points to Riefenstahl's involvement in the planning and design of the Nuremberg ceremonies as evidence that Riefenstahl was working as a propagandist, rather than as an artist in any sense of the word. With some 30 cameras and a crew of 150, the marches, parades, speeches, and processions were orchestrated like a movie set for Riefenstahl's film. Further, this was not the first political film made by Riefenstahl for the Third Reich (there was \"Victory of Faith\", 1933), nor was it the last (\"Day of Freedom\", 1935, and \"Olympia\", 1938). \"Anyone who defends Riefenstahl's films as documentary\", Sontag states, \"if documentary is to be distinguished from propaganda, is being disingenuous. In \"Triumph of Will\", the document (the image) is no longer simply the record of reality;'reality' has been constructed to serve the image.\" Brian Winston's essay on the film in \"The Movies as History\" is largely a critique of Sontag's analysis. Winston argues that any filmmaker could have made the film look impressive because the Nazis' \"mise en scène\" was impressive, particularly when they were offering it for camera re-stagings. In form, the film alternates repetitively between marches and speeches. Winston asks the viewers to consider if such a film should be seen as anything more than a pedestrian effort. Like Rotha, he finds the film tedious, and believes anyone who takes the time to analyze its structure will quickly agree.", "The first controversy over \"Triumph of the Will\" occurred even before its release, when several generals in the Wehrmacht protested over the minimal army presence in the film. Only one scene—the review of the German cavalry—actually involved the German military. The other formations were party organizations that were not part of the military. The opposition of the generals was not simply out of personalized pique or vanity. As produced by Riefenstahl, \"Triumph of the Will\" posits Germany as a leaderless mass of lost souls without any organizing institutions, or antecedent institutional leaders. And that the \"new order\" embodied by the Nazi Party and Hitler provides both a new and a singular/saving leader and institutional framework for the whole of the German nation. However, the Army had been, and had seen itself as being, an institution that held shared responsibility for the leadership of the nation and state since at least the time of Fredrick the Great. The leaders of that Army had also been viewed throughout the history of the German-speaking peoples as an integral part of the leadership cadre. By omitting the Army (along with other institutions, e.g., the nobility, the Church, academia, business), the film demonstrated that the Army, as well as its leaders, had \"disappeared\" from what the Army considered to be its shared leadership role in the state, National Socialist or otherwise. The Army's leaders vehemently disagreed with this implied assertion of the film. Hitler proposed his own \"artistic\" compromise where \"Triumph of the Will\" would open with a camera slowly tracking down a row of all the \"overlooked\" generals (and placate each general's ego). According to her own testimony, Riefenstahl refused his suggestion and insisted on keeping artistic control over \"Triumph of the Will\". She did agree to return to the 1935 rally to make a film exclusively about the Wehrmacht, which became \"\" (\"Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces\").", "\"Triumph of the Will\" remains well known for its striking visuals. As one historian notes, \"many of the most enduring images of the [Nazi] regime and its leader derive from Riefenstahl's film.\" Extensive excerpts of the film were used in Erwin Leiser's documentary \"Mein Kampf\", produced in Sweden in 1960. Riefenstahl unsuccessfully sued the Swedish production company Minerva-Film for copyright violation, although she did receive forty thousand marks in compensation from German and Austrian distributors of the film. In 1942, Charles A. Ridley of the British Ministry of Information made a short propaganda film, \"Lambeth Walk – Nazi Style\", which edited footage of Hitler and German soldiers from the film to make it appear they were marching and dancing to the song \"The Lambeth Walk\". The targeted-at-Nazis parody of \"The Lambeth Walk\" (a British dance that had been popular in swing clubs in Germany which the Nazis denounced as \"Jewish mischief and animalistic hopping\") so enraged Joseph Goebbels that reportedly he ran out of the screening room kicking chairs and screaming profanities. The propaganda film was distributed uncredited to newsreel companies, who would supply their own narration. Charlie Chaplin's satire \"The Great Dictator\" (1940) was inspired in large part by \"Triumph of the Will\". Frank Capra used significant footage, with a mocking narration in the first installment of the propagandistic film produced by the United States Army \"Why We Fight\" as an exposure of Nazi militarism and totalitarianism to American soldiers and sailors. The film has been studied by many contemporary artists, including film directors Peter Jackson, George Lucas and Ridley Scott. The opening sequence of \"Starship Troopers\" is a direct reference to the film. In Golden Kamuy, the gestures Lieutenant Tsurumi did in one of his speeches were identical to those of Hitler.", "The Federal Court of Justice of Germany has addressed the matter of the film \"Triumph of the Will\" (see BGH UFITA 55 (1970), 313, 320/321). It ascertained that the film was a NSDAP production, where the NSDAP was granted unlimited rights of use for exploitation. According to the March 17, 1965 law regarding the regulation of liabilities of national socialist institutions and the legal relationships concerning their assets, all rights and assets of the NSDAP were transferred to the Federal Republic of Germany, and anything relating to film business was to be managed by Transit Film GmbH. In 1996, the film was restored to copyright under the Uruguay Round Agreements Act. Since the death of Leni Riefenstahl the federally owned Transit Film GmbH holds the exclusive right of use to all rights of the film. The respective contractual agreements had previously provided, to a certain extent, for the joint management of rights." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances.", "History.", "Speaking.", "Odie's intelligence and tongue.", "Relationship with Garfield." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Odie is a yellow-furred, brown-eared dog. In the live-action/animated films based on the \"Garfield\" franchise, he is depicted as a wire-haired dachshund/terrier mix. He has a large tongue and slobbers in his appearances. After October 1997, he began walking regularly on two feet, instead of all fours, like Garfield. In the feature film adaptation \"\", Odie's ability to walk, and more importantly dance on two legs earns him a lot of attention, and is a major plot point throughout the film.", "The name came from a car dealership commercial written by Jim Davis, which featured Odie the Village Idiot. Davis liked the name Odie and decided to use it again. When \"Garfield\" was first submitted, Davis called Odie \"Spot\". He then visited cartoonist Mort Walker to show him his strips, and Walker told Davis \"I had a dog named Spot\". When Davis asked \"Really?\", Walker replied \"Yes, in \"Boner's Ark\", one of my comic strips\". Davis changed Odie's name. Odie first appeared in the strip on August 8, 1978; the date is considered his birthday. He was originally a pet to Jon Arbuckle's friend and roommate, Lyman, but Lyman disappeared from the series after about five years with no explanation, after which ownership of Odie transferred to Jon instead.", "Odie is the only animal character in the Garfield series without recurring thought balloons, as he is portrayed as a \"normal\" house dog. However, he was shown thinking, \"I'm hungry\" on June 15, 1980, and once said, ′′Hi to the people, dummy′′ in the March 3, 1989 strip (though this was likely Garfield throwing his thoughts to Odie in a sort of mental form of ventriloquism) and has had multiple minor \"speaking\" roles since then. In the cartoon, he speaks minor words such as \"Ta-da!\", \"Huh?\", or, more commonly, panting, \"Yeah, yeah, yeah!\" He has said more intelligible sentences, such as \"No horsey?\" in the episode \"Dessert in the Desert\", and in the first episode, he even says, \"Right!\" while agreeing with Jon. When he talks on the show, he speaks by actually moving his mouth, although other dogs have also been shown to do so.", "A running gag throughout the strip is Odie's idiocy. Garfield frequently calls him a moron, to the point where Odie was completely shocked one day when Garfield didn't insult him. He is mostly viewed as an idiot, but in rare cases, it is shown that he hides his high intelligence. For example, once while he, Garfield, and Jon were camping, he locked himself in the car. Garfield and Jon then get suspicious when Odie turns on the radio and the lights and start eating chips, smiling while Jon and Garfield were trapped outside with no food or shelter during a thunderstorm. Another time, when Garfield and Jon were out, Odie was reading \"War and Peace\", smoking a pipe, and watching a television special about Mozart. Another running gag is Odie's long tongue. In another strip, Odie is running around the family room, and Garfield grabs on to his tongue to see how long it is. The next panel shows Odie right next to Garfield, but with his tongue literally wrapped around all the furniture, going through the hallway, wrapping around Odie himself and Garfield, and with room to spare, much to Garfield's shock. Another strip shows Garfield theorizing how he can have such a long tongue, and store it in his mouth. He then guesses that he has the rest of his tongue stored in where his brain should be, also stating how much of an idiot he is. Also, in one winter themed Sunday strip, Odie's tongue is stuck to a lamp post stretched from two blocks to Jon's dining room, prompting Garfield to tell Jon, \"We need a blow dryer and a really, really long extension cord.\" In \"The Garfield Show\", Odie's tongue is once again shown to be very long and stretchy. In the episode \"\"Out on a Limb\"\", Odie uses his long tongue in an attempt to lower Garfield down a very high tree.", "Although Garfield often impugns Odie's intelligence, one strip shows him enjoying classical music on TV with a novel, \"War and Peace\" by Leo Tolstoy, nearby after Jon and Garfield leave the house. (According to Davis's comments in the 20th-anniversary book, \"I couldn't resist.\") Another has him lock the others out of the car on a camping trip, where he enjoys the sandwiches, radio, and chips, while the others just get wet. In others he has been seen setting decoys, completing a sudoku puzzle, completing a crossword puzzle (to Jon's amazement), writing poetry, and while playing as superheroes with Garfield, finding a complete outfit to one-up Garfield's cape. One theory is that there are two Odies, a smart one and the more common idiot. It may be that Odie is actually smarter than he appears, and merely uses the idiotic front as a means to gain an advantage over Garfield. In two strips, Garfield went to see what was at the end of Odie's tongue, and it turned out to be a second Odie (which Garfield dismissed as an effect of a bad can of tuna from the previous night). Odie has managed to take revenge on Garfield occasionally, and Garfield sometimes cannot avoid noticing it. Garfield acknowledges this by saying \"He's not as dumb as he looks, but then again who could be?\" In the first episode of \"The Garfield Show\" an alien species that resemble lasagna scan Odie with a ray that indicates brain power - the result was zero. Garfield on numerous occasions actually does care a great deal for Odie, most notably in the first Garfield special \"Here Comes Garfield\", in which Odie is briefly captured by the dogcatcher and a teary-eyed Garfield realizes through flashbacks of him and Odie playing together and how sad his life would be without him (in these series of flashbacks by Garfield, the song \"So Long Old Friend\" is played in the background). In Garfield's Halloween Adventure, Garfield even admits to the viewer that there were times that he loved Odie. In one strip, Garfield states that Odie is made of rubber. Other times Garfield tries to put the blame on Odie for some of the mishaps he has done. Jim Davis has stated, when asked why Garfield played so many pranks on Odie, that it was because \"Odie is so kick-able. He sorta doesn't care. But Garfield would never hurt Odie for real. He just gives him a pinch now and again.\" Odie all too often gets kicked off the table by Garfield; once Odie tried to push Garfield off the table, but Garfield was too heavy. In addition to getting kicked off the table, Odie is often the victim of Garfield's pranks.(Although, on a much earlier strip, Odie \"had\" kicked Garfield off the table while he was wearing a Garfield mask and Garfield was wearing an Odie mask.) Curiously, Garfield has taken offense to others treating Odie in this manner. In one strip, he punches out another cat who beats up on Odie, insisting, \"Nobody beats up on Odie but me!\" Similarly, in \"\" after seeing Happy Chapman use a shock collar on Odie, he says, \"Hey, nobody gets to mistreat my dog like that except me!\" That attitude is shown in an episode of \"Garfield and Friends\" when Odie is conned out of the grocery money by an alley cat. Garfield is visibly angry at what transpired and goes to great lengths to clear Odie's name. Odie does manage to get a little revenge on Garfield. Jim Davis stated in the 30th anniversary book that Odie gets back at Garfield every few months. The first example occurs when Jon accuses Garfield of clearing out his closet except for the T-shirt saying \"I love cats.\" While Garfield professes his innocence, he is hurled out of the house. Comically Odie, wearing a plaid shirt, steps out to grin at Garfield, indicating he framed him. In one strip, while Garfield confesses how good a friend Odie was as Odie never minds Garfield playing tricks on him, Odie slyly pastes a note on Garfield's back that reads \"KICK ME\". Once, he managed to give Garfield a taste of his own medicine in a strip where Garfield tried to have fun with an Odie mask. Odie wasn't at the edge of the table, and while Garfield wondered where Odie was, he showed up (wearing a Garfield mask) and kicked the tabby off the table. On at least one occasion, Odie was also prepared for Garfield trying to kick him off the table, setting up a pillow on the floor to land on after Garfield punts him. Yet another instance involved Garfield getting stuck in a tree and asking Odie (who sees him from the window) for help. Odie tosses Garfield Jon's bowling ball, and when Garfield curses Odie for his stupidity, the extra weight added by the bowling ball causes the tree branch to break and send Garfield falling to the ground. The final panel ends with Odie smiling evilly at the reader while Garfield notes how much he hates dogs. In yet another instance, Garfield approached Odie at the edge of the table, who was holding a large rock in his paws. Garfield wondered why he was holding it, only getting his answer when he kicked the dog. Odie did not budge from where he was standing, and Garfield hurt his foot instead, ending with Odie smiling smugly while Garfield was hopping around, saying \"That's why.\" In one storyline, Garfield gets beat up by a bulldog after kicking him and has to wear a cast for nearly a week. The cast covers Garfield's entire body but his face. Odie torments Garfield throughout the duration of this time. In the final strip of the storyline, though, Garfield tells Jon that he'd like to keep his cast after being asked what he would like to do with it, and strikes Odie with it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Jon's birthday is July 28, as Jon told Garfield that he was 29 years old in a December 23, 1980 strip. However, in the episode \"T3000\" of \"The Garfield Show\", he is described as 22. In the animated show \"Garfield and Friends\", it's learned that Jon has an Italian ancestor whose name was Tony Arbuccli. Some episodes of the show suggested that Jon and his pets live in Muncie, Indiana. Jon wears contact lenses, his eyes are green, and his favorite music style is polka. Jon believes in God, as he is seen praying before going to bed in the April 29, 1987 strip. His personal will states that he wishes to be cremated and have his ashes spread over his accordion. He can play accordion, bagpipes, guitar, banjo, and bongos and sing, though his singing and musical skills are not the greatest. Jon Arbuckle's favorite color is red, and he likes decaffeinated coffee, chocolate-chip cookies, and unleaded gasoline. According to one episode of \"Garfield and Friends\", some of his \"fun\" ways to cure boredom are buying new socks, clipping his toenails, or playing \"Guess the Burp\" with Garfield. Jon was raised on a farm and occasionally visits his mother, father, grandma, and brother Doc Boy (Which Jon's brother hates to be called), who live on the farm. Jon acquired Odie when Lyman, an old friend of his (and Odie's original owner), moved in with him and Garfield. After a few years, Lyman disappeared from the strip, never to be heard from again. The book \"Twenty Years and Still Kicking\", which marked Garfield's twentieth year, included parodies of how Lyman left, such as \"Had lunch with Jimmy Hoffa and then...\". Lyman does appear in an episode of \"The Garfield Show\", during which Jon sets out to look for him. Odie goes back to Lyman, but returns to Garfield at the end. Jon has a long-time crush on Garfield's veterinarian, Dr. Liz Wilson. Although she has a deadpan, sardonic persona, she finds Jon's outlandish and goofball behavior endearing on occasion. Jon often attempts to ask her out on a date, but rarely succeeds, usually with Garfield making fun of his failure; however, in an extended story arc from June 20 to July 29, 2006, Liz finally admitted she was in love with him and became his girlfriend from that point onwards. As early as 1982, Davis had suggested he would eventually bring Jon and Liz together as a couple. Despite his somewhat timid and honest nature, Jon is sometimes shown to be quite assertive on \"Garfield And Friends\". He also shows a tendency to be a miser, as Garfield mentions how Jon passes out seeing the rates on a parking meter and Jon tries to perform an appendectomy on himself to save money. Jon was voted number one on the Best Week Ever blog's list of \"The Most Depressed Comic Book Characters\". Jon also dresses in snappy outfits whenever he goes out on a date. It is briefly mentioned in one strip where Jon mentions that Liz called him a \"fashion emergency\". In a May 2006 strip, when he asks Garfield if his tie is too big, Garfield replies \"Not at all, as long as your circus friends don't object, neither do I!\" In a June 2006 strip, Garfield laughs at his outfit, and when Jon asks what he is laughing at, Garfield replies, \"Oh, my...where to start...where to start...\". In a January 2002 strip, Garfield mentions that two hundred moths committed suicide after seeing Jon's wardrobe. Also, on the Halloween 2014 strip, Jon was scared of a monster hiding in his closet. Garfield said not to worry because his wardrobe will kill it. In the first strip, Arbuckle is presented as a cartoonist. \"Garfield and Friends\" also shows him several times as a cartoonist. His occupation is likely still that of a cartoonist on \"The Garfield Show\", as in the episode \"Family Picture\" he draws a sketch of a photograph that he wants to take as Liz's birthday present. Also, in the strip from May 2, 2010, Liz tells her parents Jon is a cartoonist. Jon was also seen doing his work briefly in the August 2, 2015 strip. Many of Arbuckle's character traits are shared with his author Jim Davis, who was likewise a cartoonist, raised on a farm and born on July 28." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Writing and production.", "Composition and critical response.", "Chart performance.", "Live performances.", "Music video." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "While watching a rough cut of \"The Wedding Planner\" (2001) in Canada, Jennifer Lopez and Cory Rooney brainstormed ideas for its accompanying soundtrack. The two \"pulled different thoughts and feelings\" from the film's scenes. The scene where Lopez's character is in the backseat of a car listening to Matthew McConaughey and Bridgette Wilson's characters talk about the wedding made Rooney think of the line \"ain't it funny how some feelings you just can't deny and you can't move on even though you try\". According to Rooney, \"all those words and melodies just started coming\" to him while watching the scene. After he conceived the idea for \"Ain't It Funny\", Rooney returned to his home and \"roughed out the track\" and composed the song's chorus. He then worked with Lopez for an hour to complete the song. Tommy Mottola was so enthusiastic about the song that he contributed to its melody. Adam Shankman, however, felt that \"Ain't It Funny\" had too much of a Latin influence for the film, due to its usage of timbales. Lopez disagreed with Shankman and the two later agreed to use \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" in the film.", "\"Ain't It Funny\" is a Latin pop song, with a duration of four minutes and six seconds (4:06). The song contains a Mecca disco beat and a \"bullfight trumpet\", as well as a \"solid dancefloor thump\". Lyrically, Lopez sings about \"creating the perfect romance in your mind, then facing reality when Mr. Right is less than ideal\". The song received mixed to positive reviews. Josh Freedom du Lac of Wall of Sound wrote that \"Ain't It Funny\" steals its melody \"wholesale\" from Madonna's \"La Isla Bonita\", although it has a better rhythmic base. He concluded that it still \"sort of runs in place, as though Lopez recorded it while standing on a treadmill\". Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine responded positively to the song, calling it \"terribly infectious\". However he criticized the \"overpowering choir of back-up vocalists\" that sing the chorus. Jake Barnes of Dot Music called the song bland, writing that Lopez should \"check out\" Jill Scott's 2000 song \"One Is the Magic Number\" for how Latin pop \"should be done properly\". \"Billboard\"s Chuck Taylor praised the song's production as \"Grade A\" and its lyrics as \"smart\".", "\"Ain't It Funny\" was a commercial success, peaking within the top ten in multiple countries. In Poland, the song peaked at No. 1 for eight weeks on the Polish Singles Chart. In the United Kingdom, the song peaked at No. 3, making it her fifth top-ten single there, gaining popularity there it is still played on many radio stations regularly. \"Ain't It Funny\" charted at No. 3 in several other countries including the Netherlands, Romania and Sweden. In Sweden, it exceeded sales of 10,000 copies and was certified Gold by the Swedish Recording Industry Association. In Belgium, the song peaked at No. 8 in Flanders and No. 5 in Wallonia. \"Ain't It Funny\" debuted and peaked at No. 25 in Australia on September 2, 2001. \"Ain't It Funny\" peaked at No. 9 in Norway, and Ireland for the week ending August 9, 2001. The single debuted at No. 14 in Switzerland on July 29, 2001, and peaked at No. 9 three weeks later. It had a successful chart run in Switzerland, remaining on the Swiss Singles Chart for a total of twenty-six weeks. In Spain, \"Ain't It Funny\" peaked at No. 10 for the week ending July 28, 2001. Additionally, it reached the top twenty in Germany, Austria, Denmark, Hungary and Italy.", "From September 22–23, 2001, Lopez performed a set of two concerts in Puerto Rico, entitled Let's Get Loud. These served as the first concerts of her career, in which she was \"flanked by a 10-piece orchestra, a five-person choir and 11 dancers.\" \"Ain't It Funny\", among other songs, was included on the concerts' set list. In December 2001, Lopez, Kid Rock and Ja Rule headlined a concert for the USO troops in a German military base. Lopez opened her set with \"Ain't It Funny\". After emerging from a center-stage trapdoor, she performed the song while backed by a line of male dancers \"outfitted in military garb\". On January 1, 2002, the concert aired as a special on the MTV Network hosted by Carson Daly, \"For the Troops: An MTV/USO Special\". Joe D'Angelo of MTV News noted that she wore \"a series of skimpy outfits despite chilly temperatures.\"", "The music video was filmed in sepia tone and directed by Herb Ritts. It opens with Lopez traveling on a road where she finds a fortune-teller who shows Lopez her future with the cards. A group of female gypsies (one of them played by The Pussycat Dolls member Carmit Bachar) show up and make over Lopez so as to make her one of their own. Then Lopez finds a man (played by Mexican soap opera actor Eduardo Verástegui) she could not resist, falling in love with him. In the middle of the video, there is an extended dance sequence, in which she performs a flamenco-influenced routine. Eventually all the people there start dancing together, including Lopez and her lover. The video debuted the week of July 2, 2001 internationally and in the autumn of 2001 in the U.S." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Neighborhoods.", "Stockyards.", "Upper West Side.", "Tanglewood.", "Architecture.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Race and ethnicity.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Nature.", "Parks.", "Sports.", "TCU Horned Frogs.", "Recreation.", "Colonial National Invitational Golf Tournament.", "Motor racing.", "Cowtown Marathon.", "Government.", "City government.", "State government.", "State Facilities.", "Federal government.", "Federal facilities.", "Education.", "Public libraries.", "Public schools.", "Private schools.", "Institutes of higher education.", "Media.", "Radio stations.", "AM.", "FM.", "Internet radio stations and shows.", "Transportation.", "History.", "Electric streetcars.", "Electric interurban railways.", "Current transport.", "Roads.", "Public transportation.", "Airports.", "Walkability.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Treaty of Bird's Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Bird's Fort in present-day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may \"pass the line of trading houses\" (at the border of the Indians' territory) without permission of the President of Texas, and may not reside or remain in the Indians' territory. These \"trading houses\" were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present-day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U.S. War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican–American War. The city of Fort Worth continues to be known as \"where the West begins,\" whereas Dallas is known as \"where the East ends\". A line of seven army posts was established in 1848–49 after the Mexican War to protect the settlers of Texas along the western American Frontier and included Fort Worth, Fort Graham, Fort Gates, Fort Croghan, Fort Martin Scott, Fort Lincoln, and Fort Duncan. Originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth (1794–1849), who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork and Clear Fork of the Trinity River. One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas. General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas and ordered Major Ripley A. Arnold (Company F, Second United States Dragoons) to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6, 1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River and named the post Camp Worth in honor of the late General Worth. In August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north-facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14, 1849. Native American attacks were still a threat in the area, as this was their traditional territory and they resented encroachment by European-American settlers, but people from the United States set up homesteads near the fort. E. S. Terrell (1812–1905) from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff; the current courthouse was built on this site. The fort was abandoned September 17, 1853. No trace of it remains. As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives and became a brawling, bustling town. Millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the cattle drives, and later, the ranching industry. It was given the nickname of Cowtown. During the Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies. The population dropped as low as 175, but began to recover during Reconstruction. By 1872, Jacob Samuels, William Jesse Boaz, and William Henry Davis had opened general stores. The next year, Khleber M. Van Zandt established Tidball, Van Zandt, and Company, which became Fort Worth National Bank in 1884. In 1875, the \"Dallas Herald\" published an article by a former Fort Worth lawyer, Robert E. Cowart, who wrote that the decimation of Fort Worth's population, caused by the economic disaster and hard winter of 1873, had dealt a severe blow to the cattle industry. Added to the slowdown due to the railroad's stopping the laying of track outside of Fort Worth, Cowart said that Fort Worth was so slow that he saw a panther asleep in the street by the courthouse. Although an intended insult, the name Panther City was enthusiastically embraced when in 1876 Fort Worth recovered economically. Many businesses and organizations continue to use Panther in their name. A panther is set at the top of the police department badges. The \"Panther City\" tradition is also preserved in the names and design of some of the city's geographical/architectural features, such as Panther Island (in the Trinity River), the Flat Iron Building, Fort Worth Central Station, and in two or three \"Sleeping Panther\" statues. In 1876, the Texas and Pacific Railway finally was completed to Fort Worth, stimulating a boom and transforming the Fort Worth Stockyards into a premier center for the cattle wholesale trade. Migrants from the devastated war-torn South continued to swell the population, and small, community factories and mills yielded to larger businesses. Newly dubbed the \"Queen City of the Prairies\", Fort Worth supplied a regional", "Fort Worth is located in North Texas, and has a generally humid subtropical climate. It is part of the Cross Timbers region; this region is a boundary between the more heavily forested eastern parts and the rolling hills and prairies of the central part. Specifically, the city is part of the ecoregion within the Cross Timbers. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is covered by water. It is a principal city in the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, and the second largest. Fort Worth is not entirely contiguous and has several enclaves, practical enclaves, semi-enclaves and cities that are otherwise completely or nearly surrounded by it, including: Westworth Village, River Oaks, Saginaw, Blue Mound, Benbrook, Everman, Forest Hill, Edgecliff Village, Westover Hills, White Settlement, Sansom Park, Lake Worth, Lakeside, and Haslet. Fort Worth contains over 1,000 natural gas wells (December 2009 count) tapping the Barnett Shale. Each well site is a bare patch of gravel in size. As city ordinances permit them in all zoning categories, including residential, well sites can be found in a variety of locations. Some wells are surrounded by masonry fences, but most are secured by chain link. A large storage dam was completed in 1914 on the West Fork of the Trinity River, 7 miles (11 km) from the city, with a storage capacity of 33,495 acre feet of water. The lake formed by this dam is known as Lake Worth.", "", "The Fort Worth Stockyards are a National Historic District. The Stockyards was once among the largest livestock markets in the United States and played a vital role in", "The Upper West Side is a district on the western end of Downtown Fort Worth. It is bound roughly by Henderson Street to the", "Tanglewood consists of land in the low areas along the branch of the Trinity River and is approximately five miles southwest from the Fort Worth Central Business District. The Tanglewood area lies within two surveys. The western part of the addition being part of the 1854 Felix G. Beasley Survey, and the eastern part, along the branch of the river, the 1876 James Howard Survey. The original approach to the Tanglewood area consisted of a two-rut dirt road which is now Bellaire Drive South. Up to the time of development, children enjoyed swimming in the river in a deep hole which was located where the bridge is now on Bellaire Drive South near Trinity Commons Shopping Center. The portions of Tanglewood which are now Bellaire Park Court, Marquette Court and Autumn Court were originally a dairy farm.", "Downtown Fort Worth, with its unique rustic architecture, is mainly known for its Art Deco-style buildings. The Tarrant County Courthouse was created in the American Beaux Arts design,", "Fort Worth has a humid subtropical climate according to the Köppen climate classification system and is within USDA hardiness zone 8a. This region features very hot, humid summers and mild to cool winters. The hottest month of the year is July, when the average high temperature is, and overnight low temperatures average, giving an average temperature of. The coldest month of the year is January, when the average high temperature is and low temperatures average. The average temperature in January is 43 °F (6 °C). The highest temperature ever recorded in Fort Worth is, on June 26, 1980, during the Great", "Fort Worth is the most populous city in Tarrant County, and second most populous community within the DFW metroplex. Its metropolitan area encompasses one-quarter of the population of Texas, and is the largest in the Southern U.S. and Texas followed by the Houston—The Woodlands—Sugar Land metropolitan area. Per the American Community Survey's 2018 estimates, Fort Worth had a population near 900,000 residents. In 2019, it grew to an estimated 909,585. There were 337,072 housing units, 308,188 households, and 208,389 families at the 2018 estimates. The average household size was 2.87 persons per household, and the average family size was 3.50. Fort Worth had an owner-occupied housing rate of 56.4% and renter-occupied housing rate of 43.6%. The median income in 2018 was $58,448 and the mean income was $81,165. The city had a per capita income of $29,010. 15.6% of Fort Worthers lived below the poverty line.", "In 2018, 38.2% of Fort Worth was non-Hispanic white, 18.6% Black or African American, 0.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, 4.8% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 2.1% from two or more races, and 35.5% Hispanic or Latino (of any race), marking an era of diversification in the city limits. Fort Worth's Hispanic or Latin American populace included 271,025 Mexican", "Fort Worth is part of the Bible Belt and as such Christianity is the largest religious group. While the city of Dallas and Dallas County have more Catholic than Protestant residents, Fort Worth and Tarrant County are home to more Protestants than Catholics. Overall, the Dallas metropolitan division of the DFW metroplex is more religiously diverse than Fort Worth and its surrounding suburbs. The largest Christian group in Fort Worth are Baptists (18.1%). The Baptist community of Fort Worth is dominated by the Southern Baptist Convention, National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc, NBCA International, Inc, and the Texas Baptists. The second largest Christian group are Catholics (7.1%), served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Worth. Methodists (3.9%) form the third largest group followed by Pentecostals (1.6%), Latter-day Saints (1.6%) Lutherans (1.1%), Episcopalians or Anglicans (0.6%), Presbyterians (0.5%), and other Christians including the United Church of Christ, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Eastern Orthodox Church (6.5%). The Episcopal or Anglican community in Fort Worth are primarily divided between the Episcopal Church in the United States and Anglican Church in North America. The Anglican Communion-affiliated Episcopal Diocese of Fort Worth is part of the", "At its inception, Fort Worth relied on cattle drives that traveled the Chisholm Trail. Millions of cattle were driven north to market along this trail, and Fort Worth became the center of cattle drives, and later, ranching until the Civil War. During the Civil War, Fort Worth suffered shortages causing its population to decline. It recovered during the Reconstruction Era with general stores, banks, and \"Hell's Half-Acre\", a large collection of saloons and dance halls which increased business and criminal activity in the city. By the early 20th century the military used martial law to regulate", "Building on its Frontier Western heritage and a history of strong local arts patronage, Fort Worth promotes itself as the \"City of Cowboys and Culture\". Fort Worth has the world's first and largest indoor rodeo, world class museums, a calendar of festivals and a robust local arts scene. The Academy of Western Artists, based in Gene Autry, Oklahoma, presents its annual awards in Fort Worth in fields related to the American cowboy, including music, literature, and even chuck wagon cooking.", "The Fort Worth Zoo is home to over 5,000 animals and has been named a top zoo in the nation by \"Family Life\" magazine, the \"Los Angeles Times\", and \"USA Today\" and one of the top zoos in the South by \"Southern Living\" Reader's Choice Awards; it has been ranked in the top 10 zoos in the United States. The Fort Worth Botanic Garden and the Botanical", "Fort Worth has a total of 263 parks with 179 of those being neighborhood parks. The total acres of park land is 11,700.72 acres with the average being about 12.13 acres per park. The 4.3 acre (1.7 hectare) Fort Worth Water Gardens, designed by noted New York architects Philip Johnson and John Burgee, is an urban park containing three pools of water and terraced knolls; the Water Gardens are billed as a \"cooling oasis in the", "While much of Fort Worth's sports attention is focused on Dallas's professional sports teams, the city has its own athletic identity. The TCU Horned Frogs compete in NCAA Division I athletics, including the football team, consistently ranked in the top 25, and the baseball team, which has competed in the last six NCAA tournaments and 3 straight College World Series, coming within a win of making the College World Series finals in 2009 and 2016. The women's basketball team has competed in the last seven NCAA tournaments. Texas Wesleyan University competes in the NAIA, and won the 2006 NAIA Div. I Men's Basketball championship and three-time National Collegiate Table Tennis Association (NCTTA) team championships (2004–2006). Fort Worth is also home to the NCAA football Bell Helicopter Armed Forces Bowl, as well as four amateur sports teams.", "The presence of Texas Christian University less than from the downtown area and national competitiveness in football, baseball, and men's and women's basketball have sustained TCU as an important part of Fort Worth's sports scene. The Horned Frog football team produced two national championships in the 1930s and remained a strong competitor in the Southwest Conference into the 1960s before beginning a long period of underperformance. The revival of the TCU football program began under Coach Dennis Franchione with", "", "Fort Worth hosts an important professional men's golf tournament every May at the Colonial Country Club. The Colonial Invitational Golf Tournament, now officially known", "Fort Worth is home to Texas Motor Speedway, also known as \"The Great American Speedway\". Texas Motor Speedway is a 1.5-mile quad-oval track located in the far northern part of the city in Denton County. The speedway opened in 1997,", "The annual Cowtown Marathon has been held every last weekend in February since 1978. The two-day activities include two 5Ks, a 10K, the half marathon, marathon, and ultra marathon. With just under 27,000 participants in 2013, the Cowtown is the largest multiple-distance event in Texas.", "", "Fort Worth has a council-manager government, with elections held every two years for a mayor, elected at large, and eight council members, elected by district. The mayor is a voting member of the council and represents the city on ceremonial occasions. The council has the power to adopt municipal", "", "The Texas Department of Transportation operates the Fort Worth District Office in Fort Worth. The North Texas Intermediate Sanction Facility, a privately operated prison facility housing short-term parole violators, was in Fort Worth. It was operated on behalf of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. In 2011, the state of Texas decided not to renew its contract with the facility.", "", "Fort Worth is home to one of the two locations of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. In 1987, construction on this second facility began. In addition to meeting increased production requirements, a western location was seen to serve as a contingency operation in case of emergencies in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area; as well, costs for transporting currency to Federal Reserve banks in San Francisco, Dallas, and Kansas City would be reduced. Currency production began in December 1990 at the Fort Worth facility; the official dedication took place April 26, 1991. Bills produced here have a small \"FW\" in one corner. The Eldon", "", "Fort Worth Public Library", "Most of Fort Worth is served by the Fort Worth Independent School District. Other school districts that serve portions of Fort Worth include: The portion", "Private schools in Fort", "", "Fort Worth and Dallas share the same media market. The city's magazine is \"Fort Worth, Texas Magazine\", which publishes information about Fort Worth events, social activity, fashion, dining, and culture. Fort Worth has one major daily newspaper, \"Fort Worth Star-Telegram\", founded in 1906 as \"Fort Worth Star\". It dominates the western half of the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex, and \"The Dallas Morning News\" dominates the east. The \"Star-Telegram\" is the 45th-most widely circulated newspaper in the United States, with a daily circulation of 210,990 and a Sunday circulation of 304,200. The \"Fort Worth Weekly\" is an alternative weekly newspaper for the Fort Worth metropolitan division. The newspaper had an approximate circulation of 47,000 in 2015. The \"Fort Worth Weekly\" published and features, among many things, news reporting, cultural event guides, movie reviews, and editorials. \"Fort Worth Business Press\" is a weekly publication that chronicles news in the Fort Worth business community. The \"Fort Worth Press\" was a daily newspaper, published weekday afternoons and on Sundays from 1921 until 1975. It was owned by the E. W. Scripps Company and published under the then-prominent Scripps-Howard Lighthouse logo. The paper reportedly last made money in the early 1950s. Scripps Howard stayed with the paper until mid-1975. Circulation had dwindled to fewer than 30,000 daily, just more than 10% of that of the \"Fort Worth Star Telegram\". The name \"Fort Worth Press\" was resurrected briefly in a new \"Fort Worth Press\" paper operated by then-former publisher Bill McAda and briefer still by William Dean Singleton, then-owner of the weekly \"Azle (Texas) News\", now owner of the Media Central news group. The \"Fort Worth Press\" operated from offices and presses at 500 Jones Street in Downtown Fort Worth. Television stations shared with Dallas include (owned-and-operated stations of their affiliated networks are highlighted in bold) KDFW 4 (Fox), KXAS 5 (NBC), WFAA 8 (ABC), KTVT 11 (CBS), KERA 13 (PBS), KTXA 21 (Independent), KDFI 27 (MNTV), KDAF 33 (CW), and K31GL-D (HC2 Holdings).", "Over 33 radio stations operate in and around Fort Worth, with many different formats.", "On the AM dial, like in all other markets, political talk radio is prevalent, with WBAP 820, KLIF 570, KSKY 660, KFJZ 870, KRLD 1080 the conservative talk stations serving Fort Worth and KMNY 1360 the sole progressive talk station serving the city. KFXR 1190 is a news/talk/classic country station. Sports talk can be found on KTCK 1310 (\"The Ticket\"). WBAP,", "KLNO is a commercial radio station licensed to Fort Worth. Long-time Fort Worth resident Marcos A. Rodriguez operated Dallas Fort Worth radio stations KLTY and KESS on 94.1 FM. Noncommercial stations serve the city fairly well. Three college stations can", "When local radio station KOAI 107.5 FM, now KMVK, dropped its smooth jazz format, fans set up smoothjazz1075.com, an internet radio station, to broadcast smooth jazz for disgruntled fans. A couple of internet radio shows are broadcast in the Fort Worth area such as DFDubbIsHot and The Broadband Brothers.", "Like most cities that grew quickly after World War II, Fort Worth's main mode of transportation is the automobile, but bus transportation via Trinity Metro is available, as well as an interurban train service to Dallas via the Trinity Railway Express. As of January 10, 2019, train service from Downtown Fort Worth to Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport's Terminal B is available via Trinity Metro's TEXRail service.", "", "The first streetcar company in Fort Worth was the Fort Worth Street Railway Company. Its first line began operating in December 1876, and traveled from the courthouse down Main Street to the T&P Depot. By 1890, more than 20 private companies were operating streetcar lines in", "At its peak, the electric interurban industry in Texas consisted of almost 500 miles of track, making Texas the second in interurban mileage in all states west of the Mississippi River. Electric interurban railways were prominent in the early 1900s, peaking in the 1910s and fading until all electric interurban railways were abandoned by 1948. Close to three-fourths of the mileage was in the Dallas-Fort Worth area, running between Fort Worth and Dallas and to other area cities including Cleburne, Denison, Corsicana, and Waco. The line depicted in the associated image was the second to be constructed in Texas and ran 35 miles between Fort Worth and Dallas. Northern Texas Traction Company built the railway, which was operational from 1902 to 1934.", "In 2009, 80.6% of Fort Worth (city) commuters drive to work alone. The 2009 mode share for Fort Worth (city) commuters are 11.7% for carpooling, 1.5% for transit, 1.2% for walking, and.1% for cycling. In 2015, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Fort Worth (city) commuters of 82% for driving alone, 12% for carpooling,.8% for riding transit, 1.8% for walking, and.3% for cycling. The city of Fort Worth has a lower than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 6.1 percent of Fort Worth households lacked a car, and decreased to 4.8 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Fort Worth averaged 1.83 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.", "Fort Worth is served by four interstates and three U.S. highways. It also contains a number of arterial streets in a grid formation. Interstate highways 30, 20, 35W, and 820 all pass through the city limits. Interstate 820 is a loop of Interstate 20 and serves as a beltway for the city. Interstate 30 and Interstate", "Trinity Metro, formerly known as the Fort Worth Transportation Authority, serves Fort Worth with dozens of different bus routes throughout the city, including a downtown bus circulator known as Molly the Trolley. In addition to Fort", "Prior to the construction of DFW, the city was served by Greater Southwest International Airport, which was located just to the south of the new airport. Originally named Amon Carter Field after the publisher of the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, Greater Southwest opened in 1953 and operated as the primary", "A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Fort Worth 47th-most walkable of 50 largest U.S. cities.", "Fort Worth is a part of the Sister Cities International program and maintains cultural and economic exchange programs with its nine sister cities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "1900–present.", "Geography.", "Neighborhoods.", "Downtown and central El Paso.", "Northwest El Paso.", "West central El Paso.", "Northeast El Paso.", "East El Paso.", "Mission Valley.", "Texas and New Mexico suburbs.", "Tallest buildings.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Arts and culture.", "Annual cultural events and festivals.", "Amigo Airsho.", "KLAQ Great River Raft Race.", "Southwestern International PRCA Rodeo.", "Fiesta de las Flores.", "El Paso Balloonfest.", "Music festivals.", "El Paso Downtown Street Festival.", "Neon Desert Music Festival.", "Music Under the Stars.", "Sun City Music Festival.", "Texas Showdown Festival.", "Performing arts.", "Viva! El Paso.", "El Paso Symphony Orchestra.", "Ballet in El Paso.", "Theaters.", "Area museums.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "City.", "County.", "State.", "Federal.", "Education.", "Public libraries.", "Media.", "Newspapers.", "Radio stations.", "Television.", "Cellular phone coverage.", "Infrastructure.", "Healthcare.", "Transportation.", "Mass transit.", "El Paso Streetcar.", "International border crossings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "The El Paso region has had human settlement for thousands of years, as evidenced by Folsom points from hunter-gatherers found at Hueco Tanks. The evidence suggests 10,000 to 12,000 years of human habitation. The earliest known cultures in the region were maize farmers. When the Spanish arrived, the Manso, Suma, and Jumano tribes populated the area. These were subsequently incorporated into the Mestizo culture, along with immigrants from central Mexico, captives from Comanchería, and genízaros of various ethnic groups. The Mescalero Apache were also present. Spanish explorer Don Juan de Oñate was born in 1550 in Zacatecas, Zacatecas, Mexico and was the first New Spain (Mexico) explorer known to have observed the Rio Grande near El Paso, in 1598, celebrating a Thanksgiving Mass there on April 30, 1598 (decades before the English Pilgrims' Thanksgiving). However, the four survivors of the Narváez expedition, Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Alonso", "In 1909, William Howard Taft and Porfirio Díaz planned a summit in El Paso, Texas, and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, a historic first meeting between a U.S. president and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president would cross the border into Mexico But tensions rose on both sides of the border, including threats of assassination, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, U.S. Secret Service agents, FBI agents and U.S. marshals were all called in to provide security. Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, was put in charge of a 250 private security detail hired by John Hays Hammond, who in addition to owning large investments in Mexico was a close friend of Taft from Yale and a U.S. Vice-Presidential candidate in 1908. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham and Private C.R. Moore, a Texas Ranger,", "El Paso is located at the intersection of three states (Texas, New Mexico, and Chihuahua) and two countries (the U.S. and Mexico). It is the only major Texas city on Mountain Time. Ciudad Juarez was once in Central Time, but both cities are now on Mountain Time. El Paso is closer to the capital cities of four other states – Phoenix, Arizona ( away); Santa Fe, New Mexico, ( away); Ciudad Chihuahua, Chihuahua, ( away), and Hermosillo, Sonora ( away) – than it is to the capital of its own state, Austin ( away). It is closer to Los Angeles, California ( away) than it is to Orange ( away), the easternmost town in the state. El Paso is located within the Chihuahuan Desert, the easternmost section of the Basin and Range Region. The Franklin Mountains extend into El Paso from the north and nearly divide the city into two sections; the west side forms the beginnings of the Mesilla Valley, and the east side expands into the desert and lower valley. They connect in the central business district at the southern end of the mountain range. The city's elevation is above sea level. North Franklin Mountain is the highest peak in the city at above sea level. The peak can be seen from in all directions. Additionally, this mountain range is home to the famous natural red-clay formation, the Thunderbird, from which the local Coronado High School gets its mascot's name. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of. The Franklin Mountains State Park, the largest urban park in the United States, lies entirely in El Paso, extending from the north and dividing the city into several sections along with Fort Bliss and El Paso International Airport. The Rio Grande Rift, which passes around the southern end of the Franklin Mountains, is where the Rio Grande flows. The river defines the border between El Paso and Ciudad Juárez to the south and west until the river turns north of the border with Mexico, separating El Paso from Doña Ana County, New Mexico. Mt. Cristo Rey, an example of a pluton, rises within the Rio Grande Rift just to the west of El Paso on the New Mexico side of the Rio Grande. Nearby volcanic features include Kilbourne Hole and Hunt's Hole, which are Maar volcanic craters west of the Franklin Mountains.", "", "This part of town contains some of the city's oldest and most historic neighborhoods. Located in the heart of the city, it is home to approximately 44,993 people. Development of the area started in 1827 with the first resident, Juan Maria Ponce de Leon, a wealthy merchant from Paso del Norte (present day Ciudad Juárez), who built the region's first structure establishing Rancho Ponce within the vicinity of S. El Paso Street and Paisano Dr. when the city was barely beginning to gain its roots. Today, central El Paso has grown into the center of the city's economy and a thriving urban community. It contains numerous historic sites and landmarks mostly in", "Better known as West El Paso or the West Side, the area includes a portion of the Rio Grande floodplain upstream from downtown which is known locally as the Upper Valley and is located on the", "West central El Paso is located north of Interstate 10 and west of the Franklin Mountains. The University of Texas at El Paso and the Cincinnati Entertainment district are located in the heart of the area. Historic districts Kern Place and Sunset Heights are in this part of town. Kern Place was founded in 1914 by Peter E. Kern, for whom the neighborhood was named. The homes of Kern Place are unique in architecture and some were built by residents themselves. One of the better known homes is the Paul Luckett Home located at 1201 Cincinnati Ave. above Madeline Park, and is made of local rock. It is known as \"The Castle\" due to its round walls and a crenelated rooftop. Kern Place is extremely", "This part of town is located north of central El Paso and east of the Franklin Mountains. Development of the area was extensive during the 1950s and 1960s. It is one of the more ethnically diverse areas in the city due to the concentration of military families. The Northeast has", "The area is located north of Interstate 10, east of Airway Blvd., and south of Montana Ave. It is the largest and", "Formerly known as the lower valley, it includes part of Eastside and all lower valley districts. It is the third largest area of the city, behind east El Paso and central El Paso. Hawkins Road and Interstate 10 border the Mission Valley. This location is considered the oldest area of El Paso, dating back to the late 17th century when present-day Texas was under the rule of Nueva España (New Spain). In 1680 the Isleta Pueblo tribe revolted against the Spaniards who were pushed south to what is now El Paso. Some Spaniards and tribe members settled here permanently. Soon afterward, three Spanish missions were built; they remain standing, currently functioning as churches: Ysleta Mission-1682 (La Misión de Corpus Christi y de San Antonio de la Ysleta del Sur/Our Lady of Mt. Carmel),", "El Paso is surrounded by many cities and communities in both Texas and New Mexico. The most populated suburbs in Texas are Socorro, Horizon City, Fort Bliss and San Elizario.", "El Paso's tallest building, the Wells Fargo Plaza, was built in the early 1970s as State National Plaza. The black-windowed, building is famous for its 13 white horizontal lights (18 lights per row on the east and west sides of the building, and seven bulbs per row on the north and south sides) that were lit at night.", "As of 2010 U.S. census, 649,121 people, 216,694 households, and 131,104 families resided in the city. The population density was 2,263.0 people per square mile (873.7/km2). There were 227,605 housing units at an average density of 777.5 per square mile (300.2/km2). Recent census estimates say that the racial composition of El Paso is: White– 92.0% (Non-Hispanic Whites: 11.8%), African American or Black – 3.9%, Two or more races – 1.5%, Asian – 1.3%, Native American – 1.0%, and Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander – 0.2%. There are no de facto African-American neighborhoods. Ethnically, the city was: 82.8% Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 216,894 households in 2010, out of which 37.6% had children", "El Paso has a diversified economy focused primarily within international trade, military, government civil service, oil and gas, health care, tourism and service sectors. The El Paso metro area had a GDP of $29.03 billion in 2017. There was also $92 billion worth of trade in 2012. Over the past 15 years the city has become a significant location for American-based call centers. Cotton, fruit, vegetables, and livestock are also produced in the area. El Paso has added a significant manufacturing sector with items and goods produced that include petroleum, metals, medical devices, plastics, machinery, defense-related goods and automotive parts. The city is the second busiest international crossing point in the U.S. behind San Diego. El Paso is home to one Fortune 500 company, Western Refining, which is listed on the New York Stock Exchange. This makes the city one of six Texas metro areas to have at least one Fortune 500 company call it home; the others being Houston, Dallas-Fort Worth, San Antonio, Austin and Corpus Christi. The second publicly traded company is Helen of Troy Limited, a NASDAQ-listed company that manufactures personal health care products under many labels, such as OXO, Dr. Scholl's, Vidal Sassoon, Pert Plus, Brut and Sunbeam, and the third is El Paso Electric listed on the New York Stock Exchange, a public utility engaging in the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity in west Texas and southern New Mexico. The fourth publicly traded company is Western Refining Logistics also traded in the New York Stock Exchange. It is a Western Refining subsidiary which owns, operates, develops, and acquires", "", "", "\"Amigo Airsho\" is one of El Paso's premier events, and is ranked as one of the top ten air shows in the country. The show is filled with air entertainment and", "The \"KLAQ Great River Raft Race\" is an annual event celebrated on the second to last Saturday of June. Participants are encouraged to ride the river and float the Rio Grande with family", "The \"Southwestern International PRCA Rodeo\" is the 17th oldest rodeo in the nation and El Paso's longest running sporting event.", "\"Fiesta de las Flores\" is one of the oldest Hispanic festivals in the Southwest. The three-day Fiesta is held each year during the Labor Day weekend and emphasizes El Paso's Hispanic heritage and culture. The festival attracts 20,000 to 30,000 visitors from El Paso County, New Mexico, West", "The \"El Paso Balloonfest\" is an annual event celebrated on Memorial Day weekend and is self described as \"3 days of hot air balloons filling the El Paso skies, 3 afternoons of concerts and fun in the sun at Wet N' Wild Waterworld in Anthony, Texas.\" Over 60 balloons take to the air annually from TFCU launch field which is adjacent to the water park. After the balloons launch, visitors have a weekend of water rides, swimming, concerts, and grilling. The concert aspect of the event features local bands, starting at noon, and different headlining artists in the afternoon. Overnight camping has been added for 2014.", "", "The annual El Paso Downtown Street Festival is held during the last weekend of June in downtown", "The annual Neon Desert Music Festival is a two-day event usually held on the last Saturday and Sunday of May on", "The outdoor concert series, started in 1983, is held annually at the Chamizal National Memorial and draws over 60,000 attendees. It features local", "The only El Paso musical festival not held downtown; instead it is held at", "The Texas Showdown Festival is an annual event celebrating musicians and tattoo artists under one roof. Dubbed as the world's largest tattoo and musical festival, the event is held usually the last weekend of July at the El Paso County Coliseum.", "", "The outdoor musical extravaganza Viva! El Paso is performed in the McKelligon Canyon Amphitheatre. It is locally produced and chronicles the 400-year history and", "The \"El Paso Symphony\" was established in the 1930s, it is the oldest performing arts organization in El Paso and the longest continuously running symphony orchestra in the state of Texas. It has received both", "Ballet was largely nonexistent in El Paso until the arrival of Ingeborg Heuser, a professional ballerina from Germany, in the 1950s. Heuser taught ballet at the University of Texas at El Paso for 47 years and founded the city's first professional ballet company, firstly known as Texas Western Civic Ballet and eventually as \"Ballet El Paso\". The company dissipated due to financial trouble in 1997 and Heuser retired from UTEP soon after. The \"El Paso Youth Ballet\" was founded in 2009 by Heuser's previous", "The Plaza Theatre is a National Historic Building of Significance built in 1930. It features the 2,050-seat Kendall Kidd Performance Hall, and the smaller 200-seat Philanthropy Theatre. It hosts Broadway productions, musical concerts, individual performers and the annual Plaza Classic Film Festival. The Abraham Chavez Theatre is a 2,500-seat concert hall adjacent to the Williams Convention Center. Its exterior resembles a sombrero and features a three-story glass main entrance. The Abraham Chavez Theatre is named after Maestro Abraham Chavez who was the longtime conductor of the El Paso Symphony. Inside, the theatre has a lobby and a 40-by-56-foot stage as well as 14 dressing rooms. The theater's seating is in three levels. There is also a meeting room adjacent to the theater.", "The Centennial Museum and Chihuahuan Desert Gardens, located on the grounds of UTEP, includes a comprehensive collection of El Paso Brown, Native American pottery, as well as educational exhibits for students. The El Paso Museum of Archaeology is located on the eastern slope of North Franklin Mountain, west of Gateway South Blvd. on TransMountain Rd. Its grounds include native plants of the American Southwest, as well samples of", "El Paso is home to the Sun Bowl, the second oldest consecutive college football contest (after the Rose Bowl). Its first game was held in 1935. On September 18, 2012, the city council voted to approve the demolition of its city hall to make way for Southwest University Park, the new home", "El Paso is home to the largest urban park in the nation. The Franklin Mountains State Park, with its more than, is completely located within the city limits. It is considered a small range (23 miles long, wide) that extends from city north into New Mexico. It is home to the highest peak in the county North Franklin Mountain at 7,192 feet.The park is open year-round for recreation including hiking, mountain biking, picnicking, scenic driving and views of the city. The Wyler Aerial Tramway is operated by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and is in the Franklin Mountains State Park. The tramway complex covers on the east side of the Franklin Mountains. The gondolas travel along two diameter steel cables to Ranger Peak, above sea level. The trip takes about four minutes and lifts riders above the boarding area.The tramway was built in 1959 by KTSM radio to aid in the construction of a transmitter tower. Karl O. Wyler managed the project. First opening to the public as the El Paso Aerial Tramway, the facility provided rides from 1960 to 1986, when high liability insurance costs forced the tram to stop public operations. The tram was only used to service the transmitter towers. Wyler donated the tramway for public use in his will. The Texas Parks and Wildlife Department accepted the donation in 1997 and renovated and re-opened the tramway to the public in 2001. Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is a Texas historic site in the Hueco Tanks area, approximately northeast of downtown El Paso and just west of the Hueco Mountains. The park is popular for recreation such as birdwatching and bouldering, and is culturally and spiritually significant to many Native Americans. This significance is partially manifested in the pictographs (rock paintings) that can be found throughout the region, many of which are thousands of years old. Hueco Tanks is also widely regarded as one of the best areas in the world for bouldering (rock climbing, low enough to attempt without ropes for protection), unique for its rock type, the concentration and quality of the climbing, and after which the Hueco bouldering grades are named. In any given climbing season, which generally lasts from October through March, it is common for climbers from across Europe, Asia, and Australia to visit the park. Since implementation of the Public Use Plan, following a brief closure of the entire park due to the park service's inability to manage the growing crowds of international climbers, volunteer or commercial guides are required to access more than 2/3 of the park's area. Only North Mountain is accessible without guides, and then only for about 70 people at any given time. The park offers camping and showers for a small fee a day or, as is most popular for climbers, the nearby Hueco Rock Ranch offers camping where climbers can relax and socialize. The Chamizal National Memorial is a 54.90-acre (22.22 ha) memorial park that serves primarily as a cultural center and contains art galleries, a theater, and an amphitheatre. A museum detailing the history of the Mexico–U.S. border is located inside the visitor center. The city is also home to 242 municipal parks.", "", "The city government is officially nonpartisan. Mayors and city council members are elected for four year terms and may not be elected more than twice or serve for more than 10 years in their respective offices. Municipal elections are currently held in May in odd-numbered years, but a voter-approved charter amendment will change this to November in even-numbered years, beginning in 2018. Council members elected in 2015 will serve through December 2018, and council members and the mayor elected in 2017 will serve through December 2020. Those elected in 2018 and 2020 will serve regular four-year", "The El Paso County Judge is Ricardo Samaniego, and the county commissioners are Carlos Leon (Precinct 1), David Stout (Precinct 2), Vince Perez (Precinct 3), and Carl Robinson (Precinct 4). The commissioners and the county judge are", "The El Paso metropolitan area is represented in the Texas State House by Democrats Cesar Blanco, Art Fierro, Mary Gonzalez, Joe Moody, and Lina Ortega, and in the", "El Paso City and County vote overwhelmingly Democratic, like most of the Texas–Mexico border area and urban Texas. In the United States House of Representatives, most of", "El Paso is home to the University of Texas at El Paso, the largest public university in the region. UTEP was ranked as the 7th best university in Washington Monthly's 2013 National University Rankings, just behind Stanford and ahead of Harvard. Also, the university's School of Engineering is the nation's top producer of Hispanic engineers with M.S. and Ph.D. degrees. El Paso is also home to Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center at El Paso, Paul L. Foster School of Medicine, Texas Tech College of Architecture at El Paso, Brightwood College, Park University, Southwest University, Webster University and the University of Phoenix. Also due to its proximity, many El Paso students attend New Mexico State University where the school offers in-state tuition to El Paso County residents. The El Paso Community College serves most of the area as well as several technical schools and for profit schools. El Pasoans also have access to the Doña Ana Community College with campuses in Sunland Park, Anthony and Chaparral, New Mexico: This community college is a part of the New Mexico State University system. El Paso area students primarily attend public schools in four school districts, El Paso Independent School District, Ysleta Independent School District, Socorro Independent School District and Canutillo Independent School District. Numerous accredited private preparatory schools also serve El Paso students. These include various pre-high school religious (Christian, Catholic, Jewish) affiliates and Montessori schools, Cathedral High School, Loretto Academy, Father Yermo High School, Lydia Patterson Institute, Faith Christian Academy, El Paso Jewish Academy, Rose of Sharon Christian Academy, Zion Lutheran Day School and Radford School. The University of El Paso offers the country's only bilingual M.F.A. creative writing program. El Paso is home to bi-national economic development groups; the Hub of Human Innovation and Technology Hub. The industry groups' tertiary vocational programs, give workforce training in automation, robotics and AI technology.", "The El Paso Public Library serves the needs of the public in El Paso, TX. It", "", "The main newspapers are the English-language daily \"El Paso Times\", founded in 1881; the Spanish-language daily \"El Diario de El Paso\", and the online newspaper \"El Paso Herald Post\" started", "Radio stations from Las Cruces, New Mexico, and", "El Paso was the largest city in the United States without a PBS television station within the city limits until 1978. El Paso viewers had to watch channel 22, KRWG, from Las Cruces until 1978. In fact, the city had only three English-speaking channels and two Spanish-language channels (channel 2 and channel 5) from Juarez, and cable TV subscribers in the 1970s and 1980s could receive four Los Angeles", "KTSM-TV reports that cellular phone users", "", "El Paso is the medical hub of West Texas and Southern New Mexico, hosting numerous state-of-the-art medical centers. Some of the city's top hospitals include University Medical Center, William Beaumont Army Medical Center, Sierra Medical Center, Las Palmas Medical Center, Del Sol Medical Center, Sierra Providence East Medical Center, El Paso Children's Hospital, and Providence Memorial Hospital. University Medical Center is the only level I trauma center in the region. William Beaumont Army Medical Center will be replaced by a new state of the art $1.2 billion Fort Bliss Replacement Hospital expected to", "El Paso is served by El Paso International Airport and Amtrak via the historic Union Depot. Several roads and highways connect El Paso, including Interstate 10, US Highway 54 (known locally as \"54\", the \"North-South Freeway\" or officially as the Patriot Freeway), Spur 601 (Liberty Expressway), US Highway 180 and US Highway 62 (Montana Avenue), US Highway 85 (Paisano Drive), Loop 375, Loop 478 (Copia Street-Pershing Drive-Dyer Street), numerous Texas Farm-to-Market roads (a class of state highway commonly abbreviated to FM) and the city's original thoroughfare, State Highway 20, the eastern portion of which is known locally as Alameda Avenue (formerly US Highway 80). Texas 20 also includes portions of Texas Avenue in central El Paso, Mesa Street from Downtown to the West Side, and Doniphan Drive on the West Side. Northeast El Paso is connected to West El Paso by Transmountain Road (Loop 375). The city also shares four international bridges and one railbridge with Ciudad Juárez, Mexico. In 2009, El Paso was home to number 52, number 98, and number 100 of the 100 most congested roads in Texas, which are, respectively: North Zaragoza Road between Sun Fire Boulevard and Interstate 10; Lee Trevino Drive between Montana Avenue and Interstate 10; and Interstate 10 between Patriot Freeway and Loop 375. In 2009, 79.8% of El Paso (city) commuters drive to work alone. The 2009 mode share for El Paso (city) commuters are 10.3% for carpooling, 2.4% for transit, 2.5% for walking, and.2% for cycling. In 2016, Walk Score ranked El Paso as the 32nd most walkable of the 50 largest U.S. cities, rating it \"car-dependent\". The city of El Paso has a slightly lower than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 7.4 percent of El Paso households lacked a car, and increased to 8.4 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. El Paso averaged 1.82 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.", "The Sun Metro Mass Transit System operates a system of medium- to large-capacity natural gas-powered buses all around the city of El Paso. El Paso County Transit makes trips with small-capacity buses mainly in the eastern El Paso area. In 2011, Sun Metro was named the most outstanding public transit system of the year in all of North America for a mid-size transit system by the American Public Transportation Association. On September 1, 2009, NMDOT Park and Ride began operating commuter bus service to and from Las Cruces, New Mexico. Historically, El Paso and Ciudad Juarez had a shared streetcar", "The El Paso Streetcar is a streetcar system that opened for service on November 9, 2018, and uses a fleet of restored PCC streetcars that had served the city's previous system until its closure in 1974. The system covers (round", "The first bridge to cross the Rio Grande at El Paso del Norte was built in the time of Nueva España, over 250 years ago, from wood hauled in from Santa Fe. Today, this bridge is honored by the modern Santa Fe Street Bridge, and Santa Fe Street in downtown El Paso. Several bridges serve the El Paso–Ciudad Juárez area: The city collects tolls at its international bridges." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Republican provinces.", "List of republican provinces.", "Imperial provinces during the \"principate\".", "Late Antiquity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A province was the basic and, until the tetrarchy (from 293 AD), the largest territorial and administrative unit of the empire's territorial possessions outside Italy. The word \"province\" in Modern English has its origins in the Latin term used by the Romans. Provinces were generally governed by politicians of senatorial rank, usually former consuls or former \"praetors\". A later exception was the province of Egypt, incorporated by Augustus after the death of Cleopatra; it was ruled by a governor of only equestrian rank, perhaps as a discouragement to senatorial ambition. This exception was unique, but not contrary to Roman law, as Egypt was considered Augustus' personal property, following the tradition of the kings of the earlier Hellenistic period. The Latin term \"provincia\" also had a more general meaning of \"jurisdiction\".", "The Latin word \"provincia\" originally meant any task or set of responsibilities assigned by the Roman Senate to an individual who held \"imperium\" (right of command), which was often a military command within a specified theater of operations. Under the Roman Republic, the magistrates were elected to office for a period of one year, and those serving outside the city of Rome, such as consuls acting as generals on a military campaign, were assigned a particular \"provincia\", the scope of authority within which they exercised their command. The territory of a people who were defeated in war might be brought under various forms of treaty, in some cases entailing complete subjection \"(deditio)\". The formal annexation of a territory created a province, in the modern sense of an administrative unit that is geographically defined. Republican-period provinces were administered in one-year terms by the consuls and \"praetors\" who had held office the previous year and who were invested with \"imperium\". Rome started expanding beyond Italy during the First Punic War. The first permanent provinces to be annexed were Sicilia in 241 BC and Corsica et Sardinia in 237 BC. Militarized expansionism kept increasing the number of these administrative provinces, until there were no longer enough qualified individuals to fill the posts. The terms of provincial governors often had to be extended for multiple years \"(prorogatio)\", and on occasion the senate awarded \"imperium\" even to private citizens \"(privati)\", most notably Pompey the Great. Prorogation undermined the republican constitutional principle of annual elected magistracies, and the amassing of disproportionate wealth and military power by a few men through their provincial commands was a major factor in the transition from a republic to imperial autocracy.", "Gallia Cisalpina (in northern Italy) was a province in the sense of an area of military command, but was never a province in the sense of an administrative unit. During Rome's expansion in the Italian peninsula, the Romans assigned some areas as provinces in the sense of areas of military command assigned to consuls and \"praetors\" (not proconsuls or \"propraetors\" as in the case of administrative provinces) due to risks of rebellions or invasions. This was applied to Liguria because there was a series of rebellions, Bruttium and to (Calabria) because of perceived risks of rebellion. In the early days of the Roman presence in Gallia Cisalpina, the issue was rebellion. Later, the issue was risk of invasions by warlike peoples east of Italy. The city of Aquileia was founded to protect northern Italy from invasions. Gaius Julius Caesar granted the inhabitants of this region Roman citizenship and incorporated the region into Italy.", "In the so-called Augustan Settlement of 27 BC which established the Roman Empire, the governance of the provinces was regulated. Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, having emerged from the Roman civil wars as the undisputed victor and master of the Roman state, officially laid down his powers, and in theory restored the authority of the Roman Senate. Octavian himself assumed the title \"Augustus\" and was given to govern, in addition to Egypt, the strategically important provinces of Gaul, Hispania and Syria (including Cilicia and Cyprus). Under Augustus, Roman provinces were classified as either public or imperial, meaning that their governors were appointed by either the senate or by the emperor. Generally, the older provinces that existed under the republic were public. Public provinces were, as before under the republic, governed by a proconsul, who was chosen by lot among the ranks of senators who were ex-consuls or ex-\"praetors\", depending on the province assigned. The major imperial provinces were under a \"legatus Augusti pro praetore\", also a senator of consular or praetorian rank. Egypt and some smaller provinces where no legions were based were ruled by a \"procurator\" (\"praefectus\" in Egypt), whom the emperor selected from non-senators of equestrian rank. The status of a province could change from time to time. In AD 68, of a total 36 provinces, 11 were public and 25 imperial. Of the latter, 15 were under \"legati\" and 10 under \"procuratores\" or \"praefecti\". During the \"principate\", the number and size of provinces also changed, either through conquest or through the division of existing provinces. The larger or more heavily garrisoned provinces (for example Syria and Moesia) were subdivided into smaller provinces to prevent any single governor from holding too much power.", "Emperor Diocletian introduced a radical reform known as the \"tetrarchy\" (284–305), with a western and an eastern \"Augustus\" or senior emperor, each seconded by a junior emperor (and designated successor) styled \"caesar\", and each of these four defending and administering a quarter of the empire. In the 290s, Diocletian divided the empire anew into almost a hundred provinces, including Italy. Their governors were hierarchically ranked, from the proconsuls of Africa Proconsularis and Asia through those governed by \"consulares\" and \"correctores\" to the \"praesides\". These last were the only ones recruited from the equestrian class. The provinces in turn were grouped into (originally twelve) dioceses, headed usually by a \"vicarius\", who oversaw their affairs. Only the proconsuls and the urban prefect of Rome (and later Constantinople) were exempt from this, and were directly subordinated to the tetrarchs. Although the Caesars were soon eliminated from the picture, the four administrative resorts were restored in 318 by Emperor Constantine I, in the form of praetorian prefectures, whose holders generally rotated frequently, as in the usual magistracies but without a colleague. Constantine also created a new capital, known after him as Constantinople, which was sometimes called 'New Rome' because it became the permanent seat of the government. In Italy itself, Rome had not been the imperial residence for some time and 286 Diocletian formally moved the seat of government to Mediolanum (modern Milan), while taking up residence himself in Nicomedia. During the 4th century, the administrative structure was modified several times, including repeated experiments with Eastern-Western co-emperors. Provinces and dioceses were split to form new ones, the praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was abolished and reformed. In the end, with the rise of Odoacer in 476 and the death of Julius Nepos in 480, administration of the effectively reduced Empire was permanently unified in Constantinople. Detailed information on the arrangements during this period is contained in the \"Notitia Dignitatum\" (Record of Offices), a document dating from the early 5th century. Most data is drawn from this authentic imperial source, as the names of the areas governed and titles of the governors are given there. There are however debates about the source of some data recorded in the ', and it seems clear that some of its own sources are earlier than others. It is interesting to compare this with the list of military territories under the \"duces\", in charge of border garrisons on so-called \"limites\", and the higher ranking ', with more mobile forces, and the later, even higher \"magistri militum\". Justinian I made the next great changes in 534–536 by abolishing, in some provinces, the strict separation of civil and military authority that Diocletian had established. This process was continued on a larger scale with the creation of extraordinary Exarchates in the 580s and culminated with the adoption of the military theme system in the 640s, which replaced the older administrative arrangements entirely. Some scholars use the reorganization of the empire into themata in this period as one of the demarcations between the Dominate and the Byzantine (or the Later Roman) period. As a matter of scholarly convenience, the medieval phase of the Roman Empire is today conventionally referred to as Byzantine, named after the original name of the city that Constantine rebuilt into the new capital of Constantinople." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Principle.", "Thrust augmentation by heating bypass air.", "Design.", "Limitations.", "Efficiency.", "Influence on cycle choice.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jet-engine thrust is an application of Newton's reaction principle where the engine generates thrust because it increases the momentum of the air passing through it. Thrust depends on two things: the velocity of the exhaust gas and the mass of the gas. A jet engine can produce more thrust by either accelerating the gas to a higher velocity or ejecting a greater mass of gas from the engine. Designing a basic turbojet engine around the second principle produces the turbofan engine, which creates slower gas, but more of it. Turbofans are highly fuel-efficient and can deliver high thrust for long periods, but the design tradeoff is a large size relative to the power output. Generating increased power with a more compact engine for short periods can be achieved using an afterburner. The afterburner increases thrust primarily by accelerating the exhaust gas to a higher velocity. The values in the following are for an early jet engine the Pratt & Whitney J57, stationary on the runway and illustrate the high values of afterburner fuel flow, gas temperature and thrust compared to those for the engine operating within the temperature limitations for its turbine. The highest temperature in the engine (about 3,700 degF ) occurs in the combustor where fuel (8,520 lb/hr) is burned completely in a relatively small proportion of the air entering the engine. The combustion products have to be diluted with air from the compressor to bring the gas temperature down to a value, called the Turbine Entry Temperature (TET) (1570F), which gives the turbine an acceptable life. Having to reduce the temperature of the combustion products by a large amount is one of the primary limitations on how much thrust can be generated (10,200 lb). Burning all the oxygen delivered by the compressor would create temperatures (3,700 degF) high enough to destroy everything in its path, but by mixing the combustion products with unburned air from the compressor at 600 degF a substantial amount of oxygen (fuel/air ratio.014 compared to a no-oxygen-remaining value.0687) is still available for burning large quantities of fuel (25,000 lb/hr) in an afterburner. The gas temperature drops as it passes through the turbine to 1013F. The afterburner combustor reheats the gas but to a much higher temperature (2540F) than the TET (1570F). As a result of the temperature rise in the afterburner combustor, the gas is accelerated, firstly by the heat addition, known as Rayleigh flow, then by the nozzle to a higher exit velocity than occurs without the afterburner. The mass flow is also slightly increased by the addition of the afterburner fuel. The thrust with afterburning is 16,000 lb. The visible exhaust may show \"shock diamonds\", which are caused by shock waves formed due to slight differences between ambient pressure and the exhaust pressure. This interaction causes oscillations in the exhaust jet diameter over a short distance and cause visible banding where the pressure and temperature is highest.", "Thrust may be increased by burning fuel in a turbofan's cold bypass air, instead of the mixed cold and hot flows as in most afterburning turbofans. An early augmented turbofan, the Pratt & Whitney TF30, used separate burning zones for the bypass and core flows with three of seven concentric spray rings in the bypass flow. In comparison, the afterburning Rolls-Royce Spey used a twenty chute mixer before the fuel manifolds. Plenum chamber burning (PCB), was developed for the vectored thrust Bristol Siddeley BS100 engine for the Hawker Siddeley P.1154. The cold bypass and hot core airflows were split between two pairs of nozzles, front and rear, in the same manner as the Rolls-Royce Pegasus, and additional fuel and afterburning was applied to the front nozzles only. It would have given greater thrust for take-off and supersonic performance in an aircraft similar to, but bigger, than the Hawker Siddeley Harrier. Duct heating was used by Pratt & Whitney for their JTF17 turbofan proposal for the U.S. Supersonic Transport Program in 1964 and a demonstrator engine was run. The duct heater used an annular combustor and would be used for takeoff, climb and cruise at Mach 2.7 with different amounts of augmentation depending on aircraft weight.", "A jet engine afterburner is an extended exhaust section containing extra fuel injectors. Since the jet engine upstream (i.e., before the turbine) will use little of the oxygen it ingests, additional fuel can be burned after the gas flow has left the turbines. When the afterburner is turned on, fuel is injected and igniters are fired. The resulting combustion process increases the afterburner exit (nozzle entry) temperature significantly, resulting in a steep increase in engine net thrust. In addition to the increase in afterburner exit stagnation temperature, there is also an increase in nozzle mass flow (i.e. afterburner entry mass flow plus the effective afterburner fuel flow), but a decrease in afterburner exit stagnation pressure (owing to a fundamental loss due to heating plus friction and turbulence losses). The resulting increase in afterburner exit volume flow is accommodated by increasing the throat area of the propulsion nozzle. Otherwise, the upstream turbomachinery rematches (probably causing a compressor stall or fan surge in a turbofan application). The first designs, e.g. Solar afterburners used on the F7U Cutlass, F-94 Starfire and F-89 Scorpion, had 2-position eyelid nozzles. Modern designs incorporate not only VG nozzles but multiple stages of augmentation via separate spray bars. To a first order, the gross thrust ratio (afterburning/dry) is directly proportional to the root of the stagnation temperature ratio across the afterburner (i.e. exit/entry).", "Due to their high fuel consumption, afterburners are only used for short duration high-thrust requirements. These include heavy-weight or short runway take-offs, assisting catapult launches from aircraft carriers, and during air combat. A notable exception is the Pratt & Whitney J58 engine used in the SR-71 Blackbird which used its afterburner for prolonged periods and was refuelled in-flight as part of every reconnaissance mission. An afterburner has a limited life to match its intermittent use. The J58 was an exception with a continuous rating. This was achieved with thermal barrier coatings on the liner and flame holders and by cooling the liner and nozzle with compressor bleed air instead of turbine exhaust gas.", "In heat engines such as jet engines, efficiency is highest when combustion occurs at the highest pressure and temperature possible, and expanded down to ambient pressure (see Carnot cycle). Since the exhaust gas already has reduced oxygen owing to previous combustion, and since the fuel is not burning in a highly compressed air column, the afterburner is generally inefficient compared with the main combustor. Afterburner efficiency also declines significantly if, as is usually the case, the inlet and tailpipe pressure decreases with increasing altitude. This limitation applies only to turbojets. In a military turbofan combat engine the bypass air is added into the exhaust, thereby increasing the core and afterburner efficiency. In turbojets the gain is limited to 50%, whereas in a turbofan it depends on the bypass ratio and can be as much as 70%. However, as a counterexample, the SR-71 had reasonable efficiency at high altitude in afterburning (\"wet\") mode owing to its high speed (mach 3.2) and correspondingly high pressure due to ram intake.", "Afterburning has a significant influence upon engine cycle choice. Lowering fan pressure ratio decreases specific thrust (both dry and wet afterburning), but results in a lower temperature entering the afterburner. Since the afterburning exit temperature is effectively fixed, the temperature rise across the unit increases, raising the afterburner fuel flow. The total fuel flow tends to increase faster than the net thrust, resulting in a higher specific fuel consumption (SFC). However, the corresponding dry power SFC improves (i.e. lower specific thrust). The high temperature ratio across the afterburner results in a good thrust boost. If the aircraft burns a large percentage of its fuel with the afterburner alight, it pays to select an engine cycle with a high specific thrust (i.e. high fan pressure ratio/low bypass ratio). The resulting engine is relatively fuel efficient with afterburning (i.e. Combat/Take-off), but thirsty in dry power. If, however, the afterburner is to be hardly used, a low specific thrust (low fan pressure ratio/high bypass ratio) cycle will be favored. Such an engine has a good dry SFC, but a poor afterburning SFC at Combat/Take-off. Often the engine designer is faced with a compromise between these two extremes.", "Early British reheat work included flight tests on a Rolls-Royce W2/B23 in a Gloster Meteor I in late 1944 and ground tests on a Power Jets W2/700 engine in mid-1945. This engine was destined for the Miles M.52 supersonic aircraft project. Early US research on the concept was done by NACA, in Cleveland, OH, leading to the publication of the paper \"Theoretical Investigation of Thrust Augmentation of Turbojet Engines by Tail-pipe Burning\" in January 1947. US work on afterburners in 1948 resulted in installations on early straight-wing jets such as the Pirate, Starfire and Scorpion. The new Pratt & Whitney J48 turbojet, at 8,000 lbf (36 kN) thrust with afterburner, would power the Grumman swept-wing fighter F9F-6, which was about to go into production. Other new Navy fighters with afterburners included the Chance Vought F7U-3 Cutlass, powered by two 6,000 lbf (27 kN) thrust Westinghouse J46 engines. In the 1950s several large reheated engines were developed, such as the Orenda Iroquois, and the British de Havilland Gyron and Rolls-Royce Avon RB.146 variants. The Rolls-Royce Avon RB.146 variants powered the English Electric Lightning, the first supersonic aircraft in RAF service. The Bristol-Siddeley Rolls-Royce Olympus was fitted with reheat for the TSR-2. This system was designed and developed jointly by Bristol Siddeley and Solar of San Diego. The reheat system for the Concorde was developed by Snecma. Afterburners are generally used only in military aircraft, and are considered standard equipment on fighter aircraft. The handful of civilian planes that have used them include some NASA research aircraft, the Tupolev Tu-144, Concorde and the White Knight of Scaled Composites. Concorde flew long distances at supersonic speeds. Sustained high speeds would be impossible with the high fuel consumption of reheat, and the plane used afterburners at takeoff and to minimize time spent in the high-drag transonic flight regime. Supersonic flight without afterburners is referred to as supercruise. A turbojet engine equipped with an afterburner is called an \"afterburning turbojet\", whereas a turbofan engine similarly equipped is sometimes called an \"augmented turbofan\". A \"dump-and-burn\" is an airshow display feature where fuel is jettisoned, then intentionally ignited using the afterburner. A spectacular flame combined with high speed makes this a popular display for airshows, or as a finale to fireworks. Fuel dumping is used primarily to reduce the weight of an aircraft to avoid a heavy, high-speed landing. Other than for safety or emergency reasons, fuel dumping does not have a practical use." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pre-colonization.", "Indigenous peoples.", "European contact.", "Canada under French rule.", "Canada under British rule.", "American Revolution and the Loyalists.", "War of 1812.", "Rebellions and the Durham Report.", "Pacific colonies.", "Confederation.", "Early post-Confederation Canada 1867–1914.", "Territorial expansion.", "The Great War and interwar years 1914–1939.", "First World War.", "Women's suffrage.", "Interwar.", "Great Depression.", "The end of British Rule.", "Canada during the Second World War.", "Post-war era 1945–1960.", "1960–1981.", "1982–1992.", "Recent history: 1992–present.", "Historiography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Archeological and Indigenous genetic evidence indicate that North and South America were the last continents into which humans migrated. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50,000–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move gradually across the Bering land bridge (Beringia), from Siberia into northwest North America. At that point, they were blocked by the Laurentide Ice Sheet that covered most of Canada, confining them to Alaska and the Yukon for thousands of years. The exact dates and routes of the peopling of the Americas are the subject of an ongoing debate. By 16,000 years ago the glacial melt allowed people to move by land south and east out of Beringia, and into Canada. The Haida Gwaii islands, Old Crow Flats, and the Bluefish Caves contain some of the earliest Paleo-Indian archeological", "The Norse, who had settled Greenland and Iceland, arrived around the year 1000 and built a small settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows at the northernmost tip of Newfoundland (carbon dating estimate 990 – 1050 CE). L'Anse aux Meadows, the only confirmed Norse site in North America outside of Greenland, is also notable for its connection with the attempted settlement of Vinland by Leif Erikson around the same period or, more broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas. Under letters patent from King Henry VII of England, the Italian John Cabot became the first European known to have landed in Canada after the Viking Age. Records indicate that on June 24, 1497 he sighted land at a northern location believed to be somewhere in the Atlantic provinces. Official tradition deemed the first landing", "French interest in the New World began with Francis I of France, who in 1524 sponsored Giovanni da Verrazzano's navigation of the region between Florida and Newfoundland in hopes of finding a route to the Pacific Ocean. Although the English had laid claims to it in 1497 when John Cabot made landfall somewhere on the North American coast (likely either modern-day Newfoundland or Nova Scotia) and had claimed the land for England on behalf of King Henry VII, these claims were not exercised and England did not attempt to create a permanent colony. As for the French, however, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula in 1534 and claimed the land in the name of Francis I, creating a region called \"Canada\" the following summer. Permanent settlement attempts by Cartier at Charlesbourg-Royal in 1541, at Sable Island in 1598 by Marquis de La Roche-Mesgouez, and at Tadoussac, Quebec in 1600 by François Gravé Du Pont all eventually failed. Despite these initial failures, French fishing fleets visited the Atlantic coast communities and sailed into the St. Lawrence River, trading and making alliances with First Nations, as well as establishing fishing settlements such as in Percé (1603). As a result of France's claim and activities in the colony of Canada, the name \"Canada\" was found on international maps showing the existence of this colony within the St. Lawrence river region. In 1604, a North American fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Du Gua, Sieur de Mons. The fur trade became one of the main economic ventures in North America. Du Gua led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the St. Croix River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named Samuel de Champlain, who promptly carried out a major exploration of the northeastern coastline of what is now the United States. In the spring of 1605, under Samuel de Champlain, the new St. Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia). Samuel de Champlain also landed at Saint John Harbour on June 24, 1604 (the feast of St. John the Baptist) and is where the city of Saint John, New Brunswick, and the Saint John River gets its name. In 1608 Champlain founded what is now Quebec City, one of the earliest permanent settlements, which would become the capital of New France. He took personal administration over the city and its affairs, and sent out expeditions to explore the interior. Champlain became the first known European to encounter Lake Champlain in 1609. By 1615, he had travelled by canoe up the Ottawa River through Lake Nipissing and Georgian Bay to the centre of Huron country near Lake Simcoe. During these voyages, Champlain aided the Wendat (aka \"Hurons\") in their battles against the Iroquois Confederacy. As a result, the Iroquois would become enemies of the French and be involved in multiple conflicts (known as the French and Iroquois Wars) until the signing of the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The English, led by Humphrey Gilbert, had claimed St. John's, Newfoundland, in 1583 as the first North American English colony by royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I. In the reign of King James I, the English established additional colonies in Cupids and Ferryland, Newfoundland, and soon after established the first successful permanent settlements of Virginia to the south. On September 29, 1621, a charter for the foundation of a New World Scottish colony was granted by King James to Sir William Alexander. In 1622, the first settlers left Scotland. They initially failed and permanent Nova Scotian settlements were not firmly established until 1629 during the end of the Anglo-French War. These colonies did not last long except the fisheries in Ferryland under Sir David Kirke. In 1631, under Charles I of England, the Treaty of Suza was signed, ending the war and returning Nova Scotia to the French. New France was not fully restored to French rule until the 1632 Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. This led to new French immigrants and the founding of Trois-Rivières in 1634. After Champlain's death in 1635, the Roman Catholic Church and the Jesuit establishment became the most dominant force in New France and hoped to establish a utopian European and Aboriginal Christian community. In 1642, the Sulpicians sponsored a group of settlers led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal. In 1663 the French crown took direct control of the colonies from the Company of New France. Although immigration rates to New France remained very low under direct French control, most of the new arrivals were farmers, and the rate of population growth among the settlers themselves had been very high. The women had about 30 per cent more children than comparable women who remained in France. Yves Landry says, \"Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time.\" This was due to the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years. The 1666 census of New France was conducted by France's intendant, Jean Talon, in the winter of 1665–1666. The census showed a population count of 3,215 \"Acadians\" and \"habitants\" (French-Canadian farmers) in the administrative districts of Acadia and Canada. The census also revealed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus 1,181 women.", "As part of the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1763), signed after the defeat of New France in the Seven Years' War, France renounced its claims to territory in mainland North America, except for fishing rights off Newfoundland and the two small islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon where its fishermen could dry their fish. France had already secretly transferred its vast Louisiana territory to Spain under the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762) in which King Louis XV of France had given his cousin King Charles III of Spain the entire area of the drainage basin of the Mississippi River from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Appalachian Mountains to the Rocky Mountains. France and Spain kept the Treaty of Fontainebleau secret from other countries until 1764. Britain returned to France its most important sugar-producing colony, Guadeloupe, which the French considered more valuable than Canada. (Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, and Voltaire had notoriously dismissed Canada as \"Quelques arpents de neige\", \"A few acres of snow\"). The new British rulers of Canada abolished and later reinstated most of the property, religious, political, and social culture of the French-speaking \"habitants\", guaranteeing the right of the \"Canadiens\" to practice the Catholic faith and to the use of French civil law (now Quebec Civil Code) through the \"Quebec Act\" of 1774. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 had been issued in October, by King George III following Great Britain's acquisition of French territory. The proclamation organized Great Britain's new North American empire and stabilized relations between the British Crown and Aboriginal peoples through regulation of trade, settlement, and land purchases on the western frontier.", "During the American Revolution, there was some sympathy for the American cause among the Acadians and the New Englanders in Nova Scotia. Neither party joined the rebels, although several hundred individuals joined the revolutionary cause. An invasion of Quebec by the Continental Army in 1775, with a goal to take Quebec from British control, was halted at the Battle of Quebec by Guy Carleton, with the assistance of local militias. The defeat of the British army during the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 signalled the end", "The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the British, with the British North American colonies being heavily involved. Greatly outgunned by the British Royal Navy, the American war plans focused on an invasion of Canada (especially what is today eastern and western Ontario). The American frontier states voted for war to suppress the First Nations raids that frustrated settlement of the frontier. The war on the border with the United States was characterized by a series of multiple failed invasions and fiascos on both sides. American forces took control of Lake Erie in 1813, driving", "The rebellions of 1837 against the British colonial government took place in both Upper and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale skirmishes around Toronto, London, and Hamilton. In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader Robert Nelson read the \"Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada\" to a crowd assembled at the town of Napierville in 1838. The rebellion of the \"Patriote movement\" was defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and several villages were", "Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the Pacific Northwest coast, with the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775. By the time the Spanish determined to build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British navigator James Cook had visited Nootka Sound and charted the coast as far as Alaska, while British and American maritime fur traders had begun a busy era of commerce with the coastal peoples to satisfy the brisk market for sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what became known as the China Trade. In 1789 war threatened between Britain and Spain on their respective rights; the Nootka Crisis was resolved peacefully largely in favour of Britain, the much stronger naval power at the time. In 1793 Alexander MacKenzie, a Canadian working for the North", "The Seventy-Two Resolutions from the 1864 Quebec Conference and Charlottetown Conference laid out the framework for uniting British colonies in North America into a federation. They had been adopted by the majority of the provinces of Canada and became the basis for the London Conference of 1866, which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867. The term \"dominion\" was chosen to indicate Canada's status as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was used about a country. With the coming into force of the British North America Act, 1867 (enacted by the British Parliament), the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia became a federated kingdom in its own right. (According to J. McCullough, use of the phrase \"Dominion of Canada... was gradually phased out\" during the \"late 1940s, 50s, and early 60s\" with the growth of \"post-colonial Canadian nationalism\".) Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867; British-Canadian nationalism sought to unite the lands into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture; many French-Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new largely French-speaking Quebec and fears of possible U.S. expansion northward. On a political level, there was a desire for the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with provincial legislatures in a federation. This was especially pushed by the liberal Reform movement of Upper Canada and the French-Canadian \"Parti rouge\" in Lower Canada who favoured a decentralized union in comparison to the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the French-Canadian \"Parti bleu\", which favoured a centralized union.", "", "Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line that would unite the nation, Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver Island merged into a single Colony of British Columbia; it joined the Canadian Confederation in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined. Newfoundland—which had no use for a transcontinental railway—voted no in 1869, and did not join Canada until 1949. In 1873 John A. Macdonald (First Prime Minister of Canada) created the North-West Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to help police the Northwest Territories. Specifically the Mounties were to assert Canadian sovereignty over possible American encroachments into the area. The Mounties' first large-scale mission was to suppress the second independence movement by Manitoba's Métis, a mixed blood people of joint First Nations and European descent, who originated in the mid-17th century. The desire for independence erupted in the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and the later North-West Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel. Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada's first independent military action. It cost about $5 million and demonstrated the need to complete the Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed Anglophone control of the Prairies, and demonstrated the national government was capable of decisive action. However, it lost the Conservative Party most of", "", "The Canadian Forces and civilian participation in the First World War helped to foster a sense of British-Canadian nationhood. The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the First World War came during the Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele battles and what later became known as \"Canada's Hundred Days\". The reputation Canadian troops earned, along with the success of Canadian flying aces including William George Barker and Billy Bishop, helped to give the nation a new sense of identity. The War Office in", "When Canada was founded, women could not vote in federal elections. Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in Canada West from 1850, where women owning land could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other provinces adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending full women's suffrage. Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the prohibition movement, especially", "", "Canada was hit hard by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to 37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933. Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932. Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed. By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one-fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely. In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the", "Following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster in 1931 which acknowledged Canada as coequal with the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was a crucial step in the", "Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, delaying it one week after Britain acted to symbolically demonstrate independence. Canada played a major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean against German U-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943–45. Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War. Many thousands more served with the Canadian Merchant Navy. In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded. Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it was kept separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from", "Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in the following years, with the development of universal health care, old-age pensions, and veterans' pensions. The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor. In 1948, the British government gave voters three Newfoundland Referendum choices: remaining a crown colony, returning to Dominion status (that is, independence), or joining Canada. Joining the United States was not made an option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province. The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that of the United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the", "In the 1960s, what became known as the Quiet Revolution took place in Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and led to modernizing of the economy and society. Québécois nationalists demanded independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. John Saywell says, \"The two kidnappings and the murder of Pierre Laporte were the biggest domestic news stories in Canada's history\" In 1976 the Parti Québécois was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that included securing French linguistic rights in the province and the pursuit of some form of sovereignty for Quebec. This culminated in the 1980 referendum in Quebec on the question of sovereignty-association, which was turned down by 59% of the voters. In 1965, Canada adopted the maple leaf flag, although not without considerable debate", "In 1981, the Canadian House of Commons and Senate passed a resolution requesting that the British Parliament enact a package of constitutional amendments which would end the last powers of the British Parliament to legislate for Canada and would create an entirely Canadian process for constitutional amendments. The resolution set out the text of the proposed Canada Act, which also included the text of the Constitution Act, 1982. The British Parliament duly passed the Canada Act 1982, the Queen granting Royal Assent on March 29, 1982, 115 years to the day since Queen Victoria granted Royal Assent to the Constitution Act, 1867. On April 17, 1982, the Queen signed the Proclamation on the grounds of Parliament Hill in Ottawa bringing the Constitution Act, 1982 into force, thus patriating the Constitution of Canada. Previously, the main portions of the constitution had existed only as an act passed of the British parliament, though under the terms of the Statute of Westminster, it could not be altered without Canadian consent. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms. In addition to the enactment of a Canadian amending formulas, the Constitution Act, 1982 enacted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter", "Following Mulroney's resignation as prime minister in 1993, Kim Campbell took office and became Canada's first female prime minister. Campbell remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two seats, while the Quebec-based sovereigntist Bloc Québécois became the official opposition. Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of the Liberals took office in November 1993 with a majority government and was re-elected with further majorities during the 1997 and 2000 elections. In 1995, the government of Quebec held a second referendum on sovereignty that was rejected by a margin of 50.6% to 49.4%. In 1998, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the \"Clarity Act\" outlining the terms of a negotiated departure. Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada during this period, resulting in the signing of the Kyoto Accord on climate change by Canada's Liberal government in 2002. The accord was in 2007 nullified by Prime Minister Stephen Harper's Conservative government, which proposed a \"made-in-Canada\" solution to climate change. Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the Americas to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide with the enactment of the \"Civil Marriage Act\". Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already legalized same-sex marriage in eight out of ten provinces and one of three territories. Before", "The Conquest of New France has always been a central and contested theme of Canadian memory. Cornelius Jaenen argues: Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the French-Canadians by arguing that the Conquest: At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and traditional customs under British rule. French Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Québec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in the 21st century, \"1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future that we might wish to shape and control.\" Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that was a permanent benefit to the French. Allan Greer argues that Whig history was once the dominant style of scholars. He says the:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Budget, mission, and priorities.", "History.", "Background.", "Creation of BOI.", "Creation of FBI.", "J. Edgar Hoover as FBI Director.", "National security.", "Japanese American internment.", "Sex deviates program.", "Civil rights movement.", "Kennedy's assassination.", "Organized crime.", "Special FBI teams.", "Notable efforts in the 1990s.", "September 11 attacks.", "Faulty bullet analysis.", "Organization.", "Organizational structure.", "Rank structure.", "Legal authority.", "Infrastructure.", "Personnel.", "Hiring process.", "BOI and FBI directors.", "Firearms.", "Publications.", "Crime statistics.", "Uniform Crime Reports.", "National Incident-Based Reporting System.", "eGuardian.", "Controversies.", "Media portrayal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the fiscal year 2019, the Bureau's total budget was approximately $9.6 billion. The FBI's main goal is to protect and defend the", "", "In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, which provided agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals. The 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created a perception that the United States was under threat from anarchists. The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, but President Theodore Roosevelt wanted more power to monitor them. The Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887,", "The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of the Secret Service, to work for a new investigative agency. Its first \"Chief\" (the title", "The following year, 1933, the BOI was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI) before finally becoming", "J. Edgar Hoover served as FBI Director from 1924 to 1972, a combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory, which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. But as detailed below, his proved to be a highly controversial tenure as Bureau Director, especially in its later years. After Hoover's death, the Congress passed legislation that limited the tenure of future FBI Directors to ten years. Early homicide investigations of the new agency included the Osage Indian murders. During the \"War on Crime\" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who committed kidnappings, bank robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger, \"Baby Face\" Nelson, Kate \"Ma\"", "Beginning in the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed (\"Ex parte Quirin\") under their sentences. Also during this time, a joint US/UK code-breaking effort called \"The Venona Project\"—with which the FBI was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and", "In 1939, the Bureau began compiling a custodial detention list with the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations. The majority of the names on the list belonged to Issei community leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existing Naval Intelligence index that had focused on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the West Coast, but many German and Italian nationals also found their way onto the FBI Index list. Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling over Pearl Harbor.", "According to Douglas M. Charles, the FBI's \"sex deviates\" program began on April 10, 1950, when J. Edgar Hoover forwarded to the White House, to the U.S. Civil Service Commission, and to branches of the armed services a list of 393 alleged federal employees who had allegedly been arrested in Washington, D.C., since 1947, on charges of \"sexual irregularities\". On June 20, 1951, Hoover expanded the program by issuing a memo establishing a \"uniform policy for the handling of the increasing number of reports and allegations", "During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or \"fellow travellers.\" In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard, a civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee, Emmett Till, and other blacks in the South. The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation it called the COINTELPRO, from \"COunter-INTELligence PROgram.\" It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within the United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations. Among its targets was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who is addressed in more detail below. The FBI frequently", "When President John F. Kennedy was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation. To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, the Congress passed a law that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction. This new law was passed in 1965.", "In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953, the FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program. The national office directed field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers. After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act, or RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns. All of the FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act. Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups. Although Hoover initially denied the existence of a National Crime Syndicate in the United States, the Bureau", "In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held in Los Angeles, particularly terrorism and major-crime. This was a result of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, when terrorists murdered the Israeli athletes. Named the Hostage Rescue Team, or HRT, it acts as a dedicated FBI SWAT team dealing primarily with counter-terrorism scenarios. Unlike the Special Agents serving on local FBI SWAT teams, HRT does not conduct", "On May 1, 1992, FBI SWAT and HRT personnel in Los Angeles County, California aided local officials in securing peace within the area during the infamous 1992 Los Angeles riots. HRT operators for instance spent 10 days conducting vehicle mounted patrols throughout Los Angeles, before returning to Virginia. Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased its counter-terrorism role in the wake of the first 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City, the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, and the arrest of the Unabomber in 1996. Technological innovation and the skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that the three cases were successfully prosecuted. But Justice Department investigations into the FBI's roles in the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents were found to have been", "During the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center, FBI agent Leonard W. Hatton Jr. was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed. Within months after the attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller, who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations. He made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cyber security threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime. In February 2001, Robert Hanssen was caught selling information to the Russian government. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty to espionage and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that", "For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures. It was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets. The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18-month independent review of comparative bullet-lead analysis. In", "", "The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches there are various sections headed by section", "The following is a listing of", "The FBI's mandate is established in Title 28 of the United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the Attorney General to \"appoint officials to detect and prosecute crimes against the United States.\" Other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes. The FBI's chief tool against organized crime is the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations (RICO) Act. The FBI is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of the act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the United States Department of Justice (DOJ). The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) in the enforcement of the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. The USA PATRIOT Act increased the powers allotted to the FBI, especially in wiretapping and monitoring of Internet activity. One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called \"sneak and peek\" provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards. Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions, the FBI also resumed inquiring into the library records of those who are suspected of terrorism (something it had supposedly not done since the 1970s). In the early 1980s, Senate hearings were held to examine FBI undercover operations in the wake of the Abscam controversy, which had allegations of entrapment of elected officials. As a result, in following years a number of guidelines were issued to constrain FBI activities. A March 2007 report by the inspector general of the Justice Department described the FBI's \"widespread and serious misuse\" of national security letters, a form of administrative subpoena used to demand records and data pertaining to individuals. The report said that between 2003 and 2005, the FBI had issued more than 140,000 national security letters, many involving people with no obvious connections to terrorism. Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or Department of Justice official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted. The FBI often works in conjunction with other federal agencies, including the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) and U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in seaport and airport security, and the National Transportation Safety Board in investigating airplane crashes and other critical incidents. Immigration and Customs Enforcement’s Homeland Security Investigations (HSI) has nearly the same amount of investigative manpower as the FBI, and investigates the largest range of crimes. In the wake of the September 11 attacks, then–Attorney General Ashcroft assigned the FBI as the designated lead organization in terrorism investigations after the creation of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. HSI and the FBI are both integral members of the Joint Terrorism Task Force.", "The FBI is headquartered at the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C., with 56 field offices in major cities across the United States. The FBI also maintains over 400 resident agencies across the United States, as well as over 50 legal attachés at United States embassies and consulates. Many specialized FBI functions are located at facilities in Quantico, Virginia, as well as a \"data campus\" in Clarksburg, West Virginia, where 96 million sets of fingerprints \"from across the United States are stored, along with others collected by American authorities from prisoners in Saudi Arabia and Yemen, Iraq and Afghanistan.\" The FBI is in process of moving its Records Management Division, which processes Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests, to Winchester, Virginia. According to \"The Washington Post\", the FBI \"is building a vast repository controlled by people who work in a top-secret vault on the fourth floor of the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington. This one stores the profiles of tens of thousands of Americans and legal residents who are not accused of any crime. What they have done is appear to be acting suspiciously to a town sheriff, a traffic cop or even a neighbor.\" The FBI Laboratory, established with the formation of the BOI, did not appear in the J. Edgar Hoover Building until its completion in 1974. The lab serves as the primary lab for most DNA, biological, and physical work. Public tours of FBI headquarters ran through the FBI laboratory workspace before the move to the J. Edgar Hoover Building. The services the lab conducts include \"Chemistry\", \"Combined DNA Index System\" (CODIS), \"Computer Analysis and Response\", \"DNA Analysis\", \"Evidence Response\", \"Explosives\", \"Firearms and Tool marks\", \"Forensic Audio\", \"Forensic Video\", \"Image Analysis\", \"Forensic Science Research\", \"Forensic Science Training\", \"Hazardous Materials Response\", \"Investigative and Prospective Graphics\", \"Latent Prints\", \"Materials Analysis\", \"Questioned Documents\", \"Racketeering Records\", \"Special Photographic Analysis\", \"Structural Design\", and \"Trace Evidence\". The services of the FBI Laboratory are used by many state, local, and international agencies free of charge. The lab also maintains a second lab at the FBI Academy. The FBI Academy, located in Quantico, Virginia, is home to the", ", the FBI had a total of 33,852 employees. That includes 13,412 special agents and 20,420 support professionals, such as intelligence analysts, language specialists, scientists, information technology specialists, and other professionals. The Officer Down Memorial Page provides the biographies of 69 FBI agents who have died in the line of duty from 1925 to July 2017.", "To apply to become an FBI agent, one must be between the ages of 23 and 37, unless one is a preference-eligible veteran, in which case one may apply after age 37. The applicant must also hold U.S. citizenship, be of high moral character, have a clean record, and hold at least a four-year bachelor's degree. At least three years of professional work experience prior to application is also required. All FBI", "FBI Directors are appointed (nominated) by the President of the United States and must be confirmed by the United States Senate to serve a term of office of ten years, subject to resignation or removal by the President at his/her discretion before their term ends. Additional terms are allowed following the same procedure J. Edgar Hoover, appointed by President Calvin Coolidge in 1924, was by far the longest-serving director, serving until his death in 1972. In 1968, Congress passed legislation, as part of the \"Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act\" of 1968, requiring Senate confirmation", "Upon qualification, an FBI special agent is issued a full-size Glock 22 or compact Glock 23 semi-automatic pistol, both of which are chambered in the.40 S&W cartridge. In May 1997, the FBI officially adopted the Glock, in.40 S&W, for general agent use, and first issued it to New Agent Class 98-1 in October 1997. At present, the Glock 23 \"FG&R\" (finger groove and rail; either 3rd generation or \"Gen4\") is the issue sidearm. New agents are issued firearms, on which they must qualify, on successful completion of", "The \"FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin\" is published monthly by the FBI Law Enforcement Communication Unit, with articles of interest to state and local law enforcement personnel. First published in 1932 as \"Fugitives Wanted by Police\", the \"FBI Law Bulletin\" covers topics including law enforcement technology and issues, such as crime mapping and use of force, as well as recent criminal justice research, and ViCAP alerts, on wanted suspects and key cases. The FBI also publishes some reports for both law enforcement personnel as well as regular citizens covering topics including law enforcement, terrorism, cybercrime, white-collar crime, violent crime, and statistics. However, the vast majority of federal government publications covering these topics are published by the Office of Justice Programs agencies of the United States Department of Justice, and disseminated through the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.", "During the 1920s the FBI began issuing crime reports by gathering numbers from local police departments. Due to limitations of this system that were discovered during the 1960s and 1970s—victims often simply did not report crimes to the police in the first place—the Department of Justice developed an alternative method of tallying crime, the victimization survey.", "The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) compile data from over 17,000 law enforcement agencies across the country. They provide detailed data regarding the volume of crimes to include arrest, clearance (or closing a case), and law enforcement officer information. The UCR focuses its data collection on violent crimes, hate crimes, and property crimes. Created in the 1920s, the UCR system has not proven to be", "The National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) crime statistics system aims to address limitations inherent in UCR data. The system is used by law enforcement agencies in the United States for collecting and reporting data on crimes. Local, state, and federal agencies generate NIBRS data from their records management systems. Data is collected on every incident and arrest in the Group A offense category. The Group A offenses are 46 specific crimes grouped in 22 offense categories. Specific facts about these offenses are gathered and reported in the NIBRS system. In addition to the Group A offenses, eleven Group B offenses are reported with only the arrest information. The NIBRS system is in greater detail than the summary-based UCR system., 5,271 law enforcement agencies submitted NIBRS data. That amount represents 20% of the United States population and 16% of the crime statistics data collected by the FBI.", "eGuardian is the name of an FBI system, launched in January 2009, to share tips about possible terror threats with local police agencies. The program aims to get law enforcement at all levels sharing data quickly", "Throughout its history, the FBI has been", "The FBI has been frequently depicted in popular media since the 1930s. The bureau has participated to varying degrees, which has ranged from direct involvement in the creative process of film or TV series development, to providing consultation on operations and closed cases. A few of the notable portrayals of the FBI on television are the series \"The X-Files\", which started in 1993 and concluded its eleventh season in early 2018, and concerned investigations into paranormal phenomena by five fictional Special Agents, and the fictional Counter Terrorist Unit (CTU) agency in the TV drama \"24\", which is patterned after the FBI Counterterrorism Division. The 1991 movie \"Point Break\" depicts an undercover FBI agent who infiltrated a gang of bank robbers. The 1997 movie \"Donnie Brasco\" is based on the true story of undercover FBI agent Joseph D. Pistone infiltrating the Mafia. The 2015 TV series \"Quantico\", titled after the location of the Bureau's training facility, deals with Probationary and Special Agents, not all of whom, within the show's format, may be fully reliable or even trustworthy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Background.", "Design.", "Prototypes.", "Production.", "Operational history.", "RAF service.", "Long-distance Flights.", "Vimy Commercial.", "Role in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War.", "Replicas." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Throughout the First World War both the Allied Powers and the Central Powers made increasingly sophisticated use of new technologies in their attempts to break through the effective stalemate of trench warfare. One key advance made during the conflict was in the use of fixed-wing aircraft, which were at that time rapidly advancing in capability and ability, for combat purposes. On 23 July 1917, in response to a bombing raid performed by German bombers on London, the Air Board, having determined that existing projects were not ambitious enough, decided to cancel all orders for experimental heavy bombers then underway. A week later, following protests from the Controller of the Technical Department, the Air Board placed an order for 100 Handley Page O/100 bombers, which was accompanied by orders for prototype heavy bombers being placed with both Handley Page and Vickers Limited. On 16 August 1917 Vickers was issued with a contract for three prototype aircraft and Rex Pierson, chief designer of Vickers' aviation division, started designing of a large twin-engine biplane bomber, to be powered by either a pair of RAF 4d or 200 hp (150 kW) Hispano Suiza engines. Pierson discussed the proposed aircraft with Major J. C. Buchanan of the Air Board to establish the rough configuration of the aircraft, which was expected to meet the requirement for a night bomber which could attack targets within the German Empire.", "The Vickers F.B.27 Vimy is an equal-span twin-engine four-bay biplane, with balanced ailerons on both upper and lower wings. The engine nacelles were positioned mid-gap and contained the fuel tanks. It has a biplane empennage with elevators on both upper and lower surfaces and twin rudders. The main undercarriage consists of two pairs of wheels, each pair carried on a pair of tubular steel V-struts. There is a tail-skid and an additional skid mounted below the nose of the fuselage to prevent nose-overs. The aircraft was designed to accommodate a three-man crew and a payload of 12 bombs. In addition to the pilot's cockpit, which was positioned just ahead of the wings, there were two positions for gunners, one behind the wings and the other in the nose, each with a pair of Scarff ring-mounted Lewis guns; the rear cockpit mounting was commonly not fitted during the interwar period. Provision for a maximum of four spare drums of ammunition were present in the nose position, while up to six drums could be carried in the rear position. The majority of the Vimy's payload of 250 lb bombs were stowed vertically inside the fuselage between the spars of the lower centre section; a typical load consisted of 12 bombs. In some variants further bombs could be stowed externally for a total of 18 bombs, if the particular engine used provided enough power. For anti-surface warfare in the maritime environment, the Vimy could also be armed with a pair of torpedoes. To improve bombing accuracy, the Vimy was equipped with the High Altitude Drift Mk.1a bombsight. Standard equipment also included two Michelin-built Mk.1 flare carriers. The Vimy was powered by a range of different engines. Owing to engine supply difficulties, the prototype Vimys were tested with a number of different engine types, including Sunbeam Maoris, Salmson 9Zm water-cooled radials, and Fiat A.12bis engines, before production orders were placed for aircraft powered by the 230 hp (170 kW) BHP Puma, 400 hp (300 kW) Fiat, 400 hp (300 kW) Liberty L-12 and the 360 hp (270 kW) Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engines, with a total of 776 ordered before the end of the First World War. Of these, only aircraft powered by the Eagle engine, known as the Vimy IV, were delivered to the RAF. Due to the number of engine types used there are multiple conflicting official reports on the production numbers of each sub-variant of the Vimy. Design and production of the prototypes was extremely rapid; the detailed design phase of what had become internally designated as the Vickers F.B.27 and the manufacture of the three prototypes was completed within four months.", "By the time the first prototype had been completed the RAF 4D was not sufficiently developed, so it was fitted with the alternative Hispano Suiza engine. On 30 November 1917 the first prototype, flown by Captain Gordon Bell, made its maiden flight from Royal Flying Corps Station Joyce Green, Kent. In January 1918 the first prototype was dispatched to RAF Martlesham Heath, Suffolk, for the official trials of the type. Reportedly, the F.B.27 quickly made a positive impression: it was able to take off with a greater payload than the Handley Page O/400 despite having about half the effective engine power. Unfortunately, the engines proved to be unreliable during these trials, leading to the aircraft's return to Joyce Green on 12 April 1918. The first prototype was extensively modified, receiving new Salmson water-cooled aero-engines in place of the Hispano Suizas; other changes included the adoption of an alternative exhaust stack configuration, a 3-degree dihedral on the mainplanes, and a modified tail unit. Following these modifications, the prototype was used for several years, surviving the war and being allocated a civil registration. In August 1919 the prototype was flown from Brooklands to Amsterdam, the Netherlands as part of Vicker's exhibit at the Eerste Luchtverkeer Tentoonstelling Amsterdam. During early 1918 the second prototype was completed. Unlike the first, it had plain elevators and ailerons which had an inverse taper; the tops of the wings and tailplanes also differed. The defensive armament was increased, giving the rear gunner two separate guns; these changes would be standardised on production aircraft. The second prototype was powered by a pair of Sunbeam Maori engines, which were found to have an unreliable cooling system during initial testing at Joyce Green. On 26 April 1918 the aircraft was dispatched to RAF Martlesham Heath for official tests; however, testing was interrupted by its loss in a crash following an engine failure. During the first half of the 1918 the third prototype was also completed. It was powered by a pair of 400 hp (300 kW) Fiat A.12 engines, and had a redesigned nose section and nacelles which were similar to production aircraft. On 15 August 1918 the third prototype was sent to RAF Martlesham Heath for performance tests; testing was delayed by the need to replace a cracked propeller. On 11 September 1918 it was lost when its payload of bombs detonated owing to a hard landing, the result of a pilot-induced stall. It was decided to construct a fourth prototype to test the Rolls-Royce Eagle VIII engine. On 11 October 1918 this was flown from Joyce Green to Martlesham Heath to conduct official trials. Aside from being powered by the Eagle engine, it was identical to the earlier prototypes except for having a greatly increased fuel capacity and reshaped and enlarged rudders. By the time the fourth prototype commenced flying trials, mass production of the Vimy had already begun.", "Since the performance of the first prototype was satisfactory it was decided to start production before the evaluation of either of the other prototypes. On 26 March 1918 the first production contract, for 150 aircraft, was issued; these were built at Vickers' works in Crayford in the Bexley. Production of the type by additional manufacturers was envisaged early on; in May 1918 follow-up contracts were issued to Clayton & Shuttleworth, Morgan & Co, and the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE), in addition to a separate production line at Vickers' Weybridge complex. At one point over 1,000 aircraft had been ordered under wartime contracts. The type had received the official name of \"Vimy\", after the Battle of Vimy Ridge. By the end of 1918 a total of 13 aircraft had been completed by Vickers; 7 at Crayford and 6 at Weybridge. Production continued after the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918, which led to Vickers ultimately completing 112 aircraft under wartime contracts. The majority, if not all, of Vimys ordered from Morgan & Co were completed, while Westland Aircraft manufactured 25 of the 75 units that they were contracted for. The numbers produced by the RAE are obscured by changes in serial number allocation and the apparent adoption of a piecemeal approach to manufacturing, which came into effect shortly after the end of the war; in February 1920, the RAE completed their final Vimy. Production aircraft used several different types of engines, leading to various mark numbers being applied to the Vimy to distinguish between the emerging subtypes. The use of different engines was often because of availability; relatively few engines from Rolls-Royce Limited were used in the Vimy during 1918 owing to low output levels from that manufacturer, while other manufacturers also struggled to keep up with engine demand that year. At one point, there was considerable enthusiasm for powering the Vimy with American Liberty L-12 engines, because of their plentiful supply at the time; while specified for production aircraft all orders for the Liberty-equipped Vimy were terminated in January 1919 and no examples were ever completed. The BHP Puma was another engine that had been intended for use on the Vimy, but the Puma was cancelled without any aircraft being fitted with the engine. Use of the Vimy extended beyond its original use as a bomber. A model with greater internal space was developed, known as the \"Vimy Commercial\" within the civil market. The Vimy Commercial saw service with the RAF; known as the Vickers Vernon, it became the first dedicated troop transport to be operated by the service. The Vimy was also used as an air ambulance for transporting wounded troops to medical facilities, while some examples were configured to perform record-breaking long distance flights. From 1923 to 1925 limited production batches of the Vimy were manufactured by Vickers. Additionally, between 1923 and 1931, at least 43 early production aircraft were reconditioned in order to extend their service lives; at least one Vimy was reconditioned four times. By October 1918 only three aircraft had been delivered to the Royal Air Force (RAF), one of which had been deployed to France for use by the Independent Air Force. It had been envisioned that the Vimy would be able to conduct long range bombing missions into Germany, having the ability to reach Berlin from bases in France; however, the Armistice of 11 November 1918 had brought an end to the conflict before the Vimy could be used on any offensive operations. Following the end of the conflict, the RAF rapidly contracted in size, which slowed the introduction of the Vimy. The Vimy only reached full service status in July 1919 when it entered service with 58 Squadron in Egypt, replacing the older Handley Page 0/400.", "", "On 12 June 1918, according to aviation publication Flight International, the Air Board were to initially deploy the first production Vimy units as maritime patrol aircraft, equipped for anti-submarine warfare, and once this requirement had been satisfied, subsequent aircraft would be allocated to performing nighttime bombing missions from bases in France. This had been due to a recently introduced policy under which the number of land-based aircraft allocated to anti-submarine patrols was to be vastly expanded, from 66 landplanes in November 1917 to a projected force of 726 landplanes, in which the newly-available Vimy would be a key aircraft due to its long range capabilities. During August 1918, the application of floats to the Vimy was studied, but it is not known if any aircraft were ever so fitted. Throughout the 1920s, the Vimy formed the main heavy bomber force of the RAF; for some years, it was the only twin-engine bomber to be stationed at bases in Britain. On 1 April 1924, No. 9 Squadron and No. 58 Squadron, equipped with the Vimy, stood up, tripling the home-based heavy bomber force. On 1 July 1923, a newly formed Night Flying Flight, based at RAF Biggin Hill, equipped with the Vimy, was formed; during the general strike of 1926, this unit performed aerial deliveries of the British Gazette newspaper throughout the country. Between 1921 and 1926, the type formed the backbone of the airmail service between Cairo and Baghdad. The Vimy served as a front line bomber in the Middle East and in the United Kingdom from 1919 until 1925, by which point it had been replaced by the newer Vickers Virginia. Despite the emergence of the Virginia, which numerous Vimy squadrons were soon re-equipped with, the Vimy continued to equip a Special Reserve bomber squadron, 502 Squadron, stationed at Aldergrove in Northern Ireland until 1929. The Vimy continued to be used in secondary roles, such as its use as a training aircraft; many were re-engined with Bristol Jupiter or Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar radial engines. The final Vimys, used as target aircraft for searchlight crews, remained in use until 1938.", "The Vimy was used in many pioneering flights.", "The Vimy Commercial was a civilian version with a larger-diameter fuselage (largely of spruce plywood), which was developed at and first flew from the Joyce Green airfield in Kent on 13 April 1919. Initially, it bore the interim civil registration \"K-107\", later being re-registered as \"G-EAAV\". The prototype entered the 1920 race to Cape Town; it left Brooklands on 24 January 1920 but crashed at Tabora, Tanganyika on 27 February. A Chinese order for 100 is particularly noteworthy; forty of the forty-three built were delivered to China, but most remained in their crates unused; only seven were put into civilian use. Fifty-five military transport versions of the Vimy Commercial were built for the RAF as the Vickers Vernon.", "After the First Zhili–Fengtian War, 20 aircraft were secretly converted into bombers under the order of the Zhili clique warlord Cao Kun, and later participated in the Second Zhili–Fengtian War. During the war these bombers were initially highly successful due to the low-level bombing tactics used, with the air force chief-of-staff of the Zhili clique, General Zhao Buli (趙步壢) personally flying many of the missions. However, on 17 September, returning from a successful bombing mission outside Shanhai Pass, General Zhao's aircraft was hit by ground fire from the Fengtian clique in the region of Nine Gates (Jiumenkou, 九門口) and had to make a forced landing. Although General Zhao made a successful escape back to his base, the bombers subsequently flew at much higher altitude to avoid ground fire, which greatly reduced their bombing accuracy and effectiveness. After numerous battles between Chinese warlords, all of the aircraft fell into the hands of the Fengtian clique, forming its \"First Heavy Bomber Group\". These were in the process of being phased out at the time of the Mukden Incident and therefore were subsequently captured by the Japanese, who soon disposed of them.", "Apart from a replica transatlantic Vimy cockpit section built by Vickers for the London Science Museum in the early 1920s, three full-size replicas have also been built. The first was a taxiable replica commissioned by British Lion Films from Shawcraft Models Ltd of Iver Heath, Bucks; the planned film about Alcock & Brown's transatlantic flight was never made, but the model was completed and paid for. Its fate remains a mystery although it appeared on static display at the Battle of Britain air display at RAF Biggin Hill in 1955 and may have been subsequently stored dismantled in East London until at least the late 1980s. The engine nacelles appear in the mine scene from the film 'Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D.', so it may not have been in good condition by then. In 1969 an airworthy Vimy replica (registered G-AWAU) was built by the Vintage Aircraft Flying Association at Brooklands; this was first flown by D. G. 'Dizzy' Addicott and Peter Hoar but was badly damaged by fire that summer and was displayed until February 2014 at the RAF Museum, Hendon, London). It is currently stored dismantled at the RAF Museum storage facility in Stafford. A second flyable Vimy replica, NX71MY, was built in 1994 by an Australian-American team led by Lang Kidby and Peter McMillan, and this aircraft successfully recreated the three great pioneering Vimy flights: England to Australia flown by Lang Kidby and Peter McMillan (in 1994), England to South Africa flown by Mark Rebholz and John LaNoue (1999) and in 2005, Alcock and Brown's 1919 Atlantic crossing was recreated, flown by Steve Fossett and Mark Rebholz. The aircraft was donated to Brooklands Museum in 2006 and was kept airworthy in order to commemorate the 90th anniversaries of the Transatlantic and Australian flights until retired in late 2009. Its final flight was made by John Dodd, Clive Edwards and Peter McMillan from Dunsfold to Brooklands on 15 November 2009 and four days later, in just 18 hours, the aircraft was dismantled, transported the short distance to the Museum and reassembled inside the main hangar by a dedicated volunteer team. Two days later a special Brooklands Vimy Exhibition was officially opened by Peter McMillan, and this unique aircraft is now on public display there." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction.", "Incidents.", "Fire.", "Death of Chloe Wiegand.", "Facilities.", "Service history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Freedom of the Seas\" was built at the Aker Yards Turku Shipyard, Finland, which built the ships of the \"Voyager\" class as well as the other ships of the \"Freedom\" class. Upon her completion in 2006, she became the largest passenger ship ever built, taking that honor from, an ocean liner. \"Freedom of the Seas\" is narrower than \"QM2\" at the waterline, shorter, has less draft, is less tall and slower. \"Freedom\" however is the larger ship in terms of gross tonnage. Its gross tonnage as verified by Det Norske Veritas, a Norwegian marine classification society, was, compared with \"QM2's\". \"Freedom of the Seas\" had the highest gross tonnage of any passenger ship yet built until the 2007 completion of \"Liberty of the Seas\". The ship has four bow thrusters. When at sea \"Freedom of the Seas\" consumes approximately 12,800 kg (28,000 pounds) of fuel per hour.", "", "On July 22, 2015, a fire started in a mechanical area of the ship around 9:15 AM when the ship was en route from Cape Canaveral, Florida to Falmouth, Jamaica. All passengers were sent to their muster stations, and one crew member sustained first degree burns. The fire was quickly extinguished, and the ship was able to continue on its planned itinerary.", "On July 7, 2019, 18-month-old Chloe Wiegand died after falling through an open window on the 11th deck while the ship was docked in San Juan, Puerto Rico. Her 51-year-old grandfather, Salvatore Anello, had placed her on a railing and lost his grip while holding her. Anello claimed that he was colorblind and didn't notice that the window was open, but the cruise line released security camera footage that they claim shows Anello leaning out the window shortly before lifting the toddler up to it. On December 11, 2019, Chloe's parents sued Royal Caribbean Cruises Ltd. over the death of their daughter, alleging that the company was negligent for not properly securing the windows. Anello pled guilty to a charge of negligent homicide on February 25, and will be placed on probation.", "The ship has an interior promenade long called the \"Royal Promenade\". The ship has three swimming areas: an interactive water park, a dedicated adult pool, and the main pool. The 13th deck has a sports area with a rock climbing wall, the FlowRider surf simulator, a miniature golf course and a full size basketball court. Other items include an ice skating rink, a casino and a three-deck-high broadway-style theater. Many of the ship's interiors were extensively decorated by muralist Clarissa Parish.", "The ship docked at Blohm und Voss in Hamburg, Germany on 17 April 2006 to repair a damaged bearing in one of the three Azipod propulsion units and some minor modifications prior to her official handover to Royal Caribbean International on 24 April 2006. She then visited Oslo, Norway before sailing for Southampton, England. The ship sailed on its first transatlantic crossing on 3 May 2006. \"Freedom of the Seas\" arrived in New York Harbor USA for her official naming ceremony on 12 May 2006 which was broadcast live on NBC's \"The Today Show\" from Cape Liberty Cruise Port in Bayonne, New Jersey (the ship's official New York berth), and thereafter traveled to Boston for the weekend of May 19–22. The ship's godmother was selected as Katherine Louise Calder, a Portland, Oregon foster care provider. She began operations out of Miami with her first cruise and maiden voyage on 4 June, sailing to western Caribbean locations. On 4 May 2009, \"Freedom of the Seas\" moved her home port from the Port of Miami-Dade to Port Canaveral. The ship underwent her first dry dock refurbishment in late March 2011. In January 2015, the ship underwent another 24-day dry dock. During the dry dock some new interior passenger cabins were added. In winter 2016, \"Freedom of the Seas\" repositioned to Port Everglades, from where she undertook cruises in the Caribbean. After homeporting in Barcelona in the spring and summer of 2017, \"Freedom of the Seas\" returned to Port Everglades. In May 2018, she commenced sailing Southern Caribbean sailings out of San Juan, Puerto Rico until April 2021. \"Freedom of the Seas\" is scheduled to undergo a $116 million dry dock early in 2020." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Biological filtration and the nitrogen cycle.", "Mechanical and chemical filtration.", "Materials suitable for aquarium filtration.", "Types.", "Power filters.", "Canister filters.", "Diatom filters.", "Trickle filters.", "Algae filters.", "Baffle filters.", "Fluidized bed filter.", "Internal filters.", "Airlift filters.", "Undergravel filters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Animals, typically fish, kept in fish tanks produce waste from excrement and respiration. Another source of waste is uneaten food or plants and fish which have died. These waste products collect in the tanks and contaminate the water. As the degree of contamination rises, the risk to the health of the aquaria increases and removal of the contamination becomes critical. Filtration is a common method used for maintenance of healthy aquaria.", "Proper management of the nitrogen cycle is a vital element of a successful aquarium. Excretia and other decomposing organic matter produce ammonia which is highly toxic to fish. Bacterial processes oxidize this ammonia into the slightly less toxic nitrites, and these are in turn oxidized to form the much less toxic nitrates. In the natural environment these nitrates are subsequently taken up by plants as fertilizer and this does indeed happen to some extent in an aquarium planted with real plants. An aquarium is, however, an imperfect microcosm of the natural world. Aquariums are usually much more densely stocked with fish than the natural environment. This increases the amount of ammonia produced in the relatively small volume of the aquarium. The bacteria responsible for breaking down the ammonia by converting it to nitrite, \"Nitrosomonas\", colonize the surface of any objects inside the aquarium. The bacteria that then convert nitrite to nitrate are \"Nitrospira\" and \"Nitrobacter\". In most cases, a biological filter is nothing more than a chemically inert porous sponge, which provides a greatly enlarged surface area on which these bacteria can develop. These bacterial colonies take several weeks to form, during which time the aquarium is vulnerable to a condition commonly known as \"new tank syndrome\" if stocked with fish too quickly. Some systems incorporate bacteria capable of converting nitrates into nitrogen gas. Accumulation of toxic ammonia from decomposing wastes is the largest cause of fish mortality in new, poorly maintained, or overloaded aquariums. In the artificial environment of the aquarium, the nitrogen cycle effectively ends with the production of nitrates. In order that the nitrate level does not build up to a harmful level regular partial water changes are required to remove the nitrates and introduce new, uncontaminated water.", "The process of mechanical filtration removes particulate material from the water column. This particulate matter may include uneaten food, feces or plant or algal debris. Mechanical filtration is typically achieved by passing water through materials which act as a sieve, physically trapping the particulate matter. Removal of solid waste can be as simple as physical hand netting of debris, and/or involve highly complex equipment. All removal of solid wastes involve filtering water through some form of mesh in a process known as mechanical filtration. The solid wastes are first collected, and then must be physically removed from the aquarium system. Mechanical filtration is ultimately ineffective if the solid wastes are not removed from the filter, and are allowed to decay and dissolve in the water. Dissolved wastes are more difficult to remove from the water. Several techniques, collectively known as chemical filtration, are used for the removal of dissolved wastes, the most popular being the use of activated carbon and foam fractionation. To a certain extent, healthy plants extract dissolved chemical wastes from water when they grow, so plants can serve a role in the containment of dissolved wastes. A final and less common situation requiring filtration involves the desire to sterilize water-borne pathogens. This sterilization is accomplished by passing aquarium water through filtration devices which expose the water to high intensity ultraviolet light and/or exposing the water to dissolved ozone gas.", "Numerous materials are suitable as aquarium filtration media. These include synthetic wools, known in the aquarium hobby as filter wool, made of polyethylene terephthalate or nylon. Synthetic sponges or foams, various ceramic and sintered glass and silicon products along with igneous gravels are also used as mechanical filter materials. Materials with a greater surface area provide both mechanical and biological filtration. Some filter materials, such as plastic \"bioballs\", are best used for biological filtration. With the notable exception of diatom filters, aquarium filters are rarely purely mechanical in action, as bacteria will colonise most filter materials effecting some degree of biological filtration. Activated carbon and zeolites are also frequently added to aquarium filters. These highly porous materials act as adsorbates binding various chemicals to their large external surfaces and also as sites of bacterial colonisation. The simplest type of aquarium filter consists only of filter wool and activated carbon. The filter wool traps large debris and particles, and the activated carbon adsorbs smaller impurities. These should be changed regularly at suitable intervals. This is particularly important in the case of activated carbon filters, which may re-release their adsorbed contents in large (and therefore harmful) doses if they are allowed to saturate. Activated carbon adsorbs toxins on the extended porous surface of the carbon. It cannot be reactivated by boiling in water. The adsorption of activated carbon can be restored by thermal regeneration at temperatures of 500–900 °C (932–1,652 °F), electrochemical regeneration, ultrasound, or other industrial processes. For the aquarist, replacing the activated carbon with fresh material is simple and inexpensive.", "Numerous types of aquarium filters are commercially available, including:", "Power or HOB (hang on back) filters, which are impeller powered, remove water from the aquarium, usually with a long siphoning tube, which is then pushed (or pulled) through a series of different filter media and returned to the aquarium. These are the most common type of aquarium filter. They are usually more effective and easier to maintain than internal filters. Advantages of this type of filter are that they allow for a selection of different types of filter media depending on the tank needs, and that they are easy to clean without disturbing the inhabitants of the tank because they sit on the outside of the fish tank. Disadvantages of power filters include their smaller capacity for filter media compared to canister filters, and that they tend to be very noisy, usually resulting from vibrations.", "Compared to filters that hang on the back of the aquarium, canister-style external filters offer a greater quantity of filter materials to be used along with a greater degree of flexibility with respect to filter material choice. Water enters the canister filled with the chosen filter material through an intake pipe at the bottom of the canister, passes through the material, and is fed back to the aquarium through the return pipe. Water is forced to circulate through the filter by a pump typically installed at the top of the canister. It is important to note that canister filters are sealed, fully flooded systems, meaning that the aquarium, intake pipe, filter interior and the return pipe form a continuous body of water. In this configuration both the intake and return path form two siphons, which precisely counterbalance each other. Under these circumstances, the filter pump does not have to spend any effort to lift the water back to the aquarium, regardless of how high the latter is installed above the canister. The pump should only be powerful enough to push the water through the filtering material as well as overcome the drag in the intake and return pipes. This makes canister filter pumps virtually insensitive to the height difference between the aquarium and the filter (although exceeding the manufacturer-specified height limit can lead to leaks). Benefits of this type of filter are that they can provide a high volume of filter material without reducing the internal space in the aquarium, and that they can be disconnected from the tank for cleaning/maintenance and replaced without disturbing the aquarium interior or occupants. Also, as a filter with external plumbing, it supports in-line installation of other aquarium equipment, such as water heaters and carbon dioxide diffusers. Such equipment can be removed from the tank and installed in-line into the return pipe of the filter. Disadvantages of canister filters include the increased cost and complexity relative to internal filters and difficulties in cleaning the tubes which transfer water to and from the aquarium. There is also the risk of a leak, which naturally is an issue for any filter placed outside of the aquarium. Canister filters were initially designed to filter drinking water, under low pressure. Canister filters for aquariums use high water pressure, from a properly powered pump, to force water through the dense filter media. A pump can draw water from an under-gravel filter, and run it into a canister for double filtration.", "Diatom filters are used only for sporadic cleaning of tanks, they are not continuously operated on aquariums. These filters utilise diatomaceous earth to create an extremely fine filter down to 1 μm which removes particulate matter from the water column.", "Trickle filters, also known as wet/dry filters are another water filtration systems for marine and freshwater aquariums. This filter comes in two configurations, one which is placed on top of the aquarium (more rarely seen) and one which is placed below the aquarium (more common). If the wet/dry filter is placed on top of the aquarium, water is pumped over a number of perforated trays containing filter wool or some other filter material. The water trickles through the trays, keeping the filter wool wet but not completely submerged, allowing aerobic bacteria to grow and aiding biological filtration. The water returns to the aquarium like rain. Alternatively, the wet/dry filter may be placed below the tank. In this design, water is fed by gravity to the filter below the aquarium. Prefiltered water is delivered to a perforated plate (drip plate). Prefiltering may take place in the aquarium via a foam block or sleeve in the overflow, or weir siphon, or it may be prefiltered by filter wool resting on the perforated plate. The waste laden water from the aquarium spreads over the drip plate, and rains down through a medium. This may be a filter wool/plastic grid rolled into a circular shape (DLS or \"Double Layer Spiral\") or any number of plastic media commonly known as Bio Balls. As the water cascades over the media, CO is given off, oxygen is picked up, and bacteria convert the waste from the tank into less harmful materials. From here the water enters the sump. The sump may contain a number of compartments, each with its own filtration material. Often, heaters and thermostats are placed in the sump.", "Algae may be grown purposely, which removes chemicals from the water which need to be removed in order to have healthy fish, invertebrates and corals. This is a natural (\"green\") filtering method, which lets an aquarium operate the way oceans and lakes operate. Algae and disease-causing organisms can also be removed by treating the water with ultraviolet irradiation, but the drawback of UV is that it will kill beneficial bacteria as well. Therefore, UV treatment is typically used only when needed, and not all the time.", "Baffle filters are similar to wet and dry, trickle filters in that they are generally situated below the aquarium. This type of filter consists of a series of baffles that the water must pass through in order to reach the pump which is returning water to the aquarium. These baffles then act much like a series of canister filters and can be filled with different filter media for different purposes.", "The fluidized bed filter (FBF) is a biological reactor only. The principle is to direct water through a sand (or similar media) bed from below so that the sand becomes fluidized – behaves like a fluid. This mechanism is seen in liquefaction, quick sand, and industrial processes including municipal sewage treatment. The combined surface of all sand particles in the filter is very large, and so there is a large surface for aerobic denitrification bacteria. Therefore, the size of the filter can be modest. The filter itself can be internal or external. In its simplest DIY internal version an FBF is very easy to build, with a container, sand, pump, and some plumbing. There are many variables: shape and size of the container, quantity of sand or equivalent, particle sizes, the pump's power, and plumbing.", "Internal filters are, by definition, filters within the confines of the aquarium. These include the sponge filter, variations on the corner filter (pictured top right and left), foam cartridge filter and the undergravel filter. An internal filter may have an electric pump and thus be an internal power filter, often attached to the inside of aquaria via suction cups.", "Sponge filters and corner filters (sometimes called box filters) work by essentially the same mechanism as an internal filter. Both generally work by airlift, using bubbles from an air pump rising in a tube to create flow. In a sponge filter, the inlet may only be covered by a simple open-cell block of foam. A corner filter is slightly more complex. These filters are often placed in the corner on the bottom of the aquarium. Water enters slits in the box, passes through a layer of medium, then exits through the airlift tube to return to the aquarium. These filters tend to only be suitable for small and lightly stocked aquaria. The sponge filter is especially useful for rearing fry where the sponge prevents the small fish from entering the filter.", "One of the oldest types of filters, the undergravel filters consist of a porous plate which is placed beneath the gravel on the base of the aquarium and one, or more, uplift tubes. Historically, undergravel filters have been driven via air displacement. Air stones are placed at the base of uplift tubes which force water out of the uplift tube creating negative pressure beneath the undergravel filter plate (also called the plenum). Water then percolates down through the gravel which itself is the filtration material. Greater flow rate of water through the gravel can be achieved via the use of water pump rather than air displacement. Beneficial bacteria colonize the gravel bed and provide biological filtration, using the substrate of the aquarium itself as a biological filter. Undergravel filters can be detrimental to the health of aquatic plants. Fine substrates such as sand or peat may clog an undergravel filter. Undergravel filters are not effective if the substrate bed is uneven. In an uneven gravel bed, water will flow only through the thin portions of the bed, leaving the more heavily covered areas to become anoxic." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins of fishkeeping.", "Types of fishkeeping systems.", "Freshwater.", "Saltwater.", "Brackish water.", "Aquarium maintenance.", "Water conditions.", "Nitrogen cycle.", "The process.", "Maintaining the nitrogen cycle.", "Tank capacity.", "Tank size.", "Other factors.", "Fishkeeping industry.", "Aquatic suppliers.", "Animal welfare.", "Fish breeding.", "Conservation.", "Collecting.", "Cyanide.", "Captive breeding and aquaculture.", "Invasive species.", "Humane treatment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Fish have been raised as food in pools and ponds for thousands of years. Brightly colored or tame specimens of fish in these pools have sometimes been valued as pets rather than food. Many cultures, ancient and modern, have kept fish for both functional and decorative purposes. Ancient Sumerians kept wild-caught fish in ponds, before preparing them for meals. Depictions of the sacred fish of Oxyrhynchus kept in captivity in rectangular temple pools have been found in ancient Egyptian art. Similarly, Asia has experienced a long history of stocking rice paddies with freshwater fish suitable for eating, including various types of catfish and cyprinid. Selective breeding of carp into today's popular and completely domesticated koi and goldfish began over 2,000 years ago in Japan and China, respectively. The Chinese brought goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty to enjoy them in large ceramic vessels. In Medieval Europe, carp pools were a standard feature of estates and monasteries, providing an alternative to meat on feast days when meat could not be eaten for religious reasons. Marine fish have been similarly valued for centuries. Wealthy Romans kept lampreys and other fish in salt water pools. Tertullian reports that Asinius Celer paid 8000 sesterces for a particularly fine mullet. Cicero reports that the advocate Quintus Hortensius wept when a favored specimen died. Rather cynically, he referred to these ancient fishkeepers as the Piscinarii, the \"fish-pond owners\" or \"fish breeders\", for example when saying that \"...the rich (I mean your friends the fish-breeders) did not disguise their jealousy of me\". The first person to breed a tropical fish in Europe was Pierre Carbonnier, who founded one of the oldest public aquaria in Paris in 1850, and bred the first imported Macropods (Paradise fish) in 1869, and later more species. A pioneer of tropical fish breeding, Carbonnier was awarded the Gold Medal of the Imperial French Acclimatization Society in 1875 for research and breeding of exotic freshwater aquarium fish, and for his success in introducing exotic fish species to France.", "Fishkeepers are often known as \"aquarists\" since many of them are not solely interested in keeping fish. The hobby can be broadly divided into three specific disciplines, depending on the type of water the fish originate from: freshwater, brackish, and marine (also called saltwater) fishkeeping.", "Freshwater fishkeeping is by far the most popular branch of the hobby, with even small pet stores often selling a variety of freshwater fish, such as goldfish, guppies, and angelfish. While most freshwater aquaria are community tanks containing a variety of compatible species, single-species breeding aquaria are also popular. Livebearing fish such as mollies and guppies are among those most easily raised in captivity, but aquarists also regularly breed many types of cichlid, catfish, characins, cyprinids, and killifish. Many fishkeepers create freshwater aquascapes where the focus is on aquatic plants as well as fish. These aquaria include \"Dutch Aquaria\" that mass contrasting stem plants, named for European aquarists who first designed them. In recent years, one of the most active advocates of the heavily planted aquarium was the Japanese aquarist Takashi Amano. Garden ponds are in some ways similar to freshwater aquaria, but are usually much larger and exposed to ambient weather. In the tropics, tropical fish can be kept in garden ponds. In the temperate zone, species such as goldfish, koi, and orfe work better.", "Marine aquaria have more specific needs and requirements to maintain, and the livestock is generally more expensive. As a result, this branch tends to attract more experienced fishkeepers. Marine aquaria can be exceedingly beautiful, due to the attractive colors and shapes of the corals and the coral reef fish they host. Temperate zone marine fish are not as commonly kept in home aquaria, primarily because they do not thrive at room temperature. Coldwater aquaria must provide cooler temperature via a cool room (such as an unheated basement) or using a refrigeration device known as a 'chiller'. Marine aquarists often attempt to recreate a coral reef in their aquaria using large quantities of living rock, porous calcareous rocks encrusted with coralline algae, sponges, worms, and other small marine organisms. Larger corals, as well as shrimps, crabs, echinoderms, and mollusks are added later on, once the aquarium has matured, as well as a variety of small fish. Such aquaria are sometimes called reef tanks.", "Brackish water aquaria combine elements of the other types, with salinity that must stay between that of freshwater and seawater. Brackish water fish come from habitats with varying salinity, such as mangroves and estuaries, and do not thrive if kept permanently in freshwater. Although brackish water aquaria are not necessarily familiar to inexperienced aquarists, many species prefer brackish water, including some mollies, many gobies, some pufferfish, monos, and scats.", "Ideal aquarium ecology reproduces the balance found in nature in the closed system of an aquarium. In practice, it is virtually impossible to maintain a perfect balance. As an example, a balanced predator-prey relationship is nearly impossible to maintain in even the largest aquaria. Typically, an aquarium keeper must actively maintain balance in the small ecosystems that aquaria provide. Balance is facilitated by larger volumes of water which dilute the effects of a systemic shock. For example, the death of the only fish in a tank causes dramatic changes in the system, while the death of that same fish in a tank that holds many fish may create only a minor imbalance. For this reason, hobbyists often favor larger tanks whenever possible, as they require less intensive attention. This same concept extends to the filtration system as well, external (outside of the tank) systems in particular. Generally speaking, the larger the filtration system depending on its configuration, the more capable it will be of properly maintaining an aquatic environment. External filtration systems provide the added benefit of increasing the overall volume of water and its dilution effect. For example, a aquarium with an external filter that holds creates a aquatic system, and increase of over twenty percent. A variety of nutrient cycles is important in the aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters at the surface water-air interface through agitation or what would be observed as waves in a natural environment, and Carbon dioxide escapes into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients enter the system as food and exit as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with a balanced food supply and consideration of biological loading, is usually enough to keep these nutrient cycles in adequate equilibrium.", "The solute content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as total dissolved solids and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms interact with their environment. Salt content, or salinity, is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have freshwater (salinity below 0.5 PPT), simulating a lake or river environment; brackish water (a salt level of 0.5 to 30 PPT), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as estuaries; and salt water or seawater (a salt level of 30 to 40 PPT), simulating an ocean or sea environment. Even higher salt concentrations are maintained in specialized tanks for raising brine organisms. Several other water characteristics result from dissolved materials in the water and are important to the proper simulation of natural environments. Saltwater is typically alkaline, while the pH of fresh water varies. \"Hardness\" measures overall dissolved mineral content; hard or soft water may be preferred. Hard water is usually alkaline, while soft water is usually neutral to acidic. Dissolved organic content and dissolved gases content are also important factors. Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local water supply network. Because of the chlorine used to disinfect drinking water supplies for human consumption, tap water cannot be immediately used. In the past, it was possible to \"condition\" the water by simply letting the water stand for a day or two, which allows the chlorine to dissipate. However, monochloramine became popular in water treatment because it stays longer in the water. Additives are available to remove chlorine or chloramine and suffice to make the water ready. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals. More sophisticated aquarists may modify the water's alkalinity, hardness, or dissolved content of organics and gases. This can be accomplished by additives such as sodium bicarbonate to raise pH. Some aquarists filter or purify their water using one of two processes: deionization or reverse osmosis. In contrast, public aquaria with large water needs often locate themselves near a natural water source (such as a river, lake, or ocean) in order to have easy access to water that requires only minimal treatment. Water temperature forms the basis of one of the two most basic aquarium classifications: tropical vs. cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited range of water temperatures: Tropical or warm water aquaria maintain an average temperature of about are much more common, and tropical fish are among the most popular aquarium denizens. Cold water aquaria maintain temperatures below the room temperature. More important than the range is temperature consistency; most organisms are not accustomed to sudden changes in temperatures, which can cause shock and lead to disease. Water temperature can be regulated with a combined thermometer and heating or cooling unit. Water movement can also be important in accurately simulating a natural ecosystem. Fish may prefer anything from nearly still water up to swift, simulated currents. Water movement can be controlled through the use of aeration from air pumps, powerhead pumps, and careful design of water flow (such as the location of filtration system points of inflow and outflow).", "Fish are animals and generate waste as they metabolize food, which aquarists must manage. Fish, invertebrates, fungi, and some bacteria excrete nitrogen in the form of ammonia (which converts to ammonium in acidic water) and must then pass through the nitrogen cycle. Ammonia is also produced through the decomposition of plant and animal matter, including fecal matter and other detritus. Nitrogen waste products become toxic to fish and other aquarium inhabitants above a certain concentration.", "A well-balanced tank contains organisms that metabolize the waste products of other inhabitants. Nitrogen waste is metabolized in aquaria by a type of bacteria known as nitrifiers (genus \"Nitrosomonas\"). Nitrifying bacteria metabolize ammonia into nitrite. Nitrite is also highly toxic to fish in low concentrations. Another type of bacteria, genus \"Nitrospira\", on–converts nitrite into less–toxic nitrate. (\"Nitrobacter\" bacteria were previously believed to fill this role, and appear in \"jump start\" kits. While biologically they could theoretically fill the same niche as Nitrospira, it has recently been found that \"Nitrobacter\" are not present in detectable levels in established aquaria, while \"Nitrospira\" is plentiful.) This process is known in the aquarium hobby as the nitrogen cycle. In a planted aquarium, aquatic plants also metabolize ammonium and nitrate as nutrients, removing them from the water column primarily through leaf surfaces. Plants remove some nutrients through their roots, either in or at the substrate level or via aerial roots floating in the water. Additional nitrogen and other nutrients are also made available for root uptake by decomposing organic matter in the substrate as well as the breakdown of mulm. While very small amounts of rotting foliage may be allowed to decompose and cycle nitrogen back into a planted aquarium, in practice aquarists will prune and remove substantial amounts of plant litter.", "Although called the nitrogen \"cycle\" by hobbyists, in aquaria the cycle is not complete: nitrogen must be added (usually indirectly through food) and nitrates must be removed at the end. Nitrogen bound up in plant matter is removed when the plant grows too large. Hobbyist aquaria typically do not have the requisite bacteria needed to detoxify nitrogen waste. This problem is most often addressed through filtration. Activated carbon filters absorb nitrogen compounds and other toxins from the water. Biological filters provide a medium specially designed for colonization by the desired nitrifying bacteria. Activated carbon and other substances, such as ammonia absorbing resins, stop working when their pores fill, so these components have to be replaced with fresh stocks periodically. New aquaria often have problems associated with the nitrogen cycle due to insufficient beneficial bacteria, which is known as \"New Tank Syndrome\". Therefore, new tanks have to mature before stocking them with fish. There are three basic approaches to this: the \"fishless cycle\", the \"silent cycle\", and \"slow growth\". Adding too many fish too quickly or failing to allow enough time for the bacteria colony to establish itself in the filter media can lead to ammonia stress. This is not always fatal but can result in the death of aquarium fish. A few days after adding hardy fish for the cycling process, it is essential to look out for the key signs of ammonia stress. These include a lack of movement and appetite, inflammation and redness of the gills, fins, and body, and occasionally gasping for air at the water's surface. The latter can also be attributed to poor aeration, which can be negated by the inclusion of an air pump or spray bar in the setup. The largest bacterial populations inhabit the filter; efficient filtration is vital. Sometimes, simply cleaning the filter is enough to seriously disturb the aquarium's balance. Best practice is to flush mechanical filters using compatible water to dislodge organic materials while preserving bacteria populations. Another safe practice involves cleaning only one-half of the filter media every time the filter or filters are serviced to allow the remaining bacteria to repopulate the cleaned half.", "Biological loading is a measure of the burden placed on the aquarium ecosystem by its living inhabitants. Higher biological loading represents a more complicated ecology, which makes equilibrium easier to imbalance. The surface area of water exposed to air limits dissolved oxygen. The population of nitrifying bacteria is limited by the available physical space which includes all surfaces in the aquarium such as the inner facing sides and the surface of rock substrate and any objects such as large rocks or pieces of wood.", "Fish capacity is a function of aquarium size. Limiting factors include the availability of oxygen in the water and the rate at which the filter can process waste. Aquarists apply rules of thumb estimating appropriate population size; the examples below are for small freshwater fish. Larger freshwater fish and most marine fishes need much more generous allowances. Some aquarists claim that increasing water depth beyond some relatively shallow minimum does not affect capacity. Experienced aquarists warn against mechanically applying these rules because they do not consider other important issues such as growth rate, activity level, social behavior, and such. Once the tank nears capacity, the best practice is to add the remaining fish over a period of time while monitoring water quality. The capacity can be improved by surface movement and water circulation such as through aeration, which not only improves oxygen exchange but also the decomposition of waste materials. Capacity can also be increased with the addition of external filtration which increases the total volume of water in the aquatic system.", "Other variables affect tank capacity. Smaller fish consume more oxygen per unit of body weight than larger fish. Labyrinth fish can breathe atmospheric oxygen and need less surface area (however, some are territorial, and do not tolerate crowding). Barbs require more surface area than tetras of comparable size. The presence of waste materials presents itself as a variable as well. Decomposition consumes oxygen, reducing the amount available for fish. Oxygen dissolves less readily in warmer water, while warmer water temperature increase fish activity levels, which in turn consume more oxygen.", "Worldwide, the fishkeeping hobby is a multibillion-dollar industry. The United States is the largest market, followed by Europe and Japan. In 1993 the United States Census Bureau found that 10.6% of U.S. households owned ornamental freshwater or saltwater fish, with an average of 8.8 fish per household. In 2002, census data indicated that aquarium products and fishing accounted for US$684 million.", "From 1989 to 1992, almost 79% of all U.S. ornamental fish imports came from Southeast Asia and Japan. Singapore, Thailand, the Philippines, Hong Kong, and Indonesia were the top five exporting nations. South America was the second largest exporting region, accounting for 14% of the total annual value. Colombia, Brazil, and Peru were the major suppliers. Approximately 200 million fish worth $44.7 million were imported into the United States in 1992. These fish comprised 1,539 different species; 730 freshwater species, and 809 saltwater species. Freshwater fish accounted for approximately 96% of the total volume and 80% of the total import value. Only 32 species had import values over $10,000. The top species were freshwater and accounted for 58% of the total imported value. The top imported species are the guppy, neon tetra, platy, betta, Chinese algae eater, and goldfish. Given 91.9 million total US households in 1990, 9.7 million are fishkeepers. 8.8 fish per household implies a total aquarium fish population of approximately 85.7 million, suggesting that the US aquarium fish population turns over more than 2.3 times per year, counting only imported fish. Historically, fish and plants for the first modern aquaria were gathered from the wild and transported (usually by ship) to Europea and America. During the early 20th century many species of small colorful tropical fish were exported from Manaus, Brazil; Bangkok, Thailand; Jakarta, Indonesia; the Netherlands Antilles; Kolkata, India; and other tropical countries. Import of wild fish, plants, and invertebrates for aquaria continues today around the world. Many species have not been successfully bred in captivity. In many developing countries, locals survive by collecting specimens for the aquarium trade and continue to introduce new species to the market.", "Fish are sometimes maintained in inadequate conditions by inexperienced aquarists who often keep too many fish in one tank, or add fish too quickly into an immature aquarium, killing many of them. This has given the hobby a bad reputation among some animal welfare groups, such as PETA, who accuse aquarists of treating aquarium fish as cheap toys to be replaced when they die. Goldfish and bettas, in particular, have often been kept in small bowls or aquaria that are too small for their needs. In some cases, fish have been installed in all sorts of inappropriate objects such as the \"AquaBabies Micro Aquaria\", \"Bubble Gear Bubble Bag\", and \"Betta in a Vase\", all of which house live fish in unfiltered and insufficient water. The latter is sometimes marketed as a complete ecosystem because a plant is included in the neck of the vase. Some sellers claim the fish eat the plant roots. However, bettas are carnivorous and need live food or pellet foods. They cannot survive on plant roots. Another problem is that the plant sometimes blocks the betta's passage to the water surface. They are labyrinth fish and need to breathe at the surface to avoid suffocation. Such products are aimed at people looking for a novelty gift. Aquarists actively condemn them. Similarly, the awarding of goldfish as prizes at funfairs is traditional in many parts of the world but has been criticized by aquarists and activists as cruel and irresponsible. The United Kingdom outlawed live-animal prizes such as goldfish in 2004. The use of live prey to feed carnivorous fish such as piranhas also draws criticism. Modifying fish to make them more attractive as pets is increasingly controversial. Historically, artificially dyeing fish was common. Glassfish, in particular, were often injected with fluorescent dyes. The British fishkeeping magazine, Practical Fishkeeping, has campaigned to remove these fish from the market by educating retailers and aquarists to the cruelty and health risks involved. In 2006, Practical Fishkeeping published an article exposing the techniques for performing cosmetic surgery on aquarium fish, without anesthesia, as described by Singaporean fishkeeping magazine \"Fish Love Magazine\". The tail is cut off and dye is injected into the body. The piece also included the first documented evidence to demonstrate that parrot cichlids are injected with coloured dye. Hong Kong suppliers were offering a service in which fish could be tattooed with company logos or messages using a dye laser; such fishes have been sold in the UK under the name of Kaleidoscope gourami and Striped parrot cichlid. Some people give their fish body piercings. Hybrid fish such as flowerhorn cichlids and blood parrot cichlids are controversial. Blood parrot cichlids in particular have a very unnatural shape that prevents them from swimming properly and makes it difficult for them to engage in normal feeding and social behaviors. The biggest concern with hybrids is that they may be bred with native species, making it difficult for hobbyists to identify and breed particular species. This is especially important to hobbyists who shelter species that are rare or extinct in the wild. Extreme mutations have been selected for by some breeders; some fancy goldfish varieties in particular have features that prevent the fish from swimming, seeing, or feeding properly. Genetically modified fish such as the GloFish are likely to become increasingly available, particularly in the United States and Asia. Although GloFish are unharmed by their genetic modifications, they remain illegal in many places, including the European Union, though at least some have been smuggled into the EU, most likely from Taiwan, via the Czech Republic.", "Fish breeding is a challenge that attracts many aquarists. While some species reproduce freely in community tanks, most require special conditions, known as spawning triggers before they will breed. The majority of fish lay eggs, known as spawning, and the juvenile fish that emerge are very small and need tiny live food or substitutes to survive. A fair number of popular aquarium fish are livebearers which produce a small number of relatively large offspring. These usually take ground flake food straight away.", "The two main sources of fish for aquaria are from capture in the wild or captive breeding. United Nations studies show that more than 90% of freshwater aquarium fish are captive–bred, while virtually all marine fish and invertebrates are wild-caught. The few marine species bred in captivity supplement but rarely replace the trade in wild-caught specimens. Wild-caught animals provide valuable income for people in regions lacking other high-value exports. Marine fish are typically less resilient during transport than freshwater fish with relatively large numbers of them dying before they reach the aquarist. Although the aquarium trade is viewed as a minor threat to coral reefs compared to habitat destruction, fishing for food, and climate change, it is a booming trade and may be a serious problem in specific locations such as the Philippines and Indonesia where most collecting is done. Catching fish in the wild can reduce their population sizes, placing them in danger of extinction in collecting areas, as has been observed with the dragonet \"Synchiropus splendidus\". Many aquarium hobbyist organizations such as the CARES (Conservation, Awareness, Recognition, Encouragement, and Support) preservation program encourages serious hobbyists to keep the most endangered, and in some cases, already extinct freshwater fish to ensure their continued survival. The importance of such programs for fish conservation is that some of the species they focus on have little to no commercial value in the fish trade and emphasize those that are overlooked by many conservation programs. For example, fish of the family Goodeidae, are largely threatened, with endangered and some species already extinct in the wild, such as the Golden skiffia (\"Skiffia francesae)\"\",\" are largely kept alive due to dedicated aquarium hobbyist associated with CARES. They can also be a valuable resource, since aquarium hobbyists often pay more attention to the conservation status of particular fish groups and possess more detailed descriptions of undescribed species than the scientific community. Out of the nearly 600 species of freshwater fish in the CARES priority list, over 80 species are currently undescribed by the IUCN. CARES also includes over 30 species that they consider already extinct in the wild, even though more than a third of those were classified as not threatened by the IUCN. This vast disconnect of information exemplifies the importance of hobbyist organizations as a valuable resource to help fill in scientific knowledge gaps and fish conservation.", "In theory, reef fish should be a good example of a renewable resource that encourages fishermen to maintain the integrity and diversity of the natural habitat: more and better fish can be exported from pristine habitats than those that have been polluted or over-harvested. However, this has not been the case in similar industries such as fur trapping, logging, or fishing that experience the \"tragedy of the commons\". Fish are caught by net, trap, or cyanide. Collecting expeditions can be lengthy and costly, and are not always successful. Fish can also be injured during collection and/or shipping; mortality rates during shipping are high. Many others are weakened by stress and become diseased. Other problems include the poisoning of coral reefs and non-target species, the depletion of rare species from their natural habitat, and ecosystem degradation from large scale removal of key species. Additionally, destructive fishing techniques concern environmentalists and hobbyists alike. There has been a concerted movement to captive breeding and certification programs for wild-caught fish. Two thirds of American marine aquarists surveyed in 1997 preferred farmed coral and over 80% think that only sustainably caught or farmed fish should be traded. Annually, 30 million fish from over 1,400 species are traded, with approximately 16 million imported into the United States. This trade has an estimated global value of over $800 million in 2002.", "Cyanide is a poison that stuns and immobilizes fish. Fishers put cyanide in the ocean, to ease the process of netting them. It can irreversibly damage or kill the target fish, as well as other fish, mammals, reptiles or invertebrates that are left behind. Some wholesalers advertise that they avoid cyanide-caught animals. In the Philippines, overfishing and cyanide caused a drastic decline in aquarium fish, leading the country away from cyanide and towards netting healthy animals.", "Since the Siamese fighting fish (\"Betta splendens\") was first successfully bred in France in 1893, captive spawning and brooding techniques used in aquaculture have slowly improved. Captive breeding for aquaria is concentrated in southern Florida, Singapore, Hong Kong and Bangkok, with smaller industries in Hawaii and Sri Lanka. Captive breeding of marine organisms has been in development since the mid-1990s. Breeding for freshwater species is more advanced than for saltwater species. Currently, only a few captive-bred marine species are in the trade, including clownfish, damselfish, and dwarf angelfish. Aquaculture can help in lessening the impacts on wild stocks, either by using cultivated organisms for sale or by releasing them to replenish wild stocks. Breeding programs help preserve species that have become rare or extinct in the wild, most notably the Lake Victoria cichlids. Some species have also become important as laboratory animals. Cichlids and poecilids are especially important for studies on learning, mating, and social behavior. Hobbyists also keep and observe many fishes not otherwise studied, and thereby provide valuable ecological and behavioral data. Captive breeding has reduced prices for hobbyists, but cultured animals remain more expensive. Selective breeding has also led to wider intra–species variation, creating more diverse commercial stocks.", "Serious problems can occur when fish originally raised in ponds or aquaria are released into the wild. While tropical fish do not survive in temperate climates, they can thrive in waters that are similar to their native habitat. Non–native species that become established are called exotic species. Freshwater examples include various cichlids in Florida, goldfish in temperate waters, and South American suckermouth catfishes in warm waters around the world. Invasive species can seriously disrupt their new homes by preying on, or competing with, native species. Many marine fish have also been introduced into non-native waters, disrupting the local habitat.", "In January 2011 the Maui County Council passed a measure requiring aquarium fisheries to adopt humane practices for preparing fish for transport to market. The regulations control harvesting and shipping practices, including prohibiting clipping the fins on fish to protect the plastic shipping bags, outlawing puncturing swim bladders that fish use to regulate their buoyancy, which enabled divers to rapidly surface and prohibiting \"starving\" the fish which permitted smaller shipping bags without killing the fish with their own waste. The measure also requires that shippers file mortality reports on the animals they ship." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family history.", "Early career and marriage.", "Education and law practice.", "Marriage and family.", "Local political office (1898−1915).", "City offices.", "Massachusetts state legislator and mayor.", "Lieutenant Governor and Governor of Massachusetts (1916−1921).", "1918 election.", "Boston Police Strike.", "1919 election.", "Legislation and vetoes as governor.", "Vice presidency (1921−1923).", "1920 election.", "\"Silent Cal\".", "Presidency (1923−1929).", "Retirement and death.", "Radio, film, and commemorations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born on July 4, 1872 in Plymouth Notch, Windsor County, Vermont, the only US president to be born on Independence Day. He was the elder of the two children of John Calvin Coolidge Sr. (1845–1926) and Victoria Josephine Moor (1846–1885). Although named for his father, John, from early childhood Coolidge was addressed by his middle name, Calvin. His middle name was selected in honor of John Calvin, considered a founder of the Congregational church in which Coolidge was raised and remained active throughout his life. Coolidge Senior engaged in many occupations and developed a statewide reputation as a prosperous farmer, storekeeper, and public servant. He held various local", "", "Coolidge attended Black River Academy and then St. Johnsbury Academy, before enrolling at Amherst College, where he distinguished himself in the debating class. As a senior, he joined the fraternity Phi Gamma Delta and graduated \"cum laude\". While at Amherst, Coolidge was profoundly influenced by philosophy professor Charles Edward Garman, a Congregational mystic, with a neo-Hegelian philosophy. Coolidge explained Garman's ethics forty years later: [T]here is a standard of righteousness that might does not make right, that the end does not justify the means, and that expediency as a working principle is bound to fail. The only hope of perfecting human relationships is in accordance with the law of service under which men are not so solicitous about what they", "In 1903, Coolidge met Grace Anna Goodhue, a University of Vermont graduate and teacher at Northampton's Clarke School for the Deaf. They married on October 4, 1905 at 2:30 p.m. in a small ceremony which took place in the parlor of Grace's family's house, having overcome his future mother-in-law's objections to the marriage. The newlyweds went on a honeymoon trip to Montreal, originally planned for two weeks but cut short by a week at Coolidge's request. After 25 years he wrote of Grace, \"for almost a quarter of a century she has borne with my infirmities and I have rejoiced in", "", "The Republican Party was dominant in New England at the time, and Coolidge followed the example of Hammond and Field by becoming active in local politics. In 1896, Coolidge campaigned for Republican presidential candidate William McKinley, and the next year he was selected to be a member of the Republican City Committee. In 1898, he won election to the City Council of Northampton, placing second in a ward where the top three candidates were elected. The position offered no salary but provided Coolidge invaluable political experience. In 1899, he declined renomination, running instead for", "In 1906, the local Republican committee nominated Coolidge for election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives. He won a close victory over the incumbent Democrat, and reported to Boston for the 1907 session of the Massachusetts General Court. In his freshman term, Coolidge served on minor committees and, although he usually voted with the party, was known as a Progressive Republican, voting in favor of such measures as women's suffrage and the direct election of Senators. While in Boston, Coolidge became an ally, and then a liegeman, of then US Senator Winthrop Murray Crane who controlled the western faction of the Massachusetts Republican Party; Crane's party rival in", "Coolidge entered the primary election for lieutenant governor and was nominated to run alongside gubernatorial candidate Samuel W. McCall. Coolidge was the leading vote-getter in the Republican primary, and balanced the Republican ticket by adding a western presence to McCall's eastern base of support. McCall and Coolidge won the 1915 election to their respective one-year terms, with Coolidge defeating his opponent by more than 50,000 votes. In Massachusetts, the lieutenant governor does not preside over the state Senate, as is the case in many other states; nevertheless, as lieutenant governor, Coolidge was a deputy governor functioning as administrative inspector and was a member of the governor's council. He was also chairman of the finance committee and the pardons committee. As a full-time elected official, Coolidge discontinued his law practice in 1916, though his family continued to live in Northampton. McCall and Coolidge were both reelected in 1916 and again in 1917. When McCall decided that he would not stand for a fourth term, Coolidge announced his intention to run for governor.", "Coolidge was unopposed for the Republican nomination for Governor of Massachusetts in 1918. He and his running mate, Channing Cox, a Boston lawyer and Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives, ran on the previous administration's record: fiscal conservatism,", "In 1919, in reaction to a plan of the policemen of the Boston Police Department to register with a union, Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis announced that such an act would not be tolerated. In August of that year, the American Federation of Labor issued a charter to the Boston Police Union. Curtis declared the union's leaders were guilty of insubordination and would be relieved of duty, but indicated he would cancel their suspension if the union was dissolved by September 4. The mayor of Boston, Andrew Peters, convinced Curtis to delay his action for a few days, but with no results, and Curtis suspended the union leaders on September 8. The following day, about three-quarters of the policemen in Boston went on strike. Coolidge, tacitly but fully in support of Curtis' position, closely monitored the situation but initially deferred to the local authorities. He anticipated that only a resulting measure of lawlessness could sufficiently prompt the public to understand and appreciate the controlling principle – that a policeman does not strike. That night and the", "Coolidge and Cox were renominated for their respective offices in 1919. By this time Coolidge's supporters (especially Stearns) had publicized his actions in the Police Strike around the state and the nation and some of Coolidge's speeches were", "By the time Coolidge was inaugurated on January 2, 1919, the First World War had ended, and Coolidge pushed the legislature to give a $100 bonus () to Massachusetts veterans. He also signed a bill reducing the work week for women and children from fifty-four hours to forty-eight, saying, \"We must humanize the industry, or the system will break down.\" He signed into law a budget that kept", "", "At the 1920 Republican National Convention, most of the delegates were selected by state party caucuses, not primaries. As such, the field was divided among many local favorites. Coolidge was one such candidate, and while he placed as high as sixth in the voting, the powerful party bosses running the convention, primarily the party's US Senators, never considered him seriously. After ten ballots, the bosses and then the delegates settled on Senator Warren G. Harding of Ohio as their nominee for president. When the time came to select a vice presidential nominee, the bosses also made and announced their decision on whom they wanted – Sen. Irvine Lenroot of Wisconsin – and then prematurely departed after his name was put forth, relying on the rank", "The US vice-presidency did not carry many official duties, but Coolidge was invited by President Harding to attend cabinet meetings, making him the first vice president to do so. He gave a number of unremarkable speeches around the country. As the US vice president, Coolidge and his vivacious wife Grace were invited to quite a few parties, where the legend of \"Silent Cal\" was born. It is from this time that most of the jokes and anecdotes involving Coolidge originate, such as Coolidge being \"silent in five languages\". Although Coolidge was known to be a skilled and effective public speaker, in private he was a man of few words and was commonly referred to as \"Silent Cal\". An apocryphal story has it that a person seated next to him at a dinner, said to him, \"I made a bet today that I could get more than two words out of you.\" He replied, \"You lose.\" However, on April 22, 1923, Coolidge himself said that the \"You lose\" quotation never occurred. The", "On August 2, 1923, President Harding died unexpectedly from a heart attack in San Francisco while on a speaking tour of the western United States. Vice President Coolidge was in Vermont visiting his family home, which had neither electricity nor a telephone, when he received word by messenger of Harding's death. The vice president dressed, said a prayer, and came downstairs to greet the reporters who had assembled. His father, a notary public and justice of the peace, administered the oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a kerosene lamp at 2:47 a.m. on August 3, 1923; and Coolidge then returned to bed as president. Coolidge returned to Washington the next day, and was sworn in again by Justice Adolph A. Hoehling Jr. of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, to forestall any questions about the authority of a state official to administer a federal oath. This second oath-taking remained a secret until it was revealed by Harry M. Daugherty in 1932, and confirmed by Hoehling. When Hoehling confirmed Daugherty's story, he indicated that Daugherty, then serving as United States Attorney General, asked him to administer the oath without fanfare at the Willard Hotel. According to Hoehling, he did not question Daugherty's reason for requesting a second oath-taking but assumed it was to resolve any doubt about whether the first swearing-in was valid. The nation initially did not know what to make of Coolidge, who had maintained a low profile in the Harding administration; many had even expected him to be replaced on the ballot in 1924. Coolidge believed that those of Harding's men under suspicion were entitled to every presumption of innocence, taking a methodical approach to the scandals, principally the Teapot Dome scandal, while others clamored for rapid punishment of those they presumed guilty. Coolidge thought the Senate investigations of the scandals would suffice; this was affirmed by the resulting resignations of those involved. He personally intervened in demanding the resignation of Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty after he refused to cooperate with the congressional probe. He then set about to confirm that no loose ends remained in the administration, arranging for a full briefing on the wrongdoing. Harry A. Slattery reviewed the facts with him, Harlan F. Stone analyzed the legal aspects for him and Senator William E. Borah assessed and presented the political factors. Coolidge addressed Congress when it reconvened on December 6, 1923, giving a speech that supported many of Harding's policies, including Harding's formal budgeting process, the enforcement of immigration restrictions and arbitration of coal strikes ongoing in Pennsylvania. Coolidge's speech was the first presidential speech to be broadcast over the radio. The Washington Naval Treaty was proclaimed just one month into Coolidge's term, and was generally well received in the country. In May 1924, the World War I veterans' World War Adjusted Compensation Act or \"Bonus Bill\" was passed over his veto. Coolidge signed the Immigration Act later that year, which was aimed at restricting southern and eastern European immigration, but appended a signing statement expressing his unhappiness with the bill's specific exclusion of Japanese immigrants. Just before the Republican Convention began, Coolidge signed into law the Revenue Act of 1924, which reduced the top marginal tax rate from 58% to 46%, as well as personal income tax rates across the board, increased the estate tax and bolstered it with a new gift tax. On June 2, 1924, Coolidge signed the act granting citizenship to all Native Americans born in the United States. By that time, two-thirds of the people were already citizens, having gained it through marriage, military service (veterans of World War I were granted citizenship in 1919), or the land allotments that had earlier taken place.", "After his presidency, Coolidge retired to a modest rented house on residential Massasoit Street in Northampton before moving to a more spacious home, \"The Beeches.\" He kept a Hacker runabout boat on the Connecticut River and was often observed on the water by local boating enthusiasts. During this period, he also served as chairman of the Non-Partisan Railroad Commission, an entity created by several banks and corporations to survey the country's long-term transportation needs and make recommendations for improvements. He was an honorary president of the American Foundation for the Blind, a director of New York Life Insurance Company, president of the American Antiquarian Society, and a trustee of Amherst College. Coolidge published his autobiography in 1929 and wrote a", "Despite his reputation as a quiet and even reclusive politician, Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while president. He made himself available to reporters, giving 520 press conferences, meeting with reporters more regularly than any president before or since. Coolidge's second inauguration was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio. On December 6, 1923, his speech to Congress was broadcast on radio, the first presidential radio address. Coolidge signed the Radio Act of 1927, which assigned regulation of radio to the newly created Federal Radio Commission. On August 11, 1924, Theodore W. Case, using the Phonofilm sound-on-film process he developed for Lee DeForest, filmed Coolidge on the White House lawn, making \"Silent Cal\" the first president to appear in a sound film. The title of the DeForest film was \"President Coolidge, Taken on the White House Grounds\". When Charles Lindbergh arrived in Washington on a U.S. Navy ship after his celebrated 1927 trans-Atlantic flight, President Coolidge welcomed him back to the U.S. and presented him with the Congressional Medal of Honor; the event was captured on film." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Rise in government (1880–1908).", "Ohio lawyer and judge.", "Solicitor General.", "Federal judge.", "Philippine years.", "Secretary of War.", "Presidential election of 1908.", "Gaining the nomination.", "General election campaign.", "Presidency (1909–1913).", "Inauguration and appointments.", "Foreign policy.", "Organization and principles.", "Tariffs and reciprocity.", "Latin America.", "East Asia.", "Europe.", "Domestic policies and politics.", "Antitrust.", "Ballinger–Pinchot affair.", "Civil rights.", "Judicial appointments.", "1912 presidential campaign and election.", "Moving apart from Roosevelt.", "Primaries and convention.", "Campaign and defeat.", "Return to Yale (1913–1921).", "Chief Justice (1921–1930).", "Appointment.", "Jurisprudence.", "Commerce Clause.", "Powers of government.", "Individual rights.", "Administration and political influence.", "Declining health and death.", "Legacy and historical view.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "William Howard Taft was born September 15, 1857 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Alphonso Taft and Louise Torrey. The Taft family was not wealthy, living in a modest home in the suburb of Mount Auburn. Alphonso served as a judge, ambassador and in the cabinet, as War Secretary and Attorney General under Ulysses S. Grant. William Taft was not seen as brilliant as a child, but was a hard worker; Taft's demanding parents pushed him and his four brothers toward success, tolerating nothing less. He attended Woodward High School in", "", "After admission to the Ohio bar, Taft devoted himself to his job at the \"Commercial\" full-time. Halstead was willing to take him on permanently at an increased salary if he would give up the law, but Taft declined. In October 1880, Taft was appointed assistant prosecutor for Hamilton County (where Cincinnati is located), and took office the following January. Taft served for a year as assistant prosecutor, trying his share of routine cases. He resigned in January 1882 after President Chester A. Arthur appointed him Collector of Internal Revenue for Ohio's First District, an area centered on Cincinnati. Taft refused to dismiss competent employees who were politically out of favor, and resigned effective in March 1883, writing to Arthur that he wished to begin private practice in Cincinnati. In 1884, Taft campaigned for the Republican candidate for president, Maine Senator James G. Blaine, who lost to New York Governor Grover Cleveland. In 1887, Taft, then aged 29, was appointed to a vacancy on the", "There was a seat vacant on the U.S. Supreme Court in 1889, and Governor Foraker suggested President Harrison appoint Taft to fill it. Taft was 32 and his professional goal was always a seat on the Supreme Court. He actively sought the appointment, writing to Foraker to urge the governor to press his case, while stating to others it was unlikely he would get it. Instead, in 1890, Harrison appointed him Solicitor General of the United States. When Taft arrived in Washington in February 1890, the office had been vacant two months, with the work piling up. He worked to eliminate the backlog, while simultaneously educating himself on federal law", "Taft's federal judgeship was a lifetime appointment, and one from which promotion to the Supreme Court might come. Taft's older half-brother Charles, successful in business, supplemented Taft's government salary, allowing William and Nellie Taft and their family to live in comfort. Taft's duties involved hearing trials in the circuit, which included Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and participating with Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan, the circuit justice, and judges of the Sixth Circuit in hearing appeals. Taft spent these years,", "In January 1900, Taft was called to Washington to meet with McKinley. Taft hoped a Supreme Court appointment was in the works, but instead McKinley wanted to place Taft on the commission to organize a civilian government in the Philippines. The appointment would require Taft's resignation from the bench; the president assured him that if he fulfilled this task, McKinley would appoint him to the next vacancy on the high court. Taft accepted on condition he was made head of the commission, with responsibility for success or failure; McKinley agreed, and Taft sailed for the islands in April", "When Taft took office as Secretary of War in January 1904, he was not called upon to spend much time administering the army, which the president was content to do himself—Roosevelt wanted Taft as a troubleshooter in difficult situations, as a legal adviser, and to be able to give campaign speeches as he sought election in his own right. Taft strongly defended Roosevelt's record in his addresses, and wrote of the president's successful but strenuous efforts to gain election, \"I would not run for president if you guaranteed the office. It is awful to be afraid of one's shadow.\" Between 1905 and 1907, Taft came to terms with the likelihood he", "", "Roosevelt had served almost three and a half years of McKinley's term. On the night of his own election in 1904, Roosevelt publicly declared he would not run for re-election in 1908, a pledge he quickly regretted. But he felt bound by his word. Roosevelt believed Taft was his logical successor, although the War Secretary was initially reluctant to run. Roosevelt used his control of the party machinery to aid his heir apparent. On pain of loss of their jobs, political appointees were required to support Taft or remain silent. A number of Republican politicians, such as Treasury Secretary George Cortelyou, tested the waters for a run but chose to stay out. New York Governor Charles", "Taft's opponent in the general election was Bryan, the Democratic nominee for the third time in four presidential elections. As many of Roosevelt's reforms stemmed from proposals by Bryan, the Democrat argued that he was the true heir to Roosevelt's mantle. Corporate contributions to federal political campaigns had been outlawed by the 1907 Tillman Act, and Bryan proposed that contributions by officers and directors of corporations be similarly banned, or at least disclosed when made. Taft was only willing to see the contributions disclosed after the election, and tried to ensure that officers and directors of corporations litigating with the government were", "", "Taft was sworn in as president on March 4, 1909. Due to a winter storm that coated Washington with ice, Taft was inaugurated within the Senate Chamber rather than outside the Capitol as is customary. The new president stated in his inaugural address that he had been honored to have been \"one of the advisers of my distinguished predecessor\" and to have had a part \"in the reforms he has initiated. I should be untrue to myself, to my promises, and to the declarations of the party platform on which I was elected if I did not make the maintenance and enforcement of those reforms a most important feature of my administration\". He pledged to make those reforms long-lasting, ensuring that honest businessmen did", "", "Taft made it a priority to restructure the State Department, noting, \"it is organized on the basis of the needs of the government in 1800 instead of 1900.\" The Department was for the first time organized into geographical divisions, including desks for the Far East, Latin America and Western Europe. The department's first in-service training program was established, and appointees spent a month in Washington before going to their posts. Taft and Secretary of State Knox had a strong relationship, and the president listened to his counsel on matters foreign and domestic. According to historian Paolo E. Coletta, Knox was", "At the time of Taft's presidency, protectionism through the use of tariffs was a fundamental position of the Republican Party. The Dingley Tariff had been enacted to protect American industry from foreign competition. The 1908 party platform had supported unspecified revisions to the Dingley Act, and Taft interpreted this to mean reductions. Taft called a special session of Congress to convene on March 15, 1909 to deal with the tariff question. Sereno E. Payne, chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, had held hearings in late 1908, and sponsored the resulting draft legislation. On balance, the bill reduced tariffs slightly, but when it passed the House in April 1909 and reached the Senate, the chairman of the Senate Finance Committee, Rhode Island Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, attached many amendments raising rates. This outraged progressives such as Wisconsin's Robert M. La Follette, who urged Taft to say that the bill was not in accord with the party platform. Taft refused, angering them. Taft insisted that most imports from the Philippines be free of duty, and according to Anderson, showed effective leadership", "Taft and his Secretary of State, Philander Knox, instituted a policy of Dollar Diplomacy towards Latin America, believing U.S. investment would benefit all involved, while diminishing European influence in regions where the Monroe Doctrine applied. The policy was unpopular among Latin American states that did not wish to become financial protectorates of the United States, as well as in the U.S. Senate, many of whose members believed the U.S. should not interfere abroad. No foreign affairs controversy tested Taft's policy more than the", "Due to his years in the Philippines, Taft was keenly interested as president in East Asian affairs. Taft considered relations with Europe relatively unimportant, but because of the potential for trade and investment, Taft ranked the post of minister to China as most important in the Foreign Service. Knox did not agree, and declined a suggestion that he go to Peking to view the facts on the ground. Taft considered Roosevelt's minister there, William W. Rockhill, as uninterested in the China trade, and replaced him with William J. Calhoun, whom McKinley and Roosevelt had sent on several foreign missions. Knox did not listen to Calhoun on policy, and there were often conflicts. Taft and Knox tried unsuccessfully to extend John Hay's Open Door Policy to Manchuria. In 1898, an American company had gained a concession for a railroad between Hankow and Szechuan, but the Chinese revoked the agreement in 1904 after the company (which was indemnified for the revocation) breached the agreement by selling a majority stake outside the United States. The Chinese imperial government got the money for the indemnity from the British Hong Kong government, on condition British subjects would be favored if", "Taft was opposed to the traditional practice of rewarding wealthy supporters with key ambassadorial posts, preferring that diplomats not live in a lavish lifestyle and selecting men who, as Taft put it, would recognize an American when they saw one. High on his list for dismissal was the ambassador to France, Henry White, whom Taft knew and disliked from his visits to Europe. White's ousting caused other career State Department employees to fear that their jobs might be lost to politics. Taft also wanted to replace the Roosevelt-appointed ambassador in London, Whitelaw Reid, but Reid, owner of the \"New-York Tribune\", had backed Taft during the campaign, and both William and Nellie Taft enjoyed his", "", "Taft continued and expanded Roosevelt's efforts to break up business combinations through lawsuits brought under the Sherman Antitrust Act, bringing 70 cases in four years (Roosevelt had brought 40 in seven years). Suits brought against the Standard Oil Company and the American Tobacco Company, initiated under Roosevelt, were decided in favor of the government by the Supreme Court in 1911. In June 1911, the Democrat-controlled House of Representatives began hearings into United States Steel (U.S. Steel). That company had been expanded under Roosevelt, who had supported its acquisition of the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company as a means of preventing the deepening of the Panic of 1907, a decision the former president defended when testifying at the hearings. Taft, as Secretary of War, had praised the acquisitions. Historian Louis L. Gould suggested that Roosevelt was likely deceived into believing that U.S. Steel did not want to purchase the Tennessee company,", "Roosevelt was an ardent conservationist, assisted in this by like-minded appointees, including Interior Secretary James R. Garfield and Chief Forester Gifford Pinchot. Taft agreed with the need for conservation, but felt it should be accomplished by legislation rather than executive order. He did not retain Garfield, an Ohioan, as secretary, choosing instead a westerner, former Seattle mayor Richard A. Ballinger. Roosevelt was surprised at the replacement, believing that Taft had promised to keep Garfield, and this change was one of the events that caused Roosevelt to realize that Taft would choose different policies. Roosevelt had withdrawn much land from the public domain, including some in Alaska thought rich in coal. In 1902, Clarence Cunningham, an Idaho entrepreneur, had found coal deposits in Alaska, and made mining claims, and the government investigated their legality. This dragged on for the remainder of the Roosevelt administration, including during the year (1907–1908) when Ballinger served as head of the General Land Office. A special agent for the Land Office, Louis Glavis, investigated the Cunningham claims, and when Secretary Ballinger in 1909 approved them, Glavis broke governmental protocol by going", "Taft announced in his inaugural address that he would not appoint African Americans to federal jobs, such as postmaster, where this would cause racial friction. This differed from Roosevelt, who would not remove or replace black officeholders with whom local whites would not deal. Termed Taft's \"Southern Policy\", this stance effectively invited white protests against black appointees. Taft followed through, removing most black office holders in the South, and made few appointments of African Americans in the North. At the time Taft was inaugurated, the way forward for African Americans was debated by their leaders. Booker T. Washington felt that most blacks should be trained for industrial work, with only a few seeking higher education; W.E.B. DuBois took a more militant stand for equality. Taft tended towards Washington's approach. According to Coletta, Taft let the African-American \"be 'kept in his place'... He thus failed to see or follow the humanitarian mission historically associated with the Republican party, with the result that Negroes both North and South", "Taft made six appointments to the Supreme Court; only George Washington and Franklin D. Roosevelt have made more. The death of Justice Rufus Peckham in October 1909 gave Taft his first opportunity. He chose an old friend and colleague from the Sixth Circuit, Horace H. Lurton of Georgia; he had in vain urged Theodore Roosevelt to appoint Lurton to the high court. Attorney General Wickersham objected that Lurton, a former Confederate soldier and a Democrat, was aged 65. Taft named Lurton anyway on December 13, 1909,", "", "During Roosevelt's fifteen months beyond the Atlantic, from March 1909 to June 1910, neither man wrote much to the other. Taft biographer Lurie suggested that each expected the other to make the first move to re-establish their relationship on a new footing. Upon Roosevelt's triumphant return, Taft invited him to stay at the White House. The former president declined, and in private letters to friends expressed dissatisfaction at Taft's performance. Nevertheless, he wrote that he expected Taft to be renominated by the Republicans in 1912, and did not speak of himself as a candidate.", "As Roosevelt became more radical in his progressivism, Taft was hardened in his resolve to achieve re-nomination, as he was convinced that the progressives threatened the very foundation of the government. One blow to Taft was the loss of Archibald Butt, one of the last links between the previous and present presidents, as Butt had formerly served Roosevelt. Ambivalent between his loyalties, Butt went to Europe on vacation in early 1912. He sailed for home in April on the RMS \"Titanic\" and died in its sinking, a death Taft found hard to accept as his body was not recovered. Roosevelt dominated the primaries, winning 278 of the 362 delegates to the Republican National Convention in Chicago decided in that manner. Taft had control of the party machinery, and it came as no surprise that he gained the bulk of the delegates decided at district or state conventions. Taft did not have a majority,", "Alleging Taft had stolen the nomination, Roosevelt and his followers formed the Progressive Party. Taft knew he would almost certainly be defeated, but concluded that through Roosevelt's loss at Chicago the party had been preserved as \"the defender of conservative government and conservative institutions.\" He made his doomed run to preserve the Republican Party. Governor Woodrow Wilson was the Democratic nominee. Seeing Roosevelt as the greater electoral threat, Wilson spent little time attacking Taft, arguing that Roosevelt had been lukewarm in opposing the trusts during his presidency, and that Wilson was the true reformer. Taft contrasted what he called his \"progressive conservatism\" with Roosevelt's Progressive democracy, which to Taft represented \"the establishment of a benevolent despotism.\" Reverting to the pre-Roosevelt custom that presidents seeking re-election did not campaign, Taft spoke publicly only once, making his nomination acceptance speech on", "With no pension or other compensation to expect from the government after leaving the White House, Taft contemplated a return to the practice of law, from which he had long been absent. Given that Taft had appointed many federal judges, including a majority of the Supreme Court, this would raise questions of conflict of interest at every federal court appearance and he was saved from this by an offer for him to become Kent Professor of Law and Legal History at Yale Law School. He accepted, and after a month's vacation in Georgia, arrived in New Haven on April 1, 1913 to a rapturous reception. As it was too late in the semester for him to give an academic course, he instead prepared eight lectures on \"Questions of Modern Government\", which he delivered in May. He earned money with paid speeches and with articles for magazines, and would end his eight years out of office having increased his savings. While at Yale, he wrote the treatise, \"Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers\" (1916). Taft had been made president of the Lincoln Memorial Commission while still in office; when Democrats proposed removing him for one of their party, he quipped that unlike losing the presidency, such a removal would hurt. The architect, Henry Bacon, wanted to use Colorado-Yule marble, while southern Democrats urged using Georgia marble. Taft lobbied for the western stone, and the matter was submitted to the Commission of Fine Arts, which supported Taft and Bacon. The project went forward; Taft would dedicate the Lincoln Memorial as chief justice in 1922. In 1913, Taft was elected to a one-year term as president of the American Bar Association (ABA), a trade group of lawyers. He removed opponents, such as Louis Brandeis and University of Pennsylvania Law School dean William Draper Lewis (a supporter of the Progressive Party) from committees. Taft maintained a cordial relationship with Wilson. The former president privately criticized his successor on a number of issues, but made his views known publicly only on Philippine policy. Taft was appalled when, after Justice Lamar's death in January 1916, Wilson nominated Brandeis, whom the former president had never forgiven for his role in the", "", "During the 1920 election campaign, Taft supported the Republican ticket, Harding (by then a senator) and Massachusetts Governor Calvin Coolidge; they were elected. Taft was among those asked to come to the president-elect's home in Marion, Ohio to advise him on appointments, and the two men conferred there on December 24, 1920. By Taft's later account, after some conversation, Harding casually asked if Taft would accept appointment to the Supreme Court; if Taft would, Harding would appoint him. Taft had a condition for Harding—having served as president, and having appointed two of the present associate justices and opposed Brandeis, he could accept only the chief justice position. Harding made no response, and Taft in a thank-you note reiterated the condition and stated that Chief Justice White had often told him he was keeping the position for Taft until a Republican held the White House. In January 1921, Taft heard through intermediaries that Harding planned to appoint him, if given the chance. White by then was in failing health, but made no move to resign when Harding was", "", "The Supreme Court under Taft compiled a conservative record in Commerce Clause jurisprudence. This had the practical effect of making it difficult for the federal government to regulate industry, and the Taft Court also scuttled many state laws. The few liberals on the court—Brandeis, Holmes, and (from 1925) Harlan Fiske Stone—sometimes protested, believing orderly progress essential, but often joined in the majority opinion. The White Court had, in 1918, struck down an attempt by Congress to regulate child labor in \"Hammer v. Dagenhart\". Congress thereafter attempted to end child labor by imposing a tax on certain corporations making use of it. That law was overturned by the Supreme Court in 1922 in \"Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.\", with Taft writing the court's opinion for an 8–1 majority. He held that the", "In 1922, Taft ruled for a unanimous court in \"Balzac v. Porto Rico\". One of the Insular Cases, \"Balzac\" involved a Puerto Rico newspaper publisher who was prosecuted for libel but denied a jury trial, a Sixth Amendment protection under the constitution. Taft held that as Puerto Rico was not a territory designated for statehood, only such constitutional protections as Congress decreed would apply to its residents. In 1926, Taft wrote for a 6–3 majority in \"Myers v. United States\" that Congress could not require the president to get Senate approval before", "In 1925, the Taft Court laid the groundwork for the incorporation of many of the guarantees of the Bill of Rights to be applied against the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. In \"Gitlow v. New York\", the court by a 6–2 vote with Taft in the majority, upheld Gitlow's conviction on criminal anarchy charges for advocating the overthrow of the government; his defense was freedom of speech. Justice Edward T. Sanford wrote the court's opinion, and both majority and minority (Holmes, joined by Brandeis) assumed that the First Amendment's Free Speech and Free Press clauses were protected against infringement by the states. \"Pierce v.", "Taft exercised the power of his position to influence the decisions of his colleagues, urging unanimity and discouraging dissents. Alpheus Mason, in his article on Chief Justice Taft for the \"American Bar Association Journal\", contrasted Taft's expansive view of the role of the chief justice with the narrow view of presidential power he took while in that office. Taft saw nothing wrong with making his views on possible appointments to the court known to the White House, and was annoyed to be criticized in the press. He was initially a firm supporter of President Coolidge after Harding's", "Taft is remembered as the heaviest president; he was tall and his weight peaked at toward the end of his presidency, although this later decreased, and by 1929 he weighed just. By the time Taft became chief justice, his health was starting to decline, and he carefully planned a fitness regimen, walking from his home to the Capitol each day. When he walked home after work, he would usually go by way of Connecticut Avenue and use a particular crossing over Rock Creek. After his death, the crossing was named the Taft Bridge. Taft followed a weight loss program and hired the British doctor N. E. Yorke-Davies as a dietary advisor. The two men corresponded regularly for over twenty years, and Taft kept a daily record of his weight, food intake, and physical activity. At Hoover's inauguration on March 4, 1929, Taft recited part of the oath incorrectly, later writing, \"my memory is not always accurate and one sometimes becomes a little uncertain\", misquoting again in that letter, differently. His health gradually declined over the near-decade of his chief justiceship. Worried", "Lurie argued that Taft did not receive the public credit for his policies that he should have. Few trusts had been broken up under Roosevelt (although the lawsuits received much publicity). Taft, more quietly than his predecessor, filed many more cases than did Roosevelt, and rejected his predecessor's contention that there was such a thing as a \"good\" trust. This lack of flair marred Taft's presidency; according to Lurie, Taft \"was boring—honest, likable, but boring\". Scott Bomboy for the National Constitution Center wrote that despite being \"one of the most interesting, intellectual, and versatile presidents... a chief justice of the United States, a wrestler at Yale, a reformer, a peace activist, and a baseball fan... today, Taft is best remembered as the president who was so large that he got stuck in the White House bathtub,\" a story that is not true. Taft similarly remains known for another physical characteristic—as the last president with facial hair to date. Mason called Taft's years in the White House \"undistinguished\". Coletta deemed Taft to have had a solid record of bills passed by Congress, but felt he could have accomplished more with political skill. Anderson noted that Taft's prepresidential federal service was entirely in appointed posts, and that he had never run for an important executive or legislative position, which would have allowed him to develop the skills to manipulate public opinion, \"the presidency is no place for on-the-job training\". According to Coletta, \"in troubled times in which the people demanded progressive change, he saw the existing order as good.\" Inevitably linked with Roosevelt, Taft generally falls in the shadow of the flamboyant Rough Rider, who chose him to be president, and who took it away. Yet, a portrait of Taft as a victim of betrayal by his best friend is incomplete: as Coletta put it, \"Was he a poor politician because he was victimized or because he lacked the foresight and imagination to notice the storm brewing in the political sky until it broke and swamped him?\" Adept at using the levers of power in a way his successor could not, Roosevelt generally got what was politically possible out of a situation. Taft was generally slow to act, and when he did, his actions often generated enemies, as in the Ballinger–Pinchot affair. Roosevelt was able to secure positive coverage in the newspapers; Taft had", "Official Speeches Media coverage Other" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Transition.", "Reform.", "Adolph Knigge.", "Internal problems.", "New system.", "Attempts at expansion.", "Convent of Wilhelmsbad.", "Aftermath of Wilhelmsbad.", "Zenith.", "Conflict with Rosicrucians.", "Internal dissent.", "Decline.", "Barruel and Robison.", "Modern Illuminati.", "Legacy.", "In conspiracy theories." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Adam Weishaupt (1748–1830) became professor of Canon Law and practical philosophy at the University of Ingolstadt in 1773. He was the only non-clerical professor at an institution run by Jesuits, whose order Pope Clement XIV had dissolved in 1773. The Jesuits of Ingolstadt, however, still retained the purse strings and some power at the University, which they continued to regard as their own. They made constant attempts to frustrate and discredit non-clerical staff, especially when course material contained anything they regarded as liberal or Protestant. Weishaupt", "Having, with difficulty, dissuaded some of his members from joining the Freemasons, Weishaupt decided to join the older order to acquire material to expand his own ritual. He was admitted to lodge \"Prudence\" of the Rite of Strict Observance early in February 1777. His progress through the three degrees of \"blue lodge\" masonry taught him nothing of the higher degrees he sought to exploit, but in the following year a priest called Abbé Marotti informed Zwack that these inner secrets rested on knowledge of the older religion and the primitive church. Zwack persuaded Weishaupt that their own order should enter into friendly relations with Freemasonry, and obtain the dispensation to set up", "", "Knigge was recruited late in 1780 at a convention of the Rite of Strict Observance by Costanzo Marchese di Costanzo, an infantry captain in the Bavarian army and a fellow Freemason. Knigge, still in his twenties, had already reached the highest initiatory grades of his order, and had arrived with his own grand plans for its reform. Disappointed that his scheme found no support, Knigge was immediately intrigued when Costanzo informed him that the order that he sought to create already existed. Knigge and three of his", "The order had now developed profound internal divisions. The Eichstaedt command had formed an autonomous province in July 1780, and a rift was growing between Weishaupt and the Areopagus, who found him stubborn, dictatorial, and inconsistent. Knigge fitted readily into the role of peacemaker. In discussions with the Areopagus and Weishaupt, Knigge identified two areas which were problematic. Weishaupt's emphasis on the recruitment of university students meant that senior positions in the order often had to be filled by young men with", "Knigge's initial plan to obtain a constitution from London would, they realised, have been seen through by the chapter. Until such time as they could take over other masonic lodges that their chapter could not control, they were for the moment content to rewrite the three degrees for the lodges which they administered. On 20 January 1782 Knigge tabulated his new system of grades for the order. These were arranged in three classes:", "Knigge's recruitment from German Freemasonry was far from random. He targeted the masters and wardens, the men who ran the lodges, and were often able to place the entire lodge at the disposal of the Illuminati. In Aachen, Baron de Witte, master of Constancy lodge, caused every member to join the order. In this way, the order expanded rapidly in central and southern Germany, and obtained a foothold in Austria. Moving into the Spring of 1782, the handful of students that had started the order had swelled to about 300 members, only 20 of the new recruits being students. In Munich, the first half of 1782 saw huge changes in the government of Lodge Theodore. In February, Weishaupt had offered to split the lodge, with the Illuminati going their own way and the chapter taking any remaining traditionalists into their", "Delayed from 15 October 1781, the last convention of the Strict Observance finally opened on 16 July 1782 in the spa town of Wilhelmsbad on the outskirts of (now part of) Hanau. Ostensibly a discussion of the future of the order, the 35 delegates knew that the Strict Observance in its current form was doomed, and that the Convent of Wilhelmsbad would be a struggle over the pieces between the German mystics, under Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel and their host Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel,", "What the Convent of Wilhelmsbad actually achieved was the demise of the Strict Observance. It renounced its own origin myth, along with the higher degrees which bound its highest and most influential members. It abolished the strict control which had kept the order united, and alienated many Germans who mistrusted Martinism. Bode, who was repelled by Martinism, immediately entered negotiations with Knigge, and finally joined the Illuminati in January 1783. Charles of Hesse joined the following month. Knigge's first efforts at an alliance with the intact German Grand Lodges failed, but Weishaupt persisted. He proposed a new federation where all of the German lodges would practise an agreed, unified system in the essential three degrees of Freemasonry, and be left to their own devices as to which, if any, system of higher degrees they wished to pursue. This would be a federation of Grand Lodges, and members would be free to visit any of the \"blue\" lodges, in any jurisdiction. All lodge masters would be elected, and no fees would be paid to any central authority whatsoever. Groups of lodges would be subject to a \"Scottish Directorate\", composed of members delegated by lodges, to audit finances, settle disputes, and authorise new lodges. These in turn would elect Provincial Directorates, who would elect inspectors, who would elect the national director. This system would correct the current imbalance in German Freemasonry, where masonic ideals of equality were preserved only in the lower three \"symbolic\" degrees. The various systems of higher degrees were dominated by the elite who could afford researches in alchemy and mysticism. To Weishaupt and Knigge, the proposed federation was also a vehicle to propagate Illuminism throughout German Freemasonry. Their intention was to use their new federation, with its emphasis on the fundamental degrees, to remove all allegiance to Strict Observance,", "Although their hopes of mass recruitment through Freemasonry had been frustrated, the Illuminati continued to recruit well at an individual level. In Bavaria, the succession of Charles Theodore initially led to a liberalisation of attitudes and laws, but the clergy and courtiers, guarding their own power and privilege, persuaded the weak-willed monarch to reverse his reforms, and Bavaria's repression of liberal thought returned. This reversal led to a general resentment of the monarch and the church among the educated classes, which provided a perfect recruiting ground for the Illuminati. A number of Freemasons from \"Prudence\" lodge, disaffected by the Martinist rites of the \"Chevaliers Bienfaisants\", joined lodge Theodore, who set themselves up in a gardened mansion which contained their library of liberal literature. Illuminati circles in the rest of Germany expanded. While some had only modest gains, the circle in Mainz almost doubled from 31 to 61 members. Reaction to state Catholicism led to gains in Austria, and footholds were obtained in Warsaw, Pressburg (Bratislava), Tyrol, Milan and Switzerland. The total number of verifiable members at the end of", "At all costs, Weishaupt wished to keep the existence of the order secret from the Rosicrucians, who already had a considerable foothold in German Freemasonry. While clearly Protestant, the Rosicrucians were anything but anticlerical, were pro-monarchic, and held views clearly conflicting with the Illuminati vision of a rationalist state run by philosophers and scientists. The Rosicrucians were not above promoting their own brand of mysticism with fraudulent seances. A conflict became inevitable as the existence of the Illuminati became more evident, and as prominent Rosicrucians, and mystics with Rosicrucian sympathies, were actively recruited by Knigge and other over-enthusiastic helpers. Kolowrat was already a high ranking Rosicrucian, and the mystic Prince Charles of Hesse-Kassel had a very low opinion of the rationalist higher grades of the Illuminati. The Prussian Rosicrucians, under Johann Christoph von Wöllner, began a sustained attack on the Illuminati. Wöllner had a specially engineered room in which he convinced potential patrons of the effectiveness of Rosicrucian \"magic\", and his order had acquired effective control of the", "As the Illuminati embraced Freemasonry and expanded outside Bavaria, the council of the Areopagites was replaced by an ineffective \"Council of Provincials\". The Areopagites, however, remained as powerful voices within the Order, and began again to bicker with Weishaupt as soon as Knigge left Munich. Weishaupt responded by privately slandering his perceived enemies in letters to his perceived friends. More seriously, Weishaupt succeeded in alienating Knigge. Weishaupt had ceded considerable power to Knigge in deputising him to write the ritual, power he now sought to regain. Knigge had elevated the Order from a tiny anti-clerical club to a large organisation, and felt that his work was under-acknowledged. Weishaupt's continuing anti-clericalism clashed with Knigge's mysticism, and recruitment of mystically", "The final decline of the Illuminati was brought about by the indiscretions of their own Minervals in Bavaria, and especially in Munich. In spite of efforts by their superiors to curb loose talk, politically dangerous boasts of power and criticism of monarchy caused the \"secret\" order's existence to become common knowledge, along with the names of many important members. The presence of Illuminati in positions of power now led to some public disquiet. There were Illuminati in many civic and state governing bodies. In spite of their small number, there were claims that success in a legal dispute depended on", "Between 1797 and 1798, Augustin Barruel's \"Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism\" and John Robison's \"Proofs of a Conspiracy\" publicised the theory that the Illuminati had survived and represented an ongoing international conspiracy. This included the claim that it was behind the French Revolution. Both books proved to be very popular, spurring reprints and paraphrases by others. A prime example of this is \"Proofs of the Real Existence, and Dangerous Tendency, Of Illuminism\" by Reverend Seth Payson, published in 1802. Some of the response to this was critical, for example Jean-Joseph Mounier's \"On the Influence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France\". The works of Robison and Barruel made their way to the United States and across New England. The Rev. Jedidiah Morse, an orthodox Congregational minister and geographer, was among those", "Several recent and present-day fraternal organisations claim to be descended from the original Bavarian Illuminati and openly use the name \"Illuminati\". Some of these groups use a variation on the name \"The Illuminati Order\" in the name of their own organisations, while", "", "The Illuminati did not survive their suppression in Bavaria; their further mischief and plottings in the work of Barruel and Robison must be thus considered as the invention of the writers. Conspiracy theorists and writers such as Mark Dice have argued that the Illuminati have survived to this day. Many conspiracy theories propose that world events are" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "\"De nuptiis\".", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "According to Cassiodorus, Martianus was a native of Madaura—which had been the native city of Apuleius—in the Roman province of Africa (now Souk Ahras, Algeria). He appears to have practiced as a jurist at Roman Carthage. Martianus was active during the 5th century, writing after the sack of Rome by Alaric I in 410, which he mentions, but apparently before the conquest of North Africa by the Vandals in 429. As early as the middle of the 6th century, Securus Memor Felix, a professor of rhetoric, received the text in Rome, for his personal subscription at the end of Book I (or Book II in many manuscripts) records that he was working \"from most corrupt exemplars\". Gerardus Vossius erroneously took this to mean that Martianus was himself active in the 6th century, giving rise to a long-standing misconception about Martianus's dating. The lunar crater Capella is named after him.", "This single encyclopedic work, \"De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii\" (\"On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury\"), sometimes called \"De septem disciplinis\" (\"On the seven disciplines\") or the \"Satyricon\", is an elaborate didactic allegory written in a mixture of prose and elaborately allusive verse, a \"prosimetrum\" in the manner of the Menippean satires of Varro. The style is wordy and involved, loaded with metaphor and bizarre expressions. The book was of great importance in defining the standard formula of academic learning from the Christianized Roman Empire of the fifth century until the Renaissance of the 12th century. This formula included a medieval love for allegory (in particular personifications) as a means of presenting knowledge, and a structuring of that learning around the seven liberal arts. The book, embracing in résumé form the narrowed classical culture of his time, was dedicated to his son. Its frame story in the first two books relates the courtship and wedding of Mercury (intelligent or profitable pursuit), who has been refused by Wisdom, Divination and the Soul, with the maiden Philologia (learning, or more literally the love of letters and study), who is made immortal under the protection of the gods, the Muses, the Cardinal Virtues and the Graces. The title refers to the allegorical union of the intellectually profitable pursuit (Mercury) of learning by way of the art of letters (Philology). Among the wedding gifts are seven maids who will be Philology's servants: they are the seven liberal arts: Grammar (an old woman with a knife for excising children's grammatical errors), Dialectic, Rhetoric (a tall woman with a dress decorated with figures of speech and armed in a fashion to harm adversaries), Geometry, Arithmetic, Astronomy and (musical) Harmony. Frances Yates comments that these images correspond closely to the rules for the creation of images for artificial memory. As each art is introduced, she gives an exposition of the principles of the science she represents, thereby providing a summary of the seven liberal arts. Two other arts, Architecture and Medicine, were present at the feast, but since they care for earthly things, they were to keep silent in the company of the celestial deities. Each book is an abstract or a compilation from earlier authors. The treatment of the subjects belongs to a tradition which goes back to Varro's \"Disciplinae\", even to Varro's passing allusion to architecture and medicine, which in Martianus Capella's day were mechanics' arts, material for clever slaves but not for senators. The classical Roman curriculum, which was to pass—largely through Martianus Capella's book—into the early medieval period, was modified but scarcely revolutionized by Christianity. The verse portions, on the whole correct and classically constructed, are in imitation of Varro. The eighth book describes a modified geocentric astronomical model, in which the Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the moon, the sun, three planets and the stars, while Mercury and Venus circle the Sun. This view was singled out for praise by Copernicus in Book I of his \"De revolutionibus orbium coelestium\".", "Martianus Capella can best be understood in terms of the reputation of his book. The work was read, taught, and commented upon throughout the early Middle Ages and shaped European education during the early medieval period and the Carolingian renaissance. As early as the end of the fifth century, another African, Fulgentius, composed a work modeled on it. A note found in numerous manuscripts—written by one Securus Memor Felix, who was intending to produce an edition—indicates that by about 534 the dense and convoluted text of \"De nuptiis\" had already become hopelessly corrupted by scribal errors. (Michael Winterbottom suggests that Securus Memor's work may be the basis of the text found in \"an impressive number of extant books\" written in the ninth century.) Another sixth-century writer, Gregory of Tours, attests that it had become virtually a school manual. In his 1959 study, C. Leonardi catalogued 241 existing manuscripts of \"De nuptiis\", attesting to its popularity during the Middle Ages. It was commented upon copiously: by John Scotus Erigena, Hadoard, Alexander Neckham, and Remigius of Auxerre. In the eleventh century the German monk Notker Labeo translated the first two books into Old High German. Martianus continued to play a major role as transmitter of ancient learning until the rise of a new system of learning founded on scholastic Aristotelianism. As late as the thirteenth century, Martianus was still credited as having been the efficient cause of the study of astronomy. Modern interpreters have less interest in Martianus's ideas, \"except for the light his work throws on what men in other times and places knew or thought it was important to know about the \"artes liberales\"\". C. S. Lewis, in \"The Allegory of Love\", states that \"the universe, which has produced the bee-orchid and the giraffe, has produced nothing stranger than Martianus Capella\". The editio princeps of \"De nuptiis\", edited by Franciscus Vitalis Bodianus, was printed in Vicenza in 1499. The work's comparatively late date in print, as well as the modest number of later editions, is a marker of the slide in its popularity, save as an elementary educational primer in the liberal arts. For many years the standard edition of the work was that of A. Dick (Teubner, 1925), but J. Willis produced a new edition for Teubner in 1983. A modern introduction, focusing on the mathematical arts, is \"Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts, Vol. 1: The Quadrivium of Martianus Capella: Latin Traditions in the Mathematical Sciences, 50 B.C.–A.D. 1250\". Volume 2 of this work is an English translation of \"De nuptiis\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Eukaryotic.", "Prokaryotic.", "Structure.", "Mechanism.", "Regulation.", "Inactivation of nitrate reductase.", "Anoxic conditions.", "Applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Eukaryotic nitrate reductases are part of the sulfite oxidase family of molybdoenzymes. They transfer electrons from NADH or NADPH to nitrate.", "Prokaryotic nitrate reductases belong to the DMSO reductase family of molybdoenzymes and have been classified into three groups, assimilatory nitrate reductases (Nas), respiratory nitrate reductase (Nar), and periplasmic nitrate reductases (Nap). The active site of these enzymes is a Mo ion that is bound to the four thiolate functions of two pterin molecules. The coordination sphere of the Mo is completed by one amino-acid side chain and oxygen and/or sulfur ligands. The exact environment of the Mo ion in certain of these enzymes (oxygen versus sulfur as a sixth molybdenum ligand) is still debated. The Mo is covalently attached to the protein by a cysteine ligand in Nap, and an aspartate in Nar.", "Prokaryotic nitrate reductases have two major types, transmembrane nitrate reductases and periplasmic nitrate reductases. The transmembrane nitrate reductase (NAR) does proton translocation and can contribute to the generation of ATP by the proton motive force. The periplasmic nitrate reductase (NAP) does not do proton translocation and does not contribute to the proton motive force. The transmembrane respiratory nitrate reductase is composed of three subunits; an 1 alpha, 1 beta and 2 gamma. It is the second nitrate reductase enzyme which it can substitute for the NRA enzyme in \"Escherichia coli\" allowing it to use nitrate as an electron acceptor during anaerobic respiration. A transmembrane nitrate reductase that can function as a proton pump (similar to the case of anaerobic respiration) has been discovered in a diatom \"Thalassiosira weissflogii\". The nitrate reductase of higher plants, algae, and fungi is a homodimeric cytosolic protein with five conserved domains in each monomer: 1) an Mo-MPT domain that contains the single molybdopterin cofactor, 2) a dimer interface domain, 3) a cytochrome b domain, and 4) an NADH domain that combines with 5) an FAD domain to form the cytochrome b reductase fragment. There exists a GPI-anchored variant that is found on the outer face of the plasma membrane. Its exact function is still not clear.", "In prokaryotic periplasmic nitrate reductase, a nitrate molecule binds to the active site with the Mo ion in the +6 oxidation state. Electron transfer to the active site occurs only in the proton-electron transfer stage, where the MoV species plays an important role in catalysis. The presence of the sulfur atom in the molybdenum coordination sphere creates a pseudo-dithiolene ligand that protects it from any direct attack from the solvent. Upon the nitrate binding there is a conformational rearrangement of this ring that allows the direct contact of the nitrate with MoVI ion. This rearrangement is stabilized by the conserved methionines Met141 and Met308. The reduction of nitrate into nitrite occurs in the second step of the mechanism where the two dimethyl-dithiolene ligands have a key role in spreading the excess of negative charge near the Mo atom to make it available for the chemical reaction. The reaction involves the oxidation of the sulfur atoms and not of the molybdenum as previously suggested. The mechanism is that of molybdenum and sulfur-based redox chemistry instead of the currently accepted redox chemistry based only on the Mo ion. The second part of the mechanism involves two protonation steps that are promoted by the presence of MoV species. MoVI intermediates might also be present in this stage depending on the availability of protons and electrons. Once the water molecule is generated only the MoVI species allow water molecule dissociation and the concomitant enzymatic turnover. Similar to the prokaryotic nitrate reduction mechanism, in eukaryotic nitrate reductase, an oxygen in nitrate binds to Mo in the (IV) oxidation state, displacing a hydroxide ion. Then the Mo d-orbital electrons flip over, creating a double bond between Mo (VI) and that oxygen, ejecting nitrite. The Mo(VI) double bond to oxygen is reduced via electrons from NAD(P)H passed through the intramolecular transport chain.", "Nitrate reductase (NR) is regulated at the transcriptional and translational levels induced by light, nitrate, and possibly a negative feedback mechanism. First, nitrate assimilation is initiated by the uptake of nitrate from the root system, reduced to nitrite by nitrate reductase, and then nitrite is reduced to ammonia by nitrite reductase. Ammonia then goes into the GS-GOGAT pathway to be incorporated into amino acids. When the plant is under stress, instead of reducing nitrate via NR to be incorporated into amino acids, the nitrate is reduced to nitric oxide which can have many damaging effects on the plant. Thus, the importance of regulating nitrate reductase activity is to limit the amount of nitric oxide being produced.", "The inactivation of nitrate reductase has many steps and many different signals that aid in the inactivation of the enzyme. Specifically in spinach, the very first step of nitrate reductase inactivation is the phosphorylation of NR on the 543-serine residue. The very last step of nitrate reductase inactivation is the binding of the 14-3-3 adapter protein, which is initiated by the presence of Mg and Ca. Higher plants and some algae post-translationally regulate NR by phosphorylation of serine residues and subsequent binding of a 14-3-3 protein.", "Studies were done measuring the nitrate uptake and nitrate reductase activity in anoxic conditions to see if there was a difference in activity level and tolerance to anoxia. These studies found that nitrate reductase, in anoxic conditions improves the plants tolerance to being less aerated. This increased activity of nitrate reductase was also related to an increase in nitrite release in the roots. The results of this study showed that the dramatic increase in nitrate reductase in anoxic conditions can be directly attributed to the anoxic conditions inducing the dissociation of 14-3-3 protein from NR and the dephosphorylation of the nitrate reductase.", "Nitrate reductase activity can be used as a biochemical tool for predicting grain yield and grain protein production. Nitrate reductase can be used to test nitrate concentrations in biofluids. Nitrate reductase promotes amino acid production in tea leaves. Under south Indian conditions, it is reported that tea plants sprayed with various micronutrients (like Zn, Mn and B) along with Mo enhanced the amino acid content of tea shoots and also the crop yield." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Concepts.", "Thrust to power.", "Thrust to propulsive power.", "Excess thrust.", "Thrust axis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A fixed-wing aircraft generates forward thrust when air is pushed in the direction opposite to flight. This can be done in several ways including by the spinning blades of a propeller, or a rotating fan pushing air out from the back of a jet engine, or by ejecting hot gases from a rocket engine. The forward thrust is proportional to the mass of the airstream multiplied by the difference in velocity of the airstream. Reverse thrust can be generated to aid braking after landing by reversing the pitch of variable-pitch propeller blades, or using a thrust reverser on a jet engine. Rotary wing aircraft and thrust vectoring V/STOL aircraft use engine thrust to support the weight of the aircraft, and vector sum of this thrust fore and aft to control forward speed. A motorboat generates thrust (or reverse thrust) when the propellers are turned to accelerate water backwards (or forwards). The resulting thrust pushes the boat in the opposite direction to the sum of the momentum change in the water flowing through the propeller. A rocket is propelled forward by a thrust force equal in magnitude, but opposite in direction, to the time-rate of momentum change of the exhaust gas accelerated from the combustion chamber through the rocket engine nozzle. This is the exhaust velocity with respect to the rocket, times the time-rate at which the mass is expelled, or in mathematical terms: Where T is the thrust generated (force), formula_2 is the rate of change of mass with respect to time (mass flow rate of exhaust), and v is the speed of the exhaust gases measured relative to the rocket. For vertical launch of a rocket the initial thrust at liftoff must be more than the weight. Each of the three Space Shuttle Main Engines could produce a thrust of 1.8 meganewton, and each of the Space Shuttle's two Solid Rocket Boosters, together 29.4 MN. By contrast, the simplified Aid For EVA Rescue (SAFER) has 24 thrusters of each. In the air-breathing category, the AMT-USA AT-180 jet engine developed for radio-controlled aircraft produce 90 N (20 lbf) of thrust. The GE90-115B engine fitted on the Boeing 777-300ER, recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records as the \"World's Most Powerful Commercial Jet Engine,\" has a thrust of 569 kN (127,900 lbf).", "", "The power needed to generate thrust and the force of the thrust can be related in a non-linear way. In general, formula_3. The proportionality constant varies, and can be solved for a uniform flow: Note that these calculations are only valid for when the incoming air is accelerated from a standstill – for example when hovering. The inverse of the proportionality constant, the \"efficiency\" of an otherwise-perfect thruster, is proportional to the area of the cross section of the propelled volume of fluid (formula_8) and the density of the fluid (formula_9). This helps to explain why moving through water is easier and why aircraft have much larger propellers than watercraft.", "A very common question is how to compare the thrust rating of a jet engine with the power rating of a piston engine. Such comparison is difficult, as these quantities are not equivalent. A piston engine does not move the aircraft by itself (the propeller does that), so piston engines are usually rated by how much power they deliver to the propeller. Except for changes in temperature and air pressure, this quantity depends basically on the throttle setting. A jet engine has no propeller, so the propulsive power of a jet engine is determined from its thrust as follows. Power is the force (F) it takes to move something over some distance (d) divided by the time (t) it takes to move that distance: In case of a rocket or a jet aircraft, the force is exactly the thrust (T) produced by the engine. If the rocket or aircraft is moving at about a constant speed, then distance divided by time is just speed, so power is thrust times speed: This formula looks very surprising, but it is correct: the \"propulsive power\" (or \"power available\" ) of a jet engine increases with its speed. If the speed is zero, then the propulsive power is zero. If a jet aircraft is at full throttle but attached to a static test stand, then the jet engine produces no propulsive power, however thrust is still produced. The combination piston engine–propeller also has a propulsive power with exactly the same formula, and it will also be zero at zero speed – but that is for the engine–propeller set. The engine alone will continue to produce its rated power at a constant rate, whether the aircraft is moving or not. Now, imagine the strong chain is broken, and the jet and the piston aircraft start to move. At low speeds: The piston engine will have constant 100% power, and the propeller's thrust will vary with speed The jet engine will have constant 100% thrust, and the engine's power will vary with speed", "If a powered aircraft is generating thrust T and experiencing drag D, the difference between the two, T − D, is termed the excess thrust. The instantaneous performance of the aircraft is mostly dependent on the excess thrust. Excess thrust is a vector and is determined as the vector difference between the thrust vector and the drag vector.", "The thrust axis for an airplane is the line of action of the total thrust at any instant. It depends on the location, number, and characteristics of the jet engines or propellers. It usually differs from the drag axis. If so, the distance between the thrust axis and the drag axis will cause a moment that must be resisted by a change in the aerodynamic force on the horizontal stabiliser. Notably, the Boeing 737 MAX, with larger, lower-slung engines than previous 737 models, had a greater distance between the thrust axis and the drag axis, causing the nose to rise up in some flight regimes, necessitating a pitch-control system, MCAS." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearances in \"Star Trek\" media.", "List of appearances.", "Television.", "Novels.", "Computer games.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Many \"Star Trek\" television episodes and novels have featured Q, and often have titles that play on the letter \"Q\". Note: Audiobook version available.", "The character Q debuted in \"Encounter at Farpoint\", where he puts Captain Picard and the \"Enterprise\" crew on trial, arguing that humanity is a dangerous race and should be destroyed. When they later save the life of a kidnapped alien, Q agrees to defer judgment, though he hints that it will not be the last time the crew sees him. In \"Q Who\", he offers to divest himself of his powers and guide humanity through uncharted regions and prepare it for unknown threats. Picard argues that Q's services are unneeded (and unwanted), and Q rebuts him by teleporting the USS \"Enterprise\" to a distant system for their first encounter with the Borg. Unable to resist the Borg, Picard must ask Q to save the ship. Q returns the \"Enterprise\" home and tells Picard that other men would rather have died than ask for help. In \"Déjà Q\", Q is punished by the Q Continuum by being made mortal; his committing of an uncharacteristically selfless act (sacrificing his life so that a race attacking him will not destroy the \"Enterprise\") garners the return of his powers. In the same episode, Q says that Picard is \"the closest thing in this universe that I have to a friend.\" Toward the end of \"The Next Generation\", Q is less antagonistic toward Picard. In \"\", Q apparently saves Picard and helps him better understand himself, giving Picard a chance to avoid the accident that gave him an artificial heart only for Picard to choose dying as himself over living the tedious life he would have lived without the inspiration of his near-death experience (although whether Q actually appeared in this episode or was merely a hallucination Picard experienced during surgery is deliberately left ambiguous). In the \"Star Trek: Voyager\" episode \"\", Q pursues a rogue member of the Continuum, later named Quinn, who has been inadvertently released from his asteroid prison by the crew of that ship, and who seeks asylum on \"Voyager\". He demands that Q make him human, as he does not wish to be a member of the Continuum any more, but Q refuses, because Quinn intends to commit suicide if he becomes human. The two parties agree to allow Captain Janeway to mediate their dispute, and after Janeway eventually finds in favor of Quinn, he is made human and then commits suicide. Later, in the \"Voyager\" episode \"The Q and the Grey\", Q reappears on the \"Voyager\", asking Janeway to bear his child. He eventually reveals that the uncertainty and instability caused by Quinn's suicide divided the Continuum, causing a civil war between Quinn's progressive followers (of which Q is a part) and the conservative traditionalists of the Continuum. Q believes that the birth of a new member of the Continuum could revitalize the Q by giving them something new to focus on after millennia of stagnation and boredom. Janeway refuses, and after she and her crew bring about a ceasefire in the Continuum, Q eventually mates with the female Q (Suzie Plakson) with whom he had been involved (referred to in \"Star Trek\" novels as 'Lady Q'), producing a son. Their progeny is born conscious and with all the power of any other Q, although lacking adult maturity. Q makes Janeway his godmother. In the episode \"\", which is the last televised appearance of Q, he appears on \"Voyager\" with his immature, rebellious son, who appears as a human teenager (played by John de Lancie's real-life son Keegan de Lancie, and referred to in the novels as \"Little Q\" or \"q\"). Q asks Janeway to mentor his son, and the two adults agree that the boy will remain on \"Voyager\", without his powers, and either learn how to be a responsible, accountable, and productive inhabitant of the cosmos, or spend eternity as an amoeba. Eventually, the young Q comes around, but the Continuum is not entirely convinced, so in negotiation with Q, they come to an agreement. Q must eternally guard, observe, and accompany the boy to ensure his proper behavior.", "The similarity between Q and Trelane, the alien encountered in the \"Star Trek\" episode \"The Squire of Gothos\", inspired writer Peter David to establish in his 1994 novel \"Q-Squared\" that Trelane is a member of the Continuum, and that Q is his godfather (with it being all-but-explicitly stated that Q is actually Trelane's biological father, although the truth of this is kept an official secret). Q's past is expanded on in the trilogy \"\", which has Q and Picard travel through Q's past, witnessing Q's first encounter with the being that inspired his interest in testing other races. This being, known as 0, is similar to Q in power and abilities (although an injury of some sort prevents 0 travelling faster than light under his own power, even if he can still teleport short distances), but whereas Q has been shown to be more of a \"merry prankster\" throughout \"Star Trek\" canon, 0 is malevolent in his desires, using 'tests' as just an excuse to torture other races by changing the rules of his games so that the subjects will inevitably lose. Q ends up bringing him into the Milky Way galaxy through the Guardian of Forever, and 0 assembles other seemingly omnipotent beings from the original \"Star Trek\", including The One (the being who impersonated God in \"\") and (*) (the entity from \"Day of the Dove\", which thrived on violent conflict). However, although intrigued at 0's words about testing lesser races, Q loses his taste for 0's methods when 0's group provoke the Tkon Empire- an advanced civilisation millennia in the past- into decades of civil war and then blows up their sun just as they were about to exchange their dying old sun for a younger, fresher one, having completed their Great Endeavour despite the war. 0's group was later defeated in a battle with the Q Continuum, though the dinosaurs were left extinct as a result when Q diverted an asteroid from one of the combatants so that it would strike Earth instead. With Q having abstained from most of the conflict, he was thus put in charge of watching over Earth and its inhabitants as a possible rehabilitation project, while (*) escaped, The One was trapped at the heart of the galaxy having been reduced to just his head, and 0 was banished to just outside our galaxy and the galactic barrier erected to keep him out; as Picard observes, with 0's crippled state preventing him travelling faster than light, 0 was essentially reduced to a shipwrecked survivor cut off from the nearest inhabitable land and millennia away from anywhere else. 0 later returned from his banishment beyond the galaxy and sought revenge on Q, having manipulated a dying scientist to complete an artificial wormhole experiment, but was defeated when Picard was able to convince one of 0's old enemies to join forces with Q to stop his former mentor. The novel \"The Buried Age\" which explores Picard's life between the destruction of the \"Stargazer\" and his appointment to the position of captain of the \"Enterprise\"-D ends with a cameo appearance by Q as he meets an alien woman who recently met Picard before she chose to ascend to a higher plane of existence, her tales of Picard inspiring Q's own interest in humanity. This novel also establishes why Q chose his name, as he wanted something that would be simple for humans to remember, also reasoning that, if he was ever asked why he was called 'Q', he could reply 'Because U will always be behind me'. In the \"Voyager\" novel \"The Eternal Tide\", Q's son sacrifices himself to save the universe, inspired by the example of the resurrected Kathryn Janeway, prompting Q to declare himself her enemy (although he swiftly gets over this hostility 'off-screen'). In the \"Star Trek\" comic series based on the alternate timeline established in the 2009 film \"Star Trek\", Q visits that reality to take the crew of the \"Enterprise\" into their future. This allows them to interact with characters from the original timeline in the new history created by Spock's trip to the past. It also helps Q deal with a threat to the Continuum in the form of the Pah-Wraiths, which have all but destroyed the Bajoran Prophets in this timeline.", "The 1996 computer game \"\" included live action segments directed by James L. Conway and featured John de Lancie as Q. Q also appears during Holiday events in the Massively Multiplayer Online game \"Star Trek Online\" including the creation of a Christmas Village that player characters can be teleported to.", "In 2009, Q was ranked as the 9th best character of all \"Star Trek\" by IGN. In 2016, \"Time\" rated Q as the #10 best villain of the \"Star Trek\" franchise. In 2017, Space.com rated Q as one of the \"15 of the Most Bizarre Alien Species\" of the \"Star Trek\" franchise. In 2018, \"The Wrap\" said that Q would be at the top of the list if he was included with ranking 39 main cast characters of the \"Star Trek\" franchise prior to \"\". In 2018, CBR ranked Q the #1 best \"Star Trek\" recurring character." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "\"Star Trek: The Next Generation\".", "\"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\".", "Attributes.", "Biology.", "Comparisons with anti-Semitic stereotypes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "While preparing scripts for the first season of \"\", the idea of the Ferengi was devised by Gene Roddenberry and Herbert Wright. The new alien species initially appeared in the first season's fourth episode, \"\", which was based on a story by Richard Krzemien and a teleplay by Wright. In this story, the USS \"Enterprise\"-D—whose crew are the main protagonists of the series—makes first contact with the Ferengi while pursuing one of their vessels, which has stolen a T-9 energy converter. Both ships are immobilized over an unknown planet, leading both to send away parties to investigate, where they encounter each other. One of the actors who played a Ferengi in \"The Last Outpost\", Armin Shimerman, would go on to play a Ferengi again in the later episode \"Peak Performance\" before being cast as the Ferengi bartender Quark in \"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\". The Ferengi outfits designed for \"The Last Outpost\" featured fur wrap-arounds. As weapons, they were given blue whips that fired energy bolts when cracked; these were subsequently dropped from the series and not used in later depictions of the species. Mike Okuda designed the Ferengi insignia to present the idea of \"dog eat dog\". It was colored green because of that color's associations with greed, envy, and money. The Ferengi ship featured in the episode was designed by Andy Probert, who used a horseshoe crab on Wright's desk as inspiration, with the model then being constructed by Greg Jein. The Ferengi were reused for the season's ninth episode, \"\", based on a story by Larry Forrester that Wright converted into a teleplay. This episode was first aired in November 1987. In it, a Ferengi called DaiMon Bok gives the \"Enterprise\" Captain Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart) the derelict ship that the latter once captained, the \"Stargazer\". Over the course of the episode, it is revealed that this is part of Bok's plan for vengeance, for he holds Picard responsible for the death of his son many years before. Forrester's first plot outline had featured various scenes aboard the Ferengi spaceship, but these did not make it into the episode. Series writer Rick Berman later noted that because of their \"silliness quotient\", the Ferengi became \"a disappointment as a major adversary\". For the second-season episode \"\", written by David Kemper and directed by Robert Scheerer, the USS-\"Enterprise\"-D is depicted encountering a hostile Ferengi ship while engaging in a practice exercise. The Ferengi uniform was revised for this episode, and new collar pips were added to designate their differing ranks. The season three episode \"\", which was written by Hannah Louise Shearer, directed by Robert Scheerer, and first aired in November 1989, also included Ferengi characters. In it, two Ferengi delegates compete against their Federation counterparts to gain access to a newly discovered stable wormhole; later in the episode, it is revealed that the wormhole was not really stable and the Ferengi get stuck on the other side of it, in a distant part of the galaxy. \"The Price\" is the first episode in which a Ferengi starship was referred to as a \"marauder\".", "When the writers were putting together the premise of \"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\", they decided to introduce a recurring Ferengi character who could inhabit the Deep Space Nine space station which was used as the main setting for the show. The show's co-creator, Michael Piller, later noted that: \"It was clear to me that having a Ferengi aboard Deep Space 9 would provide the show with instant humor and built-in conflict with the Federation guy in charge of the station\". The show's creators developed the character of Quark, a Ferengi bartender who would, according to Piller, be \"a constant thorn in the side of law and order, but who has a sense of humor about it. He'd be someone who could obviously throw lots of story dynamics into play.\" Piller and the others consciously wanted to play the Quark character off against the station constable, Odo (René Auberjonois); according to Piller, \"the idea of Odo and Quark being at loggerheads was there from day one\". The inclusion of Nog as a Starfleet officer prompted discussions on electronic mailing lists devoted to \"Star Trek\". Various commentators suggested that, given how Nog had behaved in previous episodes, it was surprising that Starfleet would take him on. They suggested that this might indicate that Starfleet had some form of affirmative action policy to benefit species not presently represented in Starfleet. Other online commentators argued that this viewpoint was racist, and that Nog would have been accepted as a Starfleet cadet because he was qualified, not because of his racial identity.", "", "The Ferengi were first designed by Andrew Probert and later refined and produced by Michael Westmore. The most prominent feature in Ferengi design is their large ear lobes, which carry sexual connotations. In both DS9 and TNG, Ferengi experience sexual stimulation when their lobes are rubbed- an act called \"oo-mox\". Ferengi females allegedly have smaller lobes, but the only female Ferengi characters are Pel and Ishka. Betazoids are incapable of reading Ferengi emotions.", "Various critics have argued that the depiction of the Ferengi and their culture mirrors anti-Semitic stereotypes of Jews, namely the love of profit and the over-sized facial features - in the case of the Ferengi, the ears. During the 1990s, this issue was discussed on electronic mailing lists devoted to the franchise, with some commentators arguing that there were parallels and others objecting to the comparison. In his 2007 critique of \"The Next Generation\" for the \"National Review\", the commentator Jonah Goldberg described the Ferengi as \"runaway capitalists with bullwhips who looked like a mix between Nazi caricatures of Jews and the original Nosferatu.\" The scholar of religion Ross S. Kraemer wrote that \"Ferengi religion seems almost a parody, perhaps of traditional Judaism.\" He wrote that the 285 Rules of Acquisition bore similarities with the 613 Commandments of Judaism and that the Ferengi social restrictions on women mirrored Orthodox Judaism's restrictions on women studying the Torah. Historian Paul Sturtevant wrote in 2018 that not only are the Ferengi \"extremely legalistic\" and \"defined by their greed\", echoing common stereotypes of Jews, but the major Ferengi characters on \"Deep Space Nine\" were all played by Jewish actors. Ira Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe state on the \"Deep Space Nine\" DVD commentary that the Ferengi are meant to be 20th-century humans. \"The Ferengi are us. That's the gag, the Ferengis are humans. They're more human than the humans on \"Star Trek\" because they are so screwed-up, and they are so dysfunctional. They're regular people. And that was the fun of that.\" Shimerman also addressed the issue when asked at a question-and-answer session at a \"Star Trek\" convention. He stated that: The name \"Ferengi\" was coined based on the Persian term \"Ferenghi\", used throughout Asia (compare older \"Feringhee\"), meaning \"foreigners\" or \"Europeans\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Chemistry, physical properties and biological function.", "Health effects.", "Humans and other mammals.", "Plants.", "Fossil record.", "Uses.", "Agriculture.", "Industrial.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The English word \"chitin\" comes from the French word \"chitine\", which was derived in 1821 from the Greek word χιτών (chiton), meaning covering. A similar word, \"chiton\", refers to a marine animal with a protective shell.", "The structure of chitin was determined by Albert Hofmann in 1929. Hofmann hydrolyzed chitin using a crude preparation of the enzyme chitinase, which he obtained from the snail \"Helix pomatia\". Chitin is a modified polysaccharide that contains nitrogen; it is synthesized from units of \"N\"-acetyl--glucosamine (to be precise, 2-(acetylamino)-2-deoxy--glucose). These units form covalent β-(1→4)-linkages (like the linkages between glucose units forming cellulose). Therefore, chitin may be described as cellulose with one hydroxyl group on each monomer replaced with an acetyl amine group. This allows for increased hydrogen bonding between adjacent polymers, giving the chitin-polymer matrix increased strength. In its pure, unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, resilient, and quite tough. In most arthropods, however, it is often modified, occurring largely as a component of composite materials, such as in sclerotin, a tanned proteinaceous matrix, which forms much of the exoskeleton of insects. Combined with calcium carbonate, as in the shells of crustaceans and molluscs, chitin produces a much stronger composite. This composite material is much harder and stiffer than pure chitin, and is tougher and less brittle than pure calcium carbonate. Another difference between pure and composite forms can be seen by comparing the flexible body wall of a caterpillar (mainly chitin) to the stiff, light elytron of a beetle (containing a large proportion of sclerotin). In butterfly wing scales, chitin is organized into stacks of gyroids constructed of chitin photonic crystals that produce various iridescent colors serving phenotypic signaling and communication for mating and foraging. The elaborate chitin gyroid construction in butterfly wings creates a model of optical devices having potential for innovations in biomimicry. Scarab beetles in the genus \"Cyphochilus\" also utilize chitin to form extremely thin scales (five to fifteen micrometres thick) that diffusely reflect white light. These scales are networks of randomly ordered filaments of chitin with diameters on the scale of hundreds of nanometres, which serve to scatter light. The multiple scattering of light is thought to play a role in the unusual whiteness of the scales. In addition, some social wasps, such as \"Protopolybia chartergoides\", orally secrete material containing predominantly chitin to reinforce the outer nest envelopes, composed of paper. Chitosan is produced commercially by deacetylation of chitin; chitosan is soluble in water, while chitin is not. Nanofibrils have been made using chitin and chitosan.", "Chitin-producing organisms like protozoa, fungi, arthropods, and nematodes are often pathogens in other species.", "Humans and other mammals have chitinase and chitinase-like proteins that can degrade chitin; they also possess several immune receptors that can recognize chitin and its degradation products in a pathogen-associated molecular pattern, initiating an immune response. Chitin is sensed mostly in the lungs or gastrointestinal tract where it can activate the innate immune system through eosinophils or macrophages, as well as an adaptive immune response through T helper cells. Keratinocytes in skin can also react to chitin or chitin fragments. According to in vitro studies, chitin is sensed by receptors, such as FIBCD1, KLRB1, REG3G, Toll-like receptor 2, CLEC7A, and mannose receptors. The immune response can sometimes clear the chitin and its associated organism, but sometimes the immune response is pathological and becomes an allergy; allergy to house dust mites is thought to be driven by a response to chitin.", "Plants also have receptors that can cause a response to chitin, namely chitin elicitor receptor kinase 1 and chitin elicitor-binding protein. The first chitin receptor was cloned in 2006. When the receptors are activated by chitin, genes related to plant defense are expressed, and jasmonate hormones are activated, which in turn activate systematic defenses. Commensal fungi have ways to interact with the host immune response that were not well understood. Some pathogens produce chitin-binding proteins that mask the chitin they shed from these receptors. \"Zymoseptoria tritici\" is an example of a fungal pathogen that has such blocking proteins; it is a major pest in wheat crops.", "Chitin was probably present in the exoskeletons of Cambrian arthropods such as trilobites. The oldest preserved chitin dates to the Oligocene, about, consisting of a scorpion encased in amber.", "", "Chitin is a good inducer of plant defense mechanisms for controlling diseases. It has potential for use as a soil fertilizer or conditioner to improve fertility and plant resilience that may enhance crop yields.", "Chitin is used in industry in many processes. Examples of the potential uses of chemically modified chitin in food processing include the formation of edible films and as an additive to thicken and stabilize foods and food emulsions. Processes to size and strengthen paper employ chitin and chitosan.", "How chitin interacts with the immune system of plants and animals has been an active area of research, including the identity of key receptors with which chitin interacts, whether the size of chitin particles is relevant to the kind of immune response triggered, and mechanisms by which immune systems respond. Chitin and chitosan have been explored as a vaccine adjuvant due to its ability to stimulate an immune response. Chitin and chitosan are under development as scaffolds in studies of how tissue grows and how wounds heal, and in efforts to invent better bandages, surgical thread, and materials for allotransplantation. Sutures made of chitin have been explored for many years, but, none were on the market; their lack of elasticity and problems making thread have prevented commercial development. In 2014, a method for using chitosan as a reproducible form of biodegradable plastic was introduced. Chitin nanofibers are extracted from crustacean waste and mushrooms for possible development of products in tissue engineering, medicine, and industry." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Discovery (1896).", "Beginning of the stampede (July 1897).", "Routes to the Klondike.", "All water routes.", "Dyea/Skagway routes.", "White Pass trail.", "Chilkoot trail.", "Head of Yukon River.", "Parallel trails.", "All-Canadian routes.", "\"All-American\" route.", "Border control.", "Mining.", "Methods.", "Business.", "Life in the Klondike.", "Boomtowns.", "Dawson City.", "News and mail.", "Role of women.", "End of the gold rush.", "Legacy.", "People.", "Places.", "Culture.", "Appendix.", "Maps of routes and goldfields.", "Population growth of west coast cities 1890–1900.", "Klondikers supply list.", "Timeline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The indigenous peoples in north-west America had traded in copper nuggets prior to European expansion. Most of the tribes were aware that gold existed in the region, but the metal was not valued by them. The Russians and the Hudson's Bay Company had both explored the Yukon in the first half of the 19th century, but ignored the rumours of gold in favour of fur trading, which offered more immediate profits. In the second half of the 19th century, American prospectors began to spread into the area. Making deals with the Native Tlingit and Tagish tribes, the early prospectors opened the important routes of Chilkoot and White Pass, and reached the Yukon valley between 1870 and 1890. Here, they encountered the Hän", "On August 16, 1896, an American prospector named George Carmack, his Tagish wife Kate Carmack (Shaaw Tláa), her brother Skookum Jim (Keish), and their nephew Dawson Charlie (K̲áa Goox̱) were travelling south of the Klondike River. Following a suggestion from Robert Henderson, a Canadian prospector, they began looking for gold on Bonanza Creek, then called Rabbit Creek, one of the Klondike's tributaries. It is not clear who discovered the gold: George Carmack or Skookum Jim, but the group agreed to let George Carmack appear as the official discoverer because they feared that authorities would not recognize an indigenous claimant. In any event, gold was present along the river in huge quantities. Carmack measured out four claims, strips of ground that could later be legally mined by the owner, along the river; these including two for himself—one as his normal claim, the second", "In the resulting Klondike stampede, an estimated 100,000 people tried to reach the Klondike goldfields, of whom only around 30,000 to 40,000 eventually did. It formed the height of the Klondike gold rush from the summer of 1897 until the summer of 1898. It began on July 15, 1897, in San Francisco and was spurred further two days later in Seattle, when the first of the early prospectors returned from the Klondike, bringing with them large amounts of gold on the ships \"Excelsior\" and \"Portland\". The press reported that a total of $1,139,000 (equivalent to $1,000 million at 2010 prices) had been brought in by these ships, although this proved to be an underestimate. The migration of prospectors caught so much attention that it was joined by outfitters, writers and photographers. Various factors lay behind this sudden mass response. Economically, the news had reached the US at the height of a series of financial recessions and bank failures in the 1890s. The gold standard of the time tied paper money to the production of gold and shortages towards the end of the 19th century meant that gold dollars were rapidly increasing in value ahead of paper currencies and being hoarded. This had contributed to the Panic of 1893 and Panic of 1896, which caused unemployment and financial uncertainty. There was a huge, unresolved demand for gold across the developed world that the Klondike promised to fulfil and, for individuals, the region promised higher wages", "The Klondike could be reached only by the Yukon River, either upstream from its delta, downstream from its head, or from somewhere in the middle through its tributaries. River boats could navigate the Yukon in the summer from the delta until a point called Whitehorse, above the Klondike. Travel in general was made difficult by both the geography and climate. The region was mountainous, the rivers winding and sometimes impassable; the short summers could be hot, while from October to June, during the long winters, temperatures could drop below −50 °C (−58 °F). Aids for the travellers to carry their supplies varied; some had brought dogs, horses, mules, or oxen, whereas others had to rely on carrying their equipment on their backs or on sleds pulled by hand. Shortly after the stampede began in 1897, the Canadian authorities had introduced rules requiring anyone entering Yukon Territory to bring with them a year's supply of food; typically this weighed around. By the time camping equipment, tools and other essentials were included, a typical traveller was transporting as much as a ton in weight. Unsurprisingly, the price of draft animals soared; at Dyea, even poor quality horses could sell for as much as $700 ($19,000), or be rented out for $40 ($1,100) a day. From Seattle or San Francisco, prospectors could travel by sea up the coast to the ports of Alaska. The route following the coast is now referred to as the Inside Passage. It led to the ports of Dyea and Skagway plus ports of nearby trails. The sudden increase in demand encouraged a range of vessels to be pressed into service including old paddle wheelers, fishing boats, barges, and coal ships still full of coal dust. All were overloaded and many sank.", "It was possible to sail all the way to the Klondike, first from Seattle across the northern Pacific to the Alaskan coast. From St. Michael, at the Yukon River delta, a river boat could then take the prospectors the rest of the way up the river to Dawson, often guided by one of the Native Koyukon people who lived near St. Michael. Although this all-water route, also called \"the rich man's route\", was expensive", "Most of the prospectors landed at the southeast Alaskan towns of Dyea and Skagway, both located at the head of the natural Lynn Canal at the end of the Inside Passage. From there, they needed to travel over the mountain ranges into Canada's Yukon Territory, and then down the river network to the Klondike. Along the trails, tent camps sprung up at places where prospectors had to stop to eat or sleep or at obstacles such as the icy lakes at the head of the Yukon. At the start of the rush, a ticket from Seattle to the port of Dyea cost $40 ($1,100) for a cabin. Premiums of $100 ($2,700), however, were soon paid and the steamship companies hesitated to post their rates in advance since they could increase on a daily basis.", "Those who landed at Skagway made their way over the White Pass before cutting across to Bennett Lake. Although the trail began gently, it progressed over several mountains with paths as narrow as and in wider parts covered with boulders and sharp rocks. Under these conditions horses died in huge numbers, giving the route the informal name of Dead Horse Trail. The volumes of travellers and the wet weather made the trail impassable and, by late 1897, it was closed until further notice, leaving around 5,000 stranded in", "Those who landed at Dyea, Skagway's neighbour town, travelled the Chilkoot Trail and crossed its pass to reach Lake Lindeman, which fed into Lake Bennett at the head of the Yukon River. The Chilkoot Pass was higher than the White Pass, but more used it: around 22,000 during the gold rush. The trail passed up through camps until it reached a flat ledge, just before the main ascent, which was too steep for animals. This location was known as the Scales, and was where goods were weighed before travellers officially entered Canada. The cold, the steepness and the weight of equipment made the climb extremely arduous and it could take a day to get to the top of the high slope. As on the White Pass trail, supplies needed to be", "At Lakes Bennett and Lindeman, the prospectors camped to build rafts or boats that would take them the final down the Yukon to Dawson City in the spring. 7,124 boats of varying size and quality left in May 1898; by that time, the forests around the lakes had been largely cut down for timber. The river posed a new problem. Above Whitehorse, it was dangerous, with several rapids along the Miles Canyon through to the White", "There were a few more trails established during 1898 from South-east Alaska to the Yukon River. One was the Dalton trail: starting from Pyramid Harbour, close to Dyea, it went across the Chilkat Pass some miles west of Chilkoot and turned north to the Yukon River, a distance of about. This was created by Jack Dalton as a summer route, intended for cattle and horses, and Dalton charged a toll of $250 ($6,800) for its use. The Takou route started from Juneau and went north-east to Teslin Lake. From here, it followed a river to the Yukon, where it met the Dyea and Skagway route at a point halfway to the Klondike. It meant dragging and poling canoes up-river and through mud together with crossing a mountain along a narrow trail. Finally, there was the Stikine route starting from the port of Wrangell further south-east of Skagway. This route went up the uneasy Stikine River to Glenora, the head of navigation. From Glenora, prospectors would have to carry their supplies to Teslin Lake where it, like the Takou route, met the Yukon River system.", "An alternative to the South-east Alaskan ports were the All-Canadian routes, so-called because they mostly stayed on Canadian soil throughout their journey. These were popular with British and Canadians for patriotic reasons and because they avoided American customs. The first of these, around in length, started from Ashcroft in British Columbia and crossed swamps, river gorges, and mountains until it met with the Stikine River route at Glenora. From Glenora, prospectors would face the same difficulties as those who came from Wrangell. At least 1,500 men attempted to travel along the Ashcroft route and 5,000 along the Stikine. The mud and the slushy ice of the two routes proved exhausting, killing or incapacitating the pack animals and creating chaos amongst the travellers.", "An equivalent to the All-Canadian routes was the \"All-American route\", which aimed to reach the Yukon from the port of Valdez, which lay further along the Alaskan coast from Skagway. This, it was hoped, would evade the Canadian customs posts and provide an American-controlled route into the interior. From late 1897 onwards 3,500 men and women attempted it; delayed by the winter snows, fresh efforts were made in the spring. In practice, the huge Valdez glacier that stood between the port and the Alaskan interior proved almost insurmountable and only 200 managed to climb it; by 1899, the cold and scurvy was causing many deaths amongst the rest. Other prospectors attempted an alternative route across the Malaspina Glacier just to the east, suffering even greater hardships. Those who did manage to cross it found themselves having to negotiate miles of wilderness before they could reach Dawson. Their expedition was forced to turn back the same way they had come, with only four men surviving.", "The borders in South-east Alaska were disputed between the US, Canada and Britain since the American purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1867. The US and Canada both claimed the ports of Dyea and Skagway. This, combined with the numbers of American prospectors, the quantities of gold being mined and the difficulties in exercising government authority in such a remote area, made the control of the borders a sensitive issue. Early on in the gold rush, the US Army sent a small detachment to Circle City, in case intervention was required in the Klondike, while the Canadian government considered excluding all American prospectors from the Yukon Territory. Neither eventuality took place and instead the US agreed to make Dyea a sub-port of entry for Canadians, allowing British ships to land Canadian passengers and", "Of the estimated 30,000 to 40,000 people who reached Dawson City during the gold rush, only around 15,000 to 20,000 finally became prospectors. Of these, no more than 4,000 struck gold and only a few hundred became rich. By the time most of the stampeders arrived in 1898, the best creeks had all been claimed, either by the long-term miners in the region, or by the first arrivals of the year before. The Bonanza, Eldorado, Hunker and Dominion Creeks were all taken, with almost 10,000 claims recorded by the authorities by July 1898; a new prospector would have to look further afield to find a claim of his own. Geologically, the region was permeated with veins of gold, forced to the surface by volcanic action and then worn away by the action of rivers and streams, leaving nuggets and gold dust in deposits known as placer gold. Some ores lay along the creek beds in lines of soil, typically to beneath the surface. Others, formed by even older streams, lay along the hilltops; these deposits were called \"bench gold\". Finding the gold was challenging. Initially, miners had assumed that all the gold would be along the existing creeks, and it was not until late in 1897 that the hilltops began to be mined. Gold was also unevenly distributed in the areas where it was found, which made prediction of good mining sites even more uncertain. The only way to be certain that gold was present was to conduct exploratory digging.", "Mining began with clearing the ground of vegetation and debris. Prospect holes were then dug in an attempt to find the ore or \"pay streak\". If these holes looked productive, proper digging could commence, aiming down to the bedrock, where the majority of the gold was found. The digging would be carefully monitored in case the operation needed to be shifted to allow for changes in the flow. In the sub-Arctic climate of the Klondike, a layer of hard permafrost lay only below the surface. Traditionally, this had meant that mining in the region only occurred during the summer months, but the pressure of the gold rush made such a delay unacceptable. Late 19th century technology existed for dealing with this problem, including hydraulic mining and stripping, and dredging, but the heavy equipment required for this could not be brought into the Klondike during the gold rush. Instead, the miners relied on wood fires to soften the ground to a depth of about and then removing the resulting gravel. The process was repeated until the gold", "Successful mining took time and capital, particularly once most of the timber around the Klondike had been cut down. A realistic mining operation required $1,500 ($42,000) for wood to be burned to melt the ground, along with around $1,000 ($28,000) to construct a dam, $1,500 ($42,000) for ditches and up to $600 ($16,800) for sluice boxes, a total of $4,600. The attraction of the Klondike to a prospector, however, was that when gold was found, it was often highly concentrated. Some of the creeks in the Klondike were fifteen times richer in gold than those in California, and richer still than those in South Africa. In just two", "The massive influx of prospectors drove the formation of boom towns along the routes of the stampede, with Dawson City in the Klondike the largest. The new towns were crowded, often chaotic and many disappeared just as soon as they came. Most stampeders were men but women also travelled to the region, typically as the wife of a prospector. Some women entertained in gambling and dance halls built by business men and women who were encouraged by the lavish spending of successful miners. Dawson remained relatively lawful, protected by the Canadian NWMP, which meant that gambling and prostitution were accepted while robbery and murder were kept low. By contrast, especially the port of Skagway under US jurisdiction in Southeast Alaska became infamous for its criminal underworld. The extreme climate and remoteness of the region in general meant that supplies and communication with the outside world including news and mail were scarce.", "The ports of Dyea and Skagway, through which most of the prospectors entered, were tiny settlements before the gold rush, each consisting of only one log cabin. Because there were no docking facilities, ships had to unload their cargo directly onto the beach, where people tried to move their goods before high tide. Inevitably cargos were lost in the process. Some travellers had arrived intending to supply goods and services to the would-be miners; some of these in turn, realizing how difficult it would be to reach Dawson, chose to do the same. Within weeks, storehouses, saloons, and offices lined the muddy streets of Dyea and Skagway, surrounded by tents and hovels. Skagway became famous in international media; the author John Muir described the town as \"a nest of ants taken into a strange country and stirred up by a stick\". While Dyea remained a transit point throughout the winter, Skagway began to take on a more permanent character. Skagway also built wharves out into the bay in order to attract a greater share of the prospectors. The town was effectively lawless, dominated by drinking, gunfire and prostitution. The visiting NWMP Superintendent Sam", "Dawson City was created in the early days of the Klondike gold rush, when prospector Joe Ladue and shopkeeper Arthur Harper decided to make a profit from the influx to the Klondike. The two men bought of the mudflats at the junction of the Klondike and Yukon rivers from the government and laid out the street plan for a new town, bringing in timber and other supplies to sell to the migrants. The Hän village of Tr'ochëk along Deer Creek was considered to be too close to the new town, and the NWMP Superintendent Charles Constantine moved its inhabitants down-river to a small reserve. The town, in the beginning simply known as \"Harper and Ladue town site\", was named Dawson City after the director of Canada's Geographical Survey. It grew rapidly to hold 500 people by the winter of 1896, with plots of land selling for $500 ($14,000) each. In the spring of 1898, Dawson's population rose further to 30,000 as stampeders arrived over the passes. The centre of the town, Front Street, was lined with hastily built buildings and warehouses, together", "In the remote Klondike, there was great demand for news and contact with the world outside. During the first months of the stampede in 1897, it was said that no news was too old to be read. In the lack of newspapers, some prospectors would read can labels until they knew them by heart. The following year, two teams fought their way over the passes to reach Dawson City first, complete with printing-presses, with the aim of gaining control of the newspaper market. Gene Kelly, the editor of the \"Klondike Nugget\" arrived first, but without his equipment, and it was the team behind the \"Midnight Sun\" who produced the first daily newspaper in Dawson. The \"Dawson Miner\" followed shortly after, bringing the number of daily newspapers in the town during the gold rush up to three. The \"Nugget\" sold for $24 ($680) as an annual subscription, and became well known for championing miners and for its lucid coverage of scandals. Paper was often hard to find and during the winter of 1898–99, the \"Nugget\" had to be printed on butcher's wrapping paper.", "In 1898 eight percent of those living in the Klondike territory were women, and in towns like Dawson this rose to 12 percent. Many women arrived with their husbands or families, but others travelled alone. Most came to the Klondike for similar economic and social reasons as male prospectors, but they attracted particular media interest. The gender imbalance in the Klondike encouraged business proposals to ship young, single women into the region to marry newly wealthy miners; few, if any, of these marriages ever took place, but some single women appear to have travelled on their own in the hope of finding prosperous husbands. Guidebooks gave recommendations for what practical clothes women should take", "By 1899 telegraphy stretched from Skagway, Alaska to Dawson City, Yukon, allowing instant international contact. In 1898, the White Pass and Yukon Route railway began to be built between Skagway and the head of navigation on the Yukon. When it was completed in 1900, the Chilkoot trail and its tramways were obsolete. Despite these improvements in communication and transport, the rush faltered from 1898 on. It began in summer 1898 when many of the prospectors arriving in Dawson City found themselves unable to make a living and left for home. For those who stayed, the wages of casual work, depressed by the number of men, fell to $100 ($2,700) a month by 1899. The world's newspapers began to turn against the Klondike gold rush as well. In the spring of 1898 the Spanish–American War removed Klondike from the headlines. \"Ah, go to the Klondike!\" became a popular phrase", "", "Only a handful of the 100,000 people who left for the Klondike during the gold rush became rich. They typically spent $1,000 ($27,000) each reaching the region, which when combined exceeded what was produced from the gold fields between 1897 and 1901. At the same time, most of those who did find gold lost their fortunes in the subsequent years. They often died penniless, attempting to reproduce their earlier good fortune in fresh mining opportunities. Businessman and miner Alex McDonald, for example, continued to accumulate land after the boom until his money ran out; he died in poverty, still prospecting. Antoine Stander, who discovered gold on Eldorado Creek, abused alcohol, dissipated his fortune and ended working in a ship's kitchen to pay his way. The three discoverers had mixed fates. George Carmack left his wife Kate—who had found it difficult to adapt to their new lifestyle—remarried and lived in relative prosperity; Skookum Jim had a huge income from his mining royalties but refused to settle and continued to prospect until his death in 1916; Dawson Charlie spent lavishly and died in an", "Dawson City declined after the gold rush. When journalist Laura Berton (future mother of Pierre Berton) moved to Dawson in 1907 it was still thriving, but away from Front Street, the town had become increasingly deserted, jammed, as she put it, \"with the refuse of the gold rush: stoves, furniture, gold-pans, sets of dishes, double-belled seltzer bottles... piles of rusting mining machinery—boilers, winches, wheelbarrows and pumps\". By 1912, only around 2,000 inhabitants remained compared to the 30,000 of the boom years and the site was becoming a ghost town. By 1972, 500 people were living in Dawson whereas the nearby settlements created during the gold rush had been entirely abandoned. The population has grown since the 1970s, with 1,300 recorded in 2006. During the gold rush, transport improvements meant that heavier mining equipment could be brought in and larger, more modern mines established in the Klondike, revolutionising the gold industry. Gold production", "The events of the Klondike gold rush rapidly became embedded in North American culture, being captured in poems, stories, photographs and promotional campaigns long after the end of the stampede. In the Yukon, Discovery Day is celebrated on the third Monday in August as a holiday, and the events of the gold rush are promoted by the regional tourist industries. The events of the gold rush were frequently exaggerated at the time and modern works on the subject similarly often focus on", "", "Dyea/Skagway routes and Dalton trail", "Source: Alexander Norbert MacDonald, \"Seattle, Vancouver and", "The list was a suggestion of equipment and supplies sufficient to support a prospector for one", "1896 1897 1898" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Confluence.", "River fauna.", "Bridges over the Kelvin.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The river's first important (and considerably larger) confluence is with the Chantyclear Burn which originates from the ridge of Dullatur. It then continues its westward flow being joined by the often depleted (due to water being diverted to the canal) Shawend Burn to the west of Craigmarloch bridge. The next important tributary is the Garrel at a point south-east of Kilsyth south of Dumbreck Marsh. The Kelvin then passes through the large flood plain north of Twechar where it is fed by the Dock Water, Queenzie Burn, the Cast Burn and the Board Burn before reaching Kirkintilloch at its confluence with the more substantial waters of the Glazert and Luggie. It then flows past Torrance, meanders through Balmore Haughs, to the south of Bardowie where it joins the Allander Water, after which it takes a south-westerly direction towards Maryhill, Hillhead, through Kelvingrove Park before falling into the River Clyde at Yorkhill Basin in the city of Glasgow.", "Wildlife along Strathkelvin include the grey squirrel, magpie, grey heron, cormorant, blue tit, great tit, chaffinch, snipe, great spotted woodpecker, blackbird, redwing, carrion crow, kingfisher, mallard, goosander, roe deer, red fox, otter, water vole, mink and brown rat. Successive attempts at improving the quality of the water have been rewarded by the return of salmon. The river has always been home to brown trout and both species can be fished by obtaining the relevant permits.", "The Kelvin is bridged at several points throughout Glasgow. Most notable is the Great Western Bridge on Great Western Road in the city's West End. Below this bridge is an underground station that bears the name Kelvinbridge, a name commonly attached to the area. Other bridges include the one near the Antonine Wall at Balmuildy, Partick Bridge on Dumbarton Road, the bridge at Queen Margaret Drive, Ha'penny Bridge and several in the grounds of Kelvingrove Park. The Kelvin Aqueduct carries the Forth and Clyde Canal over the river. It was Britain's largest when it was opened. The river is used as an overflow for the canal.", "History of Banton; William Gracie, 1995 pub. Stratkelvin district council. (Kilsyth Library, local studies)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Cowal Peninsula.", "Ferries.", "Towns and villages along the shoreline.", "Islands in the Clyde.", "History.", "Nature and conservation.", "Shipping in the Firth.", "Lighthouses and navigation beacons." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Firth encompasses many islands and peninsulas and has twelve ferry routes connecting them to the mainland and each other. Sometimes called the Clyde Waters, this water body is customarily considered an element of the Irish Sea. The ferry services are run by Caledonian MacBrayne and by Western Ferries and many of the routes are lifeline services for communities living in remote areas. A great number of sea lochs adjoin the Firth, the largest being Loch Fyne.", "The Cowal peninsula extends into the Firth of Clyde and forms the main upper firth west shoreline. The main town on the Cowal peninsula is Dunoon.", "These routes across the Firth of Clyde save time, rather than traveling \"round by road\", via Loch Eck side (A815 road), the Rest and be thankful (A83 road) and Loch Lomond side (A82 road). The service between Dunoon and Gourock in Inverclyde, operated by the Caledonian MacBrayne subsidiary Argyll Ferries is a foot passenger only service. This service connects directly with the Abellio ScotRail service to Glasgow. Western Ferries operate the service between Hunters Quay and McInroy's Point near Gourock and carry all types of vehicular transport and foot passengers.", "This lists the major towns and some of the numerous villages along the firth (not the River Clyde or connecting lochs).", "There are many islands in the firth. The largest all have thriving communities and regular ferry services connecting them to the mainland. They are:", "The Clyde formed an important sea route from the earliest times. The Battle of Largs in 1263 marked the turning point for the end of Norse ambitions in Britain. Progressively from the 16th century onwards the Clyde became the conduit for commerce and industry, including herring, timber, wine, sugar, tobacco, textiles, iron and steel, coal, oil, chemicals, distilling and brewing, ships, locomotives, vehicles and other manufactured products. During World War II Glasgow and the Clyde became Britain's main entry point for Allied merchant shipping, military personnel and equipment, and for the assembly, despatch and control of ocean convoys. The Clyde formed the largest base of naval ships. Among many wartime innovations to support air, maritime and territorial combat the world's first deep water test of a submarine oil pipeline was conducted in 1942 on a pipeline laid across the Firth of Clyde in Operation Pluto. In the middle of the 19th century the sport of yachting became popular on the Clyde. The area became famous worldwide for its significant contribution to yachting and yachtbuilding with notable designers including: William Fife III; Alfred Mylne; G L Watson; David Boyd. It was also the location of many famous yacht yards. Clyde-built wooden yachts are still known for quality and style today. With the advent of tourism in Victorian times, the area became popular with Glaswegians and residents of neighbouring towns and counties who travelled \"doon the watter\" on Clyde steamers to holiday in the picturesque seaside towns and villages that line the firth, with the more wealthy building substantial holiday homes along its coasts. Many towns such as Gourock, Largs, Ayr, Dunoon, Rothesay flourished during this period and became fully fledged resorts with well-appointed hotels and attractions. Golf courses increased in large number, including major championship courses. The steam-powered still makes cruising trips to these coastal towns, in addition to regular services. Tourism, sport and recreation, and heritage history attract visitors from across the world. The Firth is ringed by many castles and buildings of historical importance which are open to the public, including Inveraray Castle, Brodick Castle, the opulent Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute, and Culzean Castle, which is the most visited attraction owned by National Trust for Scotland. Ocean liners are frequent callers at Greenock, and Glasgow International Airport and Glasgow Prestwick Airport are nearby. Rail services to and from the coast, including links to Oban and Fort William, are frequent, with city terminals in Glasgow and Edinburgh. Daily ferry services connect with Belfast. The \"lower Clyde\" shipyards of Greenock and Port Glasgow, most notably Scott Lithgow, played an important role in shipbuilding, with the being the first successful steamboat in Europe, and a large proportion of the world's shipping being built there until well into the 20th century. In more recent times the natural environment of the firth has been compromised in places by a succession of industrial and military developments along the shoreline, including Hunterston and Hunterston deepwater terminal, while at the same time shipbuilding has declined. In the upper Clyde two major shipyards continue at Glasgow Govan and Scotstoun, run by BAE, whose major client is the Royal Navy. Today only one lower Clyde shipyard exists, Ferguson Shipbuilders, next to Newark Castle, Port Glasgow, The Garvel dry dock in Greenock continues in operation for ship repair, and the large Inchgreen dry dock in Greenock is in occasional use. The sites of former shipyards are being regenerated by housing, leisure facilities and commercial premises.", "Common and grey seals abound in the firth. Harbour porpoises are also common and while dolphins are much less so, they have been spotted in the upper reaches of the firth in the summer of 2005. In 2005 the firth was listed as having the 2nd highest incidence of basking shark sightings in Scotland (after The Minch). In particular these huge sharks seem to favour the warm, shallow waters surrounding Pladda. Although at one time heavily fished from the Firth's many fishing towns, the only catches remaining in Clyde waters today of commercial interest are prawns, lobster and herring. Mussels and crayfish remain important. There is a Marine Biological Station run by the Universities of Glasgow and London on Great Cumbrae. In September 2008, Scotland's first No Take Zone (NTZ) was introduced in Lamlash Bay, Isle of Arran. This was instigated by a community effort driven by the Community of Arran Seabed Trust (C.O.A.S.T). The NTZ was specifically introduced to protect delicate communities such as maerl. Maerl is a very slow-growing (1 mm per year) coral-like calcareous red algae and is an important Scottish species. Maerl beds are reservoirs of biodiversity, important both as nursery grounds for young scallops and young fish. Studies show that organic waste from fish farms significantly reduces live maerl and that scallop dredging has profound and long lasting impacts. Scallop dredging on a maerl bed has been found to kill over 70% of live maerl, with no discernible recovery over the following four years. Recovery of maerl beds would be expected to require many years without disturbance. In 2014 of sea at the mouth of firth between Kintyre and the Rhins of Galloway was declared a Nature Conservation Marine Protected Area under the title Clyde Sill MPA(NC). The MPA covers a distinctive sill at the mouth of the firth, where the warmer, fresher water of the Clyde mixes with the cooler, more saline water of the North Channel. This creates a rich environment for plankton, which provide food for fish that are in turn eaten by higher marine predators and seabirds.", "The Firth of Clyde like the River Clyde has historically been an important centre of shipbuilding and shipping. In addition to the shipbuilding and engineering centres up river of Glasgow, Govan, Clydebank, Dumbarton and Renfrew the lower river developed major yards at Greenock, Port Glasgow and smaller ones at Irvine, Ardrossan, Troon and Campbeltown and boatyards including Hunters Quay, Port Bannatyne and Fairlie. Ferguson Shipbuilders yard, adjacent to Newark Castle, Port Glasgow, remains. Greenock is the site of one of the world's largest dry dock and ship-repair facilities at Inchgreen. The dry dock there is 305 m long and 44 m wide and is operated by Northwestern Shiprepairers Limited using the name Scott Lithgow, although unrelated to the famous Port Glasgow Scott Lithgow shipbuilding company. The Firth of Clyde has one of the deepest sea entrance channels in northern Europe, which can accommodate the largest Capesize vessels afloat, and as such the Clyde is one of the UK's leading ports, handling some 7.5 million tonnes of cargo each year. Hunterston Terminal was constructed to bring in bulk ore, but now mainly deals with coal imports. Supertankers up to 324,000 tonnes travel up the firth to deliver crude oil to Finnart Oil Terminal in Loch Long, which is connected by pipeline to the Grangemouth Refinery on the Firth of Forth. A second pipeline brings back refined oil products for export in smaller oil tankers, mainly to Northern Ireland. Greenock's Ocean Terminal facility handles cargo from smaller container ships. More recently, regular cruise liner traffic has built up, making the port very busy in season. Clydeport, North Ayrshire Council and Scottish Enterprise propose a £200m international deep-water container terminal, also at Hunterston, which would effectively act as a worldwide gateway port, and possibly become the major container port for the northern half of Europe. Initial environmental and economic impact studies are currently being undertaken. The Royal Navy has a significant, and controversial, presence on the Clyde, at HMNB Clyde on the Gare Loch and on Loch Long, connected to the nuclear stores in Coulport and Glen Douglas. The dockyard engineering and operations are managed by Babcock International, while one of the three main ports providing marine services support vessels is at Greenock, previously operated directly by the Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service.", "There are lighthouses at: There are navigation beacons at:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concept history.", "\"Star Trek: The Next Generation\".", "\"The Wounded\": 1991.", "Later episodes: 1991–1994.", "\"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\".", "In cosmology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "", "The Cardassians were invented by the writers of \"\" for the show's fourth season episode \"\". The story was written by Stuart Charno, Sara Charno, and Cy Chermak, while the teleplay was written by Jeri Taylor. The episode was first screened in January 1991. The episode's script related that the Cardassian Union and the United Federation of Planets—of which Earth is a part—had been involved in skirmishes for many years but had signed a peace treaty. Its plot begins with the revelation that the USS \"Phoenix\", a renegade Federation starship under the command of Captain Benjamin Maxwell (Bob Gunton), has begun attacking Cardassian targets, because Maxwell is convinced that the Cardassians are re-arming for a war against the Federation. The USS \"Enterprise\"-D, the starship captained by Jean-Luc Picard (Patrick Stewart), is sent to stop the \"Phoenix\", with the Cardassian Gul Macet (Marc Alaimo) coming aboard the \"Enterprise\" to assist. The design of the Cardassians was undertaken by the series' costume designer Bob Blackman and makeup designer Michael Westmore. They sought to give the species a \"snakelike\" appearance. Westmore was inspired by an abstract painting he had seen in a Ventura Boulevard store which featured a wide-shouldered woman with what looked like a spoon on her forehead. For this episode, several Cardassians were depicted wearing helmets, something that was never again done in the franchise; Blackman and Westmore's designs also gave Gul Macet facial hair, the only time a Cardassian would be depicted this way. Rick Sternbach designed the Cardassian spaceship used in \"The Wounded\". He initially proposed a pod-shaped vessel, before replacing that with a design resembling a scorpion, and then one based on the ankh symbol. Sternbach later noted that \"The \"Galor\" class started with an Egyptian ankh, given how they [the Cardassians] were like the Pharaohs to the Bajoran slaves, but you don't really see the basic shape unless you look straight down on the vessel. The little disruptor pyramids were a bit more obvious, as were the 'temple' type structures on the ship's backbone, and the sandy yellow shades.\" Miarecki and Tom Hudson then built the model from Sternbach's design. On art department maps, the Cardassian Union was placed west of the United Federation of Planets, while the Klingon and Romulan Empires were presented to the east of it. For this episode, the designers displayed Cardassian weapons firing a pink discharge, although in later episodes this would be changed to amber. Alaimo's appearance as Gul Macet in \"The Wounded\" made him the second actor, after Mark Lenard, to have played three separate alien species in the \"Star Trek\" franchise; in earlier episodes he had portrayed an Antican (\"Lonely Among Us\") and a Romulan (\"\"). He would later portray a human in \"The Next Generation\" episode \"\" before gaining a recurring role as the Cardassian Gul Dukat in \"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\".", "In the fifth season episode \"\", written by Rick Berman and Michael Piller and first screened in October 1991, the Bajoran species were introduced. The script explained that the Cardassians annexed the Bajoran homeworld—called Bajor—forty years previously, with many Bajorans fleeing their planet as refugees and often fighting back with militant tactics. \"Ensign Ro\" was the first episode in which the Cardassian warships were introduced as being \"Galor class\" vessels. Although it had not been intended at the time, the situation between the Cardassians and Bajorans laid the groundwork for the plot of \"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\". The Cardassians were central to the two-part sixth season episode \"\", written by Frank Abatemarco and screened in December 1992. In these episodes, the Federation have gained intelligence that the Cardassians are developing a genetically engineered virus on an uninhabited planet. Picard is sent on a mission to infiltrate and destroy the weapon but is apprehended and tortured by the Cardassian Gul Madred (David Warner). \"Chain of Command Part I\" included the first mention that the Cardassians' homeworld was called \"Cardassia\" and also included the first mention of the \"Cardassian Union\" as the name of their interstellar state, with previous mentions being of the \"Cardassian Empire\". The script for \"Chain of Command Part I\" also introduced the news that the Cardassians had withdrawn from Bajor. This set the stage for the events of \"Star Trek: Deep Space Nine\", which began airing a month later. The show's designers first included the Cardassians' hand weapon in this episode, with Sternbach describing its appearance as being like a \"copper-colored banana\". The second part of \"Chain of Command\" provided a brief history of the Cardassians and their military government. The Cardassians also appeared in the sixth season episode \"\", written by Joe Menosky and Ronald D. Moore and screened in April 1993. In this episode, it is revealed that humans and Cardassians—as well as the Klingons and Romulans—are all descended from an ancient species that seeded many planets with life. In the seventh season episode \"\", written by Ronald D. Moore, it is explained that the treaty between the Federation and the Cardassians left various Federation planets in Cardassian territory. Many of these Federation colonists refused to leave. The presence of these Federation colonists and their struggle for independence from Cardassian rule formed a recurring plot theme for both \"Deep Space Nine\" and \"Voyager\". \"Journey's End\" was the first time that Cardassian communicators were featured; these were designed as affixed to the actors' wrists. The conflict between the Cardassians and these rebel colonists, known as the Maquis, was again used as the basis for the penultimate episode in the series, \"\", which was written by Naren Shankar and René Echevarria and directed by Stewart.", "Launching the new series, \"\", was the pilot episode \"\", written by Rick Berman and Michael Pillar. For this episode, the writers focused in on the aftermath of the Cardassian departure from Bajor. The premise of the series revolves around the Federation taking control of Deep Space Nine, a Cardassian-built space station orbiting Bajor, at the request of the Bajoran provisional government. In \"Emissary\", the station's new Starfleet commander, Benjamin Sisko (Avery Brooks) is visited by the Cardassian who formerly served as prefect of Bajor, Gul Dukat (Alaimo). Alaimo had played a different Cardassian character in \"The Next Generation\"; he was brought in to replace the actor formerly cast as Dukat, whose performance had dissatisfied the creative team. Ira Behr recalled that \"It was either Mike Piller or Rick Berman who finally said, 'Let's get Marc Alaimo,' who had done a bunch of \"TNG\" episodes for them in the past. Marc came in and, of course, he \"was\" Gul Dukat.\" Later in the season, the show's creative team included another Cardassian-themed episode, \"\". Written by Lisa Rich and Jeanne Carrigan-Fauci as a bottle episode, it featured the arrest of a Cardassian believed to be guilty of war crimes against Bajor, Aamin Marritza (Harris Yulin), and the relationship he developed with the station's Bajoran second-in-command, Kira Nerys (Nana Visitor). The dialogue given to Marritza was an early example of what the writers came to call \"Cardassian monologues\": Behr stated that \"Cardassians love to speak. Garak loves to speak, Enabran Tain loves to speak. Dukat loves to speak—very slowly—and certainly Marritza loves to speak.\"", "In cosmology, the concept \"Cardassian expansion\" is a term used for a modification to the Friedmann equations. It is named after the fictional \"Star Trek\" race by the original authors, Katherine Freese and Matthew Lewis. In their 2002 paper (which has been cited more than 330 times), a footnote on the \"Cardassian term\" states: \" The name Cardassian refers to a humanoid race in \"Star Trek\" whose goal is to take over the universe, i.e., accelerated expansion. This race looks foreign to us and yet is made entirely of matter.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ransom cases.", "Modern.", "Ransom notes.", "Variations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Julius Caesar was captured by pirates near the island of Pharmacusa, and held until someone paid 50 talents to free him. In Europe during the Middle Ages, ransom became an important custom of chivalric warfare. An important knight, especially nobility or royalty, was worth a significant sum of money if captured, but nothing if he was killed. For this reason, the practice of ransom contributed to the development of heraldry, which allowed knights to advertise their identities, and by implication their ransom value, and made them less likely to be killed out of hand. Examples include Richard the Lion Heart and Bertrand du Guesclin. In 1532, Francisco Pizarro was paid a ransom amounting to a roomful of gold by the Inca Empire before having their leader Atahualpa, his victim, executed in a ridiculous trial. The ransom payment received by Pizarro is recognized as the largest ever paid to a single individual, probably over $2 billion in today's economic markets.", "The abduction of Charley Ross on July 1, 1874, is considered to be the first American kidnapping for ransom. East Germany, which built the Inner German border to stop emigration, practised ransom with people. East German citizens could emigrate through the semi-secret route of being ransomed by the West German government in a process termed \"Freikauf\" (literally the buying of freedom). Between 1964 and 1989, 33,755 political prisoners were ransomed. West Germany paid over 3.4 billion DM—nearly $2.3 billion at 1990 prices—in goods and hard currency. Those ransomed were valued on a sliding scale, ranging from around 1,875 DM for a worker to around 11,250 DM for a doctor. For a while, payments were made in kind using goods that were in short supply in East Germany, such as oranges, bananas, coffee, and medical drugs. The average prisoner was worth around 4,000 DM worth of goods.", "A request for ransom may be conveyed to the target of the effort by a ransom note, a written document outlining the demands of the kidnappers. In some instances, however, the note itself can be used as forensic evidence to discover the identities of unknown kidnappers, or to convict them at trial. For example, if a ransom note contains misspellings, a suspect might be asked to write a sample of text to determine if they make the same spelling errors. In some instances, a person may forge a ransom note in order to falsely collect a ransom despite not having an actual connection to the kidnapper. In popular culture, ransom notes are often depicted as being made from words in different typefaces clipped from different sources (typically newspapers), in order to disguise the handwriting of the kidnapper, leading to the phrase ransom note effect being used to describe documents containing jarringly mixed fonts. On other occasions, a ransom note has been used as a ploy to convince family members that a person is being held for ransom when that person has actually left of their own volition or was already dead before the note was sent.", "There were numerous instances in which towns paid to avoid being plundered, an example being Salzburg which, under paid a ransom to Bavaria to prevent its being sacked during the Thirty Year's War. As late as the Peninsular War (1808–14), it was the belief of the English soldiers that a town taken by storm was liable to sack for three days, and they acted on their conviction at Ciudad Rodrigo, Badajoz and San Sebastian. In the early 18th century the custom was that the captain of a captured vessel gave a bond or “ransom bill,” leaving one of his crew as a hostage or “ransomer” in the hands of the captor. Frequent mention is made of the taking of French privateers which had in them ten or a dozen ransomers. The owner could be sued on his bond. Payment of ransom was banned by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1782 although this was repealed in 1864. It was generally allowed by other nations. In the Russo-Japanese War — no mention was made of ransom, and with the disappearance of privateering, which was conducted wholly for gain, it has ceased to have any place in war at sea, but the contributions levied by invading armies might still be accurately described by the name. Although ransom is usually demanded only after the kidnapping of a person, it is not unheard of for thieves to demand ransom for the return of an inanimate object or body part. In 1987, thieves broke into the tomb of Argentinian president Juan Perón and then severed and stole his hands; they later demanded $8 million US for their return. The ransom was not paid. The practice of towing vehicles and charging towing fees for the vehicles' release is often euphemised or referred to as ransoming, especially by opponents of towing. In Scotland, booting vehicles on private property is outlawed as extortion. In England, the clamping of vehicles is theoretically the Common law offence of 'holding property to ransom'. Warring international military groups have demanded ransom for any personnel they can capture from their opposition or their opposition's supporters. Ransom paid to these groups can encourage more hostage-taking." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography and economy.", "Settlements on the shoreline." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Firth\" is a cognate of \"fjord\". \"Forth\" is the name of the river; this is \"*Vo-rit-ia\" (slow running) in Proto-Celtic, yielding \"\" in Old Gaelic and \"\" in Welsh.", "Geologically, the Firth of Forth is a fjord, formed by the Forth Glacier in the last glacial period. The drainage basin for the Firth of Forth covers a wide geographic area including places as far from the shore as Ben Lomond, Cumbernauld, Harthill, Penicuik and the edges of Gleneagles Golf Course. Many towns line the shores, as well as the petrochemical complexes at Grangemouth, commercial docks at Leith, former oil rig construction yards at Methil, the ship-breaking facility at Inverkeithing and the naval dockyard at Rosyth, along with numerous other industrial areas, including the Forth Bridgehead area, encompassing Rosyth, Inverkeithing and the southern edge of Dunfermline, Burntisland, Kirkcaldy, Bo'ness and Leven. The firth is bridged in two places. The Kincardine Bridge and the Clackmannanshire Bridge cross it at Kincardine, while further east the Forth Bridge, the Forth Road Bridge and the Queensferry Crossing cross from North Queensferry to South Queensferry. The Romans reportedly made a bridge of around 900 boats, probably at South Queensferry. From 1964 to 1982, a tunnel existed under the Firth of Forth, dug by coal miners to link the Kinneil colliery on the south side of the Forth with the Valleyfield colliery on the north side. This is shown in the 1968 educational film \"Forth - Powerhouse for Industry\". The shafts leading into the tunnel were filled and capped with concrete when the tunnel was closed, and it is believed to have filled with water or collapsed in places. In July, 2007, a hovercraft passenger service completed a two-week trial between Portobello, Edinburgh and Kirkcaldy, Fife. The trial of the service (marketed as \"Forthfast\") was hailed as a major operational success, with an average passenger load of 85 percent. It was estimated the service would decrease congestion for commuters on the Forth road and rail bridges by carrying about 870,000 passengers each year. Despite its initial success, the project was cancelled in December, 2011. The inner firth, located between the Kincardine and Forth bridges, has lost about half of its former intertidal area as a result of land reclamation, partly for agriculture, but mainly for industry and the large ash lagoons built to deposit spoil from the coal-fired Longannet Power Station near Kincardine. Historic villages line the Fife shoreline; Limekilns, Charlestown and Culross, established in the 6th century, where Saint Kentigern was born. The firth is important for nature conservation and is a Site of Special Scientific Interest. The Firth of Forth Islands SPA (Special Protection Area) is home to more than 90,000 breeding seabirds every year. There is a bird observatory on the Isle of May. A series of sand and gravel banks in the approaches to the firth have since 2014 been designated as a Nature Conservation Marine Protected Area under the name Firth of Forth Banks Complex. The youngest person to swim across the Firth of Forth was 13-year-old Joseph Feeney, who accomplished the feat in 1933. In 2008, a controversial bid to allow oil transfer between ships in the firth was refused by Forth Ports. SPT Marine Services had asked permission to transfer 7.8 million tonnes of crude oil per year between tankers, but the proposals were met with determined opposition from conservation groups.", "North shore South shore" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "\"Rutland Weekend Television\" (1975–76).", "\"Saturday Night Live\" (1976).", "\"Saturday Night Live\" (1977).", "\"All You Need Is Cash\", 1978.", "The Beatles' reaction.", "Later history.", "The band.", "Rutland Weekend Television version (1975–76).", "\"All You Need Is Cash\" version (1978).", "\"Archaeology\" version (1996).", "Subsequent touring versions (2001–2019).", "Other bands mentioned in the films.", "Rutles discography.", "\"The Rutland Weekend Songbook\" (1976).", "\"The Rutles\" (1978).", "The Rutles 7\" Singles (1978).", "\"The Rutles\" 12\" EP (1978).", "The Rutles \"Archaeology\" (1996).", "\"Eric Idle Sings Monty Python\" (2000).", "\"Rutles Highway Revisited\" (A tribute to the Rutles).", "\"The Wheat Album\" (2018).", "Bootlegs.", "Lawsuits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "What would later turn into the Rutles was foreshadowed by a sketch in episode 3 of Eric Idle's 1975 BBC television series \"Rutland Weekend Television\", in which Neil Innes accompanied himself on a piano singing what later became the song \"Good Times Roll\", included on the Rutles‘ first, self-titled album in 1978. The Rutles themselves first appeared later in 1975 as a sketch on Eric Idle's BBC television series \"Rutland Weekend Television\". The sketch presented a mock mini-documentary about the fictional 1960s band The Rutles, and featured Neil Innes (formerly of the Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band, and a frequent Monty Python collaborator) fronting the band singing \"I Must Be In Love\", a pastiche of Lennon and McCartney's 1964 style. The sketch was the work of Innes and Idle. Innes conceived parodying the film \"A Hard Day's Night\" after writing \"I Must Be In Love\", which he had realised sounded very \"Beatle-y\". Innes was the musician and composer for the series, and routinely created songs and ideas about how those songs could be presented on the show. He passed the idea of a spoof on The Beatles along to Idle, who had a separate idea about a boring TV documentary maker. They then merged the ideas into one extended film shot for the TV show. The band name was a continuation of the regional premise of the TV show, which was presented as a programme by a fictional TV station based in Rutland, the smallest county in England. One running joke was that it would use names derivative of Rutland. The initial idea had been to do a parody of the Rolling Stones called the Rutland Stones, but when it became a parody of the Beatles, Idle suggested the name ‚Rutles‘. 'The Prefab Four' is a pun on the Beatles' nickname 'the Fab Four' with an additional subtext: a prefab was a cheap postwar form of British housing, intended to be temporary, often poorly constructed, draughty and leaky, and not well-regarded by those who had to live in them. The Rutles had connections with the Beatles aside from the parody. The Beatles were fans of Innes's previous band, the Bonzo Dog Band; they featured them in the television film \"Magical Mystery Tour\" (1967), and Paul McCartney (working with Gus Dudgeon under the collective alias Apollo C. Vermouth) had produced the Bonzos' hit single \"I'm the Urban Spaceman\" (1968). George Harrison made a guest appearance on \"Rutland Weekend Television\"s 1975 Boxing Day special, with Idle and Innes, and encouraged them to make a film that would parody the Beatles' career and serve to deflate the myths surrounding the band's legacy. In merchandising for the TV series, references were made to a Rutles album called \"Finchley Road\" and a single, \"Ticket To Rut\". In 1976, BBC Records produced \"The Rutland Weekend Songbook\", an album containing 23 tracks including the Rutles songs \"I Must Be In Love\" and \"The Children Of Rock And Roll\" (later reworked as \"Good Times Roll\").", "One year after their initial BBC appearance, on 2 October 1976 Idle appeared on the American NBC show \"Saturday Night\" (later \"Saturday Night Live\"), and showed videotape extracts from \"Rutland Weekend Television\" – including the Rutles clip. That led to a suggestion by \"SNL\" executive producer Lorne Michaels to extend the skit into a one-hour mock documentary. This proposal led to the mockumentary \"All You Need Is Cash\" (1978), directed by \"SNL\" film director Gary Weis, with Idle credited as co-director.", "On 23 April 1977, Idle made another appearance on \"Saturday Night Live\", with Neil Innes as a musical guest. A running theme for this episode is the \"Save Great Britain Telethon\", and includes an appearance by \"the Rutle who lives in New York, Nasty\". Innes appeared as Nasty with a lone white piano, singing a short version of \"Cheese & Onions\". Later in the episode, as Neil Innes, he performed \"Shangri-La\", a song subsequently recorded by the Rutles.", "Written by Idle and Innes, \"All You Need Is Cash\" documents the rise and fall of the Rutles, paralleling much of the history of the Beatles. The project was given extra recognition through Harrison's support. As well as providing ideas, he supplied Idle and Innes with a copy of the Beatles' long-planned documentary, \"The Long and Winding Road\" (eventually re-titled \"The Beatles Anthology\" and released in 1995). Idle drew inspiration from this 1976 version of the documentary, as compiled by Neil Aspinall, and was granted permission to use some of the archival footage to tell the Rutles' story. Innes wrote, composed, and produced the music. He relied on his memory of Beatles music, and not careful later analysis, to create sound-alike songs. Innes assembled a band (himself, John Halsey, Ollie Halsall, Andy Brown, and Ricky Fataar) and the group played in a London pub to gel. During Rutles performances and studio recordings, Innes took lead on the songs that resembled Lennon's; Halsall sang on most McCartney-esque tunes; Fataar sang the Harrison songs; and Halsey sang a Ringo Starr-type song. Idle mimed to Halsall's singing and Brown's bass playing in the completed film. Halsall appeared in the film as \"Leppo\", the fifth Rutle who in the earliest years \"mainly stood at the back\". Brown did not appear in the film. The film is a series of skits and gags that illustrate the Rutles story, following the chronology of the Beatles. The glue of the film is the soundtrack by Innes, who wrote and composed 19 more songs for the film, each a pastiche of a Beatles song or genre. Fourteen songs were on a soundtrack album. The CD version added the six songs omitted from the original vinyl album. The album was nominated for a Grammy award for Best Comedy Recording of the year. The orchestrations and arrangements were by film composer John Altman. \"All You Need Is Cash\" was not a success on American television on its first showing on 22 March 1978; indeed, it finished at the bottom of all programmes that week. The show fared better on BBC television when it was premiered a week later, on 27 March 1978. A 66-minute version edited for TV was released on video and DVD, but this has been superseded by the restored 72-minute version. Additional actors in the special included Dan Aykroyd as the man who turned down the Rutles; John Belushi as Ron Decline (a parody of Allen Klein); Bill Murray as \"Bill Murray the K\"; Gilda Radner as a reluctant street interviewee; George Harrison as a TV reporter; Mick Jagger and Paul Simon as themselves; Michael Palin as Eric Manchester (a parody of Beatles press agent Derek Taylor); Ron Wood as a biker; Lorne Michaels as a man who wants to merchandise the Rutles; Al Franken and Tom Davis as Ron Decline employees; and many others. It included actual footage of David Frost and Ed Sullivan taken from TV appearances.", "Harrison said, \"The Rutles sort of liberated me from the Beatles in a way. It was the only thing I saw of those Beatles television shows they made. It was actually the best, funniest and most scathing. But at the same time, it was done with the most love.\" Idle claims on the \"All You Need Is Cash\" DVD commentary track that Harrison and Starr at one point discussed starting a band with Innes and Idle, based on the Beatles' and Rutles's shared and imaginary histories. Harrison and Starr also surprised him and Innes one day by singing a version of the Rutles' \"Ouch!\".", "In 1979, Idle and Fataar issued a single as \"Dirk and Stig\"—\"Ging Gang Goolie\" backed with \"Mr. Sheene\". This was Idle's only appearance on a Rutles-related disc. Throughout the 1980s, the Rutles did not exist. In 1982, the Rutles were involved in a record scandal reminiscent of the one surrounding the Beatles' \"Yesterday and Today\" album. Rhino Records, at the time a small Los Angeles label specialising in off-beat releases, released an album that it called \"Beatlesongs\", purportedly a collection of Beatles novelty songs but actually a weird catch-all of assorted Beatles-related tunes. For the collection, Rhino licensed the Rutles' \"Hold My Hand\" from Warner Bros Records. The cover of the album was done by well-known commercial artist William Stout, who had made a name for himself drawing the cover artwork for some of the best-looking Beatles bootleg records in the 1970s. His cover drawing included a representation of Mark Chapman, the man who had killed John Lennon, which generated an immense backlash. Rhino responded by recalling the album and reissuing it with a new, innocuous cover, which they announced in this press release. A clip from \"All You Need Is Cash\" appeared on this compilation of comedy videos put out by the now-defunct Vestron Home Video in 1985. The clip is simply the Tragical History Tour part of \"All You Need Is Cash\", with the sound clunkily muted out during the segment's narration in order to leave just the music. This home video release was released on both VHS and Laserdisc. Innes, with a group called the Moptops backed by the Rutland Symphony Orchestra, performed as \"Ron Nasty and the New Rutles\" at a convention honouring the 25th anniversary of Monty Python in 1994. This led to a Rutles reunion album in 1996, featuring Innes, Fataar and Halsey. Halsall died in 1992, but the reunion album, titled \"Archaeology\" as a play on the Beatles' \"Anthology\" series, featured several tracks recorded in 1978 that included his contributions. The Japanese version included four bonus tracks. In 2002, Idle made \"\", which remained unreleased for a year. The film employs unused footage from the previous Rutles film, and features an even bigger number of celebrity interviewees discussing the band's influence. This was met with mixed reactions from fans, particularly because no new footage of the Rutles was filmed. The DVD had yet to be released in the UK as of February 2014. McQuickly and Nasty had cameos in the 2004 graphic novel, \"\", co-written by former Monty Python's Flying Circus member John Cleese. In 2007, a reissue of \"Archaeology\" included a new Rutles track called \"Rut-a-lot\" (a jab at Idle's stage show \"Spamalot\") which was simply a live medley of songs from the first Rutles album. On 17 March 2008, all four movie Rutles (Innes, Idle, Fataar and Halsey) reunited for the first time at a 30th anniversary screening of \"All You Need Is Cash\" at the Egyptian Theatre in Hollywood. The event included a question and answer session and performance by members of the tribute show \"Rutlemania\" which ran for a week at the Ricardo Montalbán Theatre in Hollywood before doing a week in NYC at the Blender Gramercy Theater. The \"Rutlemania\" live show was conceived and written by Eric Idle which starred the Beatles tribute group the Fab Four as \"The Pre-Fab Four\" Rutles. In February 2009, on his website \"InnesBookOfRecords.Com\", Innes released what he refers to as \"Ron Nasty's Final Song\", titled \"Imitation Song\", a parody of \"Imagine\". This was also Innes's first and only entry in the \"Masters of Song-Fu\" competition run by Quick Stop Entertainment. On 9 February 2014, Idle reprised his narrator persona from \"All You Need Is Cash\" as part of \"\", noting how the Rutles had made their American debut 50 years earlier, and it was an amazing coincidence the Beatles were there the same day. He then lent straight narration to biographical sketches of the Beatles's early lives. On 30th December 2019, Neil Innes died at the age of 75.", "", "The Rutles members in the original 1975 skit on \"Rutland Weekend Television\", which subsequently aired on \"Saturday Night Live\", were: In the original skit \"Stig\" is the Paul McCartney character and was portrayed by Batley, with Idle portraying the George Harrison character as \"Dirk\". The John Lennon character is named \"Nasty\". The Ringo Starr character was originally named Barry, although in the series spin-off book \"The Rutland Weekend Songbook\", this character is mistakenly identified as \"Kevin\"—the only appearance of this name in the entire Rutles canon. In the original sketch, the characters are given only the singular names Stig, Dirk, Barry and Nasty. Some actors lip-synching the Rutles music on-screen were not musicians, and did not participate in the recording process. Rutles music for \"Rutland Weekend Television\" and the spin-off album \"The Rutland Weekend Songbook\" was recorded by Neil Innes' own band Fatso, which consisted of:", "In adapting the characters for a full-length TV feature, several changes were made. Idle continued to play \"Dirk\", but Dirk was now modelled after Paul McCartney, not George Harrison. Battley was replaced as Stig by Ricky Fataar, and Stig became the George Harrison-inspired character. Additionally, the characters now all had first and last names. The Rutles members in \"All You Need Is Cash\" were: Also, in tracing the fictional history of the band, one other member was mentioned: The band that recorded the actual music was slightly different from the band that appeared on camera, as Idle did not take part in the recording process. On the soundtrack release of the music from \"All You Need Is Cash\", the Rutles were officially: While the Rutles are often thought of as a four-piece band, the credits of the original LP release of their first album indicate they were a five-piece. Brown, however, did not appear in any role in \"All You Need Is Cash\", and was not part of any Rutles reunion.", "After an 18-year hiatus, the Rutles (Innes, Halsey and Fataar) reconvened to record the 1996 album \"Archaeology\" (parody of the Beatles \"Anthology\"). Halsall had died in 1992, but appears on several tracks that were outtakes from the original 1978 album, and is credited as a band member. (Similarly, the three surviving Beatles had incorporated recordings by John Lennon in the songs \"Free as a Bird\" and \"Real Love\".) On record the band was augmented by keyboardist Mickey Simmonds, who would go on to play with the band live. Also appearing on the record was bassist Malcolm Foster (ex-Pretenders), as the Rutles had no bass player. Guitarists Doug Boyle and Bernie Holland were featured.", "Beginning in 2001, Innes and Halsey toured as the Rutles in the UK (and once in Japan), augmented by other musicians. The touring group performed songs from the Rutles repertoire, Neil Innes's solo career, and usually at least one George Harrison song per tour as a tribute to him. The touring version:", "In \"All You Need Is Cash\" and \"Can't Buy Me Lunch\", other \"artists\" are mentioned, including:", "", "\"The Rutland Weekend Songbook\" / Eric Idle & Neil Innes BBC Records (UK) / Passport Records (US) Saturday: (side 1 ) Sunday: (side 2) Rutles Notes:", "A soundtrack album entitled \"The Rutles\" containing 14 tongue-in-cheek pastiches of Beatles songs was also released. The CD reissue included the 6 other songs featured on the soundtrack that were not included in the vinyl LP. The cover art of the album suggested the existence of a number of other Rutles albums including \"Tragical History Tour\" and \"Let It Rot\". The album contains send-ups of Beatles numbers such as \"Ouch!\" (\"Help!\"), \"Good Times Roll\" (\"Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds\"), \"Love Life\" (\"All You Need is Love\"), \"Cheese and Onions\" (\"A Day in the Life\"), \"Piggy in the Middle\" (\"I Am the Walrus\"), \"Doubleback Alley\" (\"Penny Lane\") and \"Get Up And Go\" (CD reissue only – \"Get Back\").", "\"I Must Be In Love\" + \"Cheese And Onions \" / \"With A Girl Like You\" \" WEA Records / UK only release / 1978 / K17125\" Side 1: \"I Must Be In Love\" Side 2: \"Cheese And Onions\" / \"With A Girl Like You\" \"Let's Be Natural\" b/w \"Piggy In the Middle\" \" WEA Records / UK only release / 1978 / K17180\" Side 1: \"Let's Be Natural\" Side 2: \"Piggy In the Middle\" \"I Must Be In Love\" b/w \"Doubleback Alley\" \"WEA Records / Japan / 1978 / P-200-W\" \"Warner Bros. Records / US / 1978 / WBS 8560\" Side 1: \"I Must Be In Love\" Side 2: \"Doubleback Alley\" \"Ging Gang Goolie\" b/w \"Mr. Sheene\" \" EMI Records / UK only release / 1978 / EMI 2852\" Side 1: \"Ging Gang Goolie\" Side 2: \"Mr. Sheene\"", "Promotional Warner Bros. faux-Beatles Rutles five-song 33 RPM 12-inch (PRO-E-723) complete with recreated Lads-in-Nehru-suits portrait in the same fashion and pose as the real Beatles' portrait released on the sleeve of the Capitol 45 rpm release \"I Want to Hold Your Hand\" b/w \"I Saw Her Standing There\" (Capitol 5112). The unnamed Rutle Corps Records label (peeled banana in the centre) boasted five tracks and was pressed in translucent yellow vinyl: Side 1 Side 2", "Three of the five musicians who had created the soundtrack for the 1978 film—Innes, Halsey and Fataar—reunited in 1996 and recorded a second album, \"Archaeology\", a send-up of \"The Beatles Anthology\" albums. The fourth'real' Rutle, Ollie Halsall, died in Spain in 1992. Original Rutles bassist Andy Brown did not participate in the reunion. Eric Idle was invited to participate, but he declined. Accordingly, photos of the three'surviving' Rutles parodied those of the then three surviving Beatles in the \"Anthology\" series. Like the \"Anthology\" project that it lampooned, it featured tracks ostensibly from all periods of the Rutles career, sequenced to reflect the fictional band's chronology. Several of the songs were actually old Innes standards that were dusted off and given the 'Rutles' treatment. The reunion was blessed by George Harrison, who encouraged them to proceed. When approached, he told Innes, \"Sure. It's all part of the soup\". Innes related that encounter in interviews he gave in 1996, and again in 2013.", "\"Eric Idle Sings Monty Python\" (Live) / Eric Idle Restless Records / CD only release / 01877-73730-2", "A 20-track album of Rutles covers released by Shimmy Disc on 8 December 1993.", "A 13-track CD comprising remixed versions of demos originally recorded for \"Archaeology\".", "Bootlegs include \"Hard Days Rut!\", \"The Last Tea Party Tapes\", \"This is the Savage Young Rutles\", \"Sweet Rutle Tracks\", \"Rutles To Let\", \"Sgt. Rutters Only Darts Club Band\", \"Rutland's Rare Rutles Revisited\", \"Yesterday's Leftovers\" and \"Greatest Hits Vol. 3: The Number Twos.\" Much of the material on these releases comes from 1978 rehearsal tapes, or from the \"Rutland Weekend Television\" soundtrack LP, as well as a lot of rare Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band and Neil Innes solo material. Hard Day's Rut! \"All tracks by the Rutles, otherwise noted.\" The Last Tea Party Tapes This is the Savage Young Rutles Sweet Rutle Tracks Rutles To Let Sgt. Rutter's Only Darts Club Band Rutland's Rare Rutles Revisited Yesterday's Leftovers Greatest Hits Vol. 3: The Number Twos The final disc of a three-volume series that gathers the Rutles' greatest hits. This disc compiles a number of songs that inspired the Rutles, pre-Rutles work by Neil and Eric, and original versions of \"Archaeology\" tunes.", "Following the release of the 1978 the Rutles album, ATV Music, the then-owner of the publishing rights to the Beatles catalogue, sued Innes for copyright infringement. Though Innes hired a musicologist to defend the originality of his songs, he settled with ATV out of court for 50% of the royalties on the 14 songs included on the album. The settlement did not include any other Rutles songs which were not on the original LP release (some of which were included in the television film, e.g., \"Baby Let Me Be\", \"Between Us\", \"Blue Suede Schubert\", \"Get Up And Go\", \"Goose Step Mama\", and \"It's Looking Good\"); Innes has retained 100% royalties to these. On actual Rutles releases, LP, CD, etc., writing credit for all songs has always been printed as Neil Innes only." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Cast.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Armada\" is a real-time strategy game in which players select a faction from the \"Star Trek\" universe and build fleets of starships and space station bases to conduct battle. Four playable factions are featured in the game: the Federation, the Klingons, the Romulans, and the Borg. A handful of ships from other \"Star Trek\" races appear in campaign missions, including Ferengi, Cardassians, Dominion, and Breen. Each faction fields six different classes of starship ranging from scout to capital ship, which also possesses a unique tactical ability. In addition to weapons and shields, players can capture one another's ships and stations. Two primary resources are used in the game: crew and dilithium. Crew is automatically generated over time via starbases. Dilithium is mined from moons by resource gatherers. The game features a continuous campaign of 20 missions divided into five parts: one for each of the playable races and a fifth part in which the player fights against the Borg while controlling an alliance of the other three races. The game's multiplayer mode allows for skirmish battles with the computer or other players. Individual games are played out on a representative scale that is roughly equivalent to a planetary system. The player may encounter a variety of celestial bodies such as planetoids, asteroids, and nebulae, each having an effect on gameplay.", "The storyline references several media in the \"Star Trek\" universe, incorporating plot elements from television shows \"\" and \"\" as well as the then-recently released film \"\". Following the Dominion War, the Federation turns to rebuilding. However, a Federation timeship, the USS \"Premonition\", suddenly appears from the future, under attack by the Borg. Captain Jean-Luc Picard, commanding the USS \"Enterprise\"-E, comes to its aid. The \"Premonition\"s captain, Thaddeus Demming, warns Picard of an upcoming Borg invasion. Picard then repels an initial Borg attack on a Federation outpost. Elsewhere, Commander Worf assists in the defense of the Ba'ku homeworld from the Son'a, after which he is informed of the \"Enterprise\"'s discovery. While traveling through a hazardous sector of space on his way back to Qo'nos, he is ambushed by his old enemy, Toral, who plans to use a fake Sword of Kahless to take over the Klingon Empire. Toral ambushes Chancellor Martok following another Borg incursion, and another Klingon civil war ensues. After a climactic battle over the Klingon homeworld, Toral is defeated. He retreats to the Neutral Zone, revealing that he was getting assistance from the Romulan Star Empire. Hostilities ensue between the Klingons and the Romulans. The Romulans, in the meantime, come across a stable Omega Particle, a source of nearly limitless power. The particle, discovered first by a Ferengi mining guild, is about to be sold to the Cardassians; the Tal Shiar sends Admiral Sela to secure it before that happens. Sela captures the Omega Particle and, despite some Borg interference, delivers it to a fortified Romulan base. She then allies with the Borg promising the particle after they destroy Toral's remaining forces, but she then betrays and attacks them after Toral is defeated. The Borg, wanting to secure the particle at all costs, assimilate a Dominion cloning facility and use it to clone Locutus, the former title of Jean-Luc Picard when he was assimilated. With Locutus leading their armada, the Borg take the Omega Particle from the Romulans and assimilate Ambassador Spock, who is trying to mediate between the Klingons and Romulans. Without him, the two empires go to war, and the Borg are able to enter the Sol system. Locutus and his armada defeat the Federation fleet, kill Worf and Demming, and assimilate Earth. However, Picard and the \"Enterprise\" manage to escape through a temporal vortex created by the \"Premonition\". Going back in time, the \"Enterprise\" prevents Spock's assimilation. Picard and Spock are able to forge an alliance among the Romulans and the Klingons, and together the three governments repel the invasion of Earth. The unified Klingon, Romulan and Federation forces push the Borg out of the Alpha Quadrant and capture a Transwarp Gate which they take to Unimatrix One, at the heart of the Borg Collective. There, they discover the Omega Particle is fueling the Borg war machine. The combined force destroys the Omega Particle, but Locutus travels back in time before he can be defeated. Back in time, Locutus, in a Borg Sphere, tries to kill Picard aboard the USS \"Enterprise\"-D shortly after the Farpoint mission. However, Locutus is thwarted by the USS \"Premonition\" which, unaffected by the changes to the timeline, pursues Locutus back in time and destroys his ship. When a battle-weary \"Premonition\" returns to the \"present\" and witnesses that all has returned to normal, Demming sends the ship and crew home to a brighter future. The game ends with a final log entry from Picard, noting the departure of the \"Premonition\", as well as the potential disintegration of the Klingon-Romulan alliance, though Picard notes that 'whether the peace will last or not, only time will tell'.", "", "Several voice actors from the series contributed to their characters in the game. Patrick Stewart reprised the roles of Jean-Luc Picard and Locutus, Michael Dorn voiced Worf, Denise Crosby reprised Sela and J. G. Hertzler voiced Chancellor Martok. Several other voice actors who had been previously unaffiliated with \"Star Trek\" also voiced characters in the game, among them was Richard Penn.", "The game received \"average\" reviews according to the review aggregation website GameRankings. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot praised the game for its graphics, which accurately replicated the ships from \"The Next Generation\". He also noted the slight twists in resource and unit mechanics, but concluded that the game was more or less a standard RTS. Mark Asher of IGN criticized a formulaic approach that failed to distinguish the game from other RTS titles. He also considered the single-player game to be boring. Both GameSpot and IGN noted several bugs causing video and sound problems, as well as alt-tabbing causing the game to crash. Greg Orlando reviewed the PC version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that \"The prime directive compels you to buy this game, even if you think that bald-headed freak Jean-Luc Picard was the best \"Enterprise\" captain ever.\" In 2016, Tom's Guide ranked \"Star Trek: Armada\" as one of the top ten Star Trek games." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Villages.", "Economy.", "Residents.", "Name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vormsi's history dates back as far as the 13th century. During most of this time, the island was inhabited by Estonian Swedes (\"rannarootslased\" in Estonian or \"coastal Swedes\" in English), whose population reached 3,000 before World War II. During the war, nearly all of Vormsi's population, along with other Swedes living in Estonia, forming the larger region of Aiboland, were evacuated, or fled, to Sweden. The island's current registered population is about 400.", "The villages on the island include: Hullo (the administrative center), Sviby (the main port), Söderby, Norrby, Diby, Rälby, Förby, Borrby, Kärrslätt, Saxby, Suuremõisa (Magnushof, formerly Busby), Rumpo (the main beach area) and Hosby.", "Vormsi is the per capita wealthiest island and region in Estonia outside of the Tallinn metro area, with incomes on the same level as inner Tallinn in Estonia. This is attributed to the fact that many comparatively wealthy people own summer homes on the island and are registered as residents, so their yearly income tax is forwarded to the island's budget. Vormsi has no industrial activity. The island earns the majority of its revenues from taxation of mainland and overseas income of residents.", "The island of Vormsi has homeowners from several countries and regions: Estonia, Sweden, Finland, Switzerland, Åland Islands.", "Ormsö in Swedish means \"Orm's Island\", and can be translated also as \"Snake Island\". The island's Estonian name Vormsi is derived from its German name Worms or its Swedish name Ormsö." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and profession.", "Family and education.", "Career as a chemist.", "Musical avocation.", "Opera and orchestral works.", "Chamber music.", "Musical legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Borodin was born in Saint Petersburg as an illegitimate son of a 62-year-old Georgian nobleman, Luka Stepanovich Gedevanishvili, and a married 25-year-old Russian woman, Evdokia Konstantinovna Antonova. Due to the circumstances of Alexander's birth, the nobleman had him registered as the son of one of his Russian serfs, Porfiry Borodin, hence the composer's Russian last name. As a result of this registration, both Alexander and his nominal Russian father Porfiry were officially serfs of Alexander's biological father Luka. The Georgian father emancipated Alexander from serfdom when he was 7 years old and provided housing and money for him and his mother. Despite this, Alexander was never publicly recognized by his mother, who was referred to by young Borodin as his \"aunt\". Despite his status as a commoner, Borodin was well provided for by his Georgian father and grew up in a large four-storey house, which was gifted to Alexander and his \"aunt\" by the nobleman. Although his registration prevented enrollment in a proper gymnasium, Borodin received good education in all of the subjects through private tutors at home. During 1850 he enrolled in the Medical–Surgical Academy in Saint Petersburg, which was later the workplace of Ivan Pavlov, and pursued a career in chemistry. On graduation he spent a year as surgeon in a military hospital, followed by three years of advanced scientific study in western Europe. During 1862 Borodin returned to Saint Petersburg to begin a professorship of chemistry at the Imperial Medical-Surgical Academy and spent the remainder of his scientific career in research, lecturing and overseeing the education of others. Eventually, he established medical courses for women (1872). He began taking lessons in composition from Mily Balakirev during 1862. He married Ekaterina Protopopova, a pianist, during 1863, and had at least one daughter, named Gania. Music remained a secondary vocation for Borodin besides his main career as a chemist and physician. He suffered poor health, having overcome cholera and several minor heart failures. He died suddenly during a ball at the Academy, and was interred in Tikhvin Cemetery at the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Saint Petersburg.", "In his profession Borodin gained great respect, being particularly noted for his work on aldehydes. Between 1859 and 1862 Borodin had a postdoctoral position in Heidelberg. He worked in the laboratory of Emil Erlenmeyer working on benzene derivatives. He also spent time in Pisa, working on halocarbons. One experiment published during 1862 described the first nucleophilic displacement of chlorine by fluorine in benzoyl chloride. The radical halodecarboxylation of aliphatic carboxylic acids was first demonstrated by Borodin during 1861 by his synthesis of methyl bromide from silver acetate. It was Heinz Hunsdiecker and his wife Cläre, however, who developed Borodin's work into a general method, for which they were granted a US patent during 1939, and which they published in the journal \"Chemische Berichte\" during 1942. The method is generally known as either the Hunsdiecker reaction or the Hunsdiecker–Borodin reaction. During 1862, Borodin returned to the Medical–Surgical Academy (now known as the S.M. Kirov Military Medical Academy), and accepted a professorship of chemistry. He worked on self-condensation of small aldehydes in a process now known as the aldol reaction, the discovery of which is jointly credited to Borodin and Charles-Adolphe Wurtz. Borodin investigated the condensation of valerian aldehyde and oenanth aldehyde, which was reported by von Richter during 1869. During 1873, he described his work to the Russian Chemical Society and noted similarities with compounds recently reported by Wurtz. He published his last full article during 1875 on reactions of amides and his last publication concerned a method for the identification of urea in animal urine. His successor as chemistry professor of the Medical-Surgical academy was his son-in-law and fellow chemist, Alexander Dianin.", "", "Borodin met Mily Balakirev during 1862. While under Balakirev's tutelage in composition he began his Symphony No. 1 in E-flat major; it was first performed during 1869, with Balakirev conducting. During that same year Borodin started on his Symphony No. 2 in B minor, which was not particularly successful at its premiere during 1877 under Eduard Nápravník, but with some minor re-orchestration received a successful performance during 1879 by the Free Music School under Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov's direction. During 1880 he composed the popular symphonic poem \"In the Steppes of Central Asia\". Two years later he began composing a third symphony, but left it unfinished at his death; two movements of it were later completed and orchestrated by Alexander Glazunov. During 1868 Borodin became distracted from initial work on the second symphony by preoccupation with the opera \"Prince Igor\", which is considered by some to be his most significant work and one of the most important historical Russian operas. It contains the \"Polovtsian Dances\", often performed as a stand-alone concert work forming what is probably Borodin's best-known composition. Borodin left the opera (and a few other works) incomplete at his death. \"Prince Igor\" was completed posthumously by Rimsky-Korsakov and Alexander Glazunov. It is set in the 12th century, when the Russians, commanded by Prince Igor of Seversk, determined to conquer the barbarous Polovtsians by travelling eastward across the Steppes. The Polovtsians were apparently a nomadic tribe originally of Turkish origin who habitually attacked southern Russia. A full solar eclipse early during the first act foreshadows an ominous outcome to the invasion. Prince Igor's troops are defeated. The story tells of the capture of Prince Igor, and his son, Vladimir, of Russia by Polovtsian chief Khan Konchak, who entertains his prisoners lavishly and orders his slaves to perform the famous 'Polovtsian Dances', which provide a thrilling climax to the second act. The second half of the opera finds Prince Igor returning to his homeland, but rather than finding himself in disgrace, he is welcomed home by the townspeople and by his wife, Yaroslavna. Although for a while rarely performed in its entirety outside of Russia, this opera has received two notable new productions recently, one at the Bolshoi State Opera and Ballet Company in Russia during 2013, and one at the Metropolitan Opera Company of New York City during 2014.", "No other member of the Balakirev circle identified himself so much with absolute music as did Borodin in his two string quartets, in addition to his many earlier chamber compositions. As a cellist, he was an enthusiastic chamber music player, an interest that increased during his chemical studies in Heidelberg between 1859 and 1861. This early period yielded, among other chamber works, a string sextet and a piano quintet. Borodin based the thematic structure and instrumental texture of his pieces on those of Felix Mendelssohn. During 1875 Borodin started his First String Quartet, much to the displeasure of Mussorgsky and Vladimir Stasov; the other members of The Five were known to be hostile to chamber music. The First Quartet demonstrates mastery of the string quartet form. Borodin's Second Quartet, written in 1881, displays strong lyricism, as in the third movement's popular \"Nocturne.\" While the First Quartet is richer in changes of mood, the Second Quartet has a more uniform atmosphere and expression.", "Borodin's fame outside the Russian Empire was made possible during his lifetime by Franz Liszt, who arranged a performance of the Symphony No. 1 in Germany during 1880, and by the Comtesse de Mercy-Argenteau in Belgium and France. His music is noted for its strong lyricism and rich harmonies. Along with some influences from Western composers, as a member of The Five his music has also a Russian style. His passionate music and unusual harmonies proved to have a lasting influence on the younger French composers Debussy and Ravel (in homage, the latter composed during 1913 a piano piece entitled \"À la manière de Borodine\"). The evocative characteristics of Borodin's music made possible the adaptation of his compositions in the 1953 musical \"Kismet\", by Robert Wright and George Forrest, notably in the songs \"Stranger in Paradise\", \"And This Is My Beloved\" and \"Baubles, Bangles, & Beads\". In 1954, Borodin was posthumously awarded a Tony Award for this show.", "Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and development.", "Industrial policy.", "Economics of manufacturing.", "Safety.", "Manufacturing and investment.", "List of countries by manufacturing output." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. Training was by apprenticeship. In much of the pre-industrial world, the guild system protected the privileges and trade secrets of urban artisans. In the pre-industrial world, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, where household-based manufacturing served as a supplemental subsistence strategy to agriculture (and continues to do so in places). Entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. The factory system was first adopted in Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century and later spread around the world. The main characteristic of the factory system is the use of machinery, originally powered by water or steam and later by electricity. Increased use of economies of scale, the centralization of factories, and standardization of interchangeable parts were adopted in the American system of manufacturing in the nineteenth century. Manufacturing in the Soviet Union was based on collectivism.", "", "Emerging technologies have provided some new growth in advanced manufacturing employment opportunities in the Manufacturing Belt in the United States. Manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs. The clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks. These costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally. Developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the environmental costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a historic role in the negotiation of worker rights and wages. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world. Tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing. These are significant dynamics in the ongoing process, occurring over the last few decades, of manufacture-based industries relocating operations to \"developing-world\" economies where the costs of production are significantly lower than in \"developed-world\" economies.", "Manufacturing has unique health and safety challenges and has been recognized by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as a priority industry sector in the National Occupational Research Agenda (NORA) to identify and provide intervention strategies regarding occupational health and safety issues.", "Surveys and analyses of trends and issues in manufacturing and investment around the world focus on such things as: In addition to general overviews, researchers have examined the features and factors affecting particular key aspects of manufacturing development. They have compared production and investment in a range of Western and non-Western countries and presented case studies of growth and performance in important individual industries and market-economic sectors. On June 26, 2009, Jeff Immelt, the CEO of General Electric, called for the United States to increase its manufacturing base employment to 20% of the workforce, commenting that the U.S. has outsourced too much in some areas and can no longer rely on the financial sector and consumer spending to drive demand. Further, while U.S. manufacturing performs well compared to the rest of the U.S. economy, research shows that it performs poorly compared to manufacturing in other high-wage countries. A total of 3.2 million – one in six U.S. manufacturing jobs – have disappeared between 2000 and 2007. In the UK, EEF the manufacturers organization has led calls for the UK economy to be rebalanced to rely less on financial services and has actively promoted the manufacturing agenda.", "List of top 20 manufacturing countries by total value of manufacturing in US dollars for its noted year according to World Bank." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life (1929–1951).", "Family and childhood.", "College and early career.", "Marriage to John F. Kennedy.", "First Lady of the United States (1961–1963).", "Campaign for presidency.", "As First Lady.", "White House restoration.", "Foreign trips.", "Death of infant son.", "Assassination and funeral of John F. Kennedy.", "Life following the assassination (1963–1975).", "Mourning period and later public appearances.", "Relationship with Robert F. Kennedy.", "Marriage to Aristotle Onassis.", "Later years (1975–1990s).", "Illness, death and funeral.", "Legacy.", "Popularity.", "Style icon.", "Portrayals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born on July 28, 1929, at Stony Brook Southampton Hospital in Southampton, New York, to Wall Street stockbroker John Vernou \"Black Jack\" Bouvier III and socialite Janet Norton Lee. Bouvier's mother was of Irish descent, and her father had French, Scottish, and English ancestry. Named after her father, Bouvier was baptized at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola in Manhattan; she was raised in the Catholic faith. Jacqueline's younger sister, Caroline Lee, was born four years later in 1933. Bouvier spent her early childhood years in Manhattan and at Lasata, the Bouviers' country estate in East Hampton on Long Island. She idolized her father, who likewise favored her over her sister, calling", "In the fall of 1947, Bouvier entered Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York, at that time a women's institution. She had wanted to attend Sarah Lawrence College, closer to New York City, but her parents insisted that she choose the more isolated Vassar. Bouvier was an accomplished student who participated in the school's art and drama clubs and wrote for its newspaper. Due to her dislike of Vassar's location in Poughkeepsie, she did not take an active part in its social life and instead traveled back to Manhattan for the weekends. She", "Bouvier and U.S. Representative John F. Kennedy belonged to the same social circle and were formally introduced by a mutual friend, journalist Charles L. Bartlett, at a dinner party in May 1952. Bouvier was attracted to Kennedy's physical appearance, charm, wit and wealth. The pair also shared the similarities of Catholicism, writing, enjoying reading and having previously lived abroad. Kennedy was busy running for the U.S. Senate seat in Massachusetts; the relationship grew more serious and he proposed to her after the November election. Bouvier took some time to accept, because she had been assigned to cover the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in London for \"The Washington Times-Herald\". After a month in Europe, she returned to the United States and accepted Kennedy's marriage proposal. She then resigned from her position at the newspaper. Their engagement was officially announced on June 25, 1953. Bouvier and Kennedy married on September 12, 1953, at St. Mary's Church in Newport, Rhode Island, in a mass celebrated by Boston's Archbishop Richard Cushing. The wedding was considered the social event of the season with an estimated 700 guests at the ceremony and 1,200 at the reception that followed at Hammersmith Farm. The wedding dress, now housed in the Kennedy Library in Boston, Massachusetts, and the dresses of her attendants were created by designer Ann Lowe of New York City who was not credited by Bouvier. The newlyweds honeymooned in Acapulco, Mexico, before settling in their new home, Hickory Hill in McLean, Virginia, a suburb of Washington, D.C. Jacqueline developed a warm relationship with her in-laws,", "", "On January 3, 1960, John F. Kennedy was a United States Senator from Massachusetts when he announced his candidacy for the presidency and launched his campaign nationwide. In the early months of the election year, Jacqueline accompanied her husband to campaign events such as whistle-stops and dinners. Shortly after the campaign began, she became pregnant. Due to her previous high-risk pregnancies, she decided to stay at home in Georgetown. Jacqueline subsequently participated in the campaign by writing a weekly syndicated newspaper column, \"Campaign Wife\", answering correspondence, and giving interviews to the media. Despite her non-participation in the campaign, Jacqueline became the subject of intense media attention with her fashion choices. On one hand, she was admired for her personal style; she was frequently featured in women's magazines alongside film stars and named as one of", "On November 8, 1960, John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated Republican opponent Richard Nixon in the U.S. presidential election. A little over two weeks later on November 25, Jacqueline gave birth to the couple's first son, John F. Kennedy, Jr. She spent two weeks recuperating in the hospital, during which the most minute details of both her and her son's conditions were reported by the media in what has been considered the first instance of national interest in the Kennedy family. Her husband was sworn in as president on January 20, 1961. As a presidential couple, the Kennedys differed from the Eisenhowers by their political affiliation, youth, and their relationship with the media. Historian Gil Troy has noted that in particular, they \"emphasized vague appearances rather than specific accomplishments or passionate commitments\" and therefore fit in well in the early 1960s' \"cool, TV-oriented culture\". The discussion about Jacqueline's fashion choices", "Jacqueline had visited the White House on two occasions before she became First Lady: the first time as a grade-school tourist in 1941 and again as the guest of outgoing First Lady Mamie Eisenhower shortly before her husband's inauguration. She was dismayed to find that the mansion's rooms were furnished with undistinguished pieces that displayed little historical significance and made it her first major project as First Lady to restore its historical character. On her first day in residence, she began her efforts with the help", "Throughout her husband's presidency and more than any of the preceding First Ladies, Kennedy made many official visits to other countries, on her own or with the President. Despite the initial worry that she might not have \"political appeal\", she proved popular among international dignitaries. Before the Kennedys' first official visit to France in 1961, a television special was shot in French with the First Lady on the White House lawn. After arriving in the country, she impressed the public with her ability to speak French, as well as her extensive knowledge of French history. At the conclusion of the visit, \"Time\" magazine seemed delighted with the First Lady and noted, \"There was also that fellow who came with her.\" Even President Kennedy joked, \"I am the man who accompanied Jacqueline Kennedy to Paris – and I have enjoyed it!\" From France, the Kennedys traveled", "In early 1963, Jacqueline was again pregnant, which led her to curtail her official duties. She spent most of the summer at a home she and the President had rented on Squaw Island, which was near the Kennedy compound on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. On August 7 (five weeks ahead of her scheduled due date), she went into labor and gave birth to a boy, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, via emergency Caesarean section at nearby Otis Air Force Base. The infant's lungs were not fully developed, and he was transferred from Cape Cod to Boston Children's Hospital, where he died of hyaline membrane disease two days after birth. Jacqueline had remained at Otis Air Force Base to recuperate after the Caesarean delivery; her husband went to Boston to be with their infant son and was present when", "On November 21, 1963, the First Lady and the President embarked on a political trip to Texas with several goals in mind; this was the first time that she had joined her husband on such a trip in the U.S. After a breakfast on November 22, they took a very short flight on Air Force One from Fort Worth's Carswell Air Force Base to Dallas' Love Field, accompanied by Texas Governor John Connally and his wife Nellie. The First Lady was wearing a bright pink Chanel suit and a pillbox hat, which had been personally selected by President Kennedy. A motorcade was to take them to the Trade Mart, where the president was scheduled to speak at a lunch. The First Lady was seated to her husband's left in the third row of seats in the presidential limousine, with the Governor and his wife seated in front of them. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife followed in another car in the motorcade. After the motorcade turned the corner onto Elm Street in Dealey Plaza, the First Lady heard what she thought to be a motorcycle backfiring and did not realize that it was a gunshot until she heard Governor Connally scream. Within 8.4 seconds, two more shots had rung out, and one of the shots struck her husband in the head. Almost immediately, she began to climb onto the back of the limousine; Secret Service agent Clint Hill later told the Warren Commission that he thought she had been reaching across the trunk for a piece of her husband's skull that had been blown off. Hill ran to the car and leapt onto it, directing her back to her seat. As Hill stood on the back bumper, Associated Press", "", "On November 29, 1963—a week after her husband's assassination—Jacqueline was interviewed in Hyannis Port by Theodore H. White of \"Life\" magazine. In that session, she compared the Kennedy years in the White House to King Arthur's mythical Camelot, commenting that the President often played the title song of Lerner and Loewe's musical recording before retiring to bed. She also quoted Queen Guinevere from the musical, trying to express how the loss felt. The era of the Kennedy administration would subsequently often be referred to as the \"Camelot Era,\" although historians have later argued that", "After her husband's assassination, Jacqueline relied heavily on her brother-in-law Robert F. Kennedy; she observed him to be the \"least like his father\" of the Kennedy brothers. He had been a source of support after she had suffered a miscarriage early in her marriage; it was he, not her husband, who stayed with her in the hospital. In the aftermath of the assassination, Bobby became a surrogate father for her children until eventual demands by his own large family and his responsibilities as Attorney General required him to reduce attention. He credited Jackie with convincing him to stay in politics, and she supported his 1964 run for United States Senator from New York. The January 1968 Tet offensive in Vietnam resulted in a drop in President Johnson's poll numbers, and Robert Kennedy's advisors urged him to enter the", "After Robert Kennedy's death in 1968, Jacqueline reportedly suffered a relapse of the depression she had suffered in the days following her husband's assassination nearly five years prior. She came to fear for her life and those of her two children, saying: \"If they're killing Kennedys, then my children are targets... I want to get out of this country\". On October 20, 1968, Kennedy married her long-time friend Aristotle Onassis, a wealthy Greek shipping magnate who was able to provide the privacy and security she sought for herself and her children. The wedding took place on Skorpios, Onassis' private Greek island in the Ionian Sea. After marrying Onassis, she took the legal name Jacqueline Onassis and consequently lost her right to Secret Service protection, which is an entitlement of a widow of a U.S. president. The marriage brought her considerable adverse publicity. The fact that Aristotle", "After the death of her second husband, Onassis returned permanently to the United States, splitting her time between Manhattan, Martha's Vineyard, and the Kennedy compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. In 1975, she became a consulting editor at Viking Press, a position that she held for two years. After almost a decade of avoiding participation in political events, Onassis attended the 1976 Democratic National Convention and stunned the assembled delegates when she appeared in the visitors' gallery. She resigned from Viking Press in 1977 after John Leonard of \"The New York Times\" stated that Onassis held some responsibility for Viking's publication of the Jeffrey Archer novel \"Shall We Tell the President?\", set in a fictional future presidency of Ted Kennedy and describing an assassination plot against him. Two years later, she appeared alongside her mother-in-law Rose Kennedy at Faneuil Hall in Boston when Ted Kennedy announced that he was going to challenge incumbent president Jimmy Carter for the Democratic nomination for president. She participated in the subsequent presidential campaign, which was unsuccessful. Following her resignation from Viking Press, Kennedy was hired by Doubleday, where she worked as an associate editor under an old friend, John Turner Sargent, Sr. Among the books she edited for the company are Larry Gonick's \"The Cartoon History of the Universe\", the English translation of the three volumes of Naghib Mahfuz's \"Cairo Trilogy\" (with Martha Levin), and", "In November 1993, Jacqueline was thrown from her horse while participating in a fox hunt in Middleburg, Virginia, and was taken to the hospital to be examined. A swollen lymph node was discovered in her groin, which was initially diagnosed by the doctor to be caused by an infection. The fall from the horse contributed to her deteriorating health over the next six months. In December, Onassis developed new symptoms, including a stomach ache and swollen lymph nodes in her neck, and was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma, a blood cancer. She began chemotherapy in January 1994 and publicly announced the diagnosis, stating that the initial prognosis was good. She continued to work at Doubleday, but by March the cancer had spread to her spinal cord and brain, and by May to her liver and was deemed", "", "Jacqueline Kennedy remains one of the most popular First Ladies. She was featured 27 times on the annual Gallup list of the top 10 most admired people of the second half of the 20th century; this number is superseded by only Billy Graham and Queen Elizabeth II and is higher than that of any U.S. president. In 2011, she was ranked in fifth place in a list of the five most influential First Ladies of the twentieth century for her \"profound effect on American society\". In 2014, she ranked third place in a Siena College Institute survey, behind Eleanor Roosevelt and Abigail Adams. In 2015, she was included in a list of the top ten influential U.S. First Ladies due to the admiration for her based around \"her fashion sense and later after her husband's assassination, for her poise and dignity\". In 2020, \"Time\" magazine included her name", "Jacqueline Kennedy became a global fashion icon during her husband's presidency. After the 1960 election, she commissioned French-born American fashion designer and Kennedy family friend Oleg Cassini to create an original wardrobe for her appearances as First Lady. From 1961 to 1963, Cassini dressed her in many of her most iconic ensembles, including her Inauguration Day fawn coat and Inaugural gala gown, as well as many outfits for her visits to Europe, India, and Pakistan. In 1961, Kennedy spent $45,446 more on fashion than", "Jaclyn Smith portrays Kennedy in the 1981 television film \"Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy\", depicting Kennedy's life until the end of the JFK presidency. The film's producer Louis Rudolph stated an interest in creating a \"positive portrait of a woman who I thought had been very much maligned,\" comments that were interpreted by John J. O'Connor of \"The New York Times\" as erasing any chances of critique toward Kennedy. Though Smith received praise for her performance, with Marilynn Preston calling her \"convincing in an impossible role\", Tom Shales wrote \"Jaclyn Smith couldn't act her way out of a Gucci bag\". Blair Brown portrays Kennedy in the 1983 miniseries \"Kennedy\", set during the Kennedy presidency. Brown used wigs and makeup to better resemble Kennedy and said through playing the role she gained a different view of the assassination: \"I realized that this was a woman witnessing the public execution of her husband.\" Jason Bailey praised her performance, while Andrea Mullaney noted her resemblance to Kennedy and general shyness. Brown was nominated for a television BAFTA as Best Actress and a Golden Globe as Best Actress in a Miniseries or Television Film. Marianna Bishop, Sarah Michelle Gellar, and Roma Downey portray Kennedy in the 1991 miniseries \"A Woman Named Jackie\", covering her entire life until the death of Aristotle Onassis. Of being contacted for the role, Downey reflected: \"I thought I was a strange choice because I didn't think I looked anything like her and I was Irish.\" Half of Downey's wardrobe was designed by Shelley Komarov and Downey stated that though she had long harbored \"great respect and admiration\" for Kennedy, she was unaware of the troubles in her childhood. Reviewer Rick Kogan praised Downey with doing \"a surprisingly fine job in the demanding title role\", while Howard Rosenberg lamented Downey's performance failing to \"pierce this thick glaze of superficiality\". \"Ability\" credited the role with raising Downey's profile. In 1992, the miniseries won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Miniseries. Rhoda Griffis portrays Kennedy in the 1992 film \"Love Field\", set shortly before and in the aftermath of JFK's assassination. It was Griffis' feature film debut. Griffis said she had been told by her orthodontist of her resemblance to Kennedy and was cast as her upon walking into the auditions for the role. Sally Taylor-Isherwood, Emily VanCamp, and Joanne Whalley portray Onassis in the 2000 television miniseries \"Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis\", covering chronologically her entire life. Whalley prepared for the role by listening to recordings of Kennedy's voice along with working with a dialect coach; by the end of production, she developed an attachment to Kennedy. Laura Fries assessed Whalley as lacking Kennedy's charisma despite being \"soulful and regal\" in her own right while Ron Wertheimer viewed Whalley as being passive in the role and lamented \"the filmmakers render Jackie as Forrest Gump in a pillbox hat, someone who keeps passing close to the center of things without really touching -- or being touched by -- very much.\" Stephanie Romanov portrays Kennedy in the 2000 film \"Thirteen Days\", taking place during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Philip French of \"The Guardian\" noted her small role and being out of \"the loop\" was accurate of women's roles in \"the early Sixties\". Laura Clifford called Romanov \"unconvincing\" in the role. Jill Hennessy portrays Kennedy in the 2001 television film \"Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot\". Hennessy prepared for the performance by watching hours of archival footage of Kennedy and cited one of the reasons for her favoring of the miniseries was its distinctiveness in not focusing \"strictly on the men or only on Jackie\". Reviewers Anita Gates and Terry Kelleher believed Hennessy brought \"elegance\" to the role while Steve Oxman panned the performance: \"Hennessy simply doesn't possess the right natural grace. But this pic has a habit of telling us more that it shows us, and the actress manages to communicate the most important elements of the story without ever making it especially convincing.\" Jacqueline Bisset portrays Onassis in the 2003 film \"\". Bisset said the glasses she used during the film were holdovers from a prior role in \"The Greek Tycoon\". Neil Genzlinger thought Bisset \"should have known better\" in taking on the role while Kristen Tauer wrote Bisset portraying Onassis as a mother was a \"different central light than many proceeding films\". Jeanne Tripplehorn portrays Onassis in the 2009 film \"Grey Gardens\" for a single scene. Tripplehorn said questions she had about Edith Bouvier Beale that she thought would be answered by being a part of the film remained unsolved. Tripplehorn received diverse reactions to her performance while Brian Lowry noted her resemblance to Onassis and small role. Katie Holmes portrays Kennedy in the 2011 miniseries \"The Kennedys\", set during the Kennedy presidency and its 2017 sequel \"\", focusing on her life after 1968. Mary McNamara and Hank Stuever regarded Holmes' performance with neutrality in their reviews of \"The Kennedys\" while Hadley Freeman called her \"bloodless\" in the role. Holmes stated reprising the role was a \"bigger challenge\" for having to act through later periods of Kennedy's life. When asked of the concurrent \"Jackie\" film, Holmes said, \"I think its really exciting. It's just is a testament to how amazing Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis was and how much she meant to our country.\" Holmes also stated both should be watched due to covering different periods of Jacqueline's life. In \"The Kennedys: After Camelot\", Holmes' performance was viewed favorably by Daniel Feinberg and Allison Keane while Kristi Turnquist panned her. Minka Kelly portrays Kennedy in the 2013 film \"The Butler\", giving the film's protagonist Cecil one of her husband's neckties after his assassination. Kelly said she was intimidated and scared taking on the role. Kelly admitted to having difficulty with perfecting Kennedy's voice, going \"to sleep listening to her\", and having discomfort with the wool clothing associated with the role. Ginnifer Goodwin portrays her in the 2013 television film \"Killing Kennedy\". Goodwin used intimate photos to better portray Kennedy and was concerned \"to do her justice and to play her as accurately as possible without ever doing an impression of her\". Costar Rob Lowe said of seeing Goodwin in the pink Chanel suit, \"It made it real. If I were under any illusions about what we were doing, seeing her in that iconic moment was, I would say, sobering.\" Tom Carson wrote that Goodwin's \"trademark vulnerability humanizes Jackie considerably\" while Bruce Miller called her a miscast and Robert Lloyd and Brian Lowry panned her performance. Kim Allen portrays Kennedy in the 2016 film \"LBJ\". Ray Bennett noted in his review of the film that Allen was in a non-speaking role. Natalie Portman portrays Kennedy in the 2016 film \"Jackie\", set during the JFK presidency and the immediate aftermath of the assassination. Portman admitted being intimidated taking the role and doing research in preparation for filming. Nigel M. Smith wrote that by portraying Kennedy, Portman was \"taking on arguably the biggest challenge of her career\". Manohla Dargis, David Edelstein, and Peter Bradshaw praised her performance. Portman was nominated for Best Actress by Academy Awards, AACTA Awards, AWFJ, AFCA, and BSFC, and won the category by the Online Film Critics Society. Jodi Balfour portrays Kennedy in the eighth episode of the second season of Netflix's original drama series, \"The Crown\", titled 'Dear Mrs. Kennedy,' set during the June 1961 visit of the Kennedy couple to the Buckingham Palace and the immediate reaction to the assassination of John F. Kennedy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The phrase \"useful idiot\" has often been attributed to Vladimir Lenin, but he is not documented as ever having used the phrase. In a 1987 article for \"The New York Times\", American journalist William Safire investigated the origin of the term, noting that a senior reference librarian at the Library of Congress had been unable to find the phrase in Lenin's works and concluding that in the absence of new evidence, the term could not be attributed to Lenin. Similarly, the \"Oxford English Dictionary\" in defining \"useful idiot\" says: \"The phrase does not seem to reflect any expression used within the Soviet Union\". The term appeared in a June 1948 \"New York Times\" article on contemporary Italian politics (\"Communist shift is seen in Europe\"), citing the centrist social democratic Italian paper \"L'Umanità\". \"L'Umanità\" wrote that left-wing social democrats, who had entered into a popular front with the Italian Communist Party during the 1948 elections, would be given the option to either merge with the Communists or leave the alliance. The term was later used in a 1955 article in the \"American Federation of Labor News-Reporter\" to refer to Italians who supported Communist causes. \"Time\" first used the phrase in January 1958, writing that some Italian Christian Democrats considered social activist Danilo Dolci a \"useful idiot\" for Communist causes. It has since recurred in that periodical's articles. A similar term, \"useful innocents\", appears in a 1946 \"Reader's Digest\" article titled \"Yugoslavia's Tragic Lesson to the World\", written by Bogdan Raditsa. Raditsa had served the Yugoslav government-in-exile during World War II, supported Josip Broz Tito's partisans (though not a Communist himself) and briefly served in Tito's new Yugoslav government before leaving for New York. \"In the Serbo-Croat language\", says Raditsa, \"the communists have a phrase for true democrats who consent to collaborate with them for [the sake of] 'democracy'. It is \"Korisne Budale\", or Useful Innocents.\" In his 1947 book, \"Planned Chaos\", Austrian-American economist Ludwig von Mises writes that the term \"useful innocents\" was used by Communists for liberals, whom von Mises describes as \"confused and misguided sympathizers\".", "In 1959, Congressman Ed Derwinski of Illinois entered an editorial by the \"Chicago Daily Calumet\" into the Congressional record, referring to Americans who traveled to the Soviet Union to promote peace as \"what Lenin calls useful idiots in the Communist game\". In 1961, American journalist Frank Gibney wrote that Lenin had coined the phrase \"useful idiot\". Gibney wrote that the phrase was a good description of \"Communist follower[s]\" from Jean-Paul Sartre to left-wing socialists in Japan to members of the Chilean Popular Front. In a speech in 1965, Spruille Braden, an American diplomat who was stationed in a number of Latin American countries during the 1930s and 1940s and was later a lobbyist for the United Fruit Company, said the term was used by Joseph Stalin to refer to what Braden called \"countless innocent although well-intentioned sentimentalists or idealists\" who aided the Soviet agenda. Writing in \"The New York Times\" in 1987, William Safire discussed the increasing use of the term \"useful idiot\" against \"anybody insufficiently anti-Communist in the view of the phrase's user\", including Congressmen who supported the anti-Contras Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the Dutch socialists. After President Ronald Reagan concluded negotiations with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev over the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, conservative political leader Howard Phillips declared Reagan a \"useful idiot for Soviet propaganda.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and heritage.", "Career.", "The Ward Leonard motor control system.", "Sudden death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Harry Ward Leonard was born on February 8, 1861 in Cincinnati, Ohio, to Ezra George Leonard and Henrietta Dana Ward. He was the fourth of their six children. He was a great great grandson of American Revolutionary War General Artemas Ward. In 1895, he was married to Carolyn Good in Geneva, Switzerland. As a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Leonard was instrumental in founding the student newspaper, \"The Tech\", and served as the president of the paper’s board of directors. He graduated from MIT in 1883.", "After graduating from MIT, Leonard was employed by Thomas Edison to help introduce the Edison central-station electric power distribution system. Within four years, he was promoted to the position of general superintendent of the Western Electric Light Company of Chicago, Illinois. The following year, he established Leonard and Izard, a firm that set up electric railways and generating stations. In 1889, his firm was acquired by Edison and Leonard became the general manager of the Edison operations in the United States and Canada. In 1896, Leonard organized and became president of Ward Leonard Electric as an Edison company in Hoboken, New Jersey. In 1898, he left the Edison organization and incorporated his own Ward Leonard Electric Company on February 19, 1898 in the village of Bronxville in Westchester County, New York. While working for Edison, Leonard patented a number of inventions and he continued developing new ideas throughout his career. He was granted patents for more than 100 inventions of electrical distribution and control systems and related equipment.", "The Ward Leonard motor control system was Mr. Leonard’s best known and most lasting invention. It was introduced in about 1891 and soon became the most widely used type of electric motor speed control. In a Ward Leonard system, a drives a direct current (DC) generator at a constant speed. The armature of the DC generator is connected directly to the armature of a DC motor. The DC motor drives the load equipment at an adjustable speed. The motor speed is adjusted by adjusting the output voltage of the generator using a rheostat to adjust the excitation current in the field winding. The motor field current is usually not adjusted, but the motor field is sometimes reduced to increase the speed above the base speed. The prime mover is usually an alternating current (AC) motor, but a DC motor or an engine might be used instead. To provide the DC field excitation power supply, Ward Leonard systems usually include an exciter generator that is driven by the prime mover. Although only technical specialists are likely to be familiar with Ward Leonard systems, many millions of people have ridden in elevators powered by Ward Leonard drives. From the 1920s through the 1980s most electrically driven elevators used Ward Leonard control and many systems remained in use at the beginning of the 21st century. Many variations of the Ward Leonard system have been implemented, but they have generally continued to be called Ward Leonard systems. H. Ward Leonard and many others have patented auxiliary control systems used to regulate the motor speed as required to automatically perform specific tasks such as controlling pump speed to regulate flow. Mechanical types of adjustable-speed drives and other electrical types continued to be used and new types developed after the Ward Leonard system was introduced. Electron tube types of DC motor controls began to be developed in the 1920s but electronic controls didn’t seriously begin to displace the Ward Leonard system until thyristor controlled drives were developed in the late 1960s. By the mid-1970s, Ward Leonard drives were rapidly becoming obsolete, but the replacement of existing Ward Leonard drives has continued past the end of the 20th century.", "H. Ward Leonard was an active member of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, publishing technical papers, attending meetings and making presentations. He died suddenly on February 18, 1915 in New York while attending the annual dinner of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Origin and development.", "Origins and role models.", "The competitive spirit.", "Early mannerism.", "High maniera.", "Spread of Mannerism.", "Sculpture.", "Early theorists.", "Giorgio Vasari.", "Gian Paolo Lomazzo.", "Characteristics of artworks created during the Mannerist period.", "Mannerist artists and examples of their works.", "Jacopo da Pontormo.", "Rosso Fiorentino and the School of Fontainebleau.", "Agnolo Bronzino.", "Alessandro Allori.", "Jacopo Tintoretto.", "El Greco.", "Benvenuto Cellini.", "Lavinia Fontana.", "Taddeo Zuccaro (or Zuccari).", "Federico Zuccaro (or Zuccari).", "Joachim Wtewael.", "Giuseppe Arcimboldo.", "Mannerist architecture.", "Renaissance examples.", "Mannerism in literature and music.", "Mannerism and theatre.", "Commedia dell'arte, \"disegno interno\", and the \"discordia concors\".", "Neo-Mannerism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The word, \"Mannerism\" derives from the Italian \"maniera\", meaning \"style\" or \"manner\". Like the English word \"style\", \"maniera\" can either indicate a specific type of style (a beautiful style, an abrasive style) or indicate an absolute that needs no qualification (someone \"has style\"). In the second edition of his \"Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects\" (1568), Giorgio Vasari used \"maniera\" in three different contexts: to discuss an artist's manner or method of working; to describe a personal or group style, such as the term \"maniera greca\" to refer to the Byzantine style or simply to the \"maniera\" of Michelangelo; and to affirm a positive judgment of artistic quality. Vasari was also a Mannerist artist, and he described the period in which he worked as \"la maniera moderna\", or the \"modern style\". James V. Mirollo describes how \"bella maniera\" poets attempted to surpass in virtuosity the sonnets of Petrarch. This notion of \"bella maniera\" suggests that artists who were thus inspired looked to", "By the end of the High Renaissance, young artists experienced a crisis: it seemed that everything that could be achieved was already achieved. No more difficulties, technical or otherwise, remained to be solved. The detailed knowledge of anatomy, light, physiognomy and the way in which humans register emotion in expression and gesture, the innovative use of the human form in figurative composition, the use of the subtle gradation of tone, all had reached near perfection. The young artists needed to find a new goal, and they sought new approaches. At this point Mannerism started to emerge. The new style developed between 1510 and 1520 either in Florence, or in Rome, or in both cities simultaneously.", "This period has been described as a \"natural extension\" of the art of Andrea del Sarto, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Michelangelo developed his own style at an early age, a deeply original one which was greatly admired at first, then often copied and imitated by other artists of the era. One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his \"terribilità\", a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and subsequent artists attempted to imitate it. Other artists learned Michelangelo's impassioned and highly personal style by copying the works of the master, a standard way that students learned to paint and sculpt. His Sistine Chapel ceiling provided examples for them to follow, in particular his representation of collected figures often called \"ignudi\" and of the Libyan Sibyl, his vestibule to the Laurentian Library, the figures on his Medici tombs, and above all his \"Last Judgment\". The later Michelangelo was one of the great role models of Mannerism. Young artists broke into his house and stole drawings from him. In his book \"Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects\", Giorgio Vasari noted that Michelangelo stated once: \"Those who are followers can never pass by whom they follow\".", "The competitive spirit was cultivated by patrons who encouraged sponsored artists to emphasize virtuosic technique and to compete with one another for commissions. It drove artists to look for new approaches and dramatically illuminated scenes, elaborate clothes and compositions, elongated proportions, highly stylized poses, and a lack of clear perspective. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo were each given a commission by Gonfaloniere Piero Soderini to decorate a wall in the Hall of Five Hundred in Florence. These two artists were set to paint side by side and compete against each other, fueling the incentive to be as innovative as possible.", "The early Mannerists in Florence—especially the students of Andrea del Sarto such as Jacopo da Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino who are notable for elongated forms, precariously balanced poses, a collapsed perspective, irrational settings, and theatrical lighting. Parmigianino (a student of Correggio) and Giulio Romano (Raphael's head assistant) were moving in similarly stylized aesthetic directions in Rome. These artists had matured under the influence of the High Renaissance, and their style has been characterized as a reaction to or exaggerated extension of it. Instead of studying nature directly, younger artists began studying Hellenistic sculpture and paintings of masters past. Therefore, this style is often identified as \"anti-classical\", yet at the time it was considered a", "The second period of Mannerism is commonly differentiated from the earlier, so-called \"anti-classical\" phase. Subsequent mannerists stressed intellectual conceits and artistic virtuosity, features that have led later critics to accuse them of working in an unnatural and affected \"manner\" (\"maniera\"). Maniera artists looked to their older contemporary Michelangelo as their principal model; theirs was an art imitating art, rather than an art imitating nature. Art historian Sydney Joseph Freedberg argues that the intellectualizing aspect of maniera art involves expecting its audience to notice and", "The cities Rome, Florence, and Mantua were Mannerist centers in Italy. Venetian painting pursued a different course, represented by Titian in his long career. A number of the earliest Mannerist artists who had been working in Rome during the 1520s fled the city after the Sack of Rome in 1527. As they spread out across the continent in search of employment, their style was disseminated throughout Italy and Northern Europe. The result was the first international artistic style since the Gothic. Other parts of Northern Europe did not have the advantage of such direct contact with Italian artists, but the Mannerist style made its presence felt through prints and illustrated books. European rulers, among others, purchased Italian works, while northern European artists continued to travel to Italy, helping to spread the Mannerist style. Individual Italian artists working in the North gave birth to a movement known as the Northern Mannerism. Francis I of France, for example, was presented with Bronzino's \"Venus, Cupid,", "As in painting, early Italian Mannerist sculpture was very largely an attempt to find an original style that would top the achievement of the High Renaissance, which in sculpture essentially meant Michelangelo, and much of the struggle to achieve this was played out in commissions to fill other places in the Piazza della Signoria in Florence, next to Michelangelo's \"David\". Baccio Bandinelli took over the project of \"Hercules and Cacus\" from the master himself, but it was little more popular then than it is now, and maliciously compared by Benvenuto Cellini to \"a sack of melons\", though it had a long-lasting effect in apparently", "", "Giorgio Vasari's opinions about the art of painting emerge in the praise he bestows on fellow artists in his multi-volume \"Lives of the Artists\": he believed that excellence in painting demanded refinement, richness of invention (\"invenzione\"), expressed through virtuoso technique (\"maniera\"), and wit and study that appeared in the finished work, all criteria that emphasized the artist's intellect and the patron's sensibility. The artist was now no longer just a", "Another literary figure from the period is Gian Paolo Lomazzo, who produced two works—one practical and one metaphysical—that helped define the Mannerist artist's self-conscious relation to his art. His \"Trattato dell'arte della pittura, scoltura et architettura\" (Milan, 1584) is in part a guide to contemporary concepts of decorum, which the Renaissance inherited in part from Antiquity but Mannerism elaborated upon. Lomazzo's systematic codification", "Mannerism was an anti-classical movement which differed greatly from the aesthetic ideologies of the Renaissance. Though Mannerism was initially accepted with positivity based on the writings of Vasari, it was later regarded in a negative light", "", "Jacopo da Pontormo's work has been known as some of the most important contributions to Mannerism. Much of his subject matter drew upon religious narratives as well as the influence of the works of Michelangelo and referencing sculpture for composing human forms. A well-known element of his work is the rendering of gazes by various figures which often pierce out at the viewer in various directions. Dedicated to his work, Pontormo, often expressed anxiety about the quality of his work and was known to work slow and methodically. His legacy is highly regarded, as he influenced artists such as Agnolo Bronzino and the aesthetic ideals of late Mannerism. Pontomoro's \"Joseph in Egypt\", painted in 1517, portrays", "Rosso Fiorentino, who had been a fellow pupil of Pontormo in the studio of Andrea del Sarto, in 1530 brought Florentine Mannerism to Fontainebleau, where he became one of the founders of French 16th-century Mannerism, popularly known as the School of Fontainebleau. The examples of", "Agnolo Bronzino was a pupil of Pontormo, whose style was very influential and often confusing in terms of figuring out the attribution of many artworks. During his career, Bronzino also collaborated with Vasari as a set designer for the production \"Comedy of Magicians\", where he painted many portraits. Bronzino's work was sought after, and he enjoyed great success when he became a court painter for the Medici family in 1539. A unique Mannerist characteristic of Bronzino's work was the rendering of milky complexions. In the painting, \"Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time\", Bronzino portrays an erotic scene that leaves the viewer with more questions than answers. In the foreground, Cupid and Venus are nearly engaged in a kiss, but pause as if caught in the act. Above the pair are mythological figures, Father", "Alessandro Allori's (1535–1607) \"Susanna and the Elders\" (\"below\") is distinguished", "Jacopo Tintoretto has been known for his vastly different contributions to Venetian painting after the legacy of Titian. His work, which differed greatly from his predecessors, had been criticized by Vasari for its, \"fantastical, extravagant, bizarre style.\" Within his work, Tinitoretto adopted Mannerist elements that have distanced him from the classical notion of Venetian painting, as he often created artworks which contained elements of fantasy and retained naturalism. Other unique elements of Tintoretto's work include his attention to color through the regular utilization of rough brushstrokes and experimentation with pigment to create illusion. An artwork that is associated with Mannerist characteristics is the \"Last Supper\"; it was commissioned by Michele Alabardi for", "El Greco attempted to express religious emotion with exaggerated traits. After the realistic depiction of the human form and the mastery of perspective achieved in High Renaissance, some artists started to deliberately distort proportions in disjointed, irrational space for emotional and artistic effect. El Greco still is a deeply original artist. He has been characterized by modern scholars as an artist so individual that he belongs to no conventional school. Key aspects of Mannerism in El Greco include the jarring \"acid\" palette, elongated and tortured anatomy, irrational perspective and light, and obscure and troubling iconography. El Greco's style was a culmination of unique developments based on his Greek heritage and travels to Spain and Italy. El Greco's work reflects a multitude of styles including Byzantine elements as well as the influence of Caravaggio and Parmigianino in addition to Venetian coloring. An important", "Benvenuto Cellini created the \"Cellini Salt Cellar\" of gold and enamel in 1540 featuring", "Lavinia Fontana (1552–1614) was a Mannerist portraitist often acknowledged to be the first female career artist in Western Europe. She was appointed to be the Portraitist in Ordinary at the", "Taddeo Zuccaro was born in Sant'Angelo in Vado, near Urbino, the son", "Federico Zuccaro’s documented career as a painter began in 1550, when he moved to Rome to work under Taddeo, his elder brother. He went on to complete decorations", "Joachim Wtewael (1566–1638) continued to paint in a Northern Mannerist style until the end of his life, ignoring the arrival of the Baroque art, and making", "Giuseppe Arcimboldo is most readily known for his artworks that incorporate still life and portraiture. His style is viewed as Mannerist with the assemblage style of fruits and vegetables in which its composition can be depicted in various ways—right side up and upside down. Arcimboldo's artworks have also applied to Mannerism in terms of humor that it conveys to viewers, because it does not hold the same degree of seriousness as Renaissance works. Stylistically, Arcimboldo's paintings are known for their attention to nature and concept of a \"monstrous appearance.\" One of Arcimboldo's paintings which contains various Mannerist characteristics is, \"Vertumnus\". Painted against a black background is a portrait of Rudolf II, whose body", "Mannerist architecture was characterized by visual trickery and unexpected elements that challenged the Renaissance norms. Flemish artists, many of whom had traveled to Italy and were influenced by Mannerist developments there, were responsible for the spread of Mannerist trends into Europe north of the Alps, including into the realm of architecture. During the period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style, and a pioneer at the Laurentian Library, was Michelangelo (1475–1564). He is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade. He used this in his design for the Piazza del Campidoglio in Rome. Prior to the 20th century, the term \"Mannerism\" had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general, non-judgmental terms. Mannerist architecture has also been used to describe a trend in the 1960s and 1970s that involved breaking the norms of modernist architecture while at the same time recognizing their existence. Defining Mannerism in this context, architect and author Robert Venturi wrote \"Mannerism for architecture of our time that acknowledges conventional order rather than original expression but breaks the conventional order to accommodate complexity and contradiction and thereby engages ambiguity unambiguously.\"", "An example of Mannerist architecture is the Villa Farnese at Caprarola, in the rugged country side outside of Rome. The proliferation of engravers during the 16th century spread Mannerist styles more quickly than any previous styles. Dense with ornament of \"Roman\" detailing, the display doorway at Colditz Castle exemplifies the northern style, characteristically applied as an", "In English literature, Mannerism is commonly identified with the qualities of the \"Metaphysical\" poets of whom the most famous is John Donne. The witty sally of a Baroque writer, John Dryden, against the verse of Donne in the previous generation, affords a concise contrast between Baroque and Mannerist aims in the arts: The rich musical possibilities in the poetry of the late 16th and early 17th centuries provided an attractive basis for the madrigal, which quickly rose to prominence as the pre-eminent musical form in Italian musical culture, as discussed by Tim Carter: The word Mannerism has also been used to describe the style of highly florid and contrapuntally complex polyphonic music made in France in the late 14th century. This period is now usually referred to as the \"ars subtilior\".", "\"The Early Commedia dell'Arte (1550–1621): The Mannerist Context\" by Paul Castagno discusses Mannerism's effect on the contemporary professional theatre. Castagno's was the first study to define a theatrical form as Mannerist, employing the vocabulary of Mannerism and maniera to discuss the typification, exaggerated, and \"effetto meraviglioso\" of the \"comici dell'arte\". See Part II of the above book for a full discussion of Mannerist characteristics in the commedia dell'arte. The study is largely iconographic, presenting a pictorial evidence that many of the artists who painted or printed commedia images were in fact, coming from the workshops of the day, heavily ensconced in the maniera tradition. The preciosity in Jacques Callot's minute engravings seem to belie a much larger scale of action. Callot's \"Balli di Sfessania\" (literally, dance of the buttocks) celebrates the commedia's blatant eroticism, with protruding phalli, spears posed with the anticipation of a comic ream, and grossly exaggerated masks that mix the bestial with human. The eroticism of the \"innamorate\" (lovers) including the baring of breasts, or excessive veiling, was quite in vogue in the paintings and engravings from the second School of Fontainebleau, particularly those that detect a Franco-Flemish influence. Castagno demonstrates iconographic linkages between genre painting and the figures of the commedia dell'arte that demonstrate how this theatrical form was embedded within the cultural traditions of the late cinquecento.", "Important corollaries exist between the \"disegno interno\", which substituted for the \"disegno esterno\" (external design) in Mannerist painting. This notion of projecting a deeply subjective view as superseding nature or established principles (perspective, for example), in essence, the emphasis away from the object to its subject, now emphasizing execution, displays of virtuosity, or unique techniques. This inner vision is at the heart of commedia performance. For example, in the moment of improvisation the actor expresses his virtuosity without heed to formal boundaries, decorum, unity, or text. Arlecchino became emblematic of the mannerist \"discordia concors\" (the union of opposites), at one moment he would be gentle and kind, then, on a dime, become a thief violently acting out with his battle. Arlecchino could be graceful in movement, only in the next beat, to clumsily trip over his feet. Freed from the external rules, the actor celebrated the evanescence of the moment; much the way Benvenuto Cellini would dazzle his patrons by draping his sculptures, unveiling them with lighting effects and a sense of the marvelous. The presentation of the object became as important as the object itself.", "According to art critic Jerry Saltz, \"Neo-Mannerism\" (new Mannerism) is among several clichés that are \"squeezing the life out of the art world\". Neo-Mannerism describes art of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Germanic word.", "Almost angels.", "Elf or fairy.", "Reconciling multiple traditions.", "Development.", "Early writings.", "\"The Book of Lost Tales\" (c. 1917–1927).", "\"The Hobbit\" (c. 1930–1937).", "\"The Quenta Silmarillion\" (c. 1937).", "\"The Lord of the Rings\" (c. 1937–1949).", "Fictional history.", "Awakening.", "Sundering.", "Exile.", "Wars of Beleriand.", "Second and Third Ages.", "Fourth Age.", "Characteristics.", "Elvish languages.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The modern English word \"elf\" derives from the Old English word \"ælf\" (which has cognates in all other Germanic languages). Numerous types of elves appear in Germanic mythology; the West Germanic concept appears to have come to differ from the Scandinavian notion in the early Middle Ages, and Anglo-Saxon concept diverged even further, possibly under Celtic influence. Tolkien made it clear in a letter that his Elves differ from those \"of the better known lore\" of Scandinavian mythology.", "The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that one Middle English source which he presumes Tolkien must have read, the \"South English Legendary\" from c. 1250, describes elves much as Tolkien does: Some of Tolkien's Elves are in Valinor, while others are in Middle-earth; Galadriel indeed has been expelled from Valinor, much like the fallen Melkor, though she is clearly good, and much like an angel. Similarly, some of the \"Legendary\"s \"Eluene\" are on Earth, others in the \"Earthly Paradise\". So, did they have souls, Shippey asks? Since they could not leave the world, the answer was no; but given that they didn't disappear completely on death, the answer had to have been yes. In Shippey's view, the \"Silmarillion\" resolved the Middle English puzzle, letting Elves go not to Heaven but to the halfway house of the Halls of Mandos on Valinor.", "By the late 19th century, the term 'fairy' had been taken up as a utopian theme, and was used to critique social and religious values, a tradition which Tolkien and T. H. White continued. One of the last of the Victorian Fairy-paintings, \"The Piper of Dreams\" by Estella Canziani, sold 250,000 copies and was well known within the trenches of World War I where Tolkien saw active service. Illustrated posters of Robert Louis Stevenson's poem \"Land of Nod\" had been sent out by a philanthropist to brighten servicemen's quarters, and Faery was used in other contexts as an image of \"Old England\" to inspire patriotism. By 1915, when Tolkien was writing his first elven poems, the words\" elf\", \"fairy\" and \"gnome\" had many divergent and contradictory associations. Tolkien had been gently warned against the term 'fairy', which John Garth supposes may have been due to its growing association with homosexuality, but Tolkien continued to use it. According to Marjorie Burns, Tolkien eventually but hesitantly chose the term \"elf\" over \"fairy\". In his 1939 essay \"On Fairy-Stories\", Tolkien wrote that \"English words such as \"elf\" have long been influenced by French (from which \"fay\" and \"faërie\", \"fairy\" are derived); but in later times, through their use in translation, \"fairy\" and \"elf\" have acquired much of the atmosphere of German, Scandinavian, and Celtic tales, and many characteristics of the \"huldu-fólk\", the \"daoine-sithe\", and the \"tylwyth-teg\".\"", "Shippey notes that Tolkien, a philologist, knew of the many seemingly contradictory traditions about elves. The Old English \"Beowulf\"-poet spoke of the strange \"eotenas ond ylfe ond orcnéas\", \"ettens [giants] and elves and demon-corpses\", a grouping which Shippey calls \"a very stern view of all non-human and un-Christian species\". The Middle English \"Sir Gawain\" meets a green axe-wielding giant, an \"aluisch mon\" (\"elvish man\", translated by Shippey as \"uncanny creature\"). Christian sources from Iceland knew and disapproved of the tradition of offering sacrifices to the elves, \"álfa-blót\". Elves were directly dangerous, too: the medical condition \"elf-shot\", described in the spell \"Gif hors ofscoten sie\", \"if a horse is elf-shot\", meaning some kind of internal injury, was associated both with neolithic flint arrowheads and the temptations of the devil. Tolkien takes \"elf-shot\" as a hint to make his elves skilful in archery. Another danger was \"wæterælfádl\", \"water-elf disease\", perhaps meaning dropsy, while a third condition was \"ælfsogoða\", \"elf-pain\", glossed by Shippey as \"lunacy\". All the same, an Icelandic woman could be \"frið sem álfkona\", \"fair as an elf-woman\", while the Anglo-Saxons might call a very fair woman \"ælfscýne\", \"elf-beautiful\". Some aspects can readily be reconciled, Shippey writes, since \"Beauty is itself dangerous\". But there is more: Tolkien brought in the Old English usage of descriptions like \"wuduælfen\" \"wood-elf, dryad\", \"wæterælfen\" \"water-elf\", and \"sǣælfen\" \"sea-elf, naiad\", giving his elves strong links with wild nature. Yet another strand of legend holds that Elfland, as in \"Elvehøj\" (\"Elf Hill\") and other traditional stories, is dangerous to mortals because time there is distorted, as in Tolkien's Lothlórien. Shippey comments that it is a strength of Tolkien's \"re-creations\", his imagined worlds, that they incorporate all the available evidence to create a many-layered impression of depth, making use of \"both good and bad sides of popular story; the sense of inquiry, prejudice, hearsay and conflicting opinion\". Shippey suggests that the \"fusion or kindling-point\" of Tolkien's thinking about elves came from the Middle English lay \"Sir Orfeo\", which transposes the classical myth of Orpheus and Eurydice into a wild and wooded Elfland, and makes the quest successful. In Tolkien's translation the elves appear and disappear: \"the king of Faerie with his rout / came hunting in the woods about / with blowing far and crying dim, and barking hounds that were with him; yet never a beast they took nor slew, and where they went he never knew\". Shippey comments that Tolkien took many suggestions from this passage, including the horns and the hunt of the Elves in Mirkwood; the proud but honourable Elf-king; and the placing of his elves in wild nature. Tolkien might only have had broken fragments to work on, but, Shippey writes, the more one explores how Tolkien used the ancient texts, the more one sees \"how easy it was for him to feel that a consistency and a sense lay beneath the chaotic ruin of the old poetry of the North\". The Tolkien critic David Day notes that Tolkien's Sundering of the Elves allowed him to explain the existence of Norse mythology's Light Elves, who live in \"Alfheim\" (\"Elfhome\") and correspond to his Calaquendi, and Dark Elves, who life underground in \"Svartalfheim\" (\"Black Elfhome\") and whom he \"rehabilitates\" as his Moriquendi, the Elves who never went to see the light of the Two Trees of Valinor.", "Tolkien developed his conception of elves over the years, from his earliest writings through to \"The Hobbit\", \"The Silmarillion\", and \"The Lord of the Rings\".", "Traditional Victorian dancing fairies and elves appear in much of Tolkien's early poetry, and have influence upon his later works in part due to the influence of a production of J. M. Barrie's \"Peter Pan\" in Birmingham in 1910 and his familiarity with the work of Catholic mystic poet, Francis Thompson which Tolkien had acquired in 1914.", "In his \"The Book of Lost Tales\", Tolkien develops a theme that the diminutive fairy-like race of Elves had once been a great and mighty people, and that as Men took over the world, these Elves had \"diminished\" themselves. This theme was influenced especially by the god-like and human-sized \"Ljósálfar\" of Norse mythology, and medieval works such as \"Sir Orfeo\", the Welsh \"Mabinogion\", Arthurian romances and the legends of the \"Tuatha Dé Danann\". Some of the stories Tolkien wrote as elven history have been seen to be directly influenced by Celtic mythology. For example, \"Flight of The Noldoli\" is based on the \"Tuatha Dé Danann\" and \"Lebor Gabála Érenn\", and their migratory nature comes from early Irish/Celtic history. John Garth also sees that with the underground enslavement of the Noldoli to Melkor, Tolkien was essentially rewriting Irish myth regarding the Tuatha Dé Danann into a Christian eschatology. The name \"Inwe\" or \"Ingwë\" (in the first draft \"Ing\"), given by Tolkien to the eldest of the elves and his clan, is similar to the name found in Norse mythology as that of the god Ingwi-Freyr, a god who is gifted the elf-world Álfheimr. Terry Gunnell finds the relationship between beautiful ships and the Elves reminiscent of the god Njörðr and the god Freyr's ship Skíðblaðnir. He also retains the usage of the French derived term \"fairy\" for the same creatures. The larger Elves are inspired by Tolkien's personal Catholic theology, representing the state of Men in Eden who have not yet fallen, like humans but fairer and wiser, with greater spiritual powers, keener senses, and a closer empathy with nature. Tolkien wrote of them: \"They are made by man in his own image and likeness; but freed from those limitations which he feels most to press upon him. They are immortal, and their will is directly effective for the achievement of imagination and desire.\" In \"The Book of Lost Tales\", Tolkien includes both more serious \"medieval\" elves such as Fëanor and Turgon alongside frivolous, Jacobean elves such as the Solosimpi and Tinúviel. Alongside the idea of the greater Elves, Tolkien toyed with the idea of children visiting Valinor, the island-homeland of the Elves in their sleep. Elves would also visit children at night and comfort them if they had been chided or were upset. This was abandoned in Tolkien's later writing.", "Douglas Anderson shows that in \"The Hobbit\", Tolkien again includes both the more serious'medieval' type of elves, such as Elrond and the Wood-elf king, and frivolous elves, such as the elvish guards at Rivendell.", "In 1937, having had his manuscript for \"The Silmarillion\" rejected by a publisher who disparaged all the \"eye-splitting Celtic names\" that Tolkien had given his Elves, Tolkien denied the names had a Celtic origin: Dimitra Fimi proposes that these comments are a product of his Anglophilia rather than a commentary on the texts themselves or their actual influence on his writing, and cites evidence to this effect in her essay \"'Mad' Elves and 'elusive beauty': some Celtic strands of Tolkien's mythology\".", "In \"The Lord of the Rings\" Tolkien pretends to be merely the translator of Bilbo and Frodo's memoirs, collectively known as the \"Red Book of Westmarch\". He says that those names and terms that appear in English are meant to be his purported translations from the Common Speech. According to Tom Shippey, the theme of diminishment from semi-divine Elf to diminutive Fairy resurfaces in \"The Lord of the Rings\" in the dialogue of Galadriel. \"Yet if you succeed, then our power is diminished, and Lothlórien will fade, and the tides of Time will sweep it away. We must depart into the West, or dwindle to a rustic folk of dell and cave, slowly to forget and to be forgotten.\" Writing in 1954, part way through proofreading \"The Lord of the Rings\", Tolkien claimed that the Elvish language Sindarin had a character very like British-Welsh \"because it seems to fit the rather 'Celtic' type of legends and stories told of its speakers\". In the same letter, Tolkien goes on to say that the elves had very little in common with elves or fairies of Europe, and that they really represent men with greater artistic ability, beauty and a longer life span. In his writings, an Elven bloodline was the only real claim to 'nobility' that the Men of Middle-earth could have. Tolkien wrote that the elves are primarily to blame for many of the ills of Middle-earth in \"The Lord of the Rings\", having independently created the Three Rings to stop their domains in mortal-lands from 'fading' and attempting to prevent inevitable change and new growth.", "", "The first Elves were awakened by Eru Ilúvatar near the bay of Cuiviénen during the Years of the Trees (before the First Age). They awoke under the starlit sky, as the Sun and Moon had yet to be created. The first Elves to awaken were three pairs: Imin (\"First\") and his wife Iminyë, Tata (\"Second\") and Tatië, and Enel (\"Third\") and Enelyë. They walked through the forests, finding other pairs of Elves, who became their folk. They lived by the rivers, and invented poetry and music in Middle-earth. Journeying further, they came across tall and dark-haired elves, the fathers of most of the Noldor. They invented many new words. Continuing their journey, they found elves singing without language, the ancestors of most of the Teleri. The elves were discovered by the Vala Oromë, who brought the news of their awakening to Valinor.", "The Valar decided to summon the Elves to Valinor rather than leaving them where they were first awakened, near the Cuiviénen lake in the eastern extremity of Middle-earth. They sent Oromë, who took Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë as ambassadors to Valinor. Returning to Middle-earth, Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë convinced many of the Elves to take the Great Journey (also called the Great March) to Valinor. Those who did not accept the summons became known as the Avari, \"The Unwilling\". The others were called Eldar, \"the People of the Stars\" by Oromë, and they took Ingwë, Finwë and Elwë as their leaders, and became respectively the Vanyar, Noldor and Teleri. On their journey, some of the Teleri feared the Misty Mountains and dared not cross them. They turned back and stayed in the vales of the Anduin, and, led by Lenwë, became the Nandor. Oromë led the others over the Misty Mountains and Ered Lindon into Beleriand. There Elwë became lost, and the Teleri stayed behind looking for him. The Vanyar and the Noldor moved onto a floating island that was moved by Ulmo to Valinor. After years, Ulmo returned to Beleriand to seek out the remaining Teleri. Without Elwë, many of the Teleri took his brother Olwë as their leader and were ferried to Valinor. Some Teleri stayed behind though, still looking for Elwë, and others stayed on the shores, being called by Ossë. They took Círdan as their leader and became the Falathrim. The Teleri who stayed in Beleriand later became known as the Sindar. Matthew Dickerson, writing in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\", notes the \"very complicated changes, with shifting meanings assigned to the same names\" as Tolkien worked on his conception of the elves and their divisions and migrations. He states that the sundering of the elves allowed Tolkien, a professional philologist, to develop two languages, distinct but related, Quenya for the Eldar and Sindarin for the Sindar, citing Tolkien's own statement that the stories were made to create a world for the languages, not the reverse. Dickerson cites the Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey's suggestion that the \"real root\" of \"The Silmarillion\" lay in the linguistic relationship, complete with sound-changes and differences of semantics, between these two languages of the divided elves. Shippey writes, too, that the elves are separated not by colour, despite names like light and dark, but by history, including their migrations.", "In Valinor, Fëanor, son of Finwë, and the greatest of the Elves, created the Silmarils in which he stored a part of the light of the Two Trees that were lighting Valinor. After three ages in the Halls of Mandos, Melkor was released, feigning reform. He however spread his evil and started to poison the minds of the Elves against the Valar. Eventually he killed Finwë and stole the Silmarils. Fëanor then named him \"Morgoth\" (Sindarin: \"The Black Enemy\"). Fëanor and his seven sons then swore to take the Silmarils back, and led a large army of the Noldor to Beleriand.", "In Beleriand, Elwë was eventually found, and married Melian the Maia. He became the overlord of Beleriand, naming himself Thingol (Sindarin: \"Grey-cloak\"). After the First Battle of Beleriand, during the first rising of the Moon, the Noldor arrived in Beleriand. They laid a siege around Morgoth's fortress of Angband, but were eventually defeated. The Elves never regained the upper hand, finally losing the hidden kingdoms Nargothrond, Doriath, and Gondolin near the culmination of the war. When the Elves had been forced to the furthest southern reaches of Beleriand, Eärendil the Mariner, a half-elf from the House of Finwë, sailed to Valinor to ask the Valar for help. The Valar started the War of Wrath, finally defeating Morgoth.", "After the War of Wrath, the Valar tried to summon the Elves back to Valinor. Many complied, but some stayed. During the Second Age they founded the Realms of Lindon (all that was left of Beleriand after the cataclysm), Eregion, and Rhovanion (Mirkwood). Sauron, Morgoth's former servant, made war upon them, but with the aid of the Númenóreans they defeated him, though both the king of the Noldorin elves, Gil-galad, and Elendil, king of the Númenóreans, were killed. During the Second and Third Ages, they held some protected realms with the aid of the Rings of Power.", "After the destruction of the One Ring, the power of the Three Rings of the Elves ended and the Fourth Age, the Age of Men, began. Most Elves left for Valinor; those that remained in Middle-earth were doomed to a slow decline until, in the words of Galadriel, they faded and became a \"rustic folk of dell and cave\". The fading played out over thousands of years, until in the modern world, occasional glimpses of rustic Elves would fuel folktales and fantasies. Elladan and Elrohir, the sons of Elrond, did not accompany their father when the White Ship bearing the Ring-bearer and the chief Noldorin leaders sailed from the Grey Havens to Valinor; they remained in Lindon. Celeborn and other elves of the Grey Havens remained for a while before leaving for Valinor. Legolas founded an elf colony in Ithilien during King Elessar's reign; the elves there helped to rebuild Gondor, living mainly in southern Ithilien, along the shores of the Anduin. After Elessar's death, Legolas built a ship and sailed to Valinor and, eventually, all the elves in Ithilien followed him. Sam Gamgee sailed from the Havens decades after Elrond's departure. In \"The Tale of Aragorn and Arwen\" in Appendix A, most Elves have already left, barring some in Mirkwood and a few in Lindon; the garden of Elrond in Rivendell is empty. Arwen flees to an abandoned Lothlórien, where she dies.", "Elves, at least the Eldar, have a pregnancy that lasts about a year. By the age of 1, elves can speak, walk and dance. Puberty and full height are attained at around their fiftieth to one hundredth year, when they stop aging physically. Elves marry freely, monogamously, only once, and for love early in life; adultery is unthinkable. Betrothal, with the exchange of rings, lasts at least a year, and is revocable by the return of the rings, but is rarely broken. Marriage is by words exchanged by the bride and groom (including the speaking of the name of Eru Ilúvatar) and consummation; it is celebrated with a feast. Wedding rings are worn on the index fingers. The bride's mother gives the groom a jewel to wear. Elves view the sexual act as special and intimate, for it leads to the birth of children. Elves cannot be forced to have sex; before that they will lose the will to endure and go to Mandos. Elves have few children, and there are long intervals between each child. They are soon preoccupied with other pleasures; their libido wanes and they focus their interests elsewhere, like the arts. Elves, particularly the Noldor, spend their time on smithwork, sculpture, music and other arts, and on preparing food. Males and females are equal, but females often specialize in the arts of healing while the males go to war. This is because they believe that taking life interferes with the ability to preserve life. However, females can defend themselves at need as well as males, and many males such as Elrond are skilled healers. Elves are skilful horse-riders, riding without saddle or bridle. Elves are immortal, and remain unwearied with age. They can recover from wounds which would be fatal to a Man, but can be killed in battle. Spirits of dead Elves go to the Halls of Mandos in Valinor. After a certain period of time and rest that serves as \"cleansing\", their spirits are clothed in bodies identical to their old ones. However, they almost never go back to Middle-earth and remain in Valinor instead. An exception was Glorfindel in \"The Lord of the Rings\"; as shown in later books, Tolkien decided he was a \"reborn\" hero from \"The Silmarillion\" rather than an individual with the same name. A rare and more unusual example of an Elf coming back from the Halls of Mandos is found in the tale of Beren and Lúthien, as Lúthien was the other Elf to be sent back to Middle-earth, but as a mortal. If they do not die in battle or accident, Elves grow weary of Middle-earth and desire to go to Valinor, where the Valar originally sheltered their kind; they often sail from the Grey Havens, where Círdan the Shipwright dwells with his folk. Eventually, their immortal spirits overwhelm and consume their bodies, rendering them \"bodiless\", whether they opt to go to Valinor or not. At the end of the world, all Elves will have become invisible to mortal eyes, except to those to whom they wish to manifest themselves.", "Tolkien created many languages for his Elves. His interest was primarily philological, and he said his stories grew out of his languages. Indeed, the languages were the first thing Tolkien ever created for his mythos, starting with what he originally called \"Elfin\" or \"Qenya\" [sic]. This was later spelled Quenya (High-elven) and, along with Sindarin (Grey-elven), is one of the two most complete of Tolkien's constructed languages. Elves are also credited with creating the Tengwar (by Fëanor) and Cirth (Daeron) scripts.", "The 1977 Rankin Bass animated version of \"The Hobbit\", with character designs by Lester Abrams, features Wood Elves as green-skinned warriors with slightly Austrian accents. High Elves are shown with pointed ears and beards. In Peter Jackson's \"Lord of the Rings\" film series (2001–2003), elves are portrayed as fair, graceful, and wise beings with supernatural abilities like enhanced eyesight. They facially resemble humans with much longer and finer hair and an apparent inner glow. They have pointed ears and no facial hair. In \"Middle-earth Role Playing\" (Iron Crown Enterprises, 1986), three tribes of elves are presented as player character race options, the Silvan, Sindar and Noldor – each receiving statistic bonuses (ranging from 5 to 15) to all attributes apart from Strength, with the Noldor receiving the highest accumulative bonuses of any racial type in the game. All three tribes are statistically immune to disease (+100% chance of resistance), and must be given \"Presence\" as the highest randomly generated statistic. Elven characters receive significant skill bonuses with missile weapons (such as a bow and arrow) and stealth skills (such as hiding). All three elven tribes (Silvan, Noldor, Sindar) depicted in \"The Lord of the Rings Roleplaying Game\" (Decipher, Inc., 2001) have varying (one or two points) statistic bonuses to Bearing, Perception and Nimbleness, with the Noldor also receiving a bonus to Wits and the Sindar to Vitality, giving both of these the highest accumulative bonuses available to Player Characters. The system of skills, feats and flaws further outlines racial and cultural characteristics, bonuses being given to the Noldor in Lore and \"Resisting the Shadow\", to the Silvan elves for various wood-craft skills, and the Sindar to musical performance. All elves can enchant objects, and receive bonuses in any test regarding magic. In \"The Lord of the Rings Strategy Battle Game\" (Games Workshop, 2001), Elves have similar statistics to similarly armed Men, except for much higher scores for their Fighting and Courage attributes. On average, Elven wargear (armour and weapons) give twice the advantage of weapons made by Men." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hockey career.", "Junior career (1989–1992).", "1991 NHL Entry Draft.", "Philadelphia Flyers.", "New York Rangers.", "Toronto Maple Leafs.", "Dallas Stars and retirement.", "Post-playing career.", "International play.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As a youth, Lindros played in the 1985 and 1987 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournaments with the Toronto Marlboros and Toronto Young Nationals minor ice hockey teams, respectively.", "As a teenage power forward playing minor hockey, Lindros became nationally famous both for his scoring feats and his ability to physically dominate players older than himself. He attended Monarch Park and later North Toronto Collegiate in Toronto. Both Eric and his younger brother Brett (Eric in 1988–89) played for the Metro Junior \"B\" St. Michael's Buzzers before moving up to the OHL. Lindros' play made him the most highly valued amateur player in North America and he was often nicknamed \"The Next One\", a reference to Wayne Gretzky's moniker \"The Great One.\" Throughout his career, Lindros has been tagged with various other nicknames, including \"The Big E.\" The hype around Lindros during his early career led to an exclusive deal with sports card manufacturer Score. Attempting to leverage this arrangement as much as possible, he was even featured on a baseball card showing him as a third baseman for the Toronto Blue Jays, although the closest he came to a professional baseball career was taking batting practice one day with the Blue Jays. Lindros refused to sign with the Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds after being drafted from St. Michael's. Greyhounds owner Phil Esposito had drafted him anyway, enabling Esposito to sell his share in the team at a higher price. Lindros was traded to the Oshawa Generals instead, and when they played the Greyhounds, some Greyhound players wore black armbands in protest of Lindros' refusal to play for their team. He played parts of three seasons for the Generals from 1990 to 1992. During that time, he scored 180 goals, 200 assists, 380 points and had 437 penalty minutes in 157 games played. Lindros helped lead the Generals to the 1990 J. Ross Robertson Cup, and a 1990 Memorial Cup victory. During the 1990–91 season, Lindros won the Eddie Powers Memorial Trophy as top scorer, the Red Tilson Trophy as MVP, the CHL Player of the Year award and the CHL Top Draft Prospect Award. The Generals returned to the Robertson Cup finals, facing Sault Ste. Marie. The series was one of the more dramatic in OHL history given Lindros's attitude toward the team, with fans from the Soo loudly jeering him every time he touched the puck. The Greyhounds upset the heavily favoured defending champions in a six-game series, winning the last game on home ice. On March 6, 2008, the Generals retired his jersey number 88, the second number to be retired by the franchise, and it was declared Eric Lindros Day in Oshawa.", "Lindros was selected first overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1991 NHL Entry Draft. Lindros had signaled in advance that he would never play for the Nordiques, citing the ownership. Despite this, the team selected him anyway. Nordiques owner Marcel Aubut publicly announced that they would make Lindros the centrepiece of their franchise turnaround, and refused to trade Lindros, saying that the only way he would play in the NHL would be in a Nordiques uniform. While he awaited a trade, Lindros spent the time playing with the Generals and also participated in the 1992 Winter Olympics, winning a silver medal with Canada. At the 1992 NHL Entry Draft, the Nordiques worked out trades involving Lindros with both the Philadelphia Flyers and New York Rangers. The Flyers trade had the Nordiques receiving Steve Duchesne, Ron Hextall, Kerry Huffman, Mike Ricci, the rights to Peter Forsberg, the Flyers' first-round pick in 1992 (seventh overall) and 1993 and $15 million. The trade with the Rangers had the Nordiques receiving Tony Amonte, Alexei Kovalev, John Vanbiesbrouck, Doug Weight, three first-round picks (in 1993, 1994 and 1996) and $12 million. Additionally, if Vanbiesbrouck was declared an unrestricted free agent, James Patrick would have replaced him in the deal. The Flyers, believing they had consummated their deal with the Nordiques first, filed a complaint and the NHL announced an independent arbitrator would be appointed. On June 30, 1992, 11 days after the draft, arbitrator Larry Bertuzzi ruled in favour of the Flyers. Bertuzzi determined that the Flyers and Nordiques had agreed to a trade 80 minutes before the Rangers and Nordiques had reached their agreement. Since the Flyers used the 1992 pick to select Ryan Sittler and Quebec had no interest in Sittler, the Flyers and Nordiques had to agree on a substitution for the pick. On July 21, Bertuzzi ruled that Chris Simon and the Flyers' 1994 first-round pick would be added to the trade. After Lindros officially became property of the Flyers, he stated that he had been wary of playing for the Nordiques primarily because of what he called a \"lack of winning spirit\" in the organization. At the time they picked him, the Nordiques had finished dead last in the league for three years in a row. However, in 2016, he told ESPN that his objection to playing in Quebec was based \"solely\" on Aubut. While he didn't elaborate, he said, \"I was not going to play for that individual--period.\"", "With his imposing physical strength and playmaking ability, Lindros established himself as the top player on a Flyers team that had perennially been in contention but always fell short. His time in Philadelphia would see him score points (for much of his first five seasons in the NHL, Lindros hovered around fourth all-time in points per game) and become one of the most feared and dominating players in the NHL. In September 1994, Lindros succeeded Kevin Dineen as Flyers captain. Along with John LeClair and Mikael Renberg, he played on the dreaded \"Legion of Doom\" line. He scored over 40 goals in each of his first two seasons and won the Hart Memorial Trophy as MVP in the lockout-shortened season of 1995 after scoring 29 goals and 41 assists in 46 games and leading the Flyers to their first playoff appearance in six years. Lindros led the Flyers to the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals, handily defeating the Pittsburgh Penguins, Buffalo Sabres and the New York Rangers in five games apiece. In the Finals, however, the Flyers were swept in four games by the Detroit Red Wings; Lindros' only goal came with 14 seconds left in the third period of Game 4. Detroit Head Coach Scotty Bowman used the finesse-oriented defence pairing of Nicklas Lidström and Larry Murphy against Lindros' Legion of Doom line instead of sending out—as everyone, including the Flyers, expected—Vladimir Konstantinov to engage in a physical confrontation. In 1998, Lindros, at just 25 years of age, was ranked number 54th on \"The Hockey News\"' list of the 100 Greatest Hockey Players of all time. The only player of comparable age was 37th-ranked Jaromír Jágr, who was 26 at the time. Lindros' relationship with Flyers General Manager Bobby Clarke soon deteriorated. He and Clarke feuded in the media, with Clarke questioning his toughness; Lindros spent many games on the injured reserve and suffered a series of concussions, the first in 1998 from a hit delivered by Pittsburgh's Darius Kasparaitis that sidelined him for 18 games. Lindros would suffer a second concussion in January 1999 that sidelined him for two games. During an April 1, 1999, game against the Nashville Predators, Lindros suffered what was diagnosed as a rib injury. Later that night, the teammate he was sharing a hotel room with, Keith Jones, discovered Lindros lying in a tub, pale and cold. In a call to the Flyers, the trainer was told to put Lindros on a plane that was returning to Philadelphia with injured teammate Mark Recchi. But Jones insisted that Lindros be taken to a nearby hospital and it was discovered Lindros had a collapsed lung caused by internal bleeding of his chest wall. Lindros' father wrote the Flyers a letter in which he stated that if the trainer had followed team orders, Eric would be dead, a statement supported by the doctors who treated him in Nashville. The 1999–2000 season would be Lindros' last as a Flyer. Having suffered his second concussion of the season (fourth overall) in March, Lindros criticized the team's trainers for failing to diagnose a concussion as he played with symptoms following a hit he suffered in a game against the Boston Bruins two weeks prior. Clarke then stripped Lindros of the captaincy for his actions. Lindros sat out the remainder of the regular season and suffered another concussion while rehabilitating for a return to the lineup. Lindros ultimately returned for Game 6 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the New Jersey Devils; he scored the lone goal in a 2–1 Flyers loss. In Game 7 of the series, Lindros was coming over the blue line with his head down, when Devils defenseman Scott Stevens lowered his shoulder into Lindros knocking him unconscious and suffering yet another concussion. He was able to get off the ice with help from teammates. The Flyers lost Game 7, 2–1 and the series despite leading three games to one, and Lindros became a restricted free agent during the off-season. He refused to accept a two-way qualifying offer with a minor league provision from the Flyers, who still owned his rights. After Lindros was cleared to play in December, the Flyers refused to deal his rights to the Toronto Maple Leafs, as he preferred, and Lindros sat out the entire 2000–01 season.", "Bobby Clarke eventually traded Lindros to the New York Rangers on August 20, 2001, in exchange for Jan Hlaváč, Kim Johnsson, Pavel Brendl and a 2003 third-round draft choice (Štefan Ružička). The Rangers would also receive a 2003 first-round draft pick if Lindros were to suffer a concussion in the pre-season or the first 50 games of the regular season, and did not return to action for at least 12 months. In 2001–02, Lindros averaged a little over a point a game with 37 goals and 36 assists for 73 points in 72 games. His impressive start also led to his seventh and final All-Star selection, but due to an injury he was unable to participate and was replaced by teammate Mike York. Though 2002–03 was the first injury-free season of his career, he struggled to match his previous season, scoring just 53 points in 81 games. In 2003–04, Lindros' eighth concussion limited him to just 39 games, though he did collect 32 points. He again became an unrestricted free agent after the season.", "On August 11, 2005, after the NHL labour dispute had cancelled the 2004–05 season, Lindros signed a one-year, $1.55 million contract with the Maple Leafs for the 2005–06 season. After a steady start to his tenure with Toronto in which he recorded 22 points in 32 games, Lindros suffered a tear of a ligament in his left wrist against the Dallas Stars on December 10, 2005. After a 27-game absence, Lindros returned to the Toronto lineup on February 28, 2006, his 33rd birthday, against the Washington Capitals. His return was brief, however, as he re-injured his wrist while taking a slapshot in a game against the Ottawa Senators on March 4, effectively ending his season. He had surgery on the wrist at the Hand and Upper Limb Centre in London, Ontario, two days after the game.", "Lindros signed a one-year contract for the 2006–07 season with Dallas on July 17, 2006. He would play in 49 regular season games collecting 26 points, and three games in the 2007 playoffs. Lindros officially announced his retirement on November 8, 2007, in London at the age of 34.", "On the day of his retirement, November 8, 2007, it was also announced that Lindros had donated $5 million to the London Health Sciences Centre. This donation supports programs such as the Fowler Kennedy Sport Medicine Clinic, and is one of the largest personal donations by a Canadian sports figure. On November 11, 2007, three days after his retirement, the National Hockey League Players' Association (NHLPA) appointed Lindros to the newly created position of NHLPA ombudsman. Lindros had been involved with the organization throughout his career. Lindros cut ties with the NHLPA, however, on February 3, 2009, resigning as ombudsman after 15 months on the job. On May 9, 2010, Lindros, along with his mother Bonnie, supermodel/actress Monika Schnarre and a few other Canadian notables, helped Habitat for Humanity Toronto by recognizing Mother's Day by building homes. On December 31, 2011, he played in the 2012 NHL Winter Classic Alumni Game between the New York Rangers and the Philadelphia Flyers. In April 2016 Lindros supported Rowan's Law. This was concussion-education legislation named in memory of a teen rugby player from Ottawa who died during a game. The legislation was privately sponsored by Nepean-Carleton MPP Lisa MacLeod. Later MacLeod revealed she knew of rumours relating to alleged sexual misconduct by Patrick Brown, then Ontario Progressive Conservative leader. In 2018 she acknowledged her source had been Lindros. In June 2016, Lindros was announced as one of four appointees to the 2016 Hockey Hall of Fame induction class, joined by the late Pat Quinn, goaltender Rogie Vachon and Russian winger Sergei Makarov. On January 14, 2017, Lindros reunited with his former \"Legion of Doom\" linemates John LeClair and Mikael Renberg to play in the 50th Anniversary Alumni game between the Pittsburgh Penguins and the Philadelphia Flyers. In a 2017 interview on French Canadian television, he opened up about his time being drafted by the Nordiques. He later stated that he had no problem with Quebec City or the people, stating that his wife is French Canadian. He stated that the real reason was he did not respect Marcel Aubut and criticized on how he would never play for him. At the end of the interview, he was given the Nordiques igloo and fleur-de-lys jersey at last, 26 years after the saga began. On January 18, 2018, the Flyers retired Lindros' no. 88 jersey in a pre-game ceremony at the Wells Fargo Center.", "Played for Canada in:", "The oldest son of Carl Lindros and Bonnie Roszell-Lindros, Eric has Swedish heritage. The name \"Lindros\" means \"Rose of the Linden tree.\" His great-grandfather Axel immigrated to Canada from Bredaryd, a small village in Sweden, and Eric is the third generation of the Lindros family to be born in Canada. His father Carl Lindros received a Bachelor of Arts degree from the University of Western Ontario (where he played football, well enough to be drafted 30th overall by the Canadian Football League's Edmonton Eskimos in the 1970 CFL College Draft), and became a chartered accountant. Lindros' mother Bonnie is a registered nurse. Lindros has one brother, Brett, and one sister, Robin. Lindros' younger brother Brett played for the New York Islanders and retired early on May 1, 1996, due to post-concussion syndrome. The book \"Fire on Ice\", co-written by Randy Starkman and published in October 1991 by HarperCollins, chronicled the life and early hockey career of Lindros. In 2012 Lindros married Kina Lamarche, a native Quebecer and former president of the North American wing of Travelex. They have three children: Carl Pierre, and twins Sophie and Ryan. Lindros and his family currently reside in Toronto. They are close friends with Goldie Hawn and Kurt Russell, with both families owning a cottage on Lake Rosseau in Muskoka, Ontario." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Background.", "Development.", "Writing.", "Filming.", "Score and Kubrick's use of sounds and their connotations.", "Release.", "Controversy.", "Reception and influence.", "Preservation and restoration.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The film begins with a voiceover describing the trench warfare situation of World War I up to 1916. In a château, General Georges Broulard, a member of the French General Staff, asks his subordinate, the ambitious General Mireau, to send his division on a suicide mission to take a well-defended German position called the \"Anthill\". Mireau initially refuses, citing the impossibility of success, but when Broulard mentions a potential promotion, Mireau quickly convinces himself the attack will succeed. Mireau proceeds to walk through the trenches, asking several soldiers, \"Ready to kill more Germans?\" He throws a private out of the regiment for showing signs of shell shock. Mireau leaves the detailed planning of the attack to Colonel Dax of the 701st regiment, despite Dax's protests that the only result of the attack will be to weaken the French Army with heavy losses for no benefit. Prior to the attack, a drunken lieutenant named Roget, leading a night-time scouting mission, sends one of his two men ahead. Overcome by fear while waiting for the man's return, Roget lobs a grenade and retreats. Corporal Paris, the other soldier on the mission, finds the body of the scout, who has been killed by the grenade, and confronts Roget. Roget denies any wrongdoing and falsifies his report to Colonel Dax. The next morning, the attack on the Anthill is a failure. Dax leads the first wave of soldiers over the top into no man's land under heavy fire. None of the men reach the German trenches, and B Company refuses to leave their own trench after seeing the first wave sustain heavy casualties. Mireau, enraged, orders his artillery to open fire on them to force them onto the battlefield. The artillery commander refuses to fire on his own men without written confirmation of the order. Meanwhile, Dax returns to the trenches and tries to rally B Company to join the battle, but as he climbs out of the trench, the body of a dead French soldier knocks him down. To deflect blame for the attack's failure, Mireau decides to court martial 100 of the soldiers for cowardice. Broulard persuades him to reduce the number to three, one from each company. Corporal Paris is chosen because his commanding officer Roget wishes to keep him from testifying about Roget's actions in the scouting mission. Private Ferol is picked by his commanding officer because he is a \"social undesirable.\" The last man, Private Arnaud, is chosen randomly by lot, despite having been cited for bravery twice previously and having actually participated in the attack. Dax, who was a criminal defense lawyer in civilian life, volunteers to defend the men at their court-martial. The trial however, is a farce. There is no formal written indictment, a court stenographer is not present, and the court refuses to admit evidence that would support acquittal. In his closing statement, Dax denounces the proceedings: \"Gentlemen of the court, to find these men guilty would be a crime to haunt each of you till the day you die.\" Nonetheless, the three men are sentenced to death. The night before the scheduled execution, Dax confronts Broulard at a ball, with sworn statements by witnesses attesting to Mireau's order to shell his own trenches, in an attempt to blackmail the General Staff into sparing the three men. Broulard takes the statements but brusquely dismisses Dax, returning to the ball on the floor below. The next morning, the three men are taken out to be shot by firing squad. Dax, suspecting Roget for his nomination of Paris, forces Roget to lead the executions. While a sobbing Ferol is blindfolded, Paris refuses Roget's offer of a blindfold and reacts defiantly to Roget's meek apology. Arnaud, meanwhile, is so badly injured after having started a fight in prison that he must be carried out in a stretcher and tied to the post. All three men are then executed. Following the executions, Broulard breakfasts with the gloating Mireau. Broulard reveals he has invited Dax to attend and tells Mireau that he will be investigated for the order to fire on his own men. Mireau storms out, protesting that he has been made a scapegoat, threatening Dax of insubordination. Broulard then blithely offers Mireau's command to Dax, admiringly assuming that Dax's attempts to stop the executions were a ploy to gain Mireau's job. Discovering that Dax was in fact sincere, Broulard rebukes him for his idealism, while the disgusted Dax calls Broulard a \"degenerate, sadistic old man.\" The day following the execution, some of Dax's soldiers are carousing at an inn while Dax observes their behavior from a distance. An attractive captive German girl is brought onstage for the soldiers' entertainment, and they clap and whistle lustily at her presence. Their mood shifts, however, as they listen to the girl fearfully singing \"The Faithful Hussar\"—they hum along with her singing, a strikingly human moment following the unjust execution of their fellow soldiers by firing squad. They are unaware that orders have come for them to return to the front. Dax allows the men to enjoy a few more minutes before they are called back to duty. His face hardens as he returns to his quarters.", "", "The title of Cobb's novel came from the ninth stanza of Thomas Gray's poem \"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard\" (1751). <poem>The boast of heraldry, the pomp of pow'r, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Awaits alike th'inevitable hour. The paths of glory lead but to the grave.</poem> The book was a minor success when published in 1935, retelling the true-life affair of four French soldiers who were executed to set an example to the rest of the troops. The novel was adapted to the stage the same year by Sidney Howard, World War I veteran and scriptwriter of \"Gone with the Wind\". The play was a flop on Broadway, because of its harsh anti-war scenes that alienated the audience. Nonetheless, Howard continued to believe in the relevance of the subject matter and thought it should be made into a film, writing, \"It seems to me that our motion picture industry must feel something of a sacred obligation to make the picture.\" Fulfilling Howard's \"sacred obligation\", Stanley Kubrick decided to adapt it to the screen after he remembered reading the book when he was younger. Kubrick and his partners purchased the film rights from Cobb's widow for $10,000. Gray's stanza reflects Kubrick's feelings about war as well, and that becomes clear in the narrative of the film - a long battle for something with such an unimportant name as the \"Ant Hill\". Some of Kubrick's unrealized projects contained themes of war, as well. Kubrick once told a \"New York Times\" journalist: \"Man isn't a noble savage, he's an ignoble savage. He is irrational, brutal, weak, silly, unable to be objective about anything where his own interests are involved – that about sums it up. I’m interested in the brutal and violent nature of man because it's a true picture of him. And any attempt to create social institutions on a false view of the nature of man is probably doomed to failure\". Kubrick's filmography shares many visual elements but thematically, the most frequent subject – even more than sexuality – is war. \"Dr. Strangelove\" (1964) presents war as a farce, its absurdity and pointlessness evoked through comedy. \"Fear and Desire\" (1953) demonstrates that the extreme stress and trauma of war can lead to the mental breakdown of soldiers to a point where they are insanely committing war crimes against a civilian population, thereby effectively abandoning the waged purpose of the war in the first place.\" Full Metal Jacket\" (1987) enters the mind of a soldier and tells the audience that they may not like what they hear. \"Spartacus\" (1960) also shows the horrors of war, much like \"Barry Lyndon\" (1975) and \"A Clockwork Orange\" (1971) with its many references to World War II and other conflicts. \"Paths of Glory\" is based loosely on the true story of the Souain corporals affair, when four French soldiers were executed in 1915, during World War I under General Géraud Réveilhac, for failure to follow orders. The soldiers were exonerated posthumously, in 1934. The novel is about the French execution of innocent men to strengthen others' resolve to fight. The French Army did carry out military executions for cowardice, as did most of the other major participants, excluding the United States of America and Australia. The United States sentenced 24 soldiers to death for cowardice, but the sentences were never carried out. However, a significant point in the film is the practice of selecting individuals at random and executing them as a punishment for the sins of the whole group. This is similar to the Roman practice of decimation, which was rarely used by the French Army in World War I. A little known exception is the French decimation (the shooting of every tenth person in a unit) of the 10e Compagnie of 8 Battalion of the Régiment Mixte de Tirailleurs Algériens. During the retreat, at the beginning of the war, these French-African soldiers refused an order to attack. They were shot on December 15, 1914, near Zillebeke in Flanders. \"Paths of Glory\" takes place in France, but Kubrick's feelings on the topic stem more from his American upbringing. When General Mireau says “show me a patriot, and I’ll show you an honest man”, Colonel Dax remarks that Samuel Johnson once said: “Patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel”. The context in which Johnson said this has been lost to time.", "Kubrick once said of his decision to make a war film: \"One of the attractions of a war or crime story is that it provides an almost unique opportunity to contrast an individual or our contemporary society with a solid framework of accepted value, which the audience becomes fully aware of, and which can be used as a counterpoint to a human, individual, emotional situation. Further, war acts as a kind of hothouse for forced, quick breeding of attitudes and feelings. Attitudes crystallise and come out into the open. Conflict is natural, when it would in a less critical situation have to be introduced almost as a contrivance, and would thus appear forced or, even worse, false.\" Although Kubrick's previous film \"The Killing\" had failed at the box office, it had managed to land on several critical Top-Ten lists for the year. Dore Schary, then head of production at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, liked the film and hired Kubrick and Harris to develop film stories from MGM's slush pile of scripts and purchased novels. Finding nothing they liked, Kubrick remembered reading Cobb's book at the age of fourteen and the 'great impact' it had upon him and suggested it as their next project. Schary strongly doubted the commercial success of the story, which had already been turned down by every other major studio. After Schary was fired by MGM in a major shake-up, Kubrick and Harris managed to interest Kirk Douglas in a script version that Kubrick had done with Calder Willingham. After reading the script, Kirk Douglas was impressed and managed to get an advance for a $1 million budget from United Artists to help produce the film. Of the roughly $1 million budget, more than a third was allocated to Kirk Douglas' salary. Prior to the involvement of Douglas and his Bryna Production Company, no studio had showed interest in the seemingly noncommercial subject matter and filming in black and white. MGM rejected the idea of the film based on fears that the film would be unfavourable to European distributors and audiences. United Artists agreed to back it with Douglas as the star.", "Kubrick eventually hired Calder Willingham to work on the script of \"Paths of Glory\" (1957), of which Jim Thompson had written earlier drafts. The specific contributions by Kubrick, Thompson, and Willingham to the final script were disputed, and the matter went to arbitration with the Writers' Guild. Willingham claimed that Thompson had minimal involvement in the final script of the film, claiming responsibility for 99 percent of \"Paths of Glory\" for himself and that Thompson had not written any of the dialogue. When Thompson's draft screenplay was compared to the final film, it was clear that Thompson had written seven scenes, including the reconnaissance mission and the soldiers the night before their executions by firing squad. In the end, the Writers Guild attributed the script in the order of Kubrick, Willingham and then Thompson. Parts of the screenplay were taken from Cobb's work verbatim. However, Kubrick made several changes to the narrative of the novel in his adaptation, most notably his shift of focus to Colonel Dax, as opposed to Paris, Ferol and Arnaud as in the novel. Primarily, Kubrick and Thompson had added a happy ending to the film to make the film more commercial to the general public, where the men's lives are saved from execution at the last minute by the general. However, these changes were reversed back more closely to the original novel at the demand of Kirk Douglas. On the Criterion Collection Blu-ray, James B. Harris claims to have gotten this ending past distributors by sending the entire script instead of just the reversed ending, in the knowledge that those distributors would not read through the whole script again. After viewing the film, United Artists was happy with the changes and left the ending as it is.", "Production took place entirely in Bavaria, Germany, especially at the Schleissheim Palace near Munich. Timothy Carey was fired during production. He was reportedly extremely difficult to work with, even to the extent of faking his own kidnapping, holding up the whole production. He was replaced in the scenes remaining to be shot with a double. The film cost slightly less than $1 million and just about broke even. Due to having three years military training, around 600 German police officers were used as extras for soldiers. The last scenes filmed were those that take place on the battlefield. For the construction of the battlefield, Kubrick hired 5,000 square yards of land from a local farmer. It took Kubrick a month to set-up the filming of the assault, arranging props and tearing up the field to look like a war zone. For the filming of the battle sequence, the battlefield was divided into five regions where explosive charges were specifically placed. This made it easier for Kubrick to film the dying of extras as he split the extras into five groups, one for each of the regions, and each man would die in his own zone by an explosion that was near him. An early critical test of Kubrick's obsession with control on the set came during the making of \"Paths of Glory\". As recalled by Kirk Douglas: The only female character in the film, the woman who sings \"The Faithful Hussar\", is portrayed by German actress Christiane Harlan (credited in the film as Susanne Christian). An effective scene towards the end of the film shows actress Harlan briefly appearing to sing a German song timidly evoking emotion in both the audience and the soldiers. She and Kubrick later married; the couple remained together until his death in 1999, it was on set that they originally had met. Kubrick's use of visual imagery and mise-en-scene: \"Paths of Glory\" employs both camera-work and audio cues to create a sense of realism, thus making it easier for the audience to sympathise with the plight of the accused soldiers. In the beginning of the film a snare drum plays, and the music is reminiscent of war era newsreels. During the battle sequences, the camera keeps pace with the soldiers but in other ways, the shots looks like old trench warfare footage from World War I. The film's choice of black and white further emphasises its similarity to the actual newsreels of the conflict. Kubrick's vision of war was far bleaker than that of some other films of the era, which also influenced the director's choice to shoot the picture in black and white. The visuals also allow the audience to see the difference between \"life in the trenches\" and \"life in the command\". From the opulent mansion of the high-ranking officers, the audience notices wide shots from the exterior and the interior. The viewer misses nothing; every decadent piece of furniture, bauble and jewellery that the high officers have, in sharp contrast to the trenches where the shots are much tighter. Close ups and point-of-view shots (e.g. from Colonel Dax's perspective) are cramped and tight, suffocating for the audience. Switching to a shot in front of Dax's person, e.g. a walking shot, the audience becomes much like the other soldiers accompanying him in the trenches, feeling stuck and trapped in the confined and dangerous space.", "The musical score by Gerald Fried makes extensive use of percussion instruments, specifically military drums. Kubrick used sound, or the lack thereof, to build tension and suspense in the film, particularly towards the beginning when the three soldiers are given orders to check on the Ant Hill. This scene is in silence, with no use of diegetic/non-diegetic sound, working well to add depth and rawness. Much of what the viewer can hear throughout the film is explosions in the distance and the sound of a whistle being blown, further adding to the overall documentary style of the film. The lack of a big bold score gives no suggestion of heroism to the plot of the film, and the sounds of people dying are a common trope associated with Stanley Kubrick's films. The song towards the ending happens within the narrative. In the tavern with the French soldiers of Dax's regiment, a young woman sings a traditional German folk song of that era, \"Der treue Husar\". With Kubrick's use of mise-en-scene, the audience is able to see the German woman's performance brought the men to tears through various close-ups and angles. The troopers begin to hum and eventually sing along to the tune in an expression of their basic humanity. \"Paths of Glory\" later ends in the same way it began with the familiar snare/drum roll used in the opening, indicative of a lack of change throughout the film. Kubrick's use of sounds and song functions as a kind of narration for the audience, linking each sound to a later or earlier scene in the film.", "The film premiered in Munich on Nov 1, 1957 (the AFI incorrectly lists it as September 18). It was released in the United States in December 1957. It was considered a modest box office success and earned Kubrick critical acclaim.", "On its release, the film's anti-military tone was subject to criticism and censorship.", "The film was nominated and managed to gain several international awards and accolades as it garnered many positive reviews thus helping to establish Kubrick's already growing reputation. The film was nominated for a BAFTA Award under the category Best Film but lost to \"The Bridge on the River Kwai\". The film also won a Jussi Awards' Diploma of merit. In 1959 the film was nominated for a Writers' Guild of America Award but ultimately lost. It won the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Film Critics Association. The film holds a 95% rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 55 reviews and an average rating of 8.9/10. The site's critical consensus reads: \"\"Paths of Glory\" is a transcendentally humane war movie from Stanley Kubrick, with impressive, protracted battle sequences and a knock-out ending\". \"Chicago Sun-Times\" critic Roger Ebert added this film to his \"Great Movies\" list on February 25, 2005. Gene Siskel, on a section of \"Siskel and Ebert's at the Movies\" show regarding Stanley Kubrick films, declared \"Paths of Glory\" to be one of the all-time great films and \"almost\" as good as Kubrick's \"Dr. Strangelove\". Director Robert Zemeckis paid homage to \"Paths of Glory\" with the 1991 \"Tales from the Crypt\" episode \"Yellow\". The episode was an adaptation of the 1952 \"Shock SuspenStories\" story, \"Yellow!\", about a WWII U.S. Army colonel whose son, a lieutenant, exhibits cowardice and is sentenced to face the firing squad. The father makes the son falsely believe that the firing squad will be firing blanks, so that the son will not exhibit cowardice before his execution. Zemeckis changed the setting to World War I, and cast Kirk Douglas and his son Eric Douglas in the father and son roles. David Simon, creator of critically acclaimed series \"The Wire\" (2002–08), has said that \"Paths of Glory\" was a key influence on the HBO crime drama. The influence of the film comes in its depiction of the tribulations of \"middle management\", in the form of Dax's unsuccessful attempt to protect his troops against the inhumane ambitions of his superiors, which in turn influenced \"The Wire\"'s depiction of various institutions acting against individuals.", "In 1992, the film was deemed \"culturally, historically or aesthetically significant\" by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry. In October and November 2004 the film was shown at the London Film Festival by the British Film Institute. It was carefully remastered over a period of several years; the original film elements were found to be damaged. However, with the aid of several modern digital studios in Los Angeles the film was completely restored and remastered for modern cinema. In addition, Stanley Kubrick's widow Christiane (who also appears in the closing scene as the German singer) made a guest appearance at the start of the performance.", "MGM released the VHS format on July 21, 1997 followed by the DVD version on June 29, 1999. The Criterion Collection's first release of the film was for a Laserdisc release in 1989. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by The Criterion Collection with a high-definition digital transfer on October 26, 2010. Eureka released a UK Region B Blu-Ray in 2016 as part of their Masters of Cinema line." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and family.", "Racing career.", "Beginnings.", "Formula Two.", "Sports cars.", "Formula One.", "Cooper and Brabham (1964–1968).", "Team Lotus (1969–1970).", "1969 season.", "1970 season.", "Death and legacy.", "Personal life.", "Notes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Jochen Rindt was born on 18 April 1942 in Mainz, Germany, to an Austrian mother and German father. His mother had been a successful tennis player in her youth and, like her father, studied law. Rindt's parents owned a spice mill in Mainz, which he later inherited. They were killed in a bombing raid in Hamburg during the Second World War when he was one year old, after which he was raised by his grandparents in Graz, Austria. Although his grandfather chose to retain Rindt's German citizenship, for his entire career he drove under an Austrian racing licence. In an interview, he described his heritage as a \"terrible mixture\" and, when asked if he felt more Austrian or German, said that he felt \"like a European\". Rindt had one half-brother, Uwe, through his mother. Rindt's childhood friends and his brother described him as a \"laddish child\" who often performed tricks to amuse others. While on a skiing holiday, he broke his femoral neck, leading to several surgeries that left one leg shorter than the other. As a result of this, Rindt limped slightly for the rest of his life. At the age of sixteen, he received a moped and started racing his friends on motocross tracks. His time in school was troubled and he was excluded from schools several times. He said: His chances of obtaining a licence were put into further jeopardy because he had collected eight recorded misdemeanours with the police during his youth. In 1960, he received his first car, an old Volkswagen Beetle. His interest in motorsport greatly increased when he visited the 1961 German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring with school friends, including fellow future Formula One driver Helmut Marko.", "", "Rindt drove his first race at the \"Flugplatzrennen\" in 1961, in his grandmother's Abarth Simca 2000. After missing the official application period, he only entered after a friendly high-ranking motorsport functionary from Graz intervened on his behalf. During the race, he was black flagged for his dangerous driving style and therefore disqualified; he did not immediately return to the pit lane as he was unaware of the regulations. Rindt entered several rallies with his Simca but did not achieve good results. It was only when he was provided with a race-prepared Alfa Romeo GT 1300 at cost price and with free servicing by a local dealer that he became more successful. In the Alfa Romeo, he achieved eight victories. In 1963, Rindt switched to Formula Junior with the assistance of Kurt Bardi-Barry, a wealthy owner of a travel agency and one of Austria's leading drivers at the time; Barry gave him his one-year-old Cooper T67 and the two men formed a partnership, driving to races together. Rindt was fastest in practice for his first race in Vallelunga, a race won by Barry, and took victory in his second at Cesenatico. In the race, Rindt had taken advantage of an accident in the early stages. While most drivers slowed for the incoming ambulance, he raced ahead between the straw barriers and the parked medical vehicle to take the lead. At the time, he was notorious for his dangerous style, almost crashing into the spectators at a race in the streets of Budapest.", "Rindt was highly successful in Formula Two racing, amassing a total of 29 victories. He once again entered the series in partnership with Barry, driving Brabham cars. The engines provided by Cosworth were slower and inconsistent in performance; Rindt responded to his reduced pace by declaring: \"Then I just brake two metres later.\" He entered his first F2 race in April 1964 at the \"Preis von Wien\" at Aspern, retiring from both heats. The international motor racing world first took notice of him on 18 May 1964, when Rindt won the \"London Trophy\" race at the Crystal Palace circuit in a Brabham BT10 ahead of Graham Hill. Like many other drivers at the time, Rindt continued to race in Formula Two races alongside his duties in Formula One; his last F2 appearance was the \"Festspielpreis der Salzburg\" in August 1970. In 1967, he dominated Formula Two, winning nine races in his Brabham BT23. As an experienced Formula One driver, he was graded \"A\", meaning his results did not count towards the championship, and the title went to Jacky Ickx. Still, his performances led him to be called \"king of Formula 2\" by the racing press. He had a long-standing relationship with Roy Winkelmann, and drove with his team until it closed at the end of 1969.", "Along with single-seater racing, Rindt took up sports car racing in the mid-1960s. Rindt started at the 24 Hours of Le Mans a total of four times. At his debut in 1964, sharing a Ferrari 250LM with David Piper, the car retired too early for Rindt even to take the wheel. Rindt's best result came the following year at the 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans. Sharing the drive of a Ferrari 250LM with American Masten Gregory for the North American Racing Team, Rindt won the event. Neither driver was happy to race in a seemingly uncompetitive car. A 1998 article in \"Motor Sport\" stated that neither appeared to show much interest in the race, but instead it was \"more a case of 'hope it breaks soon' so they could draw their money and split\". At the start, the drivers had to run to their cars; Rindt entered with a forward roll that allowed him to get his foot on the throttle instantly and take an early lead. The pair experienced considerable trouble in the early part of the race; the car did not restart during Gregory's first pit stop. Later, the engine failed partially and Gregory brought the car into the pits on only six of twelve cylinders. At this point, Rindt had already changed back into his civilian clothes, expecting their race to be over. After thirty minutes of repairs, the car restarted and Rindt and Gregory agreed to drive the rest of the event \"flat out\", at full speed and with the accompanying risk. Rindt drove most of the night, advancing from 18th to third position by dawn. Gregory persuaded Rindt to let him drive the closing part of the race, suspecting that his young teammate might not drive moderately enough to nurse the car to the finish. Jacky Ickx later recalled that the two had driven \"like maniacs\". Even so, the car survived, handing the pair what Ickx called an \"unexpected victory\". Later that year, Rindt drove, again in a Ferrari 250LM, at the 500 kilometre race at Zeltweg. He was able to win ahead of the better powered Ferrari of Mike Parkes owing to a special lever that manually activated the brake lights. Using the tool shortly before his actual braking point, Rindt was able to force Parkes to brake earlier than him which allowed him to stay ahead. Apart from his 1965 victory, he never finished the race in Le Mans. In 1966, his Ford GT40 (shared with Innes Ireland) suffered an engine failure. A year later, he drove a Porsche 907 with Gerhard Mitter until their camshaft failed.", "", "Rindt made his Formula One debut at his home race, the 1964 Austrian Grand Prix, in a loaned Brabham BT11 supplied by the Rob Walker Racing Team. He retired on the 58th lap with a broken steering column in his only Grand Prix of the season. For the 1965 Formula One season, Rindt signed as a permanent driver with Cooper, paired with Bruce McLaren. He was not immediately successful as Cooper, formerly a top team, were struggling at the time. In his first race, the 1965 South African Grand Prix, he developed transistor trouble; the damage was initially repaired but the problem recurred and Rindt had to retire from the race. His best result was a fourth place at the German Grand Prix at the Nürburgring. He ended the season with four points, 13th in the championship. For, Cooper introduced the T81 chassis and used nine-year old Maserati V12 engines, which were powerful but heavy. A new engine formula was introduced for the season, with the capacity doubled to three litres. Many teams struggled with the new rules, leaving Cooper competitive even with their old Maserati V12s. After McLaren left, Rindt became team leader until world champion John Surtees joined from Ferrari. At the second race of the year, the Belgian Grand Prix, Rindt overcame an engine failure in practice to qualify second, next to Surtees on the front row of the grid. In a race affected by heavy rain, he overtook Surtees for the lead on lap four. He spun several times on the wet track and suffered from a limited-slip differential, but held onto the lead until lap 21, when Surtees repassed him and won. It was Rindt's first ever podium finish in Formula One, after what \"Motor Sport\" magazine called a \"very courageous\" drive. Overall, he achieved three podium positions, handing him third place in the championship at the end of the year. Prior to, Rindt received offers from every team except Lotus and Honda, and moved to Brabham, who had been world champions in the two previous seasons. Technical problems restricted him that year. Brabham's Repco V8 engine was not competitive against the now widely used Cosworth DFV and Rindt finished just two races, both in third place. At the season opener in South Africa on New Year's Day, Rindt placed third, being elevated by a late retirement from Jackie Stewart and closing on second-placed Graham Hill towards the end. The race was won by Jim Clark, a close friend of Rindt's. It was Clark's final Formula One race; he died three months later at a Formula Two race at Hockenheim. Rindt was deeply affected by his death, telling Austrian journalist Heinz Prüller: \"If Jim Clark is not safe, what can happen to us?\" His second podium finish came in heavy rain and fog at the Nürburgring at the German Grand Prix, a race dominated by Stewart, who finished four minutes ahead of Hill in second place. Rindt had closed on Hill in the latter stages of the race after the Englishman spun, and finished just four seconds behind after a close battle during the last lap. His eight points placed him twelfth in the championship at the end of the season. During these years, he also raced in the Indianapolis 500 in both 1967 and 1968, but finished only 24th and 32nd, completing only five laps in 1968 after finishing slightly more than half of the 1967 race. In an interview in 2014, Heinz Prüller recalled Rindt speaking about Indianapolis in 1967: \"In Indianapolis, I always feel like I am on my way to my own funeral.\" At another occasion, he said about the track: \"It is catastrophic, I only drive there because of the money.\"", "", "For the 1969 season, Rindt signed for the 1968 World Constructors' Champion Lotus, where he joined the defending Drivers' Champion Graham Hill. Rindt felt uncomfortable with the move, owing to the notorious unreliability of the Lotus car; in a twenty-month period between 1967 and 1969, the team was involved in 31 accidents. Hill alone had nine crashes between 1968 and 1970, which led him to joke: \"Every time I am being overtaken by my own wheel, I know I am in a Lotus.\" When Rindt joined Lotus, his friend and \"de facto\" manager Bernie Ecclestone, who had negotiated the deal, remarked that they were aware that Brabham may have been a better choice of team but the speed of the Lotus gave Rindt a chance to win the championship. Rindt commented: \"At Lotus, I can either be world champion or die.\" Because of his uncertainty about the wisdom of joining the team, Rindt did not sign the Lotus contract until shortly before the 1969 Spanish Grand Prix. Rindt's hesitancy appeared justified when both he and Hill suffered high speed crashes at the Spanish Grand Prix at Montjuïc. In both instances, the suspension mounted wings on the cars broke off, causing accidents that could have killed either driver. The effect of the failure lifted Rindt's car off the track and into the barriers, where it collided with the stationary car of Hill, whose accident occurred at the same spot. Although Rindt only suffered a broken nose, one marshal lost an eye and another had his foot broken. Rindt was furious with Lotus's team owner, Colin Chapman, over the failure; he told a reporter after the accident: \"I place the blame on him [Chapman] and rightfully so, because he should have calculated that the wing would break.\" In an interview on Austrian television a day later, he said: \"These wings are insanity [\"ein Wahnsinn\"] in my eyes and should not be allowed on racing cars. [...] But to get any wisdom into Colin Chapman's head is impossible.\" Asked whether he had lost trust in Lotus after the accident, he replied: \"I never had any trust in Lotus\", going on to describe his relationship with the team as \"purely business\". His accident left him sidelined for the Monaco Grand Prix, a race that Hill won. Jackie Stewart later described Rindt's 1969 season as the year that he \"came of age\". At the end of the year, \"Motor Sport\" magazine called him \"[t]he only driver to challenge Stewart seriously throughout the season\", albeit placing only fourth in the championship. The poor reliability of the Lotus 49B affected him; he retired from seven races. At the British Grand Prix, Rindt fought a close battle with Stewart for the lead; both men were 90 seconds ahead of third-placed Jacky Ickx. The race was decided in Stewart's favour only when Rindt had to enter the pits after part of his car's bodywork started to rub on the tyre; he finished fourth. At the Italian Grand Prix, he was involved in a memorable finish. Having started from pole position, he traded the lead with Stewart and Piers Courage several times. During the last lap, Rindt, Stewart, McLaren, and Jean-Pierre Beltoise were running close together as they approached the finish line. Stewart took the win, only eight hundredths of a second ahead of Rindt, while fourth placed McLaren was also within two tenths of a second. It was the closest 1–2–3–4 finish in the history of the sport. Rindt recorded his maiden Grand Prix win at the penultimate race of the season at Watkins Glen, winning $50,000—the largest monetary prize in Formula One history at the time. His victory was overshadowed by a serious accident involving his teammate Hill, who crashed after a high speed puncture and suffered major leg injuries.", "For, Rindt's partner at Lotus was John Miles; Graham Hill had left the team to drive for Rob Walker's customer franchise. Rindt became the clear team leader. At the first Grand Prix of the season in South Africa, he qualified fourth, but eventually retired with an engine failure after a first lap incident with Chris Amon and Jack Brabham, the latter of whom went on to win for the final time in his career. At the following race, the Spanish Grand Prix, Lotus introduced their revolutionary new car design. Instead of one conventional front radiator, the Lotus 72 featured two, one on each side of the cockpit. Further innovations included torsion bar suspension in place of the widely used coil-springs, and all four brakes mounted inboard to reduce unsprung weight. During its first practice session, the left semi-axle of the car broke, sending Rindt into a spin. The car also proved ineffective in the race; Rindt retired after nine laps. As the Lotus 72 was not as effective as the team hoped, it was returned to the factory to be re-built and Rindt used the old Lotus 49 for the next race in Monaco. The necessity of using tyres intended for the new design made the older car unstable. Seemingly unaffected by this, Rindt produced what his race engineer Herbie Blash called \"the race of his life\". From eighth on the grid, he worked his way through the field on a track notorious for presenting few overtaking opportunities. In the closing stages, he was second, steadily closing the gap on leader Jack Brabham. On the final lap, on the final corner, Brabham braked too late, touched the kerbstone and went straight ahead into the straw bales, allowing Rindt through to take his first victory of the season. Rindt used the Lotus 49 one last time at the Belgian Grand Prix, a race at which he heavily criticised the organisers for installing guardrails that had gaps of several metres between them. He had originally started practice in the remodelled 72, but the car came to a halt early in the session with a broken lower wishbone, forcing Rindt to switch cars once more. Despite engine troubles during the rest of practice, he managed to qualify on the front row, but later retired with another engine failure. At the Dutch Grand Prix, Rindt eventually used the new Lotus 72, better sorted after alterations had been made. He set pole position in the final practice session, almost a quarter of a second ahead of his closest challenger, Stewart. Rindt went on to take his maiden victory in the Lotus 72, but it was not a joyful occasion for him; on lap 23, his close friend Piers Courage, with whom he had eaten dinner just the night before, died in a fiery crash. Rindt was heavily shaken by the loss of yet another fellow driver and contemplated retirement. After the success of Zandvoort, Rindt gained confidence in the new Lotus 72, describing it as \"the best racing car that exists at the moment\". But he continued to have problems. During practice for the French Grand Prix, Rindt opted to drop his new all-enveloping Bell-Star crash helmet, finding it too hot. He went back to using his open-front helmet, only to be hit in the face by a stone from another car, causing a deep cut on his right cheek. He also suffered a steering failure on his car. Furious over yet another mechanical problem, he stormed into the Lotus garage and yelled at Colin Chapman: \"If this happens again and I survive, I will kill all of you!\" Rindt was still able to win the race, taking the lead in the championship. The next race was the British Grand Prix at Brands Hatch. Jacky Ickx established an early lead ahead of Brabham and Rindt, but when Ickx's transmission failed, Rindt seized the opportunity to pass Brabham for the lead. Brabham was then able to regain the top spot on lap 69 as Rindt missed a gear and looked the certain winner, only to repeat his misfortune of Monaco: on the last lap, he ran out of fuel, allowing Rindt to take his third win in a row. His victory was cast into doubt shortly after the race when Chief Scrutineer Cecil Mitchell found the rear aerofoil not at the regulated height. Rindt was provisionally disqualified, only to be reinstated as winner after three hours of deliberation. The German Grand Prix was originally set to take place at its traditional venue, the Nürburgring. The Grand Prix Drivers' Association (GPDA), represented by Rindt and Graham Hill, demanded changes to the circuit to increase safety, including Armco barriers along the entire of the \"Nordschleife\". No agreement was reached and the Grand Prix moved to Hockenheim, where Rindt took his fourth victory in succession. The race was another two-way fight, this time between Rindt and Ickx, who exchanged the lead several times. This meant that he could have secured the drivers' title at his home event at the Austrian Grand Prix. He set the Lotus 72 on pole position, to the delight of the crowd, but retired from the race with an engine failure. The title decision was therefore postponed to the next race in Monza.", "The paddock moved to the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, a track known for high speeds; drivers often used the slipstream of cars in front to increase their pace. Because of this, many teams, including Lotus, opted to drop the rear wings mounted on the cars to reduce drag and further increase speeds. The more powerful flat-12 Ferraris of Jacky Ickx and Clay Regazzoni had been up to faster than the Lotus at the previous race in Austria. Rindt's teammate John Miles was unhappy with the wingless setup in Friday practice, reporting that the car \"wouldn't run straight\". Rindt reported no such problems, and Chapman recalled that Rindt reported the car to be \"almost 800 rpm faster on the straight\" without wings. On the following day, Rindt ran with higher gear ratios fitted to his car to take advantage of the reduced drag, increasing the car's potential top speed to. On his fifth lap of his practice session, he crashed heavily at the approach to the Parabolica corner. Denny Hulme, who was following Rindt at the time, described the accident as follows: Upon impact, a joint in the crash barrier parted, the suspension of the vehicle went under the barrier, and the car hit a stanchion head-on. The front end was destroyed. Rindt was in the habit of using only four points on the five-point harness then available and did not wear the crotch straps, as he wanted to be able to exit the car quickly in the event of fire. As a result, upon impact he slid under the belts, and the belts fatally slit open Rindt's throat. Later investigations found that the accident was initiated by a failure of the car's right front brake shaft, but that Rindt's death was caused by poorly installed crash barriers. Rindt was pronounced dead on the way to hospital in Milan and Lotus withdrew all cars from the race, including the Lotus 72 entered by Rob Walker. The Grand Prix went ahead and Clay Regazzoni took his maiden victory, but celebrations were muted. There was a lengthy investigation into Rindt's death in Italy, leading to a trial against Colin Chapman; he was cleared of all charges in 1976. The destroyed Lotus 72 remained in Italy after the trial, going to a scrapyard near Monza. In 1985, a real estate agent found the wreckage and bought it from the authorities, later trading it in 1993 for a Lola Formula 3 car. Since then, the car has rested in a garage near Milan. Rindt was buried at the central cemetery (Zentralfriedhof) in Graz on 11 September 1970. At his funeral, Joakim Bonnier gave the eulogy, saying: At the time he died Rindt had won five of that year's ten Grands Prix, which meant that he had a substantial lead in the Drivers' Championship. After winning the next race in Canada, Jacky Ickx moved within 17 points of Rindt in the Championship, giving him a chance to win the title if he won the two remaining races. At the United States Grand Prix, a race won by Rindt's replacement at Lotus, Emerson Fittipaldi, Ickx placed only fourth, making Rindt motor racing's only posthumous world champion. The championship trophy was handed to his widow Nina by Jackie Stewart on 18 November 1970 in a ceremony near the Place de la Concorde in Paris. Rindt was commemorated in many ways. The early season BARC 200 Formula Two race was renamed the \"Jochen Rindt Memorial Trophy\" for as long as the series existed. In 2000, on the 30th anniversary of his death, the city of Graz unveiled a bronze plaque in remembrance of Rindt, with wife Nina and daughter Natasha present. The penultimate corner at the Red Bull Ring in Austria is named after Rindt.", "In March 1967, Rindt married Nina Lincoln, a Finnish model and daughter of racing driver Curt Lincoln, whom he had raced in the early part of his career. After becoming engaged, Lincoln had originally broken up with Rindt and sent the engagement ring back. Rindt then put it back into the box with a note telling her to keep it until she changed her mind, which she did upon receiving the package, later explaining: \"I like men who know what they want.\" The couple moved to Switzerland, near Begnins, where they built a house together. The Rindts had one daughter, Natasha, who was two years old at the time of her father's death. Nina Rindt married twice more after Rindt's death, first Philip Martyn, with whom she had another daughter, and then Alexander Hood, 4th Viscount Bridport, making her Nina Hood, Lady Bridport. The couple had a son, Anthony. Their daughter Natasha later worked with Bernie Ecclestone for several years after he had taken over the commercial rights of Formula One. Rindt had met Bernie Ecclestone during his time at Cooper and the two became friends. Noticing his commercial talent, Rindt allowed Ecclestone to manage his professional contracts, without ever officially employing him as a manager. Ecclestone said of the relationship: \"I was never his manager, we were good friends. I helped him with any help he ever needed.\" After Rindt's accident, it was Ecclestone who carried his bloody helmet back to the pit lane. In Formula One, Rindt had several friendly relationships with other drivers, most notably Jackie Stewart. They met at a Formula Two event in 1964 and soon became friends, often going on holiday together and living near each other in Switzerland. Until his death, they were sometimes accompanied by Jim Clark. Rindt became involved in Stewart's fight for increased safety in Formula One, being one of the leading figures of the GPDA. For his role in the safety campaign, Rindt was criticised by fellow drivers and the press alike; reporters derogatively called Stewart, Rindt and Joakim Bonnier the \"Geneva connection\", due to their residence in Switzerland. Stewart said that it took Rindt some time to understand the graveness of the situation but after that, he was a \"good ally\". After Rindt's death, his wife Nina stayed close with the Stewarts and can be seen visiting them at the 1971 Monaco Grand Prix in the Roman Polanski-produced film \"Weekend of a Champion\". Privately, Rindt was known to family and friends as an often reckless driver when on public roads. During the early years of his career, he took his Jaguar E-Type out in the streets of Vienna, where he lived, and drifted through the streets. He sparked public criticism in 1968 when he flipped over a during a demonstration run at an autocross event in Großhöflein, while his pregnant wife was on board. Rindt's success popularised motorsport in Austria. Helmut Zwickl called him \"the driving instructor of the nation\". In 1965, Rindt put together the first exhibition of racing cars in Austria, the \"Jochen-Rindt-Show\" in Vienna. It was an immediate success, with 30,000 visitors on the first weekend alone. Using his connections, he brought in his friend Joakim Bonnier and former Mercedes Grand Prix manager Alfred Neubauer as opening speakers, with other drivers such as Jackie Stewart attending. The show soon became an annual event and later moved to the German city of Essen in 1970, shortly after Rindt's death, and remains there as the Essen Motor Show. Rindt, with the help of Ecclestone, was able to successfully promote himself, including lucrative sponsorship and advertising contracts. Following his ascent in racing, two race tracks were built in Austria, the Österreichring (now Red Bull Ring), for which Rindt worked as a consultant, and the Salzburgring. Rindt's popularity was further increased through the TV show \"Motorama\", which he hosted. The monthly programme included tips for driving on public roads, reports from Grands Prix and interviews of fellow drivers by Rindt.", "– Rindt raced with an Austrian licence, but had a German passport and never held Austrian citizenship.<br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Music.", "Stature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga was born in Bilbao, Biscay, on what would have been Mozart's fiftieth birthday. His father (Juan Simón de Arriaga) and the boy's older brother first taught him music. Juan Simón had some musical talent and at age seventeen Juan Crisóstomo was an organist at a church in Berriatúa. Juan Simón worked in Guernica and in 1804 moved to Bilbao and became a merchant in wool, rice, wax, coffee and other commodities. The income generated in this way allowed Juan Simón to think about providing his son, who had shown prodigious musical talent, a way of developing those gifts. In September 1821 Arriaga's father, with the encouragement of composer José Sobejano y Ayala (1791–1857), sent Juan Crisóstomo to Paris, where in November of that year Arriaga began his studies. These included violin under Pierre Baillot, counterpoint with Luigi Cherubini and harmony under François-Joseph Fétis at the Paris Conservatoire. From all evidence, Arriaga made quite an impression on his teachers. In 1823, Cherubini, who had become director at the Conservatoire the previous year, famously asked on hearing the young composer's \"Stabat Mater\", \"Who wrote this?\" and learning it was Arriaga, said to him, \"Amazing – you are music itself.\" Arriaga soon became a teaching assistant in Fétis's class, noted and highly praised both by fellow students and other faculty at the Conservatoire for his talent. Cherubini referred to Arriaga's fugue for eight voices (lost) based on the \"Credo... et vitam venturi\" simply as \"a masterpiece\", and Fétis was no less effusive — apparently, what impressed all his mentors was his use of sophisticated harmonies, counterpoint and fugue with minimal or no formal instruction. Fétis was already familiar with Arriaga's now-lost opera \"Los Esclavos Felices\" (\"The Happy Slaves\"), stating that \"without any knowledge whatsoever of harmony, Juan Crisóstomo wrote a Spanish opera containing wonderful and completely original ideas.\" Arriaga was well supported during his four years in Paris by his father, but the intensity of his commitment to his studies at the Conservatoire and his meteoric rise, based on his teachers' compliments and assessments of his promise, may have taken a toll on his health: he died in Paris ten days before his twentieth birthday, of a lung ailment (possibly tuberculosis), or exhaustion, perhaps both. He was buried in an unmarked grave at the \"Cimetière du Nord\" in Montmartre. Thanks to the Spanish Embassy, since 1977 there has been a plaque marking the house at 314 rue Saint-Honoré in memory of the composer.", "The amount of Arriaga's music that has survived to the present day is quite small, reflecting his early death. It includes: Arriaga's music was used to create an opera pasticcio, \"Die arabische Prinzessin\". The work was commissioned by the Barenboim-Said Foundation from the composer Anna-Sophie Brüning and the author Paula Fünfeck, and is based on a traditional Arabic tale. The piece was premiered under the title \"Die Sultana von Cadiz\" by the West-Eastern Divan Orchestra of the Barenboim-Said Foundation and local children's choirs at the Cultural Palace, Ramallah on 14 July 2009. The music publisher Boosey & Hawkes lists further performance runs in Leipzig (in 2011); in Bonn, Bilbao, and Barañáin (in 2013); and in Madrid, Coburg, and Linz (in 2014).", "Arriaga's music is \"elegant, accomplished and notable for its harmonic warmth\" (\"New Grove Concise Dictionary of Music\"). His greatest works are undoubtedly the three string quartets, which (like his predecessors D. Scarlatti, Soler and Boccherini) contain notably Spanish ethnic rhythmic and melodic elements, especially in the galloping 6/8 finale of No. 1 in D minor and the meditative second (slow) movements of No. 2 in A major (an impressive set of variations in D major taking off from the slow D major variation movements in Mozart's K. 464 and Beethoven's Op. 18 No. 5 (both also in A major as a whole), which climaxes in a D minor variation even more passionate than Mozart's D minor variation in K. 464, in the form of an impassioned, plangent lament on the top two strings of the viola going up to the second A above middle C) and No. 3 in E-flat major (a tender G major lullaby for the newborn Christ child). Periodwise, his style is on the borderline between late Classicism and early Romanticism, ranging from the late Classical idiom of Mozart to the proto-Romanticism of early Beethoven. According to Grove, Arriaga's death \"before he was 20 was a sad loss to Basque music\". Following his early death, with the only reliable biographical material at the time being some reports by Fétis, his life story was fictionalized to play into rising Basque nationalism. Data on the composer remains scarce, but in 1989 the Basque Studies program at the University of Nevada, Reno published the only English language biography of Arriaga, with appendix and bibliography of works, written by Barbara Rosen (\"Arriaga, the Forgotten Genius: the Short Life of a Basque Composer\"); and in honor of the 200th anniversary of Arriaga's birth, \"Scherzo\", the Spanish musical magazine, published a series of articles on the composer, with updated bibliographies, in its January 2006 issue. The view that emerges from both these newer sources does not contradict what Fétis said, but emphasizes that Arriaga's early death was a loss not just to Basque culture but also to Spanish music and by extension, European classical music as a whole. According to Rosen \"It is [...] possible to hear passages in Arriaga's work similar to Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven and Rossini, although he sometimes fails to achieve the complexity of these composers' more mature works. Nevertheless, Arriaga has an identifiable and original style which, in time, undoubtedly would have become more individual and more recognizably his own, possibly incorporating more Spanish and Basque than Viennese elements.\" A public theatre in his home city of Bilbao carries his name." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "List of laterals.", "Fricatives.", "Ambiguous centrality.", "Lateralized consonants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "English has one lateral phoneme: the lateral approximant, which in many accents has two allophones. One, found before vowels as in \"lady\" or \"fly\", is called \"clear l\", pronounced as the alveolar lateral approximant with a \"neutral\" position of the body of the tongue. The other variant, so-called \"dark l\", found before consonants or word-finally, as in \"bold\" or \"tell\", is pronounced as the velarized alveolar lateral approximant with the tongue assuming a spoon-like shape with its back part raised, which gives the sound a - or -like resonance. In some languages, like Albanian, those two sounds are different phonemes. East Slavic languages contrast and but do not have [l]. In many British accents (e.g. Cockney), dark may undergo vocalization through the reduction and loss of contact between the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge, becoming a rounded back vowel or glide. This process turns \"tell\" into something like, as must have happened with \"talk\" or \"walk\" at some stage. A similar process happened during the development of many other languages, including Brazilian Portuguese, Old French, and Polish, in all three of these resulting in voiced velar approximant or voiced labio-velar approximant, whence Modern French \"sauce\" as compared with Spanish \"salsa\", or Polish \"Wisła\" (pronounced ) as compared with English \"Vistula\". In central and Venice dialects of Venetian, intervocalic has turned into a semivocalic, so that the written word \"ła bała\" is pronounced. The orthography uses the letter ł to represent this phoneme (it specifically represents not the sound but the phoneme that is, in some dialects, and, in others, ). Many aboriginal Australian languages have a series of three or four lateral approximants, as do various dialects of Irish. Rarer lateral consonants include the retroflex laterals that can be found in many languages of India and in some Swedish dialects, and the voiceless alveolar lateral fricative, found in many Native North American languages, Welsh and Zulu. In Adyghe and some Athabaskan languages like Hän, both voiceless and voiced alveolar lateral fricatives occur, but there is no approximant. Many of these languages also have lateral affricates. Some languages have palatal or velar voiceless lateral fricatives or affricates, such as Dahalo and Zulu, but the IPA has no symbols for such sounds. However, appropriate symbols are easy to make by adding a lateral-fricative belt to the symbol for the corresponding lateral approximant (see below). Also, a devoicing diacritic may be added to the approximant. Nearly all languages with such lateral obstruents also have the approximant. However, there are a number of exceptions, many of them located in the Pacific Northwest area of the United States. For example, Tlingit has but no. Other examples from the same area include Nuu-chah-nulth and Kutenai, and elsewhere, Chukchi and Kabardian. Standard Tibetan has a voiceless lateral approximant, usually romanized as \"lh\", as in the name Lhasa. A uvular lateral approximant has been reported to occur in some speakers of American English. Pashto has a retroflex lateral flap. There are a large number of lateral click consonants; 17 occur in!Xóõ. Lateral trills are also possible, but they do not occur in any known language. They may be pronounced by initiating or with an especially forceful airflow. There is no symbol for them in the IPA. They are sometimes used to imitate bird calls, and they are a component of Donald Duck talk.", "", "Only the alveolar lateral fricatives have dedicated letters in the IPA. However, others appear in the extIPA.", "The IPA requires sounds to be defined as to centrality, as either central or lateral. However, languages may be ambiguous as to some consonants' laterality. A well-known example is the liquid consonant in Japanese, represented in common transliteration systems as, which can be recognized as a (post)alveolar tap, alveolar lateral flap, (post)alveolar lateral approximant, (post)alveolar approximant, voiced retroflex stop, and various less common forms.", "A superscript is defined as lateral release. Consonants may also be pronounced with simultaneous lateral and central airflow. This is well-known from speech pathology with a lateral lisp. However, it also occurs in nondisordered speech in some southern Arabic dialects and possibly some Modern South Arabian languages, which have pharyngealized nonsibilant and (simultaneous and ) and possibly a sibilant (simultaneous ). Examples are 'pain' in the dialect of Al-Rubu'ah and 'back' and 'hyena' in Rijal Alma'." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Naming.", "Taxonomy and evolution.", "Subspecies.", "Description.", "Life history.", "Reproduction and development.", "Denning and sheltering behaviors.", "Ecology.", "Habitat.", "Diet.", "Predation.", "Disease.", "Relationships with humans.", "In culture.", "Trapping and fur use.", "Taming.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The English word \"skunk\" has two root words of Algonquian and Iroquoian origin, specifically \"seganku\" (Abenaki) and \"scangaresse\" (Huron). The Cree and Ojibwe word \"shee-gawk\" is the root word for Chicago, which means'skunk-land'. Alternative English names for the striped skunk include common skunk, Hudsonian skunk, northern skunk, black-tailed skunk and prairie polecat. The latter name was originally used by English settlers, who noted the animal's similarity to the European polecat. This association likely resulted in the striped skunk's subsequent unfavorable reputation as a poultry thief, despite it being a much less destructive animal than the true polecat. The name \"Alaska sable\" was employed by furriers during the late 19th century.", "The earliest fossil finds attributable to \"Mephitis\" were found in the Broadwater site in Nebraska, dating back to the early Pleistocene less than 1.8 million years ago. By the late Pleistocene (70,000–14,500 years ago), the striped skunk was widely distributed throughout the southern United States, and it expanded northwards and westwards by the Holocene (10,000–4,500 years ago) following the retreat of the Wisconsin glacier. Phylogenetic analyses of the species' cytochrome b gene and microsatellite data in 2012 indicated that there are four phylogroups of striped skunk. The first emerged from the Texas-Mexico region during the Rancholabrean before the Illinoian glaciation and colonized the southeastern United States. The second, still originating in the Texas-Mexico region, expanded westwards to the Rocky Mountains during the Illinoian glacial period. Two subsequent subclades were formed during the Sangamonian interglacial on either side of the Sierra Nevada. The subclade that colonized the Great Basin later expanded eastwards across the northern Rocky Mountains during the Holocene, recolonising the Great Plains and making contact with the southern phylogroup. A similar, but less significant, secondary contact occurred when the same subclade intermingled with members of the eastern phylogroup east of the Mississippi river.", "Thirteen subspecies of the striped skunk are generally recognized:", "The striped skunk is a stoutly-built, short-limbed animal with a small, conical head and a long, heavily furred tail. Adult males are 10% larger than females, with both sexes measuring between 52–77 cm in total body length and usually weighing, though some may weigh. The feet are plantigrade with bare soles, and are not as broad or flat as those of hog-nosed skunks. The forefeet are armed with five long, curved claws adapted for digging, while those on the hind feet are shorter and straighter. The color patterns of the fur vary greatly, but generally consist of a black base with a white stripe extending from the head which divides along the shoulders, continuing along the flanks to the rump and tail. Some specimens have a white patch on the chest, while others bear white stripes on the outer surface of the front limbs. Brown or cream-colored mutations occasionally occur. Like all skunks, the striped skunk possesses two highly developed scent glands, one on each side of the anus, containing about 15 milliliters of musk each, which provides a chemical defense against predation. This oily, yellow-colored musk consists of a mixture of powerfully odorous thiols (sulfur analogues of alcohols, in older sources called \"mercaptans\"), which can be sprayed at a distance of several meters. The odor of this musk was likened by Ernest Thompson Seton to a mixture of perfume musk, essence of garlic, burning sulfur and sewer gas \"magnified a thousand times\", though Clinton Hart Merriam claimed that it isn't \"one tenth\" as offensive as that produced by minks and weasels. It can be sprayed at a distance of several meters. If sprayed on the eyes, this compound can cause a temporary burning sensation.", "", "The striped skunk is polygamous, and normally breeds once a year, though yearling females who have failed to mate may enter a second estrous cycle a month after the first. The mating season usually occurs between mid-February to mid-April, though it is delayed at higher latitudes. Prior to copulating, the males' testicles swell during the January–February period, with maximum size being attained in March. Males during this period will cover much ground in their search for females, sometimes covering per night. When a male locates a female, he will approach her from the rear and lick her genitals, then bite her on the nape before copulating. A single male may have a harem of several females, which he mates with and defends against other males for a period of about 35 days. Once the mating period has finished, the impregnated females confine themselves to their dens, while the males attempt to rebuild their fat reserves. The gestation period lasts around 59–77 days, with kits being born at about mid-May to early June. Litters generally consist of 2–12 kits, though a litter of 18 is known from Pennsylvania. Kits are born blind and sparsely furred, weighing 25–40 grams. The eyes open after around three weeks, and are weaned after 42–56 days. Although their musk is still undeveloped, kits of this age will instinctively assume the defensive stand position when threatened. At this point, the kits may accompany their mother outside the den, becoming independent after 21⁄2 months.", "The striped skunk may dig its own dens, though it will appropriate those abandoned by other animals should the opportunity present itself. These dens are normally used only in late fall, winter, and early spring, while females with unweaned kits make use of them in late spring and summer. In cultivated areas, striped skunks will dig their dens in fencerows, likely because they are less likely to be disturbed by machinery or livestock. In winter it is common for a single den to be occupied by multiple females and a single male. During this period, the striped skunk saves its energy by lowering its body temperature from 38 °C to 32 °C. Although it will forage for short periods in winter, it primarily depends on its fat reserves in cold weather, and can lose as much as 50% of its body weight.", "", "The striped skunk inhabits a wide variety of habitats, particularly mixed woodlands, brushy corners and open fields interspersed with wooded ravines and rocky outcrops. Some populations, particularly in northwestern Illinois, prefer cultivated areas over uncultivated ones.", "While primarily an insectivore, the striped skunk is adaptable enough to incorporate other animals and even vegetable matter into its diet. The most frequently consumed insects include grasshoppers, beetles, crickets, and caterpillars. In the winter and spring months, the striped skunk will supplement its diet with vertebrates such as white-footed mice, voles, eggs and the chicks of ground nesting birds. Striped skunks inhabiting California's coastal areas will feed on crabs and beached fish. While not adapted for chasing fleet-footed prey, at least one specimen was observed pursuing gray cottontails into their burrows. When in season, the skunk will also consume vegetable matter, such as apples, blueberries, black cherries, ground cherries, corn and nightshade.", "Because of its formidable defensive capability, the striped skunk has few natural enemies. Mammalian predators typically avoid skunks, unless they are starving. Such predators include cougars, coyotes, bobcats, badgers, and red and gray foxes. Predatory birds, including golden and bald eagles, and great horned owls tend to have greater success in hunting skunks, though they still risk being blinded by their prey's musk.", "The striped skunk is one of the major carriers of the rabies virus, second only to raccoons in the US where skunks are 25% of annual cases. Skunks are the primary hosts in the north- and south-central United States as well as in Canada. Cases of rabies in this species are generally epizootic and recurrent. They are also host for the canine parvovirus and may also suffer from leptospirosis.", "", "The striped skunk is commonly featured in the myths and oral traditions of Native Americans. Some stories try to explain its striped pattern or how it got its smell. Skunks fill various roles in legends and may be featured as heroes, villains, tricksters, or monsters. For the Muscogee people, the skunk represented family loyalty and defense of loved ones. The Winnebago people used the skunk to symbolize vanity, being beautiful on the outside but ugly on the inside. The striped skunk was once called the \"emblem of America\" by Ernest Thompson Seton. It has been prevalent in modern popular culture, being the subject of various jazz and funk songs like Cab Calloway's \"Skunk Song\" and the Brecker Brothers' \"Some Skunk Funk\". The skunk connection in these genres may be due to the term \"funk\" being a term for strong odor. Skunks are also popular characters in children's stories, comics and cartoons, most notably the Warner Bros character Pepé Le Pew; their musky odor making them a source of fear and ostracization.", "The striped skunk is one of North America's most sought after furbearers, and was once the second most harvested after the muskrat. Its fur is intrinsically valuable, being durable and having rich luster, though this trait decreases with wear and exposure to sunlight. Skunk pelts are divided into four grades, with the most prized being the ones with a greater amount of black. These grades are further subdivided in value according to their locality, with the most valuable occurring in northern regions, where the fur is finer and darker. Skunks are notable for being easy to trap, even approaching traps they had been previously caught in. Because skunks are difficult to kill without having them discharge their musk (and thus ruin their fur) they were typically dispatched with a paralyzing blow to the lower back or drowned if caught in a box trap. Skunk farming largely began during the late 1890s, when there was much foreign demand for their skins, and intensive trapping had largely extirpated the more valuable mostly black-colored specimens. Captive breeding of skunks proved relatively simple when compared to mink and marten farming, as skunks are easier to tame and have less specialized dietary needs. Emphasis was placed on selectively breeding the tamest and darkest colored skunks. Prior to the First World War, skunk pelts were primarily shipped to Europe until better methods of deodorizing and processing the skins lead to increased interest in selling them for North American consumption. Despite being easy to breed and manage, skunk farming was not overly profitable, as the relatively low price of the pelts did not compensate for the costs in maintaining them. Nevertheless, raising skunks was considered good practice for amateur fur farmers wishing to later move on to more valuable furbearers like martens, sable, mink and silver foxes.", "The striped skunk is easily tamed and was often kept in barns to kill rats and mice during the 19th century. Selective breeding has resulted in the emergence of various color mutations, including black, chocolate-brown or smokey gray and white, apricot, albino, white, lavender, champagne and mahogany.", "The striped skunk was regularly eaten by trappers and indigenous peoples, provided the animal was not too old or had not sprayed before being killed. American zoologist Clinton Hart Merriam described skunk meat as white, tender, sweet and more delicate than chicken. The meat was prized by Chinese immigrants, who also bought skunk gall bladders for medicinal purposes. The fat was once reputed to make an excellent lubricant. The musk was once used as a folk remedy for asthma, despite its very strong odor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Pop Culture.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Spitteler was born in Liestal. His father was an official of the government, being Federal Secretary of the Treasury from 1849–56. Young Spitteler attended the gymnasium at Basel, having among his teachers philologist Wilhelm Wackernagel and historian Jakob Burckhardt. From 1863 he studied law at the University of Zurich. In 1865–1870 he studied theology in the same institution, at Heidelberg and Basel, though when a position as pastor was offered him, he felt that he must decline it. He had begun to realize his mission as an epic poet and therefore refused to work in the field for which he had prepared himself. Later he worked in Russia as tutor, starting from August 1871, remaining there (with some periods in Finland) until 1879. Later he was elementary teacher in Bern and La Neuveville, as well as journalist for the \"Der Kunstwart\" and as editor for the \"Neue Zürcher Zeitung\". In 1883 Spitteler married Marie op der Hoff, previously his pupil in Neuveville. In 1881 Spitteler published the allegoric prose poem \"Prometheus and Epimetheus\", published under the pseudonym Carl Felix Tandem, and showing contrasts between ideals and dogmas through the two mythological figures of the titles. This 1881 edition was given an extended psychological exegesis by Carl Gustav Jung in his book \"Psychological Types\" (published in 1921). Late in life, Spitteler reworked \"Prometheus and Epimetheus\" and published it under his true name, with the new title \"Prometheus der Dulder\" (\"Prometheus the Sufferer\", 1924). In 1882 he published his \"Extramundana\", a collection of poems. He gave up teaching in 1885 and devoted himself to a journalistic career in Basel. Now his works began to come in rapid succession. In 1891 there appeared \"Friedli, der Kalderi\", a collection of short stories, in which Spitteler, as he himself says, depicted Russian realism. \"Literarische Gleichnisse\" appeared in 1892, and \"Balladen\" in 1896. In 1900–1905 Spitteler wrote the powerful allegoric-epic poem, in iambic hexameters, \"Olympischer Frühling\" (\"Olympic Spring\"). This work, mixing fantastic, naturalistic, religions and mythological themes, deals with human concern towards the universe. His prose works include \"Die Mädchenfeinde \"(\"Two Little Misogynists\", 1907), about his autobiographical childhood experiences, the dramatic \"Conrad der Leutnant \"(1898), in which he show influence from the previously opposed Naturalism, and the autobiographical novella \"Imago\" (1906), examining the role of the unconscious in the conflict between a creative mind and the middle-class restrictions with internal monologue. During World War I he opposed the pro-German attitude of the Swiss German-speaking majority, a position put forward in the essay \"Unser Schweizer Standpunkt\". In 1919 he won the Nobel Prize. Spitteler died at Lucerne in 1924. Carl Spitteler's estate is archived in the Swiss Literary Archives in Bern, in the Zürich Central Library and in the Dichter- und Stadtmuseum in Liestal.", "Carl Jung claimed his idea of the archetype of the Anima was based upon what Spitteler described as 'My Lady Soul'. Musician David Bowie, who famously described himself as Jungian, wrote a song in 1973 entitled \"Lady Grinning Soul\".", "http://www.dichtermuseum.ch/willkommen.html" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Writing and production.", "Composition and critical response.", "Commercial performance.", "Music video." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In July 2001, Jennifer Lopez's' number one album \"J.Lo\" (2001) was reissued with a Murder Inc remix of one of its original singles, \"I'm Real\". The R&B murder remix of \"I'm Real\" was written by Ja Rule, who also features on the track. According to Rule, he initially was \"just f[uck]ing around\" with the track after Lopez's team gave it to him to remix, but it turned out to be \"a hell of a record\". The remix was successful, topping the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart for several weeks. It also helped \"J.Lo\" to return to the top ten of the US \"Billboard\" 200 album chart. The remix allowed Lopez to crossover from Pop to R&B. Rule said this put her in \"another zone\" and her fans aren't \"gonna want the pop version of J. Lo no more, they gonna want the 'I'm Real' version\". The rapper enjoyed working with Lopez and called it a \"real collaboration\" because he actually worked with her in the studio. The success of \"I'm Real (Murder Remix)\" lead him to begin working on a remix for \"Ain't it Funny\" the following August, which would later be announced as the lead single to \"J.Lo\"s remix album, \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\", in December 2001.", "Rooney explained: \"We had changed the sound of Jennifer Lopez [with \"I'm Real\"] and we didn't have anything else on the [\"J.Lo\"] album we could release as a single. We had to do another remix to keep the momentum going.\" Then-upcoming artist Ashanti dropped by Irv Gotti's studio in New York. She recalled: \"Everyone was there and Ja [Rule] was on the floor playing video games, and they had the beat playing in the background. Chris Gotti, Irv Gotti's brother, said 'Ja's supposed to be writing this record for J-Lo, but it doesn't look like he's going to be doing anything tonight. Why don't you go in there and see what's happening?' So that's exactly what I did.\" Ashanti wrote two verses and recorded a demo for the new version of \"Ain't It Funny\" for Lopez. Gotti and 7 flew out to Los Angeles on September 10, 2001 to record the song with Lopez. The song was due to be recorded the following day, but was postponed due to the September 11 attacks. When work resumed on the song, Gotti called Ashanti from Los Angeles asking her to write another verse for the song. She recalled: \"I had to write it over the phone and two-way Irv the lyrics.\"", "\"Ain't it Funny (Murder Remix)\" is a hip-hop song with a duration of three minutes and forty-nine seconds (3:49). It is thematically dissimilar to the original track. While he was working towards the remix, Ja Rule boasted \"I'm about to f--- ya'll up,\" stating that the song's sampling of Craig Mack's \"Flava In Ya Ear\" would be \"remixed\" and \"vamped up crazy\". He said \"It's totally not J. Lo.\" Over the reworking of the \"Flava In Ya Ear\" beat, Lopez sings about \"a boyfriend who keeps messing up,\" while Rule and Cadillac Tah \"drop rhymes\" on the track. Rule raps that he's \"Off the wall like MJ in his early days,\" which is a reference to Michael Jackson's album \"Off the Wall\" (1979). The rapper also says \"Oh I, never been a sucker for chocha,\" chocha meaning pussy, the slang term for vagina. He continues on to say that people \"want\" him after they see him \"workin' with money,\" meaning working with Lopez. While reviewing the original \"Ain't It Funny\", \"Billboard\"'s Chuck Taylor said of the remix release, \"Sony has got to be kidding, calling it \"Ain't it Funny\" when not one note of it is held in common with the original. It's a disturbing trend, but one that will surely push J.Lo to a new high.\"", "\"Ain't it Funny\" was released to appeal to not only pop but \"street-leaning\" outlets. For the week ending December 29, 2001, \"Ain't it Funny\" debuted at number 74 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. It also debuted at number 75 on the Hot 100 Airplay. In its second week, the song jumped to number 53 on the Hot 100 and 56 on the Airplay chart. The following week, \"Ain't it Funny\" broke the top 40 of the Hot 100 and the Airplay chart. After its fourth week, the song progressed to number 16 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100, winning the chart's \"Greatest Airplay Gainer\" title of the week, having jumped to number 17 at the Airplay chart that week. For the week ending February 9, 2002, \"Ain't it Funny\" jumped from number 12 to ten on the Hot 100 and Airplay chart, making it Lopez's fifth top-ten hit at the time. This week, it once again won the \"Greatest Airplay Gainer\" title. The next week, again claiming the \"Greatest Airplay Gainer\" title, the song jumped to number four on both charts, while also entering the top ten of \"Billboard\"s Hot Dance Club Play chart at number eight. After remaining in the top five of both charts for another three weeks, \"Ain't it Funny\" peaked at number one on the Hot 100 and Airplay for the week ending March 9, 2002. This week, the single's parent album \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\" returned to number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 with sales of 102,000 units, giving her simultaneous number ones. Also this week, the album had reached number five on the magazine's Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart while \"Ain't it Funny\" had reached the same position on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks chart. Additionally, the song unseated the track \"Always On Time\" at the summit of the Hot 100, which was coincidentally by Ja Rule featuring Ashanti, two people who worked with Lopez on the remix. For five weeks, \"Ain't it Funny\" remained at number one on the Hot 100 and Airplay chart, before dropping to number three on both charts for the week ending April 20, 2002. The song peaked at number three on the R&B/Hip-Hop Tracks Chart. The murder remix for \"Ain't it Funny\" attained moderate success internationally. In the United Kingdom, it peaked at number four, becoming her seventh top-ten hit there. The remix entered the Swiss Singles Chart at number 16 for the week of March 17, 2002. Three weeks later, it peaked at number seven, where it remained for an additional week. \"Ain't it Funny\" also peaked at number seven in The Netherlands for the week ending March 30, 2002. In total, it spent five weeks in the top ten on the Dutch Singles Chart. The song entered the top twenty in Belgium Flanders, Spain and Denmark.", "The single's official music video was directed by Herb Ritts. The music video features two parts which frequently interchange back and forth throughout the song. The first part of the video shows Lopez having a small party in her home with guests including Ja Rule and Ashanti. This part of the video is from the point of view of the guy who is being mentioned in the song. His face is not seen, and Lopez addresses the camera throughout this section of the video. This section begins with the guy knocking on the door, Lopez inviting him in, and then eventually showing him the door when she sees him attempting to look/flirt with other women at the party. As he leaves, she goes on entertaining the other guests. The second part of the video involves scenes with Lopez, Ja Rule and Cadillac tah in a white room, Ja Rule in a recording studio in Lopez's home, Lopez sitting in a chair singing bits of the song, and Lopez and Ja Rule singing the parts of the final verse against a gold backdrop." ] }

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{ "title": [ "In 802.11 implementations.", "Received channel power indicator." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In an IEEE 802.11 system, RSSI is the relative received signal strength in a wireless environment, in arbitrary units. RSSI is an indication of the power level being received by the receiving radio after the antenna and possible cable loss. Therefore, the greater the RSSI value, the stronger the signal. Thus, when an RSSI value is represented in a negative form (e.g. −100), the closer the value is to 0, the stronger the received signal has been. RSSI can be used internally in a wireless networking card to determine when the amount of radio energy in the channel is below a certain threshold at which point the network card is clear to send (CTS). Once the card is clear to send, a packet of information can be sent. The end-user will likely observe a RSSI value when measuring the signal strength of a wireless network through the use of a wireless network monitoring tool like Wireshark, Kismet or Inssider. As an example, Cisco Systems cards have an RSSI maximum value of 100 and will report 101 different power levels, where the RSSI value is 0 to 100. Another popular Wi-Fi chipset is made by Atheros. An Atheros-based card will return an RSSI value of 0 to 127 (0x7f) with 128 (0x80) indicating an invalid value. There is no standardized relationship of any particular physical parameter to the RSSI reading. The 802.11 standard does not define any relationship between RSSI value and power level in milliwatts or decibels referenced to one milliwatt. Vendors and chipset makers provide their own accuracy, granularity, and range for the actual power (measured as milliwatts or decibels) and their range of RSSI values (from 0 to RSSI maximum). One subtlety of the 802.11 RSSI metric comes from how it is sampledRSSI is acquired during only the preamble stage of receiving an 802.11 frame, not over the full frame. As early as 2000, researchers were able to use RSSI for coarse-grained location estimates. More recent work was able to reproduce these results using more advanced techniques. Nevertheless, RSSI does not always provide measurements that are sufficiently accurate to properly determine the location. However, RSSI still represents the most feasible indicator for localization purposes as it is available in almost all wireless nodes and it does not need any additional hardware requirements.", "For the most part, 802.11 RSSI has been replaced with received channel power indicator (RCPI). RCPI is an 802.11 measure of the received radio frequency power in a selected channel over the preamble \"and\" the entire received frame, and has defined absolute levels of accuracy and resolution. RCPI is exclusively associated with 802.11 and as such has some accuracy and resolution enforced on it through IEEE 802.11k-2008. Received signal power level assessment is a necessary step in establishing a link for communication between wireless nodes. However, a power level metric like RCPI generally cannot comment on the \"quality\" of the link like other metrics such as travel time measurement (time of arrival)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Production.", "Plot directions and examples.", "Characters.", "Basil Fawlty.", "Sybil Fawlty.", "Polly Sherman.", "Manuel.", "Episodes.", "Reception.", "Critical reaction.", "Awards and accolades.", "Legacy.", "Remakes, adaptations and reunions.", "\"Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened\".", "Overseas.", "Home video releases and merchandise.", "Computer game." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In May 1970, the Monty Python comedy group stayed at the now demolished Gleneagles Hotel in Torquay, Devon while filming on location in Paignton. John Cleese was fascinated with the behaviour of the owner, Donald Sinclair, later describing him as \"the rudest man I've ever come across in my life\". Among such behaviour by Sinclair was his criticism of Terry Gilliam's \"too American\" table etiquette and tossing Eric Idle's briefcase out of a window \"in case it contained a bomb\". Asked why would anyone want to bomb the hotel, Sinclair replied, “We’ve had a lot of staff problems\". Michael Palin states Sinclair \"seemed to view us as a colossal inconvenience\". Rosemary Harrison, a waitress at the Gleneagles under Sinclair, described him as \"bonkers\" and lacking in hospitality, deeming him wholly unsuitable for a hotel proprietor. \"It was as if he didn't want the", "Although the series is set in Torquay, no part of it was shot in Southwest England. For the exterior filming, the Wooburn Grange Country Club in Buckinghamshire was used instead of a hotel. In several episodes of the series (notably \"The Kipper and the Corpse\", \"The Anniversary\", and \"Basil the Rat\"), the entrance gate at the bottom of the drive states the real name of the location. This listed building later served for a short time as a nightclub named \"Basil's\" after the series ended, before being destroyed by a fire in March 1991. The remnants of the", "The series focuses on the exploits and misadventures of short-fused hotelier Basil Fawlty and his acerbic wife Sybil, as well as their employees: waiter Manuel, Polly Sherman, and, in the second series, chef Terry. The episodes typically revolve around Basil's efforts to \"raise the tone\" of his hotel and his increasing frustration at numerous complications and mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's overly aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and, in particular, Sybil, whom he addresses (in a faux-romantic way) with insults such as \"that golfing puff adder\", \"my little piranha fish\" and \"my little nest of vipers\". Despite this, Basil frequently feels intimidated, Sybil being able to cow him at any time, usually with a short, sharp cry of \"Basil!\" At the end of some episodes, Basil succeeds in annoying (or at least bemusing) the guests and frequently gets his comeuppance. The plots occasionally are intricate and always farcical, involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes and meetings both missed and accidental. The innuendo of the bedroom farce is sometimes present (often to the disgust of the socially conservative Basil) but it is his eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots. The events test to the breaking point what little patience Basil has, sometimes causing him to have a near breakdown by the end of the episode. The guests at the hotel typically are comic foils to Basil's anger and outbursts. Guest characters in each episode provide different", "", "Basil Fawlty, played by John Cleese, is a cynical and snobbish misanthrope who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees a successful hotel as a means of achieving this, yet his job forces him to be polite to people he despises. He is intimidated by his wife Sybil Fawlty. He yearns to stand up to her, but his plans frequently conflict with her demands. She is often verbally abusive (describing him as \"an ageing, brilliantined stick insect\") but although he towers over her, he often finds himself on the receiving end of her temper, verbally and physically (as in \"The Builders\"). Basil usually", "Sybil Fawlty, played by Prunella Scales, is Basil's wife. Energetic and petite, she prefers a working wardrobe of tight skirt-suits in shiny fabrics and sports a tower of permed hair augmented with hairpieces and wigs and necessitating the use of overnight curlers. She often is a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when she is handling difficult guests. Typically when Basil is on the verge of meltdown due to a crisis (usually of his own making), it is Sybil who steps in to clear up the mess and bring some sense to the situation. Despite this, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel. During busy check-in sessions or", "Polly Sherman, played by Connie Booth, is a waitress and general assistant at the hotel with artistic aspirations. She is the most competent of the staff and the voice of sanity during chaotic moments, but is frequently embroiled in ridiculous masquerades as she loyally attempts to aid Basil in trying to cover a mistake or keep something from Sybil. In \"The Anniversary\" she snaps and refuses to help Basil out when he wants her to impersonate Sybil in the semi-darkness of her bedroom in front of the Fawltys' friends, Basil having dug himself into a hole by claiming Sybil was ill instead of admitting she had stormed out earlier in annoyance with him. Polly finally agrees, but only on condition that Basil lends her money to purchase a car, which he has", "Manuel, a waiter played by Andrew Sachs, is a well-meaning but disorganised and confused Spaniard from Barcelona with a poor grasp of the English language and customs. He is verbally and physically abused by his boss. When told what to do, he often responds, \"¿Qué?\" (\"What?\"). Manuel's character is used to demonstrate Basil's instinctive lack of sensitivity and tolerance. Every episode involves Basil becoming enraged at Manuel's confusion at his boss's bizarre demands and even basic requests. Manuel is afraid of Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given employment. He is relentlessly enthusiastic and is proud of what little English he knows.", "The first episode of \"Fawlty Towers\" was recorded as a pilot on 24 December 1974, the rest of the series being recorded later in 1975. It was then originally broadcast on 19 September. The 12th and final episode was first shown on 25 October 1979. The first series was directed by John Howard Davies, the second by Bob Spiers. Both had their premieres on BBC2. When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as \"USA\" for \"Waldorf Salad\", \"Death\" for \"The Kipper and the Corpse\" and \"Rat\" for \"Basil the Rat\", which have been printed in some programme guides. In addition, some of the early BBC audio releases of episodes on vinyl and cassette included other variations, such as \"Mrs. Richards\" and \"The Rat\" for \"Communication Problems\" and \"Basil the Rat\" respectively. It has long been rumoured that a 13th episode of the series was written and filmed, but never progressed further than a rough cut. Lars Holger Holm, author of the book \"Fawlty Towers: A Worshipper's Companion,\" has made detailed claims about the episode's content, but he provides no concrete evidence of its existence. On the subject of whether more episodes would be produced, Cleese said (in an interview for the complete DVD box set, which was republished in the book \"Fawlty Towers Fully Booked\") that he once had the genesis of a feature-length special – possibly sometime during the mid-1990s. The plot, never fleshed out beyond his initial idea, would have revolved around the chaos that a now-retired Basil typically caused as he and Sybil flew to Barcelona to visit their former employee Manuel and his family. Of the idea, Cleese said: We had an idea for a plot which I loved. Basil was finally invited to Spain to meet Manuel's family. He gets to Heathrow and then spends about 14 frustrating hours waiting for the flight. Finally, on the plane, a terrorist pulls a gun and tries to hijack the thing. Basil is so angry he overcomes the terrorist, and when the pilot says, 'We have to fly back to Heathrow' Basil says, 'No, fly us to Spain or I'll shoot you.' He arrives in Spain, is immediately arrested, and spends the entire holiday in a Spanish jail. He is released just in time to go back on the plane with Sybil. It was very funny, but I couldn't do it at the time. Making 'Fawlty Towers' work at 90 minutes was a very difficult proposition. You can build up the comedy for 30 minutes, but at that length there has to be a trough and another peak. It doesn't interest me. I don't want to do it. Cleese also may have been reticent because of Connie Booth's unwillingness to be involved. She had practically retreated from public life after the show finished (and had been initially unwilling to collaborate on a second series, which explains the four-year gap between productions). The decision by Cleese and Booth to quit before a third series has often been lauded as it ensured the show's successful status would not be weakened with later, lower-quality work. Subsequently, it has inspired the makers of other shows to do likewise. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant refused to make a third series of either \"The Office\" or \"Extras\", citing \"Fawlty Towers' \" short lifespan. Rik Mayall, Ben Elton and Lise Mayer, the writers behind \"The Young Ones\", which also ran for only two series (each with six episodes), used this explanation as well. Victoria Wood also indicated this influenced her decision to limit \"Dinnerladies\" to 16 episodes over two series. The origins, background and eventual cancellation of the series would later be humorously referenced in 1987's \"The Secret Policeman's Third Ball\" in a sketch in which Hugh Laurie and Stephen Fry present Cleese — whom they comically misname \"Jim Cleese\" — with a Dick Emery Lifetime Achievement Award (\"Silver Dick\") for his contributions to comedy, then launch into a comical series of questions regarding the show, including Cleese's marriage and divorce from Booth, innocently ridiculing Cleese and reducing him to tears, to a point at which he gets on his knees and crawls off the stage while crying.", "", "At first the series was not held in particularly high esteem. The \"Daily Mirror\" review of the show in 1975 had the headline \"Long John Short On Jokes\". Eventually though, as the series began to gain popularity, critical acclaim followed. Clive James writing in \"The Observer\" said the second episode had him \"retching with laughter.\" One critic of the show was Richard Ingrams, then television reviewer for \"The Spectator\", who wrote a caustic condemning piece on the programme. Cleese got his revenge by naming one of the guests in the second series \"Mr. Ingrams\", who is caught in his room with a blow-up doll. In an interview for the \"TV Characters\"", "Three British Academy Television Awards (BAFTAs) were awarded to people for their involvement with the series. Both of the series were awarded the BAFTA in the category Best Scripted Comedy, the first being won by John", "John Lennon was a fan of the show. He said in 1980: \"I love \"Fawlty Towers\". I'd like to be in that. [It's] the greatest show I've seen", "Three attempted remakes of \"Fawlty Towers\" were started for the American market, with two making it into production. The first, \"Chateau Snavely\" starring Harvey Korman and Betty White, was produced by ABC for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series never was produced. The second, also by ABC, was \"Amanda's,\" starring Bea Arthur, notable for switching the sexes of its Basil and Sybil equivalents. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped after ten episodes had been aired, although 13 episodes were shot. A third remake, called \"Payne\" (produced by and starring John Larroquette), was produced in 1999, but was cancelled shortly after. Nine episodes were produced of which eight aired on American television (though the complete run was broadcast overseas). A German pilot based on the sitcom was made in 2001, named \"Zum letzten Kliff,\" but further episodes were not made. The popular sitcoms \"3rd Rock from the Sun\" and \"Cheers\" (in both of which Cleese made guest appearances) have cited \"Fawlty Towers\" as an inspiration, especially regarding its depiction of a dysfunctional workplace \"family\". Arthur Mathews and Graham Linehan have cited \"Fawlty Towers\" as a major influence on their sitcom \"Father Ted.\" \"Guest House\" on Pakistan's PTV also resembled the series. Several of the characters have made other appearances, as spinoffs or in small cameo roles. In 1981, in character as Manuel, Andrew Sachs recorded his own version of the Joe Dolce cod-Italian song \"Shaddap You Face\" (with the B-side \"Waiter, There's a Spanish Flea in My Soup\") but the record was not released because Joe Dolce took out an injunction: he", "In 2009, Tiger Aspect Productions produced a two-part documentary for the digital comedy channel Gold, called \"Fawlty Towers: Re-Opened.\" The documentary features interviews with all four main cast members, including Connie Booth, who had refused to talk about the series for 30 years. John", "In 1977 and 1978 alone, the original TV show was sold to 45 stations in 17 countries and was the BBC's best-selling overseas programme for that year. \"Fawlty Towers\" became a huge success in almost all countries in which it aired. Although it initially was a flop in Spain, largely because of the portrayal of the Spanish waiter Manuel, it was successfully resold with the Manuel character's", "Two record albums were released by BBC Records. The first album, simply titled \"Fawlty Towers\", was released in 1979 and contained the audio from \"Communication Problems\" (as \"Mrs Richards\") and \"Hotel Inspectors\". The second album, titled \"Second Sitting\", was released in 1981 and contained audio from \"Basil the Rat\" (as \"The Rat\") and \"The Builders\". \"Fawlty Towers\" was originally released by BBC Video in 1984, with three episodes on each of four tapes. Each tape was edited with the credits from all three episodes put at the end of the tape. A Laserdisc containing all episodes spliced together as a continuous episode was released in the U.S. on 23 June 1993. It was re-released in 1994, unedited but digitally remastered. It also was re-released in 1998 with a special interview with John Cleese. \"Fawlty Towers – The Complete Series\" was released on DVD on 16 October 2001, available in regions 1, 2 and 4. A \"Collector's Edition\" is available in region 2. Series one of the show was released on UMD Video for PSP. In July 2009, BBC America announced a DVD re-release of the \"Fawlty Towers\" series. The DVD set was released on 20 October 2009. The reissue, titled \"Fawlty Towers Remastered: Special Edition,\" contains commentary by John Cleese on every episode as well as remastered video and audio. All episodes are available as streamed video-on-demand via Britbox, Netflix and Amazon Prime Video. Additionally, both series are available for download on iTunes.", "A \"Fawlty Towers\" game was released on PC in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "In civil law countries.", "Brazil.", "Chile.", "France.", "Germany.", "General administrative law.", "Administrative procedures Law.", "Other legal sources.", "Special administrative law.", "Italy.", "Netherlands.", "People's Republic of China.", "Republic of China (Taiwan).", "Sweden.", "Turkey.", "Ukraine.", "In common law countries.", "United States.", "Historical development.", "Agriculture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "4", "4", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Unlike most common-law jurisdictions, the majority of civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases which, as a rule, will apply procedural rules specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private-law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.", "In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States). In 1998, a constitutional reform, led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch. Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (art. 37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.", "In Chile the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several Ministries or other authorities with \"ministerial rank\". Each Ministry has one or more under-secretary that performs through public services the actual satisfaction of public needs. There is not a single specialized court to deal with actions against the Administrative entities, but instead there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.", "In France, most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the \"Conseil d'État\" (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts. The main administrative courts are the \"tribunaux administratifs\" and appeal courts are the \"cours administratives d'appel\". Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies. The French body of administrative law is called \"\"droit administratif\"\". Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (\"jurisprudence constante\") and legal doctrine (\"principes généraux du droit\" and \"principes fondamentaux reconnus par les lois de la République\"), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts. These principes include: French administrative law, which is the founder of Continental administrative law, has a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.", "In Germany administrative law is called, which generally rules the relationship between authorities and the citizens. It establishes citizens' rights and obligations against the authorities. It is a part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration. It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admission offices and fiscal authorities etc. Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles. Administrative law in Germany can be divided into general administrative law and special administrative law.", "The general administration law is basically ruled in the administrative procedures law (\"Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz\" [VwVfG]). Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung [AO]).", "The \"Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz\" (VwVfG), which was enacted in 1977, regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government. It serves the purpose to ensure a treatment in accordance with the rule of law by the public authority. Furthermore, it contains the regulations for mass processes and expands the legal protection against the authorities. The VwVfG basically applies for the entire public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities, in case of making federal law. One of the central clause is § 35 VwVfG. It defines the administrative act, the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen. The definition in § 35 says, that an administration act is characterized by the following features: It is an official act of an authority in the field of public law to resolve an individual case with effect to the outside. §§ 36 – 39, §§ 58 – 59 and § 80 VwV––fG rule the structure and the necessary elements of the administrative act. § 48 and § 49 VwVfG have a high relevance in practice, as well. In these paragraphs, the prerequisites for redemption of an unlawful administration act (§ 48 VwVfG ) and withdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG ), are listed.", "Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung [VwGO]), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court. The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts, action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements. In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung [ZPO]) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz [GVG]). In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure. § 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called \"Vorverfahren\" or \"Widerspruchsverfahren\", which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed. The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court. The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO. Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law without any constitutional aspects and no assignment to another jurisdiction. The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch [SGB]) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law. They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.", "The special administrative law consists of various laws. Each special sector has its own law. The most important ones are the In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court Bundesverwaltungsgericht. There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law (Bundessozialgericht) and tax law (Bundesfinanzhof).", "In Italy administrative law is known as \"\"'Diritto amministrativo\"\", a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens. Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State. The administrative power, originally called \"executive\", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.", "In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations. There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act (\"Algemene wet bestuursrecht\" or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe. It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts. Another act about judicial procedures in general is the \"Algemene termijnenwet\" (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures. On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision ('besluit') made by an administrative agency ('bestuursorgaan') within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful. Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it. This is called \"bezwaar\". This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court. Sometimes, instead of bezwaar, a different system is used called \"administratief beroep\" (administrative appeal). The difference with bezwaar is that administratief beroep is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision. Administratief beroep is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it. An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (\"officier van justitie\"), after which the decision can be appealed in court. Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative \"chamber\" which specializes in administrative appeals. The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).", "Administrative law in the People's Republic of China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping. Since the 1980s, the People's Republic of China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy and disciplinary committees for the Communist Party of China. However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption. In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed. The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introduced a rotation system. The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws. In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996. Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012. Administrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014. The General Administrative Procedure Law is under way.", "In the Republic of China the recently enacted \"Constitutional Procedure Act\" (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former \"Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993\"), the Justices of the Constitutional Court of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation. This council has made 757 interpretations to date.", "In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts. This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts (\"förvaltningsrätt\") as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal (\"kammarrätt\") as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden (\"Högsta Förvaltningsdomstolen\") as the third tier. Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts. Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts (\"migrationsdomstol\") with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal (\"Migrationsöverdomstolen\").", "In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts. The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State. Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.", "Administrative law in the Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline.", "Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies. Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking. Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity. While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries. The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is \"ultra vires\". In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the \"Patently Unreasonable\" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), \"Wednesbury\" unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S. Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality. The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari. In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.", "In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches. In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet. The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch. Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law. The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act (APA) in 1946. Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to \"legislate\" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), \"adjudicate\" (through administrative hearings), and to \"execute\" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process. Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice. It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA. At state level the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted. It is incorporated basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a “model”, and not a “uniform”, act. A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states. Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981. The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act (MSAPA) which maintains the continuity with earlier ones. The reason of the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure. The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the \"Administrative Law Review\", a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.", "Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice since 1994, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, \"Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy\" (3d Ed., 1992):", "The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels. Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law. The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical background.", "Overview.", "Particle content.", "Fermions.", "Gauge bosons.", "Higgs boson.", "Theoretical aspects.", "Construction of the Standard Model Lagrangian.", "Quantum chromodynamics sector.", "Electroweak sector.", "Higgs sector.", "Yukawa sector.", "Fundamental interactions.", "Tests and predictions.", "Challenges." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1954, Chen Ning Yang and Robert Mills extended the concept of gauge theory for abelian groups, e.g. quantum electrodynamics, to nonabelian groups to provide an explanation for strong interactions. In 1961, Sheldon Glashow combined the electromagnetic and weak interactions. In 1967 Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam incorporated the Higgs mechanism into Glashow's electroweak interaction, giving it its modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions, i.e. the quarks and leptons. After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973, the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1983; and the ratio of their masses was found to be as the Standard Model predicted. The theory of the strong interaction (i.e. quantum chromodynamics, QCD), to which many contributed, acquired its modern form in 1973–74 when asymptotic freedom was proposed (a development which made QCD the main focus of theoretical research) and experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks. The term \"Standard Model\" was first coined by Abraham Pais and Sam Treiman in 1975, with reference to the electroweak theory with four quarks.", "At present, matter and energy are best understood in terms of the kinematics and interactions of elementary particles. To date, physics has reduced the laws governing the behavior and interaction of all known forms of matter and energy to a small set of fundamental laws and theories. A major goal of physics is to find the \"common ground\" that would unite all of these theories into one integrated theory of everything, of which all the other known laws would be special cases, and from which the behavior of all matter and energy could be derived (at least in principle).", "The Standard Model includes members of several classes of elementary particles, which in turn can be distinguished by other characteristics, such as color charge. All particles can be summarized as follows:", "The Standard Model includes 12 elementary particles of spin, known as fermions. According to the spin–statistics theorem, fermions respect the Pauli exclusion principle. Each fermion has a corresponding antiparticle. Fermions are classified according to how they interact (or equivalently, by what charges they carry). There are six quarks (up, down, charm, strange, top, bottom), and six leptons (electron, electron neutrino, muon, muon neutrino, tau, tau neutrino). Each class is divided into pairs of particles that exhibit a similar physical behavior called a generation (see the table). The defining property of quarks is that they carry color charge, and hence interact via the strong interaction. The phenomenon of color confinement results in quarks being very strongly bound to one another, forming color-neutral composite particles called hadrons that contain either a quark and an antiquark (mesons) or three quarks (baryons). The lightest baryons are the proton and the neutron. Quarks also carry electric charge and weak isospin. Hence they interact with other fermions via electromagnetism and the weak interaction. The remaining six fermions do not carry color charge and are called leptons. The three neutrinos do not carry electric charge either, so their motion is directly influenced only by the weak nuclear force, which makes them notoriously difficult to detect. By contrast, by virtue of carrying an electric charge, the electron, muon, and tau all interact electromagnetically. Each member of a generation has greater mass than the corresponding particles of lower generations. The first-generation charged particles do not decay, hence all ordinary (baryonic) matter is made of such particles. Specifically, all atoms consist of electrons orbiting around atomic nuclei, ultimately constituted of up and down quarks. On the other hand, second- and third-generation charged particles decay with very short half-lives and are observed only in very high-energy environments. Neutrinos of all generations also do not decay and pervade the universe, but rarely interact with baryonic matter.", "In the Standard Model, gauge bosons are defined as force carriers that mediate the strong, weak, and electromagnetic fundamental interactions. Interactions in physics are the ways that particles influence other particles. At a macroscopic level, electromagnetism allows particles to interact with one another via electric and magnetic fields, and gravitation allows particles with mass to attract one another in accordance with Einstein's theory of general relativity. The Standard Model explains such forces as resulting from matter particles exchanging other particles, generally referred to as \"force mediating particles\". When a force-mediating particle is exchanged, the effect at a macroscopic level is equivalent to a force influencing both of them, and the particle is therefore said to have \"mediated\" (i.e., been the agent of) that force. The Feynman diagram calculations, which are a graphical representation of the perturbation theory approximation, invoke \"force mediating particles\", and when applied to analyze high-energy scattering experiments are in reasonable agreement with the data. However, perturbation theory (and with it the concept of a \"force-mediating particle\") fails in other situations. These include low-energy quantum chromodynamics, bound states, and solitons. The gauge bosons of the Standard Model all have spin (as do matter particles). The value of the spin is 1, making them bosons. As a result, they do not follow the Pauli exclusion principle that constrains fermions: thus bosons (e.g. photons) do not have a theoretical limit on their spatial density (number per volume). The types of gauge bosons are described below. The interactions between all the particles described by the Standard Model are summarized by the diagrams on the right of this section.", "The Higgs particle is a massive scalar elementary particle theorized by Peter Higgs in 1964, when he showed that Goldstone's 1962 theorem (generic continuous symmetry, which is spontaneously broken) provides a third polarisation of a massive vector field. Hence, Goldstone's original scalar doublet, the massive spin-zero particle, was proposed as the Higgs boson, and is a key building block in the Standard Model. It has no intrinsic spin, and for that reason is classified as a boson (like the gauge bosons, which have integer spin). The Higgs boson plays a unique role in the Standard Model, by explaining why the other elementary particles, except the photon and gluon, are massive. In particular, the Higgs boson explains why the photon has no mass, while the W and Z bosons are very heavy. Elementary-particle masses, and the differences between electromagnetism (mediated by the photon) and the weak force (mediated by the W and Z bosons), are critical to many aspects of the structure of microscopic (and hence macroscopic) matter. In electroweak theory, the Higgs boson generates the masses of the leptons (electron, muon, and tau) and quarks. As the Higgs boson is massive, it must interact with itself. Because the Higgs boson is a very massive particle and also decays almost immediately when created, only a very high-energy particle accelerator can observe and record it. Experiments to confirm and determine the nature of the Higgs boson using the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN began in early 2010 and were performed at Fermilab's Tevatron until its closure in late 2011. Mathematical consistency of the Standard Model requires that any mechanism capable of generating the masses of elementary particles becomes visible at energies above ; therefore, the LHC (designed to collide two proton beams) was built to answer the question of whether the Higgs boson actually exists. On 4 July 2012, two of the experiments at the LHC (ATLAS and CMS) both reported independently that they found a new particle with a mass of about (about 133 proton masses, on the order of ), which is \"consistent with the Higgs boson\". On 13 March 2013, it was confirmed to be the searched-for Higgs boson.", "", "Technically, quantum field theory provides the mathematical framework for the Standard Model, in which a Lagrangian controls the dynamics and kinematics of the theory. Each kind of particle is described in terms of a dynamical field that pervades space-time. The construction of the Standard Model proceeds following the modern method of constructing most field theories: by first postulating a set of symmetries of the system, and then by writing down the most general renormalizable Lagrangian from its particle (field) content that observes these symmetries. The global Poincaré symmetry is postulated for all relativistic quantum field theories. It consists of the familiar translational symmetry, rotational symmetry and the inertial reference frame invariance central to the theory of special relativity. The local SU(3)×SU(2)×U(1) gauge symmetry is an internal symmetry that essentially defines the Standard Model. Roughly, the three factors of the gauge symmetry give rise to the three fundamental interactions. The fields fall into different representations of the various symmetry groups of the Standard Model (see table). Upon writing the most general Lagrangian, one finds that the dynamics depends on 19 parameters, whose numerical values are established by experiment. The parameters are summarized in the table (made visible by clicking \"show\") above (note: the Higgs mass is at, the Higgs self-coupling strength ~ ).", "The quantum chromodynamics (QCD) sector defines the interactions between quarks and gluons, which is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with SU(3) symmetry, generated by. Since leptons do not interact with gluons, they are not affected by this sector. The Dirac Lagrangian of the quarks coupled to the gluon fields is given by where", "The electroweak sector is a Yang–Mills gauge theory with the symmetry group U(1) × SU(2), where Notice that the addition of fermion mass terms into the electroweak lagrangian is forbidden, since terms of the form formula_7 do not respect U(1) × SU(2) gauge invariance. Neither is it possible to add explicit mass terms for the U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields. The Higgs mechanism is responsible for the generation of the gauge boson masses, and the fermion masses result from Yukawa-type interactions with the Higgs field.", "In the Standard Model, the Higgs field is a complex scalar of the group SU(2): where the superscripts + and 0 indicate the electric charge () of the components. The weak hypercharge () of both components is 1. Before symmetry breaking, the Higgs Lagrangian is which up to a divergence term, (i.e. after partial integration) can also be written as", "The Yukawa interaction terms are where are matrices of Yukawa couplings, with the term giving the coupling of the generations and.", "The Standard Model describes three of the four fundamental interactions in nature; only gravity remains unexplained. In the Standard Model, an interaction is described as an exchange of bosons between the objects affected, such as a photon for the electromagnetic force and a gluon for the strong interaction. Those particles are called force carriers or messenger particles.", "The Standard Model (SM) predicted the existence of the W and Z bosons, gluon, and the top and charm quarks and predicted many of their properties before these particles were observed. The predictions were experimentally confirmed with good precision. The SM also predicted the existence of the Higgs boson, found in 2012 at the Large Hadron Collider, as the last particle of the SM.", "Self-consistency of the Standard Model (currently formulated as a non-abelian gauge theory quantized through path-integrals) has not been mathematically proven. While regularized versions useful for approximate computations (for example lattice gauge theory) exist, it is not known whether they converge (in the sense of S-matrix elements) in the limit that the regulator is removed. A key question related to the consistency is the Yang–Mills existence and mass gap problem. Experiments indicate that neutrinos have mass, which the classic Standard Model did not allow. To accommodate this finding, the classic Standard Model can be modified to include neutrino mass. If one insists on using only Standard Model particles, this can be achieved by adding a non-renormalizable interaction of leptons with the Higgs boson. On a fundamental level, such an interaction emerges in the seesaw mechanism where heavy right-handed neutrinos are added to the theory. This is natural in the left-right symmetric extension of the Standard Model and in certain grand unified theories. As long as new physics appears below or around 10 GeV, the neutrino masses can be of the right order of magnitude. Theoretical and experimental research has attempted to extend the Standard Model into a Unified field theory or a Theory of everything, a complete theory explaining all physical phenomena including constants. Inadequacies of the Standard Model that motivate such research include: Currently, no proposed Theory of Everything has been widely accepted or verified." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Anabaptist beginnings.", "Emergence of the Amish.", "Migration to North America.", "1850–1878 Division into Old Orders and Amish Mennonites.", "20th century.", "Religious practices.", "Way of life.", "Clothing.", "Cuisine.", "Subgroups.", "Affiliations.", "Use of technology by different affiliations.", "Language.", "Ethnicity.", "Para-Amish groups.", "Population.", "Distribution.", "United States.", "Canada.", "Latin America.", "Europe.", "Seekers and joiners.", "Health.", "Life in the modern world.", "Publishing.", "Similar groups.", "Relations with Native Americans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Anabaptist movement, from which the Amish later emerged, started in circles around Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) who led the early Reformation in Switzerland.", "The term Amish was first used as a (a term of disgrace) in 1710 by opponents of Jakob Amman. The first informal division between Swiss Brethren was recorded in the 17th century between s (those living in the hills) and (those living in the Emmental valley). The s were a more extreme congregation; their zeal pushed them into more remote areas and their solitude made them more zealous. Swiss Anabaptism developed,", "Amish began migrating to Pennsylvania, then regarded favorably due to the lack of religious persecution and attractive land offers, in the early 18th Century as part of a larger migration from the Palatinate and neighboring areas. Between 1717 and 1750", "Most Amish communities that were established in North America did not ultimately retain their Amish identity. The major division that resulted in the loss of identity of many Amish congregations occurred in the third quarter of the 19th century. The forming of factions worked its way out at different times at different places. The process was rather a \"sorting out\" than a split. Amish people are free to join another Amish congregation at another place that fits them best. In the years after 1850, tensions rose within individual Amish congregations and between different Amish congregations. Between 1862 and 1878, yearly (ministerial conferences) were held at different places, concerning how the Amish should deal with the tensions caused by the pressures of modern society. The meetings themselves were a progressive idea; for bishops", "Though splits happened among the Old Order in the 19th century in Mifflin County, Pennsylvania, a major split among the Old Orders took until World War I. At that time, two very conservative affiliations emerged – the Swartzentruber Amish in Holmes County, Ohio, and the Buchanan Amish in Iowa. The Buchanan Amish soon were joined by like-minded congregations all over the country. With World War I came the massive suppression of the German language in the US that eventually led to language shift of most Pennsylvania German speakers, leaving the Amish and other Old Orders as almost the only speakers by the end of the 20th century. This created a language barrier around the Amish that did not exist before in that form. In the late 1920s, the more change minded faction of the Old Order Amish, that wanted to adopt the car, broke away from the mainstream and organized under the name Beachy Amish. During the Second World War, the old question of military service for the Amish came up again. Because Amish young men in general refused military service, they ended up in the Civilian Public Service (CPS), where they worked mainly", "Two key concepts for understanding Amish practices are their rejection of (pride, arrogance, haughtiness) and the high value they place on (humility) and (calmness, composure, placidity), often translated as \"submission\" or \"letting-be\". is perhaps better understood as a reluctance to be forward, to be self-promoting, or to assert oneself. The Amish's willingness to submit", "Amish lifestyle is regulated by the (\"order\"), which differs slightly from community to community and from district to district within a community. What is acceptable in one community may not be acceptable in another. The is agreed upon – or changed – within the whole community of baptized members prior to Communion which takes place two times a year. The meeting where the is discussed is called in Standard German and in Pennsylvania Dutch. The include matters such as dress, permissible uses of technology, religious duties, and rules regarding interaction with outsiders. In these meetings, women also vote in questions concerning the. Bearing children, raising them, and socializing with neighbors and relatives are the greatest functions of the Amish family. Amish typically believe that large families are a blessing from God. Farm families tend to have larger families, because sons are needed to perform farm labor. Community is central to the Amish way of life. Working hard is considered godly, and some technological advancements have been considered undesirable because they reduce the need for hard work. Machines such as automatic floor cleaners in barns have historically been rejected as this provides young farmhands with too much free time.", "The Amish are known for their plain attire. Men wear solid colored shirts, broad-brimmed hats, and suits that signify similarity amongst one another. Amish men grow beards to symbolize manhood and marital status, as well as to promote humility. They are forbidden to grow mustaches because mustaches are seen by the Amish as being affiliated with the military, which they are strongly opposed to, due to their pacifist beliefs. Women have similar guidelines on how to dress, which are also expressed in the, the Amish version of legislation. They are to wear calf-length dresses, muted colors along with bonnets and aprons. Prayer caps or bonnets are worn", "Amish cuisine is noted for its simplicity and traditional qualities. Food plays an important part in Amish social life and is served at potlucks, weddings, fundraisers, farewells, and other events.", "Over the years, the Amish churches have divided many times mostly over questions concerning the Ordnung, but also over doctrinal disputes, mainly about shunning. The largest group, the \"Old Order\" Amish, a conservative faction that separated from other Amish in the 1860s, are those who have most emphasized traditional practices and beliefs. The New Order Amish are a group of Amish whom some scholars see best described as a subgroup of Old Order Amish, despite the name.", "About 40 different Old Order Amish affiliations are known; the eight", "The table below indicates the use of certain technologies by different Amish affiliations. The use of cars is not allowed by any Old and New Order Amish, nor are radio, television, or in most cases the use of the Internet. The three affiliations: \"Lancaster\", \"Holmes Old Order\", and \"Elkhart-LaGrange\" are not only the three largest affiliations, but they also", "Most Old Order Amish speak Pennsylvania Dutch, and refer to non-Amish people as \"English\", regardless of ethnicity. Some Amish who migrated to the United States in the 1850s speak a form of Bernese German or a Low Alemannic Alsatian dialect. Contrary to popular belief, the word \"Dutch\" in \"Pennsylvania Dutch\" is not a mistranslation, but rather a corruption of the Pennsylvania German endonym, which means \"Pennsylvania Dutch / German\" or \"German\". Ultimately, the terms Deitsch, Dutch, Diets and Deutsch are all cognates of the Proto-Germanic word meaning \"popular\" or \"of the people\". The continued use of \"Pennsylvania Dutch\" was strengthened by the Pennsylvania Dutch in the 19th century as a way of distinguishing themselves from later (post 1830) waves", "The Amish largely share a German or Swiss-German ancestry. They generally use the term \"Amish\" only for members of their faith community and not as an ethnic designation. However some Amish descendants recognize their cultural background knowing that their genetic and cultural traits are uniquely different from other ethnicities. Those who choose to affiliate with the church, or young children raised in Amish homes, but too young to yet be church members, are considered to be Amish. Certain Mennonite churches have a high number of people who were formerly from Amish congregations. Although", "Several other groups, called \"para-Amish\" by G. C. Waldrep and others, share many characteristics with the Amish, such as horse and buggy transportation, plain dress, and the preservation of the German language. The members of these groups are largely of", "Because the Amish are usually baptized no earlier than 18 and children are not counted in local congregation numbers, estimating their numbers is difficult. Rough estimates from various studies placed their numbers at 125,000 in 1992, 166,000 in 2000, and 221,000 in 2008. Thus, from 1992 to 2008, population growth among the Amish in North America was 84 percent (3.6 percent per year). During that time, they established 184 new settlements and moved into six new states. In 2000, about 165,620 Old Order Amish resided in the United States, of whom 73,609 were church members. The Amish are among the fastest-growing populations in the world, with an average of seven children per family in the 1970s and a total fertility rate of 5.3 in the 2010s. In 2010, a few religious bodies, including the Amish, changed the way their adherents were reported to better match the standards of the Association of Statisticians of American Religious Bodies. When looking at all Amish adherents and not solely Old Order Amish, about 241,000 Amish adherents were in 28 U.S. states in 2010.", "", "United States is the home to the overwhelming majority (98.35%) of the Amish people. In 2019, Old Order communities were present in 31 U.S. states. The total Amish population in United States has stood at 336,235, up 11,335 or 3.5%, compared to the previous year. Pennsylvania has the largest population (79,200), followed by Ohio (76,200) and Indiana (57,400),. The largest Amish settlements are in Lancaster County in southeastern Pennsylvania (39,255), Holmes County and adjacent counties in northeastern Ohio (36,755), and Elkhart and LaGrange counties in northeastern Indiana (25,660),. Nearly 50% of", "Amish settlements are in four Canadian provinces: Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Manitoba, and New Brunswick. The majority of Old Order settlements is located in the province of Ontario, namely Oxford (Norwich Township) and Norfolk Counties. A small community is also established in Bruce County (Huron-Kinloss Township) near Lucknow. In", "The first attempt by Old Order Amish to settle in Latin America was in Paradise Valley, near Galeana, Nuevo León, Mexico, but the settlement only lasted from 1923 to 1929. An Amish settlement was tried in Honduras from", "In Europe, no split occurred between Old Order Amish and Amish Mennonites; like the Amish Mennonites in North America, the European Amish assimilated into the Mennonite mainstream during the second half of the 19th century through the first decades of the 20th century. Eventually, they dropped the word \"Amish\" from the names of their congregations and lost their Amish identity and culture. The last European Amish congregation joined the Mennonites in 1937 in Ixheim, today part of Zweibrücken in the Palatinate region.", "Only a few hundred outsiders, so-called seekers, have ever joined the Amish. Since 1950, only some 75 non-Anabaptist people have joined and remained lifelong members of the Amish. Since 1990, some twenty people of Russian Mennonite background have joined the Amish in Aylmer, Ontario. Two whole Christian communities have joined the Amish: The church at Smyrna, Maine, one of the five Christian Communities of Elmo Stoll after Stoll's death and the church at Manton, Michigan, which belonged", "Amish populations have higher incidences of particular conditions, including dwarfism, Angelman syndrome, and various metabolic disorders, as well as an unusual distribution of blood types. The Amish represent a collection of different demes or genetically closed communities. Although the Amish do not have higher incidence of genetic disorders than the general population, since almost all Amish descend from a few hundred 18th-century founders, some recessive conditions are more prevalent (an example of the founder effect). Some of these disorders are rare or unique, and are serious enough to increase the mortality rate among Amish children. The Amish are aware of the advantages of exogamy, but for religious reasons, marry only within their communities. The majority of Amish accepts these as (God's will); they reject the use of preventive genetic tests prior to marriage and genetic testing of unborn children to discover genetic disorders. When a child is born with a disorder, it is accepted into the community and tasked with chores within their ability. However, Amish are willing to participate in studies of genetic diseases. Their extensive family histories are useful to researchers investigating diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and macular degeneration. While the Amish are at an increased risk for some genetic disorders, researchers have found their tendency", "As time has passed, the Amish have felt pressures from the modern world. Issues such as taxation, education, law and its enforcement, and occasional discrimination and hostility are areas of difficulty. The modern way of life in general has increasingly diverged from that of Amish society. On occasion, this has resulted in sporadic discrimination and hostility from their neighbors, such as throwing of stones or other objects at Amish horse-drawn carriages on the roads. The Amish do not usually educate their children past the eighth grade, believing that the basic knowledge offered up to that point is sufficient to prepare one for the Amish lifestyle. Almost no Amish go to high school and college. In many communities, the Amish operate their own schools, which are typically one-room schoolhouses with teachers (usually young, unmarried women) from the Amish community. On May 19, 1972, Jonas Yoder and Wallace Miller of the Old Order Amish, and Adin", "In 1964, Pathway Publishers was founded by two Amish farmers to print more material about the Amish and Anabaptists in general. It is located in Lagrange, Indiana, and Aylmer, Ontario. Pathway has become the", "Groups that sprang from the same late 19th century Old Order Movement as the Amish share their Pennsylvania German heritage and often still retain similar features in dress. These Old Order groups include different subgroups of Old Order Mennonites, traditional Schwarzenau Brethren and Old Order River Brethren. The Noah Hoover Old Order Mennonites are so similar in outward aspects to the Old Order Amish (dress, beards, horse and buggy, extreme restrictions on modern technology, Pennsylvania", "The Northkill Amish Settlement, established in 1740 in Berks County, Pennsylvania, was the first identifiable Amish community in the new world. During the French and Indian War, the so-called Hochstetler Massacre occurred: Local tribes attacked the Jacob Hochstetler homestead in the Northkill settlement on September 19, 1757. The sons of the family took their weapons but father Jacob did not allow them to shoot. Jacob Sr.'s wife, Anna (Lorentz) Hochstetler, a daughter (name unknown) and Jacob Jr. were killed by the Native Americans. Jacob Sr. and sons Joseph and Christian were taken captive. Jacob escaped after about eight months, but the boys were held for several years. As early as 1809 Amish were farming side by side with Native American farmers in Pennsylvania. According to Cones Kupwah Snowflower, a Shawnee genealogist, the Amish and Quakers were known to incorporate Native Americans into their families to protect them from ill-treatment, especially after the Removal Act of 1832. The Amish, as pacifists, did not engage in warfare with Native Americans, nor displace them directly, but were among the European immigrants whose arrival resulted in their displacement. In 2012, the Lancaster Mennonite Historical Society collaborated with the Native American community to construct a replica Iroquois Longhouse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life, family, and education.", "Early chess development.", "Soviet Junior Champion.", "Young master.", "First Soviet final.", "International titles.", "Soviet team record.", "Strong Grandmaster.", "Soviet Championship titles.", "World Championship title candidate.", "Candidates' finalist, first time.", "USSR vs Rest of the World 1970; Rest of the World vs USSR 1984.", "Plays secret training matches.", "Actor.", "Candidates' finalist, second time.", "Defection.", "First World Championship match against Karpov.", "Second World Championship match against Karpov.", "Playing Kasparov.", "Three more Candidates' appearances.", "Later career.", "Declining health.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Korchnoi was born on 23 March 1931 in Leningrad, USSR, to a Jewish mother and a Polish-Catholic father. His mother, Zelda Gershevna Azbel (1910—?), a daughter of the Yiddish writer Hersh Azbel, was a pianist and alumna of Leningrad Conservatory of Music; his father, Lev Merkuryevich Korchnoi (1910—1941), was an engineer, who worked at a candy factory. Both parents came to Leningrad with their families from Ukraine in 1928: mother from Borispol and father from Melitopol. After their divorce, Victor lived with his mother until 1935, then with his father, paternal grandmother and later his adoptive mother Roza Abramovna Fridman (who took responsibility for his upbringing when his father was killed during the siege of Leningrad in 1941, and later lived with him in Switzerland). He graduated from Leningrad State University with a major in history.", "He learned to play chess from his father at the age of five. In 1943, he joined the chess club of the Leningrad Pioneer Palace, and was trained by Abram Model, Andrei Batuyev, and Vladimir Zak. Model had earlier played a major role in the development of future World Champion Mikhail Botvinnik, while Zak, who later co-authored a book with Korchnoi, had also helped train future World Champion Boris Spassky.", "In 1947, Korchnoi won the Junior Championship of the USSR, with 111⁄2/15 at Leningrad, and shared the title in 1948 with 5/7 at Tallinn, Estonia.", "In 1951, he earned the Soviet Master title, following his second-place finish in the 1950 Leningrad Championship, with 9/13.", "One year later, Korchnoi qualified for the finals of the USSR Chess Championship for the first time. In the semifinal at Minsk, 1952, he scored 101⁄2/17 for a shared 2nd–4th place, to advance. In the 20th Soviet final, held at Moscow, he scored 11/19 for sixth place, as GM Mikhail Botvinnik and GM Mark Taimanov came joint first. The next year, he again had to qualify through the semifinal event held at Vilnius 1953, with 9/14 for a shared 3rd–4th place. Korchnoi improved on the previous year's showing with his shared 2nd–3rd place in URS-ch21 at Kiev 1954, on 13/19, as GM Yuri Averbakh won.", "This high championship placing was rewarded with his first international opportunity, a participation in Bucharest 1954, where he finished in clear first place with 13/17. FIDE awarded him the title of International Master in 1954. He won the 1955 Leningrad Championship with a massive score of 17/19, and shared 1st–2nd places at Hastings 1955–56 on 7/9. He was awarded the Grandmaster title at the FIDE Congress in 1956.", "Korchnoi earned his first international team selection for the Soviet student team in 1954, joined the full national team for the European Team Championship three years later, and would represent the USSR through 1974. He won 21 medals for the USSR. His complete Soviet international team play results follow:", "Korchnoi rose to prominence within the Soviet chess school system, where he competed against his contemporaries and future GM stars such as Mikhail Tal, Tigran Petrosian, and Boris Spassky, following in the path laid out by Mikhail Botvinnik. Korchnoi's playing style initially was an aggressive counterattack. He excelled in difficult defensive positions. His results during the 1950s were often inconsistent. One particularly bad result was his 19th place (only one from bottom) at the URSch-22, Moscow 1955, with 6/19. During the 1960s he became more versatile, as he gained experience at the top level. He won at Kraków 1959 with 81⁄2/11, shared 1st–2nd places with GM Samuel Reshevsky at Buenos Aires 1960 with 13/19, and won at Córdoba, Argentina 1960 with 6/7. After his victory at Budapest 1961 (Géza Maróczy Memorial) with 111⁄2/15 ahead of GMs David Bronstein and Miroslav Filip, each with 91⁄2, Korchnoi was recognized as one of the world's best players.", "Korchnoi won the USSR Chess Championship four times during his career. At Leningrad 1960 for URS-ch27, he scored 14/19. He won at Yerevan 1962, URS-ch30, with 13/19. He won at Kiev 1964–65 with 15/19. His final title was at Riga 1970, for URS-ch38, with 16/21.", "He first qualified as a candidate from the 1962 Stockholm Interzonal, scoring 14/22 for a shared 4th–5th-place finish, a tournament won by Fischer. The 1962 Candidates tournament, the last held in a round-robin format until 1985, was held at Curaçao a few months later and Korchnoi placed fifth out of eight with an even score, 131⁄2/27, which Tigran Petrosian won, winning the right to challenge Botvinnik. Korchnoi's results included two victories over Fischer, one a brilliant win employing the Pirc Defense with the black pieces. Korchnoi won at Havana 1963 with 161⁄2/21, but fared less well in the next Soviet Championship, URS-ch31 at Leningrad, with just 10/19 for 10th place. He missed qualifying for the next world championship cycle, 1964–66, because of a poor showing at the 1964 Zonal tournament in Moscow, where he made 51⁄2/12 for a shared 5th–6th place, so did not advance to the Interzonal. Korchnoi regained his form with an overwhelming triumph at Gyula, Hungary, in 1965 with 141⁄2/15. He won at Bucharest 1966 with 121⁄2/14, and at the Chigorin Memorial in Sochi 1966 with 111⁄2/15.", "In the 1969 World Championship cycle, he tied for 3rd–5th places at the URS-ch34, held at Tbilisi 1966–67, with 12/20, and emerged from a three-way playoff, along with GM Aivars Gipslis, at Tallinn 1967, to the Interzonal, staged at Sousse, Tunisia, later that year. A strong performance at the Interzonal, with 14/22, for a shared 2nd–4th place, took him through to the Candidates' matches. In his first match, he defeated American GM Samuel Reshevsky at Amsterdam in 1968 by (+3=5). His next opponent was GM Mikhail Tal, against whom Korchnoi had a large plus score in previous meetings. The match, held in Moscow 1968, was close, but Korchnoi won by (+2−1=7), and moved on to face GM Boris Spassky in the Candidates' final. Spassky prevailed at Kiev 1968, winning (+4−1=5).", "Korchnoi represented the USSR on board three in the first Russia (USSR) vs Rest of the World team match, Belgrade 1970, which took place across ten boards. He played four games with Hungarian GM Lajos Portisch, drawing three and losing one. In 1984, eight years after his defection, Korchnoi played board three in the second Rest of the World vs USSR match in London, with the match again held across ten boards. He faced Soviet GM Lev Polugaevsky, his former teammate, in three games, winning one and drawing two; he then faced GM Vladimir Tukmakov in one game, drawing. Korchnoi was the only player to play for each side in the series of two team matches.", "Korchnoi, as the losing finalist, was exempt from qualifying for the 1972 World Championship cycle, and was seeded directly to the following Candidates' event. To prepare, he first played a secret training match with his good friend GM David Bronstein, who drew the 1951 World Championship match, in Leningrad 1970, losing 31⁄2–21⁄2. This result was kept secret until 1995; the games from this match were kept secret until 2007, when they were eventually published in Bronstein's last book, \"Secret Notes\". Then, he played a secret training match against GM Anatoly Karpov, with whom he was close friends at the time, at Leningrad 1971; this wound up drawn in six games (+2−2=2); Korchnoi took the Black pieces in five of them, for training purposes. These games were eventually published in 1976. Korchnoi won his first round 1971 match against GM Efim Geller at Moscow by (+4−1=3), after which he went down to defeat in the semifinal versus GM Tigran Petrosian by (−1=9), also at Moscow, with the ninth game the only decisive result.", "In 1972, Korchnoi appeared in the chess-themed Soviet film \"Grossmeister\" along with several other grandmasters; he played the role of the lead actor's trainer.", "In the 1975 World Championship cycle Korchnoi and Karpov, the newest star of Soviet chess, tied for first in the 1973 Leningrad Interzonal. In the 1974 Candidates' matches, Korchnoi first defeated the young Brazilian star GM Henrique Costa Mecking (who had won the other Interzonal in Petrópolis), by (+3−1=9) at Augusta, Georgia, in what he later described in his autobiography as a tough match. Korchnoi next played Petrosian again, at Odessa. The two were not on friendly terms, and it was even rumored that the two resorted to kicking each other under the table during this match; however, Korchnoi denies this. According to him, Petrosian just kicked his legs nervously and shook the table. Although the match was supposed to go to the first player to win four games, Petrosian resigned the match after just five games, with Korchnoi enjoying a lead of 3–1, with one draw. With his victory over Petrosian, Korchnoi advanced to face Karpov in the Candidates' Final, the match to determine who would challenge reigning world champion Bobby Fischer in 1975. In the run-up to the match, Korchnoi was constantly subjected to threats and harassment, and was virtually unable to find any Grandmasters to assist him. Bronstein apparently assisted Korchnoi, for which he was punished. Bronstein, in his last book, \"Secret Notes\", published in 2007, wrote that he advised Korchnoi before the match began, but then had to leave to play an event himself; when he returned, Korchnoi was down by three games. Bronstein then assisted Korchnoi for the final stages. Korchnoi also received some assistance later in the match from two British masters, IM (later GM) Raymond Keene and IM William Hartston. Korchnoi trailed 3–0 late in the match, but won games 19 and 21 to make it very close right to the end. Karpov eventually won this battle, played in late 1974 in Moscow, by a 121⁄2–111⁄2 score. By default, Karpov became the twelfth world champion in April 1975, when Fischer refused to defend his title because of disputed match conditions.", "In the lead-up to the Candidates' Final in 1974, as part of a campaign to promote Karpov over Korchnoi, Tigran Petrosian made a public statement in the press against Korchnoi, with the Soviet federation, wishing to develop younger players, taking the stance that the generation (including Korchnoi) which had been defeated by Bobby Fischer could no longer hope to compete successfully against him. At the closing ceremony of the Candidates' Final, Korchnoi had made his mind up that he had to leave the Soviet Union. The central authorities prevented Korchnoi from playing any international tournaments outside the USSR. Even when Korchnoi was invited by GM Paul Keres and IM Iivo Nei to participate in a 1975 International Tournament in the Estonian SSR, Korchnoi was not allowed to play, and both Keres and Nei were reprimanded. Keres did play a short, apparently secret, training match at Tallinn 1975 with Korchnoi, who won (+1=1). Korchnoi was then allowed to play the Soviet Team Championship and an international tournament in Moscow later in 1975. The ban against Korchnoi competing outside the USSR was lifted when he accompanied fellow veteran GMs Mark Taimanov and Bronstein to London to play a Scheveningen-style event (where each team member competes against only the other team's players) against three young British masters: Jonathan Mestel, Michael Stean and David S. Goodman. Korchnoi then played the international tournament at Hastings, 1975–76. Korchnoi, in a 2006 lecture in London, mentioned that the breakthrough that allowed him to resume international appearances came when Anatoly Karpov inherited the World Championship title forfeited by Fischer. Questions arose about how Karpov had qualified to be a World Champion, when he had never played Fischer. Since Korchnoi was not publicly visible, it was largely believed that he (and Karpov) could not be very strong. Korchnoi was then allowed to play the 1976 Amsterdam tournament, as a means to prove Karpov was a worthy World Champion. Korchnoi was joint winner of the tournament, along with GM Tony Miles. At the end of the tournament, Korchnoi asked Miles to spell \"political asylum\" for him, whereupon Korchnoi entered the police station to defect, having smuggled his chess library out of the USSR in two stages, on this trip as well as the previous year's trip to England. As a result, after the chess tournament in Amsterdam, Korchnoi became the first strong Soviet grandmaster to defect from the Soviet Union. Korchnoi left his wife and son behind. The defection resulted in a turbulent period of excellent tournament results, losses in the two matches for the World Title, all overshadowed by the oppressive political climate of the Cold War. Korchnoi resided in the Netherlands for some time, giving simultaneous exhibitions. He played a short match against GM Jan Timman – the strongest active non-Soviet player at that time – and comprehensively defeated him. He moved to West Germany for a short period, and then eventually settled in Switzerland by 1978, becoming a Swiss citizen.", "In the next world championship cycle (1976–78), for which he qualified as the losing finalist, Korchnoi first had to overcome Soviet demands that he be forfeited due to his defection; FIDE President GM Max Euwe defended Korchnoi's right to participate. Korchnoi began actual play by again vanquishing Petrosian, by (+2−1=9) in the quarter-final round at Il Ciocco, Italy, taking a clinching draw in a clearly favourable position in the final game. In the semifinal, held at Evian, France, Korchnoi won against GM Lev Polugaevsky, with a score of (+5−1=7). The final, in which he faced Spassky at Belgrade, began with five wins and five draws for Korchnoi, after which he lost four consecutive games. The match was noteworthy for Spassky's scandalous psychological behavior after game 10 where Spassky refused to play at the game board, instead analyzing the game from a demonstration board while seated in a box located behind Korchnoi. Ultimately, Korchnoi steeled himself and finally secured victory in the match by (+7−4=7) to emerge as the challenger to Karpov, having defeated three world-class Soviet contenders. The World Championship match of 1978 was held in Baguio, Philippines. There was enormous controversy off the board, ranging from X-raying of chairs, protests about the flags used on the board, hypnotism complaints and the mirror glasses used by Korchnoi. When Karpov's team sent him a bilberry yogurt during a game without any request for one by Karpov, the Korchnoi team protested, claiming it could be some kind of code (such as whether Korchnoi was dead equal or slightly advantageous). They later said this was intended as a parody of earlier protests, but it was taken seriously at the time. In quality of play, the match itself never measured up to the press headlines that it generated, although as a sporting contest it had its share of excitement. The match would go to the first player to win six games, draws not counting. After 17 games, Karpov had an imposing 4–1 lead. Korchnoi won game 21, but Karpov won game 27, putting him on the brink of victory with a 5–2 lead. Korchnoi bravely fought back, scoring three wins and one draw in the next four games, to equalise the match at 5–5 after 31 games. However, Karpov won the very next game, and the match, by 6–5 with 21 draws. Korchnoi alleged that when acting as his second in this match, Raymond Keene broke his contract by writing a book about the match (which appeared three days after the match finished) having specifically signed an agreement \"not to write, compile or help to write or compile any book during the course of the match\". Korchnoi commented: \"Mr Keene betrayed me. He violated the contract. It was clear that while Mr Keene was writing one book and then another, Mr Stean was doing his work for him.\" Attempts to defend Keene were rebutted by Michael Stean's mother, who stated that she was in a position to know what was in Keene's contract since she herself had typed it. Keene, she claimed, had signed this despite having already negotiated a contract with Batsford to write a book about the match. She described \"a premeditated and deliberate plan to deceive\" and noted that Keene's conduct had come under suspicion during the match.", "As the losing world title match finalist, Korchnoi was seeded into the next cycle's final eight players. In his first match, Korchnoi once more defeated Petrosian in March 1980 at Velden am Wörthersee, Austria, by 51⁄2 to 31⁄2. This victory earned him a rematch with Polugaevsky, whom he had defeated in the previous cycle. At Buenos Aires during July and August 1980, Korchnoi again triumphed by 71⁄2 to 61⁄2; the match was tied following the regulation ten games. In the final match, at Merano, Italy, from December 1980 to January 1981, Korchnoi was leading West German GM Robert Hubner by 41⁄2 to 31⁄2, with two more possible regulation games to come, when Hubner withdrew from the match. This forfeit advanced Korchnoi to a rematch for the title against Karpov. This final match was also held in Merano, Italy. The headline of the tournament again largely centered on the political issues. Korchnoi's wife and son were still in the Soviet Union. His son had been promised release to join his father in exile if he gave up his passport. When he did so, he was promptly drafted into the Soviet army. In spite of protests, Korchnoi's son was arrested for evading army service, sentenced to two and a half years in labour camp, and served the full sentence. After the release, he was again refused permission to leave the USSR. (In 1982, six years after Korchnoi's defection, his son finally succeeded in leaving the country. His wife also left the USSR, and the two divorced.) In what was dubbed the \"Massacre in Merano\", Karpov defeated Korchnoi by six wins to two, with ten draws.", "Korchnoi, however, still had a vital part to play in the next (1984) Candidates' cycle, although he never reached the highest pinnacle again. In the first match, he defeated GM Lajos Portisch by 6–3 at Bad Kissingen 1983. In the second round, he was to play the young Soviet GM Garry Kasparov, who at the time was battling against a Soviet Chess Federation that was clearly in favour of Anatoly Karpov. The match was to be held in Pasadena, California, but the Soviet Chess Federation protested (possibly because Korchnoi was a defector and the match was in the cold-war enemy's back yard, in a place closed to Soviet diplomats at the time, and because of the soon-to-be-announced Soviet decision to boycott the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles). Kasparov was not allowed to fly there to play the match. This defaulted the match to Korchnoi. Another Soviet contender, former Champion GM Vassily Smyslov, was also at first forfeited to Hungarian GM Zoltan Ribli, with their match set to take place in the United Arab Emirates. However, upon intervention by prominent British chess organizer GM Raymond Keene, who quickly stepped up to raise a large amount of sponsorship money to save the troubled matches, Korchnoi agreed to play Kasparov in London, which at the same time also hosted the Smyslov vs. Ribli match. This was a gracious gesture by Korchnoi, since technically he had already won by default. After a good start, winning the first game, Korchnoi was beaten by a score of 7–4, with Kasparov, who was 32 years younger, proving that his all-round game and youthful stamina were too strong.", "After the 1983 Kasparov match, Korchnoi continued playing at a top level but without seriously threatening the world championship again. In the 1985–87 World Championship cycle he finished equal thirteenth out of 16 in the Candidates' Tournament at Montpellier. In the 1988–90 cycle, he made the final 16 again, but was eliminated in the first round of Candidates' matches, held at Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada, losing to Iceland's GM Johann Hjartarson in extra games, by 41⁄2 to 31⁄2. Finally, in the 1991–93 cycle, he defeated GM Gyula Sax of Hungary in the first round, by 51⁄2 to 41⁄2 at Wijk aan Zee. Then, at Brussels, he lost to GM Jan Timman of the Netherlands by 41⁄2 to 21⁄2, ending his run at the Candidates', which stretched from 1962 to 1991.", "He continued to play in Europe and around the world to an advanced age, living in his adopted country of Switzerland. He frequently represented their Olympiad team on top board, beginning in 1978, even though his Elo rating was sometimes considerably below that of compatriot Vadim Milov, who appeared not to make himself available for selection. From 2001 onwards, Korchnoi became a prolific author of books on his career, publishing five new volumes, including two books of annotated games, an updated autobiography, and an overview (along with several other authors) of Soviet politics applying to chess; he also wrote a book on rook endings. In September 2006, Korchnoi won the 16th World Senior Chess Championship, held in Arvier (Valle d'Aosta, Italy), at age 75, with a 9–2 score. Korchnoi scored 71⁄2–1⁄2 in his first eight games, then drew his last three games. On the January 2007 FIDE rating list Korchnoi was ranked number 85 in the world at age 75, the oldest player ever to be ranked in the FIDE top 100. The second-oldest player on the January 2007 list was Alexander Beliavsky, age 53, who was 22 years younger than Korchnoi. As of 2011, Korchnoi was still active in the chess world with a notable win (in Gibraltar) with black against the 18-year-old Fabiano Caruana, who was rated above 2700 and 61 years Korchnoi's junior. Korchnoi became the oldest player ever to win a national championship, when he won the 2009 Swiss championship at age 78. He won the national title again a few months after his 80th birthday in July 2011 after a playoff game with Joseph Gallagher.", "In late December 2012, it was reported that Korchnoi was recovering from a stroke and was unlikely to play competitive chess again. He was scheduled to play in the 37th Zurich Christmas Open tournament in December 2013, but withdrew due to health reasons. However, in 2014, he returned to the board to play a two-game match against GM Wolfgang Uhlmann (b.1935), winning both games; the combined age of the two players was 162 years, which is almost certainly a record for a standard play match between Grandmasters. In 2015 the two played a four-game rapid play match (25 minutes per player for all moves, plus 30 seconds extra per move), which was drawn 2–2. Korchnoi's final match against another Grandmaster was a similar four-game rapid play match in November 2015, against GM Mark Taimanov (1926–2016) – the first time since 1980 that Korchnoi had played in an official or friendly match an opponent older than himself. The combined ages of the players was 174. Korchnoi won the match 2–1 with one draw.", "Korchnoi died aged 85 on 6 June 2016 in the Swiss city of Wohlen.", "FIDE President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov said that Korchnoi \"has contributed substantially to the popularisation of our sport and is considered rightly as one of the strongest and charismatic players in the entire history of world chess.\" One obituary, written by Leonard Barden, called him \"the greatest player never to have been world champion\". Korchnoi was comfortable playing with or without the initiative. He could attack, counterattack, play positionally, and was a master of the endgame. He became known as the master of counterattack, and he was the most difficult opponent of Mikhail Tal, an out-and-out attacker. He had a large lifetime plus score against Tal (+13−4=27), and also had plus scores against world champions Petrosian and Spassky. He had equal records against Botvinnik (+1−1=2) and Fischer (+2−2=4). He defeated nine undisputed world champions from Botvinnik through to Garry Kasparov, and Magnus Carlsen. At times Korchnoi displayed his temper after losing games by swiping all the pieces off the board. More often, however, he displayed genial manners. In the 1983 U.S. Open Chess Championship in Pasadena, California, Korchnoi was paired against GM Larry Christiansen who was late showing up to the game when his \"old jalopy\" car ran out of gas on the way to the event. Rather than starting Christiansen's clock, Korchnoi waited until Christiansen arrived—a very kind gesture indeed. Korchnoi never succeeded in becoming world chess champion, but many people consider him the strongest player never to have done so, a distinction also often attributed to Paul Keres. On the other hand, the 10th world champion Boris Spassky argued that Korchnoi did not deserve to be champion, both because he did not play the best moves (sometimes taking 140 moves to win a game that could have been won in 40), and because he did not have any individuality. One of the variations of the English Opening is called the Korchnoi Variation, a variation for White against the French Defense is called the Korchnoi Gambit and a closed variation of the Sicilian Defense is called the Korchnoi Defense.", "Korchnoi defeated nine undisputed world champions (Botvinnik, Smyslov, Tal, Petrosian, Spassky, Fischer, Karpov, Kasparov and Carlsen), a record he shares with Paul Keres and Alexander Beliavsky. He is the only player to have won or drawn—in individual game(s)—against every World Chess Champion, disputed or undisputed, since the world chess championship interregnum of World War II." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Discovery, excavation, scepticism.", "Dating and periodization.", "Visitors and replicas.", "Cultural impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The cave is approximately long and consists of a series of twisting passages and chambers. The main passage varies from two to six meters in height. The cave was formed through collapses following early karst phenomena in the calcareous rock of Mount Vispieres. Archaeological excavations in the cave floor found rich deposits of artifacts from the Upper Solutrean (c.18,500 years ago) and Lower Magdalenian (between c.16,590 and 14,000 years ago). Both periods belong to the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. In the two millennia between these two occupations, the cave was evidently inhabited only by wild animals. Human occupants of the site were well-positioned to take advantage of the rich wildlife that grazed in the valleys of the surrounding mountains as well as the marine life available in nearby coastal areas. Around 13,000 years ago a rockfall sealed the cave's entrance, preserving its contents until its eventual discovery, which occurred after a nearby tree fell and disturbed the fallen rocks. Human occupation was limited to the cave mouth, although paintings were created throughout the length of the cave. The artists used charcoal and ochre or hematite to create the images, often diluting these pigments to produce variations in intensity and creating an impression of chiaroscuro. They also exploited the natural contours of the cave walls to give their subjects a three-dimensional effect. The Polychrome Ceiling is the most impressive feature of the cave, depicting a herd of extinct steppe bison (\"Bison priscus\") in different poses, two horses, a large doe, and possibly a wild boar. Dated to the Magdalenian occupation, these paintings include abstract shapes in addition to animal subjects. Solutrean paintings include images of horses and goats, as well as handprints that were created when artists placed their hands on the cave wall and blew pigment over them to leave a negative image. Numerous other caves in northern Spain contain Paleolithic art, but none is as complex or well-populated as Altamira.", "In 1879, amateur archaeologist Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola was led by his eight-year-old daughter to discover the cave's drawings. The cave was excavated by Sautuola and archaeologist Juan Vilanova y Piera from the University of Madrid, resulting in a much acclaimed publication in 1880 which interpreted the paintings as Paleolithic in origin. The French specialists, led by Gabriel de Mortillet and Emile Cartailhac, were particularly adamant in rejecting the hypothesis of Sautuola and Piera, whose findings were loudly ridiculed at the 1880 Prehistorical Congress in Lisbon. Due to the high artistic quality, and the exceptional state of conservation of the paintings, Sautuola was accused of forgery, as he was unable to answer why there were no soot (smoke) marks on the walls and ceilings of the cave. A fellow countryman maintained that the paintings had been produced by a contemporary artist, on Sautuola's orders. Later Marcelino Sanz de Sautuola found out the artist could have used marrow fat as oil for the lamp, producing much less soot than any other combustibles. It was not until 1902, when several other findings of prehistoric paintings had served to render the hypothesis of the extreme antiquity of the Altamira paintings less offensive, that the scientific society retracted their opposition to the Spaniards. That year, Emile Cartailhac emphatically admitted his mistake in the famous article, \"Mea culpa d'un sceptique\", published in the journal \"L'Anthropologie\". Sautuola, having died 14 years earlier, did not live to witness his rehabilitation. Further excavation work on the cave was done by Hermilio Alcalde del Río between 1902–04, the German Hugo Obermaier between 1924–25 and finally by Joaquín González Echegaray in 1968.", "There is no scientific agreement on the dating of the archeological artifacts found in the cave, nor the drawings and paintings, and scientists continue to evaluate the age of the cave art at Altamira. In 2008, researchers using uranium-thorium dating found that the paintings were completed over a period of up to 20,000 years rather than during a comparatively brief period. A later study published in 2012 based on data obtained from further uranium-thorium dating research, dated some paintings in several caves in North Spain, including some of the claviform signs in the \"Gran sala\" of Altamira. The oldest sign found, a \"large red claviform-like symbol of \"Techo de los Polícromos\"\", was dated to (corrected), i.e. still well within the Aurignacian. A red dotted outline horse, also in the \"Techo de los Polícromos\" chamber, was dated to", "During the 1970s and 2000s, the paintings were being damaged by the carbon dioxide and water vapor in the breath of the large number of visitors. Altamira was completely closed to the public in 1977, and reopened to limited access in 1982. Very few visitors were allowed in per day, resulting in a three-year waiting list. After green mold began to appear on some paintings in 2002, the caves were closed to public access. A replica cave and museum were built nearby and completed in 2001 by Manuel Franquelo and Sven Nebel, reproducing the cave and its art. The replica allows a more comfortable view of the polychrome paintings of the main hall of the cave, as well as a selection of minor works. It also includes some sculptures of human faces that are not visitable in the real cave. As well as the adjacent National Museum and Research Center of Altamira there are reproductions in the National Archaeological Museum of Spain (Madrid), in the Deutsches Museum in Munich (completed 1964) and in Japan (completed 1993). During 2010 there were plans to reopen access to the cave towards the end of that year. In December 2010, however, the Spanish Ministry of Culture decided that the cave would remain closed to the public. This decision was based on advice from a group of experts who had found that the conservation conditions inside the cave had become much more stable since the closure.", "Some of the polychrome paintings at Altamira Cave are well known in Spanish popular culture. The logo used by the autonomous government of Cantabria to promote tourism to the region is based on one of the bisons in this cave. \"Bisonte\" (Spanish for \"bison\"), a Spanish cigarette brand of the 20th century, also used a Paleolithic style bison figure along with its logo. The Spanish comic series \"Altamiro de la Cueva\", created in 1965, are a consequence of the fame of Altamira Cave. The comic series depicts the adventures of a group of prehistoric cavemen, shown as modern people, but dressed in pieces of fur, a bit like the Flintstones. The song \"The Caves of Altamira\" appears on the 1976 album \"The Royal Scam\" by jazz-rock band Steely Dan, later covered by soul group Perri. The mid-20th-century modern dinnerware line Primitive, designed by Viktor Schreckengost for the American pottery company Salem China, was based on the bison, deer, and stick figure hunters depicted in the Altamira cave paintings. The song \"Cuevas de Altamira\" (Caves of Altamira) appears on the 1978 album \"Cuevas de Altamira\" by the symphonic progressive rock-folk group Ibio from Cantabria. The iconic bison image has been used for the cover of the poetry collection \"Songs for the Devil and Death\" by Scottish author Hal Duncan. The protagonist in Satyajit Ray's film \"Agantuk\" was inspired by the charging Bison painting to leave his home and study tribal people. In 2007, the caves were selected as one of the \"12 Treasures of Spain\", a contest conducted by broadcasters Antena 3 and COPE. In 2016, British Director Hugh Hudson released the film \"Altamira\" (called \"Finding Altamira\" outside Spain) about the discovery of the caves, starring Antonio Banderas and with music by Mark Knopfler released on the soundtrack album \"Altamira\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Spacecraft.", "Scientific findings.", "Black-body curve of CMB.", "Intrinsic anisotropy of CMB.", "Detecting early galaxies.", "DIRBE.", "Cosmological implications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1974, NASA issued an Announcement of Opportunity for astronomical missions that would use a small- or medium-sized Explorer spacecraft. Out of the 121 proposals received, three dealt with studying the cosmological background radiation. Though these proposals lost out to the Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS), their strength made NASA further explore the idea. In 1976, NASA formed a committee of members from each of 1974's three proposal teams to put together their ideas for such a satellite. A year later, this committee suggested a polar-orbiting satellite called COBE to be launched by either a Delta rocket or the Space Shuttle. It would contain the following instruments: NASA accepted the proposal provided that the costs be kept under $30 million, excluding launcher and data analysis. Due to cost overruns in the Explorer program due to IRAS, work on constructing the satellite at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) did not begin until 1981. To save costs, the infrared detectors and liquid helium dewar on COBE would be similar to those used on IRAS. COBE was originally planned to be launched on a Space Shuttle mission STS-82-B in 1988 from Vandenberg Air Force Base, but the Challenger explosion delayed this plan when the Shuttles were grounded. NASA kept COBE's engineers from going to other space agencies to launch COBE, but eventually, a redesigned COBE was placed into sun-synchronous orbit on November 18, 1989 aboard a Delta rocket. A team of American scientists announced, on April 23, 1992 that they had found the primordial \"seeds\" (CMBE anisotropy) in data from COBE. The announcement was reported worldwide as a fundamental scientific discovery and ran on the front page of \"The New York Times\". The Nobel Prize in Physics for 2006 was jointly awarded to John C. Mather, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, and George F. Smoot, University of California, Berkeley, \"for their discovery of the blackbody form and anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation.\"", "COBE was an Explorer class satellite, with technology borrowed heavily from IRAS, but with some unique characteristics. The need to control and measure all the sources of systematic errors required a rigorous and integrated design. COBE would have to operate for a minimum of 6 months, and constrain the amount of radio interference from the ground, COBE and other satellites as well as radiative interference from the Earth, Sun and Moon. The instruments required temperature stability and to maintain gain, and a high level of cleanliness to reduce entry of stray light and thermal emission from particulates. The need to control systematic error in the measurement of the CMB anisotropy and measuring the zodiacal cloud at different elongation angles for subsequent modeling required that the satellite rotate at a 0.8 rpm spin rate. The spin axis is also tilted back from the orbital velocity vector as a precaution against possible deposits of residual atmospheric gas on the optics as well against the infrared glow that would result from fast neutral particles hitting its surfaces at extremely high speed. In order to meet the twin demands of slow rotation and three-axis attitude control, a sophisticated pair of yaw angular momentum wheels were employed with their axis oriented along the spin axis. These wheels were used to carry an angular momentum opposite that of the entire spacecraft in order to create a zero net angular momentum system. The orbit would prove to be determined based on the specifics of the spacecraft's mission. The overriding considerations were the need for full sky coverage, the need to eliminate stray radiation from the instruments and the need to maintain thermal stability of the dewar and the instruments. A circular Sun-synchronous orbit satisfied all these requirements. A 900 km altitude orbit with a 99° inclination was chosen as it fit within the capabilities of either a Shuttle (with an auxiliary propulsion on COBE) or a Delta rocket. This altitude was a good compromise between Earth's radiation and the charged particle in Earth's radiation belts at higher altitudes. An ascending node at 6 p.m. was chosen to allow COBE to follow the boundary between sunlight and darkness on Earth throughout the year. The orbit combined with the spin axis made it possible to keep the Earth and the Sun continually below the plane of the shield, allowing a full sky scan every six months. The last two important parts pertaining to the COBE mission were the dewar and Sun-Earth shield. The dewar was a 650-liter superfluid helium cryostat designed to keep the FIRAS and DIRBE instruments cooled during the duration of the mission. It was based on the same design as one used on IRAS and was able to vent helium along the spin axis near the communication arrays. The conical Sun-Earth shield protected the instruments from direct solar and Earth based radiation as well as radio interference from Earth and the COBE's transmitting antenna. Its multilayer insulating blankets provided thermal isolation for the dewar.", "The science mission was conducted by the three instruments detailed previously: DIRBE, FIRAS and the DMR. The instruments overlapped in wavelength coverage, providing consistency check on measurements in the regions of spectral overlap and assistance in discriminating signals from our galaxy, Solar System and CMB. COBE's instruments would fulfill each of their objectives as well as making observations that would have implications outside COBE's initial scope.", "During the long gestation period of COBE, there were two significant astronomical developments. First, in 1981, two teams of astronomers, one led by David Wilkinson of Princeton and the other by Francesco Melchiorri of the University of Florence, simultaneously announced that they detected a quadrupole distribution of CMB using balloon-borne instruments. This finding would have been the detection of the black-body distribution of CMB that FIRAS on COBE was to measure. In particular, the Florence group claimed a detection of intermediate angular scale anisotropies at the level 100 microkelvins in agreement with later measurements made by the BOOMERanG experiment. However, a number of other experiments attempted to duplicate their results and were unable to do so. Second, in 1987 a Japanese-American team led by Andrew Lange and Paul Richards of UC Berkeley and Toshio Matsumoto of Nagoya University made an announcement that CMB was not that of a true black body. In a sounding rocket experiment, they detected an excess brightness at 0.5 and 0.7 mm wavelengths. With these developments serving as a backdrop to COBE's mission, scientists eagerly awaited results from FIRAS. The results of FIRAS were startling in that they showed a perfect fit of the CMB and the theoretical curve for a black body at a temperature of 2.7 K, thus proving the Berkeley-Nagoya results erroneous. FIRAS measurements were made by measuring the spectral difference between a 7° patch of the sky against an internal black body. The interferometer in FIRAS covered between 2 and 95 cm in two bands separated at 20 cm. There are two scan lengths (short and long) and two scan speeds (fast and slow) for a total of four different scan modes. The data were collected over a ten-month period.", "The DMR was able to spend four years mapping the detectable anisotropy of cosmic background radiation as it was the only instrument not dependent on the dewar's supply of helium to keep it cooled. This operation was able to create full sky maps of the CMB by subtracting out galactic emissions and dipole at various frequencies. The cosmic microwave background fluctuations are extremely faint, only one part in 100,000 compared to the 2.73 kelvins average temperature of the radiation field. The cosmic microwave background radiation is a remnant of the Big Bang and the fluctuations are the imprint of density contrast in the early universe. The density ripples are believed to have produced structure formation as observed in the universe today: clusters of galaxies and vast regions devoid of galaxies (NASA).", "DIRBE also detected 10 new far-IR emitting galaxies in the region not surveyed by IRAS as well as nine other candidates in the weak far-IR that may be spiral galaxies. Galaxies that were detected at the 140 and 240 μm were also able to provide information on very cold dust (VCD). At these wavelengths, the mass and temperature of VCD can be derived. When these data were joined with 60 and 100 μm data taken from IRAS, it was found that the far-infrared luminosity arises from cold (≈17–22 K) dust associated with diffuse HI cirrus clouds, 15-30% from cold (≈19 K) dust associated with molecular gas, and less than 10% from warm (≈29 K) dust in the extended low-density HII regions.", "On top of the findings DIRBE had on galaxies, it also made two other significant contributions to science. The DIRBE instrument was able to conduct studies on interplanetary dust (IPD) and determine if its origin was from asteroid or cometary particles. The DIRBE data collected at 12, 25, 50 and 100 μm were able to conclude that grains of asteroidal origin populate the IPD bands and the smooth IPD cloud. The second contribution DIRBE made was a model of the Galactic disk as seen edge-on from our position. According to the model, if our Sun is 8.6 kpc from the Galactic center, then the Sun is 15.6 pc above the midplane of the disk, which has a radial and vertical scale lengths of 2.64 and 0.333 kpc, respectively, and is warped in a way consistent with the HI layer. There is also no indication of a thick disk. To create this model, the IPD had to be subtracted out of the DIRBE data. It was found that this cloud, which as seen from Earth is Zodiacal light, was not centered on the Sun, as previously thought, but on a place in space a few million kilometers away. This is due to the gravitation influence of Saturn and Jupiter.", "In addition to the science results detailed in the last section, there are numerous cosmological questions left unanswered by COBE's results. A direct measurement of the extragalactic background light (EBL) can also provide important constraints on the integrated cosmological history of star formation, metal and dust production, and the conversion of starlight into infrared emissions by dust. By looking at the results from DIRBE and FIRAS in the 140 to 5000 μm we can detect that the integrated EBL intensity is ≈16 nW/(m·sr). This is consistent with the energy released during nucleosynthesis and constitutes about 20–50% of the total energy released in the formation of helium and metals throughout the history of the universe. Attributed only to nuclear sources, this intensity implies that more than 5–15% of the baryonic mass density implied by big bang nucleosynthesis analysis has been processed in stars to helium and heavier elements. There were also significant implications into star formation. COBE observations provide important constraints on the cosmic star formation rate, and help us calculate the EBL spectrum for various star formation histories. Observation made by COBE require that star formation rate at redshifts of \"z\" ≈ 1.5 to be larger than that inferred from UV-optical observations by a factor of 2. This excess stellar energy must be mainly generated by massive stars in yet-undetected dust enshrouded galaxies or extremely dusty star forming regions in observed galaxies. The exact star formation history cannot unambiguously be resolved by COBE and further observations must be made in the future. On June 30, 2001, NASA launched a follow-up mission to COBE led by DMR Deputy Principal Investigator Charles L. Bennett. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe has clarified and expanded upon COBE's accomplishments. Following WMAP, the European Space Agency's probe, Planck has continued to increase the resolution at which the background has been mapped." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Band beginning, \"Trailer\" and \"1977\" (1989–1998).", "Charlotte Hatherley, \"Nu-Clear Sounds\" and \"Free All Angels\" (1998–2004).", "\"Meltdown\" and Hatherley's departure (2004–2006).", "\"Twilight of the Innocents\", \"A-Z Series\" and second Greatest Hits (2006–2011).", "\"Kablammo!\" (2012–2016).", "\"Islands\", their return to Infectious and Tav's Management (2017–present).", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ash officially formed in 1992, reportedly having taken the name from the first word they liked in the dictionary. Prior to this, Wheeler and Hamilton were in an Iron Maiden cover band called Vietnam, which had formed in 1989. The new band created three demo tapes that year – \"Solar Happy\" in June, \"Shed\" in September and the \"Home Demo\" in November. These tapes featured their earliest material and the first recordings of some songs that were later on the 1994 release, \"Trailer\", including \"Intense Thing\", \"Get Out\", \"Obscure Thing,\" and the future single, \"Jack Names the Planets\". In 1993 the band recorded the \"Garage Girl\" demo tape, which featured \"Jack Names the Planets\" and \"Intense Thing\", taken from \"Shed\", and new tracks, including \"Petrol\". Following \"Garage Girl\", Ash released a compilation demo tape, \"Pipe Smokin' Brick\" later that year, which featured an assortment of songs from the other tapes. Downpatrick musician Ray Valentine recorded Ash's demos at his studio, Cosmic Rays. At that time, the band was known as \"Genuine Real Teenagers,\" because they were so young when recording their early material. The demo tapes did not gain much attention at that time and the band was still playing small shows at local clubs but, in early 1994, Stephen Taverner came across the \"Garage Girl\" demo tape. Taverner put up the money to press 1,000 7′′ copies of \"Jack Names the Planets\" on his own LaLaLand record label. Taverner subsequently became the band's full-time manager. Ash released the mini-album, \"Trailer\", in October 1994, comprising seven songs. Airplay by Steve Lamacq followed on BBC Radio 1 and the debut single was followed by \"Petrol\" and \"Uncle Pat\", on their new label Infectious Records. In 1995, Ash left school and released the breakthrough singles \"Kung Fu\" (featured over the end credits of Jackie Chan's North American breakthrough film, \"Rumble in the Bronx\"), \"Girl From Mars\" and \"Angel Interceptor\". The movie \"Angus\" was released, which featured two Ash songs, \"Jack Names the Planets\" and \"Kung Fu,\" and served to introduce Ash to American audiences. The band had offered two other tracks that were not used, as well as \"Pansy Division's Deep Water\", which made the soundtrack but was cut from the movie due to time constraints. Ash marked the end of their breakthrough year by releasing a cover of the Temptations' \"Get Ready\", as a limited edition red vinyl 7\" single on Fantastic Plastic. In 1996 the singles \"Goldfinger\" and \"Oh Yeah\" were released, with the successful album \"1977\" being released between these. The track \"Lose Control\" from that album was featured in the video game Gran Turismo. On 17 February 1997, Ash released \"Live at the Wireless\", a live album, recorded at the Triple J Studios in Australia. A limited-edition version of the album was released in the UK on the band's own Deathstar label.", "While touring with the American band Weezer, Ash felt the limitations of a three-piece format. This led to the recruitment of a second guitarist and vocalist, Charlotte Hatherley, who had previously been with the band Nightnurse. She was introduced at a few small gigs a week before the band's appearance at the V Festival in 1997. The first recording to be released with Hatherley was the single \"A Life Less Ordinary\", which featured on the soundtrack to the Ewan McGregor / Cameron Diaz film of the same name. In September 1998, Ash released \"Jesus Says\" followed in October by the band's second album proper, \"Nu-Clear Sounds\", and in November by \"Wildsurf\". The pressures of near non-stop touring of 1977 and Nu-Clear Sounds began to affect the band. In 1999, Tim Wheeler disappeared for a short while following the commercial and critical failure of \"Nu-Clear Sounds\". He eventually emerged in New York making the self-deprecating blood-, drug- and sex-fuelled video for \"Numbskull\". A note for Stephen Taverner attached to the video read \"I've killed Bambi\". Ash became almost bankrupt as the band prepared to release what could have been its last album. The members retreated to Wheeler's parents' house, to play and write songs in the same garage where the band began. The single \"Shining Light\" was released in January 2001, followed by the number one album \"Free All Angels\" in April. Subsequent singles released from \"Free All Angels\" were \"Burn Baby Burn\", \"Sometimes\", \"Candy\" and \"There's a Star\". The single \"Shining Light\" won the Best Contemporary Song award at the 2002 Ivor Novello awards. A new single \"Envy\" was released, followed shortly afterward by the singles collection \"Intergalactic Sonic 7′′s\" with the bonus disk entitled Cosmic Debris. \"Q\" named Ash as No. 2 of its \"50 Bands To See Before You Die\". In 2003, it was leaked to the music and tabloid press that Ash was working on a horror film described as a 'teen slasher'. The film, called \"Slashed\", was shot while the band was on tour in America but some scenes were also shot in the UK. The screenplay, written by Jed Shepherd and directed by Alexander Marks, included star roles by Chris Martin (Sherbet Bones) and Jonny Buckland (Agent Ford) of Coldplay as a pair of FBI agents hired to track down a supernatural serial killer. Other star performances include that of Moby, James Nesbitt, Dave Grohl and Ash themselves. The film was not put on general release.", "On 29 June 2004, Ash released \"Meltdown\", which reached number five in the UK. At the same time Hatherley also wrote and recorded her solo side project album \"Grey Will Fade\". The band teamed up with LucasArts for a new \"Star Wars\" game entitled \"\". \"Meltdown\" and \"Orpheus\" were part of the soundtrack for \"Shaun of the Dead\" and appeared on the in-game soundtracks for the video games \"NHL 2005\", \"\" and \"\". The song \"Vampire Love\" was used for \"\". \"Starcrossed\" and \"Renegade Cavalcade\" were later released as singles from the album. \"Meltdown\" was released in the US on 8 March 2005, through Warner Bros. Records imprint Record Collection. Also in 2005, Tim Wheeler received a companionship (an honorary degree) from LIPA (Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts). On 20 January 2006, Hatherley left the band; in an interview in July 2007, the others hinted they asked Hatherley to leave as they \"wanted to be a three-piece\".", "In 2006 Ash started working in a New York recording studio on what would become their first album after reverting to their original line-up, \"Twilight of the Innocents.\" A preview track, \"I Started A Fire\" was released in February 2007, coinciding with a full-length UK tour. The album's first physical single \"You Can't Have It All\" was released in April 2007, and the album itself followed the next month, along with an appearance at the Isle of Wight Festival. Two further songs from the album, \"Polaris\" and \"End of the World\", were issued as singles in June and September, respectively. Ash stated that \"Twilight of the Innocents\" would be their last album and that instead, they would only release singles as \"(t)he way people listen to music has changed, with the advent of the download the emphasis has reverted to single tracks\". The original three-piece line-up played two-sold out nights at London's Roundhouse in September 2008, performing \"1977\" in its entirety. This was followed by the release of a 3-disc special edition version of \"1977\", featuring remastered and re-edited versions of the tracks, as well as tracks from \"Trailer\" and live performances from the time of its release. Ash started recording new material, which was previewed at a series of live dates in 2009. These dates coincided with the release of the single \"Return Of White Rabbit\". This single was a precursor to Ash releasing a 7\" single every fortnight for a whole year, starting in September 2009. Each single was simply titled by a letter, released in alphabetical order, and formed the \"A–Z Series\". These singles would later be compiled and released together on CD. \"The Best Of Ash\" compilation was released in 2011. The same year Ash collaborated with We Are Scientists to release a cover of the song \"Washington Parks\" by British songwriter Robert Manning, raising money and awareness for Multiple Sclerosis and The MS Society.", "In November 2012, the band played some US dates with Weezer and went on to headline their own shows on the East Coast. They played at South by Southwest in Austin, Texas in 2013, along with seven other US cities, and supported the Smashing Pumpkins at Wembley Arena. After declaring in 2007 that Ash would no longer release albums, the band brought out new long-player \"Kablammo!\" in May 2015. It was preceded by the single \"Cocoon\", and \"Free\" and \"Machinery\" were released as follow-up singles. In December 2016 the live album \"Live on Mars: London Astoria 1997\" was released, and supported by a tour.", "\"Islands\" was released on May 18, 2018, preceded by the single \"Buzzkill\", with vocals from Damien O'Neill and Mickey Bradley from the Undertones. The band released a second single, \"Annabel\", in April 2018, and a third, \"Did Your Love Burn Out?\", in May to coincide with the album release.", "Current members Former members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Children's writer.", "Language purism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born to the merchant Burchard Hilmar Campe and the preacher's daughter Anna Margaretha Campe (née Gosler) on 29 June 1746, Campe grew up in the village of Deensen in Lower Saxony. After visiting the convent school in nearby Holzminden from 1760 to 1765, he was granted a scholarship and went to study Protestant theology in Helmstedt. His support for his teacher Wilhelm Abraham Teller, whose ideas on an enlightened Christianity were criticised by orthodox theologians, cost Campe his scholarship. He then left Helmstedt and continued his studies of theology in Halle, where he went to lectures of another critical theologian, Johann Salomo Semler. After his studies, Campe moved to Berlin as a private tutor to the Humboldt family. After being a preacher in Potsdam in 1773 and having been given the task of creating an education programme for the Prussian crown prince, he returned to Tegel and briefly tutored Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt, who both stayed in contact with him afterwards. On request of Franz, Duke of Dessau, he joined Johann Bernhard Basedow's Philanthropinum, a teaching institute in Dessau. Because of a disagreement, Campe left before a year was up and went to Hamburg, where he started his own teaching institute based on a family model. Next to tutoring he was active as a writer and published several works for children. His \"Robinson der Jüngere\" was published in 1779/80 and the trilogy \"Die Entdeckung von Amerika\" followed in 1781/82. Another product of this time was the \"Allgemeine Revision des gesammten Schul- und Erziehungswesens\" (1785-1791), a 16-volume work edited by Campe which aimed at being the most complete and sophisticated standard work of educational literature. Among other texts it contains annotated translations of John Locke’s \"Some Thoughts Concerning Education\" (1693) and Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s \"Emile, or On Education\" (1762). After four years Campe handed his teaching institute over to Ernst Christian Trapp to dedicate more of his time to writing. In 1786 he was called to Braunschweig by Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, to reform the Braunschweig school system along with Trapp and Johann Stuve. Although his proposals were defeated through conservative opposition, he stayed and in 1787 founded his own publishing house, the Braunschweigische Schulbuchhandlung. Especially because of Campe's own works, the Schulbuchhandlung became economically very successful, and in 1808 he handed it over to his son-in-law, Friedrich Vieweg. Intrigued by the political movements in France in 1789, Campe and his former pupil Wilhelm von Humboldt travelled to Paris. Campe witnessed the session of the \"assemblée nationale\" during which a majority verdict withdrew the privileges from the aristocratic and clerical estates. However, his sympathy for the French Revolution and his being granted honorary French citizenship in 1792 — along with, among others, George Washington and Friedrich Schiller — was not welcomed by many at home. In his last years, Campe devoted his time to the German language. His language purism is evident in for instance finding German terms for loanwords and the compilation of a German dictionary. For some this linguistic enterprise relates to Campe’s wish to enlighten the people and change society by focusing on words that the common people would understand; other biographers see the focus on the German language as a patriotic endeavour. He died, aged 72, in Braunschweig on 22 October 1818.", "Campe is counted among the founding fathers of the modern genre of intentional or specific children’s and youth literature, along with the writers Christian Felix Weiße and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann. He created a series of works for children and adolescents that were each supposed to be educational, pleasant and directed at a specific age group. His publications ranged from alphabet books to a collection of translated and own travelogues, and to guidance or conduct books for boys and girls. Probably his best-known work is his \"Robinson der Jüngere\" (1779/80), a free adaptation of Daniel Defoe’s \"Robinson Crusoe\" (1719) based on Rousseau's suggestions in his \"Émile\". For Reinhard Stach, \"Robinson\" was Campe's fate, while for Winfred Kaminski it presents the peak of philanthropinist pedagogy. The book became very popular and was published more than a hundred times in the 19th century. It was translated into English as \"Robinson the Younger\" in 1781/82 and into many other European and non European languages. In many languages, it was the first published children's book. After \"Robinson\", Campe published \"Die Entdeckung von Amerika\" (1781/82), which both marked the transition from children's to youth literature, while helping to define youth literature as a genre.", "Campe developed approx. 11,500 translations for foreign words, of which about 300 survived. They include: Among the translations that did not survive are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage to Muhammad.", "Age at marriage.", "Personal life.", "Relationship with Muhammad.", "Accusation of adultery.", "Story of the honey.", "Death of Muhammad.", "Political career.", "Role during caliphate.", "Role during first and second caliphates.", "Role during the third caliphate.", "First Fitna.", "Contributions to Islam and influence.", "Political influence.", "Death.", "Views.", "Sunni view of Aisha.", "Shia view of Aisha." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Aisha was born 613 or early 614. She was the daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca, two of Muhammad's most trusted companions. No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.", "The idea to match Aisha with Muhammad was suggested by Khawlah bint Hakim after the death of Muhammad's first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid. After this, the previous agreement regarding the marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. Abu Bakr was uncertain at first \"as to the propriety or even legality of marrying his daughter to his 'brother'.\" Muhammad however responded that they were brothers only in religion. British historian William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr; the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.", "There was no official registration of births at the time that Aisha was born, so her date of birth, and therefore date of marriage, cannot be stated with certainty. Her age is not mentioned in the Qur'an. All discussions and debate about her age at marriage rely on, firstly, the various ahadith, which are regarded by most Muslims as records of the words and actions of Muhammad and as a source for religious law and moral guidance, second only to that of the Qur'an. Unlike the Qur'an, not all Muslims believe that all ahadith accounts are divine revelation, and different collections of ahadith are given varied levels of respect by different branches of the Islamic faith. Sunni, various branches of Shia (such as Ismaili and Twelver), Ibadi and Ahmadiyya Muslims all regard different sets of ahadith as \"strong\" or \"weak\" in the power of their evidence, depending on their perceived provenance. Aisha's age at the time of her marriage is frequently mentioned in Islamic literature. According to John Esposito, Aisha was married to Muhammad in Mecca in 624CE, after Hegira to Medina and the Battle of Badr. Several scholars interpret this to indicate that she reached puberty at this age, although her age at the time is the subject of dispute. Al-Tabari says she was nine at the time her marriage was consummated. Sahih al-Bukhari's hadith says \"that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old.\" Other sources differ on the age of marriage, but agree that the marriage was not consummated at the time of the marriage contract. All biographical information on Muhammad and his companions was first recorded over a century after his death, but the \"ahadith\" and \"sīra\" (traditional Islamic biographies of Muhammad) provide records of early Islam through an unbroken chain of transmission. Various \"ahadith\" stating that Aisha was either nine or ten at the time of her consummation come from collections with \"sahih\" status, meaning they are regarded as reputable by most Sunni Muslims. Other traditional sources also mention Aisha's age. The \"sīra\" of Ibn Ishaq edited by Ibn Hisham states that she was nine or ten years old at the consummation. The historian al-Tabari also states that she was nine. Marriage at a young age was not unheard of at the time, and Aisha's marriage to Muhammad may have had a political connotation, as her father Abu Bakr was an influential man in the community. Abu Bakr, on his part, may have sought to further the bond of kinship between Muhammad and himself by joining their families together in marriage via Aisha. Leila Ahmed notes that Aisha's betrothal and marriage to Muhammad are presented as ordinary in Islamic literature, and may indicate that it was not unusual for children to be married to their elders in that era. Aisha's age at marriage has been a source of controversy and debate, and some historians, scholars and writers have revisited the previously-accepted timeline of her life. Some writers have calculated Aisha's age based on details found in some biographies, eschewing the traditionally-accepted ahadith. One hadith recorded in the works of some medieval scholars, including al-Dhahabi, states that Aisha's older sister Asma was ten years older than her. This has been combined with information about Asma's age at the time of her death and used to suggest that Aisha was over thirteen at the time of her marriage. Gibril Haddad criticizes this approach as relying on a single narrator, and notes that a hadith from the same narrator gives a broader range for the age difference between the sisters. Using reports on the birth year of Fatimah as a reference point, the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement scholar Muhammad Ali has estimated that Aisha was over ten years old at the time of marriage and over fifteen at the time of its consummation. Noting the references to Aisha's age as either nine or ten at the age of consummation, American historian Denise Spellberg states that \"these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity\". She notes that Aisha herself seemed to promote the fact that she was a virgin prior to her marriage to Muhammad, as a way to distinguish herself from his other, non-virginal wives. This was of great importance to those who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad. These supporters considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate.", "", "In many Muslim traditions, Aisha is described as Muhammad's most beloved or favored wife after his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, who died before the migration to Medina took place. There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, \"who is the person you love most in the world?\" he responded, \"Aisha.\" Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha's apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque, and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations. They bathed in the same water and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him. There are also various traditions that reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion he would even join them. Additionally, they were close enough that each was able to discern the mood of the other, as many stories relate. It is also important to note that there exists evidence that Muhammad did not view himself as entirely superior to Aisha, at least not enough to prevent Aisha from speaking her mind, even at the risk of angering Muhammad. On one such instance, Muhammad's \"announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed to other men drew from her [Aisha] the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'\" Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship. Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her. Aisha was jealous of Khadija bint Khuwaylid who was the first wife of the Prophet Muhammad, saying, \"I did not feel jealous of any of the wives of the Prophet as much as I did of Khadija though I did not see her, but the Prophet used to mention her very often, and when ever he slaughtered a sheep, he would cut its parts and send them to the women friends of Khadija. When I sometimes said to him, \"(You treat Khadija in such a way) as if there is no woman on earth except Khadija,\" he would say, \"Khadija was such-and-such, and from her I had children.\" Aisha and Prophet Muhammad would often have races with each other, \" I had a race with him (the Prophet) and I outstripped him on my feet. When I became fleshy, (again) I had a race with him (the Prophet) and he outstripped me. He said: This is for that outstripping.\"", "The story of the accusation of adultery levied against Aisha, also known as the Event of Ifk, can be traced to \"sura\" (chapter) \"An-Nur\" of the Qur'an. As the story goes, Aisha left her \"howdah\" in order to search for a missing necklace. Her slaves mounted the \"howdah\" and prepared it for travel without noticing any difference in weight without Aisha's presence. Hence the caravan accidentally departed without her. She remained at the camp until the next morning, when Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal, a nomad and member of Muhammad's army, found her and brought her back to Muhammad at the army's next camp. Rumours that Aisha and Safwan had committed adultery were spread, particularly by Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, Hassan ibn Thabit, Mistah ibn Uthatha and Hammanah bint Jahsh (sister of Zaynab bint Jahsh, another of Muhammad's wives). Usama ibn Zayd, son of Zayd ibn Harithah, defended Aisha's reputation; while Ali ibn Abi Talib advised \"Women are plentiful, and you can easily change one for another.\" Muhammad came to speak directly with Aisha about the rumours. He was still sitting in her house when he announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence. Surah 24 details the Islamic laws and punishment regarding adultery and slander. Aisha's accusers were subjected to punishments of 80 lashes.", "After the daily \"Asr\" prayer, Muhammad would visit each of his wives' apartments to inquire about their well-being. Muhammad was just in the amount of time he spent with them and attention he gave to them. Once, Muhammad's fifth wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, received some honey from a relative which Muhammad took a particular liking to. As a result, every time Zaynab offered some of this honey to him he would spend a longer time in her apartment. This did not sit well with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar. Soon after this event, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the \"occasion of revelation\" for At-Tahrim, which opens with the following verses: Word spread to the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. ‘Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they agreed to \"speak correct and courteous words\" and to focus on the afterlife.", "Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in the arms of Aisha, his most beloved wife.", "After Muhammad's death, which ended Aisha and Muhammad's 14-year-long marriage, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran and the \"sunnah\" of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsa bint Umar and Umm Salama) who memorized the Qur'an. Like Hafsa, Aisha had her own script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death. During Aisha's life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling of women, began. Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam. Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected, or wanted, to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.", "", "After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shia who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr. Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority. Aisha garnered more special privilege in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of \"al-siddiqa bint al-siddiq\", meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man', a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj. In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Prior to his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph. Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.", "After ‘Umar died, ‘Uthmān was chosen to be the third caliph. He wanted to promote the interests of the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with ‘Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise ‘Uthmān, and many are unsure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when ‘Uthmān mistreated ‘Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of Muhammad) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly, saying, \"How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!\". As time continued issues of antipathy towards ‘Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha, after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid idn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other, Uthmān eventually made a comment on why Aisha had come and how she was \"ordered to stay at home\". Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha, and for that matter women, still had the ability to be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split: \"some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had better right than Aisha in such matters\". The caliphate took a turn for the worse when Egypt was governed by Abdullah ibn Saad. Abbott reports that Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa of Egypt, an opponent of ‘Uthmān, forged letters in the Mothers of the Believers' names to the conspirators against ‘Uthmān. The people cut off ‘Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbott notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd \"would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad\". This refers to when Safiyya bint Huyayy (one of Muhammad's wives) tried to help ‘Uthmān and was taken by the crowd. Malik al-Ashtar then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to \"command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām\"; she also claimed she did not write the letters. The city continued to oppose ‘Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. ‘Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because of her influence on the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey.", "In 655, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the First Fitna. After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports. Ali reportedly initially refused the caliphate, agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted. When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha was Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the Banu Umayya. With the funds from the \"Yemeni Treasury\" Aisha set out on a campaign against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali. Aisha, along with an army including Zubayr ibn al-Awam and Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah, confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of Basra. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra. Aisha's forces are also known to have tortured and imprisoned Uthman ibn Hunaif a Sahabi and the governor of Basra appointed by Ali. Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a howdah on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle, considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims. After 110 days of conflict the Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali. Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.", "After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of polygyny, marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsa's fathers, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb, respectively. Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife, Aisha occupied an important position in his life. When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible \"...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women.\" After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory. Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change. According to Reza Aslan: Not only was Aisha supportive of Muhammad, but she contributed scholarly intellect to the development of Islam. She was given the title \"al-Siddiqah\", meaning 'the one who affirms the truth'. Aisha was known for her \"...expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine.\" Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam. After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith. Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran. During Aisha's entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women, especially in law and the teachings of Islam. She was known for establishing the first \"madrasa\" for women in her home. Attending Aisha's classes were various family relatives and orphaned children. Men also attended Aisha's classes, with a simple curtain separating the male and female students.", "Some say that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death. After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher. Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics, however, did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Amongst the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions. Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.", "Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678). She was 67 years old. Some such as Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, Hakim Sanai, and Khwaja Mehboob Qasim Chishti Muhsarafee Qadiri say that she was murdered by Muawiyah. Muhammad's companion Abu Hurairah led her funeral prayer after the \"tahajjud\" (night) prayer, and she was buried at Jannat al-Baqi‘.", "", "Sunnis believe she was Muhammad's favorite wife. They consider her (among other wives) to be \"Umm al-Mu’minin\" and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family. According to Sunni hadith reports, Muhammad saw Aisha in two dreams in which he was shown that he would marry her.", "The Shia view Aisha negatively. They accuse her of hating Ali and defying him during his caliphate in the Battle of the Camel, when she fought men from Ali's army in Basra." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood.", "Adolescence and high school.", "Late teens and early 20s: first murder.", "Murder of Steven Hicks.", "Army service.", "Return to Ohio and relocation to West Allis, Wisconsin.", "Late 20s and early 30s: subsequent murders.", "Ambassador Hotel.", "Intermediate incidents.", "924 North 25th Street.", "1990 killings.", "1991 killings.", "Arrest.", "Capture.", "Confession.", "Indictment.", "Trial.", "Imprisonment.", "Death.", "Aftermath.", "Known murder victims." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Dahmer was born May 21, 1960, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, the first of two sons of Joyce Annette (née Flint), a teletype machine instructor, and Lionel Herbert Dahmer, a Marquette University chemistry student. Lionel Dahmer was of German and Welsh ancestry, and Joyce Dahmer was of Norwegian and Irish ancestry. It has been claimed that Dahmer was deprived of attention as an infant. Other sources, however, suggest that Dahmer was generally doted upon as an infant and toddler by both parents, although his mother was known", "From his freshman year at Revere High School, Dahmer was seen as an outcast. At 14 he began drinking beer and hard alcohol in school; he told a classmate it was his \"medicine\". Although largely uncommunicative, in his freshman year, Dahmer was seen by staff as polite and highly intelligent but with average grades. He was a keen tennis player and played briefly in the high school band. When he reached puberty, Dahmer discovered he was gay; he did not tell his parents. In his early teens, he had brief relationship with another teenage boy, although they never had intercourse. By his later admission, Dahmer began fantasizing about dominating and controlling a completely submissive male partner. These fantasies gradually became intertwined with dissection. When he was about 16, Dahmer conceived a fantasy of rendering unconscious a particular male jogger he found attractive, and then making sexual use of his body. On one occasion Dahmer concealed himself in bushes with a baseball bat to lay in wait for this", "", "Dahmer committed his first murder in 1978, three weeks after his graduation. At the time he was living alone in the family home in Bath. Following their decision to divorce, Lionel temporarily lived in a nearby motel and Joyce had relocated to Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, with his younger brother David. On June 18, Dahmer picked up a hitchhiker named Steven Mark Hicks, who was almost 19. Dahmer lured the youth to his house on the pretext of the two young men drinking alcohol together. Hicks, who had been hitchhiking to a rock concert in Lockwood Corners, agreed to accompany", "Six weeks after the murder of Hicks, Dahmer's father and his fiancée returned to his home, where they discovered Jeffrey living alone at the house. That August, Dahmer enrolled at Ohio State University (OSU), hoping to major in business. Dahmer's sole term at OSU was completely unproductive, largely because of his persistent alcohol abuse throughout the majority of the term. He received failing grades in Introduction to Anthropology, Classical Civilizations, and Administrative Science. The only course Dahmer was successful at was Riflery, having received a B- grade. His overall GPA was 0.45/4.0. On one occasion, Lionel paid a surprise visit to his son, only to find his room strewn with empty liquor bottles. Despite his father having paid in advance for the second term, Dahmer dropped out of OSU after just three months. In January 1979, on his father's urging, Dahmer enlisted in the United States Army, where he trained as a medical specialist at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. On July 13, 1979, he was stationed in Baumholder, West Germany, where he served as", "After his return to Ohio, Dahmer initially resided with his father and stepmother and insisted on being delegated numerous chores to occupy his time while he looked for work. He continued to drink heavily, and two weeks after his return Dahmer was arrested for drunk and disorderly conduct, for which he was fined $60 and given a suspended 10-day jail sentence. Dahmer's father tried unsuccessfully to wean his son off alcohol. In December 1981, he and Dahmer's stepmother sent him to live with his grandmother in West Allis, Wisconsin. Dahmer's grandmother was the only family member to whom he displayed any affection. They hoped that", "", "On November 20, 1987, Dahmer—at the time residing with his grandmother in West Allis—encountered a 25-year-old man from Ontonagon, Michigan, named Steven Tuomi at a bar and persuaded him to return to the Ambassador Hotel in Milwaukee, where Dahmer had rented a room for the evening. According to Dahmer, he had no intention of murdering Tuomi, but rather intended to drug and rape him as he lay unconscious. The following morning, however, he awoke to find Tuomi lying beneath him on the bed, his chest \"crushed in\" and \"black and blue\" with bruises. Blood was also seeping from the corner of his mouth, and Dahmer's fists and one forearm were extensively bruised. Dahmer stated he had no memory of having killed Tuomi,", "Following the murder of Tuomi, Dahmer began to actively seek victims, most of whom he encountered in or close to gay bars, and whom he typically lured to his grandmother's home. There, he drugged them before or shortly after engaging in sexual activity with them. Once he had rendered the victim unconscious with sleeping pills, he killed them by strangulation. Two months after the Tuomi killing, Dahmer encountered a 14-year-old Native American male prostitute named James Doxtator; Dahmer lured the youth to his home with an offer of $50 to pose for nude pictures. At Dahmer's West Allis residence, the pair engaged in sexual activity before Dahmer drugged Doxtator and strangled him on the floor of the cellar. Dahmer left the body in the cellar", "", "On May 14, 1990, Dahmer moved out of his grandmother's house and into 924 North 25th Street, Apartment 213, taking Sears' mummified head and genitals with him. Within one week of his moving into his new apartment, Dahmer had killed his sixth victim, Raymond Smith. Smith was a 32-year-old male prostitute whom Dahmer lured to Apartment 213 with the promise of $50 for sex. Inside the apartment, he gave Smith a drink laced with seven sleeping pills and manually strangled him. The following day, Dahmer purchased a Polaroid camera with which he took several pictures of Smith's body in suggestive positions before dismembering him in the bathroom. He boiled the legs, arms, and pelvis in a steel kettle with Soilex, which allowed him to then rinse the bones in his sink. Dahmer dissolved", "In February 1991, Dahmer observed a 17-year-old named Curtis Straughter standing at a bus stop near Marquette University. According to Dahmer, he lured Straughter into his apartment with an offer of money for posing for nude photos, with the added incentive of sexual intercourse. Dahmer drugged and strangled Straughter with a leather strap, then dismembered him, with Dahmer retaining the youth's skull, hands, and genitals and photographing each stage of the dismemberment process. Less than two months later, on April 7, Dahmer encountered a 19-year-old named Errol Lindsey walking to get a key cut. Lindsey was heterosexual. Dahmer lured Lindsey to his apartment, where he drugged him, drilled a hole in his skull and poured hydrochloric acid into it. According to Dahmer, Lindsey awoke after this experiment (which Dahmer had conceived in the hope of inducing a permanent, unresistant, submissive state), saying: \"I have a headache. What time is it?\" In response to this, Dahmer again drugged Lindsey, then strangled him. He decapitated Lindsey and retained his skull; he then flayed Lindsey's body, placing the skin in a solution of cold water and salt for several weeks in the hope of permanently retaining it. Reluctantly, he disposed of Lindsey's skin when he noted it had become too frayed and brittle. By 1991, fellow residents of the Oxford Apartments had repeatedly complained to the building's manager, Sopa Princewill, of the foul smells emanating from Apartment 213, in addition to the sounds of falling objects and the occasional sound of a chainsaw. Princewill did contact Dahmer in response to these complaints on several occasions, although he initially excused the odors emanating from his apartment as being caused by his freezer breaking, causing the contents to become \"spoiled\". On later occasions, he informed Princewill that the reason for the resurgence of the odor was that several of his tropical fish had recently died, and that he would take care of the matter. On the afternoon of May 26, 1991, Dahmer encountered a 14-year-old named Konerak Sinthasomphone on Wisconsin Avenue. By coincidence, Sinthasomphone was the younger brother of the boy whom Dahmer had molested in 1988. He approached the youth with an offer of money to accompany him to his apartment to pose for Polaroid pictures. According to Dahmer, Sinthasomphone was initially reluctant to the proposal, before changing his mind and accompanying Dahmer to his apartment, where the youth posed for two pictures in his underwear before Dahmer drugged him into unconsciousness and performed oral sex on him. On this occasion, Dahmer drilled a single hole into Sinthasomphone's skull, through which he injected hydrochloric acid into the frontal lobe. Before Sinthasomphone fell unconscious, Dahmer led the boy into his bedroom, where the body of 31-year-old Tony Hughes, whom Dahmer had killed three days earlier, lay naked on the floor. According to Dahmer, he \"believed [that Sinthasomphone] saw this body,\" yet did not react to seeing the bloated corpse—likely because of the effects of", "", "On July 22, 1991, Dahmer approached three men with an offer of $100 to accompany him to his apartment to pose for nude photographs, drink beer and simply keep him company. One of the trio, 32-year-old Tracy Edwards, agreed to accompany him to his apartment. Upon entering Dahmer's apartment, Edwards noted a foul odor and several boxes of hydrochloric acid on the floor, which Dahmer claimed to use for cleaning bricks. After some minor conversation, Edwards responded to Dahmer's request to turn his head and view his tropical fish, whereupon Dahmer placed a handcuff upon his wrist. When Edwards asked, \"What's happening?\" Dahmer unsuccessfully attempted to cuff his wrists together, then told Edwards to accompany him to the bedroom to pose for nude pictures. While inside the bedroom, Edwards noted nude male posters on the wall and that a videotape of \"The Exorcist III\" was playing; he also noted a blue 57-gallon drum in the", "Beginning in the early hours of July 23, 1991, Dahmer was questioned by Detective Patrick Kennedy as to the murders he had committed and the evidence found at his apartment. Over the following two weeks, Kennedy and, later, Detective Patrick Murphy conducted numerous interviews with Dahmer which, when combined, totalled over 60 hours. Dahmer waived his right to have a lawyer present throughout his interrogations, adding he wished to confess all as he had \"created this horror and it only makes sense I do everything to put an end to it.\" He readily admitted to having murdered 16 young men in Wisconsin since 1987, with", "On July 25, 1991, Dahmer was charged with four counts of first-degree murder. By August 22, he had been charged with a further 11 murders committed in Wisconsin. On September 14, investigators in Ohio, having uncovered hundreds of bone fragments in woodland behind the address in which Dahmer had confessed to killing his first victim, formally identified two molars and a vertebra with X-ray", "Dahmer's trial began on January 30, 1992. He was tried in Milwaukee for the 15 counts of first-degree murder before Judge Laurence Gram. By pleading guilty on January 13 to the charges brought against him, Dahmer had waived his rights to an initial trial to establish guilt (as defined in Wisconsin law). The issue debated by opposing counsels at Dahmer's trial was to determine whether he suffered from either a mental or a personality disorder: the prosecution claiming that any disorders did not deprive Dahmer of the ability to appreciate the criminality of his conduct or to deprive him of the ability to resist his impulses; the defense arguing that Dahmer suffered from a mental disease and was driven by obsessions and impulses he was unable to control. Defense experts argued that Dahmer was insane due to his necrophilic drive – his compulsion to have sexual encounters with corpses. Defense expert Dr. Fred Berlin testified that Dahmer was unable to conform his conduct at the time that he committed the crimes because he was suffering from paraphilia or, more specifically, necrophilia.", "Upon sentencing, Dahmer was transferred to the Columbia Correctional Institution. For the first year of his incarceration, Dahmer was placed in solitary confinement due to concerns for his physical safety should he come into contact with fellow inmates. With Dahmer's consent, after one year in solitary confinement, he was transferred to a less secure unit, where he was assigned a two-hour daily work detail cleaning the toilet block. Shortly after completing his lengthy confessions in 1991, Dahmer had requested to Detective Murphy that he be given a copy of the Bible. This request was granted and Dahmer gradually devoted himself to Christianity and became a born-again Christian. On his father's urging, he also read creationist books from the Institute for Creation Research. In May 1994, Dahmer was baptized by Roy Ratcliff, a minister in the Church of Christ and a graduate of Oklahoma Christian University, in the prison whirlpool. Following his baptism, Ratcliff visited Dahmer on a weekly basis up until November 1994. Dahmer and Ratcliff regularly discussed the prospect of death, and Dahmer questioned whether he was sinning against God by continuing to live. Referring to his crimes in a 1994 interview with Stone Phillips on \"Dateline NBC\", Dahmer had stated: \"If a person doesn't think that there is a God to be accountable to, then what's the point of trying to modify your behavior to keep it within acceptable ranges? That's how I thought anyway.\" In July 1994, a fellow inmate, Osvaldo Durruthy, attempted to slash Dahmer's throat with a razor embedded in a toothbrush as Dahmer returned to his cell from Ratcliff's weekly church service conducted in the prison chapel. Dahmer received superficial wounds and was not seriously hurt in this incident. According to Dahmer's family, he had long been ready to die, and accepted any punishment which he might endure in prison. In addition to his father and stepmother maintaining regular contact, Dahmer's mother, Joyce, also maintained regular contact with her son (although prior to his arrest, the two had not seen each other since Christmas 1983). Joyce related that in her weekly phone calls, whenever she expressed concerns for her son's physical well-being, Dahmer responded with comments to the effect of: \"It doesn't matter, Mom. I don't care if something happens to me.\"", "On the morning of November 28, 1994, Dahmer left his cell to conduct his assigned work detail. Accompanying him were two fellow inmates: Jesse Anderson and Christopher Scarver. The trio were left unsupervised in the showers of the prison gym for approximately 20 minutes. At approximately 8:10 a.m. Dahmer was discovered on the floor of the bathrooms of the gym suffering from extreme head and facial wounds; he had been severely bludgeoned about the head and face with a 20-inch (51 cm) metal bar. His head had also been repeatedly struck against the wall in the assault. Although Dahmer was", "On August 5, 1991, as the nature and scale of Dahmer's crimes initially came to light, a candlelight vigil to celebrate and heal the Milwaukee community was attended by more than 400 people. Present at the vigil were community leaders, gay rights activists, and family members of several of Dahmer's victims. Organizers stated the purpose of the vigil was to enable Milwaukeeans to \"share their feelings of pain and anger over what happened\". The Oxford Apartments at 924 North 25th Street, where Dahmer had killed twelve of his victims, were demolished in November 1992. The site is now a vacant lot. Alternate plans to convert the site into either a memorial garden, a playground, or to reconstruct new housing have failed to materialize. Dahmer's estate was awarded to the families of 11 of his victims who had sued for damages. In 1996, Thomas Jacobson, a lawyer representing eight of the families,", "Jeffrey Dahmer is known to have killed 17 young men between 1978 and 1991. Of these victims, 12 were killed in his North 25th Street apartment. Three further victims were murdered and dismembered at his grandmother's West Allis residence, with his first and second victims being murdered at his parents' home in Ohio, and at the Ambassador Hotel in Milwaukee respectively. A total of 14 of Dahmer's victims were from various ethnic minority backgrounds, with nine victims being black. Dahmer was adamant that the race of his victims was incidental to him and that it was the body form of a potential victim that attracted his attention. Most of Dahmer's victims were killed by strangulation after being drugged with sedatives, although his first victim was killed by a combination of bludgeoning and strangulation and his second victim was battered to death, with one further victim killed in 1990, Ernest Miller, dying of a combination of shock and blood loss due to his carotid artery being cut. Many of Dahmer's victims killed in 1991 had holes bored into their skulls through which Dahmer injected hydrochloric acid or, later, boiling water, directly into the brain in an attempt to induce a permanent, submissive, unresistant state. On at least three occasions, this proved fatal although on none of these occasions was this Dahmer's intention." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Life as a bootlegger.", "Bootleggers divide Chicago.", "Murder of John Duffy.", "The Sieben Brewery Raid.", "O'Banion and the Tommy Gun.", "Death.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "O'Banion was born to Irish Catholic parents in the small town of Maroa in Central Illinois. The O'Banion family moved to Aurora, Illinois, when Dean was a small child. In 1901, after his mother's death, he moved to Chicago with his father and older brother (a sister, Ruth, remained in Maroa). The family settled in Kilgubbin, otherwise known as, \"Little Hell,\" a heavily Irish area on the North Side of Chicago that was notorious citywide for its crime. As a youngster, \"Deanie,\" as he became known, sang in the church choir at Chicago's Holy Name Cathedral. However, neither music nor religion held O'Banion's interest; instead the street life of Kilgubbin caught his eye. An early nickname for O'Banion was \"Gimpy\" due to his short left leg, but few people had enough nerve to call him that. The shorter leg was said to be the result of a childhood streetcar accident. O'Banion and his friends (Earl \"Hymie\" Weiss, Vincent \"The Schemer\" Drucci, and George \"Bugs\" Moran) joined the Market Street Gang, which specialized in theft and robbery for Chicago's black market. The boys later became \"sluggers,\" thugs hired by a newspaper to beat newsstand owners who did not sell the paper. The Market Street Gang started out working for the \"Chicago Tribune\". However, they later switched to the rival \"Chicago Examiner\" due to a more attractive offer from newspaper boss Moses Annenberg. Through Annenberg, the gang met safecracker Charles \"The Ox\" Reiser, who taught them his trade. In 1909, O'Banion was arrested first for safecracking and then for assault. These were the only times O'Banion ever spent in a correctional institution. O'Banion worked as a waiter at McGovern's Liberty Inn, where each evening he would delight patrons with his beautiful Irish tenor voice as his pals were picking pockets in the coatroom. O'Banion also drugged his patrons' drinks, known then as \"slipping them a Mickey Finn.\" When the drunk patrons left the club, O'Banion and his pals would rob them. The gang also met the political bosses of the 42nd and 43rd wards through Annenberg; their job was to use violence to help steer the outcome of elections.", "With the onset of Prohibition in 1920, O'Banion started a bootlegging operation. He arranged for beer suppliers in Canada to start shipments immediately, and also struck deals with whiskey and gin distributors. O'Banion pioneered Chicago's first liquor hijacking on December 19, 1921. He and the \"lads of Kilgubbin\" quickly eliminated all their competition. The O'Banion mob, known as the North Side Gang, now ruled the North Side and the Gold Coast, the wealthy area of Chicago situated on the northern lakefront of Lake Michigan. As O'Banion's name grew in the underworld, he attracted more followers, including Samuel \"Nails\" Morton, Louis \"Two Gun\" Alterie, and \"Handsome\" Dan McCarthy. At the height of his power, O'Banion was supposedly making about $1 million a year from liquor. During one famous caper, O'Banion and his men stole over $100,000 worth of Canadian whiskey from the West Side railroad yards. In another famous robbery, O'Banion looted the padlocked Sibly Distillery and walked off with 1,750 barrels of bonded whiskey. In 1921, O'Banion married Viola Kaniff and bought an interest in William Schofield's flower shop in the River North area, near the corner of West Chicago Avenue and North State Street (now a parking lot). He needed a legitimate front for his criminal operations; in addition, he was fond of flowers and was an excellent arranger. Schofield's became the florist of choice for mob funerals. The shop happened to be directly across the street from Holy Name Cathedral, where he and Weiss attended Mass. The rooms above Schofield's were used as the headquarters for the North Side Gang.", "In 1920, \"Papa\" Johnny Torrio, the head of the predominantly Italian South Side mob (later known as the Chicago Outfit), and his lieutenant, Al Capone, met with all the Chicago bootleggers to work out a system of territories. It was beneficial to everyone to avoid bloody turf battles. In addition, the gangsters were able to pool their political power and their soldiers in the streets. O'Banion accepted the agreement and was ceded control of the North Side, including the desirable Gold Coast. The North Siders now became part of a huge Chicago area bootlegging combine. O'Banion lived with Torrio's deal for about three years before becoming dissatisfied with it. Since a recent election in neighboring Cicero, Illinois, the city had become a gold mine for the South Siders and O'Banion wanted a cut of it. To placate him, Torrio granted O'Banion some of Cicero's beer rights and a quarter-interest in a casino called The Ship. The enterprising O'Banion then convinced a number of speakeasies in other Chicago territories to move to his strip in Cicero. This move had the potential to start a bootleg war. Torrio attempted to convince O'Banion to abandon his plan in exchange for some South Side brothel proceeds. O'Banion angrily refused, as he abhorred prostitution. Meanwhile, the Genna Brothers, who controlled Little Italy west of The Loop (Chicago's downtown region), began marketing their whiskey in the North Side, O'Banion's territory. O'Banion complained about the Gennas to Torrio, but Torrio did nothing. Not one to back down, O'Banion started hijacking Genna liquor shipments. The Gennas decided to murder O'Banion; however, as the Genna family was Sicilian, it owed fealty to the Unione Siciliana, a mutual benefit society for Sicilian immigrants and front organization for the Mafia. They appealed to Mike Merlo, the president of the Chicago branch of the Unione; however, Merlo disliked violence and refused to sanction the hit.", "Meanwhile, O'Banion continued on the offensive. In February 1924, he moved against his South Side rivals by unsuccessfully trying to frame Torrio and Capone for the murder of North Side hanger-on John Duffy, a gun for hire from Philadelphia. Duffy, following a violent drunken argument, had smothered his bride Maybelle Exley with a pillow while she slept (although other sources claim Duffy shot her twice in the head). When he awoke the following morning, he panicked and called a friend, asking for a car and money to get out of town. He was soon contacted by O'Banion, who agreed to help him. He told Duffy to meet him at the Four Deuces, a South Wabash club run by the Torrio-Capone organization. At the club, several eyewitnesses reported seeing Duffy being picked up around 8:00 pm in a Studebaker by O'Banion and an unidentified man. Duffy's body was later found in a snowbank outside Chicago; he had been shot three times in the head with a.38 caliber pistol. Another witness later told police that he saw O'Banion and two other men dump Duffy's body, but he later retracted his statement. As Duffy had been last seen at the Four Deuces, suspicion logically focused on club manager Al Capone. The subsequent investigation brought unwanted attention from law enforcement on the club, as it was a source of illegal gambling, prostitution and bootlegging. When police started to view O'Banion as a possible suspect, the gang leader told reporters: \"The police don't have to look for me, I'll go and look for them. I'll be at the state's attorney's office at 2:30 PM Monday afternoon... I can tell the state's attorney anything he wants to know about me. Whatever happened to Duffy is out of my line. I don't mix with that kind of riffraff.\" Police officials were never able to gather enough evidence to charge O'Banion with Duffy's murder. They theorized that O'Banion and two accomplices drove Duffy to a remote woodland area. Stopping on Nottingham Road, Duffy and O'Banion got out of the car to relieve themselves. At that point, O'Banion stood behind the unsuspecting Duffy and shot him in the back of the head. O'Banion then shot Duffy twice more before dumping his body in the snowbank. Police think that O'Banion killed Duffy because he wanted to avoid a highly publicized investigation into the murder of Duffy's wife. By meeting Duffy at a Chicago Outfit club and taking Duffy for \"a one way ride\", he hoped to shift blame for Duffy's murder onto Torrio and Capone.", "The last straw for Torrio was O'Banion's treachery in the Sieben Brewery raid. Both O'Banion and Torrio held large stakes in the Sieben brewery in Chicago. In May, 1924, O'Banion learned that the police were planning to raid the brewery on a particular night. Before the raid, O'Banion approached Torrio and told him he wanted to sell his share in the brewery, claiming that the Gennas scared him and he wanted to leave the rackets. Torrio agreed to buy O'Banion's share and gave him half a million dollars. On the night of O'Banion's last shipment, the police swept into the brewery. O'Banion, Torrio, and numerous South Side gangsters were arrested. O'Banion got off easily because, unlike Torrio, he had no previous Prohibition-related arrests. Torrio had to bail out himself and six associates, plus face later court charges with the possibility of jail time. O'Banion also refused to return the money Torrio had given him in the deal. Torrio soon realized he had been double-crossed. He had lost the brewery and $500,000 in cash ($6.9 Million in 2015 dollars), had been indicted and had been humiliated. Nevertheless, Torrio was willing to overlook this insult in order to maintain peace in the Chicago underworld, until O'Banion himself made the situation irretrievable later that year.", "During the summer of 1924, O'Banion and his wife Viola took a long vacation at the Colorado dude ranch of his henchman Louis Alterie. On his way back to Chicago, O'Banion purchased a large supply of weapons in Denver, including three Thompson submachine guns, or \"baby machine guns\", as they were referred to in a local newspaper. (At the time, the manufacturer, the Auto-Ordnance Company, was advertising the weapon to ranchers as a means of dealing with animal predators, which clearly brought it to the attention of O'Banion.) O'Banion was murdered soon after his return to Chicago, before he had a chance to use his new Thompsons on any of his enemies. It is believed that one of O'Banion's machine guns eventually found its way to South Side gunman Frank McErlane, who along with his boss Joe Saltis had formed a secret alliance with the North Side Gang. McErlane used this Thompson in an unsuccessful attempt to kill Spike O'Donnell in September 1925 in what is believed to have been the first recorded use of a \"Tommy Gun\" in Chicago's history.", "On November 3, 1924, Dean O'Banion made a telephone call to arch-rival Angelo Genna that became heated. Their disagreement concerned a debt Genna had incurred at The Ship, the casino that the North Side gang boss owned along with the Torrio Syndicate. As O'Banion had sat in with Al Capone, Frank Nitti, Frank Rio, and others to tally the week's profits, it was mentioned that Angelo Genna had bet a large amount of cash, plus a sizable marker. Capone recommended that they cancel the marker as a professional courtesy. O'Banion, instead, spoke to Genna on the telephone and abusively demanded that he pay his debt within a week. With this insult, Angelo Genna and his family could no longer be restrained. Until then, Mike Merlo and the Unione Siciliana had refused to sanction a hit on O'Banion. However, Merlo had terminal cancer and died on November 8, 1924. With Merlo gone, the Gennas and South Siders were free to move on O'Banion. Using the Merlo funeral as a cover story, over the next few days Brooklyn gangster Frankie Yale and others visited Schofield's, O'Banion's flower shop, to discuss floral arrangements. However, the real purpose of these visits was to memorize the store layout for the hit on O'Banion. On the morning of November 10, 1924, O'Banion was clipping chrysanthemums in Schofield's' back room. Yale entered the shop with Genna gunmen John Scalise and Albert Anselmi. When O'Banion and Yale shook hands, Yale grasped O'Banion's hand in a tight grip. At the same time, Scalise and Anselmi stepped aside and fired two bullets into O'Banion's chest and two into his throat. One of the killers fired a final shot into the back of his head as he lay face down on the floor. Since O'Banion was a major crime figure, the Catholic Church denied him burial in consecrated ground. A priest O'Banion had known since childhood recited the Lord's Prayer and three Hail Marys in his memory. O'Banion received a lavish funeral, much larger than the Merlo funeral the day before. He was buried in Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois, four blocks west of his flower shop. O'Banion was originally interred in unconsecrated ground, but his family persevered and he was later reburied in consecrated ground elsewhere in the cemetery. The O'Banion killing sparked a brutal five-year gang war between the North Side Gang and the Chicago Outfit that culminated in the killing of seven North Side gang members in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre in 1929.", "In the early years of the \"Public Enemy\" era, Dean O'Banion and other Irish mobsters of the previous decade served as the basis for many gangster films of the 1930s. James Cagney, for example, based his character on O'Banion and his lieutenant Earl \"Hymie\" Weiss in the 1931 film \"The Public Enemy\". Seasons 3 and 4 of the HBO series \"Boardwalk Empire\" featured a fictional version of O'Banion, portrayed by Arron Shiver." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Education.", "Career and research.", "Statement on scientific discovery.", "Involvement in politics.", "Personal life.", "Death and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Szent-Györgyi was born in Budapest, Kingdom of Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Empire, in 1893. His father, Miklós Szent-Györgyi, was a landowner, born in Marosvásárhely, Transylvania (today Târgu Mureş, Romania), a Calvinist, and could trace his ancestry back to 1608 when Sámuel, a Calvinist predicant, was ennobled. At the time of Szent-Györgyi's birth, being of the nobility was considered important and created opportunities that otherwise were not available. (Miklós Szent-Györgyi's parents were Imre Szent-Györgyi and Mária Csiky). His mother, Jozefina, a Roman Catholic, was a daughter of József Lenhossék and Anna Bossányi. Jozefina was a sister of Mihály Lenhossék; both of these men were Professors of Anatomy at the Eötvös Loránd University. His family included three generations of scientists. Music was important in the Lenhossék family. His mother Jozefina prepared to become an opera singer and auditioned for Gustav Mahler, then a conductor at the Budapest Opera. He advised her to marry instead, since her voice was not enough. Albert himself was good at the piano, while his brother Pál became a professional violinist.", "Szent-Györgyi began his studies at the Semmelweis University in 1911, then began research in his uncle's anatomy lab. His studies were interrupted in 1914 to serve as an army medic in World War I. In 1916, disgusted with the war, Szent-Györgyi shot himself in the arm, claimed to be wounded from enemy fire, and was sent home on medical leave. He was then able to finish his medical education and received his MD in 1917. He married Kornélia Demény, the daughter of the Hungarian Postmaster General, that same year. After the war, Szent-Györgyi began his research career in Bratislava. He switched universities several times over the next few years, finally ending up at the University of Groningen, where his work focused on the chemistry of cellular respiration. This work landed him a position as a Rockefeller Foundation fellow at the University of Cambridge. He received his PhD from the University of Cambridge in 1929 where he was a student at Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge. His research involved isolating an organic acid, which he then called \"hexuronic acid\", from adrenal gland tissue.", "He accepted a position at the University of Szeged in 1930. There, Szent-Györgyi and his research fellow Joseph Svirbely found that \"hexuronic acid\" was actually the thus far unidentified antiscorbutic factor, known as vitamin C. After Walter Norman Haworth had determined the structure of vitamin C, and in honour of its antiscorbutic properties, it was given the formal chemical name of L-ascorbic acid. In some experiments they used paprika as the source for their vitamin C. Also during this time, Szent-Györgyi continued his work on cellular respiration, identifying fumaric acid and other steps in what would become known as the Krebs cycle. In Szeged he also met Zoltán Bay, physicist, who became his personal friend and partner in research on matters of bio-physics. In 1937, he received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine \"for his discoveries in connection with the biological combustion process with special reference to vitamin C and the catalysis of fumaric acid\". Albert Szent-Györgyi offered all of his Nobel prize money to Finland in 1940. (The Hungarian Volunteers in the Winter War travelled to fight for the Finns after the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939.) In 1938, he began work on the biophysics of muscle movement. He found that muscles contain actin, which when combined with the protein myosin and the energy source ATP, contract muscle fibers. In 1946, Albert received the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. In 1947, Szent-Györgyi established the Institute for Muscle Research at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, Massachusetts with financial support from Hungarian businessman Stephen Rath. However, Szent-Györgyi still faced funding difficulties for several years, due to his foreign status and former association with the government of a Communist nation. In 1948, he received a research position with the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in Bethesda, Maryland and began dividing his time between there and Woods Hole. In 1950, grants from the Armour Meat Company and the American Heart Association allowed him to establish the Institute for Muscle Research. During the 1950s, Szent-Györgyi began using electron microscopes to study muscles at the subunit level. He received the Lasker Award in 1954. In 1955, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He was elected a Member of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 1956. In the late 1950s, Szent-Györgyi developed a research interest in cancer and developed ideas on applying the theories of quantum mechanics to the biochemistry (quantum biology) of cancer. The death of Rath, who had acted as the financial administrator of the Institute for Muscle Research, left Szent-Györgyi in a financial mess. Szent-Györgyi refused to submit government grants which required him to provide minute details on exactly how he intended to spend the research dollars and what he expected to find. After Szent-Györgyi commented on his financial hardships in a 1971 newspaper interview, attorney Franklin Salisbury contacted him and later helped him establish a private nonprofit organization, the National Foundation for Cancer Research. Late in life, Szent-Györgyi began to pursue free radicals as a potential cause of cancer. He came to see cancer as being ultimately an electronic problem at the molecular level. In 1974, reflecting his interests in quantum physics, he proposed the term \"syntropy\" replace the term \"negentropy\". Ralph Moss, a protégé of his in the years he performed his cancer research, wrote a biography entitled: \"Free Radical: Albert Szent-Gyorgyi and the Battle over Vitamin C\",, (1988), Paragon House Publishers, New York. Aspects of this work are an important precursor to what is now dubbed redox signaling.", "Albert Szent-Györgyi, who realized that \"a discovery must be, by definition, at variance with existing knowledge,\" divided scientists into two categories: the Apollonians and the Dionysians. He called scientific dissenters, who explored \"the fringes of knowledge,\" Dionysians. He wrote, \"In science the Apollonian tends to develop established lines to perfection, while the Dionysian rather relies on intuition and is more likely to open new, unexpected alleys for research...The future of mankind depends on the progress of science, and the progress of science depends on the support it can find. Support mostly takes the form of grants, and the present methods of distributing grants unduly favor the Apollonian.\"", "As the government of Gyula Gömbös and the associated Hungarian National Defence Association gained control of politics in Hungary, Szent-Györgyi helped his Jewish friends escape from the country. During World War II, he joined the Hungarian resistance movement. Although Hungary was allied with the Axis Powers, the Hungarian prime minister Miklós Kállay sent Szent-Györgyi to Istanbul in 1944 under the guise of a scientific lecture to begin secret negotiations with the Allies. The Germans learned of this plot and Adolf Hitler himself issued a warrant for the arrest of Szent-Györgyi. He escaped from house arrest and spent 1944 to 1945 as a fugitive from the Gestapo. After the war, Szent-Györgyi had become well-recognized as a public figure and there was some speculation that he might become President of Hungary, should the Soviets permit it. Szent-Györgyi established a laboratory at the University of Budapest and became head of the biochemistry department there. He was elected a member of Parliament and helped re-establish the Academy of Sciences. Dissatisfied with the Communist rule of Hungary, he emigrated to the United States in 1947. In 1967, Szent-Györgyi signed a letter declaring his intention to refuse to pay taxes as a means of protesting against the U.S. war against Vietnam, and urging other people to take a similar stand.", "He married Cornelia Demény, daughter of the Hungarian Postmaster-General, in 1917. Their daughter, Cornelia Szent-Györgyi, was born in 1918. He and Cornelia divorced in 1941. In 1941, he wed Marta Borbiro Miskolczy. She died of cancer in 1963. Szent-Györgyi married June Susan Wichterman, the 25-year-old daughter of Woods Hole biologist Ralph Wichterman, in 1965. They were divorced in 1968. He married his fourth wife, Marcia Houston, in 1975. They adopted a daughter, Lola von Szent-Györgyi.", "Szent-Györgyi died in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, US, on October 22, 1986. He was honored with a Google Doodle September 16, 2011, 118 years after his birth. In 2004, nine interviews were conducted with family, colleagues, and others to create a Szent-Györgyi oral history collection." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Inspiration.", "Filming.", "Coloring.", "Music.", "Style.", "Themes.", "Release.", "Reception.", "Rediscovery.", "Black-and-white print.", "Hand-colored print.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "At a meeting of the Astronomy Club, its president, Professor Barbenfouillis, proposes an expedition to the Moon. After addressing some dissent, five other brave astronomers—Nostradamus, Alcofrisbas, Omega, Micromegas, and Parafaragaramus—agree to the plan. They build a space capsule in the shape of a bullet, and a huge cannon to shoot it into space. The astronomers embark and their capsule is fired from the cannon with the help of \"marines\", most of whom are played by a bevy of young women in sailors' outfits. The Man in the Moon watches the capsule as it approaches, and it hits him in the eye. Landing safely on the Moon, the astronomers get out of the capsule without the need of space suits and watch the Earth rise in the distance. Exhausted by their journey, they unroll their blankets and sleep. As they sleep, a comet passes, the Big Dipper appears with human faces peering out of each star, old Saturn leans out of a window in his ringed planet, and Phoebe,", "When \"A Trip to the Moon\" was made, film actors performed anonymously and no credits were given;", "", "When asked in 1930 what inspired him for \"A Trip to the Moon\", Méliès credited Jules Verne's novels \"From the Earth to the Moon\" (1865) and \"Around the Moon\" (1870). Cinema historians, the mid-20th-century French writer Georges Sadoul first among them, have frequently suggested H. G. Wells's \"The First Men in the Moon\" (1901), a French translation of which was published a few months before Méliès made the film, as another likely influence. Sadoul argued that the first half of the film (up to the shooting of the projectile) is derived from Verne and that the second half, the travellers' adventures on and in the Moon, is derived from Wells. In addition to these", "As the science writer Ron Miller notes, \"A Trip to the Moon\" was one of the most complex films that Méliès had made, and employed \"every trick he had learned or invented\". It was his longest film at the time; both the budget and filming duration were unusually lavish, costing 10,000 to make and taking three months to complete. The camera operators were Théophile Michault and Lucien Tainguy, who worked on a daily basis with Méliès as salaried employees for the Star Film Company. In addition to their work as cameramen, Méliès's operators also did odd jobs for the company such as developing film and helping to set up scenery, and another salaried operator,", "As with at least 4% of Méliès's output (including major films such as \"The Kingdom of the Fairies\", \"The Impossible Voyage\", and \"The Barber of Seville\"), some prints of \"A Trip to the Moon\" were individually hand-colored by Elisabeth Thuillier's coloring lab in Paris.", "Though Méliès's films were silent, they were not intended to be seen silently; exhibitors often used a \"bonimenteur\", or narrator, to explain the story as it unfolded on the screen, accompanied by sound effects and live music. Méliès himself took considerable interest in musical accompaniment for his films, and prepared special film scores for several of them, including \"The Kingdom of the Fairies\" and \"The Barber of Seville\". However, Méliès never required a specific musical score to be used with any film, allowing exhibitors freedom to choose whatever accompaniment they felt most suitable. When the film was screened", "The film's style, like that of most of Méliès's other films, is deliberately theatrical. The stage set is highly stylized, recalling the traditions of the 19th-century stage, and is filmed by a stationary camera, placed to evoke the perspective of an audience member sitting in a theatre. This stylistic choice was one of Méliès's first and biggest innovations. Although he had initially followed the popular trend of the time by making mainly actuality films (short \"slice of life\" documentary films capturing actual scenes and events for the camera), in his first few years of filming Méliès gradually moved into the far less common genre of fictional narrative films, which he called his \"scènes composées\" or \"artificially arranged scenes.\" The new genre was extensively influenced by Méliès's experience in theatre and magic, especially his familiarity with the popular French \"féerie\" stage tradition, known for their fantasy plots and spectacular visuals, including lavish scenery and mechanically worked stage effects. In an advertisement he proudly described the difference between his innovative films and the actualities still being made by his contemporaries: \"these fantastic and artistic films reproduce stage scenes and create a new genre entirely different from the ordinary cinematographic views of real people and real streets.\" Because \"A Trip to the Moon\" preceded the development of narrative film editing by filmmakers such as Edwin S. Porter and D. W. Griffith, it does not use the cinematic vocabulary to which American and European", "With its pioneering use of themes of scientific ambition and discovery, \"A Trip to the Moon\" is sometimes described as the first science fiction film. \"A Short History of Film\" argues that it codified \"many of the basic generic situations that are still used in science fiction films today\". However, several other genre designations are possible; Méliès himself advertised the film as a \"pièce à grand spectacle\", a term referring to a type of spectacular Parisian stage extravaganza popularized by Jules Verne and Adolphe d'Ennery in the second half of the nineteenth century. Richard Abel describes the film as belonging to the \"féerie\" genre, as does Frank Kessler. It can also be described simply as a trick film, a catch-all term for the popular early film genre of innovative, special-effects-filled shorts—a genre Méliès himself had codified and popularized in his earlier works. \"A Trip to the Moon\" is highly satirical in tone, poking fun at nineteenth-century science by exaggerating it in the format of an adventure story. The film makes no pretense whatsoever to be scientifically plausible; the real waves in the splashdown scene", "Méliès, who had begun \"A Trip to the Moon\" in May 1902, finished the film in August of that year and began selling prints to French distributors in the same month. From September through December 1902, a hand-colored print of \"A Trip to the Moon\" was screened at Méliès's Théâtre Robert-Houdin in Paris. The film was shown after Saturday and Thursday matinee performances by Méliès's colleague and fellow magician, Jules-Eugène Legris, who appeared as the leader of the parade in the two final scenes. Méliès sold black-and-white and color prints of the film through his Star Film Company, where the film was assigned the catalogue number 399–411 and given the descriptive subtitle \"Pièce à grand spectacle en 30 tableaux\". In France, black-and-white prints sold for 560, and hand-colored prints for 1,000. Méliès also sold the film indirectly through Charles Urban's Warwick Trading Company in London. Many circumstances surrounding the film—including its unusual budget, length, and production time, as well as its similarities to the 1901 New York attraction—indicate that Méliès was especially keen to release the film in the United States. Because of rampant film piracy, Méliès never received most of the profits of the popular film. One account reports that Méliès sold a print of the film to the Paris photographer Charles Gerschel for use in an Algiers theatre, under strict stipulation that the print only", "According to Méliès's memoirs, his initial attempts to sell \"A Trip to the Moon\" to French fairground exhibitors met with failure because of the film's unusually high price. Finally, Méliès offered to let one such exhibitor borrow a print of the film to screen for free. The applause from the very first showing was so enthusiastic that fairgoers kept the theatre packed until midnight. The exhibitor bought the film immediately, and when he was reminded of his initial reluctance he even offered to add 200 to compensate \"for [Méliès's] inconvenience.\" The film was a pronounced success in France, running uninterrupted at the Olympia music hall in Paris for several months. \"A Trip to the Moon\" was met", "", "After Méliès's financial difficulties and decline, most copies of his prints were lost. In 1917, his offices were occupied by the French military, who melted down many of Méliès's films to gather the traces of silver from the film stock and make boot heels from the celluloid. When the Théâtre Robert-Houdin was demolished in 1923, the prints kept there were sold by weight to a vendor of second-hand film. Finally, in that same year, Méliès had a moment of anger and burned all his remaining negatives in his garden in Montreuil. In 1925, he began selling toys and candy from a stand in the Gare Montparnasse in Paris. \"A Trip to the Moon\" was largely forgotten to history and went unseen for years. Thanks to the efforts of film history devotées, especially René Clair,, and Paul Gilson, Méliès and his work were rediscovered in the late 1920s. A \"Gala Méliès\" was held at the Salle Pleyel in Paris on", "No hand-colored prints of \"A Trip to the Moon\" were known to survive until 1993, when one was given to the Filmoteca de Catalunya by an anonymous donor as part of a collection of two hundred silent films. It is unknown whether this version, a hand-colored print struck from a second-generation negative, was colored by Elisabeth Thuillier's lab, but the perforations used imply that the copy was made before 1906. The flag waved during the launching scene in this copy is colored to resemble the flag of Spain, indicating that the hand-colored copy was made for a Spanish exhibitor. In 1999, Anton Gimenez of the Filmoteca de Catalunya mentioned the existence of this print, which he believed to be in a state of total decomposition, to Serge Bromberg and Eric Lange of the French film company Lobster Films. Bromberg and Lange offered to trade a recently rediscovered film by Segundo de Chomón for the hand-colored print, and Gimenez accepted. Bromberg and Lange consulted various specialist laboratories in an", "As \"A Short History of Film\" notes, \"A Trip to the Moon\" combined \"spectacle, sensation, and technical wizardry to create a cosmic fantasy that was an international sensation.\" It was profoundly influential on later filmmakers, bringing creativity to the cinematic medium and offering fantasy for pure entertainment, a rare goal in film at the time. In addition, Méliès's innovative editing and special effects techniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium. The film also spurred on the development of cinematic science fiction and fantasy by demonstrating that scientific themes worked on the screen and that reality could be transformed by the camera. In a 1940 interview, Edwin S. Porter said that it was by seeing \"A Trip to the Moon\" and other Méliès films that he \"came to the conclusion that a picture telling a story might draw the customers back to the theatres, and set to work in this direction.\" Similarly, D. W. Griffith said simply of Méliès: \"I owe him everything.\" Since these American directors are widely credited with developing modern film narrative technique, the literary and film scholar Edward Wagenknecht once summed up Méliès's importance to film history by commenting that Méliès \"profoundly influenced both Porter and Griffith and through them the whole course of American film-making.\" It remains Méliès's most famous film as well as a classic example of early cinema, with the image of the capsule stuck in the Man in the Moon's eye particularly well-known. The film has been evoked in other creative works many times, ranging from Segundo de Chomón's 1908 unauthorized remake \"Excursion to the Moon\" through the extensive tribute to Méliès and the film in the Brian Selznick novel \"The Invention of Hugo Cabret\" and its 2011 Martin Scorsese film adaptation \"Hugo\". Film scholar Andrew J. Rausch includes \"A Trip to the Moon\" among the \"32 most pivotal moments in the history of [film],\" saying it \"changed the way movies were produced.\" Chiara Ferrari's essay on the film in \"1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die\", which places \"A Trip to the Moon\" as the first entry, argues that the film \"directly reflects the histrionic personality of its director\", and that the film \"deserves a legitimate place among the milestones in world cinema history.\" The final episode of the HBO miniseries \"From the Earth to the Moon\" detailed the making of the film (juxtaposing it with the final Apollo mission, Apollo 17). It featured Tcheky Karyo as George Méliès, and Tom Hanks as Méliès' assistant, Jean-Luc Despont." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Uses.", "Specialized applications.", "Organic reactions.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Nitrobenzene is prepared by nitration of benzene with a mixture of concentrated sulfuric acid, water, and nitric acid. This mixture is sometimes called \"mixed acid.\" The production of nitrobenzene is one of the most dangerous processes conducted in the chemical industry because of the exothermicity of the reaction (Δ\"H\" = −117 kJ/mol). World capacity for nitrobenzene in 1985 was about 1.7×10 tonnes. The nitration process involves formation of the nitronium ion (NO), followed by an electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction of it with benzene. The nitronium ion is generated by the reaction of nitric acid and an acidic dehydration agent, typically sulfuric acid:", "Approximately 95% of nitrobenzene is consumed in the production of aniline: Aniline is a precursor to urethane polymers, rubber chemicals, pesticides, dyes (particularly azo dyes), explosives, and pharmaceuticals.", "Nitrobenzene is also used to mask unpleasant odors in shoe and floor polishes, leather dressings, paint solvents, and other materials. Redistilled, as oil of mirbane, nitrobenzene had been used as an inexpensive perfume for soaps. It has been replaced by less toxic chemicals for this purpose. A significant merchant market for nitrobenzene is its use in the production of the analgesic paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) (Mannsville 1991). Nitrobenzene is also used in Kerr cells, as it has an unusually large Kerr constant. Evidence suggests its use in agriculture as a plant growth/flowering stimulant.", "Aside from its conversion to aniline, nitrobenzene can be selectively reduced to azoxybenzene, azobenzene, nitrosobenzene, hydrazobenzene, and phenylhydroxylamine. It has been used as a mild oxidant in reactions like the Skraup quinoline synthesis.", "Nitrobenzene is highly toxic (Threshold Limit Value 5 mg/m) and readily absorbed through the skin. Prolonged exposure may cause serious damage to the central nervous system, impair vision, cause liver or kidney damage, anemia and lung irritation. Inhalation of vapors may induce headache, nausea, fatigue, dizziness, cyanosis, weakness in the arms and legs, and in rare cases may be fatal. The oil is readily absorbed through the skin and may increase heart rate, cause convulsions or rarely death. Ingestion may similarly cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting and gastrointestinal irritation, loss of sensation/use in limbs and also causes internal bleeding. Nitrobenzene is considered a likely human carcinogen by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, and is classified by the IARC as a Group 2B carcinogen which is \"possibly carcinogenic to humans\". It has been shown to cause liver, kidney, and thyroid adenomas and carcinomas in rats. It is classified as an extremely hazardous substance in the United States as defined in Section 302 of the U.S. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (42 U.S.C. 11002), and is subject to strict reporting requirements by facilities which produce, store, or use it in significant quantities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Final shot.", "Production notes.", "Release and reception.", "Remake and imitators." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The film opens with two bandits breaking into a railroad telegraph office, where they force the operator at gunpoint to have a train stopped and to transmit orders for the engineer to fill the locomotive's tender at the station's water tank. They then knock the operator out and tie him up. As the train stops it is boarded by the banditsnow four. Two bandits enter an express car, kill a messenger and open a box of valuables with dynamite; the others kill the fireman and force the engineer to halt the train and disconnect the locomotive. The bandits then force the passengers off the train and rifle them for their belongings. One passenger tries to escape but is instantly shot down. Carrying their loot, the bandits escape in the locomotive, later stopping in a valley where their horses had been left. Meanwhile, back in the telegraph office, the bound operator awakens, but he collapses again. His daughter arrives bringing him his meal and cuts him free, and restores him to consciousness by dousing him with water. There is some comic relief at a dance hall, where an Eastern stranger is forced to dance while the locals fire at his feet. The door suddenly opens and the telegraph operator rushes in to tell them of the robbery. The men quickly form a posse, which overtakes the bandits, and in a final shootout kills them all and recovers the stolen mail.", "An additional scene of the film presents a medium close-up of the leader of the bandits, played by Justus D. Barnes, who empties his pistol point-blank directly into the camera. The scene is not directly related to anything in the main narrative, and is described as \"Realism\" by the accompanying letter from Edison Manufacturing. Although it is usually placed at the end, Porter stated that the scene could also appear at the beginning of the film. The media historian James Chapman observed that the sequence may have inspired the gun barrel sequence from the James Bond films.", "Porter's film was shot at the Edison studios in New York City, on location in New Jersey at the South Mountain Reservation, part of the modern Essex County Park system, as well as along the Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad. Filmed during November 1903, the picture was advertised as available for sale to distributors in December of that same year. Though shot in black and white, certain sections of print were hand-colored (for example, the pink and orange vault explosion, the colored dresses in the dance hall sequence, and the green shirt in the film's final shot). Porter, who had been making and projecting films for Edison since 1896, attempted to incorporate the latest trends in film editing and photography in \"The Great Train Robbery\". Most films of the time sought to replicate the perspective of someone viewing a play from the best seats in a theater. As a result, scenes were almost exclusively shot directly and at eye-level with a static camera. Porter's camerawork was much more dynamic and fluid, riding on the top of a train and panning through a forest. This gave the film a much more immersive and realistic feel than audiences were accustomed to. Porter also incorporated stop-motion photography, matte shots, and painted-in coloring to make the film.", "\"The Great Train Robbery\" had its official debut at Huber's Museum in New York City before being exhibited at eleven theaters elsewhere in the city. In advertising for the film, Edison agents touted the film as \"...absolutely the superior of any moving picture ever made\" as well as a \"...faithful imitation of the genuine 'Hold Ups' made famous by various outlaw bands in the far West...\" The film's budget was an estimated $150, equal to $ today. Upon its release, \"The Great Train Robbery\" became a massive success and is considered one of the first Western films. It is also considered one of the first blockbusters and was one of the most popular films of the silent era until the release of \"The Birth of a Nation\" in 1915.", "The success of \"The Great Train Robbery\" inspired several similar films. The first (premiering less than a year later, in August 1904) was a remake of the same name directed by Siegmund Lubin. It has been called the first film remake (at the time, copyright protection for motion pictures was legally murky and illegally copied prints and unauthorized remakes abounded. It wasn't until the 1912 Townsend Amendment to the Copyright Act of 1909 that motion pictures were specifically defined as a protected work). The film also inspired numerous imitators, including \"The Bold Bank Robbery\" (1904, also produced by Lubin) and \"The Hold-Up Of The Rocky Mountain Express\" (1906). Porter himself tried to re-capture his previous success with \"The Life of an American Cowboy\" (1906) and a parody of \"The Great Train Robbery\" titled \"The Little Train Robbery\" (1905), with an all-child cast (in which a larger gang of bandits holds up a mini train to steal their dolls and candy)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Early development.", "\"Phase II\" and restart.", "Design.", "Props and models.", "Costumes and makeup.", "Technical consulting.", "Filming.", "Post-production.", "Music.", "Sound effects.", "Themes.", "Release.", "Theatrical release.", "Home media.", "Reception.", "Box office.", "Critical reception.", "Accolades." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the 23rd century, a Starfleet monitoring station, \"Epsilon Nine\", detects an alien entity, hidden in a massive cloud of energy, moving through space toward Earth. The cloud easily destroys three of the Klingon Empire's new \"K't'inga\"-class warships when they fire on it and disintegrates \"Epsilon Nine\" when it tries to investigate. On Earth, the starship \"Enterprise\" is undergoing a major refit; its former commanding officer, James T. Kirk, has been promoted to Admiral and works in San Francisco as Chief of Starfleet Operations. Starfleet Command assigns \"Enterprise\" to intercept the cloud entity as the ship is the only one within range, requiring its new systems to be tested in transit. Citing his experience, Kirk uses his authority to take command of the ship, angering Captain Willard Decker, who has been overseeing the refit as its new commanding officer. Testing of \"Enterprise\"s new systems goes poorly; two officers, including the ship's Vulcan science officer Sonak, are killed by a malfunctioning transporter, and improperly calibrated engines nearly destroy the ship. Kirk's unfamiliarity with the ship's new systems increases the tension between him and Decker, who has been temporarily demoted to first officer. Commander Spock arrives as a replacement science officer, explaining that while on his home world undergoing a ritual to purge", "Other actors from the television series who returned included Majel Barrett as Christine Chapel, a doctor aboard the \"Enterprise\", and Grace Lee Whitney as Janice Rand, formerly one of Kirk's yeomen. David Gautreaux,", "", "The original \"\" television series ran for three seasons from 1966 to 1969 on NBC. The show was never a hit with network executives, and the show's low Nielsen ratings bolstered their concerns. When the show was canceled, owner Paramount Pictures hoped to recoup their production losses by selling the syndication rights. The series went into reruns in the autumn (September/October) of 1969, and by the late 1970s had been sold in over 150 domestic and 60 international markets. The show developed a cult following, and rumors of reviving the franchise began. Roddenberry had first proposed a \"Star Trek\" feature at the 1968 World Science Fiction Convention. The movie was to have been set before the television series, showing how the crew of the \"Enterprise\" met. The popularity of the syndicated \"Star Trek\" caused Paramount and Roddenberry to begin developing the film in May 1975. Roddenberry was allocated $3 to $5 million to develop a script. By June 30, he had produced what he considered an acceptable script, but studio executives disagreed. This first draft, \"\", featured a grounded Admiral Kirk assembling the old crew on the refitted \"Enterprise\" to clash with a godlike entity many miles across, hurtling towards", "Barry Diller had grown concerned by the direction \"Star Trek\" had taken in \"Planet of the Titans\", and suggested to Roddenberry that it was time to take the franchise back to its roots as a television series. Diller planned on a new \"Star Trek\" series forming the cornerstone for a new television network. Though Paramount was loath to abandon its work on the film, Roddenberry wanted to bring many of the production staff from the original series to work on the new show, titled \"\". Producer Harold Livingston was assigned to find writers for new episodes, while Roddenberry prepared a writers' guide briefing the uninitiated on the franchise canon. Of the original cast, only Leonard Nimoy stated he would not return. To replace Spock, Roddenberry created a logical Vulcan prodigy named Xon. Since Xon was too young to fill the role", "The first new sets (intended for \"Phase II\") were constructed beginning July 25, 1977. The fabrication was supervised by Joseph Jennings, an art director involved in the original television series, special-effects expert Jim Rugg, and former \"Trek\" designer Matt Jefferies, on loan as consultant from \"Little House on the Prairie\". When the television series was cancelled and plans for a film put into place, new sets were needed for the large 70 mm film format. Wise asked Harold Michelson to be the film's production designer, and Michelson was put to work on finishing the incomplete \"Phase II\" sets. The designer began with the bridge, which had nearly been completed. Michelson first removed Chekov's new weapons station, a semicircular plastic bubble grafted onto one side of the bridge wall. The idea for \"Phase II\" was that Chekov would have looked out toward space while cross-hairs in the bubble tracked targets. Wise instead wanted Chekov's station to face the \"Enterprise\"s main viewer, a difficult request as the set was primarily circular. Production illustrator Michael Minor created a new look for the station using a flat edge in the corner of the set. The bridge ceiling", "The first \"Star Trek\" movie models constructed were small study models for \"Planet of the Titans\" based on designs by Adam and McQuarrie, but these flat-hulled \"Enterprise\" concepts were abandoned when that film was cancelled (although one was later used in the space-dock in the movie \"\", and another later appeared in the \"\" episode \"\"). When the \"Phase II\" series was in development, original series designer Matt Jefferies updated the \"Enterprise\" design to feature a larger saucer with twin elevators (turbo-lifts) to the bridge, a wider secondary hull, docking ports, a dedicated photon torpedo weapon assembly at the base of the ship's neck, and angled struts supporting the nacelles. The nacelles themselves were completely changed to less cylindrical shapes and designed to feature glowing grilles on the sides. Likewise, an orbiting dry-dock, space office complex, and V'ger had been designed by artist Mike Minor. At the time \"Phase II\" was cancelled a roughly five foot long model of the \"Enterprise\" was", "Roddenberry firmly believed that throwaway clothes were the future of the industry, and this idea was incorporated into the costumes of \"The Motion Picture\". William Ware Theiss, the designer who created the original television series costumes, was too busy to work on the film. Instead Robert Fletcher, considered one of American theater's most successful costume and scenic designers, was selected to design the new uniforms, suits, and robes for the production. Fletcher eschewed man-made synthetics for natural materials, finding that these fabrics sewed better and lasted longer. As times had changed, the Starfleet uniforms, with their bright reds, blues, greens and golds, had to be revised: the miniskirts worn by females in the original series would now be considered sexist. Wise deemed the original multicolored uniforms too garish, and Fletcher believed that the brightness of these old designs would work against believability when seen on the wide screen—the designer's first task was to create new, less conspicuous uniforms. In the original series, divisions in ship assignments were denoted by shirt color; for the movie, these color codes were", "In the decade between the end of the \"Star Trek\" television series and the film, many of the futuristic technologies that appeared on the show—electronic doors that open automatically, talking computers, weapons that stun rather than kill, and personal communication devices—had become a reality. Roddenberry had insisted that the technology aboard the \"Enterprise\" be grounded in established science and scientific theories. \"The Motion Picture\" likewise received technical consultation from NASA, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory at California Institute of Technology, and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, as well as individuals such as a former astronaut and the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov. The greatest amount of technical advice for the production came from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), who provided \"Trek\" fan Jesco von Puttkamer as advisor to", "Filming of \"The Motion Picture\"s first scene began on August 7, 1978. A few ad-libbed ceremonies were performed before the cameras rolled; Roddenberry gave Wise his baseball cap, emblazoned with \"Enterprise\" in gold lettering (the cap was a gift from the captain of the nuclear carrier \"Enterprise\".) Wise and Roddenberry then cracked a special breakaway bottle of champagne on the bridge set (there was no liquid inside, as flying champagne would have damaged the readied set). The scene planned was the chaotic mess aboard the \"Enterprise\" bridge as the crew readies the ship for space travel; Wise directed 15 takes into the late afternoon before he was content with the scene. The first day's shots used of film; were considered \"good\", were judged \"no good\", and were wasted; only one and one-eighth pages had been shot. Alex Weldon was hired to be supervisor of special effects for the film. Weldon was planning on retiring after 42 years of effects work, but his wife urged him to take on \"Star Trek\" because she thought he did not have enough to do. When Weldon was hired, many of the effects had already been started or completed by Rugg; it was up to Weldon to complete more complex and higher-budgeted effects for the motion picture. The first step of preparation involved analyzing the script in the number, duration, and type of effects. Before costs could be determined and Weldon could shop for necessary items, he and the other members of the special effects team worked out all possibilities for pulling off the effects in a convincing manner. Richard H. Kline served as the film's cinematographer. Working from sketch artist Maurice Zuberano's concepts, Wise would judge if they were on the right track. Kline and Michelson would then discuss the look they wanted (along with Weldon, if effects were involved). Each sequence was then storyboarded and left to Kline to execute. The cinematographer called his function to \"interpret [the] preplanning and make it indelible on film. It's a way of everybody being on the same wavelength.\"", "While the cast departed to work on other projects, the post-production team was tasked with finalizing the film in time for a Christmas release; the resulting work would take twice as long as the filming process had taken. Editor Todd Ramsay and assistants spent principal photography syncing film and audio tracks. The resulting rough cuts were used to formulate plans for sound effects, music, and optical effects that would be added later. Roddenberry also provided a large amount of input, sending memos to Ramsay via Wise with ideas for editing. Ramsay tried to cut as much unnecessary footage as he could as long as the film's character and story development were not damaged. One of Roddenberry's ideas was to have the Vulcans speak their own language. Because the original Vulcan scenes had been photographed with actors speaking English, the \"language\" needed to lip-sync with the actor's lines. After the groundbreaking opticals of \"Star Wars\", \"The Motion Picture\"s producers realized the film required similarly high-quality visuals. Douglas Trumbull, a film director with an excellent reputation in Hollywood who had worked on \"\", was the first choice for director of special effects, but declined the offer. Trumbull was busy on \"Close Encounters\", and was tired of being ignored as a director and having to churn out special effects for someone else's production; after completing the effects work, Trumbull planned on launching his own feature using a new film process. The next choice, John Dykstra, was similarly wrapped up in other projects. Post-production supervisor Paul Rabwin suggested Robert Abel's production company Robert Abel and Associates might be up to the task. The scope and size of the effects grew after the television movie became \"The Motion Picture\". Abel", "The score for \"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\" was predominantly written by Jerry Goldsmith, who later composed the scores for \"\", \"\", \"\", and \"\", as well as the themes to the television series \"\" (a simplified arrangement of the theme from \"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\" and fronted with Alexander Courage's \"\"Star Trek Fanfare\"\" intro from \"\") and \"\". Gene Roddenberry had originally wanted Goldsmith to score \"Star Trek\"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s pilot episode, \"\", but the composer was unavailable. When Wise signed on to direct, Paramount asked the director if he had any objection to using Goldsmith. Wise, who had worked with the composer for \"The Sand Pebbles\", replied \"Hell, no. He's great!\" Wise later considered his work with Goldsmith one of the best relationships he ever had with a composer. Goldsmith was", "Sound designer Frank Serafine, a longtime \"Star Trek\" fan, was invited to create the sound effects for the picture. Given access to state-of-the-art audio equipment, Serafine saw the picture as the chance to modernize outdated motion picture sound techniques with digital technology. Owing to background noise such as camera operation, much of the ambient noise or dialogue captured on set was unusable; it was Serafine's job to create or recreate sounds to mix back into the scenes. As all the sound elements such as dubbed lines or background noise came together, they were classified into three divisions: A Effects, B Effects, and C Effects. A Effects were synthesized or acoustic sounds that were important and integral to the picture—the sound of V'Ger's weapon (partly done with the Blaster Beam instrument) for example, or Spock's mind meld, as well as transporters, explosions, and the warp speed sound effect. B Effects consisted of", "According to Michele and Duncan Barrett, Roddenberry had a decidedly negative view of religion that was reflected in the \"Star Trek\" television series episodes; in the episode \"Who Mourns for Adonais?\", for example, the god Apollo is revealed to be a fraud, an alien rather than a divine being from Earth's past. When Apollo suggests that humans need a new pantheon of gods, Kirk dismisses the idea with the words, “We find the one quite sufficient.” In comparison, religious scholar Ross Kraemer says that Roddenberry \"pulled his punches\" regarding religion", "", "To coincide with the film's release, Pocket Books published a written by Roddenberry. The only \"Star Trek\" novel Roddenberry wrote, the book adds back story and elements that did not appear in the movie; for example, the novelization mentions that Willard Decker is the son of Commodore Matt Decker from the original series episode \"\"—a plot element intended for the \"Phase II\" television series. The novel also has a different opening scene to introduce \"Vejur\" and Kirk, concentrates in sections on Kirk's struggle with confidence in taking command of the \"Enterprise\" again and expands on Ilia and Decker's relationship. The \"Vejur\" spelling for the \"intruder's\" name was used exclusively in the novel Roddenberry authored, from its first appearance on page 179 of the first paperback edition of the novelization through to the account on the novel's page 241 of Kirk reading the undamaged \"V-G-E-R\" letters on the fictional \"Voyager 6\" space probe's nameplate. In addition to the novel, \"Star Trek\" printed media", "Paramount Home Entertainment released the film on VHS, Betamax, Laserdisc, and CED videodisc in 1981 in its original theatrical version. In 1983, an extended cut premiered on the ABC television network. It added roughly 12 minutes to the film. The added footage was largely unfinished, and cobbled together for the network premiere; Wise hadn't wanted some of the footage to be included in the final cut of the film. This version was released on VHS and LaserDisc by Paramount in 1983. Two members of Wise's production company, David C. Fein and Michael Matessino, approached Wise and Paramount and persuaded them to release a revised version of the film on video; Paramount released the updated \"Director's Edition\" of the film on VHS and DVD on November 6, 2001. Wise, who had considered the theatrical presentation of the film a \"rough cut\", was given the opportunity to re-edit the film to be more consistent with his original vision. The production team used the original script, surviving sequence storyboards, memos, and the director's recollections. In addition to cuts in some sequences, 90 new and redesigned computer-generated images were created. Care was taken that the effects meshed seamlessly with", "", "\"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\" opened in the United States and Canada on December 7, 1979, in 857 theaters and set a box office record for the highest opening weekend gross, making $11,926,421 in its first weekend. The film beat the 3-day weekend record set by \"Superman\" (1978) of $10.4 million in its third weekend (but not its 4-day weekend gross of $13.1 million) and the opening weekend gross of the 1978 reissue of \"Star Wars\" of $10.1 million. \"The Motion Picture\" earned $17 million within a week. At its widest domestic distribution, the film was shown in 1,002 theaters; it grossed $82,258,456 in the United States, making it the fifth-highest-grossing film of 1979 in that country. Overall, the film grossed $139 million worldwide. \"The Motion Picture\" was nominated for three Academy Awards: Best Art Direction (Harold Michelson, Joseph R. Jennings, Leon Harris, John Vallone and Linda", "\"The Motion Picture\" was met with mixed reviews from critics; a 2001 retrospective for the BBC described the film as a critical failure. As of June 2020, the film holds a 43% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 40 reviews with the consensus stating: \"Featuring a patchwork script and a dialogue-heavy storyline whose biggest villain is a cloud, \"Star Trek: The Motion Picture\" is a less-than-auspicious debut for the franchise.\" Gary Arnold and Judith Martin of \"The Washington Post\" felt that the plot was too thin to support the length of the film, although Martin felt that compared to such science-fiction films as \"\", \"Star Wars\" and \"Alien\", \"The Motion Picture\"s premise was \"slightly cleverer\". \"Time\"s Richard Schickel wrote that the film consisted of spaceships that \"take an unconscionable amount of time to get anywhere, and nothing of dramatic or human interest happens along the way\". Schickel also lamented the lack of \"boldly characterized\" antagonists and battle scenes that made \"Star Wars\" fun; instead, viewers were presented with lots of talk, \"much of it in impenetrable spaceflight jargon\". David Denby said that the slow movement of ships through space was \"no longer surprising and elegant\" after films such as \"2001: A Space Odyssey\", and that much of the action consisted of the crew's reacting to things occurring on the viewscreen, which the \"New York Magazine\" critic considered to be \"like watching someone else watch television\". \"Variety\" disagreed, calling the film \"a search-and-destroy thriller that includes all of the ingredients the TV show's fans thrive on: the philosophical dilemma wrapped in a scenario of mind control, troubles with the space ship, the dependable and understanding Kirk, the ever-logical Spock, and suspenseful take with twist ending\". Scott Bukatman reviewed the film in \"Ares Magazine\" No. 1. Bukatman commented that \"With \"Star Trek\", Roddenberry's trick has been to wear the mask of the humanist as he plays with his Erector set. The scale of the television series arrested his vision at a comfortable and still interesting level, but the new film has finally removed the mask.\" The characters and acting received", "The film is recognized" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Toponymy.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern.", "Establishment of Catherine's city.", "The origin of industrial centre.", "Ukrainian War of Independence.", "Soviet Union and Nazi rule.", "Closed city.", "Contemporary.", "Government.", "Subdivisions.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Cityscape.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Local transportation.", "Suburban transportation.", "Rail.", "Aviation.", "Water transportation.", "Education.", "Higher education.", "Culture.", "Attractions.", "Sports.", "Notable people from Dnipro.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Over time, Dnipro has been known by a number of names: The spelling \"Catharinoslav\" was found on some maps of the nineteenth century. In some Anglophone media the city was also known as the Rocket City. In 1918,", "A monastery was founded by Byzantine monks on Monastyrskyi Island, probably in the 9th century (870 AD). The Tatars destroyed the monastery in 1240. At the beginning of the 15th century, Tatar tribes inhabiting the right bank of the Dnieper were driven away by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. By the mid-15th century, the Nogai (who lived north of the Sea of Azov) and the", "Archeological findings strongly suggest that the first fortified town in what is now Dnipro was probably built in the mid-16th century. In 1635, the Polish Government built the Kodak Fortress above the Dnieper Rapids at \"Kodaky\" (on the south-eastern outskirts of modern Dnipro), partly as a result of rivalry in the region between Poland, Turkey and Crimean Khanate, and partly to maintain control over Cossack activity (i.e. to suppress the Cossack raiders and to prevent peasants moving out of the area). On the night of 3⁄4 August 1635, the Cossacks of Ivan Sulyma captured the fort by surprise, burning it down and butchering the garrison of about 200 West European mercenaries under Jean Marion. The fort was rebuilt by French engineer Guillaume Le Vasseur de Beauplan for the Polish Government in 1638, and had a mercenary garrison. \"Kodak\" was captured by Zaporozhian Cossacks on 1 October 1648, and was garrisoned by the Cossacks until its demolition in accordance with the Treaty of the Pruth in 1711. The ruins of the Kodak are visible now. There is currently a project to restore it and create a", "Prior to 1926 the city currently called \"Dnipro\" was known as \"Ekaterinoslav\", which could be approximately rendered as \"the glory of Catherine\", with reference to Catherine the Great, who reigned as Empress of Russia from 1762 to 1796. (The Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) connects city traditions with the name of Saint Catherine of Alexandria ( 287 to 305). According to one account, the city was founded in 1787 (the official founding year was set to 1776 in 1976 in an effort to please the general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the", "In 1794 in the city started to operate a big treasury-sponsored manufacture that consisted of two factories: cloth factory that was transferred here from town of Dubrovny Mogilev Governorate along with workers and serf-peasants and silk-stockings factory that was brought from village of Kupavna near Moscow. The workers for silk stockings factory were bought at an auction for 16,000 rubles. In 1797 at the cloth factory worked 819 permanent workers among which were 378 women and 115 children. At the stockings factory a bigger portion of workers consisted of women. Those workers lived in barracks", "After the Russian February revolution in 1917, Ekaterinoslav became a city within autonomy of Ukrainian People's Republic under Tsentralna Rada government. In November 1917, the Bolsheviks led a rebellion and took power for a short time. On 5 April 1918 the German army took control of the city. And according to the February 1918 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Central Powers it became part of", "The city was renamed after the Communist leader of Ukraine Grigory Petrovsky in 1926. Petrovsky was later involved in the organization of the Holodomor.", "As early as July 1944, the State Committee of Defence in Moscow decided to build a large military machine-building factory in Dnipropetrovsk on the location of the pre-war aircraft plant. In December 1945, thousands of German prisoners of war began construction and built the first sections and shops in the new factory. This was the foundation of the Dnipropetrovsk Automobile Factory. Joseph Stalin suggested special secret training for highly qualified engineers and scientists to become rocket construction specialists. In 1954 the administration of this automobile factory opened a secret design office with the name \"Southern\" (konstruktorskoe biuro Yuzhnoe – in Russian) to construct military missiles and rocket engines. Hundreds of talented physicists, engineers and machine designers moved from Moscow and other large cities in the Soviet Union to Dnipropetrovsk to join this \"Southern\" design office. In 1965, the secret Plant", "In June 1990, the women's department of Dnipropetrovsk preliminary prison was destroyed in prison riots. In the ten years that followed, women under investigation (i.e. not convicted) in Dnipropetrovsk oblast were either held in Preliminary Prison 4 in Kryvyi Rih or in \"detention blocks\" in Dnipropetrovsk; this contravened Ukrainian Law \"On preliminary incarceration\". Journeys from Kryviy Rih took up to six hours in special railway carriages with grated windows. Some prisoners had to do this 14 or 15 times. After complaints by the ombudsman", "The City of Dnipro is governed by the Dnipro City Council. It is a city municipality that is designated as a separate district within its oblast. Administratively, the city is divided into \"districts in city\" (\"raiony v misti\"). Presently, there are 8 of them. Aviatorske, an urban-type settlement located near the Dnipropetrovsk International Airport, is also a part of Dnipro Municipality. The City Council Assembly makes up the administration's legislative branch, thus effectively making it a city 'parliament' or rada. The municipal council is made up of 12 elected members, who are each elected to represent a certain district of the city for a four-year term. The current council was elected in 2015. The council has 29 standing commissions which play an important role in the oversight of the city and its merchants. Dnipro has five single-mandate parliamentary constituencies entirely within the city, through which members of parliament (MPs) are elected to represent the city in Rada. At the last (2014) general election, were won by PPB and independent candidates with. In multimember districts city voted for Opposition Bloc, union of all political forces that did not endorse Euromaidan. In the last decades the city has generally supported candidates belonging to the Party of Regions and (in the 1990s) Communist Party of Ukraine in national and local elections. There was the same situation in presidential elections, with strong support for Leonid Kuchma and Viktor Yanukovych. After the 2014 events of Euromaidan, which included mass demonstrations and clashes in the central city, Regions lost its influence, and Dnipropetrovsk supported Petro Poroshenko. In the 2015 Ukrainian local elections Borys Filatov of the patriotic UKROP was elected Mayor of Dnipro. Dnipro is also the seat of the oblast's local administration controlled by the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Rada. The governor of the oblast is the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Rada speaker, appointed by the President of Ukraine.", "Five of the eight city districts", "The city is built mainly upon both banks of the Dnieper, at its confluence with the Samara River. In the loop of a major meander, the Dnieper changes its course from the north west to continue southerly and later south-westerly through Ukraine, ultimately passing Kherson, where it finally flows into the Black Sea. Nowadays both the north and south banks play home to a range of industrial enterprises and manufacturing plants. The airport is located about south-east of the city. The centre of the city is constructed on the right bank which is part of the Dnieper Upland, while the left bank is part of the Dnieper Lowland. The old town is situated atop a hill that is formed as a result of the river's change of course to the south. The change of river's direction is caused by its proximity to the Azov Upland located southeast of the city. One of the city's streets, Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, links the two major architectural ensembles of the city and constitutes an important thoroughfare through the centre, which along with various suburban radial road systems, provides some of the area's most vital transport links for both suburban and inter-urban travel.", "Under the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system, Dnipro has a humid continental climate (\"Dfa/Dfb\"). Snowfall is more common in the hills than at the city's lower elevations. The city has four distinct seasons: a cold, snowy winter; a hot summer; and two relatively wet transition periods. However, according to other schemes (such as the Salvador Rivas-Martínez bioclimatic one), Dnipro has a Supratemperate bioclimate, and belongs to the Temperate xeric steppic thermoclimatic belt, due to high evapotranspiration. During the summer, Dnipro is very warm (average day temperature in July is, even hot sometimes", "Dnipro is a primarily industrial city of around one million people; in being such it has developed into a large urban centre over the past few centuries to become, today, Ukraine's fourth-largest city. Immediately after its foundation, Dnipro, or as it was then known Yekaterinoslav, began to develop exclusively on the right bank of the Dnieper River. At first the city developed radially from the central point provided by the Transfiguration Cathedral. Neoclassical structures of brick and stone construction were preferred and the city began to take on the appearance of a typical European city of the era. Of these buildings many have been retained in the city's older Sobornyi District. Amongst the most important buildings of this era are the Transfiguration Cathedral, and a number of buildings in the area surrounding Akademik Yavornitskyi Prospekt, including", "The population of the city is about 1 million people. In 2011, the average age of the city's resident population was 40 years. The number of males declined slightly more than the number of females. The natural population growth in Dnipro is slightly higher than growth", "Dnipro is a major industrial centre of Ukraine. It has several facilities devoted to heavy industry that produce a wide range of products, including cast-iron, launch vehicles, rolled metal, pipes, machinery, different mining combines, agricultural equipment, tractors, trolleybuses, refrigerators, different chemicals and many others. The most famous and the oldest (founded in the 19th century) is the Metallurgical Plant named after Petrovsky. The city also has big food processing and light industry factories. Many sewing and dress-making factories work for France, Canada, Germany and Great Britain, using the most advanced technologies, materials and design. Dnipro has also dominated in the aerospace industry since the 1950s; construction department Yuzhnoye Design Bureau and Yuzhmash are well known to the specialists all over the world. In 2018 a private Texas-based aerospace firm Firefly Aerospace opened a Research and Development (R&D) center in Dnipro to develop small and medium-sized launch vehicles for commercial launches to orbit. Metals and metallurgy is the city's core industry in terms of output. Employment in the city is concentrated in large-sized enterprises. Metallurgical enterprises are based in the city and account for over 47% of its industrial output. These enterprises are important contributors to the", "", "The main forms of public transport used in Dnipro are trams, buses, electric trolley buses and marshrutkas—private minibuses. In addition to this there are a large number of taxi firms operating in the city, and many residents have private cars. The city's municipal roads also suffer from the same funding problems as the trams, with many of them in a very poor technical state. It is not uncommon to find very large potholes and crumbling surfaces on many of Dnipro's smaller roads. Major roads and highways are of better quality.", "Dnipro has some highways crossing through the city. The most popular routes are from Kiev, Donetsk, Kharkiv and Zaporizhia. Transit through the city is also available. the city is also seeing construction of a southern urban bypass, which will allow automobile traffic to proceed around the city centre. This is expected to both improve air quality and reduce transport issues from heavy freight lorries that pass through the city centre. The largest", "The city is a large railway junction, with many daily trains running to and from Eastern Europe and on domestic routes within Ukraine. There are two railway terminals, Dnipro Holovnyi (main station) and Dnipro Lotsmanska (south station). Two express passenger services run each day between Kiev and Dnipro under the name 'Capital Express'. Other", "The city is served by Dnipropetrovsk International Airport and is connected", "The city has a river port located on", "There are 163 educational institutions among them schools, gymnasiums and boarding schools. For children of pre-school age there are 174 institutions, also a lot of out-of -school institutions such as center of out-of-school work. Eighty-seven institutions that are recognized on all Ukrainian and regional levels. In a survey in June–July 2017, adult respondents reported the following educational levels: In 2006 Dnipropetrovsk hosted the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Information Technology; in 2008, that for Mathematics, and in 2009 the semi-final of the All-Ukrainian Olympiad in Programming for the Eastern Region. In the same year as the latter took place, the youth group 'Eksperiment', an organisation promoting increased cultural awareness amongst Ukrainians, was founded in the city.", "Dnipro is a major educational centre in Ukraine and is home to two of Ukraine's top-ten universities; the Oles Honchar Dnipro National University and Dnipro Polytechnic National Technical University. The system of high education institutions connects 38 institutions in Dnipro, among them 14 of IV and ІІІ levels of accreditation, and 22 of", "", "The city has a variety of theatres (plus an Opera) and museums of interest to tourists, including the Dmytro Yavornytsky National Historical Museum. There are also several parks, restaurants and beaches. The major streets of the city were renamed in honour of Marxist heroes during the Soviet era. Following the 2015 law on decommunization these have been renamed. The central thoroughfare is known as Akademik Yavornytskyi Prospekt, a, wide and long boulevard that stretches east to west through the centre of the city. It was founded in the 18th century and parts of its buildings are the actual decoration of the city. In the heart of the city is Soborna Square, which includes the majestic cathedral founded by order of Catherine the Great in 1787. On the square, there are some remarkable buildings: the Museum of History, Diorama \"Battle for the Dnieper River", "FC Dnipro football club, used to play in the Ukrainian Premier League and UEFA Europa League, and were the only Soviet team to win the USSR Federation Cup twice. The club was owned by the Privat Group. Note: A bandy team, a basketball team and others use the same name. Other local football include: FC Lokomotyv Dnipropetrovsk and FC Spartak Dnipropetrovsk, both of which have large fan bases. SC Dnipro-1 is another team emerged in 2017. Recently the city built", "See also List of mayors", "Dnipro is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification by subjective analysis.", "Origins.", "Dialects.", "Corsica.", "Northern Corsican.", "Transitional Area.", "Southern Corsican.", "Sardinia.", "Number of speakers.", "Governmental support.", "Literature.", "Alphabet and spelling.", "Phonology.", "Vowels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "As for Corsican, a bone of contention is whether it should be considered an Italian dialect or its own language. Usually, it is not possible to ascertain what an author means by these terms. For example, one might read from some scholars that Corsican belongs to the Centro-Southern Italian dialects and is closely related to the Tuscan dialect of Italian. Mutual intelligibility between Italian and the dialects of Corsican is in fact very high, with particular reference to the Northern varieties. Despite the geographical proximity, it has indeed been noted that the closest linguistic neighbour to Corsican is not Sardinian, which constitutes a separate group, but rather Tuscan and the extreme Southern Italian lects like Siculo-Calabrian. The matter is controversial, as the island was historically and culturally bound to the Italian Mainland from the Middle Ages until the 19th century, and installed in a diglossic system where both Corsican and Italian were perceived as two sociolinguistic levels of the same language; Corsican and Italian traditionally existed on a spectrum, whose proximity line was blurred enough that the locals needed little else but a change of register to communicate with the standard Italian-speaking elites and administration. \"Tuscanising\" their tongue allowed for a practice of code-mixing typical of the Mainland Italian dialects. One of the characteristics of standard Italian is the retention of the -\"re\" infinitive ending, as in Latin \"mittere\" \"send\". Such infinitival ending is lost in Tuscan as well as Corsican, which has \"mette\" / \"metta\", \"to put\". The Latin relative pronouns \"qui\"/\"quae\" \"who\", and \"quod\" \"what\", are inflected in Latin; whereas the relative pronoun in Italian for \"who\" is \"chi\" and \"what\" is \"che\"/\"(che) cosa\", it is an uninflected \"chì\" in Corsican. Perhaps the biggest difference between standard Italian and Corsican is that the latter uses the \"u\" termination, whereas standard Italian uses the \"o\" ending. For example, the Italian demonstrative pronouns \"questo\" \"this\" and \"quello\" \"that\" become in Corsican \"questu\" or \"quistu\" and \"quellu\" or \"quiddu\". This feature was typical of the early Italian texts during the Middle Ages.", "The Corsican language has been influenced by the languages of the major powers taking an interest in Corsican affairs; earlier by those of the medieval Italian powers: Papal States (828–1077), Republic of Pisa (1077–1282) and Republic of Genoa (1282–1768), more recently by France (1768–present), which, since 1859, has promulgated the official Parisian French. The term \"gallicised Corsican\" refers to the evolution of Corsican starting from about the year 1950. The term \"distanciated Corsican\" refers to an idealized variety of Corsican following linguistic purism, by means of removing any French-derived elements. The common relationship between Corsica and central Italy can be traced from as far back as the Etruscans, who asserted their presence on the island in as early as 500 BC. In 40 AD, the natives of Corsica did not reportedly speak Latin. The Roman exile, Seneca the Younger, reports that both coast and interior were occupied by natives whose language, the Paleo-Corsican language, he did not understand (see the Ligurian hypothesis). Whatever language was spoken is still visible in the toponymy or in some words, for instance in the Gallurese dialect spoken in Sardinia \"zerru\" 'pig'. An analogue situation was valid for Sardinian and Sicilian as well. The occupation of the island by the Vandals around the year 469 marked the end of authoritative influence by Latin speakers (see Medieval Corsica). If the natives of that time spoke Latin, they must have acquired it during the late empire. It has been theorised that a Sardinian variety might have been spoken in Corsica, prior to the island's Tuscanisation under Pisan and Genoese rule.", "", "The two most widely spoken forms of the Corsican language are the groups spoken in the Bastia and Corte area (generally throughout the northern half of the island, known as Haute-Corse, \"Cismonte\" or \"Corsica suprana\"), and the groups spoken around Sartène and Porto-Vecchio (generally throughout the southern half of the island, known as Corse-du-Sud, \"Pumonti\" or \"Corsica suttana\"). The dialect of Ajaccio has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at Calvi and Bonifacio are closer to the Genoese dialect, also known as Ligurian. This division along the Girolata-Porto Vecchio line was due to the massive immigration from Tuscany which took place in Corsica during the lower Middle Ages: as a result, the northern Corsican dialects became very close to a central Italian dialect like Tuscan, while the southern Corsican varieties could keep the original characteristics of the language which make it much more similar to Sicilian and, only to some extent, Sardinian.", "The Northern Corsican macro variety (\"Supranacciu\", \"Supranu\", \"Cismuntincu\" or \"Cismontano\") is the most widespread on the island and standardised as well, and is spoken in North-West Corsica around the districts of Bastia and Corte. The dialects of Bastia and Cap Corse belong to the Western Tuscan dialects; they being, with the exception of Florentine, the closest to standard Italian. All the dialects presenting, in addition to what has already been stated, the conditional formed in \"-ebbe\" (e.g. \"(ella) amarebbe\" \"she would love\") are generally considered \"Cismontani\" dialects, situated north of a line uniting the villages of Piana, Vico, Vizzavona, Ghisoni and Ghisonaccia, and also covering the subgroups from the Cap Corse (which, unlike the rest of the island and similarly to Italian, uses \"lu\", \"li\", \"la\", \"le\" as definite articles), Bastia (besides i > e and a > e, u > o: \"ottanta\", \"momentu\", \"toccà\", \"continentale\"; a > o: \"oliva\", \"orechja\", \"ocellu\"), Balagna, Niolo and Corte (which retain the general Corsican traits: \"distinu\", \"ghjinnaghju\", \"sicondu\", \"billezza\", \"apartu\", \"farru\", \"marcuri\", \"cantaraghju\", \"uttanta\", \"mumentu\", \"tuccà\", \"cuntinentale\", \"aliva\", \"arechja\", \"acellu\").", "Across the Northern and Southern borders of the line separating the Northern dialects from the Southern ones, there is a transitional area picking up linguistic phenomena associated with either of the two groups, with some local peculiarities. Along the Northern line are the dialects around Piana and Calcatoggio, from Cinarca with Vizzavona (which form the conditional tense like in the South), and Fiumorbo through Ghisonaccia and Ghisoni, which have the retroflex sound (written \"-dd-\") for historical ; along the Southern line, the dialects of Ajaccio (retroflex \"-dd-\", realized as -\"ghj\"-, feminine plurals ending in \"i\", some Northern words like \"cane\" and \"accattà\" instead of \"ghjacaru\" and \"cumprà\", as well as \"ellu\"/\"ella\" and not \"eddu\"/\"edda\"; minor variations: \"sabbatu\" > \"sabbitu\", \"u li dà\" > \"ghi lu dà\"; final syllables often stressed and truncated: \"marinari\" > \"marinà\", \"panatteri\" > \"panattè\", \"castellu\" > \"castè\", \"cuchjari\" > \"cuchjà\"), the Gravona area, Bastelica (which would be classified as Southern, but is also noted for its typical rhotacism: \"Basterga\") and Solenzara, which did not preserve the Latin short vowels: \"seccu\", \"peru\", \"rossu\", \"croci\", \"pozzu\").", "The Southern Corsican macro variety (\"Suttanacciu\", \"Suttanu\", \"Pumontincu\" or \"Oltramontano\") is the most archaic and conservative group, spoken in the districts of Sartène and Porto-Vecchio. Unlike the Northern varieties and similarly to Sardinian, the group retains the distinction of the Latin short vowels \"ĭ\" and \"ŭ\" (e.g. \"pilu\", \"bucca\"). It is also strongly marked by the presence of the voiced retroflex stop, like Sicilian (e.g. \"aceddu\", \"beddu\", \"quiddu\", \"ziteddu\", \"famidda\"), and the conditional tense formed in \"-ìa\" (e.g. \"(idda) amarìa\" \"she would love\"). All the \"Oltramontani\" dialects are from an area located to the South of Porticcio, Bastelica, Col di Verde and Solenzara. Notable dialects are those from around Taravo (retroflex -\"dd\"- only for historical : \"frateddu\", \"suredda\", \"beddu\"; preservation of the palatal lateral approximant: \"piglià\", \"famiglia\", \"figliolu\", \"vogliu\"; does not preserve the Latin short vowels: \"seccu\", \"peru\", \"rossu\", \"croci\", \"pozzu\"), Sartène (preserving the Latin short vowels: \"siccu\", \"piru\", \"russu\", \"cruci\", \"puzzu\"; changing historical \"-rn-\" to \"-rr-\": \"forru\", \"carri\", \"corru\"; substituting the stop for the palatal lateral approximant: \"piddà\", \"famidda\", \"fiddolu\", \"voddu\"; imperfect tense like \"cantàvami\", \"cantàvani\"; masculine plurals ending in \"a\": \"l'ochja\", \"i poma\"; having \"eddu/edda/eddi\" as personal pronouns), the Alta Rocca (the most conservative area in Corsica, being very close to the varieties spoken in Northern Sardinia), and the Southern region located between the hinterlands of Porto-Vecchio and Bonifacio (masculine singulars always ending in \"u\": \"fiumu\", \"paesu\", \"patronu\"; masculine plurals always ending in \"a\": \"i letta\", \"i solda\", \"i ponta\", \"i foca\", \"i mura\", \"i loca\", \"i balcona\"; imperfect tense like \"cantàiami\", \"cantàiani\").", "The Gallurese variety is spoken in the extreme north of Sardinia, including the region of Gallura and the archipelago of La Maddalena, and Sassarese is spoken in Sassari and in its neighbourhood, in the northwest of Sardinia. Whether the two should be included either in Corsican or in Sardinian as dialects or considered independent languages is still subject of debate. On Maddalena archipelago the local dialect (called \"Isulanu, Maddaleninu, Maddalenino\") was brought by fishermen and shepherds from Bonifacio during immigration in the 17th and 18th centuries. Though influenced by Gallurese, it has maintained the original characteristics of Corsican. There are also numerous words of Genoese and Ponzese origin. On October 14, 1997, Article 2 Item 4 of Law Number 26 of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia granted \"\"al dialetto sassarese e a quello gallurese\"\"—equal legal status with the other languages on Sardinia. They are thus legally defined as different languages from Sardinian by the Sardinian government.", "The January 2007 estimated population of Corsica was 281,000, whereas the figure for the March 1999 census, when most of the studies—though not the linguistic survey work referenced in this article—were performed, was about 261,000 (see under Corsica). Only a fraction of the population at either time spoke Corsican with any fluency. The use of Corsican language over French language has been declining. In 1980 about 70 percent of the population of the island \"had some command of the Corsican language.\" In 1990 out of a total population of about 254,000 the percentage had declined to 50 percent, with only 10 percent using it as a first language. (These figures do not count varieties of Corsican spoken in Sardinia.) The language appeared to be in serious decline when the French government reversed its unsupportive stand and initiated some strong measures to save it. According to an official survey run on behalf of the \"Collectivité territoriale de Corse\" which took place in April 2013, in Corsica the Corsican language has a number of speakers situated between 86,800 and 130,200, out of a total population amounting to 309,693 inhabitants. The percentage of those who have a solid knowledge of the language varies between a minimum of 25 percent in the 25–34 age group and the maximum of 65 percent in the over-65 age group: almost a quarter of the former age group does not understand Corsican, while only a small minority of the older people do not understand it. While 32 percent of the population of northern Corsica speaks Corsican quite well, this percentage drops to 22 percent for South Corsica. Moreover, 10 percent of the population of Corsica speaks only French, while 62 percent speak both French and Corsican. However, only 8 percent of the Corsicans know how to write correctly in Corsican, while about 60 percent of the population does not know how to write in Corsican. While 90 percent of the population is in favor of a Corsican-French bilingualism, 3 percent would like to have Corsican as the only official language in the island, and 7 percent would prefer French in this role. UNESCO classifies Corsican as a \"definitely endangered language.\" The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in proverbs and in polyphonic song.", "When the French Assembly passed the Deixonne Law in 1951, which made it possible for regional languages to be taught at school, Alsatian, Flemish and Corsican were not included on the ground of being classified as \"dialectes allogènes\" of German, Dutch and Italian respectively; only in 1974 were they too politically recognized as regional languages for their teaching on a voluntary basis. The 1991 \"Joxe Statute\", in setting up the Collectivité Territoriale de Corse, also provided for the Corsican Assembly, and charged it with developing a plan for the optional teaching of Corsican. The University of Corsica Pasquale Paoli at Corte, Haute-Corse took a central role in the planning. At the primary school level Corsican is taught up to a fixed number of hours per week (three in the year 2000) and is a voluntary subject at the secondary school level, but is required at the University of Corsica. It is available through adult education. It can be spoken in court or in the conduct of other government business if the officials concerned speak it. The Cultural Council of the Corsican Assembly advocates for its use, for example, on public signs.", "According to the anthropologist Dumenica Verdoni, writing new literature in modern Corsican, known as the \"Riacquistu\", is an integral part of affirming Corsican identity. Some individuals have returned from careers in continental France to write in Corsican, including Dumenicu Togniotti, director of the \"Teatru Paisanu\", which produced polyphonic musicals, 1973–1982, followed in 1980 by Michel Raffaelli's \"Teatru di a Testa Mora\", and Saveriu Valentini's \"Teatru Cupabbia\" in 1984. Modern prose writers include Alanu di Meglio, Ghjacumu Fusina, Lucia Santucci, and Marcu Biancarelli. There were writers working in Corsican in the 1700s and 1800s. Ferdinand Gregorovius, a 19th-century traveller and enthusiast of Corsican culture, reported that the preferred form of the literary tradition of his time was the \"vocero\", a type of polyphonic ballad originating from funeral obsequies. These laments were similar in form to the chorales of Greek drama except that the leader could improvise. Some performers were noted at this, such as the 1700s Mariola della Piazzole and Clorinda Franseschi. However, the trail of written popular literature of known date in Corsican currently goes no further back than the 17th century. An undated corpus of proverbs from communes may well precede it (see under \"External links\" below). Corsican has also left a trail of legal documents ending in the late 12th century. At that time the monasteries held considerable land on Corsica and many of the churchmen were notaries. Between 1200 and 1425 the monastery of Gorgona, which belonged to the Order of Saint Benedict for much of that time and was in the territory of Pisa, acquired about 40 legal papers of various sorts related to Corsica. As the church was replacing Pisan prelates with Corsican ones there, the legal language shows a transition from entirely Latin through partially Latin and partially Corsican to entirely Corsican. The first known surviving document containing some Corsican is a bill of sale from Patrimonio dated to 1220. These documents were moved to Pisa before the monastery closed its doors and were published there. Research into earlier evidence of Corsican is ongoing.", "Corsican is written in the standard Latin script, using 21 of the letters for native words. The letters j, k, w, x, and y are found only in foreign names and French vocabulary. The digraphs and trigraphs \"chj\", \"ghj\", \"sc\" and \"sg\" are also defined as \"letters\" of the alphabet in its modern scholarly form (compare the presence of \"ch\" or \"ll\" in the old Spanish alphabet) and appear respectively after \"c\", \"g\" and \"s\". The primary diacritic used is the grave accent, indicating word stress when it is not penultimate. In scholarly contexts, disyllables may be distinguished from diphthongs by use of the diaeresis on the former vowel (as in Italian and distinct from French and English). In older writing, the acute accent is sometimes found on stressed, the circumflex on stressed, indicating respectively () and () phonemes. Corsican has been regarded as a dialect of Italian historically, similar to the Romance lects developed on the Italian peninsula, and in writing, it also resembles Italian (with the generalised substitution of -\"u\" for final -\"o\" and the articles \"u\" and \"a\" for \"il/lo\" and \"la\" respectively; however, both the dialect of Cap Corse and Gallurese retain the original articles \"lu\" and \"la\"). On the other hand, the phonemes of the modern Corsican dialects have undergone complex and sometimes irregular phenomena depending on phonological context, so the pronunciation of the language for foreigners familiar with other Romance languages is not straightforward.", "", "As in Italian, the grapheme appears in some digraphs and trigraphs in which it does not represent the phonemic vowel. All vowels are pronounced except in a few well-defined instances. is not pronounced between and : \"sciarpa\" ; or initially in some words: \"istu\". Vowels may be nasalized before (which is assimilated to before or ) and the palatal nasal consonant represented by. The nasal vowels are represented by the vowel plus, or. The combination is a digraph or trigraph indicating the nasalized vowel. The consonant is pronounced in weakened form. The same combination of letters might not be the digraph or trigraph but might be just the non-nasal vowel followed by the consonant at full weight. The speaker must know the difference. Example of nasal: is pronounced and not. The Northern and central dialects in the vicinity of the Taravo river adopt the Italian seven-vowel system, whereas all the Southern ones around the so-called \"archaic zone\" with its centre being the town of Sartène (including the Gallurese dialect spoken in Northern Sardinia) resort to a five-vowel system without length differentiation, like Sardinian. The vowel inventory, or collection of phonemic vowels (and the major allophones), transcribed in IPA symbols, is:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Size.", "Geology.", "History.", "Ecology.", "Pollution.", "Bay fill and depth profile.", "Transportation.", "Recreation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The bay covers somewhere between, depending on which sub-bays (such as San Pablo Bay), estuaries, wetlands, and so on are included in the measurement. The main part of the bay measures wide east-to-west and somewhere between and north-to-south. It is the largest Pacific estuary in the Americas. The bay was navigable as far south as San Jose until the 1850s, when hydraulic mining released massive amounts of sediment from the rivers that settled in those parts of the bay that had little or no current. Later, wetlands and inlets were deliberately filled in, reducing the Bay's size since the mid-19th century by as much as one third. Recently, large areas of wetlands have been restored, further confusing the issue of the Bay's size. Despite its value as a waterway and harbor, many thousands of acres of marshy wetlands at the edges of the bay were, for many years, considered wasted space. As a result, soil excavated for building projects or dredged from channels was often dumped onto the wetlands and other parts of the bay as landfill. From the mid-19th century through the late 20th century, more than a third of the original bay was filled and often built on. The deep, damp soil in these areas is subject to soil liquefaction during earthquakes, and most of the major damage close to the Bay in the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989 occurred to structures on these areas. The Marina District of San Francisco, hard hit by the 1989 earthquake, was built on fill that had been placed there for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, although liquefaction did not occur on a large scale. In the 1990s, San Francisco International Airport proposed filling in hundreds more acres to extend its overcrowded international runways in exchange for purchasing other parts of the bay and converting them back to wetlands. The idea was, and remains, controversial. (For further details, see the \"Bay Fill and Depth Profile\" section.) There are five large islands in San Francisco Bay. Alameda, the largest island, was created when a shipping lane was cut to form the Port of Oakland in 1901. It is now a suburban community. Angel Island was known as \"Ellis Island West\" because it served as the entry point for immigrants from East Asia. It is now a state park accessible by ferry. Mountainous Yerba Buena Island is pierced by a tunnel linking the east and west spans of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge. Attached to the north is the artificial and flat Treasure Island, site of the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition. From the Second World War until the 1990s, both islands served as military bases and are now being redeveloped. Isolated in the center of the Bay is Alcatraz, the site of the famous federal penitentiary. The federal prison on Alcatraz Island no longer functions, but the complex is a popular tourist site. Despite its name, Mare Island in the northern part of the bay is a peninsula rather than an island.", "San Francisco Bay is thought to represent a down-warping of the Earth's crust between the San Andreas Fault to the west and the Hayward Fault to the east, though the precise nature of this remains under study. About 560,000 years ago, a tectonic shift caused the large inland Lake Corcoran to spill out the central valley and through the Carquinez Strait, carving out sediment and forming canyons in what is now the northern part of the San Francisco Bay and Golden Gate strait. Until the last ice age, the basin which is now filled by the San Francisco Bay was a large linear valley with small hills, similar to most of the valleys of the Coast Ranges. As the great ice sheets began to melt, around 11,000 years ago, the sea level started to rise. By 5000 BC the sea level rose, filling the valley with water from the Pacific. The valley become a bay, and the small hills became islands.", "The indigenous inhabitants of the San Francisco Bay were Ohlone. The first European to see San Francisco Bay is likely N. de Morena who was left at New Albion at Drakes Bay in Marin County, California by Sir Francis Drake in 1579 and then walked to Mexico. The first recorded European discovery of San Francisco Bay was on November 4, 1769 when Spanish explorer Gaspar de Portolà, unable to find the port of Monterey, California, continued north close to what is now Pacifica and reached the summit of the Sweeney Ridge, now marked as the place where he first sighted San Francisco Bay. Portolá and his party did not realize what they had discovered, thinking they had arrived at a large arm of what is now called Drakes Bay. At the time, Drakes Bay went by the name \"Bahia de San Francisco\" and thus both bodies of water became associated with the name. Eventually, the larger, more important body of water fully appropriated the name \"San Francisco Bay\". The first European to enter the bay is believed to have been the Spanish explorer Juan de Ayala, who passed through the Golden Gate on August 5, 1775 in his ship the \"San Carlos\", and moored in a bay of Angel Island now known as Ayala Cove. Ayala continued to explore the Bay area and the expedition's cartographer, José de Cañizares, gathered the information necessary to produce the first map of the San Francisco Bay area. A number of place names survive (anglicized) from that first map, including Point Reyes, Angel Island, Farallon Islands and Alcatraz Island. The United States seized the region from Mexico during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). On February 2, 1848, the Mexican province of Alta California was annexed to the U.S. with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. A year and a half later, California requested to join the United States on December 3, 1849 and was accepted as the 31st State of the Union on September 9, 1850. The bay became the center of American settlement and commerce in the Far West through most of the remainder of the 19th century. During the California Gold Rush (1848–1855), San Francisco Bay suddenly became one of the world's great seaports, dominating shipping in the American West until the last years of the 19th century. The bay's regional importance increased further when the First Transcontinental Railroad was connected to its western terminus at Alameda on September 6, 1869. The terminus was switched to the Oakland Long Wharf two months later on November 8, 1869. During the 20th century, the bay was subject to the Reber Plan, which would have filled in parts of the bay in order to increase industrial activity along the waterfront. In 1959, the United States Army Corps of Engineers released a report stating that if current infill trends continued, the bay would be as big as a shipping channel by 2020. This news created the Save the Bay movement in 1960, which mobilized to stop the infill of wetlands and the bay in general, which had shrunk to two-thirds of its size in the century before 1961. San Francisco Bay continues to support some of the densest industrial production and urban settlement in the United States. The San Francisco Bay Area is the American West's second-largest urban area with approximately seven million residents.", "Despite its urban and industrial character, San Francisco Bay and the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta remain perhaps California's most important ecological habitats. California's Dungeness crab, California halibut, and Pacific salmon fisheries rely on the bay as a nursery. The few remaining salt marshes now represent most of California's remaining salt marsh, supporting a number of endangered species and providing key ecosystem services such as filtering pollutants and sediments from the rivers. San Francisco Bay is recognized for protection by the California Bays and Estuaries Policy, with oversight provided by the San Francisco Estuary Partnership. Most famously, the bay is a key link in the Pacific Flyway. Millions of waterfowl annually use the bay shallows as a refuge. Two endangered species of birds are found here: the California least tern and the Ridgway's Rail. Exposed bay muds provide important feeding areas for shorebirds, but underlying layers of bay mud pose geological hazards for structures near many parts of the bay perimeter. San Francisco Bay provided the nation's first wildlife refuge, Oakland's artificial Lake Merritt, constructed in the 1860s, and America's first urban National Wildlife Refuge, the Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge (SFBNWR) in 1972. The Bay is also plagued by non-native species. Salt produced from San Francisco Bay is produced in salt evaporation ponds and is shipped throughout the Western United States to bakeries, canneries, fisheries, cheese makers and other food industries and used to de-ice winter highways, clean kidney dialysis machines, for animal nutrition, and in many industries. Many companies have produced salt in the Bay, with the Leslie Salt Company the largest private land owner in the Bay Area in the 1940s. Low-salinity salt ponds mirror the ecosystem of the bay, with fish and fish-eating birds in abundance. Mid-salinity ponds support dense populations of brine shrimp, which provide a rich food source for millions of shorebirds. Only salt-tolerant micro-algae survive in the high salinity ponds, and impart a deep red color to these ponds from the pigment within the algae protoplasm. The salt marsh harvest mouse is an endangered species endemic to the wetlands of the San Francisco Bay with a high salt tolerance. It needs native pickleweed, which is often displaced by invasive cordgrass, for its habitat. The seasonal range of water temperature in the Bay is from January's to September's when measured at Fort Point, which is near the southern end of the Golden Gate Bridge and at the entrance to San Francisco Bay. For the first time in 65 years, Pacific Harbor Porpoise (\"Phocoena phocoena\") returned to the Bay in 2009. Golden Gate Cetacean Research, a non-profit organization focused on research on cetaceans, has developed a photo-identification database enabling the scientists to identify specific porpoise individuals and is trying to ascertain whether a healthier bay has brought their return. Pacific harbor porpoise range from Point Conception, California to Alaska and across to the Kamchatka Peninsula and Japan. Recent genetic studies show that there is a local stock from San Francisco to the Russian River and that eastern Pacific coastal populations rarely migrate far, unlike western Atlantic Harbor porpoise.", "Industrial, mining, and other uses of mercury have resulted in a widespread distribution in the bay, with uptake in the bay's phytoplankton and contamination of its sportfish. In January 1971, two Standard Oil tankers collided in the bay, creating an oil spill disaster, which spurred environmental protection of the bay. In November 2007, a ship named \"COSCO Busan\" collided with the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge and spilled over of bunker fuel, creating the largest oil spill in the region since 1996. The Bay was once considered a hotspot for polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants used to make upholstered furniture and infant care items less flammable. PBDEs have been largely phased out and replaced with alternative phosphate flame retardants. A 2019 San Francisco Estuary Institute (SFEI) study assayed a wide range of these newer flame retardant chemicals in Bay waters, bivalve California mussels (\"Mytilus californianus\"), and harbor seals (\"Phoca vitulina\") which haul out in Corkscrew Slough on Bair Island in San Mateo County, with phosphate flame retardant contaminants such as tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCPP) and triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) found at levels comparable to thresholds for aquatic toxicity.", "San Francisco Bay's profile changed dramatically in the late 19th century and again with the initiation of dredging by the US Army Corps of Engineers in the 20th century. Before about 1860, most bay shores (with the exception of rocky shores, such as those in Carquinez Strait; along Marin shoreline; Point Richmond; Golden Gate area) contained extensive wetlands that graded nearly invisibly from freshwater wetlands to salt marsh and then tidal mudflat. A deep channel ran through the center of the bay, following the ancient drowned river valley. In the 1860s and continuing into the early 20th century, miners dumped staggering quantities of mud and gravel from hydraulic mining operations into the upper Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. GK Gilbert's estimates of debris total more than eight times the amount of rock and dirt moved during construction of the Panama Canal. This material flowed down the rivers, progressively eroding into finer and finer sediment, until it reached the bay system. Here some of it settled, eventually filling in Suisun Bay, San Pablo Bay, and San Francisco Bay, in decreasing order of severity. By the end of the 19th century, these \"slickens\" had filled in much of the shallow bay flats, raising the entire bay profile. New marshes were created in some areas. In the decades surrounding 1900, at the behest of local political officials and following Congressional orders, the US Army Corps began dredging the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and the deep channels of San Francisco Bay. This work has continued without interruption ever since an enormous federal subsidy to San Francisco Bay shipping. Some of the dredge spoils were initially dumped in the bay shallows (including helping to create Treasure Island on the former shoals to the north of Yerba Buena Island) and used to raise an island in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. The net effect of dredging has been to maintain a narrow deep channel—deeper perhaps than the original bay channel—through a much shallower bay. At the same time, most of the marsh areas have been filled or blocked off from the bay by dikes. Large ships transiting the bay must follow deep underwater channels that are maintained by frequent dredging as the average depth of the bay is only as deep as a swimming pool—approximately. Between Hayward and San Mateo to San Jose it is. The deepest part of the bay is under and out of the Golden Gate Bridge, at. In the late 1990s, a 12-year harbor-deepening project for the Port of Oakland began; it was largely completed by September 2009. Previously, the bay waters and harbor facilities only allowed for ships with a draft of, but dredging activities undertaken by the United States Army Corps of Engineers in partnership with the Port of Oakland succeeded in providing access for vessels with a draft. Four dredging companies were employed in the US$432 million project, with $244 million paid for with federal funds and $188 million supplied by the Port of Oakland. Some of mud from the dredging was deposited at the western edge of Middle Harbor Shoreline Park to become a shallow-water wetlands habitat for marine and shore life. Further dredging followed in 2011, to maintain the navigation channel. This dredging enabled the arrival of the largest container ship ever to enter the San Francisco Bay, the \"MSC Fabiola\". Bay pilots trained for the visit on a simulator at the California Maritime Academy for over a year. The ship arrived drawing less than its full draft of because it held only three-quarters of a load after its stop in Long Beach.", "San Francisco Bay was traversed by watercraft since long before the coming of Europeans. Indigenous peoples used canoes to fish and clam along the shoreline. The era of sail brought ships that connected the area to the rest of the world—and served as early ferries and freighters within the Bay and between the Bay and inland ports, such as Sacramento and Stockton. These were gradually replaced by steam-powered vessels starting in the late 19th century. Several shipyards were early established around the Bay, augmented during wartime. (e.g., the Kaiser Shipyards (Richmond Shipyards) near Richmond in 1940 for World War II for construction of revolutionary mass-produced, assembly line Liberty and Victory cargo ships) San Francisco Bay is spanned by nine bridges, eight of which carry cars. The Transbay Tube, an underwater rail tunnel, carries BART services between Oakland and San Francisco. Prior to the bridges and, later, the Transbay Tube, transbay transportation was dominated by fleets of ferryboats operated by the Southern Pacific Railroad and the Key System transit company. However, in recent decades, ferries have returned, primarily serving commuters from Marin County, relieving the traffic bottleneck of the Golden Gate Bridge. (See article Ferries of San Francisco Bay). The bay also continues to serve as a major seaport. The Port of Oakland is one of the largest cargo ports in the United States, while the Port of Richmond and the Port of San Francisco provide smaller services.", "San Francisco Bay is a mecca for sailors (boats, as well as windsurfing and kitesurfing), due to consistent strong westerly/northwesterly thermally-generated winds – Beaufort force 6 () is common on summer afternoons – and protection from large open ocean swells. Yachting and yacht racing are popular pastimes and the San Francisco Bay Area is home to many of the world's top sailors. A shoreline bicycle and pedestrian trail known as the San Francisco Bay Trail encircles the edge of the bay. The San Francisco Bay Area Water Trail, a growing network of launching and landing sites around the Bay for non-motorized small boat users (such as kayakers) is being developed. Parks and protected areas around the bay include Eden Landing Ecological Reserve, Hayward Regional Shoreline, Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge, Hayward Shoreline Interpretive Center, Crown Memorial State Beach, Eastshore State Park, Point Isabel Regional Shoreline, Brooks Island Regional Shoreline, and César Chávez Park. The California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) has developed a safe eating advisory for fish caught in the San Francisco Bay based on levels of mercury or PCBs found in local species. The San Francisco Bay Area Water Trail is a planned system of designated trailheads designed to improve non-motorized small boat access to the bay. The California Coastal Conservancy approved funding in March 2011 to begin implementation of the water trail." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic concept.", "A more technical description.", "Transfer function." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The key feature of the Ward Leonard control system is the ability to smoothly vary the speed of a DC motor, including reversing it, by controlling the field and hence the output voltage of a DC generator, as well as the field of the motor itself. As the speed of a DC motor is dictated by the supplied voltage, this gives simple speed control. The DC generator could be driven by any means. This 'prime mover' could be an AC motor, or it could be an internal combustion engine (its application to vehicles was patented by H.W. Leonard in 1903). A Ward Leonard drive can be viewed as a high-power amplifier in the multi-kilowatt range, built from rotating electrical machinery. Where the 'prime mover' is electrical, a Ward Leonard drive unit consists of a motor and generator with shafts coupled together. The prime mover, which turns at a constant speed, may be AC or DC powered. The generator is a DC generator, with field windings and armature windings. The input to the amplifier is applied to the field windings, and the higher power output comes from the armature windings. (See Excitation (magnetic)#Amplifier principle for how a generator can act as an amplifier.) The amplifier output is usually connected to a second motor, which moves the load, such as an elevator. With this arrangement, small changes in current applied to the input, and thus the generator field, result in large changes in the output, allowing smooth speed control. A flywheel may be used to reduce voltage fluctuations during sudden load changes. The Ward Leonard system with this modification is known as \"Ward Leonard Ilgner Control\".", "The speed of a DC motor is controlled by varying the voltage fed to the generator field windings, V, which varies the output voltage of the generator. The varied output voltage will change the voltage of the motor, since they are connected directly through the armature. Consequently, changing the V will control the speed of the motor. The picture on the right shows the Ward Leonard control system, with the V feeding the generator and V feeding the motor.", "The first subscripts 'g' and'm' each represents generator and motor. The superscripts 'f', 'r',and 'a', correspond to field, rotor, and armature. Eq. 1: The generator field equation Eq. 2: The equation of electrical equilibrium in the armature circuit Eq. 3: Motor torque equation With total impedance, formula_11, neglected, the transfer function can be obtained by solving eq 3 formula_12. Eq. 4: Transfer function with the constants defined as below:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "1500–1800.", "1800–present.", "Climate.", "Politics and government.", "Sport.", "Music.", "Transport.", "Twin cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "It is not known whether the site of Tórshavn was of interest to the Celtic monks who were probably the first settlers in the Faroes. The Viking settlers in the 9th century established their own parliaments, called \"tings\", in different parts of the islands, it being the tradition in each case to hold the \"ting\" at a neutral and thus uninhabited place, so no one location gave anyone an advantage. The main \"ting\" for the islands was convoked in Tórshavn in 825, on Tinganes, the peninsula that divides the harbour into two parts: \"Eystaravág\" and \"Vestaravág\". The Vikings would thus meet on the flat rocks of Tinganes every summer, as the most central place on the islands, although there was no settlement at Tinganes at that time. The Færeyinga Saga says: \"the place of the \"ting\" of the Faroese was on Streymoy, and there is the harbour that is called Tórshavn\". The Viking age ended in 1035. The \"ting\" was followed by a market which gradually grew into a permanent trading area. All through the Middle Ages, the narrow peninsula jutting out into the sea made up the main part of Tórshavn. It belonged to the outfield of two farmers. Unlike other Faroese villages, Tórshavn was never a distinct farming community. During the 12th century, all trade between Norway and the Faroes, along with other tributary islands to the west, became centralised in Bergen. In 1271, a royal trade monopoly was established in Tórshavn by the Norwegian Crown. According to a document from 1271, two ships would sail regularly to Tórshavn from Bergen with cargoes of salt, timber and cereal. Tórshavn therefore had more contact with the outside world than did the other villages. Under the Norwegian, and then Danish rule, government officials made Tórshavn their home. All of these things, combined with the fact that Tórshavn was the seat of the \"ting\" of the islands, influenced the town's development.", "Sources do not mention a built-up area in Tórshavn until after the Protestant reformation in 1539. In ca. 1580 a small fort, Skansin, was built by the Faroese naval hero and trader Magnus Heinason at the north end of the harbour. Later small fortifications were built at Tinganes. In 1584 Tórshavn had 101 inhabitants. The population was divided into three equally large groups made up of farmers, their families and servants, trade and government officials and people who owned no land and therefore not much else; this included the landless proletariat from the villages that during this period came to Tórshavn in search of work. They were set to guard duty on Skansin without pay, and for clothing and food they depended on the bounty of the farmers. In 1655 king Frederick III of Denmark granted the Faroe Islands to his favourite statesman Kristoffer Gabel, the rule of the von Gabel Family, 1655–1709, is known as \"Gablatíðin\". It is the darkest chapter in the history of Tórshavn. Gabel's administration suppressed the islanders in various ways. The trade monopoly was in the family's hands and it was not designed for the needs of the Faroese people. People across the country brought products into town and had to be satisfied with whatever price they were given. At the same time imported goods were limited and expensive. There came considerable complaints from the islands' inhabitants of unjust treatment by the civil administration in Tórshavn. These not only included the persons in charge of the monopoly trade, but also the bailiff and others. It was during this period, in 1673, that Tinganes was ravaged by a fire after a store of gunpowder kept at Tinganes had blown up. Many old houses burnt to the ground and old Faroese records were lost as were Gabel's documents. Conditions improved in Tórshavn when the trade monopoly became a royal monopoly in 1709. The Danish royal trade monopoly was supplied with goods from Copenhagen three times a year. However, in 1709 Tórshavn was hit by a plague of smallpox, killing nearly the entire population. The town had by this time reached a population of 300 and 250 of the inhabitants died. Still, it was during the latter half of the 18th century that Tórshavn started to develop into a small town. This was while Niels Ryberg was in charge of the trade monopoly. From 1768 and during the next 20 years onwards Ryberg was allowed to carry on an entrepot trade which was mainly based on smuggling to England. Because of the French-British conflict there was room for this kind of operation. In Tórshavn his warehouses filled up with goods. Ryberg was the first person who thought of making a financial profit from fishing, which later became the most important economic factor to the islands. He experimented with salted cod and herring but at this point in time nothing much beyond this happened. Tórshavn Cathedral was first built in 1788 and partly rebuilt in 1865. Since 1990, it has been the seat of the Bishop of the Faroe Islands (in the Church of the Faroe Islands).", "On 30 March 1808, during the Anglo-Danish Gunboat War, the Cruizer class brig-sloop HMS \"Clio\" entered Tórshavn and briefly captured the fort at Skansin. The fort surrendered without firing a shot as the landing party approached. The \"Clio\"s men spiked the fort's eight 18-pounder guns and took all the smaller guns and weapons before leaving. Shortly after 6 May a German privateer who had assumed the name \"Baron von Hompesch\" plundered the defenceless city and seized the property of the Danish Crown Monopoly. The Admiralty Prize Court, however, refused to condemn it as a lawful prize. In 1856, free trade came to the Faroe Islands. By opening the islands to the world, it transformed the economy, with Tórshavn at its centre. The farming land was rented to townspeople who could later buy it if they wished. These small plots of land enabled people to keep cows and sheep. In 1866, Tórshavn's town council was founded. The town has been the capital of the Faroe Islands ever since. Later, in 1909, Tórshavn became a market town with the same municipal charter as Danish market towns. In 1913, the Danish Folketing granted DKK 810,000 to construction of a harbour in Tórshavn. Local waves are 3m, the waters are icefree and have a tidal variation of 0.3m, and storms from the west are mitigated by the gentle eastwards slope of the mountains. Other harbours were also benefitted with an 80% grant to a total build cost of DKK 1.6 million. In 1927, Tórshavn had a modern harbour built. This made it possible for larger ships to berth. During the British occupation of the Faroe Islands in World War II, Skansin was used as the headquarters of the Royal Navy Command, and two 5.5-inch guns used aboard before World War II were deployed. In 1974, the neighbouring villages Hoyvík and Hvítanes were made part of the town area. Later, even more municipalities joined the Tórshavn municipality. In 1978 Kaldbak, in 1997 Argir, in 2001 Kollafjørður, and finally in 2005, Kirkjubøur, Hestur, and Nólsoy.", "Tórshavn features a subpolar oceanic climate (\"Cfc\") with average summer highs around and average winter highs around, and with winter lows averaging just above freezing, and frequent cloudy skies. Average monthly precipitation is highest in autumn and winter, peaking in January, owing to frequent, intense storms crossing the area from the North Atlantic Ocean, while May and June are markedly drier months. Because of the cloudy weather and the ice-free water surrounding Tórshavn, its winter temperatures are exceptionally mild for such a northerly location. However, summer temperatures are much lower than those found in continental Scandinavia on similar parallels. The temperature amplitude in the period from 1961 to 2010 is a mere between the absolute warmest and coldest temperatures.", "Tórshavn is the capital of the Faroe Islands, and as such is the seat of the Faroes’ self rule government. The government holds the executive power in local government affairs. Today a part of the government is located on the Tinganes peninsula of Tórshavn, the Prime Minister's office is here and the Ministry of Internal Affairs was here until it was closed in 2013. The other ministries are located in other office buildings in various places in Tórshavn, i.e. the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Social Affairs are located near the Hospital of the Faroes in Eirargarður, and the Ministry of Finance is located in Argir in a building called Albert Hall on the street Kvíggjartún. The parliament, the Løgting, which was originally located on Tinganes, was relocated to the town square, Vaglið, in 1856.", "Tórshavn, as the capital city, is the centre of sport in the islands; the largest sports centre is located in the Gundadalur district of Tórshavn. Also, the largest football stadium, Tórsvøllur, is located here, seating 6,000 spectators. The stadium serves as home to the Faroe Islands national football team. Around the city there are also two other football pitches, indoor tennis courts, badminton courts and a swimming pool. The city has several football clubs, including three Premier League teams: HB Tórshavn, B36 Tórshavn and Argja Bóltfelag. Other football clubs with connections to the city are FF Giza (Nólsoy), FC Hoyvík and Undrið FF. Handball is the second most popular sport in Tórshavn. The city's handball teams are Kyndil, Neistin and Ítróttafelagið H71 and the Faroe Island's national handball team practice in the city. Tórshavn city has several popular rowing clubs, including, Havnar Róðrarfelag and Róðrarfelagið Knørrur. Every year in July the Tour of Faroe Islands, which is a road bicycle race, is held around the islands. The race is called \"Kring Føroyar\" (Tour de Faroe / Around the Faroes), it starts in Klaksvík and ends in Tórshavn.", "The Tórshavn Jazz Festival has been held annually since 1983. It attracts musicians from all over North America and Europe and has become a popular tourist event.", "The harbour is served by the Smyril Line international ferry service to Denmark and Iceland. The harbour is also used by domestic ferry services of Strandfaraskip Landsins within the Faroe Islands, chiefly on the route to Tvøroyri. The town is served by Bussleiðin – a network of local buses, with the service identified by its red livery. Tórshavn's Bussleiðin has five routes and is operated by the Tórshavn municipality. Buses within Tórshavn have been completely free of charge since 2007. This is a green initiative intended to persuade people to use public transportation rather than drive their cars. Like Bygdaleiðir, the actual buses are privately owned, but contracted to Bussleiðin. Buses also depart to villages throughout the islands. There is a helipad in Tórshavn; the nearest airport is Vágar Airport.", "Tórshavn is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "Climate.", "History.", "1920s.", "Golden Gate Bridge.", "Nautical transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "During the last Ice Age, when sea level was several hundred feet lower, the waters of the glacier-fed Sacramento River and the San Joaquin River scoured a deep channel through the bedrock on their way to the ocean. (A similar process created the undersea Hudson Canyon off the coast of New York and New Jersey.) The strait is well known today for its depth and powerful tidal currents from the Pacific Ocean. Many small whirlpools and eddies can form in its waters. With its strong currents, rocky reefs and fog, the Golden Gate is the site of over 100 shipwrecks.", "The Golden Gate is often shrouded in fog, especially during the summer. Heat generated in the California Central Valley causes air there to rise, creating a low pressure area that pulls in cool, moist air from over the Pacific Ocean. The Golden Gate forms the largest break in the hills of the California Coast Range, allowing a persistent, dense stream of fog to enter the bay there. Although there is no weather station on Golden Gate proper, the area has a mediterranean climate (Köppen \"Csb\") with very narrow temperature fluctuations, cool summers and mild winters. For the nearest weather station see the weatherbox of San Francisco. The Golden Gate Bridge being nearer the ocean and at elevation indicate it being cooler during summer days. Nearer the San Francisco urban core, the temperatures resemble the official NOAA weather station instead.", "Before the Europeans arrived in the 18th century, the area around the strait and the bay was inhabited by the Ohlone to the south and Coast Miwok people to the north. Descendants of both tribes remain in the area. The strait was surprisingly elusive for early European explorers, presumably due to persistent summer fog. The strait is not recorded in the voyages of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo nor Francis Drake, both of whom may have explored the nearby coast in the 16th century in search of the fabled Northwest Passage. The strait is also unrecorded in observations by Spanish galleons returning from the Philippines that laid up in nearby Drakes Bay to the north. These galleons rarely passed east of the Farallon Islands ( west of the Golden Gate), for fear of the possibility of rocks between the islands and the mainland. The first recorded observation of the strait occurred nearly two hundred years later than the earliest European explorations of the coast. In 1769, Sgt José Francisco Ortega, the leader of a scouting party sent north along the San Francisco Peninsula by Don Gaspar de Portolá from their expedition encampment in San Pedro Valley to locate the Point Reyes headlands, reported back to Portolá that he could not reach the location because of his encounter with the strait. On August 5, 1775 Juan de Ayala and the crew of his ship \"San Carlos\" became the first Europeans known to have passed through the strait, anchoring in a cove behind Angel Island, the cove now named in Ayala's honor. Until the 1840s, the strait was called the \"Boca del Puerto de San Francisco\" (\"Mouth of the Port of San Francisco\"). On July 1, 1846, before the discovery of gold in California, the entrance acquired a new name. In his memoirs, John C. Frémont wrote, \"To this Gate I gave the name of 'Chrysopylae', or 'Golden Gate'; for the same reasons that the harbor of Byzantium was called Chrysoceras, or Golden Horn.\" He went on to comment that the strait was “a golden gate to trade with the Orient.”", "In the 1920s, no bridge spanned the watery expanse between San Francisco and Marin in California—so when the U.S. Post Office issued a postage stamp on May 1, 1923, celebrating \"The Golden Gate\", the issue naturally portrayed the scene without a bridge. The schooner sailing ship in the engraving is the USS Babcock, which served in the United States Navy from 1917 to 1919, and is seen passing through the Golden Gate into San Francisco Bay, its port of call.", "The Golden Gate Bridge is a suspension bridge spanning the Golden Gate, the opening of the San Francisco Bay onto the Pacific Ocean. As part of both US Highway 101 and California Route 1, it connects the city of San Francisco on the northern tip of the San Francisco Peninsula to Marin County. The Golden Gate Bridge was the longest suspension bridge span in the world when completed in 1937, and is an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco and California in general. Since its completion, the span length has been surpassed by eight other bridges. It still has the second longest suspension bridge main span in the United States, after the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in New York City. In 2007, it was ranked fifth on the \"List of America's Favorite Architecture\" by the American Institute of Architects.", "The Golden Gate strait serves as the primary access channel for nautical travel to and from the San Francisco Bay, one of the largest cargo ports in the United States. Commercial ports includes the Port of Oakland, the Port of Richmond, and the Port of San Francisco. Commercial cargo ships use the Golden Gate to access the San Francisco Bay, as well as barges, tankers, fishing boats, cruise ships, and privately owned boats, including wind-surfers and kite-boards. About 9000 ships moved through the Golden Gate in 2014, and a similar amount in 2015. The U.S Coast Guard maintains a Vessel Traffic Service to monitor and regulate vessel traffic through the Golden Gate. For navigational guidance, there are white and green lights on the center of the span of the Golden Gate Bridge. Lighthouses with beacons and foghorns provide alerts at Point Bonita, Point Diablo, Lime Point and Mile Rocks. Before the Golden Gate Bridge was built, a lighthouse protected the south side of the strait at Fort Point. Buoys and radar reflectors provide additional navigational aid at various locations throughout the strait." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Janovický was born in Plzeň as Bohuš František Šimsa. Growing up under the German occupation, he studied piano from an early age and later composition with Josef Bartovský (1884-1964). In 1949 he was unsuccessful in applying to study at the Academy of Performing Arts in Prague (HAMU) for political reasons. (The Czech coup of February 1948 had resulted in Communist Party control over the Czech Government). So in October of that year he left with his future wife Sylva Maiwaldová for Germany, arriving a year later in England. Once there he continued his studies: first at the Surrey College of Music, Fitznells Manor in Ewell, where Percy Turnbull taught him piano; then at The Royal College of Music where he completed a Master of Music degree; and also privately with Matyas Seiber (composition) and Jan Šedivka (chamber music). Janovický joined the British Broadcasting Corporation in 1964, moving to the BBC World Service in 1967. During the 1970s he was an occasional broadcaster under the name Jack Allen, hosting programmes of modern Czech music. From 1980 until his retirement in 1990 he managed the BBC's Czechoslovak department. Promoting Czech music in the UK, Janovický championed performances of Dvořák's vocal compositions and operas, Smetana's \"The Bartered Bride\", Janáček's \"Katya Kabanova\" and \"Jenůfa\", Martinů's Field Mass and other works in the original Czech language. He has been active in the Antonín Dvořák Society for many years. He has translated Czech music theory and music history texts into English, including the translation and revision of Jaroslav Vogel's biography of Janáček in 1983. And he continues to coach many singers and choirs, including the BBC Singers, in pronunciation of the Czech language.", "Janovický is a prolific composer with over 200 works in his catalogue, ranging from opera, choral works and songs through to orchestral, string and wind ensembles, chamber music and piano works. His earliest compositions were written while he was still in Plzeň. These include many solo piano works and a series of pieces for spoken voice and piano. After his move to England he was awarded the Dutch Gaudeamus Foundation composition prize for his \"Piano Variations on the theme of Brigadier H. Smitke\", Op. 7. In 1954 his Concerto for Violin and String Orchestra, Op. 10, was premiered at the Royal Festival Hall in London with Jan Šedivka soloist and the Kalmar Orchestra conducted by Colin Davis. On 14 February 1956 he made his debut at The Wigmore Hall with cellist Selu Trau, who also played his Sonata for Solo Cello, Op. 11. In 1957 he won the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra 'Garland for Shakespeare' competition with his \"Variations on a theme of Robert Johnson\", Op.17, which was first performed by the Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra under Sir Charles Groves. (The theme is taken from Robert Johnson's \"Where the Bee Sucks\"). \"The Utmost Sail\" (1958) is a one act opera on a science fiction theme inspired by the launch of the satellite Sputnik in 1957. It concerns the crew of a space ship flying into space and watching the Earth being consumed in a nuclear holocaust. Although Janovický's rate of composition slowed down considerably from the early 1960s due to his heavy work commitments at the BBC, he resumed at full pace on his retirement in 1990. His \"Rain Songs\" cycle, setting poems by the Hungarian-born poet and translator George Szirtes, were written in memory of his teacher Mátyás Seiber. For his 90th birthday celebration the Prazak String Quartet had planned to perform the String Quartet No 4 at two concerts, in Leamington Spa, and in Barnes, London on the 20 and 21 March 2020. However, the performances were cancelled due to coronavirus. His compositions include: Recordings" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "Roles and purposes of bill of lading.", "As cargo receipt.", "As evidence of the contract of carriage.", "As title.", "Types of bills of lading.", "Bills of lading and charterparties compared.", "Sea waybills and electronic data interchange (EDI).", "Electronic bills of lading.", "Name.", "How to recognize a valid international bill of lading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A bill of lading is a standard-form document that is transferable by endorsement (or by lawful transfer of possession). Most shipments by sea are covered by the Hague Rules, the Hague-Visby Rules or the Hamburg Rules, which require the carrier to issue the shipper a bill of lading identifying the nature, quantity, quality and leading marks of the goods. In the case of \"Coventry v Gladstone\", Lord Justice Blackburn defined a bill of lading as \"A writing signed on behalf of the owner of ship in which goods are embarked, acknowledging the receipt of the Goods, and undertaking to deliver them at the end of the voyage, subject to such conditions as may be mentioned in the bill of lading.\" Therefore, it can be stated that the bill of lading was introduced to provide a receipt to the shipper in the absence of the owners. Although the term \"bill of lading\" is well known and well understood, it may become obsolete. Articles 1:15 & 1:16 of the Rotterdam Rules create the new term \"transport document\"; but (assuming the Rules come into force) it remains to be seen whether shippers, carriers and \"maritime performing parties\" (another new Rotterdam Rules coinage) will abandon the long-established and familiar term, \"bill of lading\".", "While there is evidence of the existence of receipts for goods loaded aboard merchant vessels stretching back as far as Roman times, and the practice of recording cargo aboard ship in the ship's log is almost as long-lived as shipping itself, the modern bill of lading only came into use with the growth of international trade in the medieval world. The growth of mercantilism (which produced other financial innovations such as the charterparty (once \"carta partita\"), the bill of exchange and the insurance policy) produced a requirement for a title document that could be traded in much the same way as the goods themselves. It was this new avenue of trade that produced the bill of lading in much the same form as we know today.", "", "The principal use of the bill of lading is as a receipt issued by the carrier once the goods have been loaded onto the vessel. This receipt can be used as proof of shipment for customs and insurance purposes, and also as commercial proof of completing a contractual obligation, especially under INCOTERMS such as CFR (cost and freight) and FOB (free on board). Although the Hague-Visby Rules provide that a bill of lading is only \"prima facie\" evidence of receipt, the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 s.4 declares a BoL \"conclusive evidence of receipt\".", "The bill of lading from carrier to the shipper can be used as an evidence of the contract of carriage by the fact that carrier has received the goods and upon the receipt the carrier would deliver the goods. In this case, the bill of lading would be used as a contract of carriage. In this case, the bill of lading can be used if shipper does not properly ship the goods then the shipper cannot receive the bill of lading from the carrier. Eventually, the shipper would have to deliver the bill of lading to the seller. In this case, the bill of lading is used as a contract of carriage between seller and carrier. However, when the bill of lading is negotiated to a bona fide third party then the bill of lading becomes a conclusive evidence where no contradictory evidence can be introduced. It is because the third party cannot examine the actual shipment and can only pay attention to the document itself, not survey or examination of the shipment itself. However, the bill of lading will rarely be the contract itself, since the cargo space will have been booked previously, perhaps by telephone, email or letter. The preliminary contract will be acknowledged by both the shipper and carrier to incorporate the carrier's standard terms of business. If the Hague-Visby Rules apply, then all of the Rules will be automatically annexed to the bill of lading, thus forming a statutory contract.", "When the bill of lading is used as a document of title, it is particularly related to the case of buyer. When the buyer is entitled to received goods from the carrier, bill of lading in this case performs as document of title for the goods. There are two types of bill of lading that can perform as document of title. They are straight bill of lading and order bill of lading. Straight bill of lading is a bill of lading issued to a named consignee that is not negotiable. In this case, the bill of lading should be directed only to one specific consignee indicated on the bill of lading. Order bill of lading is the opposite from a straight bill of lading and there is no specific or named consignee. Therefore, an order bill of lading can be negotiated to a third party. Simply, the bill of lading confers \"prima facie\" title over the goods to the named consignee or lawful holder. Under the \"\"nemo dat quod non habet\"\" rule (\"no one gives what he doesn't have\"), a seller cannot pass better title than he himself has; so if the goods are subject to an encumbrance (such as a mortgage, charge or hypothec), or even stolen, the bill of lading will not grant full title to the holder.", "Bills of lading may take various forms, such as on-board and received-for-shipment.", "A charterparty is the contract governing the relationship between the shipowner and the charterer. The bill of lading governs the relationship between the shipper and the carrier (who will be either a shipowner or a demise charterer). If the exporter (the shipper) is shipping a small amount of cargo, he will arrange for a carrier to carry the goods for him, using a bill of lading. If the exporter needs the whole (or a very substantial part) of the ship's cargo capacity, the exporter may need to charter the vessel, and he will enter into a charterparty agreement with the shipowner. If the charter party is a time or voyage charterparty, the shipowner will still have control of the ship and its crew. If there is a demise (or \"bareboat\") charterparty, the charterer will effectively have a long lease and will have full control of the vessel. When the master (captain) issues a B/L to a shipper, he will be acting as an agent for the carrier, who will be either the shipowner (time or voyage) or the charterer (demise). In a time-charterparty or voyage-charterparty, if the charterer is shipping his own cargo (rather than the cargo of a third party) he will receive a bill of lading from the master, acting as agent of the shipowner; but that B/L will serve solely as a receipt and document of title, and its terms will (subject to contrary intent) be secondary to the terms of the charterparty, which remains the dominant contract.", "Under Art. III of the Hague-Visby Rules, a carrier must, on demand, provide the shipper with a bill of lading; but if the shipper agrees, a lesser document such as a \"sea waybill\" may be issued instead. In recent years, the use of bills of lading has declined, and they have tended to be replaced with the sea waybill. (If a so-called bill of lading is declared to be \"non-negotiable\", then it is not a true B/L, and instead will be treated as a sea waybill.) The main difference between these two documents is that the waybill gives the bearer the right to possession of the cargo, but does not confer title in the goods. As a result, there is no need for the physical document to be presented for the goods to be released. The carrier will automatically release the goods to the consignee once the import formalities have been completed. This results in a much smoother flow of trade, and has allowed shipping lines to move towards electronic data interchange which may greatly ease the flow of global trade. For some time, it has been the case that the cargo may arrive at the destination before the bill of lading; and a practice has arisen for the shipper (having sent the bill of lading to the banks for checking) to send to the consignee a letter of indemnity (LOI) which can be presented to the carrier in exchange for the cargo. The LOI indemnifies the carrier against any cargo claim, but the document is not transferable and has no established legal status. For letter of credit and documentary collection transactions, it is important to retain title to the goods until the transaction is complete. This means that the bill of lading still remains a vital document within international trade. Alternatively, to overcome the possibility of the goods reaching the destination ahead of the cargo, majority of the Shipping Lines offer an “Express release” service (formerly known as “Telex release”). By surrendering the full set of bills of lading issues at the port of loading, the shipping line can instruct the port of discharge to release the cargo without the physical presentation of bills of lading at destination.", "For many years, the industry has sought a solution to the difficulties, costs and inefficiencies associated with paper bills of lading. One answer is to make the bill an electronic document. An electronic bill of lading (or eB/L) is the legal and functional equivalent of a paper bill of lading. An electronic bill of lading must replicate the core functions of a paper bill of lading, namely its functions as a receipt, as evidence of or containing the contract of carriage and as a document of title. The UK Carriage of Goods Act 1992 s.1(5) enables the trade minister to make regulations for electronic transactions. As yet, no such regulations have been made, as electronic interchange is already lawful. Electronic \"clubs\" such as BOLERO have been quite successful, but the maritime trade community is traditional and loath to move away from paper transactions, so progress has been very slow. However, in recent times, it has been proposed that Blockchain technology may be the answer to cover the myriad steps in an export trade transaction, thereby enabling electronic transactions and information transfer that is both speedy and reliable.", "The word \"lading\" means \"loading\", both words being derived from the Old English word \"hladan\". \"Lading\" specifically refers to the loading of cargo aboard a ship. The Dutch word \"lading\" has exactly the same meaning (freight, cargo, an amount of transportable goods) as it has in the English \"bill of lading\", but is not restricted to shipping. Under English law, the Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1992 provides that the term \"bill of lading\" includes a \"received-for-shipment\" bill of lading issued by, say, a freight forwarder or a storage depot/warehouse. A \"combined bill of lading\" may be issued by a carrier who, say, collects goods from a factory for subsequent delivery to a ship via multi-modal transport.", "The table below explains how to recognize a valid BOL for most international shipping companies, including the SCAC:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Story development.", "Animation.", "Music.", "Cinematic influences.", "Release.", "Original theatrical run.", "Re-releases.", "Reception.", "Home media.", "Legacy.", "Comic strip adaptation.", "Theme parks.", "Broadway musical.", "Canceled prequel.", "Other appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Snow White is a lonely princess living with her stepmother, a vain Queen. The Queen worries that Snow White will be more beautiful than her, so she forces Snow White to work as a scullery maid and asks her Magic Mirror daily \"who is the fairest one of all\". For years the mirror always answers that the Queen is, pleasing her. One day, the Magic Mirror informs the Queen that Snow White is now \"the fairest\" in the land; on that same day, Snow White meets and falls in love with a prince who overhears her singing. The jealous Queen orders her Huntsman to take Snow White into the forest and kill her. She further demands that the huntsman return with Snow White's heart in a jeweled box as proof of the deed. However, the Huntsman cannot bring himself to kill Snow White. He tearfully begs for her forgiveness, revealing the Queen wants her dead and urges her to flee into the woods and never look back. Lost and frightened, the princess is befriended by woodland creatures who lead her to a cottage deep in the woods. Finding seven small chairs in the cottage's dining room, Snow White assumes the cottage is the untidy home of seven orphaned children. In reality, the cottage belongs to seven adult dwarfs—named Doc, Grumpy, Happy, Sleepy, Bashful, Sneezy, and Dopey—who work in a nearby mine. Returning home, they are alarmed to find their cottage clean and suspect that an intruder has invaded their home. The dwarfs find Snow White upstairs, asleep across three of their beds. Snow White awakes to find the dwarfs at her bedside and introduces herself, and all of the dwarfs eventually welcome her into their home after she offers to clean and cook for them. Snow White keeps house for the dwarfs while they mine for jewels during the day, and at night they all sing, play music and dance. Meanwhile, the Queen discovers that Snow White is still alive when the mirror again answers that Snow White is the fairest in the land and reveals that the heart in the jeweled box is actually that of a pig. Using a potion to disguise herself as an old hag, the Queen creates a poisoned apple that will put whoever eats it into the \"Sleeping Death\", a curse she learns can only be broken by \"love's first kiss\", but is certain Snow White will be buried alive. While the Queen goes to the cottage while the dwarfs are away, the animals are wary of her and rush off to find the dwarfs. Faking a potential heart attack, the Queen tricks Snow White into bringing her into the cottage to rest. The Queen fools Snow White into biting into the poisoned apple under the pretense that it is a magic apple that grants wishes. As Snow White falls asleep, the Queen proclaims that she is now the fairest of the land. The dwarfs return with the animals as the Queen leaves the cottage and give chase, trapping her on a cliff. She tries to roll a boulder over them, but before she can do so, lightning strikes the cliff, causing her to fall to her death. The dwarfs return to their cottage and find Snow White seemingly dead, being kept in a deathlike slumber by the poison. Unwilling to bury her out of sight in the ground, they instead place her in a glass coffin trimmed with gold in a clearing in the forest. Together with the woodland creatures, they keep watch over her. A year later, the prince from the beginning of the movie learns of her eternal sleep and visits her coffin. Saddened by her apparent death, he kisses her, which breaks the spell and awakens her. The dwarfs and animals all rejoice as the Prince takes Snow White to his castle.", "Development on \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" began in early 1934, and in June 1934, Walt Disney announced the production of his first feature, to be released under Walt Disney Productions, to \"The New York Times\". One evening that same year, Disney acted out the entire story of \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" to his staff, announcing that the film would be produced as a feature-length film. Before \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", the Disney studio had been primarily involved in the production of animated short subjects in the \"Mickey Mouse\" and \"Silly Symphonies\" series. Disney hoped to expand his studio's prestige and revenues by moving into features, and estimated that \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" could be produced for a budget of ; this was ten times the budget of an average \"Silly Symphony\". \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was to be the first full-length cel animated feature in motion picture history, and as such Walt Disney had to fight to get the film produced. Both his brother and business partner Roy Disney and his wife Lillian attempted to talk him out of it, and the Hollywood movie industry referred to the film derisively as \"Disney's Folly\" while it was in production. He had to mortgage his house to help finance the film's production, which eventually ran up a total cost of $1,488,422.74, a massive sum for a feature film in 1937.", "On August 9, 1934, twenty-one pages of notes—entitled \"Snowwhite suggestions\"—were compiled by staff writer Richard Creedon, suggesting the principal characters, as well as situations and 'gags' for the story. As Disney had stated at the very beginning of the project, the main attraction of the story for him was the Seven Dwarfs, and their possibilities for \"screwiness\" and \"gags\"; the three story meetings held in October and attended by Disney, Creedon, Larry Morey, Albert Hurter, Ted Sears and Pinto Colvig were dominated by such subjects. At this point, Disney felt that the story should begin with Snow White's discovery of the Cottage of the Seven Dwarfs. Walt Disney had suggested from the beginning that each of the dwarfs, whose names and personalities are not stated in the original fairy tale, could have individual personalities. The dwarfs names were chosen from a pool of about fifty potentials, including Jumpy, Deafy, Dizzey, Hickey, Wheezy, Baldy, Gabby, Nifty, Sniffy, Swift, Lazy, Puffy, Stuffy, Tubby, Shorty, and Burpy. The seven finalists were chosen through a process of elimination. The leader of the dwarfs, required to be pompous, self-important and bumbling, was named Doc; others were named for their distinguishing character traits. At the end of the October story meetings, however, only Doc, Grumpy, Bashful, Sleepy and Happy of the final seven were named; at this point, Sneezy and Dopey were replaced by 'Jumpy' and an unnamed seventh dwarf. Along with a focus on the characterizations and comedic possibilities of the dwarfs, Creedon's eighteen-page outline of the story written from the October meetings, featured a continuous flow of gags as well as the Queen's attempt to kill Snow White with a poisoned comb, an element taken from the Grimms' original story. After persuading Snow White to use the comb, the disguised Queen would have escaped alive, but the dwarfs would have arrived in time to remove it. After the failure of the comb, the Queen was to have the Prince captured and taken to her dungeon, where she would have come to him (story sketches show this event both with the Queen and the Witch) and used magic to bring the dungeon's skeletons to life, making them dance for him and identifying one skeleton as \"Prince Oswald\", an example of the more humorous atmosphere of this original story treatment. It is written in story notes that the Queen has such magical power only in her own domain, the castle. With the Prince refusing to marry her, the Queen leaves him to his death (one sketch shows the Prince trapped in a subterranean chamber filling with water) as she makes her way to the dwarfs' cottage with the poisoned apple. The forest animals were to help the Prince escape the Queen's minions and find his horse. The Prince was to ride to the cottage to save Snow White but took the wrong road (despite warnings from the forest animals and his horse, whom he, unlike Snow White, could not understand). He, therefore, would not have arrived in time to save her from the Queen but would have been able to save her with love's first kiss. This plot was not used in the final film, though many sketches of the scene in the dungeon were made by Ferdinand Hovarth. Other examples of the more comical nature of the story at this point include suggestions for a \"fat, batty, cartoon type, self-satisfied\" Queen. The Prince was also more of a clown, and was to serenade Snow White in a more comical fashion. Walt Disney encouraged all staff at the studio to contribute to the story, offering five dollars for every 'gag'; such gags included the dwarfs' noses popping over the foot of the bed when they first meet Snow White. Disney became concerned that such a comical approach would lessen the plausibility of the characters and, sensing that more time was needed for the development of the Queen, advised in an outline circulated on November 6 that attention be paid exclusively to \"scenes in which only Snow White, the Dwarfs, and their bird and animal friends appear\". The names and personalities of the dwarfs, however, were still \"open to change\". A meeting of November 16 resulted in another outline entitled 'Dwarfs Discover Snowwhite', which introduced the character of Dopey, who would ultimately prove to be the most successful and popular of the dwarf characterisations. For the rest of 1934 Disney further developed the story by himself, finding a dilemma in the characterization of the Queen, who he felt could no longer be \"fat\" and \"batty\", but a \"stately beautiful type\", a possibility already brought up in previous story meetings. Disney did not focus on the project again until the autumn of 1935. It is thought that he may have doubted his, and his studio's ability, and that his trip to Europe that summer restored his confidence. At this point, Disney and his writers focused on the scenes in which Snow White and the dwarfs are introduced to the audience and each other. He laid out the likely assignments for everyone working on the film in a memorandum of November 25, 1935, and had decided on the personalities of the individual dwarfs. It had first been thought that the dwarfs would be the main focus of the story, and many sequences were written for the seven characters. However, at a certain point, it was decided that the main thrust of the story was provided by the relationship between the Queen and Snow White. For this reason, several sequences featuring the dwarfs were cut from the film. The first, which was animated in its entirety before being cut, showed Doc and Grumpy arguing about whether Snow White should stay with them. Another, also completely animated, would have shown the dwarfs eating soup noisily and messily; Snow White unsuccessfully attempts to teach them how to eat 'like gentlemen'. A partially animated sequence involved the dwarfs holding a \"lodge meeting\" in which they try to think of a gift for Snow White; this was to be followed by the elaborate 'bed building sequence', in which the dwarfs and the forest animals construct and carve a bed for the princess. This also was cut, as it was thought to slow down the movement of the story. The soup-eating and bed-building sequences were animated by Ward Kimball, who was sufficiently discouraged by their removal to consider leaving the studio, however Disney persuaded him to stay by promoting him to supervising animator of Jiminy Cricket in his next feature \"Pinocchio\" (1940).", "The primary authority on the design of the film was concept artist Albert Hurter. All designs used in the film, from characters' appearances to the look of the rocks in the background, had to meet Hurter's approval before being finalized. Two other concept artists — Ferdinand Hovarth and Gustaf Tenggren — also contributed to the visual style of \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\". Hovarth developed a number of dark concepts for the film, although many other designs he developed were ultimately rejected by the Disney team as less easily translated into animation than Hurter's. Tenggren was used as a color stylist and to determine the staging and atmosphere of many of the scenes in the film, as his style borrowed from the likes of Arthur Rackham and John Bauer and thus possessed the European illustration quality that Walt Disney sought. He also designed the posters for the film and illustrated the press book. However, Hovarth didn't receive a credit for the film. Other artists to work on the film included Joe Grant, whose most significant contribution was the design for the Queen's Witch form. Art Babbitt, an animator who joined the Disney studio in 1932, invited seven of his colleagues (who worked in the same room as him) to come with him to an art class that he himself had set up at his home in the Hollywood Hills. Though there was no teacher, Babbit had recruited a model to pose for him and his fellow animators as they drew. These \"classes\" were held weekly; each week, more animators would come. After three weeks, Walt Disney called Babbit to his office and offered to provide the supplies, working space and models required if the sessions were moved to the studio. Babbit ran the sessions for a month until animator Hardie Gramatky suggested that they recruit Don Graham; the art teacher from the Chouinard Institute taught his first class at the studio on November 15, 1932, and was joined by Phil Dike a few weeks later. These classes were principally concerned with human anatomy and movement, though instruction later included action analysis, animal anatomy and acting. Though the classes were originally described as a \"brutal battle\", with neither instructor nor students well-versed in the other's craft, the enthusiasm and energy of both parties made the classes stimulating and beneficial for all involved. Graham often screened Disney shorts and, along with the animators, provided critique featuring both strengths and weaknesses. For example, Graham criticised Babbit's animation of Abner the mouse in \"The Country Cousin\" as \"taking a few of the obvious actions of a drunk without coordinating the rest of the body\", while praising it for maintaining its humour without getting \"dirty or mean or vulgar. The country mouse is always having a good time\". Very few of the animators at the Disney studio had had artistic training (most had been newspaper cartoonists); among these few was Grim Natwick, who had trained in Europe. The animator's success in designing and animating Betty Boop for Fleischer Studios showed an understanding of human female anatomy, and when Walt Disney hired Natwick he was given female characters to animate almost exclusively. Attempts to animate Persephone, the female lead of \"The Goddess of Spring\", had proved largely unsuccessful; Natwick's animation of the heroine in \"Cookie Carnival\" showed greater promise, and the animator was eventually given the task of animating Snow White herself. Though live action footage of Snow White, the Prince and the Queen was shot as reference for the animators, the artists' animators disapproved of rotoscoping, considering it to hinder the production of effective caricature. None of Babbit's animation of the Queen was rotoscoped; despite Graham and Natwick's objections, however, some scenes of Snow White and the Prince were directly traced from the live-action footage. Cartoonist and character designer Charles Thorson joined Disney in 1935. Charles designed Snow White based on an Icelandic waitress he met in the 1920s named Kristin Solvadottir while eating at a diner in his hometown of Winnipeg, Manitoba. Charles was also responsible for designing six of the seven dwarfs. The seventh dwarf, Dopey, came later. It proved difficult to add color to Snow White's and the queen's face. Eventually they found a red dye that worked, and which was added with a small piece of cotton wrapped around a tipple pencil on each individual cel. Helen Ogger, an employee at the ink department, was also an animator and decided to use the same system used in animation. The method was so time-consuming that it was never used again on the same scale. It was also used to a smaller degree in \"Pinocchio\" and \"Fantasia\", but after Ogger left the studio in 1941 there was nobody with the same skills who could replace her. The studio's new multiplane camera gave a three-dimensional feeling in many sequences and was also used to give a rotating effect in the scene where the Queen transforms into a witch.", "The songs in \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" were composed by Frank Churchill and Larry Morey. Paul J. Smith and Leigh Harline composed the incidental music score. Well-known songs from \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" include \"Heigh-Ho\", \"Some Day My Prince Will Come\", and \"Whistle While You Work\". Since Disney did not have its own music publishing company at the time, the publishing rights for the music and songs were administered through Bourne Co. Music Publishers, which continues to hold these rights. In later years, the studio was able to acquire back the rights to the music from many of the other films, but not \"Snow White\". \"Snow White\" became the first American film to have a soundtrack album, released in conjunction with the feature film. Before \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", a film soundtrack recording was unheard of and of little value to a movie studio.", "At this time, Disney also encouraged his staff to see a variety of films. These ranged from the mainstream, such as MGM's \"Romeo and Juliet\" (1936)—to which Disney made direct reference in a story meeting pertaining to the scene in which Snow White lies in her glass coffin—to the more obscure, including European silent cinema. \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", as well as the two Disney films to follow it, were also influenced by such German expressionist films as \"Nosferatu\" (1922) and \"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari\" (1919), both of which were recommended by Disney to his staff. This influence is particularly evident in the scenes of Snow White fleeing through the forest and the Queen's transformation into the Witch. The latter scene was also inspired by \"Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde\" (1931), to which Disney made specific reference in story meetings.", "", "\"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" premiered at the Carthay Circle Theatre on December 21, 1937, to a wildly receptive audience, many of whom were the same naysayers who had dubbed the film \"Disney's Folly\". The film received a standing ovation at its completion from an audience that included Judy Garland, Marlene Dietrich and Charles Laughton. Six days later, Walt Disney and the seven dwarfs appeared on the cover of \"Time\" magazine. The \"New York Times\" said, \"Thank you very much, Mr. Disney\". The American entertainment trade publication \"Variety\" observed that \"[so] perfect is the illusion, so tender the romance and fantasy, so emotional are certain portions when the acting of the characters strikes a depth comparable to the sincerity of human players, that the film approaches real greatness.\" Following successful exclusive runs at Radio City Music Hall in New York City and a theater in Miami in January 1938, RKO Radio Pictures put the film into general release on February 4. It became a major box-office success, earning four times more money than any other motion picture released in 1938. \"Snow White\" proved equally popular with foreign audiences. In September 1938—seven months after the film's nationwide release in the United States—\"Variety\" also reported that the animated feature was having a remarkably long box-office run at theaters in Sydney, Australia. In that city it noted, \"Walt Disney's 'Snow White' (RKO) experienced no difficulty at hitting 11 weeks, with more ahead.\" \"Variety\" reported as well that \"Snow White\" was having even longer runs in other cities overseas, such as in London, where the film had generated greater box-office receipts than during its exclusive New York screenings at Radio City Music Hall: In total revenue during its original release, \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" grossed $3.5 million in the United States and Canada, and by May 1939 its gross internationally amounted to $6.5 million, making it the most successful sound film of all time, displacing Al Jolson's \"The Singing Fool\" (1928) (\"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was soon displaced from this position by \"Gone with the Wind\" in 1940). By the end of its original run, \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" had earned $7,846,000 in international box office receipts. This earned RKO a profit of $380,000.", "\"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was first re-released in 1944, to raise revenue for the Disney studio during the World War II period. This re-release set a tradition of re-releasing Disney animated features every seven to 10 years, and \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was re-released to theaters in 1952, 1958, 1967, 1975, 1983, 1987 and 1993. Coinciding with the 50th-anniversary release in 1987, Disney released an authorized novelization of the story, written by children's author Suzanne Weyn. In 1993, \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" became the first film to be entirely scanned to digital files, manipulated, and recorded back to film. The restoration project was carried out entirely at 4K resolution and 10-bit color depth using the Cineon system to digitally remove dirt and scratches. \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" has had a lifetime gross of $418 million across its original release and several reissues. Adjusted for inflation, and incorporating subsequent releases, the film still registers one of the top-10 American film moneymakers of all time.", "The film was a tremendous critical success, with many reviewers hailing it as a genuine work of art, recommended for both children and adults. Although film histories often state that the animation of the human characters was criticized, more recent scholarship finds that most reviewers praised the realistic style of the human animation, with several stating that audiences will forget that they are watching animated humans rather than real ones. At the 11th Academy Awards, the film won an Academy Honorary Award for Walt Disney \"as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field\". Disney received a full-size Oscar statuette and seven miniature ones, presented to him by 10-year-old child actress Shirley Temple. The film was also nominated for Best Musical Score. \"Some Day My Prince Will Come\" has become a jazz standard that has been performed by numerous artists, including Buddy Rich, Lee Wiley, Oscar Peterson, Frank Churchill, and Oliver Jones. Albums by Miles Davis, by Wynton Kelly, and Alexis Cole. Noted filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein and Charlie Chaplin praised \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" as a notable achievement in cinema; Eisenstein went so far as to call it the greatest film ever made. The film inspired Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer to produce its own fantasy film, \"The Wizard of Oz\", in 1939. Another animation pioneer, Max Fleischer, decided to produce his animated feature film \"Gulliver's Travels\" in order to compete with \"Snow White\". The 1943 \"Merrie Melodies\" short \"Coal Black and de Sebben Dwarfs\", directed by Bob Clampett, parodies \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" by presenting the story with an all-black cast singing a jazz score. \"Snow White's\" success led to Disney moving ahead with more feature-film productions. Walt Disney used much of the profits from \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" to finance a new $4.5 million studio in Burbank – the location on which The Walt Disney Studios is located to this day. Within two years, the studio completed \"Pinocchio\" and \"Fantasia\" and had begun production on features such as \"Dumbo\", \"Bambi\", \"Alice in Wonderland\" and \"Peter Pan\". The American Film Institute (AFI), an independent non-profit organization created in the United States by the National Endowment for the Arts, releases a variety of annual awards and film lists recognizing excellence in filmmaking. The AFI 100 Years... series, which ran from 1998 to 2008, created categorized lists of America's best movies as selected by juries composed from among over 1,500 artists, scholars, critics, and historians. A film's inclusion in one of these lists was based on the film's popularity over time, historical significance and cultural impact. \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was selected by juries for inclusion on many AFI lists, including the following:", "On October 28, 1994, the film was released for the first time on home video on VHS and LaserDisc as the first release in the Walt Disney Masterpiece Collection. By 1995, the film had sold 24million home video units and grossed. As of 2002, the film sold 25.1million home video units in the United States. \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was released on DVD on October 9, 2001, the first in Disney's Platinum Editions, and featured, across two discs, the digitally restored film, a making-of documentary narrated by Angela Lansbury, an audio commentary by John Canemaker and, via archived audio clips, Walt Disney. A VHS release followed on November 27, 2001. Both versions were returned to the Disney Vault on January 31, 2002. As of 2001, the film grossed a combined from box office and home video revenue. \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" was released on Blu-ray on October 6, 2009, the first of Disney's Diamond Editions, and a new DVD edition was released on November 24, 2009. The Blu-ray includes a high-definition version of the movie sourced from a new restoration by Lowry Digital, a DVD copy of the film, and several bonus features not included on the 2001 DVD. This set returned to the Disney Vault on April 30, 2011. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment re-released \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" on Blu-ray and DVD on February 2, 2016, as the first of the Walt Disney Signature Collection Line. It was released on Digital HD on January 19, 2016, with bonus material.", "Following the film's release, a number of \"Snow White\" themed merchandise were sold, including hats, dolls, garden seeds, and glasses. The film's merchandise generated sales of, equivalent to over adjusted for inflation.", "The \"Silly Symphony\" Sunday comic strip ran a four-month-long adaptation of \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" from December 12, 1937, to April 24, 1938. The comic was written by Merrill De Maris, and drawn by Hank Porter and Bob Grant. This adaptation was republished several times as a comic book, most recently in 1995. The 1984 film \"Gremlins\" used the cartoon in the theater scenes.", "Snow White's Scary Adventures is a popular theme park ride at Disneyland (an opening day attraction dating from 1955), Tokyo Disneyland, and Disneyland Paris. Fantasyland at Walt Disney World's Magic Kingdom underwent an expansion from 2012 to 2014. The Snow White's Scary Adventures ride was replaced with Princess Fairytale Hall, where Snow White and other princesses are located for a meet and greet. Included in the 2013 expansion of Fantasyland is the Seven Dwarfs Mine Train roller coaster. Snow White, her Prince, the Queen, and the Seven Dwarfs are also featured in parades and character appearances throughout the parks. Disneyland's Fantasyland Theater hosted \"Snow White: An Enchanting Musical\" from 2004 to 2006.", "Unknown Mary Jo Salerno played Snow White in the Disney-produced \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\" (also known as \"Snow White Live!\") at the Radio City Music Hall. Music and lyrics for four new songs were created by Jay Blackton and Joe Cook, respectively; titles included \"Welcome to the Kingdom of Once Upon a Time\" and \"Will I Ever See Her Again?\". It ran from October 18 to November 18, 1979, and January 11 to March 9, 1980, a total of 106 performances.", "In the 2000s, DisneyToon Studios began development on a computer-animated prequel to \"Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs\", titled \"The Seven Dwarfs\". Director Mike Disa and screenwriter Evan Spiliotopoulos pitched a story explaining how the Dwarfs met, and how the Evil Queen killed Snow White's father and took the throne. According to Disa, DisneyToon management changed the prequel to center around how Dopey lost his voice upon witnessing the death of his mother. After Disney purchased Pixar in 2006, John Lasseter, DisneyToons' new Chief Creative Officer, canceled \"Dwarfs\".", "The Seven Dwarfs made rare appearances in shorts, despite their popularity; they simply were too numerous to animate efficiently. Commissioned shorts \"The Standard Parade\" (1939), \"The Seven Wise Dwarfs\" (1941, using mostly recycled footage), \"All Together\" (1942) and \"The Winged Scourge\" (1943) all include appearances. The animated television series \"House of Mouse\", which included many Disney character animated cameos, included the characters in the special \"\". The Evil Queen appeared in a starring role in the film \"Once Upon a Halloween\" as well. In the arena of live action, the fantasy television series \"Once Upon a Time\" (produced by Disney-owned ABC Studios) regularly includes live-action interpretations of these characters including Snow White, the Prince, the Evil Queen and Grumpy. An animated television series featuring a new version of the seven dwarfs titled \"The 7D\" premiered on \"Disney XD\" on July 7, 2014, and ended its run on November 5, 2016. The show takes place 30 years before the events of the original film. Streaming audio" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Environmental concerns.", "Fishing and agriculture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1967, an extension of irrigated areas began, and in 1970, the Kapchagay Reservoir, the largest reservoir in the region, began to fill. The lake is located some 80 km north of the old capital of Almaty. The reservoir was created with the aim of regulating river flow and meeting growing economic demands. A dam and hydroelectric power plant were erected on the River Ili, creating the Kapchagay reservoir. However, the project took years to complete on account of the inadequacy of the water sources. It was expected that the reservoir would be a major benefit to the arid soil in the region; however, the complete filling of the Kapchagay reservoir started to affect the water level in lake Balkhash. Filling of the reservoir discontinued in 1982. By 1986, Kapchagay reservoir was still only half full, this improved by 1988. Nevertheless, in 1991, the volume of Kapchagay reservoir was only 36% of the capacity originally projected. In recent years, the area has become one of the best-known resort destinations in Kazakhstan. This is largely due the area’s scenery, which includes the Trans-Ili Alatau mountains (part of the northern Tien Shan mountain system), and the Almaty Nature Reserve on the reservoir’s East coast. The Kapchagay lake has also become a popular resort on account of the area’s good weather conditions, as well as its recreation spaces that include boating, catamarans, boats, jet skis, yachts, entertainment centers, and casinos. Kapchagay reservoir is currently one of the most visited places in the Almaty region. The reservoir presently has multipurpose functions, serving for hydroelectricity production, irrigation storage, transport, fisheries, urban and industrial water supplies, regulation of water discharges to maintain water quality, for nature conservation and recreation.", "The Kapchagay dam was completed in late 1969 and began slowly filling the reservoir in 1970, over a period of 20 years. The hydroelectric project was also seen as important in that the lake would provide an abundant water supply and irrigation for arid farming in the region. However, environmentalists have expressed deep concerns about its environmental impact upon Lake Balkash, given that the equilibrium and balance of water has been seriously disturbed. Between 1970 and 1985, the volume of Lake Balkash declined by 39 km to directly feed the Kapchagay Reservoir, and by 1987, Lake Balkash had reached its all-time low point in volume, dropping roughly 7 feet (2.2 metres) in depth. However, in 1988, this situation improved when the volume of Balkash increased once more from river discharge from the east, although the water quality had been dramatically reduced and became increasingly saline.", "The reservoir has had a major impact upon fish populations, especially given that commercial fishing operations have been practiced in the reservoir, fuelling the local economy. In 1975, 24 species of fish were recorded in Kapchagay Reservoir, but in 1980 this had fallen to 18, directly affecting the industry. However, between 1985 and 1991 as the river reached its current capacity, fish stocks in the lake stabilised and since 1980 there has been a marked growth in the fishing industry on the lake after its decline in the 1970s. The reservoir has also been responsible for rising groundwater levels which has made it impossible to grow crops on land adjacent to the lake in many parts. As a result, many agricultural villages in the area such as Akozek, Kerbulak and Chengildi are located several kilometres from the lake, rather than on its bank." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Geography.", "Nature.", "Caves.", "Gastronomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A widely accepted origin for the name is that they were the first sight of Europe for ships arriving from the Americas. The name can be traced to Lucio Marineo Sículo, who mentions the \" Rupes Europae\" in 1530. Ambrosio Morales, chronist of Felipe II of Spain, mentions the \"Montañas de Europa\" in 1572. Prudencio de Sandoval calls them the \"Peñas o Sierras de Europa\" in 1601.", "The range consists of three major massifs: Central (also known as \"Urrieles\"), Eastern (Ándara) and Western (also known as the \"Picos de Cornión\"). The Central and Western massifs are separated by the deep Cares Gorge (\"Garganta del Cares\"), with the village of Caín at its head. The waters in the Cares mostly arise from cave resurgences. Some of the water in the Cares river is diverted through a hydroelectric scheme, with a canal running in the northern wall of the gorge to Camarmeña. An access path next to the canal provides a spectacular walk. Almost all of the rock in the Picos is limestone, and glacial action has contributed to create an impressive area of alpine karst. The highest peak is \"Torre de Cerredo\", with an altitude of 2,650 metres at. Many other peaks reach altitudes of over 2,600 m. The area is popular with mountaineers, climbers and mountain walkers. There is a good network of well-established mountain refuges. The best-known climbing site is the \"Naranjo de Bulnes\" or \"Picu Urriellu\", in the Urrieles massif which can be considered the most famous climb in Spain.", "Cantabrian brown bears (\"Ursus arctos pyrenaicus\") and wolves (\"Canis lupus signatus\") live in the more remote regions. Rebeccos (Cantabrian chamois - \"Rupicapra pyrenaica parva\") are fairly frequently seen (according to a 2006 Ministry of the Environment report, there were around 8,000 sightings that year); choughs and buzzards are common, various eagles and vultures are frequently seen, and there is a diverse butterfly population in the park. Most of the region is now protected as a single \"Picos de Europa National Park\" in Cantabria, Asturias and León provinces of Spain; the Asturian part was Spain's first National Park. Access is via minor roads to each of the three massifs from the north and from the south to the aerial tramway at Fuente Dé and to Caín at the head of the Cares Canyon.", "The Picos de Europa contain many of world's deepest caves, including Torca del Cerro (−1589 m), Sima de la Cornisa (−1507 m), Torca los Rebecos (−1255 m) and Pozo del Madejuno (−1252 m). Discovery of new caves and their exploration still continues.", "The Picos support a dwindling group of shepherds who move up from the valleys in the summer with their sheep, goats, cows, and an occasional pig. The area is famed for its piquant blue cheeses, such as Cabrales cheese and Picón Tresviso Bejes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood.", "Deaths in immediate family.", "Work.", "Crimes.", "Trial.", "Fate of Ed Gein's property.", "Death.", "In popular culture.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ed Gein was born in La Crosse County, Wisconsin, on August 27, 1906, the second of two boys of George Philip Gein (1873–1940) and Augusta Wilhelmine (\"née\" Lehrke) Gein (1878–1945). Gein had an elder brother, Henry George Gein (1901–1944). Augusta hated her husband, an alcoholic who was unable to keep a job; he had worked at various times as a carpenter, tanner, and an insurance salesman. George owned a local grocery shop for a few years, but sold the business, and the family left the city to live in isolation on a farm in the town of Plainfield in Waushara County, Wisconsin, which became the Gein family's permanent residence. Augusta took advantage of the farm's isolation by turning away outsiders who could have influenced her sons. Edward left the farm only to attend school. Outside of school, he spent most of his time doing chores on the farm. Augusta was fervently religious, and nominally Lutheran. She preached to her boys about the innate immorality of the world, the evil of drinking, and her belief that all women (except herself) were naturally promiscuous and instruments of the devil. She reserved time every afternoon to read to them from the Bible, usually selecting verses from the Old Testament concerning death, murder, and divine retribution. Edward was shy, and classmates and teachers remembered him as having strange mannerisms, such as seemingly random laughter, as if he were laughing at his own personal jokes. To make matters worse, his mother punished him whenever he tried to make friends. Despite his poor social development, he did fairly well in school, particularly in reading.", "On April 1, 1940, Ed's father George died of heart failure caused by his alcoholism; aged 66. Henry and Ed began doing odd jobs around town to help cover living expenses. The brothers were generally considered reliable and honest by residents of the community. While both worked as handymen, Ed also frequently babysat for neighbors. He enjoyed babysitting, seeming to relate more easily to children than adults. Henry began dating a divorced, single mother of two and planned on moving in with her; Henry worried about his brother's attachment to their mother and often spoke ill of her around Ed, who responded with shock and hurt. On May 16, 1944, Henry and Ed were burning away marsh vegetation on the property; the fire got out of control, drawing the attention of the local fire department. By the end of the day – the fire having been extinguished and the firefighters gone – Ed reported his brother missing. With lanterns and flashlights, a search party searched for Henry, whose dead body was found lying face down. Apparently, he had been dead for some time, and it appeared that the cause of death was heart failure since he had not been burned or injured otherwise. It was later reported, in Harold Schechter's biography of Gein, \"Deviant\", that Henry had bruises on his head. The police dismissed the possibility of foul play and the county coroner later officially listed asphyxiation as the cause of death. The authorities accepted the accident theory, but no official investigation was conducted and an autopsy was not performed. Some suspected that Ed Gein killed his brother. Questioning Gein about the death of Bernice Worden in 1957, state investigator Joe Wilimovsky brought up questions about Henry's death. George W. Arndt, who studied the case, wrote that, in retrospect, it was \"possible and likely\" that Henry's death was \"the “Cain and Abel” aspect of this case\". Gein and his mother were now alone. Augusta had a paralyzing stroke shortly after Henry's death, and Gein devoted himself to taking care of her. Sometime in 1945, Gein later recounted, he and his mother visited a man named Smith, who lived nearby, to purchase straw. According to Gein, Augusta witnessed Smith beating a dog. A woman inside the Smith home came outside and yelled for him to stop but Smith beat the dog to death. Augusta was extremely upset by this scene; however, what bothered her did not appear to be the brutality toward the dog but rather the presence of the woman. Augusta told Ed that the woman was not married to Smith, so she had no business being there. \"Smith's harlot\", Augusta angrily called her. She had a second stroke soon after, and her health deteriorated rapidly. She died on December 29, 1945, at the age of 67. Ed was devastated by her death; in the words of author Harold Schechter, he had \"lost his only friend and one true love. And he was absolutely alone in the world.\"", "Gein held on to the farm and earned money from odd jobs. He boarded up rooms used by his mother, including the upstairs, downstairs parlor, and living room, leaving them untouched; while the rest of the house became increasingly squalid, these rooms remained pristine. Gein lived thereafter in a small room next to the kitchen. Around this time, he became interested in reading pulp magazines and adventure stories, particularly those involving cannibals or Nazi atrocities. Gein was a handyman and received a farm subsidy from the federal government starting in 1951. He occasionally worked for the local municipal road crew and crop-threshing crews in the area. Sometime between 1946 and 1956, he also sold an parcel of land that his brother Henry had owned.", "On the morning of November 16, 1957, Plainfield hardware store owner Bernice Worden disappeared. A Plainfield resident reported that the hardware store's truck had been driven out from the rear of the building at around 9:30 A.M. The hardware store was closed the entire day; some area residents believed this was because of deer hunting season. Bernice Worden's son, Deputy Sheriff Frank Worden, entered the store around 5:00 P.M. to find the store's cash register open and blood stains on the floor. Frank Worden told investigators that Ed Gein had been in the store the evening before his mother's disappearance, and that he would return the next morning for a gallon of antifreeze. A sales slip for a gallon of antifreeze was the last receipt written by Worden on the morning she disappeared. On the evening of the same day, Gein was arrested at a West Plainfield grocery store, and the Waushara County Sheriff's Department searched the Gein farm. A Waushara County Sheriff's deputy discovered Worden's decapitated body in a shed on Gein's property, hung upside down by her legs with a crossbar at her ankles and ropes at her wrists. The torso was \"dressed out like a deer\". She had been shot with a.22-caliber rifle, and the mutilations were made after her death. Searching the house, authorities found: These artifacts were photographed at the state crime laboratory and then destroyed. When questioned, Gein told investigators that between 1947 and 1952, he made as many as 40 nocturnal visits to three local graveyards to exhume recently buried bodies while he was in a \"daze-like\" state. On about 30 of those visits, he said he came out of the daze while in the cemetery, left the grave in good order, and returned home empty-handed. On the other occasions, he dug up the graves of recently buried middle-aged women he thought resembled his mother and took the bodies home, where he tanned their skins to make his paraphernalia. Gein admitted to stealing from nine graves from local cemeteries and led investigators to their locations. Allan Wilimovsky of the state crime laboratory participated in opening three test graves identified by Gein. The caskets were inside wooden boxes; the top boards ran crossways (not lengthwise). The tops of the boxes were about 2 feet (60 cm) below the surface in sandy soil. Gein had robbed the graves soon after the funerals while the graves were not completed. The test graves were exhumed because authorities were uncertain as to whether the slight Gein was capable of single-handedly digging up a grave during a single evening; they were found as Gein described: two of the exhumed graves were found empty (one had a crowbar in place of the body). One casket was empty; one casket Gein had failed to open when he lost his pry bar; and most of the body was gone from the third grave, yet Gein had returned rings and some body parts, thus apparently corroborating Gein's confession. Soon after his mother's death, Gein began to create a \"woman suit\" so that \"...he could become his mother—to literally crawl into her skin\". Gein denied having sex with the bodies he exhumed, explaining: \"They smelled too bad.\" During state crime laboratory interrogation, Gein also admitted to the shooting death of Mary Hogan, a tavern owner missing since 1954 whose head was found in his house, but he later denied memory of details of her death. A 16-year-old youth, whose parents were friends of Gein and who attended ball games and movies with him, reported that Gein kept shrunken heads in his house, which Gein had described as relics from the Philippines, sent by a cousin who had served on the islands during World War II. Upon investigation by the police, these were determined to be human facial skins, carefully peeled from corpses and used by Gein as masks. Gein was also considered a suspect in several other unsolved cases in Wisconsin, including the 1953 disappearance of Evelyn Hartley, a La Crosse babysitter. During questioning, Waushara County sheriff Art Schley reportedly assaulted Gein by banging his head and face into a brick wall. As a result, Gein's initial confession was ruled inadmissible. Schley died of heart failure at age 43 in 1968 before Gein's trial. Many who knew Schley said he was traumatized by the horror of Gein's crimes, and this, along with the fear of having to testify (especially about assaulting Gein), caused his death. One of his friends said: \"He was a victim of Ed Gein as surely as if he had butchered him.\"", "On November 21, 1957, Gein was arraigned on one count of first degree murder in Waushara County Court, where he pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity. Gein was diagnosed with schizophrenia and found mentally incompetent, thus unfit for trial. He was sent to the Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane (now the Dodge Correctional Institution), a maximum-security facility in Waupun, Wisconsin, and later transferred to the Mendota State Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin. In 1968, doctors determined Gein was \"mentally able to confer with counsel and participate in his defense\". The trial began on November 7, 1968, and lasted one week. A psychiatrist testified that Gein had told him that he did not know whether the killing of Bernice Worden was intentional or accidental. Gein had told him that while he examined a gun in Worden's store, the gun went off, killing Worden. Gein testified that after trying to load a bullet into the rifle, it discharged. He said he had not aimed the rifle at Worden, and did not remember anything else that happened that morning. At the request of the defense, Gein's trial was held without a jury, with Judge Robert H. Gollmar presiding. Gein was found guilty by Gollmar on November 14. A second trial dealt with Gein's sanity; after testimony by doctors for the prosecution and defense, Gollmar ruled Gein \"not guilty by reason of insanity\" and ordered him committed to Central State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. Gein spent the rest of his life in a mental hospital. Judge Gollmar wrote, \"Due to prohibitive costs, Gein was tried for only one murder—that of Mrs. Worden. He also admitted to killing Mary Hogan.\"", "Ed Gein's house and property were appraised at $4,700 (). His possessions were scheduled to be auctioned on March 30, 1958, amidst rumors that the house and the land it stood on might become a tourist attraction. Early on the morning of March 20, the house was destroyed by fire. A deputy fire marshal reported that a rubbish fire had been set from the house by a cleaning crew tasked with disposing of trash; further, that hot coals were recovered from the spot of the bonfire, and fire from the bonfire's location did not travel along the ground to the house. Arson was suspected, but the cause of the fire was never officially determined. When Gein learned of the incident while in detention, he shrugged and said, \"Just as well.\" Gein's 1949 Ford sedan, which he used to haul the bodies of his victims, was sold at public auction for $760 () to carnival sideshow operator Bunny Gibbons. Gibbons charged carnival goers 25¢ admission to see it.", "Gein died at the Mendota Mental Health Institute due to respiratory failure secondary to lung cancer on July 26, 1984, at the age of 77. Over the years, souvenir seekers chipped pieces from his gravestone at the Plainfield Cemetery, until the stone itself was stolen in 2000. It was recovered in June 2001, near Seattle, and was placed in storage at the Waushara County Sheriff's Department. The gravesite itself is now unmarked, but not unknown; Gein is interred between his parents and brother in the cemetery.", "The story of Ed Gein has had a lasting effect on American popular culture as evident by its numerous appearances in film, music, and literature. The tale first came to widespread public attention in the fictionalized version presented by Robert Bloch in his 1959 suspense novel, \"Psycho\". In addition to Alfred Hitchcock's 1960 film of Bloch's novel, \"Psycho\", Gein's story was loosely adapted into numerous films, including \"Deranged\" (1974), \"In the Light of the Moon\" (2000) (released in the United States and Australia as \"Ed Gein\" (2001)), \"\" (2007), and the Rob Zombie films \"House of 1000 Corpses\" and its sequel, \"The Devil's Rejects\". Gein served as the inspiration for myriad fictional serial killers, most notably Norman Bates (\"Psycho\"), Leatherface (\"The Texas Chain Saw Massacre\"), Buffalo Bill (\"The Silence of the Lambs\") and the character Dr. Oliver Thredson from the TV series \"\". American filmmaker Errol Morris and German filmmaker Werner Herzog attempted unsuccessfully to collaborate on a film project about Gein from 1975 to 1976. Morris interviewed Gein several times and ended up spending almost a year in Plainfield interviewing dozens of locals. The pair planned secretly to exhume Gein's mother from her grave to test a theory, but never followed through on the scheme and eventually ended their collaboration. The aborted project was described in a 1989 \"New Yorker\" profile of Morris. The character Patrick Bateman, in the 2000 film \"American Psycho\", mistakenly attributes a quote by Edmund Kemper to Gein, saying: \"You know what Ed Gein said about women?... He said 'When I see a pretty girl walking down the street, I think two things. One part of me wants to take her out, talk to her, be real nice and sweet and treat her right... [the other part wonders] what her head would look like on a stick'.\" In 2012, German director Jörg Buttgereit wrote and directed a stage play about the case of Ed Gein called \"Kannibale und Liebe\" at Theater Dortmund in Germany. The part of Gein was played by actor Uwe Rohbeck. At the time, the news reports of Gein's crimes spawned a subgenre of \"black humor\". Since the 1950s Gein has frequently been exploited by transgressive art or \"shock rock\", often without association with his life or crimes beyond the shock value of his name. Examples of this include the song titled \"Dead Skin Mask\" (1990) from Slayer's album \"Seasons in the Abyss\", \"Nothing to Gein\" (2001) from Mudvayne's album \"L.D. 50\", and, \"Ed Gein\" (1992), from the Ziggens' album \"Rusty Never Sleeps\". There was also a band named Ed Gein.", "General:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Purposes and objectives.", "Structure." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea of co-operation among major Muslim developing countries was mooted by Prof. Dr. Necmettin Erbakan, the then Prime Minister of Turkey, during a Seminar on \"Cooperation in Development\" which was held in Istanbul in October 1996. The group envisioned co-operation among countries stretching from South East Asia to Africa. Representatives from Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria and Pakistan attended the Seminar. This conference was the first step towards the establishment of D-8 and it was only after a series of preparatory meetings that D-8 was set up officially and began its activities with the Istanbul Declaration issued at the end of the summit of Heads of State and Government held in Istanbul on 15 June 1997", "As stated by the D-8 Facts and Figures Publication: \"The objectives of D-8 are to improve developing countries' positions in the world economy, diversify and create new opportunities in trade relations, enhance participation in decision-making at the international level, and provide better standards of living.\" The main areas of co-operation include finance, banking, rural development, science and technology, humanitarian development, agriculture, energy, environment, and health. In the first Summit Declaration (Istanbul, 1997), the main objective of D-8 is stated to be socio-economic development in accordance with following principles: By the same token, D-8 is a forum with no adverse impact on bilateral and multilateral commitments of the member countries, emanating from their membership of other regional or international organisations. The fifth D-8 Summit Declaration (Bali, 2006) produced the following, as illustration of the application of the group's objectives:", "The Developing 8 is organised into three bodies: The Summit, which is convened every two years, has the highest level of authority, and is composed of the leaders of each member state. The Council is the principal decision-making body and forum for consideration of issues relating to the D-8, and is composed of the foreign affairs ministers of each member state. The Commission has executive authority, and is composed of Commissioners appointed by each member state's government. Commissioners are responsible for promoting compliance with D8 directives in their respective nation. Finally, an executive director is appointed by D-8 members to facilitate communication and to act in a supervisory capacity during each summit or lower-level assembly." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classical antiquity and the Middle Ages.", "Modern research.", "Modern geography and science.", "Literary references.", "Classical literature.", "Medieval and early modern works.", "Modern literature.", "In Nazi ideology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Greek explorer Pytheas of Massalia (now Marseille, France) is the first to have written of Thule, after his travels between 330 and 320 BC. Pytheas mentioned going to Thule in his now lost work, \"Things about the Ocean\" Τὰ περὶ τοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ (\"ta peri tou Okeanou\"). He supposedly was sent out by the Greek city of Massalia to see where their trade goods were coming from. Descriptions of some of his discoveries have survived in the works of later, often skeptical, authors. Polybius in his \"Histories\" (c. 140 BC), Book XXXIV, cites Pytheas as one \"who has led many people into error by saying that he traversed the whole of Britain on foot, giving the island a circumference of forty thousand stadia, and telling us also about Thule, those regions in which there was no longer any proper land nor sea nor air, but a sort of mixture of all three of the consistency of a jellyfish in which one can neither walk nor sail, holding everything together, so to speak.\" The first century BC Greek astronomer Geminus of Rhodes claimed that the name Thule went back to an archaic word for the polar night phenomenon – \"the place where the sun goes to rest\". Dionysius Periegetes in his \"De situ habitabilis orbis\" also touched upon this subject as did Martianus Capella. Avienus in his \"Ora Maritima\" added that during the summer on Thule night lasted only two hours, a clear reference to the midnight sun. Strabo, in his \"Geographica\" (c. AD 30), mentions Thule in describing Eratosthenes' calculation of \"the breadth of the inhabited world\" and notes that Pytheas says it \"is a six days' sail north of Britain, and is near the frozen sea\". But he then doubts this claim, writing that Pytheas has \"been found, upon scrutiny, to be an arch falsifier, but the men who have seen Britain and Ireland do not mention Thule, though they speak of other islands, small ones, about Britain\". Strabo adds the following in Book 5: \"Now Pytheas of Massilia tells us that Thule, the most northerly of the Britannic Islands, is farthest north, and that there the circle of the summer tropic is the same as the Arctic Circle. But from the other writers I learn nothing on the subject – neither that there exists a certain island by the name of Thule, nor whether the northern regions are inhabitable up to the point where the summer tropic becomes the Arctic Circle.\" Strabo ultimately concludes, \"Concerning Thule, our historical information is still more uncertain, on account of its outside position; for Thule, of all the countries that are named, is set farthest north.\" The inhabitants or people of Thule are described in most detail by Strabo (citing Pytheas): \"the people (of Thule) live on millet and other herbs, and on fruits and roots; and where there are grain and honey, the people get their beverage, also, from them. As for the grain, he says, since they have no pure sunshine, they pound it out in large storehouses, after first gathering in the ears thither; for the threshing floors become useless because of this lack of sunshine and because of the rains\". The mid-first century Roman geographer Pomponius Mela placed Thule north of Scythia. In AD 77, Pliny the Elder published his \"Natural History\" in which he also cites Pytheas' claim (in Book II, Chapter 75) that Thule is a six-day sail north of Britain. Then, when discussing the islands around Britain, he writes: \"The farthest of all, which are known and spoke of, is Thule; in which there be no nights at all, as we have declared, about mid-summer, namely when the Sun passes through the sign Cancer; and contrariwise no days in mid-winter: and each of these times they suppose, do last six months, all day, or all night.\" Finally, in refining the island's location, he places it along the most northerly parallel of those he describes: \"Last of all is the Scythian parallel, from the Rhiphean hills into Thule: wherein (as we said) it is day and night continually by turns (for six months).\" The Roman historian Tacitus, in his book chronicling the life of his father-in-law, Agricola, describes how the Romans knew that Britain (in which Agricola was Roman commander) was an island rather than a continent, by circumnavigating it. Tacitus writes of a Roman ship visiting the Orkneys and claims the ship's crew even sighted Thule. However their orders were not to explore there, as winter was at hand. Some scholars believe that Tacitus was referring to Shetland. The third-century Latin grammarian Gaius Julius Solinus wrote in his \"Polyhistor\" that \"Thyle, which was distant from Orkney by a voyage of five days and nights, was fruitful and abundant in the lasting yield of its crops\". The 4th century Virgilian commentator Servius also believed that Thule sat close to Orkney: \"Thule; an island in the Ocean between the northern and western zone, beyond Britain, near Orkney and Ireland; in this Thule, when the sun is in Cancer, it is said that there are perpetual days without nights...\" Other late classical writers and post-classical writers, such as Orosius (384–420) and the Irish monk Dicuil (late eighth and early ninth century), describe Thule as being north and west of both Ireland and Britain, strongly suggesting that it was Iceland. In particular, Dicuil described Thule as being beyond islands that seem to be the Faroe Islands (which are between Shetland and Iceland). Solinus (d. AD 400) in his \"Polyhistor\", repeated these descriptions, noting that the people of Thule had a fertile land where they grew a good production of crop and fruits. In the writings of the historian Procopius, from the first half of the sixth century, Thule is a large island in the north inhabited by 25 tribes. It is believed that Procopius is really talking about a part of Scandinavia, since several tribes are easily identified, including the Geats (\"Gautoi\") in present-day Sweden and the Sami people (\"Scrithiphini\"). He also writes that when the Herules returned, they passed the Warini and the Danes and then crossed the sea to Thule, where they settled beside the Geats.", "The British surveyor Charles Vallancey (1731–1812) was one of many antiquarians to argue that Ireland was Thule, as he does in his book \"An essay on the antiquity of the Irish language\". Another hypothesis, first proposed by Lennart Meri in 1976, holds that the island of Saaremaa (which is often known by the exonym Osel) in Estonia, could be Thule. That is, there is a phonological similarity between Thule and the root \"tule-\" \"of fire\" in Estonian (and other Finnic languages). A crater lake named Kaali on the island appears to be have been formed by a meteor strike in prehistory. This meteor strike is often linked to Estonian folklore which has it that Saaremaa was a place where the sun at one point \"went to rest\". In 2010, scientists from the Institute of Geodesy and Geoinformation Science at the Technical University of Berlin claimed to have identified persistent errors in calculation that had occurred in attempts by modern geographers to superimpose geographic coordinate systems upon Ptolemaic maps. After correcting for these errors, the scientists claimed, Ptolemy's Thule could be mapped to the Norwegian island of Smøla.", "In 1775, during his second voyage, Captain Cook named an island in the high southern latitudes of the South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Thule. The name is now used for a group of three southernmost islands in the South Sandwich Islands, one of which is called Thule Island. The island group became a British overseas territory of the United Kingdom, albeit also claimed by Argentina (in Spanish \"Islas Tule del Sur\"). In 1910, the explorer Knud Rasmussen established a missionary and trading post, which he named Thule (Inuit: \"Avanaa\") on Greenland. The Thule people, the predecessor of modern Inuit Greenlanders, were named after the Thule region. In 1953, Avanaa became Thule Air Base, operated by United States Air Force. The population was forced to resettle to New Thule (Qaanaaq), to the north ( only 840 NM from the North Pole). The Scottish Gaelic for Iceland is \"Innis Tile\", which literally means the \"Isle of Thule\". Thule lends its name to the 69th element in the periodic table, thulium. Ultima Thule is the name of a location in the Mammoth Cave system in Kentucky, United States. It was formerly the terminus of the known-explorable southeastern (upstream) end of the passage called \"Main Cave\", before discoveries made in 1908 by Ed Bishop and Max Kaemper showed an area accessible beyond it, now the location of the Violet City Entrance. The Violet City Lantern tour offered at the cave passes through Ultima Thule near the conclusion of the route. The Southern Thule islands were occupied by Argentina in 1976. The occupation was not militarily contested by the British until the 1982 Falklands War, during which time British sovereignty was restored by a contingent of Royal Marines. Currently the three islands are uninhabited. In March 2018, following a naming competition, the Kuiper belt object 486958 Arrokoth, a fly-by target of the NASA probe \"New Horizons\", was nicknamed \"Ultima Thule\". The fly-by took place on 1 January 2019, and was the most distant encounter between a spacecraft and a planetary body. An official name for the body has since been assigned by the International Astronomical Union.", "", "In the metaphorical sense of a far-off land or an unattainable goal, Virgil coined the term \"Ultima Thule\" (Georgics, 1. 30) meaning \"farthermost Thule\". Seneca the Younger writes of a day when new lands will be discovered past Thule. This was later quoted widely in the context of Christopher Columbus' voyages. The Roman poet Silius Italicus (AD 25 – 101), who wrote that the people of Thule were painted blue: \"the blue-painted native of Thule, when he fights, drives around the close-packed ranks in his scythe-bearing chariot\", implying a link to the Picts (whose exonym is derived from the Latin \"pictus\" \"painted\"). Martial (AD 40 – 104) talks about \"blue\" and \"painted Britons\", just like Julius Caesar. Claudian (AD 370 – 404) also believed that the inhabitants of Thule were Picts. A work of prose fiction in Greek by Antonius Diogenes entitled \"The Wonders Beyond Thule\" appeared c. AD 150 or earlier. (Gerald N. Sandy, in the introduction to his translation of Photius' ninth century summary of the work, notes that this Thule most closely matches Iceland.) Cleomedes referenced Pytheas' journey to Thule, but added no new information. Early in the fifth century AD Claudian, in his poem, \"On the Fourth Consulship of the Emperor Honorius\", Book VIII, rhapsodizes on the conquests of the emperor Theodosius I, declaring that the \"Orcades\" \"ran red with Saxon slaughter; Thule was warm with the blood of Picts; ice-bound Hibernia [Ireland] wept for the heaps of slain Scots\". This implies that Thule was Scotland. But in \"Against Rufinias\", the Second Poem, Claudian writes of \"Thule lying icebound beneath the pole-star\". Jordanes in his \"Getica\" also wrote that Thule sat under the pole-star. The \"known world' of the Europeans came to be viewed as bounded in the east by India and in the west by Thule, as expressed in the \"Consolation of Philosophy\" (III, 203 = metrus V, v. 7) by Boethius. \"For though the earth, as far as India's shore, tremble before the laws you give, though Thule bow to your service on earth's farthest bounds, yet if thou canst not drive away black cares, if thou canst not put to flight complaints, then is no true power thine.\"", "In the early seventh century, Isidore of Seville wrote in his \"Etymologies\" that:Ultima Thule (\"Thyle ultima\") is an island of the Ocean in the northwestern region, beyond Britannia, taking its name from the sun, because there the sun makes its summer solstice, and there is no daylight beyond (\"ultra\") this. Hence its sea is sluggish and frozen.Isidore distinguished this from the islands of Britannia, Thanet (\"Tanatos\"), the Orkneys (\"Orcades\"), and Ireland (\"Scotia\" or \"Hibernia\"). Isidore was to have a large influence upon Bede, who was later to mention Thule. By the late Middle Ages, scholars were linking Iceland and/or Greenland to the name Thule and/or places reported by the Irish mariner Saint Brendan (in the 6th century) and other distant or mythical locations, such as Hy Brasil and Cockaigne. These scholars included works by Dicuil (see above), the Anglo-Saxon monk the Venerable Bede in \"De ratione temporum\", the Landnámabók, by the anonymous \"Historia Norwegie\", and by the German cleric Adam of Bremen in his \"Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church\", where they cite both ancient writers' use of Thule as well as new knowledge since the end of antiquity. All these authors also understood that other islands were situated to the north of Britain. Eustathius of Thessalonica, in his twelfth-century commentary on the \"Iliad,\" wrote that the inhabitants of Thule were at war with a tribe whose members dwarf-like, only 20 fingers in height. The American classical scholar Charles Anthon believed this legend may have been rooted in history (although exaggerated), if the dwarf or pygmy tribe were interpreted as being a smaller aboriginal tribe of Britain the people on Thule had encountered. Petrarch, in the fourteenth century, wrote in his \"Epistolae familiares\" (\"Familiar Letters\") that Thule lay in the unknown regions of the far north-west. A madrigal by Thomas Weelkes, entitled \"Thule\" (1600), describes it with reference to the Icelandic volcano Hekla: The English poet Ambrose Philips began, but did not complete, a poem concerning \"\" which he published in 1748. Thule is referred to in Goethe's poem \"Der König in Thule\" (1774), famously set to music by Franz Schubert (D 367, 1816), Franz Liszt (S.531) and Robert Schumann (Op.67, No.1), and in the collection \"\" (1880) by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.", "Edgar Allan Poe's poem \"Dream-Land\" (1844) begins with the following stanza: John Henry Wilbrandt Stuckenberg wrote on the subject in 1885: Kelly Miller, addressing the Hampton Alumni Association in 1899, explained that \"Civilization may be defined as the sum total of those influences and agencies that make for knowledge and virtue. This is the goal, the \"ultima Thule,\" of all human strivings. The essential factors of civilization are knowledge, industry, culture, and virture.\" \"Ultima Thule\" is the title of the 1929 novel by Henry Handel Richardson, set in colonial Australia. Hal Foster's protagonist Prince Valiant gets his title from being the son of Aguar, exiled king of Thule who has taken refuge in the Fens during the days of King Arthur. Foster places this kingdom of Thule on the Norwegian mainland, near Trondheim. \"Ultima Thule\" is a short story written by author Vladimir Nabokov and published in \"New Yorker\" magazine on April 7, 1973. Jorge Luis Borges uses the classic Latin phrase \"ultima Thule\" in his poem A Reader. He uses the phrase to connect the study of Latin in his younger years to his more recent efforts to read the Icelandic poet Snorri Sturluson. Bernard Cornwell references Thule in his novel \"The Lords of the North\", the third book in the series \"The Last Kingdom\". The character Uhtred of Bebbanburg calls it, \"that strange land of ice and flame\". Thule is mentioned in \"Asterix and the Chieftain's Daughter\".", "In Germany, occultists believed in a historical Thule, or Hyperborea, as the ancient origin of the \"Aryan race\" (a term which they believed had been used by the Proto-Indo-European people). The Thule Society, which had close links to the \"Deutsche Arbeiter Partei\" (DAP), known later as the \"Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei\" (NSDAP or Nazi party) was, according to its own account, founded on August18, 1918. In his biography of Lanz von Liebenfels (1874–1954), \"Der Mann, der Hitler die Ideen gab\" (published in Munich, 1985; translated as \"The Man who Gave Hitler the Ideas\"), the Viennese psychologist and author Wilfried Daim claimed that the Thule Gesellschaft name originated from mythical Thule. In his history of the SA (\"Mit ruhig festem Schritt\", 1998 – \"With Firm and Steady Step\"), Wilfred von Oven, Joseph Goebbels' press adjutant from 1943 to 1945, confirmed that Pytheas' Thule was the historical Thule for the \"Thule Gesellschaft\". Much of this fascination was due to rumours surrounding the \"Oera Linda Book\", falsely claimed to have been found by Cornelis over de Linden during the nineteenth century. The \"Oera Linda Book\" was translated into German in 1933 and was favored by Heinrich Himmler. The book has since been thoroughly discredited. Professor of Frisian Language and Literature Goffe Jensma wrote that the three authors of the translation intended it \"to be a temporary hoax to fool some nationalist Frisians and orthodox Christians and as an experiential exemplary exercise in reading the Holy Bible in a non-fundamentalist, symbolical way\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design.", "Construction.", "Operation.", "Public Transport Corridor.", "Driverless bus trial.", "Statistics.", "Structural issues.", "2016 public inquiry.", "2019 repairs.", "Tolls.", "Variable tolling proposals.", "Abolition.", "Additional crossings.", "Queensferry Crossings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first crossing at the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret, queen consort of King Malcolm III, who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews. Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry, which remain to this day; the passenger ferry service continued without interruption for over 800 years. There were proposals as early as the 1740s for a road crossing at the site, although its viability was only considered after the Forth Bridge was built in 1890. The importance of the crossing for vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s. The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here, although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead. There was more lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s, when the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry. Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s, providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries to supplement the nearby railway bridge. Due to their success, two more ferry boats were added in the 1940s and 1950s, by which time the ferries were making 40,000 crossings annually, carrying 1.5 million passengers and 800,000 vehicles.", "With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth (the Kincardine Bridge, built in 1936) still around upstream, the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board (FRBJB) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service. The authorities on both sides investigated in 1955, and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary. This was known as the Maunsell Scheme, and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge. The scheme was abandoned as too ambitious, and a bridge was built instead.", "The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year. Mott, Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co., Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of £11.5 million; the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was £19.5 million. The resident design engineer was John Alexander King Hamilton FRSE (1900–1982). It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe. It used 210,000 tons of concrete, with of grade-separated dual-carriageway approach roads. Reed and Mallik (known for Reema construction of houses) of Salisbury, Wiltshire, built the approach viaducts. Twenty-four individual bridges were built for the approach roads. The southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge, over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh, near Craigiehall. There were two-level interchanges built at Burnshot, Dolphington (B924) and the Echline junction (A904 and B800). At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway. The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd. The northern approach road had three two-level junctions at Ferry Toll (for the B980), Admiralty (for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985, and Inverkeithing via the A921) and at Mastertown/Masterton (for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus). The Masterton junction was an octopus junction, a variation of a clover-leaf junction, with six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct. There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road. The northern approach road terminated as the A823(M) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline, next to Rosyth railway station. The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow, later bought by Alfred McAlpine. Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964. The ferry service was discontinued as of that date.", "The bridge's management was delegated to the FRBJB, and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit, the Forth Estuary Transport Authority. On 1 December 2010, the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow. After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways, the bridge was closed in both directions at 6.40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours. As part of celebrations of the 50th anniversary of the bridge's operation, artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it. On 1 June 2015, Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit.", "On 1 February 2018, the bridge became a Public Transport Corridor, with all approach roads in full operation. The bridge was closed between September and mid October 2017 for roadworks before partially reopening for public buses.", "On 22 November 2018, it was announced that £4.35 million of funding had been secured for the United Kingdom's first passenger-carrying driverless bus trial, planned to take place across the Forth Road Bridge public transport corridor by 2021. Five brand new autonomous 42-seater Alexander Dennis Enviro200 MMC single-decker buses, with autonomous control modifications supplied by Fusion Processing, will be operated by Stagecoach Fife on a park-and-ride route from the north side of Forth across the bridge to Edinburgh Park station. For operational reasons and to comply with British legislation, a driver will still be present in the cab, but they will not operate the vehicle other than in exceptional circumstances.", "The bridge's central main span is long, its two side spans are each long, and the approach viaducts are on the north side and on the south side. The total length is. It was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth-longest span in the world at the time of its construction. The bridge is made of 39,000 tonnes of steel and 115,000 cubic metres of concrete. The towers reach above mean water level. There is a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction, and cycle/footpaths on each side. The main strung cables are in diameter, with 11,618 high tensile wires, each five millimetres in diameter, and each cable carries 13,800 tonnes of the bridge's load. The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south-east and north-east Scotland, linking Edinburgh to Perth, Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway, which begins north of the bridge's northern end. The bridge carried around 2.5 million vehicles in its first year, but this has increased steadily to around 21.4 million vehicles in 2008. The bridge carried its 250 millionth vehicle in 2002. It was awarded Historic Scotland's Category A listed structure status in 2001.", "FETA began to be concerned over the structural wear of the bridge in the early years of the 21st century. The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge (30,000 vehicles per day in each direction) was routinely exceeded as traffic levels outstripped predictions. The Scottish Government stated in 2006 that 60,000 vehicles travelled on more than half the days in a year. This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge, originally planned at 120 years. In 2003, an inspection programme was launched (costing £1.2 million) to assess the condition of the main suspension cables after corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size. The study was completed two years later and reported that the main cables had suffered an 8%–10% loss of strength. This weakening was projected to accelerate, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst-case scenario, followed by full closure by 2020. An acoustic monitoring system was commissioned in August 2006, using listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables. In January 2006, the Scottish Executive completed a third-party audit on the bridge which concluded that FETA had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice. The report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required by 2013. Several actions were taken to increase the bridge's lifespan. These included a dehumidification programme that slowed the rate of corrosion in the main cables by keeping air in the voids between the main cables' strands below 40% humidity. Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006; it took two and a half years to complete at a cost of £7.8 million. As part of the works, some of the corroded cable strands were spliced. The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015, with all traffic using a single lane each way on the northbound carriageway after steelwork defects had been discovered during routine inspections, and traffic was restricted to 7.5 tonnes or less (public service vehicles excepted). On 4 December, the bridge was fully closed when further structural faults were found. It was initially not expected to reopen until January 2016, and Transport Scotland began work to lay on extra trains and buses and considered whether to reintroduce a ferry service to mitigate the impact on travellers. On 23 December, the bridge was reopened for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles (HGVs). On 4 February, it was announced this had been pushed back to March, due to further problems with the truss end link pins in the southern towers, which required additional remedial work. However, a limited number of HGVs were allowed to cross, in a northbound direction only, between 11 pm and 4 am each night. On 20 February 2016, the bridge was fully reopened.", "On 20 January, the Scottish Parliament began an inquiry led by the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee (ICI) to determine the circumstances that led to the discovery of a cracked truss in the bridge's undercarriage. Evidence was heard from: Forth Estuary Transport Authority (FETA), Transport Minister Derek Mackay, engineers and officials from Amey along with a number of other experts and key personnel. On the first day, Richard Hornby, of engineering consulting firm Arup, stated that the truss end in question had been inspected 23 times since 2001, and no fault had been found. It was revealed that a pin had seized up, which caused the truss end to crack, and it was only the quality of the steel which had stopped its cracking appearing earlier. Hornby also made clear that even if the seized pin had been picked up earlier, it was \"virtually impossible\" to lubricate the bearing. Several witnesses defended a decision by previous operator FETA not to proceed with a £15 million truss end link replacement project in 2010. This was disputed by Barry Colford, former chief engineer and bridgemaster at FETA. Lesley Hinds, FETA's former convener, pointed out that the bridge budget had been cut by 58% in 2011, while senior staff at FETA had \"deep concerns\" about the transfer of bridge management to a private company.", "A programme of work is scheduled to take place in 2019 to replace expansion joints in both towers along with replacing the truss end links. Plans to replace these joints were postponed by the bridge management following the Scottish Government's commitment to the construction of the Queensferry Crossing; the original work proposals would have involved round-the-clock contraflows during the installation of ramps and mini-bridges to carry traffic over the work area, and heavy lorries being diverted.", "On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge. Initially, it was suggested that tolls would cease once the original cost of construction (plus accrued interest) was repaid. This was achieved in 1993, and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995. Instead legislation enabling the continued levying of tolls was renewed by Parliament (originally that of the UK but now the Scottish Parliament) in 1998, 2003 and 2006. Originally, a toll was paid for each direction of travel, with sets of toll booths on both carriageways. In 1997, the northbound toll was doubled (from 40p to 80p) and the southbound toll abolished on the presumption that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge, and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion without reducing revenue. FETA said the continued charging of tolls was necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works. These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers to guard against collisions. The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns (the original tower structure was hollow) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork. Also, the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a detected failure. A new paint system required development for the bridge (the original was phased out due to environmental concerns).", "In late 2005, FETA's committee approved a proposed revamp of the tolls. The minimum toll would stay at £1, but higher tolls would be charged at some times of day, with a maximum of £4 during evening rush hours. All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant, as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys. According to FETA's chairman Lawrence Marshall, the system would provide the most efficiency; he said that 80% of peak-time journeys are made by single-occupant vehicles. The proposal, passed with the chairman's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked, was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005, and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott. Environmental groups welcomed the proposal, but local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital. At the same time, Fife councillors counter-proposed the complete removal of tolls. The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006, and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling (Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as \"dead in the water\". Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted, and refused to rule out the plan, receiving criticism from the opposition Scottish National Party. There was a by-election on 9 February 2006 for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated. It was contested (in addition to the major political parties in Scotland) by an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party. Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie won the election, overturning a large Labour majority on a 16% swing. Afterwards, media speculated that the Executive had turned against the proposals, and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006. FETA condemned the decision, while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short-changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge, leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridges.", "When an SNP minority government was formed after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007, a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007, and the abolition was agreed by a large majority. Annual toll income at that point totalled £16 million. The Abolition of Bridge Tolls (Scotland) Bill was introduced in the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007, passed on 20 December 2007, and received royal assent on 24 January 2008. The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00:01 GMT. The abolition of the tolls was enacted immediately after a major reconstruction of the northbound toll plaza was completed.", "The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences. Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge. This bridge opened in November 2008.", "Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s, but were shelved, despite preliminary work on route selection. Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced. The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007, and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained as a public transport link. The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011. Construction began in September 2011. The Queensferry Crossing is a cable-stayed bridge, with an overall length of. Around of new connecting roads were built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry, and Junction 1a on the M9. The new bridge continues the M90 motorway, (extending its southern terminus) from Admiralty to the M9 junction 1a (re-numbering the M9 spur). The crossing opened on 30 August 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Surviving copies.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The map was created in Rome during 1527–39 by Olaus Magnus (1490–1557), who arrived on a diplomatic visit for the Swedish government and stayed on, likely because his brother Johannes Magnus became involved in a religious feud with King Gustav I of Sweden. To construct the map, Magnus drew from a variety of ancient sources including Ptolemy's map in Geographia, and contemporary sources such as the work of Astronomer Jacob Ziegler. In addition to cartographic sources, Magnus also relied on the descriptions of sailors and his own observations. The map was in production for 12 years, the first copies were printed in 1539 in Venice. Olaus complemented the map with \"Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus\" (\"A description of the Northern peoples\") printed in Rome, 1555. These Latin notes were translated by Olaus into Italian (1565) and German (1567).", "All of the original map's copies passed out of public knowledge after 1574, and the map was largely forgotten – perhaps because few copies were printed and Pope Paul III asserted a 10-year \"copyright.\" It was later widely questioned whether the map had ever existed. In 1886, Oscar Brenner found a copy at the \"Hof- und Staatsbibliothek\" in Munich, where it currently resides. In 1961, another copy was found in Switzerland, brought to Sweden the following year by the Uppsala University Library; as of 2007 it is stored there at the Carolina Rediviva library. The copies differ slightly from each other.", "A downscaled adaptation of the 'Uppsala' copy or similar was printed in Rome by Antoine Lafréry in 1572." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "The Wanderer's Tale: An Adventure Subgenre.", "Background on the novel.", "Film, TV or theatrical adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Trieste, 1867, two petty criminals, Sarcany and Zirone, intercept a carrier pigeon. They find a ciphered message attached to its leg and uncover a plot to liberate Hungary from Habsburg-Austrian rule. The two meet with Silas Toronthal, a corrupt banker and form a plan to deliver the conspirators to the police in exchange for a rich reward. The three Hungarian conspirators, Count Mathias Sandorf, Stephen Bathory and Ladislas Zathmar (in their Hungarian form: Sándor Mátyás, Báthory István and Szatmári László, respectively) are arrested and sentenced to death. They plot an escape, but are recaptured and killed one by one. Fifteen years later, the renowned physician Dr. Antekirtt (actually Sandorf who survived by faking his death) sets out to avenge his friends. Enlisting the aid of two French acrobats, Pescade and Matifou, he scours the Mediterranean in search of those who planned the betrayal. Rich beyond all imagination, wielding great power and master of an island fortress filled with advanced weaponry, Dr. Antekirtt will not rest until justice is done.", "In the generation after Dumas, Jules Verne wrote a number of Wanderer adventures. Three of the most notable, \"Michael Strogoff\", \"The Steam House\" (\"La Maison à vapeur\") and \"Mathias Sandorf\", are set in three of Europe's great Empires: the Russian, the British (in India), and the Austrian. Their plots and themes have a good deal in common, as Jean Yves Tadie points out. Each one is about the empire's political troubles, each features a pursuer who is himself pursued, each has a trio of characters at its centre and each grants minor importance (compared with other Verne books) to machinery. (From \"Seven Types of Adventure: An Eniology of Major Genre\" by Martin Green Penn State Press).", "The fictional plot of Verne's book begins on May 18, 1867 - by which date preparations for the rising in Hungary are said to be almost complete. It is a matter of actual historical record - easily available to Verne in his research for the book - that on May 29, 1867, the Diet of Hungary ratified the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, under which the Hungarians gained a very considerable autonomy but shelved their demand for complete independence from Austria. Though the compromise is not explicitly mentioned in the book, it is clear that the aim of Sandorf and his fellow conspirators is to avert this ratification, seize control of Buda (Pest, Buda and Óbuda was unified in 1873) and other major Hungarian cities, and get the Diet to declare instead a complete Hungarian independence - gambling that Austria, enfeebled by its recent defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, would have no choice but to accept this fait accompli. (If successful, such a move would have substantially changed later European history, up to the outbreak of World War I). The conduct of the Austrian authorities, once the conspiracy is discovered, can also be seen against the same background: The Austrians move in complete secrecy to arrest, court-martial and swiftly execute the radical Hungarians, while cementing the deal with their more amendable compatriots in the glare of publicity. Verne's readers in 1885 could know, even before reading of the police arresting Sandorf and his friends, that the conspiracy would fail, that the moderate Hungarians' compromise with Austria would go ahead and that in fact Hungarians would prove fairly content with it. Verne claimed that Sandorf was modeled on his publisher. Like Hetzel, a former exile, Sandorf has fervent patriotism and a high moral sense. Dr Antekirtt is a mixture of Hetzel and Bixio, one of the publisher's friends. Others see similarities with Hungarian freedom fighter Lajos Kossuth (who, like Sandorf, remained unreconciled to the compromise) and Austrian prince Ludwig Salvator. The action moves from Trieste down the Adriatic coast, to Sicily and the shores of North Africa. \"I wish my readers to learn everything they should know about the Mediterranean,\" Verne wrote Hetzel,\" which is why the action transports them to twenty different places\" (Simon Vierne, \"Jules Verne\", Paris Ballard 1986). Several of the settings come from Verne's own travels, a rescue during a storm off Malta and visits to Catania and Etna. Verne researched the Italian landscape by rereading some of Stendhal's works notably \"Promenades in Rome\" and \"The Charterhouse of Parma\". Verne may have first heard about the Foiba beneath Pisino castle in Charles Yriarte’s works \"Les Bords de l'Adriatique (The Ports of the Adriatic)\" - (Hachette, Paris 1878) and \"Trieste e l'Istria (Trieste and Istria\") - (Hachette, Paris 1875). Yriatre described the old castle as well as his trip down into the gorge. He also mentioned an experiment by a young nobleman, Count Esdorff, to find the end of the underground river. Unfortunately the count's boat never made it out of the cave. The first edition was dedicated to Alexandre Dumas, père. His son was so moved by the love expressed in the dedication that he wrote a letter to Verne which said 'I've been loving you for so long that I feel like your brother', and admitted that in literature Verne is Dumas' son more than he himself. The steam yacht of doctor Antekirtt, \"Savarena\", is a true portrait of Verne's own steam yacht which he bought from the eccentric millionaire marquis de Préaulx for 60,000 F.", "\"Mathias Sandorf\" was performed as a five-act play in Paris in the 1880s. It even played the Boston theatre in the fall of 1888 as well as at Niblo's Garden in New York in October 1888. There have also been three screen adaptations of \"Mathias Sandorf\". The first was made in 1921 and directed by Henri Fescourt. It starred Yvette Andréyor, Romuald Joubé, Jean Toulout. During the 1920s Fescourt was one of the most successful directors working for Cineroman, and Mathias Sandorf, Les Gransa and Mandarin were among his most popular works. In 1963 Georges Lampin directed another version and starring Louis Jourdan, Francisco Rabal, Renaud Mary and Serena Vergano. The most recent version was a made for French television in 1979. Directed by Jean-Pierre Decourt it starred Hungarian actor Istvan Bujtor as Mathias Sandorf, Ivan Desny as Zathmar, and also Amadeus August, Claude Giraud, Monika Peitsch, Sissy Höfferer and Jacques Breuer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction.", "Electricity generation.", "Reservoir." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Nurek Dam was constructed by the Soviet Union between the years 1961 and 1980. It is uniquely constructed, with a central core of cement forming an impermeable barrier within a -high rock and earth fill construction. The volume of the mound is 54 million m. The dam includes nine hydroelectric generating units, the first commissioned in 1972 and the last in 1979. An estimated 5,000 people were resettled from the dam's flooding area. The dam is located in a deep gorge along the Vakhsh River in western Tajikistan, about east of the nation's capital of Dushanbe. A town near the dam, also called Nurek, houses engineers and other workers employed at the dam's power plant.", "A total of nine Francis turbine-generators are installed in the Nurek Dam's power station. Originally having a generating capacity of 300 MW each (2,700 MW total), they were redesigned and retrofitted between 1984 and 1988 so now have a capacity of 335 MW each (3,015 MW total). As of 1994, this formed most of the nation's 4.0 gigawatt hydroelectric generating capacity, which was adequate to meet 98% of the nation's electricity needs.", "The reservoir formed by the Nurek Dam, known simply as Nurek, is the largest reservoir in Tajikistan with a capacity of 10.5 km. The reservoir is over in length, and has a surface area of. The reservoir drives the hydroelectric plant located within the dam. Stored water is also used for irrigation of agricultural land. Irrigation water is transported 14 kilometers through the \"Dangara irrigation tunnel\" and is used to irrigate about of farmland. It is suspected that the reservoir may have caused induced seismicity when being impounded." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "R. S. P. Beekes suggests a Pre-Greek origin.", "In the \"Iliad\" the Old Man of the Sea is the father of Nereids, though Nereus is not directly named. He was never more manifestly the Old Man of the Sea than when he was described, like Proteus, as a shapeshifter with the power of prophecy, who would aid heroes such as Heracles who managed to catch him even as he changed shapes. Nereus and Proteus (the \"first\") seem to be two manifestations of the god of the sea who was supplanted by Poseidon when Zeus overthrew Cronus. The earliest poet to link Nereus with the labours of Heracles was Pherekydes, according to a \"scholion\" on Apollonius of Rhodes. During the course of the 5th century BC, Nereus was gradually replaced by Triton, who does not appear in Homer, in the imagery of the struggle between Heracles and the sea-god who had to be restrained in order to deliver his information that was employed by the vase-painters, independent of any literary testimony. In a late appearance, according to a fragmentary papyrus, Alexander the Great paused at the Syrian seashore before the climacteric battle of Issus (333 BC), and resorted to prayers, \"calling on Thetis, Nereus and the Nereids, nymphs of the sea, and invoking Poseidon the sea-god, for whom he ordered a four-horse chariot to be cast into the waves.\" Nereus was known for his truthfulness and virtue: The Attic vase-painters showed the draped torso of Nereus issuing from a long coiling scaly fishlike tail. Bearded Nereus generally wields a staff of authority. He was also shown in scenes depicting the flight of the Nereides as Peleus wrestled their sister Thetis. In Aelian's natural history, written in the early third century CE, Nereus was also the father of a watery consort of Aphrodite named Nerites who was transformed into \"a shellfish with a spiral shell, small in size but of surpassing beauty.\" Nereus was father to Thetis, one of the Nereids, who in turn was mother to the great Greek hero Achilles, and Amphitrite, who married Poseidon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biology.", "Significance.", "Deficiency.", "Uses.", "Scurvy.", "Infection.", "Cancer.", "Cardiovascular disease.", "Brain function.", "Other diseases.", "Side effects.", "Diet.", "Recommended levels.", "Food labeling.", "Sources.", "Plant sources.", "Animal sources.", "Food preparation.", "Supplements.", "Food fortification.", "Food additives.", "Pharmacology.", "Pharmacodynamics.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Absorption.", "Transport.", "Excretion.", "Chemistry.", "Testing.", "Biosynthesis.", "Animal synthesis pathway.", "Plant pathways.", "Evolution.", "Industrial production.", "History.", "Folk medicine.", "Scurvy at sea.", "Discovery.", "Large doses.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Vitamin C is an essential nutrient for certain animals including humans. The term \"vitamin C\" encompasses several vitamers that have vitamin C activity in animals. Ascorbate salts such as sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate are used in some dietary supplements. These release ascorbate upon digestion. Ascorbate and ascorbic acid are both naturally present in the body, since the forms interconvert according to pH. Oxidized forms of the molecule such as dehydroascorbic acid are converted back to ascorbic acid by reducing agents. Vitamin C functions", "Serum levels are considered saturated, achieved by consuming supplement amounts above the Recommended Dietary Allowance, at >65 μmol/L (1.1 mg/dL). Adequate defined as ≥50 μmol/L, hypovitaminosis at ≤23 μmol/L and deficient at ≤11.4 μmol/L. For people ≥20 years old, data from the U.S. 2003-04 NHANES survey showed mean and median serum concentrations of 49.0 and 54.4 μmol/L, respectively. The percent of people reported as deficient was 7.1%. Scurvy is a disease resulting from a deficiency of vitamin C. Without this vitamin, collagen made by the body is too unstable to perform its function and several other enzymes in the body do not operate correctly. Scurvy is characterized by spots on and bleeding under the skin, spongy gums, 'corkscrew' hair growth, and poor wound healing. The skin lesions are", "Vitamin C has a definitive role in treating scurvy, which is a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency. Beyond that, a role for vitamin C as prevention or treatment for various diseases is disputed, with reviews reporting conflicting results. A 2012 Cochrane review reported no effect of vitamin C supplementation on overall mortality. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the safest and most effective medicines needed in a health system.", "The disease scurvy is caused by vitamin C deficiency and can be prevented and treated with vitamin C-containing foods or dietary supplements. It takes at least a month of little to no vitamin C before symptoms occur. Early symptoms are malaise and lethargy, progressing to shortness of breath, bone pain, bleeding gums, susceptibility to bruising, poor", "Research on vitamin C in the common cold has been divided into effects on prevention, duration, and severity. A Cochrane review which looked at at least 200 mg/day concluded that vitamin C taken on a regular basis was not effective in prevention of the common cold. Restricting analysis to trials that used at least 1000 mg/day also saw no prevention benefit. However, taking vitamin C on a regular basis did reduce the average duration by 8% in adults and 14% in children, and also reduced severity of colds. A subsequent meta-analysis in children found that vitamin C approached statistical significance for prevention and reduced the duration of upper", "There are two approaches to the question of whether vitamin C has an impact on cancer. First, within the normal range of dietary intake without additional dietary supplementation, are people who consume more vitamin C at lower risk for developing cancer, and if so, does an orally consumed supplement have the same benefit? Second, for people diagnosed with cancer, will large amounts of ascorbic acid administered intravenously treat the cancer, reduce the adverse effects of other treatments, and so prolong survival and improve quality of life? A 2013 Cochrane review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of lung cancer in healthy people or those at high risk due to smoking or asbestos exposure. A second meta-analysis found no effect on the risk of prostate cancer. Two meta-analyses evaluated the effect of vitamin C supplementation on the risk of colorectal cancer. One found a weak association between vitamin C consumption", "There is no evidence as of 2017 that taking vitamin C decreases cardiovascular disease. One 2013 review found no evidence that vitamin C supplementation reduces the risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, cardiovascular mortality, or all-cause mortality. Another 2013 review", "A 2017 systematic review found lower vitamin C concentrations in people with cognitive impairment, including Alzheimer's disease and dementia, compared to people with normal cognition. The cognitive testing, however, relied on the Mini-Mental State Examination, which", "Studies examining the effects of vitamin C intake on the risk of Alzheimer's disease have reached conflicting conclusions. Maintaining a healthy dietary intake is probably", "Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin, with dietary excesses not absorbed, and excesses in the blood rapidly excreted in the urine, so it exhibits remarkably low acute toxicity. More than two to three grams may cause indigestion, particularly when taken on an empty stomach. However, taking vitamin C in the form of sodium ascorbate and calcium ascorbate may minimize this effect. Other symptoms reported for large doses include nausea, abdominal cramps and diarrhea. These effects are attributed to the osmotic effect of unabsorbed vitamin C passing", "", "Recommendations for vitamin C intake by adults have been set by various national agencies: In 2000 the North American Dietary Reference Intake chapter on vitamin C updated the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) to 90 milligrams per day for adult men and 75 mg/day for adult women, and set a Tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The table shows RDAs for the United States and Canada for children, and for pregnant and lactating women. For the European Union, the EFSA set higher recommendations for adults, and also for children: 20 mg/day for ages 1–3, 30 mg/day for ages 4–6, 45 mg/day for ages 7–10, 70 mg/day for ages 11–14, 100 mg/day for males ages 15–17, 90 mg/day for females ages 15–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day. India, on the other hand, has set recommendations much lower: 40 mg/day for ages 1 through adult, 60 mg/day for pregnancy, and 80 mg/day for lactation. Clearly, there is not consensus among countries. Cigarette smokers and people exposed to secondhand smoke have lower serum vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The thinking is that inhalation of smoke causes oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin.", "For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a percent of Daily Value (%DV). For vitamin C labeling purposes, 100% of the Daily Value was 60 mg, but as of May 27, 2016 it was revised to 90 mg to bring it into agreement with the RDA. Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by 1 January 2020, for manufacturers with $10 million or more in annual food sales, and by 1", "The richest natural sources of vitamin C are fruits and vegetables. The vitamin is the most widely taken nutritional supplement and is available in a variety of forms, including tablets, drink mixes, and in capsules.", "While plant foods are generally a good source of vitamin C, the amount in foods of plant origin depends on the variety of the plant, soil condition, climate where it grew, length of time since it was picked, storage conditions, and method of", "Animal-sourced foods do not provide much vitamin C, and what there is, is largely destroyed by the heat of cooking. For example, raw chicken liver contains 17.9 mg/100 g, but fried, the content is reduced to 2.7 mg/100 g. Chicken eggs contain no vitamin C, raw or cooked. Vitamin C is present in human breast milk at 5.0 mg/100 g and 6.1 mg/100 g in one tested sample of infant formula, but cow's milk contains only 1.0 mg/ 100 g.", "Vitamin C chemically decomposes under certain conditions, many of which may occur during the cooking of food. Vitamin C concentrations in various food substances decrease with time in proportion to the temperature at which they are stored. Cooking can reduce", "Vitamin C dietary supplements are available as tablets, capsules, drink mix packets, in multi-vitamin/mineral formulations, in antioxidant formulations, and as crystalline powder. Vitamin C is also added to some fruit juices and", "In 2014, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency evaluated the effect of fortification of foods with ascorbate in the guidance document, \"Foods to Which Vitamins, Mineral Nutrients and Amino", "Ascorbic acid and some of its salts and esters are common additives added to", "", "Vitamin C – specifically, in the form of \"ascorbate\" – performs numerous physiological functions in the human body by serving as an enzyme substrate and/or cofactor and an electron donor. These functions include the", "", "From the U.S. National Institutes of Health: [In humans] \"Approximately 70%–90% of vitamin C is absorbed at moderate intakes of 30–180 mg/day. However, at doses above 1,000 mg/day, absorption falls to less than 50%.\" It is transported through the intestine via both glucose-sensitive and glucose-insensitive mechanisms, so the presence of large quantities of sugar in the intestine can slow absorption. Ascorbic", "SVCTs appear to be the predominant system for vitamin C transport in the body, the notable exception being red blood cells, which lose SVCT proteins during maturation. In both vitamin C synthesizers (example: rat) and non-synthesizers (example: human) cells with few exceptions maintain ascorbic acid concentrations much higher than the approximately 50 micromoles/liter (μmol/L) found in plasma.", "Excretion can be as ascorbic acid, via urine. In humans, during times of low dietary intake, vitamin C is reabsorbed by the kidneys rather than excreted. Only when plasma concentrations are 1.4 mg/dL or higher does re-absorption decline and the excess amounts pass freely into the urine. This salvage process delays onset of deficiency. Ascorbic acid also converts (reversibly) to dehydroascorbate (DHA) and from that compound non-reversibly to 2,3-diketogluonate and then oxalate. These three compounds are also excreted via urine. Humans are better than guinea pigs at converting DHA back to ascorbate, and thus take much longer to become vitamin C deficient.", "The name \"vitamin C\" always refers to the -enantiomer of ascorbic acid and its oxidized forms, such as dehydroascorbate (DHA). Therefore, unless written otherwise, \"ascorbate\" and \"ascorbic acid\" refer in the nutritional literature to -ascorbate and -ascorbic acid respectively. Ascorbic acid is a weak sugar acid structurally related to glucose. In biological systems, ascorbic acid can be found only at", "Simple tests are available to measure the levels of vitamin C in urine and serum. These better reflect recent dietary intake rather than total body content. It has been observed that while serum", "The vast majority of animals and plants are able to synthesize vitamin C, through a sequence of enzyme-driven steps, which convert monosaccharides to vitamin C. Yeasts do not make -ascorbic acid but rather its stereoisomer, erythorbic acid. In plants, this is accomplished through the conversion of mannose or galactose to ascorbic acid. In animals, the starting material is glucose. In some species that synthesize ascorbate in the liver (including mammals and perching birds), the glucose is extracted from glycogen; ascorbate synthesis is a glycogenolysis-dependent process. In humans and in animals that cannot synthesize vitamin C, the enzyme -gulonolactone oxidase (GULO), that catalyses the last step in the biosynthesis, is highly mutated and non-functional.", "There is some information on serum vitamin C concentrations maintained in animal species that are able to synthesize vitamin C. One study of several breeds of dogs reported an average of 35.9 μmol/L. A report on goats, sheep and cattle reported ranges of 100-110, 265-270 and 160-350 μmol/L, respectively. The biosynthesis of ascorbic acid in vertebrates starts with the formation of UDP-glucuronic acid. UDP-glucuronic acid is formed when UDP-glucose undergoes two oxidations catalyzed by the enzyme UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase. UDP-glucose 6-dehydrogenase uses the co-factor NAD as the electron acceptor.", "There are many different biosynthesis pathways for ascorbic acid in plants. Most of these pathways are derived from products found in glycolysis and other pathways. For example, one pathway goes through the plant cell wall polymers. The plant ascorbic acid biosynthesis pathway most principal seems to be -galactose. -Galactose reacts with the enzyme -galactose dehydrogenase, whereby the lactone ring opens and forms again but with lactone between the carbonyl on C1 and hydroxyl group on C4, resulting in -galactonolactone. -Galactonolactone then reacts with the mitochondrial flavoenzyme -galactonolactone dehydrogenase. to produce ascorbic acid. -Ascorbic acid has a negative feedback on -galactose dehydrogenase in spinach. Ascorbic acid efflux by", "Ascorbic acid is a common enzymatic cofactor in mammals used in the synthesis of collagen, as well as a powerful reducing agent capable of rapidly scavenging a number of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Given that ascorbate has these important functions, it is surprising that the ability to synthesize this molecule has not always been conserved. In fact, anthropoid primates, \"Cavia porcellus\" (guinea pigs), teleost fishes, most bats, and some Passeriform birds have all independently lost the ability to internally synthesize Vitamin C in either the kidney or the liver. In all of the cases where genomic analysis was done on an ascorbic acid auxotroph, the origin of the change was found to be a result of loss-of-function mutations in the gene that codes for L-Gulono-γ-lactone oxidase, the enzyme that catalyzes the last step of the ascorbic acid pathway outlined above. One explanation for the repeated loss of the ability to synthesize vitamin C is that it was the result of genetic drift; assuming that the", "Vitamin C is produced from glucose by two main routes. The Reichstein process, developed in the 1930s, uses a single pre-fermentation followed by a purely chemical route. The modern two-step fermentation process, originally developed in China in the 1960s, uses additional fermentation to replace part of the later chemical stages. The Reichstein process and the modern two-step fermentation processes use sorbitol as the starting material", "", "The need to include fresh plant food or raw animal flesh in the diet to prevent disease was known from ancient times. Native people living in marginal areas incorporated this into their medicinal lore. For example, spruce needles were used in temperate zones in", "In the 1497 expedition of Vasco da Gama, the curative effects of citrus fruit were known. Later, the Portuguese planted fruit trees and vegetables in Saint Helena, a stopping point for homebound voyages from Asia, which sustained passing ships. Authorities occasionally recommended plant food to prevent scurvy during long sea voyages. John Woodall, the first surgeon to the British East India Company, recommended the preventive and curative use of lemon juice in his 1617 book, \"The Surgeon's Mate\". In 1734, the Dutch writer Johann Bachstrom gave the firm opinion that \"\"scurvy is solely owing to a total abstinence from fresh vegetable food, and greens.\"\" Scurvy had long been a principal killer of sailors during the long sea voyages. According to Jonathan Lamb, \"In 1499, Vasco da Gama lost 116 of his crew of 170; In 1520, Magellan lost 208 out of 230;...all mainly to scurvy.\" The first attempt to give scientific basis for the cause of this disease was by a ship's surgeon in the Royal Navy, James Lind. While at sea in May 1747, Lind", "Vitamin C was discovered in 1912, isolated in 1928 and synthesized in 1933, making it the first vitamin to be synthesized. Shortly thereafter Tadeus Reichstein succeeded in synthesizing the vitamin in bulk by what is now called the Reichstein process. This made possible the inexpensive mass-production of vitamin C. In 1934 Hoffmann–La Roche trademarked synthetic vitamin C under the brand name Redoxon and began to market it as a dietary supplement. In 1907 a laboratory animal model which would help to identify the antiscorbutic factor was discovered by the Norwegian physicians Axel Holst and Theodor Frølich, who when studying shipboard beriberi, fed guinea pigs their test diet of grains and flour and were surprised when scurvy resulted instead of beriberi. By luck, this species did not make its own vitamin C, whereas mice and rats do. In 1912, the Polish biochemist Casimir Funk developed the concept of vitamins. One of these was thought to be the anti-scorbutic factor. In 1928, this was referred to as \"water-soluble C,\" although its chemical structure had not been determined. From 1928 to 1932, Albert Szent-Györgyi and Joseph L. Svirbely's Hungarian team, and Charles Glen King's American team, identified the anti-scorbutic factor.", "Vitamin C megadosage is a term describing the consumption or injection of vitamin C in doses comparable to or higher than the amounts produced by the livers of mammals which are able to synthesize vitamin C. The theory behind this, although not the actual term, was described in 1970 in an article by Linus Pauling. Briefly, his position was that for optimal health, humans should be consuming at least 2,300 mg/day to compensate for the inability to synthesize vitamin C. The recommendation also fell into the consumption range for gorillas - a non-synthesizing near-relative to humans. A second argument for high intake is that serum ascorbic acid concentrations increase as intake increases until it plateaus at about 190 to 200 micromoles per liter (μmol/L) once consumption exceeds 1,250 milligrams. As noted, government recommendations are a range of 40 to 110 mg/day and normal", "In February 2011, the Swiss Post issued a postage stamp bearing a depiction of a model of a molecule of vitamin C to mark the International Year of Chemistry." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Election results.", "Chamber of Deputies.", "Senate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The ODA was established in 1989 by a group of intellectuals as a conservative-liberal party, based on ideas often expressed in The Salisbury Review. The other motive was personal antipathy to Václav Klaus and his party Civic Democratic Party (ODS). In 1992 legislative election, ODA obtained over 300,000 votes (5,93 per cent of all votes) and gained 14 seats in Czech National Council. It became part of right-wing coalition (First government of Václav Klaus) together with the ODS, Christian and Democratic Union (KDU–ČSL) and Christian Democratic Party (KDS). In 1996 legislative election, the ODA obtained 6.36 per cent of votes and again formed coalition with the ODS and KDU–ČSL (the second government of Václav Klaus). However, this government didn't manage to form majority in the Chamber of Deputies and so was depending on toleration of the centre-left Czech Social Democratic Party (ČSSD) (government disposed of 99 deputies out of 200, social democrats of 61 deputies and non-system parties of 40 deputies). Following financial scandals of the ODS, the coalition fell apart. Both the ODS and KDU-ČSL participated in caretaker government of Josef Tošovský. It didn't participate in 1998 legislative election, in order \"\"to not split votes on the right-wing\"\". The ODA formed the Four-Coalition with the KDU–ČSL, Freedom Union and Democratic Union in opposition to the grand coalition of the centre-right ODS and centre-left ČSSD. However, the ODA became the coalition's weakest member, and after its funding problems came to light, it ceased to take part in the Czech political scene. It only had one senator, Karel Schwarzenberg (Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic since 2007). The party ceased activity on 31 December 2007. Czech billionaire Pavel Sehnal announced in December 2016 that he established a new Civic Democratic Alliance. Leaders of the original ODA weren't involved with the new party.", "", "Seats in the Chamber of Deputies", "Seats in the Senate" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Participating teams in 2018–19.", "Top scorers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are 16 clubs in the FNL. During the season, which runs from August to May or June, with a winter break between November and February or March, each club plays each of the other clubs twice (once at home, once away) and is awarded three points for a win, one for a draw and zero for a loss. From these points a league table is constructed. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference and then goals scored. At the end of each season the top two teams are promoted to the First League, providing they obtain a license and meet league requirements, and are replaced by the two teams that finished bottom of that division. Similarly the two teams that finished at the bottom of the FNL are relegated to either the Bohemian Football League or the Moravian–Silesian Football League, based on geographical criteria. In turn, the champions of each of these regional divisions are promoted to the FNL. In the 1993–94 season the league was played with 16 teams, before expanding to 18 teams in the 1994–95 season. Since 1995, the league has always been played with 16 teams, but on two occasions a team did not fulfil its fixtures and the full 30 rounds were not completed. Firstly in the 1997–98 Czech 2. Liga as Ústí nad Labem did not fulfil their fixtures and their results were cancelled, and secondly in the 2004–05 Czech 2. Liga as Bohemians' results were expunged after playing only the first half of the season.", "The following 16 clubs were competing in the 2018–19 Czech National Football League.", "All information in this table can be found at except for the 2003–04 season, which is sourced from the following link." ] }