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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Construction features.", "Production and operation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Karosa B 941 is a model of the Karosa 900 series. The B 941 is derived from its predecessor the Karosa B 741, and also unified with city bus models such as the B 931 and the B 932. It is made of two rigid sections linked by a pivoting joint. The body is semi-self-supporting with frame and engine with automatic gearbox is placed in the rear part. The engine drives only the third C axle, meaning that this articulated bus has a pusher configuration. The front axle is independent, the middle and rear axles are solid. All the axles are mounted on air suspension. On the right side are four doors (first and last are narrower than middle doors). Inside are used plastic Vogelsitze or Fainsa seats. The driver's cab is separated from the rest of the vehicle by a glazed partition. In the middle part and in the rear part is room for a pram or wheelchair. The prototype made in 1995 has an open design of turntable, but serial produced buses have an enclosed design of the turntable.", "Prototype of Karosa B941 was built in the year 1995, and is operated until now in Brno, Czech Republic under number 2336. Serial production started in 1997 and production continued until 2001. Since 1999 were buses produced only in modernised version B941E, which has new solid front axle Škoda-LIAZ, floor lowered in front part by 10 centimeters, ABS and ASR. Between the years 1997 and 2001 was made 335 buses mainly for transport companies in Czech Republic and Slovakia. Currently, number of Karosa B941/B941E buses is reduced, due to supply of new low-floor buses, for example by SOR NB 18 made in Czech Republic and Iveco Urbanway 18m made in France." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient world.", "Early 19th century.", "Late 19th century.", "Benefits.", "Types.", "Propulsion.", "Wind tolerance and construction.", "Aluminium awnings.", "Retractable awnings.", "Retractable patio cover systems.", "Retractable lateral arm awnings or Folding Arm Awnings.", "Retractable side or drop arm awnings.", "Portable, pop-up canopies.", "Retractable solar shade screens.", "Retractable solar window awnings.", "Shade sails.", "Trade organizations.", "Classification numbers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Awnings were first used by the ancient Egyptian and Syrian civilizations. They are described as \"woven mats\" that shaded market stalls and homes. A Roman poet Lucretius, in 50 BC, said \"Linen-awning, stretched, over mighty theatres, gives forth at times, a cracking roar, when much 'tis beaten about, betwixt the poles and cross-beams\". Among the most significant awnings in the ancient world was the velarium, the massive complex of retractable shade structures that could be deployed above the seating areas of the Roman Colosseum. Made of linen shadecloths, timber framing, iron sockets and rope, the system could effectively shade about one-third of the arena and seating; another third could be shaded by the high surrounding walls, providing a majority of seats some shade on a blinding afternoon. It is believed that sailors, with their background in sailmaking and rigging were employed to build, maintain and operate the velarium.", "Awnings became common during the first half of the 19th century. At that time they consisted of timber or cast iron posts set along the sidewalk edge and linked by a front cross bar. To lend support to larger installations, angled rafters linked the front cross bar to the building facade. The upper end of the canvas was connected to the facade with nails, with grommets and hooks, or by lacing the canvas to a head rod bolted to the facade. The other (projecting) end of the canvas was draped over or laced to a front bar with the edge often hanging down to form a valance. On ornate examples, metal posts were adorned with filigree and the tops decorated with spear ends, balls or other embellishments. On overcast days or when rain did not threaten, the covering was often rolled up against the building facade; during the winter months proper maintenance called for the removal and storage of awnings. Photographs from the mid-19th century often show the bare framework, suggesting that the covering was extended only when necessary. Canvas duck was the predominant awning fabric, a strong, closely woven cotton cloth used for centuries to make tents and sails. Awnings became a common feature in the years after the American Civil War. Iron plumbing pipe, which was quickly adapted for awning frames, became widely available and affordable as a result of mid-century industrialization. It was a natural material for awning frames, easily bent and threaded together to make a range of different shapes and sizes. At the same time the advent of the steamship forced canvas mills and sail makers to search for new markets. An awning industry developed offering an array of frame and fabric options adaptable to both storefronts and windows.", "In the second half of the 19th century, manufactured operable awnings grew in popularity. Previously, most awnings had fixed frames-the primary way to retract the covering was to roll it up the rafters by hand. Operable systems for both storefront and window awnings had extension arms that were hinged where they joined the facade. The arms were lowered to project the awning or raised to retract the awning using simple rope and pulley arrangements. Because the canvas remained attached to the framework, retractable awnings allowed a more flexible approach to shading (shopkeepers and owners could incrementally adjust the amount of awning coverage depending upon the weather conditions). When the sun came out from behind clouds, the awning could be deployed with ease. In case of sudden storms, owners could quickly retract the awning against the building wall where it was protected from wind gusts. Despite their advantages, early operable awnings had drawbacks; when retracted, their cloth coverings often bunched up against the building facade. This left part of the fabric exposed to inclement weather, and deterioration was often accelerated by moisture pooling in the folds of fabric. If poorly designed or badly placed, the retracted fabric could obscure part of the window or door opening, and even if out of the way an imperfectly folded awning presented an unkempt appearance. Modern materials and designs have eliminated all of these issues.", "Retractable awnings let owners control the weather on their own terms. When passing showers threaten, or when the sun gets hot, they or the home automation system unroll the awning for near-instant protection and shade. Lab test measurements show that it can be as much as 20 degrees cooler under an awning's canopy. Because awnings prevent the sun from shining through windows and sliding glass doors, they can keep temperatures inside cooler as well, which saves on air-conditioning costs. They can help prevent carpets and furniture from fading in sunlight. Awnings also provide a sheltered place for children and pets to play, shielded from direct sun. Some of today's awnings also offer accessories that can greatly increase the versatility and usefulness owners get from their decks or patios. A screen room add-on can easily turn an awning into a virtually bug-free outdoor room, side screening cuts down on wind and mist coming under the sides of awnings, and patio lights let people enjoy their decks evenings and nights. It also can be used to cover the thermal solar panels in the summer.", "", "Today's awnings come in two basic types: manually operated models which are opened by hand and motorized models which operate by electricity. Each offers its own advantages. Benefits include low-cost affordability, easy adaptability to almost any deck or patio, and support arms that can be angled back against the house or set vertically on the deck or patio floor. These arms provide extra support and stability which some owners prefer in windy areas, and increase the awning's versatility by making the attachment of certain accessories available. Motorized awnings have no vertical supports. Instead, they have retracting lateral arms, creating an unobstructed shaded area. These awnings are operated by an electric motor, generally hidden inside the roller bar of the awning. The arms open and close the awning at the touch of a wireless remote control or a wall-mounted switch. Modern awnings may be constructed with covers of various types of fabrics, aluminium, corrugated fibreglass, corrugated polycarbonate or other materials. High winds can cause damage to an extended awning, and newer designs incorporate a wind sensor for automatic retraction in certain conditions.", "Modern awnings are rated for wind tolerance based on width, length, number of supporting arms, and material. Modern awning design incorporates urethane compression joints, steel support structures, and wind sensors. Such designs are currently in use at the White House, Grand Central Station, and the Kremlin.", "Aluminium awnings have long been popular in residential applications throughout the world. They are available in many colors and are usually painted with a baked-on enamel paint. Among the many benefits of these awnings are cooler temperatures inside the home, shade for your patio, extending the life of furniture and window treatments. Possibly the most beneficial feature of the awnings are the fact that they have a usable life of well over 40 years. Some aluminum awnings are designed to be folded down and fastened to protect windows in case of storms such as hurricanes.", "Retractable awnings are now becoming very popular with homeowners in the United States. They have been popular in Europe for many years, due to higher energy costs and lack of air conditioning. Some retractable awnings can include photovoltaic cells or rollable solar panels to generate electricity. Retractable awnings can include the following types:", "Retractable patio cover systems are the latest \"entry\" in to the retractable market. Most of these systems are water-proof as compared to water-resistant (lateral arm awnings) and therefore allow no water penetration through the fabric \"roof\" section. These systems meet Beaufort scale wind loads up to Beaufort 10 (55 - 63 mph) depending on model and size. Another advantage of retractable patio cover systems is that they can be enclosed on the front and sides using solar shade screens. This allows for an \"outdoor room\" that can be heated in the winter and air conditioned in the summer.", "These are a modern version of the old storefront crank-up awnings of the last century. The two, three or four tension arms (width dependent) and a top tube are supported by a torsion bar. With a Traditional 'Open Style' folding arm awning the torsion bar a.k.a square bar fits into wall or soffit or fascia or roof mounted brackets that spread the load to the wall or roof truss. The newer 'Full Cassette' style of folding arm awning does away with the torsion bar and uses an aluminium extrusion that interlocks with brackets that in-turn spreads the cantilevered force imposed by the awning into the structure it is fitted to. Hand-cranked awnings are still available, but motorized awnings are now most common due to advances in technology, manufacturing & reliability over the last few decades. The motor is inside the roller tube that the fabric rolls around and therefore is not visible. Many motors now have a built-in receiver and are operated by remote control, smartphone, tablet or home automation. Lateral arm awnings are also known as folding arm, deck or patio awnings, as they can extend / project as far as and when several awnings are coupled together, can be as wide as or more - thus covering a large outdoor space. Normally a single folding arm awning can only span in a single system due to difficulties transporting, storing and powder coating extrusion greater than this size. The most common fabric choice for folding arm awning is solution dyed acrylic fabric that comes in a variety of styles, colours, patterns as well as performance grades for water repellence and fire retardancy. Solution dyed acrylic fabric is the most suitable fabric for use in these awnings due to dimensional properties, ease of manufacturing, weight (versus woven mesh) & high levels of filtering of and resistance against UV.", "Commonly used to shade a window, with a roller tube at the top, spring-loaded side arms, and a motor, crank or tape-pull operator. Awnings with sides are commonly known as traditional style awnings as they have been used for many years dating back to the early 19th century using cotton canvas fabric. Canvas was replaced in the 1960s by more acrylic materials and polyester in more recent times driven by a focus on the environment. Traditional style awnings are appropriate for historical buildings and are still popular today using a more weather resistant fabric and a rope and pulley system for retracting the awnings. Awnings without sides do not provide as much sun protection as those with sides. Awnings without sides come in many different styles. Drop Arm Awnings without sides come with roller tubes at the top and are available with motors and wind sensors for automatic retraction. Spear Awnings are made without sides and are made with Wrought Iron Frames and they can be retracted with a rope and pulley system but are not available with motors. Awnings with sides provide the best sun protection for east and west facing windows. North and South facing windows can be protected from the sun with awnings without sides. Awnings provide shade keeping your house cooler, awnings are also great shade creators around porches, decks and patios.", "A portable pop-up canopy or tent provides a cost-effective temporary solution to people who want to enjoy shade. The portable designs offer versatility to take the unit to social events. The frame usually incorporates an accordion-style truss which folds up compactly.", "Shade screens utilize acrylic canvas or a mesh fabric, which allows some view-through while blocking the sun's rays. The roller at the top may be hand-cranked or motorized. The fabric is gravity-fed, with a weighted bottom rail pulling the fabric down between guide rails or guy wires. Exterior shades are much more effective at blocking heat than interior shades, since they block the heat before it enters the glass. This style of framed screen is typically done by professional installers, because of the specialized frames and tools required. A recent advancement is frame-less shade screens, which allows a \"DIY-er\" to install their own exterior shades. Solar shade screens can also be installed at the end of awnings to provide horizontal shade during early morning or late afternoon sun positions.", "Retractable solar window awnings are made from fabric. They are resistant to hail and harsh winter weather. Many solar window awnings can be programmed to open and close automatically in response to the sun.", "Shade sails provide semi-horizontal shading. They can be demounted with some difficulty and are usually left in place year round. Retractable versions also exist, with greater cost but also greater utility, as they can be retracted to admit winter sun if required.", "Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI) is a trade organization which includes the awning trade, with a division called the Professional Awning Manufacturers Association (PAMA).", "Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Division 10 MasterFormat 2004 Edition: CSI MasterFormat 1995 Edition:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Development.", "Casting.", "Animation.", "Music.", "Release.", "Localization.", "Home media.", "Box office.", "Original theatrical run.", "Re-releases.", "IMAX and large-format.", "3D conversion.", "Reception.", "Critical response.", "Accolades.", "Controversies.", "\"Kimba the White Lion\".", "Other controversies.", "Legacy.", "Sequels and spin-offs.", "CGI remake.", "Video games.", "Stage adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the Pride Lands of Africa, a pride of lions rule over the animal kingdom from Pride Rock. King Mufasa's and Queen Sarabi's newborn son, Simba, is presented to the gathering animals by Rafiki the mandrill, the kingdom's shaman and advisor. Mufasa's younger brother, Scar, covets the throne and is angered by the birth of the new prince. This is the subject of an argument with first Mufasa's majordomo, the hornbill Zazu, then Mufasa himself. A few years later, Mufasa shows a young Simba the Pride Lands and explains to him the responsibilities of kingship and the \"circle of life\", which connects all living things. Meanwhile, Scar plots to eliminate Mufasa and Simba, so he may become king. He tricks Simba and his best friend Nala (to whom Simba is betrothed) into exploring a forbidden elephants' graveyard by tricking Zazu. However, the cubs are soon attacked by three spotted hyenas, Shenzi, Banzai, and Ed, who are in league with Scar. Mufasa intervenes and rescues the cubs. Though upset with Simba, Mufasa forgives him and explains that the great kings of the past watch over them from the night sky, from which he will one day watch over Simba. Scar sets a trap for his brother and nephew, luring Simba into a gorge and having the hyenas drive a large herd of wildebeest into a stampede that will trample him. Scar himself does not interfere to save Simba, but instead informs Mufasa of Simba's peril, knowing that the king will rush to save his son. Mufasa saves Simba but ends up hanging perilously from the gorge's edge. Scar refuses to help Mufasa, instead, sending him falling to his death. He then convinces Simba that", "", "The idea for \"The Lion King\" was conceived in late 1988 during a conversation between Jeffrey Katzenberg, Roy E. Disney and Peter Schneider on a plane to Europe to promote \"Oliver & Company\". During the conversation, the topic of a story set in Africa came up, and Katzenberg immediately jumped at the idea. The idea was then developed by Walt Disney Feature Animation's vice president for creative affairs Charlie Fink. Katzenberg decided to add elements involving coming of age and death, and ideas from personal life experiences, such as some of his trials in his bumpy road in politics, saying about the film, \"It is a little bit about myself.\" In November of that year", "The voice actors were chosen for how they fit and could add to the characters—for instance, James Earl Jones was cast because the directors found his voice \"powerful\" and similar to a lion's roar. Jones commented that during the years of production, Mufasa \"became more and more of a dopey dad instead of [a] grand king\". Nathan Lane originally auditioned for Zazu, and Ernie Sabella for one of the hyenas. Upon meeting each other at the recording studio, the actors, who at the time both co-starred in \"Guys and Dolls\", were asked to record together as hyenas. The directors laughed at their performance and decided to cast them as Timon and Pumbaa. For the hyenas, the original", "The development of \"The Lion King\" coincided with that of \"Pocahontas\", which most of the animators of Walt Disney Feature Animation decided to work on instead, believing it would be the more prestigious and successful of the two. The story artists also did not have much faith in the project, with Chapman declaring she was reluctant to accept the job \"because the story wasn't very good\", and writer Burny Mattinson saying to co-worker Joe Ranft \"I don't know who is going to want to watch that one.\" Most of the leading animators either were doing their first major", "Lyricist Tim Rice, who was working with composer Alan Menken on songs for \"Aladdin\", was invited to write the songs, and accepted on the condition of finding a composing partner. As Menken was unavailable, the producers accepted Rice's suggestion of Elton John, after Rice's invitation of ABBA fell through due to Benny Andersson being busy with the musical \"Kristina från Duvemåla\". John expressed an interest in writing \"ultra-pop songs that kids would like; then adults can go and see those movies and get just as much pleasure out of them\", mentioning a possible influence of \"The Jungle Book\", where he felt the \"music was so funny and appealed to kids and adults\". John and Rice wrote five original songs for the film (\"Circle of Life\", \"I Just Can't Wait to Be King\", \"Be Prepared\", \"Hakuna Matata\" and \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\"), with John's performance of \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" playing over the end credits. The IMAX and DVD releases added another song, \"The Morning Report\",", "For \"The Lion King\"s first film trailer, Disney opted to feature a single scene, the entire opening sequence with the song \"Circle of Life\". Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because \"we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of film that we've seen\", and Don Hahn added that \"Circle of Life\" worked as a trailer as it \"came off so strong, and so good, and ended with such a bang\". The trailer was released in November 1993, accompanying \"The Three Musketeers\" and \"\" in theaters; by then, only a third of \"The Lion King\" had been completed. Audience reaction was enthusiastic, causing Hahn to have some initial concerns as he became afraid of not living up to the expectations raised by the preview. Prior to the film's release, Disney did 11 test screenings. \"The Lion King\" had a limited release in North America on Wednesday, June 15, 1994, playing in only two theaters, El Capitan Theater in Los Angeles and Radio City Music Hall in New York City featuring live shows with ticket prices up to $30. The wide release followed on June 24, 1994, in 2,550 screens. The digital surround sound of the film led many of those theaters to implement Dolby Laboratories' newest sound systems. Upon release, \"The Lion King\" was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign which included tie-ins with Burger King, Mattel, Kodak, Nestlé and Payless ShoeSource, and various merchandise, accounting 186 licensed products. In 1994, Disney earned approximately $1 billion with products based on the film, with $214 million for \"Lion King\" toys during Christmas 1994 alone.", "When the movie was first released in 1994, it numbered 28 versions overall in as many languages and dialects worldwide, including a special Zulu version made specifically for the movie in South Africa, where a Disney USA team went to find the Zulu voice-actors. This is not just the only Zulu dubbing ever made", "\"The Lion King\" was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on March 3, 1995, under Disney's \"Masterpiece Collection\" video series. The VHS tape contained a special preview for Walt Disney Pictures' then-upcoming animated film \"Pocahontas\", in which the title character (voiced by Judy Kuhn) sings the musical number \"Colors of the Wind\". In addition, Deluxe Editions of both formats were released. The VHS Deluxe Edition included the film, an exclusive lithograph of Rafiki and Simba (in some editions), a commemorative \"Circle of Life\" epigraph, six concept art lithographs, another tape with the half-hour TV special \"The Making of The Lion King\", and a certificate of authenticity. The CAV", "\"The Lion King\" grossed $422.8 million in North America and $545.7 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $968.5 million. It is currently the 46th highest-grossing film of all time, the eleventh highest-grossing animated film of all time worldwide and the fourth highest-grossing film of Walt Disney Animation Studios (behind \"Frozen\", \"Frozen 2\" and \"Zootopia\"). The film was also the highest-grossing motion picture of 1994 worldwide. After its initial run, having earned $763.4 million, it ranked as the second-highest-grossing film of all time worldwide, behind \"Jurassic Park\". It held the record for the highest-grossing animated feature film (in North America, outside North America, and worldwide) until it was surpassed by the computer animated \"Finding Nemo\" (2003). With the earnings of the 3D run, \"The Lion King\" surpassed all the aforementioned films but \"Toy Story 3\" to rank as the second-highest-grossing animated film worldwide—later dropping to ninth, and then tenth, surpassed by its photorealistic CGI remake counterpart—and it remains the highest-grossing hand-drawn animated film. It is also the biggest animated movie of the last 50 years in terms of estimated attendance. \"The Lion King\" was also the highest-grossing G-rated film in the United States from 1994 to 2003 and again from 2011 to 2019 until its total was surpassed by the computer-animated \"Toy Story 4\" in August 2019 (unadjusted for inflation).", "In the first two days of limited release in two theaters it grossed $622,277 and for the weekend it earned $1,586,753, placing tenth place at the box office for the weekend. The average of $793,377 per theater stands as the largest ever achieved during a weekend and it was the highest-grossing opening weekend on under 50 screens, beating the record set by \"Star Wars\" in 1977 from 43 screens. The film grossed $3,766,690 from the 2 screens in just 10 days. When it opened wide, \"The Lion King\" grossed $40.9 million – which at the time was", "", "The film was re-issued on December 25, 2002, for IMAX and large-format theaters. Don Hahn explained that eight years after \"The Lion King\" got its original release, \"there was a whole new generation of kids who haven't really seen it, particularly on the big screen.\" Given the film had", "In 2011, \"The Lion King\" was converted to 3D for a two-week limited theatrical re-issue and subsequent 3D Blu-ray release. The film opened at the number one spot on Friday, September 16, 2011, with $8.9 million and finished the weekend with $30.2 million, ranking number one at the box office. This made \"The Lion King\" the first re-issue release to earn the number-one slot at the American weekend box office since the re-issue of \"Return of the Jedi\" in March 1997. The film also achieved the fourth-highest September opening weekend of all time. It held off very well on its second weekend, again earning first place at the box office with a 27 percent decline to $21.9 million. Most box-office observers had expected the film to fall about 50 percent in its second weekend", "", "\"The Lion King\" was released to critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 93%, based on 128 reviews, with an average rating of 8.39/10. It also ranked 56th on their \"Top 100 Animation Movies\". The site's critical consensus reads, \"Emotionally stirring, richly drawn, and beautifully animated, \"The Lion King\" stands tall within Disney's pantheon of classic family films.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 88 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare \"A+\" grade. Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half stars out of a possible four and called it \"a superbly drawn animated feature\" and wrote in his print review, \"The saga of Simba, which in its deeply buried origins owes something to Greek tragedy and certainly to \"Hamlet\", is a learning experience as well as an entertainment.\" On the television program \"Siskel & Ebert\", the film was praised but received a mixed reaction when compared to previous Disney films. Ebert and his partner Gene Siskel both gave the film a \"Thumbs Up\" but Siskel said that it was not as good as", "\"The Lion King\" received four Golden Globe Award and Oscar nominations. The film would go on to win two Golden Globes; for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Original Score, as well as two Academy Awards, for Best Original Score (Hans Zimmer) and Best Original Song with \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" by Elton John and Tim Rice. The songs \"Circle of Life\" and \"Hakuna Matata\" were also nominated. \"Can You Feel the Love Tonight\" also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance. \"The Lion King\" also won Annie Awards for Best Animated Feature, Best Achievement in Voice Acting (for Jeremy Irons) and Best Individual Achievement for Story Contribution in the Field of Animation. At the Saturn Awards, the film was nominated in two categories, Best Fantasy Film and Best Performance by a", "", "Certain elements of the film were thought to bear a resemblance to Osamu Tezuka's 1960s Japanese anime television series, \"Jungle Emperor\" (known as \"Kimba the White Lion\" in the United States), with some similarities between a number of characters and various individual scenes. The 1994 release of \"The Lion King\" drew a protest in Japan, where \"Kimba\" and its creator Osamu Tezuka are cultural icons. 488 Japanese cartoonists and animators, led by manga author Machiko Satonaka, signed a petition accusing Disney of", "Protests were raised against one scene where it appears as if the word \"SEX\" might have been embedded into the dust flying in the sky when Simba flops down, which conservative activist Donald Wildmon asserted was a subliminal message intended to promote sexual promiscuity. Animator Tom Sito has stated that the letters spell \"SFX\" (a common abbreviation for \"special effects\"), not with an \"E\" instead of the \"F\", and were intended as an innocent \"signature\" created by the effects animation team. Hyena biologists protested against the animal's portrayal, though the complaints may have been somewhat tongue-in-cheek. One", "", "The first \"Lion King\"-related animated projects involved the characters of Timon and Pumbaa. First, the duo starred in the animated short \"Stand by Me\", featuring Timon singing the eponymous song, which was released in 1995 accompanying the theatrical release of \"Tom and Huck\". The duo then received their own animated series, \"The Lion King's Timon & Pumbaa\", which ran for three seasons and 85 episodes between 1995 and 1999. Ernie Sabella continued to voice Pumbaa, while Timon was voiced by Quinton Flynn and Kevin Schon in addition to Nathan Lane. Disney released two direct-to-video films related to \"The Lion King\". The first was sequel \"\", released in 1998 on VHS. The film centers around Simba and Nala's", "In September 2016, following the critical and financial success of \"The Jungle Book\", Walt Disney Pictures announced that they were developing a CGI remake of \"The Lion King\" by the same name, with Jon Favreau directing. The following month, Jeff Nathanson was hired to write the script for the film. Favreau originally planned shoot it back to back with the sequel to \"The Jungle Book\". However, it was reported in early 2017 that the latter film was put on hold in order for Favreau to instead focus mainly on \"The Lion King\". In February 2017, Favreau announced that Donald Glover had been cast as Simba and that James Earl Jones would be reprising the role of Mufasa. The following month, it was reported", "Along with the film release, three different video games based on \"The Lion King\" were released by Virgin Interactive in December 1994. The main title was developed by Westwood Studios, and published for PC and Amiga computers and the consoles SNES and Sega Mega Drive/Genesis. Dark Technologies created the Game Boy version, while Syrox Developments handled the Master System and Game Gear version. The film and sequel \"Simba's Pride\" later inspired another game, Torus Games' \"\" (2000) for the", "Walt Disney Theatrical produced a musical stage adaptation of the same name, which premiered in Minneapolis, Minnesota in July 1997, and later opened on Broadway in October 1997 at the New Amsterdam Theatre. \"The Lion King\" musical was directed by Julie Taymor and featured songs from both the movie and \"Rhythm of the Pride Lands\", along with three new compositions by Elton John and Tim Rice. Mark Mancina did the musical arrangements and new orchestral tracks. The musical became one of the most successful in Broadway history, winning six Tony Awards including Best Musical, and despite moving to the Minskoff Theatre in 2006, is still running to this day" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Opinions from the art world of the early 21st century." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Viktor Oliva was a master of drawing, illustration, and painting born in Nové Strašecí, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary 24 April 1861. His main style was Art Nouveau. At the age of 17 he attended the Academy of Fine Arts, Prague and studied under František Sequens, who respected his work greatly. He continued his studies at the Munich Academy. In 1888 he was drawn to the Montmartre area of Paris to be part of the ever rapidly expanding artistic community there. He lived there for some years and became good friends with other \"Bohemian Parisiens\" such as Luděk Marold, Mikoláš Aleš, Jakub Arbes, and Karel Vítězslav Mašek. This group of actual Bohemians (from Bohemia) were right in the heart of the \"Bohemian Revolution\". His art greatly improved in such a richly artistic environment. Paris is where he discovered the joy of absinthe. He also greatly loved the exhilaration of ballooning. This group all held very true to the ideals that the Artistic Bohemians believed in. They all lived and worked there for several years before returning to their home in true Bohemia. In 1897 he was given the job of Images Editor at the popular Czech language magazine \"Zlatá Praha\" (Golden Prague). He held this job for 19 years. Shortly after he started work there, he married a girl named Anna Adamcová who was enamored with his talent. Not long after that, she gave birth to his son Viktor Oliva Jr. (who also was an aspiring artist). The marriage didn't last long, as Anna ran away with a singer named Mařák. Oliva was still able to spend some time with his son, which brought him much joy. Over the next quarter century, Oliva was very prolific in his work. He spent a lot of time with his worldly best friend Josef Kořenský (a true world traveler at a time when this was difficult). Oliva was commissioned to create many dramatic works including the ceilings of several buildings in Bohemia. He also had several works hanging in his favorite cafe, Café Slavia (which still has his most famous work \"Piják absintu\" (\"Absinthe Drinker\") hanging inside). He was profiled in \"Český Svět\" magazine in 1926, two years before his death. Here is a translation of the text: \"Anniversary of the life (65th birthday) of such a kind and likable artist sets our memories well back – to the end of the 1880s – when the very young artist Oliva began to help with artistic decoration of Czech books with such an elegance and charm, that he soon became one of the most famous Czech illustrators up there with Luděk Marold, for example. Oliva did illustrations for several books of Svatopluk Čech, Jan Neruda, Karel Václav Rais, Václav Beneš Třebízský, Kronbauer – those were published for almost two decades with his illustrations. As a landscape and figure artist, huge canvases of Oliva hang in Café Slavia, the walls of buildings on Slavia Island, and Mestanska Beseda in Pilsen. He died on 5 April 1928 in Prague and was buried in Olšany Cemetery in an area for famous artists.", "According to an annotation from what is most likely the Troja Chateau gallery in Prague: According to the catalog of Czech art auction house Meissner-Neumann:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Initial Establishment in Peoria (1910) and Headquarters Move to Deerfield (2017).", "Use in World War I.", "Post-war challenges.", "Caterpillar company formed (1925).", "Expansion in developing markets.", "Acquisitions.", "Divestitures.", "Business lines.", "Machinery.", "On-road trucks.", "Engines and gas turbines.", "Caterpillar Defense Products.", "Caterpillar Electronics.", "Agriculture products.", "Financial products and brand licensing.", "Brand licensing.", "Operations.", "Manufacturing.", "Remanufacturing.", "Distribution.", "Management.", "Current board of directors.", "Workforce and labor relations.", "Labor practices.", "Environmental record.", "Environmental stewardship.", "Clean Air Act violation.", "Controversies.", "Tax deferral techniques.", "Israel Defense Forces sales.", "Trademark claims.", "Advocacy, philanthropy and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The steam tractors of the 1890s and early 1900s were extremely heavy, sometimes weighing per horsepower, and often sank into the rich, soft earth of the San Joaquin Valley Delta farmland surrounding Stockton, California. Benjamin Holt attempted to fix the problem by increasing the size and width of the wheels up to tall and wide, producing a tractor wide. But this also made the tractors increasingly complex, expensive and difficult to maintain. Another solution considered was to lay a temporary plank road ahead of the steam tractor, but this was time-consuming, expensive, and interfered with earthmoving. Holt thought of wrapping the planks around the wheels. He replaced the wheels on a Holt steamer, No. 77, with a set of wooden tracks bolted to chains. On Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 1904, he successfully tested the updated machine plowing the soggy delta land of Roberts Island. Contemporaneously Richard Hornsby & Sons in Grantham, Lincolnshire, England, developed a", "On February 2, 1910, Holt opened up a plant in East Peoria, Illinois, led by his nephew Pliny Holt. There Pliny met farm implement dealer Murray Baker who knew of an empty factory that had been recently built to manufacture farm implements and steam traction engines. Baker, who later became the first executive vice president of what became Caterpillar Tractor Company, wrote to Holt headquarters in Stockton and described the plant of the bankrupt Colean Manufacturing Co. of East Peoria, Illinois. On October 25, 1909, Pliny Holt purchased the factory, and immediately began operations with 12 employees. Holt incorporated it as the Holt Caterpillar Company, although he did not trademark the name \"Caterpillar\" until August 2, 1910. The addition of a plant in the Midwest, despite the hefty capital needed to retool the plant, proved so profitable that only two years later the company employed 625 people and", "The first tanks used in WW1 were manufactured by William Foster & Co. also in Lincolnshire and were introduced to the battlefield in 1916. That company had collaborated with Hornsby in the development of the vehicles demonstrated to the British military in 1907, providing the paraffin (kerosene) engines. Holt's track-type tractors played a support role in World War I. Even before the U.S. formally entered WWI, Holt had shipped 1,200 tractors to England, France and Russia for agricultural purposes. These governments, however, sent the tractors directly to the battlefront where the", "Holt tractors had become well known during World War I. Military contracts formed the major part of the company's production. When the war ended, Holt's planned expansion to meet the military's needs was abruptly terminated. The heavy-duty tractors needed by the military were unsuitable for farmers. The company's situation worsened when artillery tractors were returned from Europe, depressing prices for new equipment and Holt's unsold inventory of military tractors. The company struggled with the transition from wartime boom to", "The banks and bankers who held the company's large debt forced the Holt board of directors to accept their candidate, Thomas A. Baxter, to succeed Benjamin Holt. Baxter initially cut the large tractors from the company's product line and introduced smaller models focused on the agricultural market. When the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 funded a US$1 billion federal highway building program, Baxter began refocusing the company towards building road construction equipment. Both companies also faced fierce competition from the Fordson company. Between 1907 and 1918, Best and Holt had spent about US$1.5 million in legal fees fighting each other in a number of contractual, trademark and patent infringement lawsuits. Harry H. Fair of the bond brokerage house of Pierce, Fair & Company of San Francisco had helped to finance C. L. Best's debt and Holt shareholders approached him about their company's financial difficulty. Fair recommended that the two companies should merge. In April and May 1925, the", "Caterpillar built its first Russian facility in the town of Tosno, located near St. Petersburg, Russia. It was completed in 16 months, occupied in November 1999, and began fabricating machine components in 2000. It had the first electrical substation built in the Leningrad Oblast since the Communist government was dissolved on December 26, 1991. The facility was built under harsh winter conditions, where the temperature was below −13 °F (−25 °C). The facility construction", "In addition to increasing sales of its", "Caterpillar occasionally divests assets that", "Through fiscal year 2010, Caterpillar divided its products, services and technologies into three principal lines of business: machinery, engines and financial products for sale to private and governmental entities. Starting in 2011, Caterpillar reports its financials using five business segments: construction industries, resource industries, power systems, financial products, and all other segments.", "Caterpillar has a list of some 400 products for purchase through its dealer network. Caterpillar's line of machines range from tracked tractors to hydraulic excavators, backhoe loaders, motor graders, off-highway trucks, wheel loaders, agricultural tractors and locomotives. Caterpillar machinery is used in the construction, road-building, mining, forestry, energy, transportation and material-handling industries. Caterpillar is", "Caterpillar began selling a line of on-road trucks in 2011, the Cat CT660, a Class 8 vocational truck. As of March 2016, Caterpillar has ceased production of on-highway vocational trucks stating that “Remaining a viable competitor in this market would require significant", "A portion of Caterpillar's business is in the manufacturing of diesel and natural gas engines and gas turbines which, in addition to their use in the company's own vehicles, are used as the prime movers in locomotives, semi trucks, marine vessels and ships, as well as providing the power source for peak-load power plants and emergency generators. Caterpillar 3116 engine was used up until 1997, when Caterpillar introduced the inline 6 cylinder 7.2 litre Caterpillar 3126 engine as its first electronic diesel engine for light trucks and buses. Caterpillar decreased emissions and noise the next year in the 3126B version of the engine, and improved emissions further", "The Caterpillar Defence Products subsidiary, headquartered in Shrewsbury, United Kingdom, provides diesel engines, automatic transmissions and other parts for the UK's Titan armored bridge layer, Trojan combat engineering tank, Terrier combat engineering vehicles, and tank transporters; the Romanian MLI-84 armored personnel carrier and the Swiss Piranha III light armored vehicle, which is currently being developed for use by American light armored formations; large fleets of military trucks in both the U.S. and UK; and the CV90 family of infantry fighting vehicles used by the armies of Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark. This division also provides both propulsion engines and power generation systems to the naval shipbuilding industry, such as the Series 3512B turbocharged V-12 diesel engine for American \"Virginia\" class nuclear submarines. Caterpillar diesel engines are also used in \"San Antonio\" class amphibious transport docks, Spanish \"Alvaro de Bazán\" class frigates, British \"River\" class patrol vessels, Mexican \"Sierra\" class patrol boats, and Malaysian \"Kedah\" class MEKO A-100 offshore patrol vessels. The poor network security of the Caterpillar engines puts America's submarine force at risk for cyberattack.", "The Caterpillar Electronics business unit has formed Caterpillar Trimble Control Technologies LLC (CTCT), a 50:50 joint venture with Trimble Inc. CTCT develops positioning and control products for earthmoving and paving machines in the construction", "Caterpillar introduced the \"Challenger\" range of agricultural tractors as the result of several development programs over a long period of time. The program started in the 1970s and involved both D6-based units and Grader power units. A parallel program was also developing wheeled high hp tractors based on using the articulated loading shovel chassis was later merged with the crawler team. The result was the Challenger Tractor and the \"Mobi-Trac\" system.", "Caterpillar provides financing and insurance to customers via its worldwide", "Caterpillar sells the right to manufacture, market and sell products bearing the Cat trademark to licensees worldwide. Wolverine World Wide is one example, a licensee", "", "Caterpillar products and components are manufactured in 110 facilities worldwide. 51 plants are located in the United States and 59 overseas plants are located in Australia (until 2015), Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Czech Republic, England, France, Germany, Hungary, India (Chennai), Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Poland, Russia, Singapore, South Africa and Sweden. Caterpillar's historical manufacturing home is in", "Major facilities", "Caterpillar products are distributed to end-users in nearly 200 countries through Caterpillar's worldwide network of 220 dealers. Caterpillar's dealers are independently owned and operated businesses with exclusive geographical territories. Dealers provide sales, maintenance and repair services, rental equipment, and parts distribution. Finning, a dealer based", "Caterpillar has a corporate governance structure where the chairman of the board also acts as chief executive officer (CEO). The board of directors is fully independent and is made up of non-employee directors selected from outside the company. Several group presidents report to the", "As of December 2018, the board of directors was composed as follows: On January 1, 2017, Jim Umpleby succeeded Douglas R.", "As of December 31, 2009, Caterpillar employed 93,813 persons of whom 50,562 are located outside the United States. Current employment figures represent a decline of 17,900 employees compared the third quarter of 2008. Due to the restructuring of business operations which began in the 1990s, there are 20,000 fewer union jobs in the Peoria, Illinois area while employment outside the U.S. has increased.", "Caterpillar came close to bankruptcy in the early 1980s, at one point losing almost US$1 million per day due to a sharp downturn in product demand as competition with Japanese rival Komatsu increased. (At the time, Komatsu used the internal slogan \"encircle Caterpillar\".) Caterpillar suffered further when the United States declared an embargo against the Soviet Union after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, causing the company to be unable to sell US$400 million worth of pipelaying machinery that had already been built.", "", "Caterpillar divisions have won Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Awards every year since 1997. Caterpillar was awarded the 2007 Illinois Governor's Pollution Prevention Award for three projects: The Hydraulics and Hydraulic Systems business unit in Joliet implemented a flame sprayed coating for its truck suspension system, replacing a chroming process, reducing hazardous waste by 700,000 pounds annually and saving of water. Caterpillar's Cast Metals Organization in Mapleton worked with the American Foundry Society to help produce a rule to reduce hazardous waste in scrap metal that meet strict quality requirements, and also allow foundries to continue recycling certain types of scrap and maintain a competitive", "In July 1999, Caterpillar and five other diesel engine manufacturers signed a consent decree with the Justice Department and the State of California, after governmental investigations revealed violations of the Clean Air Act. The violation involves over a million diesel engines sold with defeat devices, devices that regulated emissions during pre-sale tests, but that could be disabled in favor of better performance during subsequent highway driving. Consequently, these engines \"...emit up to triple the permissible level of smog-forming nitrogen", "", "In March 2017, when US federal agents raided Caterpillar's headquarters in Peoria Ill., it was already evident that the company engaged in aggressive measures to control tax costs. Since April 2014, the company's tax policies have been investigated by a senate subcommittee headed by Senator Carl Levin. Those investigations uncovered significant changes in Caterpillar's offshore tax strategy, culminating in the creation of the new Swiss subsidiary Caterpillar SARL (CSARL) in Geneva. In 1999, the former Caterpillar executive Daniel", "In 2004 the Office of the UN High Commissioner on Human Rights sent a warning letter", "Caterpillar Inc. has sought the revocations of registered trademarks in the United States incorporating the word \"Cat\" within the market of", "Caterpillar is a leading member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C.-based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for increased funding of American diplomatic and development efforts abroad through the International Affairs Budget. Economic development projects in developing countries (particularly in rural, agricultural regions) serve as new markets for Caterpillar products by improving political and economic stability and raising average incomes. 2011 recipient of the Henry C. Turner Prize for Innovation in Construction Technology from the National Building Museum." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "History.", "Operation.", "Operating costs.", "Construction.", "Extensions.", "Incidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The line runs from Longyang Road station in Pudong to Pudong International Airport; The Pudong International Airport station provides a transfer to Line 2, but the Longyang Road station provides access to Line 2, Line 7 and Line 16. At full speed, the journey takes 7 minutes and 20 seconds to complete the distance of, although some trains in the early morning and late afternoon take about 50 seconds longer. A train can reach in 2 minutes, with the maximum normal operation speed of reached thereafter. Hans-Dieter Bott, vice president of Siemens that won the contract to build the rail link, stated that \"Transrapid views the Shanghai line, where the ride will last just eight minutes, largely as a sales tool. This serves as a demonstration for China to show that this works and can be used for longer distances, such as Shanghai to Beijing\". However, the decision was eventually made to implement the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway with conventional high-speed technology. Plans for a shorter maglev extension from Longyang Road to Hangzhou, the Shanghai–Hangzhou maglev line, have been suspended. Speculation that a line would be built from Shanghai to Beijing mounted in 2002. It would cover a distance of about, at an estimated cost of £15.5bn. The chief executive of ThyssenKrupp, Dr Ekkehard Schulz said he was certain that not only Germany, but many countries would follow the Chinese example. The German government along with a selection of German companies sought to win more projects for their maglev technology, and highlighted that a train between Shanghai and the Chinese capital, Beijing remained a possibility. However, no projects have been revealed as of 2014.", "Construction of the line began in March 1, 2001, and public commercial service commenced on 1 January 2004. The top operational commercial speed of this train is, making it the world's fastest train in regular commercial service since its opening in April 2004. During a non-commercial test run on 12 November 2003, piloted by Jonathan Texiera, a maglev train achieved a Chinese record speed of. The Shanghai Maglev has a length of, a width of, a height of and a three-class, 574-passenger configuration. The train set(rake)model (SMT Transrapid) was built by a joint venture of Siemens and ThyssenKrupp from Kassel, Germany and based on years of tests and improvements of their Transrapid maglev monorail. The Shanghai Maglev track (guideway) was built by local Chinese companies who, as a result of the alluvial soil conditions of the Pudong area, had to deviate from the original track design of one supporting column every 50 metres to one column every 25 meters, to ensure that the guideway meets the stability and precision criteria. Several thousand concrete piles were driven to depths up to 70 metres to attain stability for the support column foundations. A mile-long, climate-controlled facility was built alongside the line's right of way to manufacture the guideways. The train was manufactured in Germany by Seimens-Thyssenkrupp JV(Joint venture) The electrification of the train was developed by Vahle, Inc. Two commercial maglev systems predated the Shanghai system: the Birmingham Maglev in the United Kingdom and the Berlin M-Bahn. Both were low-speed operations and closed before the opening of the Shanghai maglev train. The train was inaugurated in 2002 by the German chancellor, Gerhard Schröder, and the Chinese premier, Zhu Rongji.", "The line is operated by Shanghai Maglev Transportation Development Co., Ltd and runs from 06:45 to 21:30, with services every 15 to 20 minutes. A one-way ticket costs ¥50 (US$8), or ¥40 ($6.40) for those passengers holding a receipt or proof of an airline ticket purchase. A round-trip return ticket costs ¥80 ($12.80) and VIP tickets cost double the standard fare. Following the opening, overall maglev train ridership levels were at 20% of capacity. The levels were attributed to limited operating hours, the short length of the line, high ticket prices and that it terminates at Longyang Road in Pudong – another 20 min by subway from the city centre. Two additional one-way scheduled trains starts off at 10:15 pm and 10:40 pm from Pudong Airport to Longyang Road for about 8 minutes since October 2016. Travel time was sped up considerably, as the journey takes 45 minutes by road.", "A 2007 statement by Transrapid USA said with 4 million passengers in 2006 the system was able to cover its operating costs. The ratio of costs were given as: 64%-energy, 19%-maintenance & 17%-operations/support services; no amount was given. The high proportion of energy costs was attributed to the short trip time and high operating speed. However, according to Chinese media's report, due to the huge costs of operating and the lack of the passenger flow, Shanghai Maglev Transportation Company would lose 500 million to 700 million RMB every year.", "The Shanghai Transrapid project took ¥10 billion (US$1.33bn) and two and a half years to complete. The line is track and has a further separate track leading to a maintenance facility.", "In January 2006, the Shanghai–Hangzhou maglev line extension project was proposed by the Shanghai Urban Planning Administrative Bureau. The extension would continue the existing line towards Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport, running via Shanghai South Railway Station and the Expo 2010 site, with a possible continuation towards Hangzhou. The extension would allow transferring between the two airports—located apart—in approximately 15 minutes. The plan for the extension to Hangzhou was first approved by the central government in February 2006, with a planned date of completion in 2010. Work was suspended in 2008, owing to public protests over radiation fears despite an environmental assessment by the Shanghai Academy of Environmental Sciences saying the line was safe and would not affect air and water quality, and noise pollution could be controlled. According to China Daily, as reported on People's Daily Online 27 February 2009, the Shanghai municipal government was considering building the maglev line underground to allay the public's fear of electromagnetic pollution and the final decision on the maglev line had to be approved by the National Development and Reform commission. Another approval was granted in March 2010, with construction to begin in late 2010. The new link was to be long, longer than the original plan. The top speed is expected to be but limited to in built-up areas. In October 2010 the non-maglev Shanghai–Hangzhou High-Speed Railway was opened, bringing travelling time between the two cities down to 45 minutes. Consequently, plans for a Maglev link have been suspended again. In addition, a new express Airport Link line (机场联络线), which began construction in June 2019 and is due for completion in 2024, would likely stop any future extension.", "On 11 August 2006, a Maglev train compartment caught fire at 14:40, after having left Pudong International Airport in the direction of Pudong Longyang Road Station. There were no injuries aboard. Preliminary reports indicated that an electrical problem may have been the cause. On 14 February 2016, the Shanghai maglev line had an equipment failure which affected operation for more than 1 hour. Due to the use of single-line operation during this time, the train interval was extended." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Storylines.", "Production.", "Reception.", "Influence.", "Versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The film consists of four distinct, but parallel, stories—intercut with increasing frequency as the film builds to a climax—that demonstrate humankind's persistent intolerance throughout the ages. The timeline covers approximately 2,500 years. Breaks between differing time periods are marked by the symbolic image of a mother rocking a cradle, representing the passing of generations. The film simultaneously cross-cuts back and forth and interweaves the segments over great gaps of space and time, with over 50 transitions between the segments. One of the unusual characteristics of the film is that many of the characters do not have names. Griffith wished them to be emblematic of human types. Thus, the central female character in the modern story is called The Dear One. Her young husband is called The Boy, and the leader of the local Mafia is called The Musketeer of the Slums. Critics and film theorists maintain that these names reveal Griffith's sentimentalism, which was already hinted at in \"The Birth of a Nation\", with names such as \"The Little Colonel\". The American \"Modern\" story Renaissance \"French\" story (1572) Ancient \"Babylonian\" story The Biblical \"Judean\" story Cameo appearances/small roles", "\"Intolerance\" was a colossal undertaking featuring monumental sets, lavish period costumes, and more than 3,000 extras. The lot on Sunset Boulevard featured a Babylon set with walls as well as streets of Judea and medieval France. The extras were reported to have been paid a total of $12,000 a day (). Griffith began shooting the film with the Modern Story (originally titled \"The Mother and the Law\"), whose planning predated the great commercial success of \"The Birth of a Nation\". He then greatly expanded it to include the other three parallel stories under the theme of intolerance. Three hundred thousand feet of film were shot. The total cost of producing \"Intolerance\" was reported to be close to $2 million including $250,000 for the Belshazzar feast scene alone, an astronomical sum in 1916, but accounts for the film show the exact cost to be $385,906.77 (). A third of the budget went into making the Babylonian segments of the film. Griffith financed most of the film, which contributed to his financial ruin for the rest of his life.", "\"Intolerance\" was met with an enthusiastic reception from film critics upon its premiere. Scholar Frank Beaver argues that \"Griffith's intended message in \"Intolerance\" was not lost on reviewers\", noting that in \"The San Francisco Bulletin\" a contemporary critic declared, \"Griffith's film comes powerfully to strengthen the hand of the believers in love.\" Although \"Intolerance\" was a commercial failure upon its initial release, it has since received very positive reviews and later gained popularity. It has been called \"the only film fugue\". Theodore Huff, one of the leading film critics of the first half of the 20th century, believed that it was the only motion picture worthy of taking its place alongside Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel ceiling paintings, etc., as a separate and central artistic contribution. \"Intolerance\" was shown out of competition at the 1982 Cannes Film Festival. In 1989, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\", the first year of voting. In 2007, AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies (10th Anniversary Edition) ranked \"Intolerance\" as the 49th best American film of all time. The film also holds a 97% approval rating on the aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes. Critic Armond White considers \"Intolerance\" the greatest film ever made, writing, \"A century later we are as close to its subject as we are distant from its art.\" Praise for the work is not unanimous, however. David Thomson argued that the film's impact is weakened by its \"self-destructive frenzy\": The film has been widely reported to have been a box office bomb, but this is a myth attributed to its misreported budget. Even though up to that time it was the most expensive American film made, and it did far less business than \"The Birth of a Nation\", it earned approximately $1 million for its backers, a respectable performance and enough to recoup its budget.", "\"Intolerance\" and its unorthodox editing were enormously influential, particularly among European and Soviet filmmakers. Many of the numerous assistant directors Griffith employed in making the film—Erich von Stroheim, Tod Browning, Woody Van Dyke—went on to become important and noted Hollywood directors in subsequent years. The film was parodied by Buster Keaton in \"Three Ages\" (1923). A replica of an archway and elephant sculptures from the Babylon segment of the film serve as an important architectural element of the Hollywood and Highland shopping center in Hollywood, Los Angeles (built in 2001).", "\"Intolerance\" is now in the public domain. There are currently four major versions of the film in circulation. There are other budget/public domain video and DVD versions of this film released by different companies, each with varying degrees of picture quality depending on the source that was used. Most are of poor picture quality, but even the restored 35 millimeter versions exhibit considerable film damage. The Internet Movie Database lists the standard running time as 163 minutes, which is the running length of the DVD released by \"Public Domain Flicks\". The Delta DVD released in Region 1 as \"Intolerance: A Sun Play of the Ages\" and in Region 2 as \"Intolerance: Love's Struggle Throughout the Ages\" clocks in at 167 minutes. The version available for free viewing on the Internet Movie Archive is the Killiam restoration. Cameraman Karl Brown remembered a scene with the various members of the Babylonian harem that featured full frontal nudity. He was barred from the set that day, apparently because he was so young. While there are several shots of slaves and harem girls throughout the film (which were shot by another director without Griffith's involvement), the scene that Brown describes is not in any surviving versions. It is also known that a major segment of the Renaissance \"French\" story, involving the attempted assassination of the Admiral Coligny, was cut before the film's release. Film historian Kevin Brownlow has written that, when Griffith re-released \"The Modern Story\" separately as \"The Mother and the Law\" in 1919, he softened in the film, due to the First Red Scare that year. \"He was obliged to put this title in the strike sequence: 'The militiamen having used blank cartridges, the workmen now fear only the company guards. In fact, \"machine guns could not operate with blank cartridges at this period\", Brownlow noted." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It has a height of, and a width of at its widest point and is made of a clay body fired at a relatively low temperature (500 °C - 800 °C). The statuette follows the general morphology of the other Venus figurines: exceptionally large breasts, belly and hips, perhaps symbols of fertility, relatively small head and little detail on the rest of the body. The palaeolithic settlement of Dolní Věstonice in Moravia, a part of Czechoslovakia at the time organized excavation began, now located in the Czech Republic, has been under systematic archaeological research since 1924, initiated by Karel Absolon. In addition to the Venus figurine, figures of animals – bear, lion, mammoth, horse, fox, rhino and owl – and more than 2,000 balls of burnt clay have been found at Dolní Věstonice. The figurine was discovered on 13 July 1925 in a layer of ash, broken into two pieces. Once on display at the Moravian Museum in Brno, it is now protected and only rarely accessible to the public. It was exhibited in the National Museum in Prague from 11 October 2006 until 2 September 2007 as a part of the exhibition \"Lovci mamutů\" (\"The Mammoth Hunters\"). It was presented in the Moravian Museum in Brno at an expo \"Prehistoric Art in Central Europe\". It has returned to depository as of June 2009. Scientists periodically examine the statuette. A tomograph scan in 2004 found a fingerprint of a child estimated at between 7 and 15 years of age, fired into the surface; the child who handled the figurine before it was fired is considered by Králík, Novotný and Oliva (2002) to be an unlikely candidate for its maker.", "General Information" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Definition.", "Physical properties.", "Freshwater and saltwater pearls.", "Creation.", "Natural pearls.", "Cultured pearls.", "Imitation pearls.", "Gemological identification.", "Value of a natural pearl.", "Origin of a natural pearl.", "Types of cultured pearls.", "From other species.", "History.", "Pearl hunting.", "British Isles.", "Pearl farming.", "Timeline of pearl production.", "Freshwater pearl farming.", "Momme weight.", "In jewelry.", "Shapes.", "Lengths of pearl necklaces.", "Colors.", "Religious references.", "Hindu scriptures.", "Hebrew scriptures.", "New Testament scriptures.", "Islamic scriptures.", "Additional references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The English word \"pearl\" comes from the French \"perle\",", "All shelled mollusks can, by natural processes, produce some kind of \"pearl\" when an irritating microscopic object becomes trapped within its mantle folds, but the great majority of these \"pearls\" are not valued as gemstones. Nacreous pearls, the best-known and most commercially significant, are primarily produced by two groups of molluskan bivalves or clams. A nacreous pearl is made from layers of nacre, by the same living process as is used in the secretion of the mother of pearl which lines the shell. Natural (or wild) pearls, formed without human intervention,", "The unique luster of pearls depends upon the reflection, refraction, and diffraction of light from the translucent layers. The thinner and more numerous the layers in the pearl, the finer the luster. The iridescence that pearls display is caused by the overlapping of successive layers, which breaks up light", "Freshwater and saltwater pearls may sometimes look quite similar, but they come from different sources. Freshwater pearls form in various species of freshwater mussels, family Unionidae, which live in lakes, rivers, ponds and other bodies of fresh water. These", "Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain mollusks as a defense mechanism against a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside the shell, or an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue. The mollusk creates a \"pearl sac\" to seal off the irritation. Pearls are thus the result of an immune response analogous in the human body to the capture of an antigen by a phagocyte (phagocytosis). The mollusk's mantle (protective membrane) deposits layers of calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the form of the mineral aragonite or a mixture of aragonite and calcite (polymorphs with the same chemical formula, but different crystal structures) held together by an organic horn-like compound called conchiolin. The combination of aragonite and conchiolin is called nacre, which makes up mother-of-pearl. The commonly held belief that a grain of sand acts as the irritant is in fact rarely the case. Typical stimuli include organic material, parasites, or even damage that displaces mantle tissue to another part of the mollusk's body. These small particles or organisms gain entry when the shell valves are open for feeding or respiration. In cultured pearls, the irritant is typically an introduced piece of the mantle epithelium, with or without a spherical bead (beaded or beadless cultured pearls).", "Natural pearls are nearly 100% calcium carbonate and conchiolin. It is thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell. The mollusk, irritated by the intruder, forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the irritant. This secretion process is repeated many times, thus producing a pearl. Natural pearls come in many shapes, with perfectly round ones being comparatively rare. Typically, the build-up of a natural pearl consists of a brown central zone formed by columnar calcium carbonate (usually calcite, sometimes columnar aragonite) and a yellowish to white outer zone consisting of nacre (tabular aragonite). In a pearl cross-section such as the diagram, these two different materials can be seen. The presence of columnar calcium carbonate rich in organic material indicates juvenile", "Cultured pearls are the response of the shell to a tissue implant. A tiny piece of mantle tissue (called a \"graft\") from a donor shell is transplanted into a recipient shell, causing a pearl sac to form into which the tissue precipitates calcium carbonate. There are a number of methods for producing cultured pearls: using freshwater or seawater shells, transplanting the graft into the mantle or into the gonad, and adding a spherical bead as a nucleus. Most saltwater cultured pearls are grown with beads. Trade names of cultured pearls are Akoya (), white or golden South sea, and black Tahitian. Most beadless cultured pearls", "Some imitation pearls (also called shell pearls) are simply made of mother-of-pearl, coral or conch shell, while others are made from glass and are", "A well-equipped gem testing laboratory can distinguish natural pearls from cultured pearls by using gemological X-ray equipment to examine the center of a pearl. With X-rays it is possible to see the growth rings of the pearl, where the layers of calcium carbonate are separated by thin", "Fine quality natural pearls are very rare jewels. Their values are determined similarly to those of other precious gems, according to size, shape, color, quality of surface, orient and luster. Single natural pearls are often sold as collectors' items, or set as centerpieces in unique jewelry. Very few matched strands of natural pearls exist, and those that do often sell for hundreds of thousands of dollars. (In 1917, jeweler Pierre Cartier purchased the Fifth Avenue", "Previously, natural pearls were found in many parts of the world. Present day natural pearling is confined mostly to seas off Bahrain. Australia also has one of the world's last remaining fleets of pearl diving ships. Australian pearl divers dive for", "Keshi pearls, although they often occur by chance, are not considered natural. They are a byproduct of the culturing process, and hence do not happen without human intervention. They are quite small, typically only a few millimeters. Keshi pearls are produced by many different types of marine mollusks and freshwater mussels in China. Keshi pearls are actually a mistake in the cultured pearl seeding process. In seeding the cultured pearl, a piece of mantle muscle from a sacrificed oyster is placed with a bead of mother of pearl within the oyster. If the piece of mantle should slip off the bead, a pearl forms of baroque shape about the mantle piece which is entirely nacre. Therefore, a Keshi", "Biologically speaking, under the right set of circumstances, almost any shelled mollusk can produce some kind of pearl. However, most of these molluskan pearls have no luster or iridescence. The great majority of mollusk species produce pearls which are not attractive, and are sometimes not even very durable, such that they usually have no value at all, except perhaps to a scientist or collector, or as a curiosity. These objects used to be referred to as \"calcareous concretions\" by some gemologists, even though a malacologist would still consider them to be pearls. Valueless pearls of this type are sometimes found in edible mussels, edible oysters, escargot snails, and so on. The GIA and CIBJO now simply use the term 'pearl' (or, where appropriate, the more descriptive term 'non-nacreous pearl') when referring to such items and, under Federal Trade Commission rules, various mollusk pearls may be referred to as 'pearls', without qualification. A few species produce pearls that can be of interest as gemstones. These species include the bailer shell \"Melo\", the giant clam \"Tridacna\", various scallop species, Pen shells \"Pinna\", and", "", "The ancient chronicle Mahavamsa mentions the thriving pearl industry in the port of Oruwella in the Gulf of Mannar in Sri Lanka. It also records that eight varieties of pearls accompanied Prince Vijaya's embassy to the Pandyan king as well as king Devanampiya Tissa's embassy to Emperor Ashoka. Pliny the Elder (23–79AD) praised the pearl fishery of the Gulf as most productive in the world. For thousands of years, seawater pearls were retrieved by divers in the Indian Ocean in areas such as the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Mannar. Evidence also suggest a prehistoric origin to pearl diving in these regions. Starting in the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), the Chinese hunted extensively for seawater pearls in the South China Sea. Tanka pearl divers of", "Pearls were one of the attractions which drew Julius Caesar to Britain. They are, for the most part, freshwater pearls from mussels. Pearling was banned in the U.K. in 1998 due to the endangered status of river mussels. Discovery and publicity about the sale for a substantial sum of the Abernethy pearl in the River Tay had resulted in heavy exploitation of mussel colonies during the 1970s and 80s by weekend warriors. When it was permitted it was carried on mainly by Scottish Travellers who found pearls varied from river to river with the River Oykel in the Highlands being noted for the finest rose-pink pearls. There are two firms in Scotland that are licensed to sell pre-1998 freshwater pearls.", "Today, the cultured pearls on the market can be divided into two categories. The first category covers the beaded cultured pearls, including akoya, South Sea and Tahiti. These pearls are gonad grown, and usually one pearl is grown at a time. This limits the number of pearls at a harvest period. The pearls are usually harvested after one year for akoya, 2–4 years for Tahitian and South Sea, and 2–7 years for freshwater. This perliculture process was first developed by the British biologist William Saville-Kent who passed the", "Mitsubishi commenced pearl culture with the South Sea pearl oyster in 1916, as soon as the technology patent was commercialized. By 1931 this project was showing signs of success, but was upset by the death of Tatsuhei Mise. Although the project was recommenced after Tatsuhei's death, the project was discontinued at the beginning of WWII before significant productions of pearls were achieved. After WWII, new south sea pearl projects were commenced in the early 1950s at Kuri Bay and Port Essington in Australia, and Burma. Japanese companies were involved in all projects using technicians from the original Mitsubishi South Sea pre-war projects. Kuri Bay is now the location of", "In 1914, pearl farmers began growing cultured freshwater pearls using the pearl mussels native to Lake Biwa. This lake, the largest and most ancient in Japan, lies near the city of Kyoto. The extensive and successful use of the Biwa Pearl Mussel is reflected in the name \"Biwa pearls\", a phrase which was at one time nearly synonymous with freshwater pearls in general. Since the time of peak production in 1971, when Biwa pearl farmers produced six tons of cultured pearls, pollution has caused the virtual extinction of the industry. Japanese pearl farmers recently cultured a hybrid pearl mussel – a cross between Biwa Pearl Mussels", "For many cultured pearl dealers and wholesalers, the preferred weight measure used for loose pearls and pearl strands is the momme. Momme is a weight measure used by the Japanese for centuries. Today, momme weight is still the standard unit of measure used by most pearl dealers to communicate with pearl producers and wholesalers. One momme corresponds to 1/1000 kan. Reluctant to give up tradition, the Japanese government", "The value of the pearls in jewelry is determined by a combination of the luster, color, size, lack of surface flaw and symmetry that are appropriate for the type of pearl under consideration. Among those attributes, luster is the most important differentiator of pearl quality according to jewelers. All factors being equal, however, the larger the pearl the more valuable it is. Large, perfectly round pearls are rare and highly valued. Teardrop-shaped pearls are often used in pendants.", "Pearls come in eight basic shapes: round, semi-round, button, drop, pear, oval, baroque, circled and double bouldered. Perfectly round pearls are the rarest and most valuable shape. Semi-rounds are also used in necklaces or in pieces where the shape of the pearl can be disguised to look like it is a perfectly round pearl. Button pearls are like a slightly flattened round pearl and can also make a necklace, but are more often used in single pendants or earrings where the back half of the pearl is covered, making it look like a larger, rounder pearl. Drop and pear shaped pearls are sometimes referred to as teardrop pearls and are most often seen in earrings,", "There is a special vocabulary used to describe the length of pearl necklaces. While most other necklaces are simply referred to by their physical measurement, pearl necklaces are named by how low they hang when worn around the neck. A \"collar\", measuring 10 to 13 inches or 25 to 33 cm in length, sits directly against the throat and does not hang down the neck at all; collars are often made up of multiple strands of pearls. \"Pearl chokers\", measuring 14 to 16 inches or 35 to 41 cm in length, nestle just at the base of the neck. A strand called a \"princess length\", measuring 17 to 19 inches or 43 to 48 cm in length, comes down to or just below the collarbone. A \"matinee length\", measuring 20 to 24 inches or 50 to", "Earrings and necklaces can also be classified on the grade of the color of the pearl: saltwater and freshwater pearls come in many different colors. While white, and more recently black, saltwater pearls are", "", "The Hindu tradition describes the sacred Nine Pearls which were first documented in the Garuda Purana, one of the books of the Hindu mythology. Ayurveda contains references to pearl powder as a stimulant of digestion and to treat mental ailments. According to Marco Polo, the kings of Malabar wore a necklace of 108 rubies and pearls which was", "According to Rebbenu Bachya, the word \"Yahalom\" in the verse Exodus 28:18 means \"pearl\" and was the stone on the Hoshen representing the tribe of Zebulun. This is generally disputed among scholars, particularly since the word in question in most manuscripts is actually \"Yasepheh\" – the word from which \"jasper\" derives; scholars think that refers to green jasper (the rarest and most prized form in early times) rather than red jasper (the most common form). \"Yahalom\" is usually translated by the Septuagint as an \"onyx\", but", "In a Christian New Testament parable (\"Matthew\" 13:45–46), Jesus compared the Kingdom of Heaven to a \"pearl of great price\". \"Again, the kingdom of heaven is like unto a merchant man, seeking goodly (fine) pearls: Who, when he had found one pearl of great price, went and sold all that he had, and bought it.\" The twelve gates of the New Jerusalem are reportedly each made of a single pearl in \"Revelation\" 21:21, that is, the", "The Quran often mentions that dwellers of paradise will be adorned with pearls: 22:23 God will admit those who believe and work righteous deeds, to Gardens beneath which rivers flow: they shall be adorned therein with", "The metaphor of a pearl appears in the longer Hymn of the Pearl, a poem respected for its high literary quality, and use of layered" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Town centre.", "Transport.", "Bus.", "Rail.", "Light rail.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hasselt was founded in approximately the 7th century on the Helbeek, a tributary of the Demer river. The name Hasselt came from \"Hasaluth\", which means \"hazel wood\". During the Middle Ages, it became one of the free cities of the county of Loon (which had borders approximately the same as the current province of Limburg). Hasselt was first named in a document in 1165. In 1232 Arnold IV, Count of Loon gave the city the freedoms like those enjoyed in Liège. Even though the city of Borgloon was the original capital of Loon, Hasselt was to become the biggest city thanks to its favourable setting, and the proximity of the count's castle and Herkenrode in Kuringen. In 1366 the county of Loon became part of the Prince-Bishopric of Liège and remained so until the annexation by France in 1794. During the First French Empire, after the French revolution, the city of Maastricht became the capital of the area called the French Department of the Lower Meuse. This comprised not only the area of the modern province of Limburg in Belgium, but also the neighbouring province of the same name in the Netherlands. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Belgium became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. During this time, King William I confusingly named the area after the medieval Duchy of Limburg, which had been centered in Limbourg on the Vesdre river, (now in the Liège province of Belgium), which had never encompassed Hasselt or Maastricht. Belgium split from the Netherlands in 1830, but the status of Limburg was only resolved nine years later in 1839, with the division of Limburg into Belgian and Dutch parts. Hasselt became the provisional capital of the Belgian province of Limburg. In ecclesiastical terms Belgian Limburg became an independent entity from the Diocese of Liège in 1967, and Hasselt became the seat of the new Diocese of Hasselt.", "The centre is mostly car-free and contains a number of historical buildings. Among the oldest buildings in the town centre are the St. Quentin's Cathedral (11th to 18th centuries) and the \"Herkenrode Abbey refuge house\" (1542). The Grand Place and the nearby streets are lined with restaurants brasseries, cafes and taverns. The Demerstraat and the Koning Albertstraat are the most important shopping streets. In the Kapelstraat and the Hoogstraat are expensive shops with the most famous brands. Another major religious building, besides the cathedral, is the Virga Jesse Basilica. The churches must cede domination of the skyline of the city to the modern twin towers of the \"TT-wijk\", however. In 2003, the renovation of this complex, now including a shopping mall and a hotel, gave the centre a new boost. In 2004, Hasselt was the first city to receive the title \"most sociable city of the region of Flanders\", and has since claimed the title of \"Capital City of Taste\".", "Hasselt is at the junction of important traffic arteries from several directions. The most important motorways are the European route E313 (Antwerp-Liège) and the European route E314 (Brussels-Aachen). The old town of Hasselt is enclosed by 2 ring roads. The outer ring road serves to keep traffic out of the city center and main residential areas. The inner ring road, the \"Green Boulevard\", serves to keep traffic out of the commercial center, which is almost entirely a pedestrian area. There are also important traffic arteries to Tongeren, Sint-Truiden, Genk, and Diest. The city lies within approximately an hour's drive from the airports of Brussels, Liège, Antwerp, Charleroi, Cologne/Bonn, and Düsseldorf. Within a three-hour radius, the major hubs of Paris and Frankfurt, can be reached. Small private aircraft can land in Hasselt itself, on the airfield of Kiewit. The city has a major railway station being Hasselt railway station. High speed trains serve stations in Liège and Leuven.", "Hasselt made public transport by bus zero-fare from 1 July 1997 and bus use was said to be as much as \"13 times higher\" by 2006. In 2013, the subsidies were reduced, resulting in a 60 euro-cents fare per ride. The plan for a new, attractive bus network in Hasselt was influenced by transport minister Eddy Baldewijns, who created an integrated transport policy framework in the middle of 1996 in which public transport was allocated a primary role. The city of Hasselt was one of the first cities to subscribe to the plan. Mayor Steve Stevaert proposed to give absolute primacy on the city's Green Boulevard to public transport. The mobility policy in Hasselt developed into an example of cooperation between the bus line, the government and the city of Hasselt, under the motto \"the city guarantees the right of mobility for everyone\". Following the introduction of the new zero-fare policy, the usage of public transport immediately increased by 800–900% and has remained high, being currently \"more than 10-fold\" compared to the time of the old policy. The city's official website records passenger growth as follows: A Belgian website describes Hasselt identity cards as becoming \"like gold in value\", because of free bus travel. In 2013, Hasselt cancelled free public transportation due to financial reasons. The operator increased its claim towards the city, which the city could not pay. Now persons up to the age of 19 travel for free.", "Hasselt railway station run by NMBS is near the city centre, outside the innermost \"Binnenring\". The station is an IC station, which means there are several connections each day with important Belgian cities.", "In February 2007, a plan was launched for the construction of an international light rail connection between Hasselt and Maastricht (Hasselt – Maastricht tramway). Agreements between the relevant governments were reached in June 2008 and December 2011. The line will reduce the current travel time of 61 minutes by bus to only 36 minutes. Construction should have started in 2014, with the line expected to go into service in 2017. The construction eventually got delayed due to problems with the Wilhelminabrug in Maastricht. The line is now expected to go into service in 2021.", "Hasselt is home to Limburg United, one of the country's top professional basketball teams. The team plays its home games in the \"Sporthal Alverberg\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Pontificate.", "Election to the papacy.", "Actions.", "The Jesuits.", "Ecumenism.", "Other activities.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Carlo della Torre di Rezzonico was born in 1693 to a recently ennobled family of Venice, the second of two children of the man who bought the unfinished palace on the Grand Canal (now Ca' Rezzonico) and finished its construction. Born to Giovanni Battista Rezzonico and Vittoria Barbarigo, his brother was Aurelio. He received a Jesuit education in Bologna and later studied at the University of Padua where he obtained his doctorate in canon law and civil law. From there, he travelled to Rome where he attended the Pontifical Academy of Ecclesiastical Nobles. In 1716 Rezzonico became the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura and in 1721 was appointed Governor of Fano. He was ordained to the priesthood on 23 December 1731 in Rome. Pope Clement XII appointed him to the cardinalate in 1737 as the Cardinal-Deacon of San Nicola in Carcere. He also filled various important posts in the Roman Curia. Rezzonico was chosen as Bishop of Padua in 1743 and he received episcopal consecration in Rome by Pope Benedict XIV himself, at the presence of Giuseppe Accoramboni and cardinal Antonio Saverio Gentili as co-consecrators. Rezzonico visited his diocese on frequent occasions and reformed the way that the diocese ran, paying attention to the social needs of the diocese. He was the first to do this in five decades. He later opted to become the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Aracoeli in 1747 and later to become the Cardinal-Priest of San Marco in 1755.", "", "Pope Benedict XIV died of gout in 1758 and the College of Cardinals gathered at the papal conclave in order to elect a successor. Direct negotiations between the rival factions resulted in the proposal for the election of Rezzonico. On the evening of 6 July 1758, Rezzonico received 31 votes out of a possible 44, one more than the required amount. He selected the pontifical name of \"Clement XIII\" in honor of Pope Clement XII, who elevated him to the cardinalate. Rezzonico was crowned as pontiff on 16 July 1758 by the protodeacon, Cardinal Alessandro Albani.", "Notwithstanding the meekness and affability of his upright and moderate character, he was modest to a fault (he had the classical sculptures in the Vatican provided with mass-produced fig leaves) and generous with his extensive private fortune. He also permitted vernacular translations of the Bible in Catholic countries.", "Clement XIII's pontificate was repeatedly disturbed by disputes respecting the pressures to suppress the Jesuits coming from the progressive Enlightenment circles of the \"philosophes\" in France. Clement XIII placed the \"Encyclopédie\" of D'Alembert and Diderot on the \"Index,\" but this index was not as effective as it had been in the previous century. More unexpected resistance came from the less progressive courts of Spain, the Two Sicilies, and Portugal. In 1758 the reforming minister of Joseph I of Portugal (1750–77), the Marquis of Pombal, expelled the Jesuits from Portugal, and transported them all to Civitavecchia, as a \"gift for the Pope.\" In 1760, Pombal sent the papal nuncio home and recalled the Portuguese ambassador from the Vatican. The pamphlet titled the \"Brief Relation,\" which claimed the Jesuits had created their own sovereign independent kingdom in South America and tyrannised the Native Americans, all in the interest of an insatiable ambition and avarice, did damage to the Jesuit cause as well. On 8 November 1760, Clement XIII issued a Papal bull \"Quantum ornamenti\", which approved the request of King Charles III of Spain to invoke the Immaculate Conception as the Patroness of Spain, along with its eastern and western territories, while continuing to recognize Saint James the Greater as co-patron. In France, the Parliament of Paris, with its strong upper bourgeois background and Jansenist sympathies, began its campaign to expel the Jesuits from France in the spring of 1761, and the published excerpts from Jesuit writings, the \"Extrait des assertions\", provided anti-Jesuit ammunition (though, arguably, many of the statements the \"Extrait\" contained were made to look worse than they were through judicious omission of context). Though a congregation of bishops assembled at Paris in December 1761 recommended no action, Louis XV of France (1715–74) promulgated a royal order permitting the Society to remain in France, with the proviso that certain essentially liberalising changes in their institution satisfy the Parlement with a French Jesuit vicar-general who would be independent of the general in Rome. When the Parlement by the \"arrêt\" of 2 August 1762 suppressed the Jesuits in France and imposed untenable conditions on any who remained in the country, Clement XIII protested against this invasion of the Church's rights and annulled the \"arrêts\". Louis XV's ministers could not permit such an abrogation of French law, and the King finally expelled the Jesuits in November 1764. Clement XIII warmly espoused the Jesuit order in a papal bull \"Apostolicum pascendi\", 7 January 1765, which dismissed criticisms of the Jesuits as calumnies and praised the order's usefulness; it was largely ignored: by 1768 the Jesuits had been expelled from France, the Two Sicilies and Parma. In Spain, they appeared to be safe, but Charles III of Spain (1759–88), aware of the drawn-out contentions in Bourbon France, decided on a more peremptory efficiency. During the night of 2–3 April 1767, all the Jesuit houses of Spain were suddenly surrounded, the inhabitants arrested, shipped to the ports in the clothes they were wearing and bundled onto ships for Civitavecchia. The King's letter to Clement XIII promised that his allowance of 100 \"piastres\" each year would be withdrawn for the whole order, should any one of them venture at any time to write anything in self-defence or in criticism of the motives for the expulsion, motives that he refused to discuss, then or in the future. Much the same fate awaited them in the territories of the Bourbon Duke of Parma and Piacenza, advised by the liberal minister Guillaume du Tillot. In 1768, Clement XIII issued a strong protest (\"monitorium\") against the policy of the Parmese government. The question of the investiture of Parma aggravated the Pope's troubles. The Bourbon Kings espoused their relative's quarrel, seized Avignon, Benevento and Pontecorvo, and united in a peremptory demand for the total suppression of the Jesuits (January 1769). Driven to extremes, Clement XIII consented to call a consistory to consider the step, but on the very eve of the day set for its meeting he died, not without suspicion of poison, of which, however, there appears to be no conclusive evidence.", "Clement XIII backed plans to reunite the Catholic Church, with Old Catholic branches that split from Rome in 1724 over the issue of Papal authority, as well as with Protestants. This made little progress since Clement refused to compromise on doctrine with Protestants or on Papal authority with Old Catholics. In support of this policy, he recognised the Hanoverians as Kings of Great Britain despite the long-term residence in Rome of the Catholic House of Stuart. When James Francis Edward Stuart, aka James III died in 1766, Clement refused to recognise his son Charles Edward Stuart as Charles III, despite the objections of his brother Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart.", "Clement XIII created 52 new cardinals in seven consistories in his pontificate. The pope created his nephew Carlo as a cardinal in his first consistory and later created Antonio Ganganelli - who would succeed him as Pope Clement XIV - as a cardinal. The pope approved the cultus for several individuals: Andrew of Montereale and Vincent Kadlubek on 18 February 1764, Angelus Agostini Mazzinghi on 7 March 1761, Antoine Neyrot on 22 February 1767, Augustine Novello in 1759, Elizabeth Achler on 19 July 1766, James Bertoni in 1766, Francesco Marinoni on 5 December 1764, Mattia de Nazarei on 27 July 1765, Sebastian Maggi on 15 April 1760 and Angela Merici on 30 April 1768. He formally beatified Beatrix of Este the Elder on 19 November 1763, Bernard of Corleone on 15 May 1768 and Gregorio Barbarigo on 6 July 1761. Clement XIII canonized four saints in his pontificate: Jerome Emiliani, Joseph Calasanz, Joseph of Cupertino, and Serafino of Montegranaro on 16 July 1767.", "Clement XIII died during the night of 2 February 1769 in Rome of an apoplexy. He was laid to rest on 8 February 1769 in the Vatican but his remains were transferred on 27 September 1774 to a monument in the Vatican that had been sculpted by Antonio Canova at the request of Senator Abbondio Rezzonico, the nephew of the late pontiff. From the \"Annual Register\", for 1758: Pope Clement XIII was \"the honestest man in the world; a most exemplary ecclesiastic; of the purest morals; devout, steady, learned, diligent...\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Style.", "Plot summary.", "Translations.", "Film versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The book is a traditional adventure, similar in style to \"Around the World in Eighty Days\", which is one of the author's more well-known books. However, it does contain more humour as well as criticism of topics such as the British opium trade in China.", "Kin-Fo is an extremely wealthy man who certainly does not lack material possessions. However, he is terribly bored and when news reaches him about his major investment abroad, a bank in the United States, going bankrupt, Kin-Fo decides to die. He signs up for a $200,000 life insurance covering all kinds of accidents, death in war, and even suicide; the philosopher Wang (Kin-Fo's old mentor) and Kin-Fo's fiancée are to be the beneficiaries. He rejects seppuku and hanging as means of dying, and is about to take opium laced with poison when he decides that he doesn't want to die without having ever felt a thrill in his life. Kin-Fo hires Wang (actually a former warrior of the Taiping Rebellion) to murder him before the life insurance expires. After a while news reaches Kin-Fo that the American bank he had invested in was not bankrupt, but instead had pulled off a stock market trick and is now wealthier than ever. Unfortunately, Wang has already disappeared. Together with two bodyguards assigned by the insurance company, and his loyal but lazy and incompetent servant Soun, Kin-Fo travels around the country in an effort to run away from Wang and the humiliation from the affair. One day he receives a message from Wang, stating that he can't stand the pain of having to kill one of his friends, and instead decided to take his own life while giving the task of killing Kin-Fo to a bandit he once knew. Kin-Fo, Soun and the two bodyguards now try to get to the bandit, planning to offer money in return for his life. The ship they travel with is hijacked, and they are forced to use their life vests with built-in sails to return to land. After being kidnapped by the bandit they were looking for, they are blindfolded and returned to Kin-Fo's home, where his old friends (including Wang, who we now find out staged this entire history to teach him a lesson about how valuable life is) are waiting for him. He marries his young, beautiful fiancée after all and they live happily forever after.", "An English translation was serialized in \"The Leisure Hour\" in 1880.", "A 1965 film starring Jean-Paul Belmondo, \"Up to His Ears\", was loosely based on this novel. A 1987 film, \"The Tribulations of a Chinese Gentleman\", was directed by Wu Yigong, starring Chen Peisi, Rosalind Chao and Rolf Hoppe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction.", "Properties.", "Dissection.", "Simple-closed curves.", "Parametrization.", "The figure 8 immersion.", "4-D non-intersecting.", "3D pinched torus / 4D Möbius tube.", "Bottle shape.", "Homotopy classes.", "Generalizations.", "Klein surface." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The following square is a fundamental polygon of the Klein bottle. The idea is to 'glue' together the corresponding coloured edges with the arrows matching, as in the diagrams below. Note that this is an \"abstract\" gluing in the sense that trying to realize this in three dimensions results in a self-intersecting Klein bottle. To construct the Klein bottle, glue the red arrows of the square together (left and right sides), resulting in a cylinder. To glue the ends of the cylinder together so that the arrows on the circles match, one would pass one end through the side of the cylinder. This creates a circle of self-intersection – this is an immersion of the Klein bottle in three dimensions. This immersion is useful for visualizing many properties of the Klein bottle. For example, the Klein bottle has no \"boundary\", where the surface stops abruptly, and it is non-orientable, as reflected in the one-sidedness of the immersion. The common physical model of a Klein bottle is a similar construction. The Science Museum in London has a collection of hand-blown glass Klein bottles on display, exhibiting many variations on this topological theme. The bottles date from 1995 and were made for the museum by Alan Bennett. The Klein bottle, proper, does not self-intersect. Nonetheless, there is a way to visualize the Klein bottle as being contained in four dimensions. By adding a fourth dimension to the three-dimensional space, the self-intersection can be eliminated. Gently push a piece of the tube containing the intersection along the fourth dimension, out of the original three-dimensional space. A useful analogy is to consider a self-intersecting curve on the plane; self-intersections can be eliminated by lifting one strand off the plane. Suppose for clarification that we adopt time as that fourth dimension. Consider how the figure could be constructed in \"xyzt\"-space. The accompanying illustration (\"Time evolution...\") shows one useful evolution of the figure. At the wall sprouts from a bud somewhere near the \"intersection\" point. After the figure has grown for a while, the earliest section of the wall begins to recede, disappearing like the Cheshire Cat but leaving its ever-expanding smile behind. By the time the growth front gets to where the bud had been, there’s nothing there to intersect and the growth completes without piercing existing structure. The 4-figure as defined cannot exist in 3-space but is easily understood in 4-space. More formally, the Klein bottle is the quotient space described as the square [0,1] × [0,1] with sides identified by the relations for and for.", "Like the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a two-dimensional manifold which is not orientable. Unlike the Möbius strip, the Klein bottle is a \"closed\" manifold, meaning it is a compact manifold without boundary. While the Möbius strip can be embedded in three-dimensional Euclidean space R, the Klein bottle cannot. It can be embedded in R, however. The Klein bottle can be seen as a fiber bundle over the circle \"S\", with fibre \"S\", as follows: one takes the square (modulo the edge identifying equivalence relation) from above to be \"E\", the total space, while the base space \"B\" is given by the unit interval in \"y\", modulo \"1~0\". The projection π:\"E\"→\"B\" is then given by. The Klein bottle can be constructed (in a four dimensional space, because in three dimensional space it cannot be done without allowing the surface to intersect itself) by joining the edges of two Möbius strips together, as described in the following limerick by Leo Moser: The initial construction of the Klein bottle by identifying opposite edges of a square shows that the Klein bottle can be given a CW complex structure with one 0-cell \"P\", two 1-cells \"C\", \"C\" and one 2-cell \"D\". Its Euler characteristic is therefore. The boundary homomorphism is given by and, yielding the homology groups of the Klein bottle \"K\" to be, and for. There is a 2-1 covering map from the torus to the Klein bottle, because two copies of the fundamental region of the Klein bottle, one being placed next to the mirror image of the other, yield a fundamental region of the torus. The universal cover of both the torus and the Klein bottle is the plane R. The fundamental group of the Klein bottle can be determined as the group of deck transformations of the universal cover and has the presentation. Six colors suffice to color any map on the surface of a Klein bottle; this is the only exception to the Heawood conjecture, a generalization of the four color theorem, which would require seven. A Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the connected sum of two projective planes. It is also homeomorphic to a sphere plus two cross caps. When embedded in Euclidean space, the Klein bottle is one-sided. However, there are other topological 3-spaces, and in some of the non-orientable examples a Klein bottle can be embedded such that it is two-sided, though due to the nature of the space it remains non-orientable.", "Dissecting a Klein bottle into halves along its plane of symmetry results in two mirror image Möbius strips, i.e. one with a left-handed half-twist and the other with a right-handed half-twist (one of these is pictured on the right). Remember that the intersection pictured is not really there.", "One description of the types of simple-closed curves that may appear on the surface of the Klein bottle is given by the use of the first homology group of the Klein bottle calculated with integer coefficients. This group is isomorphic to Z×Z. Up to reversal of orientation, the only homology classes which contain simple-closed curves are as follows: (0,0), (1,0), (1,1), (2,0), (0,1). Up to reversal of the orientation of a simple closed curve, if it lies within one of the two crosscaps that make up the Klein bottle, then it is in homology class (1,0) or (1,1); if it cuts the Klein bottle into two Möbius strips, then it is in homology class (2,0); if it cuts the Klein bottle into an annulus, then it is in homology class (0,1); and if bounds a disk, then it is in homology class (0,0).", "", "To make the \"figure 8\" or \"bagel\" immersion of the Klein bottle, one can start with a Möbius strip and curl it to bring the edge to the midline; since there is only one edge, it will meet itself there, passing through the midline. It has a particularly simple parametrization as a \"figure-8\" torus with a half-twist: for 0 ≤ \"θ\" < 2π, 0 ≤ \"v\" < 2π and \"r\" > 2. In this immersion, the self-intersection circle (where sin(\"v\") is zero) is a geometric circle in the \"xy\" plane. The positive constant \"r\" is the radius of this circle. The parameter \"θ\" gives the angle in the \"xy\" plane as well as the rotation of the figure 8, and \"v\" specifies the position around the 8-shaped cross section. With the above parametrization the cross section is a 2:1 Lissajous curve.", "A non-intersecting 4-D parametrization can be modeled after that of the flat torus: where \"R\" and \"P\" are constants that determine aspect ratio, \"θ\" and \"v\" are similar to as defined above. \"v\" determines the position around the figure-8 as well as the position in the x-y plane. \"θ\" determines the rotational angle of the figure-8 as well and the position around the z-w plane. \"ε\" is any small constant and \"ε\" sin\"v\" is a small \"v\" depended bump in \"z-w\" space to avoid self intersection. The \"v\" bump causes the self intersecting 2-D/planar figure-8 to spread out into a 3-D stylized \"potato chip\" or saddle shape in the x-y-w and x-y-z space viewed edge on. When \"ε=0\" the self intersection is a circle in the z-w plane <0, 0, cos\"θ\", sin\"θ\">.", "The pinched torus is perhaps the simplest parametrization of the klein bottle in both three and four dimensions. It's a torus that, in three dimensions, flattens and passes through itself on one side. Unfortunately, in three dimensions this parametrization has two pinch points, which makes it undesirable for some applications. In four dimensions the \"z\" amplitude rotates into the \"w\" amplitude and there are no self intersections or pinch points. One can view this as a tube or cylinder that wraps around, as in a torus, but its circular cross section flips over in four dimensions, presenting its \"backside\" as it reconnects, just as a Möbius strip cross section rotates before it reconnects. The 3D orthogonal projection of this is the pinched torus shown above. Just as a Möbius strip is a subset of a solid torus, the Möbius tube is a subset of a toroidally closed spherinder (solid spheritorus).", "The parametrization of the 3-dimensional immersion of the bottle itself is much more complicated. Here is a version found by Robert Israel: for 0 ≤ \"u\" < π and 0 ≤ \"v\" < 2π.", "Regular 3D embeddings of the Klein bottle fall into three regular homotopy classes (four if one paints them). The three are represented by The traditional Klein bottle embedding is achiral. The figure-8 embedding is chiral (the pinched torus embedding above is not regular as it has pinch points so it's not relevant in this section). The three embeddings above cannot be smoothly transformed into each other in three dimensions. If the traditional Klein bottle is cut lengthwise it deconstructs into two, oppositely chiral Möbius strips. If a left handed figure-8 Klein bottle is cut it deconstructs into two left handed Möbius strips, and similarly for the right handed figure-8 Klein bottle. If the traditional Klein bottle is two color painted, this induces chirality on it, creating four homotopy classes.", "The generalization of the Klein bottle to higher genus is given in the article on the fundamental polygon. In another order of ideas, constructing 3-manifolds, it is known that a solid Klein bottle is homeomorphic to the Cartesian product of a Möbius strip and a closed interval. The \"solid Klein bottle\" is the non-orientable version of the solid torus, equivalent to formula_5", "A Klein surface is, as for Riemann surfaces, a surface with an atlas allowing the transition maps to be composed using complex conjugation. One can obtain the so-called dianalytic structure of the space." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "History.", "Law.", "Effects.", "Challenges.", "Infringement.", "Enforcement.", "Ownership.", "Governing laws.", "Application and prosecution.", "Costs.", "Alternatives.", "Benefits.", "Criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"patent\" originates from the Latin \"patere\", which means \"to lay open\" (i.e., to make available for public inspection). It is a shortened version of the term \"letters patent\", which was an open document or instrument issued by a monarch or government granting exclusive rights to a person, predating the modern patent system. Similar grants included land patents, which were land grants by early state governments in the US, and printing patents, a precursor of modern copyright. In modern usage, the term \"patent\" usually refers to the right granted to anyone who invents something new, useful and non-obvious. Some other types of intellectual property rights are also called \"patents\" in some jurisdictions: industrial design rights are called \"design patents\" in the US, plant breeders' rights are sometimes called \"plant patents\", and utility models and \"Gebrauchsmuster\" are sometimes called \"petty patents\" or \"innovation patents\". The additional qualification \"utility patent\" is sometimes used (primarily in the US) to distinguish the primary meaning from these other types of patents. Particular species of patents for inventions include biological patents, business method patents, chemical patents and software patents.", "Although there is some evidence that some form of patent rights was recognized in Ancient Greece in the Greek city of Sybaris, the first statutory patent system is generally regarded to be the Venetian Patent Statute of 1474. Patents were systematically granted in Venice as of 1474, where they issued a decree by which new and inventive devices had to be communicated to the Republic in order to obtain legal protection against potential infringers. The period of protection was 10 years. As Venetians emigrated, they sought similar patent protection in their new homes. This led to the diffusion of patent systems to other countries. The English patent system evolved from its early medieval origins into the first modern patent system that recognised intellectual property in order to stimulate invention; this was the crucial legal foundation upon which the Industrial Revolution could emerge and flourish. By the 16th century, the English Crown would habitually abuse the granting of letters patent for monopolies. After public outcry, King James I of England (VI of Scotland) was forced to revoke all existing monopolies and declare that they were only to be used for \"projects of new invention\". This was incorporated into the Statute of Monopolies (1624) in which Parliament restricted the Crown's power explicitly so that the King could only issue letters patent to the inventors or introducers of original inventions for a fixed number of years. The Statute became the foundation for later developments in patent law in England and elsewhere. Important developments in patent law emerged during the 18th century through a slow process of judicial interpretation of the law. During the reign of Queen Anne, patent applications were required to supply a complete specification of the principles of operation of the invention for public access. Legal battles around the 1796 patent taken out by James Watt for his steam engine, established the principles that patents could be issued for improvements of an already existing machine and that ideas or principles without specific practical application could also legally be patented. Influenced by the philosophy of John Locke, the granting of patents began to be viewed as a form of intellectual property right, rather than simply the obtaining of economic privilege. The English legal system became the foundation for patent law in countries with a common law heritage, including the United States, New Zealand and Australia. In the Thirteen Colonies, inventors could obtain patents through petition to a given colony's legislature. In 1641, Samuel Winslow was granted the first patent in North America by the Massachusetts General Court for a new process for making salt. The modern French patent system was created during the Revolution in 1791. Patents were granted without examination since inventor's right was considered as a natural one. Patent costs were very high (from 500 to 1,500 francs). Importation patents protected new devices coming from foreign countries. The patent law was revised in 1844 - patent cost was lowered and importation patents were abolished. The first Patent Act of the U.S. Congress was passed on April 10, 1790, titled \"An Act to promote the progress of useful Arts\". The first patent under the Act was granted on July 31, 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for a method of producing potash (potassium carbonate). A revised patent law was passed in 1793, and in 1836 a major revision to the patent law was passed. The 1836 law instituted a significantly more rigorous application process, including the establishment of an examination system. Between 1790 and 1836 about ten thousand patents were granted. By the American Civil War about 80,000 patents had been granted.", "", "A patent does not give a right to make or use or sell an invention. Rather, a patent provides, from a legal standpoint, the right to \"exclude others\" from making, using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent, which is usually 20 years from the filing date subject to the payment of maintenance fees. From an economic and practical standpoint however, a patent is better and perhaps more precisely regarded as conferring upon its proprietor \"a right to \"try\" to exclude by asserting the patent in court\", for many granted patents turn out to be invalid once their proprietors attempt to assert them in court. A patent is a limited property right the government gives inventors in exchange for their agreement to share details of their inventions with the public. Like any other property right, it may be sold, licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned. A patent, being an exclusionary right, does not necessarily give the patent owner the right to exploit the invention subject to the patent. For example, many inventions are improvements of prior inventions that may still be covered by someone else's patent. If an inventor obtains a patent on improvements to an existing invention which is still under patent, they can only legally use the improved invention if the patent holder of the original invention gives permission, which they may refuse. Some countries have \"working provisions\" that require the invention be exploited in the jurisdiction it covers. Consequences of not working an invention vary from one country to another, ranging from revocation of the patent rights to the awarding of a compulsory license awarded by the courts to a party wishing to exploit a patented invention. The patentee has the opportunity to challenge the revocation or license, but is usually required to provide evidence that the reasonable requirements of the public have been met by the working of invention.", "In most jurisdictions, there are ways for third parties to challenge the validity of an allowed or issued patent at the national patent office; these are called opposition proceedings. It is also possible to challenge the validity of a patent in court. In either case, the challenging party tries to prove that the patent should never have been granted. There are several grounds for challenges: the claimed subject matter is not patentable subject matter at all; the claimed subject matter was actually not new, or was obvious to the person skilled in the art, at the time the application was filed; or that some kind of fraud was committed during prosecution with regard to listing of inventors, representations about when discoveries were made, etc. Patents can be found to be invalid in whole or in part for any of these reasons.", "Patent infringement occurs when a third party, without authorization from the patentee, makes, uses, or sells a patented invention. Patents, however, are enforced on a nation by nation basis. The making of an item in China, for example, that would infringe a U.S. patent, would not constitute infringement under US patent law unless the item were imported into the U.S.", "Patents can generally only be enforced through civil lawsuits (for example, for a U.S. patent, by an action for patent infringement in a United States federal court), although some countries (such as France and Austria) have criminal penalties for wanton infringement. Typically, the patent owner seeks monetary compensation for past infringement, and seeks an injunction that prohibits the defendant from engaging in future acts of infringement. To prove infringement, the patent owner must establish that the accused infringer practises all the requirements of at least one of the claims of the patent. (In many jurisdictions the scope of the patent may not be limited to what is literally stated in the claims, for example due to the \"doctrine of equivalents\".) An accused infringer has the right to challenge the validity of the patent allegedly being infringed in a counterclaim. A patent can be found invalid on grounds described in the relevant patent laws, which vary between countries. Often, the grounds are a subset of requirements for patentability in the relevant country. Although an infringer is generally free to rely on any available ground of invalidity (such as a prior publication, for example), some countries have sanctions to prevent the same validity questions being relitigated. An example is the UK Certificate of contested validity. Patent licensing agreements are contracts in which the patent owner (the licensor) agrees to grant the licensee the right to make, use, sell, and/or import the claimed invention, usually in return for a royalty or other compensation. It is common for companies engaged in complex technical fields to enter into multiple license agreements associated with the production of a single product. Moreover, it is equally common for competitors in such fields to license patents to each other under cross-licensing agreements in order to share the benefits of using each other's patented inventions.", "In most countries, both natural persons and corporate entities may apply for a patent. In the United States, however, only the inventor(s) may apply for a patent although it may be assigned to a corporate entity subsequently and inventors may be required to assign inventions to their employers under an employment contract. In most European countries, ownership of an invention may pass from the inventor to their employer by rule of law if the invention was made in the course of the inventor's normal or specifically assigned employment duties, where an invention might reasonably be expected to result from carrying out those duties, or if the inventor had a special obligation to further the interests of the employer's company. The inventors, their successors or their assignees become the proprietors of the patent when and if it is granted. If a patent is granted to more than one proprietor, the laws of the country in question and any agreement between the proprietors may affect the extent to which each proprietor can exploit the patent. For example, in some countries, each proprietor may freely license or assign their rights in the patent to another person while the law in other countries prohibits such actions without the permission of the other proprietor(s). The ability to assign ownership rights increases the liquidity of a patent as property. Inventors can obtain patents and then sell them to third parties. The third parties then own the patents and have the same rights to prevent others from exploiting the claimed inventions, as if they had originally made the inventions themselves.", "The grant and enforcement of patents are governed by national laws, and also by international treaties, where those treaties have been given effect in national laws. Patents are granted by national or regional patent offices. A given patent is therefore only useful for protecting an invention in the country in which that patent is granted. In other words, patent law is territorial in nature. When a patent application is published, the invention disclosed in the application becomes prior art and enters the public domain (if not protected by other patents) in countries where a patent applicant does not seek protection, the application thus generally becoming prior art against anyone (including the applicant) who might seek patent protection for the invention in those countries. Commonly, a nation or a group of nations forms a patent office with responsibility for operating that nation's patent system, within the relevant patent laws. The patent office generally has responsibility for the grant of patents, with infringement being the remit of national courts. The authority for patent statutes in different countries varies. In the UK, substantive patent law is contained in the Patents Act 1977 as amended. In the United States, the Constitution empowers Congress to make laws to \"promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts...\" The laws Congress passed are codified in Title 35 of the United States Code and created the United States Patent and Trademark Office. There is a trend towards global harmonization of patent laws, with the World Trade Organization (WTO) being particularly active in this area. The TRIPS Agreement has been largely successful in providing a forum for nations to agree on an aligned set of patent laws. Conformity with the TRIPS agreement is a requirement of admission to the WTO and so compliance is seen by many nations as important. This has also led to many developing nations, which may historically have developed different laws to aid their development, enforcing patents laws in line with global practice. Internationally, there are international treaty procedures, such as the procedures under the European Patent Convention (EPC) [constituting the European Patent Organisation (EPOrg)], that centralize some portion of the filing and examination procedure. Similar arrangements exist among the member states of ARIPO and OAPI, the analogous treaties among African countries, and the nine CIS member states that have formed the Eurasian Patent Organization. A key international convention relating to patents is the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, initially signed in 1883. The Paris Convention sets out a range of basic rules relating to patents, and although the convention does not have direct legal effect in all national jurisdictions, the principles of the convention are incorporated into all notable current patent systems. The most significant aspect of the convention is the provision of the right to claim priority: filing an application in any one member state of the Paris Convention preserves the right for one year to file in any other member state, and receive the benefit of the original filing date. Another key treaty is the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and covering more than 150 countries. The Patent Cooperation Treaty provides a unified procedure for filing patent applications to protect inventions in each of its contracting states. A patent application filed under the PCT is called an international application, or PCT application.", "A patent is requested by filing a written application at the relevant patent office. The person or company filing the application is referred to as \"the applicant\". The applicant may be the inventor or its assignee. The application contains a description of how to make and use the invention that must provide sufficient detail for a person skilled in the art (i.e., the relevant area of technology) to make and use the invention. In some countries there are requirements for providing specific information such as the usefulness of the invention, the best mode of performing the invention known to the inventor, or the technical problem or problems solved by the invention. Drawings illustrating the invention may also be provided. The application also includes one or more claims that define what a patent covers or the \"scope of protection\". After filing, an application is often referred to as \"patent pending\". While this term does not confer legal protection, and a patent cannot be enforced until granted, it serves to provide warning to potential infringers that if the patent is issued, they may be liable for damages. Once filed, a patent application is \"prosecuted\". A patent examiner reviews the patent application to determine if it meets the patentability requirements of that country. If the application does not comply, objections are communicated to the applicant or their patent agent or attorney through an Office action, to which the applicant may respond. The number of Office actions and responses that may occur vary from country to country, but eventually a final rejection is sent by the patent office, or the patent application is granted, which after the payment of additional fees, leads to an issued, enforceable patent. In some jurisdictions, there are opportunities for third parties to bring an opposition proceeding between grant and issuance, or post-issuance. Once granted the patent is subject in most countries to renewal fees to keep the patent in force. These fees are generally payable on a yearly basis. Some countries or regional patent offices (e.g. the European Patent Office) also require annual renewal fees to be paid for a patent application before it is granted.", "The costs of preparing and filing a patent application, prosecuting it until grant and maintaining the patent vary from one jurisdiction to another, and may also be dependent upon the type and complexity of the invention, and on the type of patent. The European Patent Office estimated in 2005 that the average cost of obtaining a European patent (via a Euro-direct application, i.e. not based on a PCT application) and maintaining the patent for a 10-year term was around €32,000. Since the London Agreement entered into force on May 1, 2008, this estimation is however no longer up-to-date, since fewer translations are required. In the United States, in 2000 the cost of obtaining a patent (patent prosecution) was estimated to be from $10,000 to $30,000 per patent. When patent litigation is involved (which in year 1999 happened in about 1,600 cases compared to 153,000 patents issued in the same year), costs increase significantly: although 95% of patent litigation cases are settled out of court, those that reach the courts have legal costs on the order of a million dollars per case, not including associated business costs.", "A defensive publication is the act of publishing a detailed description of a new invention without patenting it, so as to establish prior art and public identification as the creator/originator of an invention, although a defensive publication can also be anonymous. A defensive publication prevents others from later being able to patent the invention. A trade secret is information that is intentionally kept confidential and that provides a competitive advantage to its possessor. Trade secrets are protected by non-disclosure agreement and labour law, each of which prevents information leaks such as breaches of confidentiality and industrial espionage. Compared to patents, the advantages of trade secrets are that the value of a trade secret continues until it is made public, whereas a patent is only in force for a specified time, after which others may freely copy the invention; does not require payment of fees to governmental agencies or filing paperwork; has an immediate effect; and does not require any disclosure of information to the public. The key disadvantage of a trade secret is its vulnerability to reverse engineering.", "Primary incentives embodied in the patent system include incentives to invent in the first place; to disclose the invention once made; to invest the sums necessary to experiment, produce and market the invention; and to design around and improve upon earlier patents. One effect of modern patent usage is that a small-time inventor, who can afford both the patenting process and the defense of the patent, can use the exclusive right status to become a licensor. This allows the inventor to accumulate capital from licensing the invention and may allow innovation to occur because he or she may choose not to manage a manufacturing buildup for the invention. Thus the inventor's time and energy can be spent on pure innovation, allowing others to concentrate on manufacturability. Another effect of modern patent usage is to both enable and incentivize competitors to design around (or to \"invent around\" according to R S Praveen Raj) the patented invention. This may promote healthy competition among manufacturers, resulting in gradual improvements of the technology base. This may help augment national economies and confer better living standards to the citizens. The 1970 Indian Patent Act allowed the Indian pharmaceutical industry to develop local technological capabilities in this industry. This act coincided with the transformation of India from a bulk importer of pharmaceutical drugs to a leading exporter. The rapid evolution of Indian pharmaceutical industry since the mid-1970s highlights the fact that the design of the patent act was instrumental in building local capabilities even in a developing country like India. This was possible because for many years prior to its membership in the World Trade Organization (WTO), India did not recognize product patents for pharmaceuticals. Without product patents with which to contend, Indian pharmaceutical companies were able to churn out countless generic drugs, establishing India as one of the leading generic drug manufacturers in the world. Yet in 2005, because of its obligations under the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), India was compelled to amend its laws to provide product patent protection to pharmaceuticals. In an attempt to satisfy the competing demands for inexpensive drugs and effective intellectual property protection, the Indian government created a law that afforded protection to pharmaceuticals only if they constituted brand new chemical substances or enhanced the therapeutic “efficacy” of known substances. This law, which is codified under section 3(d) of the Patents (Amendment) Act of 2005,7 has not sat well with some MNCs, including the Swiss company Novartis. Following the denial of a patent for its leukemia drug, Glivec, Novartis challenged the validity of section 3(d) under TRIPS and the Indian Constitution. The Indian Supreme Court ruled against Novartis in a decision that has, and will continue to have, broad implications for MNCs, the Indian pharmaceutical industry, and people around the world in need of affordable drugs.", "Legal scholars, economists, activists, policymakers, industries, and trade organizations have held differing views on patents and engaged in contentious debates on the subject. Critical perspectives emerged in the nineteenth century that were especially based on the principles of free trade. Contemporary criticisms have echoed those arguments, claiming that patents block innovation and waste resources (e.g. with patent-related overheads) that could otherwise be used productively to improve technology. These and other research findings that patents decreased innovation because of the following mechanisms: Boldrin and Levine conclude \"Our preferred policy solution is to abolish patents entirely and to find other legislative instruments, less open to lobbying and rent seeking, to foster innovation when there is clear evidence that laissez-faire undersupplies it.\" Abolishing patents may be politically challenging in some countries, however, as the primary economic theories supporting patent law hold that inventors and innovators need patents to recoup the costs associated with research, inventing, and commercializing; this reasoning is weakened if the new technologies decrease these costs. A 2016 paper argued for substantial weakening of patents because current technologies (e.g. 3D printing, cloud computing, synthetic biology, etc.) have reduced the cost of innovation. Debates over the usefulness of patents for their primary objective are part of a larger discourse on intellectual property protection, which also reflects differing perspectives on copyright." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early days (1967–1971).", "Success (1972–1976).", "Post-David Byron period (1977–1981).", "Peter Goalby-era (1982–1986).", "New members, \"Raging Silence\" and \"Different World\" (1986–1993).", "\"Sea of Light\" and \"Sonic Origami\" (1994–2006).", "\"Wake the Sleeper\" and \"Into the Wild\" (2007–2013).", "\"Outsider\" and \"Living the Dream\" (2013–present).", "Musical style.", "Personnel.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The band's origins go back to 1967 when 19-year-old guitarist Mick Box formed a band in Brentwood called Hogwash, which began playing in local clubs and pubs. When the band's singer left, drummer Roger Penlington suggested his cousin David Garrick (who knew the band) as a replacement. Box and Garrick instantly formed a songwriting partnership and, having higher musical aspirations than their colleagues, decided to give up their day jobs and go professional. They set up a new band called Spice; it was then that David Garrick changed his surname to Byron. Drummer Alex Napier (born 1947 in Glasgow, Strathclyde, Scotland) joined, having answered a music paper ad; bassist Paul Newton of the Gods completed the line-up. From the very beginning, Spice avoided playing covers and, according to Box, always strove \"...to do something original.\" Managed initially by Newton's father, the band climbed their way up to The Marquee level, then got signed by Gerry Bron (the Hit Record Productions Ltd.'s boss) who saw the band at the", "By the end of 1971 it became clear, according to Hensley, that he, Byron and Box had become the tightly knit nucleus of the band. Feeling marginalised and having recently been badly shaken up when he was involved in an accident in Germany in one of the band's cars, first bassist Paul Newton left, in November of '71, and was briefly replaced by Mark Clarke. Newton recalled in a 2000 interview on Uriah Heep's website his departure: \"Well, as you know, my father managed the band in the early days, with the Gods and Spice. He bought a lot of the gear and so on. When we became Uriah Heep and Ken joined the band – and Ken is the first to admit it – he had very definite ideas about what he wanted to do in a band. I suppose in some ways it was like the band was a vehicle which Ken needed and used to put his own ideas together. And there's nothing wrong with that as such. I mean, let's face it, the fact that what we did was successful was great for me too. But after a while you're bound to get some in-fighting in a situation like that. There were other problems too, because Gerry Bron was now the manager and my father was trying to get back some money from him - get some of his money back on the equipment and so on. There was a lot of unhappiness on all sorts of levels and everybody was unhappy in a lot of ways.", "Uriah Heep recruited bassist Trevor Bolder (ex-David Bowie, Mick Ronson), and after having auditioned David Coverdale (Deep Purple, Whitesnake), Ian Hunter and Gary Holton (Heavy Metal Kids), brought in John Lawton, formerly of Lucifer's Friend and the Les Humphries Singers, with whom they turned totally away from fantasy-oriented lyrics and multi-part compositions back towards a more straightforward hard rock sound typical of the era. Box later said, \"Image-wise he wasn't quite what we were looking for, but his pipes were perfect and so we went for the music end of it.\" Hensley agreed: \"He had a voice that I thought would give a new dimension.\" \"Firefly\" was released in February 1977, displaying \"renewed effervescence and energy in unveiling what was clearly a new beginning", "Box remembered, \"I locked myself in my flat for two days and drank myself senseless in complete self-pity. But I somehow managed to pull myself together and consider my options.\" First he rang Lee Kerslake (who in the meanwhile had co-founded Blizzard of Ozz with Ozzy Osbourne) and the drummer brought along with him bassist Bob Daisley. Then John Sinclair came in whom Box knew from the times he was a member of Heavy Metal Kids and who currently played with a Los Angeles band called Lion. The band's new vocalist became Peter Goalby of Trapeze fame. The latter had once auditioned for Uriah Heep and failed, ironically Hensley being the only band member who had supported him as a choice.", "The lineup remained unchanged from 1986 until 2007, being veteran Mick Box at the helm, Trevor Bolder on bass, Lee Kerslake on drums, vocalist Bernie Shaw and Phil Lanzon on keyboards. Their principal tour circuit has been in Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Japan and Russia. In December 1987 they became the first ever Western rock band to play in the Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost (Western pop acts Boney M, Nitty Gritty Dirt Band and Elton John had already played shows there in the late 70s during the pre-Gorbachev era). At Moscow's Olympic Stadium the band played ten consecutive nights to a total of 180,000 people (following a reception that Bernie Shaw remembered as being \"something like Beatlemania\"), which was represented in the international press as not just an achievement for Uriah Heep but a major breakthrough for Western music in general. The concerts were recorded and issued as the \"Live in Moscow\" album, which included three new tracks. Ironically, it was this behind the Iron Curtain excursion", "In late March/early April 1995, the band's former singer, John Lawton, briefly rejoined Uriah Heep for two weeks to tour South Africa and Austria with Deep Purple, filling in for Bernie Shaw, who was suffering from voice problems at the time. The \"Sea of Light\" album (released in April 1995) produced by the band along with Kalle Trapp was well received and in retrospect is seen as the band's return to form, the key to success being (according to critic Donald A. Guarisco) the way it \"forsook the ill-judged pop metal stylings of albums like \"Equator\" for a return to the gothic-tinged old-school metal style that highlighted classic Uriah Heep albums like \"Look at Yourself\". Produced by Pip Williams, \"Sonic Origami\", originally issued in Europe and Japan in the fall of 1998, then, a year later, in the U.S., had \"a grand, epic tone throughout\" that, according to", "In early 2007, drummer Lee Kerslake had to leave the group due to ill health. In March of that year the band recruited Russell Gilbrook as their new drummer and immediately started recording a new studio album entitled \"Wake the Sleeper\", where they used double drums in the songs \"Wake the Sleeper\" and \"War Child\". Originally slated for a summer 2007 release, Universal Music finally released \"Wake the Sleeper\" on 2 June 2008. In October 2009 Uriah Heep released their 40th Anniversary \"Celebration\" album, containing new studio recordings of twelve of their best known tracks, plus two brand new songs. \"This collection underlines again that Uriah Heep are deserving great respect for their past achievements but far more", "In May 2013, when the band toured The Netherlands, Germany, Austria, Italy and Switzerland, they were again joined by their late 1970s era singer John Lawton who was covering for Bernie Shaw, who required time off for a routine medical procedure. Then both Bernie and John fronted the group for their show in San Javier, Spain on 12 July. Uriah Heep entered the studio in January 2014 to begin recording their 24th studio album \"Outsider\", which was released in June 2014. The album featured new bass player Davey Rimmer who had been a substitute for Trevor Bolder the previous year. In March 2015 they went on the \"Down Unda Tour\" visiting Sydney, Melbourne, Perth, Adelaide, Brisbane", "Uriah Heep's music has predominantly been described by critics and journalists as progressive rock and heavy metal, with influences", "Current", "Studio albums (of original material)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Film career.", "Later film career.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Film preservation.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Griffith was born on a farm in Oldham County, Kentucky, the son of Jacob Wark \"Roaring Jake\" Griffith, a Confederate Army colonel in the American Civil War who was elected as a Kentucky state legislator, and Mary Perkins (née Oglesby). Griffith was raised as a Methodist, and he attended a one-room schoolhouse, where he was taught by his older sister Mattie. His father died when he was 10, and the family struggled with poverty. When Griffith was 14, his mother abandoned the farm and moved the family to Louisville, Kentucky; there she opened a boarding house, which failed shortly afterward. Griffith then left high school to help support the family, taking a job in a dry goods store and later in a bookstore. He began his creative career as an actor in touring companies. Meanwhile, he was learning how to become a playwright, but had little success—only one of his plays was accepted for a performance. He traveled to New York City in 1907 in an attempt to sell a script to Edison Studios producer Edwin Porter; however, Porter rejected the script, but gave him an acting part in \"Rescued from an Eagle's Nest\" instead. He then decided to become an actor and appeared in many films as an extra.", "In 1908, Griffith accepted a role as a stage extra in \"Professional Jealousy\" for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, where he met cameraman Billy Bitzer, and his career in the film industry changed forever. In 1908, Biograph's main director Wallace McCutcheon, Sr. grew ill, and his son Wallace McCutcheon, Jr. took his place. McCutcheon, Jr. did not bring the studio success; Biograph co-founder Harry Marvin gave Griffith the position, and he made the short \"The Adventures of Dollie\". He directed a total of 48 shorts for the company that year. Among the films he directed in 1909 was \"The Cricket on the Hearth\", an adaptation of Charles Dickens’ novel. On the influence of Dickens on his own film narrative, Griffith employed the technique of cross-cutting—where two stories run alongside each other, as seen in Dickens’ novels such as \"Oliver Twist\". When criticized by a cameraman for doing this in a later film, Griffith was said to have replied, \"Well, doesn't Dickens write that way?\". His short \"In Old California\" (1910) was the first film shot in Hollywood, California. Four years later, he produced and directed his first feature film \"Judith of Bethulia\" (1914), one of the earlier to be produced in the U.S. Biograph believed that longer features were not viable at this point. According to Lillian Gish, the company thought that \"a movie that long would hurt [the audience's] eyes\". Griffith left Biograph because of company resistance to his goals and his cost overruns on the film. He took his company of actors with him and joined the Mutual Film Corporation. There he co-produced \"The Life of General Villa\", a biographical-action movie starring Pancho Villa as himself, shot on location in México during a civil war. He formed a studio with Majestic Studios manager Harry Aitken, which became known as Reliance-Majestic Studios and later was renamed Fine Arts Studios. His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in the Triangle Film Corporation along with Thomas H. Ince and Keystone Studios' Mack Sennett. The Triangle Film Corporation was headed by Aitken, who was released from the Mutual Film Corporation, and his brother Roy. Griffith directed and produced \"The Clansman\" through Reliance-Majestic Studios in 1915, which became known as The Birth of a Nation and is considered one of the early feature length American films. The film was a success, but it aroused much controversy due to its depiction of slavery, the Ku Klux Klan and race relations in the American Civil War and the reconstruction era of the United States. It was based on Thomas Dixon, Jr.'s 1905 novel \"The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan\"; it depicts Southern slavery as benign, the enfranchisement of freedmen as a corrupt plot by the Republican Party, and the Ku Klux Klan as a band of heroes restoring the rightful order. This view of the era was popular at the time and was endorsed for decades by historians of the Dunning School, although it met with strong criticism from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and other groups. The NAACP attempted to stop showings of the film. This was successful in some cities, but nonetheless it was shown widely and became the most successful box-office attraction of its time. It is considered among the first \"blockbuster\" motion pictures, and broke all box office records that had been established until then. \"They lost track of the money it made\", Lillian Gish remarked in a Kevin Brownlow interview. Audiences in some major northern cities rioted over the film's racial content, which was filled with action and violence. Griffith's indignation at efforts to censor or ban the film motivated him to produce \"Intolerance\" the following year, in which he portrayed the effects of intolerance in four different historical periods: the Fall of Babylon; the Crucifixion of Jesus; the events surrounding the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre (during religious persecution of French Huguenots); and a modern story. \"Intolerance\" was not a financial success; it did not bring in enough profits to cover the lavish road show that accompanied it. Griffith put a huge budget into the film's production that could not be recovered in its box office. He mostly financed \"Intolerance\" himself, contributing to his financial ruin for the rest of his life. Griffith's production partnership was dissolved in 1917, and he went to Artcraft, part of Paramount Pictures, and then to First National Pictures (1919–1920). At the same time, he founded United Artists together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks; the studio was premised on allowing actors to control their own interests rather than being dependent upon commercial studios. He continued to make films, but never achieved box-office grosses again as high as either \"The Birth of a Nation\" or \"Intolerance.\"", "Though United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived. While some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him. Griffith features from this period include \"Broken Blossoms\" (1919), \"Way Down East\" (1920), \"Orphans of the Storm\" (1921), \"Dream Street\" (1921), \"One Exciting Night\" (1922) and \"America\" (1924). Of these, the first three were successes at the box office. Griffith was forced to leave United Artists after \"Isn't Life Wonderful\" (1924) failed at the box office. He made a part-talkie, \"Lady of the Pavements\" (1929), and only two full-sound films: \"Abraham Lincoln\" (1930) and \"The Struggle\" (1931). Neither was successful, and after \"The Struggle\" he never made another film. In 1936, director Woody Van Dyke, who had worked as Griffith's apprentice on \"Intolerance\", asked Griffith to help him shoot the famous earthquake sequence for \"San Francisco\", but did not give him any film credit. Starring Clark Gable, Jeanette MacDonald and Spencer Tracy, it was the top-grossing film of the year. In 1939, the producer Hal Roach hired Griffith to produce \"Of Mice and Men\" (1939) and \"One Million B.C.\" (1940). He wrote to Griffith: \"I need help from the production side to select the proper writers, cast, et cetera, and to help me generally in the supervision of these pictures.\" Although Griffith eventually disagreed with Roach over the production and parted, Roach later insisted that some of the scenes in the completed film were directed by Griffith. This would make the film the final production in which Griffith was actively involved. However, cast members' accounts recall Griffith directing only the screen tests and costume tests. When Roach advertised the film in late 1939 with Griffith listed as producer, the latter asked that his name be removed. Although mostly forgotten by movie-goers of the time Griffith was held in awe by many in the film industry. In the mid-1930s he was given a special Oscar by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. In 1946 he made an impromptu visit to the film location of David O. Selznick's epic western \"Duel in the Sun\", where some of his veteran actors, Lillian Gish, Lionel Barrymore and Harry Carey, were cast members. Gish and Barrymore found their old mentor's presence distracting and became self-conscious. While the two were filming their scenes, Griffith hid behind set scenery.", "On the morning of July 23, 1948, Griffith was discovered unconscious in the lobby at the Knickerbocker Hotel in Los Angeles, where he had been living alone. He died of a cerebral hemorrhage at 3:42 PM on the way to a Hollywood hospital. A public memorial service was held in his honor at the Hollywood Masonic Temple, but few stars came to pay their last respects. He is buried at Mount Tabor Methodist Church Graveyard in Centerfield, Kentucky. In 1950, The Directors Guild of America provided a stone and bronze monument for his grave site.", "Performer and director Charlie Chaplin called Griffith \"The Teacher of Us All\". Filmmakers such as Alfred Hitchcock, Lev Kuleshov, Jean Renoir, Cecil B. DeMille, King Vidor, Victor Fleming, Raoul Walsh, Carl Theodor Dreyer, Sergei Eisenstein, and Stanley Kubrick have praised Griffith. Griffith seems to have been the first to understand how certain film techniques could be used to create an expressive language; it gained popular recognition with the release of his \"The Birth of a Nation\" (1915). His early shorts —such as Biograph's \"The Musketeers of Pig Alley\" (1912), the first \"gangster film\"— show that Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heightened mood and tension. In making \"Intolerance\" the director opened up new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditional narrative. A large part of Griffith's legacy is that he perpetuated racist stereotypes and opened the gateway to prejudice in mainstream Hollywood film. Refusing to apologize for the messages in his movies, he helped enable a resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1910s and 1920s, enabling the onset of violence against black people and minorities in the United States.", "Griffith has six films preserved on the United States National Film Registry deemed as being \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\". These are \"Lady Helen's Escapade\" (1909), \"A Corner in Wheat\" (1909), \"The Musketeers of Pig Alley\" (1912), \"The Birth of a Nation\" (1915), \"Intolerance\" (1916) and \"Broken Blossoms\" (1919).", "43. \"Nicolodeon\" 1976 film pays homage to silent film makers. And includes at the end footage from \"Birth if a Nation\" The Clansman." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Gameplay.", "Controversy.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The game takes place on the planet Katakis, a human colony in deep space. There, scientists developed machinery with advanced artificial intelligence capabilities. However, the machines eventually evolved beyond the control of their human creators and overtook the planet. The humans attempted to retaliate through the use of nuclear ballistic missiles, but the machines survived. The colonists' remaining plan is to use a series of DS-H75 Eagle Fighter space gliders to attack the machines and retake the planet.", "Katakis has a very similar theme as the game \"R-Type\", with multiple levels, power-ups and various end-bosses. Players must eliminate enemy opponents to reach various end-bosses. One major innovation is the fact that the two-player mode features the second player controlling the Force module. This creates an unusual play strategy of the attacker and the defender, since the main ship is vulnerable to enemy fire and hazards.", "Due to the game's obvious similarity to \"R-Type\", rights holder Activision Europe delivered an ultimatum: either Factor 5 accept a contract to perform the official R-Type conversion for the Amiga home computer, or receive a lawsuit for rights infringement. According to Julian Eggebrecht, this was because \"Activision couldn't find any programmers\" but the opportunity was \"a dream come true\".", "Factor 5 released the Amiga version of \"Katakis\" as freeware as follows: In \"Turrican II\" (also designed by Manfred Trenz) there's plenty of reference to the Commodore 64 version of Katakis. At the end of level 2-2, the main character takes off in a fighter resembling the one from Katakis. During the take-off sequence, the fighter's drone pod can also briefly be seen, hanging from the ceiling. From that point, and for the whole world 3 duration, the game turns from a platform shooter to a scrolling shooter. There's even an easter egg: before level 3-2's end boss, a Katakis bonus container ship appears. If shot down, it reveals a \"question mark\" (?) bonus (unique in the whole Turrican II gamemap) that, if picked up, makes a helicopter walker robot appear, towing a banner with \"KATAKIS LIVES!!!\" written on it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life, education, and teaching career.", "Climbing.", "In Europe.", "In Asia.", "Mallory's last climb.", "June 1924 expedition to Everest.", "Lost on Everest for 75 years.", "Reaching the summit.", "Mallory's body.", "Oxygen supply.", "The difficult \"Second Step\".", "Possible sightings of Irvine.", "Theories.", "Assessments by other climbers.", "Ang Tsering's assessment.", "Climbing partners.", "First \"real\" ascent, or just to the summit?", "Edmund Hillary's assessment.", "Chris Bonington's assessment.", "Conrad Anker's assessment.", "Robert Graves' tale of Mallory's Pipe.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mallory was born in Mobberley, Cheshire, the son of Herbert Leigh Mallory (1856–1943), a clergyman who changed his surname from Mallory to Leigh-Mallory in 1914. His mother was Annie Beridge (1863–1946), the daughter of a clergyman in Walton, Derbyshire. George had two sisters and a younger brother, Trafford Leigh-Mallory, the World War II Royal Air Force commander. He was raised in a 10-bedroom house on Hobcroft Lane in Mobberley. In 1896, Mallory attended Glengorse, a boarding school in Eastbourne on the south coast, having transferred from another preparatory school in West Kirby. At the age of 13, he won a mathematics scholarship to Winchester College. In his final year there, he was introduced to rock climbing and mountaineering by a master, R. L. G. Irving, who took a few people climbing in the Alps each year. In October 1905, Mallory entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, to study history. There, he became good friends with future members of the Bloomsbury Group, including Rupert Brooke, John Maynard Keynes, James Strachey, Lytton Strachey, and Duncan Grant, who took some portraits of Mallory. Among these friends, particularly Strachey, his letters attest a flirtatious, homoerotic and \"explicitly gay\" friendship. Mallory", "", "In 1910, in a party led by Irving, Mallory and a friend attempted to climb Mont Vélan in the Alps, but turned back shortly before the summit due to Mallory's altitude sickness. In 1911, Mallory climbed Mont Blanc, and made the third ascent of the Frontier ridge of Mont Maudit in a party again led by Irving. According to Helmut Dumler, Mallory was \"apparently prompted by a friend on the Western Front in 1916 [to write] a highly emotional article of his ascent of this great climb\"; this article was published as \"Mont Blanc from the Col du Géant by the", "Mallory participated in the initial 1921 British Reconnaissance Expedition, organised and financed by the Mount Everest Committee, that explored routes up to the North Col of Mount Everest. The expedition produced the first accurate maps of the region around the mountain, as Mallory, his climbing partner Guy Bullock, and E. O. Wheeler of the Survey of India explored in depth several approaches to its peak. Under Mallory's leadership, and with the assistance of around a dozen Sherpas, the group climbed several lower peaks near Everest. His party were almost certainly the first Westerners to view the Western Cwm at the foot of the Lhotse face, as well as charting the course of the Rongbuk Glacier up to the base of the North Face. After circling the mountain from the south side, his party finally discovered the East Rongbuk Glacier—the highway to the summit now used by nearly all climbers on the Tibetan side of the mountain. By climbing up to the saddle of the North Ridge (the North Col), they spied a route to the summit via the North-East Ridge over the obstacle of the Second Step. In 1922, Mallory returned to the", "", "Mallory joined the 1924 Everest expedition, led, as in 1922, by Gen. Charles Bruce. Mallory, who was 37 at the time of the expedition, believed his age would make this his last opportunity to climb the mountain, and when touring the US, he proclaimed that the expedition would successfully reach the summit. Mallory and Bruce had made the first attempt, which was inexplicably aborted by Mallory at Camp 5. Norton and Somervell set off from Camp 6, and in perfect weather, Norton managed, without", "After their disappearance, several expeditions tried to find their remains, and perhaps, determine if they had reached the summit. Frank Smythe, when on the 1936 expedition, believed he spotted a body below the place where Irvine's ice axe was found three years earlier, \"I was scanning the face from base camp through a high-powered telescope...when I saw something queer in a gully below the scree shelf. Of course, it was a long way away and very small, but I've a six/six eyesight and do not believe it was a rock. This object was at precisely the point where Mallory and Irvine would", "Whether Mallory and Irvine reached Everest's summit is unknown. The question remains open to speculation and is the topic of much debate and research.", "From the discovery of a serious rope-jerk injury around Mallory's waist, which was encircled by the remnants of a climbing rope, Irvine and he apparently were roped together when one of them slipped. Mallory's body lay 300 m below and about 100 m horizontal to the location of an ice axe found in 1933, which is generally accepted from three characteristic marks on the shaft as belonging to Irvine. The fact that the body was relatively unbroken, apart from fractures to the right leg (the tibia and fibula were broken just above the boot), in comparison to other bodies found", "From the location of their final camp (discovered in 2001), a summit climb may be estimated to have taken them around 11 hours. Assuming they took two cylinders each, they had only about eight hours of oxygen available, although this depends on the flow rate, which could be controlled and was not necessarily full flow. The oxygen would almost certainly have run out before they reached the summit. The two flow rates available on those oxygen sets were 1.5 and 2.2 l/min. Both are low rates for active climbing, and the two are unlikely to have used the lower flow rate. One of their oxygen bottles was found some short of the First Step, which enables their speed of climbing to be calculated (about 275 vertical ft/hr; Hillary", "Experienced modern climbers have mixed views on whether Mallory was capable of climbing the Second Step on the North Ridge, now surmounted by a aluminium ladder first permanently fixed in place by Chinese climbers in 1975 to bridge this very difficult pitch. Austrian Theo Fritsche repeated the free climb solo in 2001 under conditions that resembled those encountered during the 1924 Everest expedition, and assessed the climb as having a grade of 5.6–5.7. Fritsche completed the climb without supplementary oxygen and believes that Mallory could, weather permitting, have reached the summit. In June 2007, as part of the 2007 Altitude Everest expedition, Conrad Anker and Leo Houlding free-climbed the Second Step, having first removed the", "In 1979, a Chinese climber named Wang Hungbao reported to a Japanese expedition leader that, in 1975, he had discovered the body of an \"English dead\" at. Wang was killed in an avalanche the day after this verbal report, so the location was never more precisely fixed. The Chinese Mountaineering Association officially denied the sighting claim. In 1986, Chinese climber Zhang Junyan—who had been sharing the tent with Wang in 1975—confirmed, to Tom Holzel, Wang's report of finding a foreign climber's body. Zhang stated that Wang had been out for only 20 minutes. If this report was accurate, at that altitude and date, the body must have been that of Irvine. Wang's sighting was the key to the discovery of Mallory's body 24 years later in the same general area, though Wang's reported description of the body he found, face up, with a \"hole in cheek\", is not consistent with the condition and posture of Mallory's body, which was face down, its head almost completely buried in scree, and with a golf ball-sized puncture wound on his forehead. The 2001 research expedition discovered Wang's campsite location and", "A range of different outcomes has been proposed, and new theories continue to be put forward. Most views have the two carrying two cylinders of oxygen each, reaching and climbing either the First or Second Step, where they are seen by Odell. At this point, two main alternatives remain: either Mallory takes Irvine's oxygen and goes on alone (and may or may not reach the summit); or both go", "", "Ang Tsering, a Sherpa member of the 1924 British Everest Expedition, was interviewed in", "Harry Tyndale, one of Mallory's climbing partners, said of Mallory: In watching George at work, one was conscious not so much of physical strength as of suppleness and balance; so rhythmical and harmonious was his progress in any steep place... that his movements appeared almost serpentine in their smoothness. Geoffrey Winthrop Young, an accomplished mountain", "If evidence were to be uncovered that showed that George Mallory or Andrew Irvine had reached the summit of Everest in 1924, advocates of Hillary and Norgay's first ascent maintain that the historical record should not be changed to state that Mallory and Irvine made the \"first ascent\", displacing Hillary and Norgay. Mount Everest summiteer in 1965, Major H. P. S. Ahluwalia, claims that without photographic proof, no evidence shows that Mallory", "Edmund Hillary echoed John Mallory's opinion, asking: If you climb a mountain for the first time and die on the descent, is it really a", "Chris Bonington, the British mountaineer, argued that: If we accept the fact that they were above the Second Step, they would have seemed to be incredibly close to the summit of Everest and I think at that stage something takes hold of most climbers... And I think therefore", "Conrad Anker, who found Mallory's body in 1999, free climbed the Second Step in 2007 and has worn replica 1924 climbing gear on Everest, said he believes, \"It's possible, but highly improbable, that they made it to the top\", citing the difficulty of the Second Step and the position of Mallory's body. He stated that, in his opinion:", "Robert Graves, who climbed with Mallory, in his autobiography recounts this story, at the time famous in climbing circles, about an ascent that Mallory made as a young man in 1908:\"My friend George Mallory... once did an inexplicable climb on Snowdon. He had left his pipe on a ledge, half-way down one of the Liwedd precipices, and scrambled back by a short cut to retrieve it, then up again by", "Mallory was honoured by having a court named after him at his \"alma mater\", Magdalene College, Cambridge, with an inscribed stone commemorating his death set above the doorway to one of the buildings. The Friends of Magdalene Boat Club was renamed the Mallory Club in recognition of his achievements in exploration and rowing at the college. Two high peaks in California's Sierra Nevada, Mount Mallory and Mount Irvine, located a few miles southeast of Mount Whitney, were named after them. The \"Times\" obituary of George Finch said that Mallory and Finch were the \"two best alpinists of (their) time\". Mallory was captured on film by expedition cameraman John Noel, who released his film of the 1924 expedition \"The Epic of Everest\". Some of his footage was also used in George Lowe's 1953 documentary \"The Conquest of Everest\". A documentary on the 2001 Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition, \"Found on Everest\", was produced by Riley Morton. Mallory was played by Brian Blessed in the 1991 re-creation of his last climb, \"Galahad of Everest\". In October 2013, Benedict Cumberbatch was tipped as the front runner to play the role of Mallory in a new Hollywood version of the attempt on Everest in 1924, to be directed by Doug Liman and adapted from Jeffrey Archer's 2009 novel \"Paths of Glory\". Tragedy in the mountains has proved a recurring theme in the Mallory line. Mallory's younger brother, Air Chief Marshal Sir Trafford Leigh-Mallory, met his death on a mountain range when the Avro York carrying him to his new appointment as Air Commander-in-Chief of South East Asia Command crashed in the French Alps in 1944, killing all on board. A memorial window to George Mallory along with a memorial plaque to Trafford can be found at St Wilfrid's Church, Mobberley, where their father, Herbert, grandfather, also called George, and other family members had served as rector. Mallory's daughter, Frances Clare, married physiologist Glenn Allan Millikan, who was killed in a climbing accident in Fall Creek Falls State Park, Tennessee. Frances Mallory's son, Richard Millikan, became a respected climber in his own right during the 1960s and '70s. Mallory's grandson, also named George Mallory, reached the summit of Everest in 1995 via the North Ridge with six other climbers as part of the American Everest Expedition of 1995. He left a picture of his grandparents at the summit citing \"unfinished business\". In Anthony Geffen's 2010 biographical documentary film about Mallory's life and final expedition, \"The Wildest Dream\", Conrad Anker and Leo Houlding attempt to reconstruct the climb, dressed and equipped similarly to Mallory and Irvine. Keith Thomas and Glyn Bailey are creating a musical about Mallory's life called \"Mountain of Dreams\". Belgian rock band Girls in Hawaii's song \"Mallory's Height\" on their 2013 album \"Everest\" is a homage to Mallory. Extracts of the \"Nova\" / BBC broadcast can be heard (around 3:35)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Professional baseball.", "International competition.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Deago was signed as an amateur free agent by the Padres in 2002, and in 2003 he made his professional debut. He spent most of the 2003 season with the Mobile BayBears, going 8-7 with a 4.03 ERA in 26 games (20 starts) with them. On May 10, 2003, he made his big league debut against the New York Mets. He pitched well in his first big league game, allowing two runs on five hits and three walks in six innings of work, coming away with a no-decision. He pitched poorly against the Atlanta Braves in his next start on May 15, allowing seven earned runs in 4 innings of work. That would be the final game of his big league career. Overall, he went 0-1 with a 7.84 ERA in his big league career. Although Deago's big league career was over after only two games, he continued to play professionally through 2008. In 2004, he pitched for the Lake Elsinore Storm, BayBears and Portland Beavers, going a combined 3-2 with a 2.00 ERA in 20 games (eight starts). He pitched for the BayBears and Beavers in 2005, going a combined 1-2 with a 5.40 ERA in five starts. For the BayBears and Beavers in 2006, Deago went a combined 10-8 with a 4.49 ERA in 28 games (21 starts). He played for the Beavers and San Antonio Missions in 2007, going a combined 6-8 with a 5.13 ERA in 35 games (21 starts). He ended up in the Tampa Bay Rays organization in 2008, and he pitched for their Double-A team, the Montgomery Biscuits. That season, he went 2-5 with a 2.95 ERA in 59 relief appearances.", "In the 2001 Baseball World Cup, Deago was 1-1 with a 4.08 ERA. He went 2-0 with 19 strikeouts and a 1.29 ERA in 14 innings of work in the 2002 Intercontinental Cup. During the Confederación Panamericana de Béisbol qualifiers for the 2008 Olympics, Deago allowed three runs in 11 innings - however, Panama failed to advance to the Olympics. He appeared in two games in the 2006 World Baseball Classic, pitching 1 innings and allowing three hits and two runs (neither of them were earned). He posted a 0.00 ERA.", ", or Retrosheet" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Early career.", "First denunciation.", "Second World War.", "Second denunciation.", "Joining the Party.", "Later life, and death.", "Music.", "Overview.", "Jewish themes.", "Self-quotations.", "Posthumous publications.", "Criticism.", "Personality.", "Orthodoxy and revisionism.", "Recorded legacy.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Born at Podolskaya Street in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Shostakovich was the second of three children of Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina. Shostakovich's paternal grandfather, originally surnamed Szostakowicz, was of Polish Roman Catholic descent (his family roots trace to the region of the town of Vileyka in today's Belarus), but his immediate forebears came from Siberia. A Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863–4, Bolesław Szostakowicz was exiled to Narym (near Tomsk) in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitri Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. When his term of exile ended, Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia. He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narim in 1875 and studied physics and mathematics at Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899. He then went to work as an engineer under Dmitri Mendeleev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg. In 1903 he married another Siberian transplant to the capital, Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, one", "After graduation, Shostakovich initially embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry playing style was often unappreciated (his American biographer, Laurel Fay, comments on his \"emotional restraint\" and \"riveting rhythmic drive\"). He won an \"honorable mention\" at the First International Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927 and attributed the disappointing result to suffering from appendicitis and the jury being all Polish. He had his appendix removed in April 1927. After the competition Shostakovich met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by the composer's First Symphony that he conducted it at its Berlin premiere later that year. Leopold Stokowski was equally impressed and gave the work its U.S. premiere the following year in Philadelphia. Stokowski also made the work's first recording. Shostakovich concentrated on composition thereafter and soon limited his performances primarily to his own works. In 1927 he wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled \"To October\"), a patriotic piece with a pro-Soviet choral finale. Owing to its experimental nature, as with the subsequent", "On 17 January 1936, Joseph Stalin paid a rare visit to the opera for a performance of a new work, \"Quiet Flows the Don\", based on the novel by Mikhail Sholokhov, by the little-known composer Ivan Dzerzhinsky, who was called to Stalin's box at the end of the performance and told that his work had \"considerable ideological-political value\". On 26 January, Stalin revisited the opera, accompanied by Vyacheslav Molotov, Andrei Zhdanov and Anastas Mikoyan, to hear \"Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District\". He and his entourage left without speaking to anyone. Shostakovich had been forewarned by a friend that he should postpone a planned concert tour in Arkhangelsk in order to be present at that particular performance. Eyewitness accounts testify that Shostakovich was \"white as a sheet\" when he went to take his bow after the third act. In letters to Sollertinsky, Shostakovich recounted the horror with which he watched as Stalin shuddered every time the brass and percussion played too loudly. Equally horrifying was the way Stalin and his companions laughed at the lovemaking scene between Sergei and Katerina. The next day, Shostakovich left for Arkhangelsk, and was there when he heard on 28 January that \"Pravda\" had published a tirade titled \"Muddle Instead of Music\", complaining that the opera was a \"deliberately dissonant, muddled stream of sounds...[that] quacks, hoots, pants and gasps.\" This was the signal for a nationwide campaign, during which even Soviet music critics who had praised the opera were forced to recant in print, saying they \"failed to detect the shortcomings of \"Lady Macbeth\" as pointed out by \"Pravda\"\". There was resistance from those who admired Shostakovich, including Sollertinsky, who turned up at a composers' meeting in Leningrad called to denounce the opera", "In 1939, before Soviet forces attempted to invade Finland, the Party Secretary of Leningrad Andrei Zhdanov commissioned a celebratory piece from Shostakovich, the \"Suite on Finnish Themes\", to be performed as the marching bands of the Red Army paraded through Helsinki. The Winter War was a bitter experience for the Red Army, the parade never happened, and Shostakovich never laid claim to the authorship of this work. It was not performed until 2001. After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad. He tried to enlist in the military", "In 1948, Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree. Andrei Zhdanov, Chairman of the RSFSR Supreme Soviet, accused the composers (including Sergei Prokofiev and Aram Khachaturian) of writing inappropriate and formalist music. This was part of an ongoing anti-formalism campaign intended to root out all Western compositional influence as well as any perceived \"non-Russian\" output. The conference resulted in the publication of the Central Committee's Decree \"On V. Muradeli’s opera \"The Great Friendship\",\" which targeted all Soviet composers and demanded that they write only \"proletarian\" music, or music for the masses. The accused composers, including Shostakovich, were summoned to make public apologies in front of the committee. Most of Shostakovich's works were banned, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time \"he waited for his arrest at night", "The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: he joined the Communist Party. The government wanted to appoint him General Secretary of the Composers' Union, but in order to hold that position he was required to attain Party membership. It was understood that Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party from 1953 to 1964, was looking for support from the intelligentsia's leading ranks in an effort to create a better relationship with the Soviet Union's artists. This event has variously been interpreted as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, the result of political pressure, or", "In 1964 Shostakovich composed the music for the Russian film \"Hamlet\", which was favourably reviewed by \"The New York Times\": \"But the lack of this aural stimulation—of Shakespeare's eloquent words—is recompensed in some measure by a splendid and stirring musical score by Dmitri Shostakovich. This has great dignity and depth, and at times an appropriate wildness or becoming levity\". In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka. Beginning in 1958 he suffered from a debilitating condition that particularly", "", "Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal and in the Romantic tradition, but with elements of atonality and chromaticism. In some of his later works (e.g., the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows. His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, each totaling 15. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the Fifth and Seventh Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets. Other works include the operas \"Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk\", \"The Nose\" and the", "Even before the Stalinist anti-Semitic campaigns in the late 1940s and early 1950s, Shostakovich showed an interest in Jewish themes. He was intrigued by Jewish music's \"ability to build a jolly melody on sad intonations\". Examples of works that included Jewish themes are the Fourth String Quartet (1949), the First Violin Concerto (1948), and the \"Four Monologues on Pushkin Poems\" (1952), as well as the Piano Trio in E minor (1944). He was further inspired to write with Jewish themes when he", "Throughout his compositions, Shostakovich demonstrated a controlled use of musical quotation. This stylistic choice had been common among earlier composers, but Shostakovich developed it into a defining characteristic of his music. Rather than quoting other composers, Shostakovich preferred to quote himself. Musicologists such as Sofia Moshevich, Ian McDonald, and Stephen Harris have connected his works through their quotations. One example is the main theme of Katerina's aria, \"Seryozha, khoroshiy moy\", from the fourth act of \"Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District\". It accompanies Katerina as she reunites with her lover Sergei. The aria's beauty comes as a breath of fresh air in the intense, overbearing tone of", "In 2004, the musicologist Olga Digonskaya discovered a trove of Shostakovich manuscripts at the Glinka State Central Museum of Musical Culture in Moscow. In a cardboard file were some \"300 pages of musical sketches, pieces and scores\" in Shostakovich's hand. \"A composer friend bribed Shostakovich's housemaid to regularly deliver the contents of Shostakovich's office", "According to McBurney, opinion is divided on whether Shostakovich's music is \"of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand\". William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as \"the greatest composer of the 20th century\". Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove's Dictionary that \"Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power.\" Some modern composers have been critical. Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as \"the second, or even third of Mahler\". The Romanian composer and Webern disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich \"a hack in a trance\". A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of \"Lady Macbeth\": \"brutally hammering... and monotonous\". English composer", "Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was \"obsessed with cleanliness\". He synchronised the clocks in his apartment and regularly sent himself cards to test how well the postal service was working. Elizabeth Wilson's \"Shostakovich: A Life Remembered\" indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Mikhail Druskin remembers that even as a young man the composer was \"fragile and nervously agile\". Yuri Lyubimov comments, \"The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius.\" In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, \"his face was a bag of tics and grimaces.\" In Shostakovich's lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee). His favourite", "Shostakovich's response to official criticism and whether he used music as a kind of covert dissidence is a matter of dispute. He outwardly conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. But it is evident he disliked many aspects of the regime, as confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaak Glikman, and the satirical cantata \"Rayok\", which ridiculed the \"anti-formalist\" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death. He was a close friend of Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 during the Great Purge. It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music. The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book \"Testimony\", which claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages, placing Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to Alexander Pushkin.", "In May 1958, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with André Cluytens, as well as some short piano works. These were issued by EMI on an LP, reissued by Seraphim Records on LP, and eventually digitally remastered and released on CD. Shostakovich recorded the two concertos in stereo in Moscow for Melodiya. Shostakovich also played the piano solos in recordings of the Cello Sonata, Op. 40 with cellist Daniil Shafran and also with Mstislav Rostropovich; the Violin Sonata, Op. 134, with violinist David Oistrakh; and the Piano Trio, Op. 67", "Belgium: Member of the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium (1960) Denmark: Léonie Sonning Music Prize (1973) Finland: Wihuri Sibelius Prize (1958) Soviet Union: United Kingdom: Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Brooklyn crime boss.", "Personal life.", "Rivals.", "O'Banion Murder.", "The Adonis Club Incident.", "Downfall.", "Aftermath.", "Legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Yale was born in Longobucco, Italy on January 22, 1893 to Domenico and Isabella (née DeSimone) Ioele. He had an older brother, John, and two younger siblings, Assunta and Angelo. He and his family arrived in the United States c. 1900. As a teenager, Ioele was befriended by John Torrio, who ushered him into the Five Points Gang and groomed him for a life of crime. Shortly after Torrio left for Chicago, in 1909, Ioele \"Americanized\" his last name to Yale. Despite his medium height and chubby build, Yale was a fearsome fistfighter and thief. In 1910, at age 17, Yale and a friend, a wrestler named Bobby Nelson, severely beat several men during a fight in the Coney Island pool hall, which involved cracking pool cues and hurling billiard balls. One of his early arrests, in October 1912, was on suspicion of homicide.", "Like his mentor Johnny Torrio, Yale was one of a new breed of gangster who believed in putting business ahead of ego. After getting started with some basic racketeering, Yale took control of Brooklyn's ice delivery trade by selling \"protection\" and creating monopolies. With the proceeds from these rackets, Yale opened a bar on Seaside Walk in Coney Island known as the Harvard Inn in 1917. Hoping to capitalize on the collegiate name of his bar, he began using the name Yale. It was at the Harvard Inn that a young bouncer named Al Capone got his famous facial scars in a dispute with Frank Galluccio, in which Capone accidentally insulted Galluccio's sister. After two years in Yale's employ, Capone was shipped off west to Chicago by Yale, and joined Torrio's organization. Yale's gang engaged in Black Hand extortion activities and ran a string of brothels. Their gang became the first new-style Mafia \"family\" which included Italians from all regions and could work in partnership with other ethnic groups if it was good for business. Yale's \"services\" to his customers included offering \"protection\" to local merchants and controlling food services for restaurants, as well as ice deliveries for Brooklyn residents. Yale's notorious sideline was his line of cigars, foul-smelling stogies packaged in boxes that bore his smiling face. Yale also owned and operated his own funeral home at 6604 14th Avenue (he and his family lived across the street). When asked about his profession, Yale wryly commented that he was an \"undertaker\". At the beginning of Prohibition, Yale became one of Brooklyn's biggest bootleggers. In addition to Capone, other gangsters who worked under Yale at one time or another included Joe Adonis, Anthony \"Little Augie\" Carfano, and Albert Anastasia. Yale's top assassin was Willie \"Two-Knife\" Altieri, nicknamed as such due to his preferred method of dispatching a victim.", "Soon after the Harvard Inn opened, Yale married Maria Delapia, with whom he would have two daughters, Rosa and Isabella. They later separated, he married a younger woman called Lucita in 1927 and they had a daughter, Angelina. Yale was also noted as a stylish dresser, favoring expensive suits and diamond jewelry. One newspaper reporter called him the \"Beau Brummell of Brooklyn\". Yale was also known for generosity toward the less fortunate people in his neighborhood, who often approached him and requested financial assistance. After a local delicatessen owner was robbed, Yale replaced his lost cash. When a fish peddler lost his cart, Yale gave him $200 with an admonition: \"Get a horse, you're too old to walk\". Yale was dubbed the \"Prince of Pals\". Conversely, Yale was a violent man who did not hesitate to inflict pain on others. When angered by his younger brother Angelo, Yale beat him so badly that he wound up in the hospital. When two extortionists attempted to shake down the popular hat-check operator of a neighborhood restaurant, Yale battered the two unconscious. In May 1920, Yale traveled to Chicago and personally killed longtime gang boss Big Jim Colosimo at the behest of Chicago Outfit friends Torrio and Capone. Colosimo was allegedly murdered because he stood in the way of his gang making huge bootlegging profits in Chicago. Although suspected by Chicago police, Yale was never officially charged.", "Tradition has long claimed that Yale fought a desperate gang war for control of the Brooklyn docks with the Irish White Hand Gang. Recent research has called much of that into question and indicated that Yale's worst enemies were not the Irish waterfront racketeers but rival Italian crime families who were constantly jockeying for power in Brooklyn during the 1920s. The first known attempt on Yale's life occurred on February 6, 1921, when he and two of his men were ambushed in Lower Manhattan after they stepped from their car in order to attend a banquet. One of Yale's bodyguards was killed and the other wounded, with Yale himself sustaining a severe lung wound. Yale pulled through after an extended recovery. Five months after Yale's injury, on July 15, 1921, he, his brother Angelo, and four men were driving on Cropsey Avenue in Bath Beach when another car filled with rival gunmen overtook them and opened fire. Angelo and one of Yale's men were wounded. This attack was believed to have been carried out in revenge for the June 5th killing of a Manhattan mobster named Ernesto Melchiorre, who had been murdered after a late-night visit to the Harvard Inn. Melchiorre's brother Silvio was believed to have been the driving force behind the unsuccessful attack. Eight days later, Yale's men gunned down Silvio Melchiorre in front of his Little Italy cafe. Yet another attempt on Yale's life took place on July 9, 1923. Yale's chauffeur, Frank Forte, had taken the Yale family to a christening at a nearby church. While Yale decided to walk back to his 14th Avenue home, Forte drove Maria Yale and her two daughters back. As the women exited the vehicle a carload of four gangsters rolled past, mistook Frank Forte for his boss, and shot him.", "In November 1924, Yale was asked once again to come to Chicago to assist Capone and Torrio, who needed another rival murdered. On November 10, 1924, Yale, John Scalise, and Albert Anselmi reportedly entered the Schofield Flower Shop and killed North Side Gang leader Dean O'Banion. Eight days later, the Chicago Police arrested Yale and Sam Pollaccia at Chicago's Union Station as they were about to depart for New York. Yale said he had come to town for the funeral of Unione Siciliana president Mike Merlo and stayed to see old friends. Yale further claimed to be having lunch at the time of O'Banion's murder. Police could not shake his alibi and were compelled to release him.", "In the early morning hours of December 26, 1925, White Hand gang boss Richard \"Pegleg\" Lonergan and a few of his men were attacked at Brooklyn's Adonis Club by a handful of Yale's men and a visiting Al Capone (Capone's son Sonny had just had an operation for a mastoid infection in New York). The usual story has the long-dreaded war between the \"Black Hand\" and the \"White Hand\" coming to a climax in dramatic fashion by a down-and-out Lonergan leading his men into the club to attack the Yale crew when they gathered for their annual Christmas party. Instead, Yale has Al Capone and his men setting up an ambush and opening fire on Lonergan, Aaron Harms, James \"Ragtime\" Howard, Paddy Maloney, Cornelius \"Needles\" Ferry, and James Hart. Lonergan, Ferry, and Harms were all killed while Hart was severely wounded. An examination of the original police reports and witness accounts does not support this version. According to author Patrick Downey, the Adonis Club shootings were most probably a spur-of-the-moment reaction to a drunken argument that Needles Ferry had engaged in with Capone and his companions.", "By the mid-1920s, Yale was noted as one of the most powerful gangsters in Brooklyn. In addition to his numerous rackets, Yale made inroads into labor racketeering and dockside extortion as well. In spring of 1927, however, Yale's long friendship with Capone began to fray. As a major importer of Canadian whisky, Yale supplied much of Capone's whiskey. Yale would oversee the landing of the booze and make sure the Chicago-bound trucks made it safely through New York. Soon, many of the trucks began being hijacked before they left Brooklyn. Suspecting a double cross, Capone asked an old pal James \"Filesy\" DeAmato to keep an eye on his trucks. DeAmato reported that Yale was indeed hijacking his booze. Soon after this, Capone's spy realized that his cover had been blown and tried unsuccessfully to shoot Yale on the night of July 1, 1927. Six nights later, DeAmato was gunned down on a Brooklyn street corner. In a last-ditch effort to mend the relationship with his longtime friend, Capone invited Yale to Chicago to view the Dempsey-Tunney heavyweight title rematch at Soldier Field on September 22, 1927. While their visit was civil enough, the pair's friendship began to rapidly deteriorate after Yale returned to New York. Distracted by a gang war with rival mobster Joe Aiello, a brief exile from Chicago, and the 1928 Republican primary election, Capone had to wait until the spring of 1928 to plan retaliation. On Sunday afternoon, July 1, 1928, Yale was in his Sunrise Club, located at 14th Avenue and 65th Street, when he received a cryptic phone call. The caller said something was wrong with Yale's new wife Lucy, who was at home looking after their year-old daughter. Refusing Joseph Piraino's offer to drive him, Yale dashed out to his brand new, coffee-colored Lincoln coupe and took off up New Utrecht Avenue, where a Buick sedan carrying four armed individuals stopped next to him. While Yale's new Lincoln was fashioned with armor plating, the dealer had neglected to bullet-proof the windows. Recognizing his peril, when the light changed, Yale took off. After a chase up New Utrecht, Yale swerved west onto 44th Street, with the Buick close behind. Yale's car was soon overtaken by the Buick, whose occupants opened fire at close range. A shotgun blast struck the Brooklyn gang boss on the left side of the head while a submachine gun bullet sliced through his brain. Either wound would have killed Yale instantly. The now out-of-control Lincoln veered to the right, hopped the curb, and crashed into the stoop of a brownstone at No. 923. This was the first time a submachine gun had been used in a gangland killing in New York City. On August 2, 1928, was reported that two men were sought for the murder of Yale.", "The abandoned Buick was later discovered a few blocks away from the murder site. Inside the car police found a.38 caliber revolver, a.45 automatic, a sawn-off pump shotgun, and a Thompson submachine gun. The handguns were eventually traced to Miami, the car itself was traced to Knoxville, Tennessee, and the submachine gun to a Chicago sporting goods dealer named Peter von Frantzius. Police noted that at the time of murder, Yale was wearing a four-carat diamond ring, as well as a belt buckle engraved with his initials. The letters on the buckle held a total of 75 diamond chips. Capone was said to give such belt buckles to those he admired very much. Police repeatedly questioned Capone about the Yale murder, but nothing came of the inquiries. Yale's murder represented the first time that the Thompson submachine gun was used in New York gangland warfare. Recent research has indicated that Yale's killers were Capone mob gunmen Tony \"Joe Batters\" Accardo, Fred \"Killer\" Burke, Gus Winkler, George \"Shotgun\" Ziegler, and Louis \"Little New York\" Campagna. Most of these hitmen are believed to have participated in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre seven months later. One of the submachine guns used in the Massacre was later ballistically linked to Yale's murder. Yale received one of the most impressive gangland funerals in American history, at which thousands of Brooklynites lined the streets to watch the procession. He was buried wearing evening clothes, holding grey suede gloves and a gold rosary. Thirty-eight cars were required to bear all the floral arrangements while 250 Cadillac limousines carried the mourners. Yale's $15,000 silver casket rested on an open hearse with a podium. At Holy Cross Cemetery, there was additional drama when two different women claimed to be Yale's wife. As the casket was lowered, 112 mourners simultaneously tossed roses into the grave. Yale's funeral set a standard of opulence for American gangsters that has been seldom matched over the years.", "While Yale is somewhat overlooked in crime histories, he was one of New York's leading gangsters in the 1920s. In the initial aftermath of Yale's murder, leadership of his family was taken over by Anthony Carfano. Four months later Joe Masseria orchestrated the murder of mobster Salvatore D'Aquila. The December 1928 Hotel Statler meeting in Cleveland was most probably called to head off a potential New York gang war. Roughly half of Yale's men and territory were absorbed by the D'Aquila crime family, which was now led by Al Mineo, while the rest remained under Carfano. Yale's murder turned out to be the first in a series of events that facilitated Masseria's attempt to consolidate all of New York's Mafia families under his control, which eventually resulted in the Castellammarese War.", "Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Role.", "History.", "Origin.", "Factional control.", "Disputes.", "Territorial matters.", "\"Shōguns\".", "Meiji Restoration.", "World War II.", "Current constitution.", "Relation to Shinto.", "Education.", "Addressing and naming.", "Marriage traditions.", "Three Sacred Treasures.", "Succession.", "Burial traditions.", "Wealth.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Unlike most constitutional monarchs, the Emperor is not the \"nominal\" chief executive. explicitly vests executive power in the Cabinet, of which the Prime Minister is the leader. The Emperor is also not the commander-in-chief of the Japan Self-Defense Forces. The Japan Self-Defense Forces Act of 1954 also explicitly vests this role with the Prime Minister. The Emperor's powers are limited only to important ceremonial functions. of the Constitution stipulates that the Emperor \"shall perform only such acts in matters of state as are provided for in the Constitution and he shall not have powers related to government.\" It also stipulates that \"the advice and approval of the Cabinet shall be required for all acts of the Emperor in matters of state\" (Article 3). Article 4", "Although the Emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the Emperor has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. In the early 7th century, the Emperor had begun to be called the.", "The title of Emperor was borrowed from China, being derived from Chinese characters and was retroactively applied to the legendary Japanese rulers who reigned before the 7th–8th centuries AD. According to the traditional account of the Nihon Shoki, Japan was founded by Emperor Jimmu in 660 BC. Modern historians generally believe that the Emperors till Suinin are 'largely legendary' as there is insufficient material available for verification and study regarding their lives. Emperor Keiko till Emperor Ingyo (376-453 AD) are considered as might be real. Emperor Ankō (401-456) of the 5th century AD, traditionally the 20th emperor, is the earliest generally agreed", "There have been six non-imperial families who have controlled Japanese emperors: the Soga (530s–645), the Fujiwara (850s–1070), the Taira (1159-1180s), the Minamoto (and Kamakura Bakufu) (1192–1333), the Ashikaga", "The growth of the samurai class from the 10th century gradually weakened the power of the imperial family over the realm, leading to a time of instability. Emperors have been known", "Until recent centuries, Japan's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern-day territory. The name \"Nippon\" came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government only began to appear shortly before and during the time of Prince Shōtoku (572–622). The Emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divine harmony than the head of an actual governing", "From 1192 to 1867, sovereignty of the state was exercised by the \"shōguns\", or their \"shikken\" regents (1203–1333), whose authority was conferred by Imperial warrant. When Portuguese explorers first came into contact with the Japanese (see \"Nanban period\"), they described Japanese conditions in", "After the United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry's Black Ships forcibly opened Japan to foreign trade, and the shogunate proved incapable of hindering the \"barbarian\" interlopers, the Emperor Kōmei began to assert himself politically. By the early 1860s, the relationship between the imperial court and the Shogunate was changing radically. Disaffected domains and \"rōnin\" began to rally to the call of \"sonnō jōi\" (\"revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians\").", "The role of the Emperor as head of the State Shinto religion was exploited during the war, creating an Imperial cult that led to kamikaze bombers and other manifestations of fanaticism. This in turn led to the requirement in", "The constitution provides for a parliamentary system of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. Under its terms, the Emperor of Japan is \"the symbol of the State and of the unity of the people\" and exercises a purely ceremonial role without the", "In Japanese mythology, according to \"Kojiki\" and \"Nihon Shoki\", the Emperor and his family are said to be direct descendants of the sun-goddess Amaterasu. During World War II, the role of the Emperor as head of the Shinto religion was exploited, which resulted in the creation of State", "The Emperors traditionally had an education officer. In recent times, Emperor Taishō had Count", "There are two Japanese words equivalent to the English word \"Emperor\":, which is used exclusively to refer to the Emperor of Japan, and, which is used primarily to describe non-Japanese Emperors. \"Sumeramikoto\" (\"the Imperial person\") was also used in Old Japanese. The term \"tennō\" was used by the Emperors up until the Middle Ages; then, following a period of disuse, it was used again from the 19th century. In English, the term \"mikado\" ( or ), literally meaning \"the honorable gate\" (i.e. the gate of the imperial palace, which indicates the person who lives in and possesses the palace; compare Sublime Porte, an old term for the Ottoman government), was once used (as in \"The Mikado\", a 19th-century operetta), but this term is now obsolete. Traditionally, the Japanese considered it disrespectful to call any person by his given name, and more so for a person of noble rank. This convention is only slightly relaxed in the modern age and it is still inadvisable among friends to use the given name, use of the family name being the common form of address. In the case of the imperial family, it is considered extremely inappropriate to use the given name. Since Emperor Meiji, it has been customary to have one era per Emperor and to rename each Emperor after his death using the name of the era over which he presided. Before Emperor Meiji, the names of the eras were changed more frequently, and the posthumous names of the Emperors were chosen differently. Hirohito, as usually called in English outside Japan, was never referred to by his name in Japan. He was given posthumous name \"Shōwa Tennō\" after his death, which is the only name that Japanese speakers currently use when referring to him. The current Emperor on the throne is typically referred to as \"Tennō Heika\" (, \"His (Imperial) Majesty the Emperor\"), \"Kinjō Heika\" (, \"His Current Majesty\") or simply \"Tennō\", when speaking Japanese. Emperor Akihito received the title \"Daijō Tennō\" (, Emperor Emeritus), often shortened to \"Jōkō\" (), upon his abdication on 30 April 2019, and is expected to be renamed \"Heisei Tennō\" () after his death and will then be referred to exclusively by that name in Japanese. In Japanese culture, it is considered a major faux pas to refer to a living Emperor by his era name, since it is only after his death when his era name becomes his posthumous name.", "Throughout history, Japanese Emperors and noblemen appointed the position of chief wife, rather than just keeping a harem or an assortment of female attendants. The Japanese imperial dynasty consistently practiced official polygamy, a practice that only ended in the Taishō period (1912–1926). Besides the Empress, the Emperor could take, and nearly always took, several secondary consorts (\"concubines\") of various hierarchical degrees. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (Shinnōke, Ōke). After a decree by Emperor Ichijō, some Emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (\"kōgō\" and \"chūgū\" are the two separate titles for that situation). With the help of all this polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more offspring. (Sons by secondary consorts were usually recognized as imperial princes, too, and could be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir.) Of the eight female reigning empresses of Japan, none married or gave birth after ascending the throne. Some of them, being widows, had produced children before their reigns. In the succession, children of the empress were preferred over sons of secondary consorts. Thus it was significant which quarters had preferential opportunities in providing chief wives to imperial princes, i.e. supplying future empresses. Apparently, the oldest tradition of official marriages within the imperial dynasty were marriages between dynasty members, even half-siblings or uncle and niece. Such marriages were deemed to preserve better the imperial blood or were aimed at producing children symbolic of a reconciliation between two branches of the imperial dynasty. Daughters of others remained concubines, until Emperor Shōmu (701–706)in what was specifically reported as the first elevation of its kindelevated his Fujiwara consort Empress Kōmyō to chief wife. Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning. A repeated pattern has been an imperial son-in-law under the influence of his powerful non-imperial father-in-law.", "In Japanese mythology, the sacred treasures were bestowed on Ninigi-no-Mikoto, the grandson of the goddess Amaterasu, at the advent of Tenson kōrin. Amaterasu sent him to pacify Japan by bringing the three celestial gifts that are used by the Emperor. The account of Ninigi being sent to earth appears in", "The origins of the Japanese imperial dynasty are obscure, and it bases its position on the claim that it has \"reigned since time immemorial\". There are no records of any Emperor who was not said to have been a descendant of other, yet earlier Emperor ( \"bansei ikkei\"). There is suspicion that Emperor Keitai (c. AD 500) may have been an unrelated outsider, though the sources (Kojiki, Nihon-Shoki) state that he was a male-line descendant of Emperor Ōjin. However, his descendants, including his successors, were according to records descended from at least one and probably several imperial princesses of the older lineage. The tradition built by those legends has chosen to recognize just the putative male ancestry as valid for legitimizing his succession, not giving any weight to ties through the said princesses. Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict agnatic primogeniture, which was adopted from Prussia, by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s. The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been: Historically, the succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally, they have been males, though over the reign of one hundred monarchs there have been nine women (one pre-historical and eight historical) as Emperor on eleven occasions. Over a thousand years ago, a tradition started that an Emperor should ascend relatively young. A dynast who had passed his toddler years was regarded suitable and old enough. Reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. Thus, a multitude of Japanese Emperors have ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child. A reign of around ten years was regarded a sufficient service. Being a child was apparently a fine property, to better endure tedious duties and to tolerate subjugation to political power-brokers, as well as sometimes to cloak the truly powerful members of the imperial dynasty. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of Emperors abdicated, and lived the rest of their lives in pampered retirement, wielding influence behind the scenes. Several Emperors abdicated to their entitled retirement while still in their teens. These traditions show in Japanese folklore, theater, literature, and other forms of culture, where the Emperor is usually described or depicted as an adolescent. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japan had eleven reigns of reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an Emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a \"stop gap\" measure – if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Over half of Japanese empresses and many Emperors abdicated once a suitable male descendant was considered to be old enough to rule (just past toddlerhood, in some cases). Four empresses, Empress Suiko, Empress Kōgyoku (also Empress Saimei), and Empress Jitō, as well as the mythical Empress Jingū, were widows of deceased Emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, Empress Genmei, was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, Empress Genshō, Empress Kōken (also Empress Shōtoku), Empress Meishō, and Empress Go-Sakuramachi, were unwed daughters of previous Emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne. Article 2 of the Meiji Constitution (the Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, \"The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.\" The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession. In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line. If the Empress did not give birth to an heir, the Emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne. This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the Meiji Constitution, enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution. Article 2 of the Constitution of Japan, promulgated in 1947 by influence of the U.S. occupation administration, provides that \"The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet.\" The Imperial Household Law of 1947, enacted by the ninety-second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. The government of Prime Minister Yoshida Shigeru hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American-written Constitution of Japan that went into effect in May 1947. In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts, that imperial princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family, and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children. It also prevented branches, other than the branch descending from Taishō, from being imperial princes any longer.", "During the Kofun period, so-called \"archaic funerals\" were held for the dead Emperors, but only the funerary rites from the end of the period, which the chronicles describe in more detail, are known. They were centered around the rite of the \"mogari\" (), a provisional depository between death and permanent burial. Empress Jitō was the", "Until the end of World War II, the Japanese monarchy was thought to be among the wealthiest in the world. Before 1911, no distinction was made between the imperial crown estates and the Emperor's personal properties, which were considerable. The Imperial Property Law, which came into effect in January 1911, established two categories of imperial properties: the hereditary or crown estates and the personal (\"ordinary\") properties of the imperial family. The Imperial Household Minister was given the responsibility for observing any judicial proceedings concerning imperial holdings. Under the terms of the law, imperial properties were only taxable in cases where no conflict with the Imperial House Law existed; however, crown estates could only be used for public or imperially-sanctioned undertakings. Personal properties of certain members of the imperial family, in addition to properties held for imperial family members who were minors, were exempted from taxation. Those family members included the Empress Dowager, the Empress, the Crown Prince and Crown Princess, the Imperial Grandson and the consort of the Imperial Grandson. As a result of the poor economic conditions in Japan, 289,259.25 acres of crown lands (about 26% of the total landholdings) were either sold or transferred to government and private-sector interests in 1921. In 1930, the Nagoya Detached Palace (Nagoya Castle) was donated to the city of Nagoya, with six other imperial villas being either sold or donated at the same time. In 1939, Nijō Castle, the former Kyoto residence of the Tokugawa shoguns and an imperial palace since the Meiji Restoration, was likewise donated to the city of Kyoto. At the end of 1935, according to official government figures, the Imperial Court owned roughly 3,111,965 acres", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in Olshammar, Örebro County on 6 July 1859 to a noble family. He studied painting in the Academy of Stockholm, but soon left because of ill health. He then traveled extensively in Europe, Africa and the orient. He was at once greeted as a poet of promise on the publication of his first collection of poems, \"Vallfart och vandringsår\" (\"Pilgrimage: the Wander Years\", 1888). It is a collection of poems inspired by his experiences in the orient and marks an abandonment of naturalism that was dominant then in Swedish literature. His love for beauty is shown also by the long narrative poem \"Hans Alienus \"(1892). \"Dikter\" (\"Poems\", 1895) and \"Karolinerna\" (\"The Charles Men\", 2 vols., 1897–1898), a series of historical portraits of King Charles XII of Sweden and his cavaliers, shows a strong nationalistic passion. English translations of short stories from \"Karolinerna\" can be found in the \"American-Scandinavian Review\" (New York), May 1914, November 1915, and July 1916. The two volumes of \"Folkunga Trädet\" (\"The Tree of the Folkungs\", 1905–07) are the inspired, epic story of a clan of Swede chieftains in the Middle Ages. In 1910 a controversy was waged in Swedish newspapers between a number of Swedish literary men on the topic of the proletarian “degradation” of literature, the protagonists of the two opposing camps being August Strindberg and Heidenstam. Professors Lidforss and Böök also took part. Heidenstam's chief contribution was the pamphlet, directed chiefly against Strindberg, \"Proletärfilosofiens upplösning och fall\" (\"The Decline and Fall of the Proletarian Philosophy\"). Heidenstam's poetical collection \"Nya Dikter\", published in 1915, deals with philosophical themes, mainly concerning the elevation of man to a better humanity from solitude. He died at his home Övralid on 20 May 1940.", "Works in English translation" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Motivation.", "General definition.", "Filter on a set.", "Filters in model theory.", "Filters in topology.", "Neighbourhood bases.", "Convergent filter bases.", "Clustering.", "Properties of a topological space.", "Functions on topological spaces.", "Cauchy filters." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Intuitively, a filter in a partially ordered set (\"poset\"), \"P\", is a subset of \"P\" that includes as members those elements that are large enough to satisfy some given criterion. For example, if \"x\" is an element of the poset, then the set of elements that are above \"x\" is a filter, called the principal filter at \"x\". (If \"x\" and \"y\" are incomparable elements of the poset, then neither of the principal filters at \"x\" and \"y\" is contained in the other one, and conversely.) Similarly, a filter on a set contains those subsets that are sufficiently large to contain some given \"thing\". For example, if the set is the real line and \"x\" is one of its points, then the family of sets that include \"x\" in their interior is a filter, called the filter of neighbourhoods of \"x\". The \"thing\" in this case is slightly larger than \"x\", but it still doesn't contain any other specific point of the line. The above interpretations explain conditions 1 and 3 in the section General definition: Clearly the empty set is not \"large enough\", and clearly the collection of \"large enough\" things should be \"upward-closed\". However, they do not really, without elaboration, explain condition 2 of the general definition. For, why should two \"large enough\" things contain a \"common\" \"large enough\" thing? Alternatively, a filter can be viewed as a \"locating scheme\": When trying to locate something (a point or a subset) in the space \"X\", call a filter the collection of subsets of \"X\" that might contain \"what is looked for\". Then this \"filter\" should possess the following natural structure: An ultrafilter can be viewed as a \"perfect locating scheme\" where \"each\" subset \"E\" of the space \"X\" can be used in deciding whether \"what is looked for\" might lie in \"E\". From this interpretation, compactness (see the mathematical characterization below) can be viewed as the property that \"no location scheme can end up with nothing\", or, to put it another way, \"always something will be found\". The mathematical notion of filter provides a precise language to treat these situations in a rigorous and general way, which is useful in analysis, general topology and logic.", "A subset \"F\" of a partially ordered set (\"P\", ≤) is a filter if the following conditions hold: A filter is proper if it is not equal to the whole set \"P\". This condition is sometimes added to the definition of a filter. While the above definition is the most general way to define a filter for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the above definition can be characterized by the following equivalent statement: A subset \"F\" of a lattice (\"P\", ≤) is a filter, if and only if it is a non-empty upper set that is closed under finite infima (or meets), i.e., for all \"x\", \"y\" in \"F\", it is also the case that \"x\" ∧ \"y\" is in \"F\". A subset \"S\" of \"F\" is a filter basis if the upper set generated by \"S\" is all of \"F\". The smallest filter that contains a given element \"p\" is a principal filter and \"p\" is a principal element in this situation. The principal filter for \"p\" is just given by the set formula_1 and is denoted by prefixing \"p\" with an upward arrow: The dual notion of a filter, i.e. the concept obtained by reversing all ≤ and exchanging ∧ with ∨, is ideal. Because of this duality, the discussion of filters usually boils down to the discussion of ideals. Hence, most additional information on this topic (including the definition of maximal filters and prime filters) is to be found in the article on ideals. There is a separate article on ultrafilters.", "A special case of a filter is a filter defined on a set. Given a set \"S\", a partial ordering ⊆ can be defined on the powerset P(\"S\") by subset inclusion, turning (P(\"S\"), ⊆) into a lattice. Define a filter \"F\" on \"S\" as a non-empty subset of P(\"S\") with the following properties: With this definition, a filter on a set is indeed a filter. The second property entails that \"S\" is in \"F\" (since \"F\" is a non-empty subset of P(\"S\")). If the empty set is not in \"F\", we say \"F\" is a proper filter. Property 1 implies that a proper filter on a set has the finite intersection property. The only nonproper filter on \"S\" is P(\"S\"). A filter base (or filter basis) is a subset \"B\" of P(\"S\") with the properties that B is non-empty and the intersection of any two members of B includes (as a subset) a member of B (\"B is closed under finite intersection\"). If the empty set is not a member of B, we say B is a proper filter base. Given a filter base \"B\", the filter generated or spanned by \"B\" is defined as the minimum filter containing \"B\". It is the family of all the subsets of \"S\" that include a member of \"B\". Every filter is also a filter base, so the process of passing from filter base to filter may be viewed as a sort of completion. If \"B\" and \"C\" are two filter bases on \"S\", one says \"C\" is finer than \"B\" (or that \"C\" is a refinement of \"B\") if for each \"B\" ∈ \"B\", there is a \"C\" ∈ \"C\" such that \"C\" ⊆ \"B\". If also \"B\" is finer than \"C\", one says that they are equivalent filter bases. For every subset \"T\" of P(\"S\") there is a smallest (possibly nonproper) filter \"F\" containing \"T\", called the filter generated or spanned by \"T\". It is constructed by taking all finite intersections of \"T\", which then form a filter base for \"F\". This filter is proper if and only if every finite intersection of elements of \"T\" is non-empty, and in that case we say that \"T\" is a filter subbase.", "For every filter \"F\" on a set \"S\", the set function defined by is finitely additive—a \"measure\" if that term is construed rather loosely. Therefore, the statement can be considered somewhat analogous to the statement that φ holds \"almost everywhere\". That interpretation of membership in a filter is used (for motivation, although it is not needed for actual \"proofs\") in the theory of ultraproducts in model theory, a branch of mathematical logic.", "In topology and analysis, filters are used to define convergence in a manner similar to the role of sequences in a metric space. In topology and related areas of mathematics, a filter is a generalization of a net. Both nets and filters provide very general contexts to unify the various notions of limit to arbitrary topological spaces. A sequence is usually indexed by the natural numbers, which are a totally ordered set. Thus, limits in first-countable spaces can be described by sequences. However, if the space is not first-countable, nets or filters must be used. Nets generalize the notion of a sequence by requiring the index set simply be a directed set. Filters can be thought of as sets built from multiple nets. Therefore, both the limit of a filter and the limit of a net are conceptually the same as the limit of a sequence.", "Let \"X\" be a topological space and \"x\" a point of \"X\".", "Let \"X\" be a topological space and \"x\" a point of \"X\". Indeed: (i) implies (ii): if \"F\" is a filter base satisfying the properties of (i), then the filter associated to \"F\" satisfies the properties of (ii). (ii) implies (iii): if \"U\" is any open neighborhood of \"x\" then by the definition of convergence \"U\" contains an element of \"F\"; since also \"Y\" is an element of \"F\", \"U\" and \"Y\" have non-empty intersection. (iii) implies (i): Define formula_9. Then \"F\" is a filter base satisfying the properties of (i).", "Let \"X\" be a topological space and \"x\" a point of \"X\".", "Let \"X\" be a topological space.", "Let formula_11, formula_12 be topological spaces. Let formula_13 be a filter base on formula_11 and formula_15 be a function. The image of formula_13 under formula_17 is defined as the set formula_18. The image is denoted formula_19 and forms a filter base on formula_12.", "Let formula_25 be a metric space." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Russian M1895.", "Technical characteristics.", "History and usage.", "Cartridges.", "Russian.", "Swedish / Norwegian." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Léon Nagant and his brother Émile were well known in the Russian Tsar's court and military administration because of the part they had played in the design of the Russian service rifle, the Mosin–Nagant Model 1891. The Nagant M1895 was adopted as the standard issue side arm for the Imperial Russian Army and police officers, where it replaced earlier Smith & Wesson models such as the Model 3. Production began in Liège, Belgium; however Russia purchased the manufacturing rights in 1898, and moved production to the Tula Arsenal in Russia, and was soon producing 20,000 examples per year. Until 1918 it was produced in two versions: a double-action version for officers, and a cheaper single-action version for the ranks. It continued to be used after the Russian Revolution by the Red Army and Soviet security forces. The distinctive shape and name helped it achieve cult status in Russia and in the early 1930s the presentation of a Nagant M1895 revolver with an embossed Red Star was one of the greatest honors that could be bestowed on a Party Member. The common Russian name for the revolver, наган (\"nagan\") became synonymous with the concept of the revolver in general and was applied to such weapons regardless of actual make or model. As early as 1933 the M1895 had started to be replaced by the Tokarev semi-automatic pistol but was never fully replaced until the Makarov pistol in 1952. It was still produced and used in great numbers during World War II and remained in use with the Russian Railways, postal service, and some remote police forces for many years. In the Russian Federation, it was only retired from use with postal security service in 2003, and from bailiff security service (Федеральная служба судебных приставов) in 2009.", "Revolvers typically have a small gap (sometimes called the flash gap) between the cylinder and the barrel to allow the cylinder to revolve. The bullet must \"jump\" this gap when fired, which can have an adverse effect on accuracy, especially if the barrel and chamber are misaligned. The gap also is a path for the escape of high pressure (and temperature) gases. Expensive revolvers such as Korth and Manurhin are hand-fitted, keeping the gap to a minimum. Mass-produced revolvers may have a gap as large as 0.25 mm. The M1895 by contrast, has a mechanism which, as the hammer is cocked, first turns the cylinder and then moves it forward, closing the gap between the cylinder and the barrel. The cartridge, also unique, plays an important part in sealing the gun to prevent the escape of propellant gases. The bullet is deeply seated, entirely within the cartridge case, and the case is slightly reduced in diameter at its mouth. The barrel features a short conical section at its rear; this accepts the mouth of the cartridge, completing the gas seal. By sealing the gap, the velocity of the bullet is increased by 15 to 45 m/s (50 to 150 ft/s.) This feature also eliminates the possibility of injury from gases escaping through the gap, which can injure a finger if the user hold the gun with a finger positioned beside the gap. The disadvantage of this design is that Nagant revolvers were laborious and time-consuming to reload, with the need to manually eject each of the used cartridges, and reload one cartridge at a time through a loading gate. At the time the revolver was designed, this system was obsolete. In England the Webley revolver used a break action that simultaneously ejected all six spent cartridges; and in America the swinging crane and star ejector had replaced the loading gate and ejector rod system. However, the Nagant design did have the advantage of requiring less machining than more modern designs. The Nagant M1895 was made in both single-action and double-action models before and during World War I; they are known colloquially as the “Private's model” and the “Officer’s model”, respectively. Production of the single-action model seems to have stopped after 1918, with some exceptions, including examples made for target competition. Most single-action revolvers were later converted to double-action, making original single-action revolvers rather rare. Whether fired in single action or double action, the Nagant M1895 has a markedly heavy trigger pull (about ~12 lbs for single and ~20 lbs for double). Enthusiasts have been able to adjust the pull by adjusting the V shaped spring, either by grinding it or shimming it.", "The M1895 revolver was used extensively by the Russian Imperial Army and later by the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution. In Russian service, it was known for its extreme sturdiness and ability to withstand abuse. As one former Imperial Russian officer stated, \"if anything went wrong with the M1895, you could fix it with a hammer\". It was widely employed by the Bolshevik secret police, the Cheka, as well as its Soviet successor agencies, the OGPU and NKVD. Seven Nagant revolvers were used by communist revolutionaries to execute the Russian imperial family and their servants in July 1918. In the police role, it was frequently seen with a cut-down barrel to aid in concealment by plainclothes agents. Despite the advent of the more modern Soviet TT pistol, the M1895 remained in production and use throughout World War II. The Nagant's sealed firing system meant that the Nagant revolver, unlike most other revolvers, could make effective use of a sound suppressor, and suppressors were sometimes fitted to it. Suppressed M1895 Nagant revolvers, modified in clandestine workshops, also turned up in the hands of Viet Cong guerrillas during the Vietnam War as assassination weapons. There is an example of a suppressed Nagant M1895 in the CIA Museum in Langley, Virginia, USA. The weapon was considered \"antique\" in Belgium and it became legal to be in possession of the weapon. In 2013 the weapon was again prohibited. Nagant revolvers have been found with the terrorist Amédy Coulibaly in 2015 and with a Dutch arms dealer.", "", "7.62mm Nagant is also known as 7.62×38mmR (Rimmed) or \"Cartridge, Type R\". The projectile is seated below the mouth of the cartridge, with the cartridge crimp sitting just above the bullet. When fired, the crimp expands into the forcing cone, completing the gas seal and ostensibly increasing muzzle velocity by approximately 75 ft/s. The 7.62 mm caliber was chosen, in part, to simplify the tooling used in barrel-making and manufacture of projectiles because the Russian service rifle of the time, the Mosin–Nagant M91, featured an identical bore diameter, being chambered for the 7.62×54mmR rifle cartridge. Actual bullet diameter of both the revolver and rifle bullets is 7.91mm or.311 inch. Aftermarket cylinders for.32 can be installed, allowing the Nagant to safely fire.32 H&R or.32 ACP. Shooting any ammunition other than the 7.62x38mmR cartridge with the original cylinder can result in bodily injury from bullet shrapnel or escaping gas, and the excessive pressures produced by some.32 ammunition could also result in catastrophic failure of the cylinder or frame. Proper fitting ammunition can be reloaded from.32-20 Winchester brass by using the Lee Nagant die set or.30\" carbine dies and 9mm Luger shell-holders in the reloading press. This allows the reloaders to work up a load that fits their needs and is specific for the Nagant. While this eliminates the bulged/split/stuck cases experienced when using.32 S&W and.32 H&R, the gas seal that made the Nagant famous will still not fully function, due to the.32-20 not being long enough to protrude past the cylinder like the original Nagant ammunition.", "Other Nagant revolver designs were also adopted by police and military services of Sweden (7.5mm M1887), Norway (M1893), Poland ((Nagant wz. 30), and Greece ( M1895). The Swedish and Norwegian Nagants used a different cartridge, the 7.5 mm Nagant. This ammunition is interchangeable with the 7.5mm 1882 Ordnance (aka Swiss 7.5mm revolver)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Beginnings (2004).", "Return of the Champions Tour (2005–2006).", "The Cosmos Rocks (2006–2008).", "Rock the Cosmos Tour (2008).", "Split (2009).", "Possible reunion.", "Other performances.", "Media releases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of the collaboration came when May played at the Fender Strat Pack concert in 2004. As he had done many times before (but beforehand nothing really happened as far as Queen were concerned), he joined Rodgers for a rendition of Free's classic, \"All Right Now\". After this, May spoke of a chemistry between the two of them. Following this, May invited Rodgers to play with Queen at their induction to the UK Music Hall of Fame where they played \"We Will Rock You\", \"We Are the Champions\" and \"All Right Now\". Again citing a new excitement with Rodgers, the three announced their world tour in 2005.", "The group's first public performance was at a concert in South Africa in March 2005 in support of Nelson Mandela's 46664 AIDS awareness campaign. The tour began properly with a concert at the Brixton Academy venue in London, with tickets sold primarily to members of the official Queen fan club. An arena tour of Europe followed in spring 2005, with dates at venues such as Wembley Pavilion, Cardiff International Arena and Le Zénith in France. Four outdoor stadium dates were scheduled for the first time in Portugal at Estadio do Restelo (Att: 30,000), at Rhein-Energie Stadion in Cologne, Germany (Att:27,500), Gelredome in Arnhem, the Netherlands (Att:25,000) and at Hyde Park in the UK (Att:65,000) in the summer of 2005. The Estadio do Restelo concert took place on 2 July 2005. The Queen + Paul Rodgers concert was planned to be one of the stages for Live 8 but only a message was sent before '39\". Two songs were dedicated to Live 8. \"Say It's Not True\", a song by Taylor for Nelson Mandela's fight against HIV/AIDS in Africa, was introduced by Taylor in Lisbon: \"This is a song from Nelson Mandela and for HIV/AIDS Africa, especially today on Live 8 day. This is a song to Lisbon.\" After this song, May dedicated '39\" to Bob Geldof and introduced the song: \"Olá Lisboa! I would like to make a salute to all our comrades and friends who are doing such a wonderful job and trying that children throughout the world are no longer hungry; let's make a big noise for Bob Geldof and Live 8\". The Hyde Park concert took place on 15 July 2005. The band and management gave away thousands of free tickets to emergency services people for helping in the aftermath of the 7 July 2005 London bombings, which caused the concert to be postponed by a week. British comedian Peter Kay, who had also appeared during the encore at their Manchester gig in May that year, warmed up the crowd, with the band Razorlight as the support act. The concert was attended by some 65,000 people, and Queen + Paul Rodgers performed for over 2 hours. A typical set list mainly focused on Queen's best-known hits, with songs such as \"Crazy Little Thing Called Love\", \"We Will Rock You\", \"We Are the Champions\", and \"Bohemian Rhapsody\". In an interview published in the \"San Jose Mercury News\", Rodgers said that the one song they would not be able play while on tour was \"Killer Queen\", due to the fact that \"the melodies are just too on the spot\". The typical set also included some songs from the back catalogues of Free and Bad Company, such as \"All Right Now\", \"Wishing Well\", \"Feel Like Making Love\", and \"Bad Company\". May and Taylor sang lead on some songs. May: \"Hammer to Fall\" (the first part only), \"Love of My Life\", '39\" (on which he sang lead on the studio version originally). Taylor: \"Radio Ga Ga\" (both verses and first two choruses), \"These Are the Days of Our Lives\", \"Say It's Not True\" (a new song), and \"I'm in Love with My Car\" (on which he sang lead on the studio version originally as well). Taylor often left the drum kit (the exception being \"I'm in Love with My Car\") while a drum machine played on \"Radio Ga Ga\" and \"These Are the Days of Our Lives\". For \"Say It's Not True\", he would be accompanied by auxiliary band members Miranda and Moses, who both played acoustic guitars (except for the 46664 concert, in which Taylor was accompanied by May and Moses – which was the only time May played guitar on this song during the tour). In addition to well known favourites and hits, there were a number of occasional \"surprise\" additions to the setlist, including: \"I Was Born to Love You\" (Japan only), \"Imagine\" (John Lennon cover, Hyde Park only), \"Teo Torriatte\" (Japan only), \"Too Much Love Will Kill You\" (feat. Katie Melua, South Africa only), '\"Long Away\" (selected shows only), \"Tavaszi Szel\" (Budapest only) and \"Let There Be Drums\" (Sandy Nelson cover performed at most gigs). \"Sunshine of Your Love\" was played in Newcastle as testament to the Cream reunion gig in London going on at the same time (3 May). May had been present at the Cream show on 2 May, which possibly inspired him to do it. The band also added \"Dragon Attack\" to a number of shows on the 2006 North American tour. Queen + Paul Rodgers followed the European tour with a series of performances in fall 2005, in such diverse locations as Aruba, Japan and the United States of America. Slash, lead guitarist of the band Guns N' Roses and formerly Velvet Revolver, joined the band for \"Can't Get Enough\" during their show at the legendary Hollywood Bowl, the second of their two-show trial run in North America (22 October 2005). In early 2006, Queen + Paul Rodgers played a 23-date tour of North America. The tour started at the American Airlines Arena in Miami (first Florida date since 1978, first official USA tour since 1982) and ended with a sold-out performance in Vancouver, Canada (where they also covered the Jimi Hendrix song \"Red House\" – the only performance of this song on the tour).", "On 15 August 2006, May confirmed through his website and fan club that Queen + Paul Rodgers would begin producing their first studio album in October, to be recorded at a \"secret location\". The album, titled The Cosmos Rocks, was released in the European Union on 12 September 2008 and in the United States on 28 October 2008. It was Queen's sixteenth studio album and the first since 1995's Made in Heaven. May later recalled: \"We spent a huge amount of time making that album with Paul Rodgers, going through quite a lot of pain, and I don't think it made the slightest dent on public consciousness. So I would be cautious about being in a recording group called Queen without Freddie.\"", "On 27 June 2008, Queen + Paul Rodgers performed at Hyde Park in London for Nelson Mandela's 90th birthday celebration. The performance included a portion of \"One Vision\", \"Tie Your Mother Down\", \"Show Must Go On\", \"We Will Rock You\", \"We Are the Champions\", and \"All Right Now\". Following this, the group embarked on the Rock The Cosmos Tour, opening on 12 September with an AIDS-benefit concert to an audience of over 350,000 people in Kharkiv, Ukraine. The tour then moved to Russia, before continuing around Europe. The concert in Ukraine was later made into a film for world AIDS day and subsequently DVD Live in Ukraine. This tour did include a rare performance of Las Palabras de Amor and the first ever live performance of Bijou.", "With a summer reunion tour with Bad Company looming, the singer told Billboard.com that the Queen + Paul Rodgers collaboration is, in effect, over, and without animosity. \"At this point we're gonna sit back from this,\" Rodgers says. \"My arrangement with (Queen's Brian May and Roger Taylor) was similar to my arrangement with Jimmy (Page) in The Firm in that it was never meant to be a permanent arrangement. I think we made a huge success of it, actually. We did two world tours and a couple of live recordings, and...made a studio album [...] which was pretty historical for (Queen's Brian May and Roger Taylor) because they hadn't really gone in the studio with anybody and recorded something like that for a very long time. So it was quite an achievement, I think.\" Rodgers does not rule out the possibility of working together again, however. \"It's kind of an open book, really. If they approach me to do something for charity, for instance, or something like that...I'd be very much into doing that, for sure.\"", "In May 2011, Jane's Addiction vocalist Perry Farrell noted that Queen are currently scouting his once former and current live bassist Chris Chaney to join the band. Farrell stated: \"I have to keep Chris away from Queen, who want him and they're not gonna get him unless we're not doing anything. Then they can have him.\" In the same month, Rodgers stated he may tour with Queen again in the near future, stating that he enjoyed the collaboration and may work with them again soon. However, on 3 June, Brian May denied rumours of a reunion, saying: \"There is no talk of that happening.\" In April 2012, Paul Rodgers suggested that they will do some concerts in the future.", "Queen + Paul Rodgers performed at the \"VH1 Rock Honors\" Show in 2006 performing \"The Show Must Go On\", \"We Will Rock You\" (with Dave Grohl and Taylor Hawkins on drums), \"We Are the Champions\" and \"Under Pressure\". Queen + Paul Rodgers appeared on \"Al Murray's Happy Hour\" in April (2008) performing \"C-lebrity\" for the first time from their debut album \"The Cosmos Rocks\". Queen + Paul Rodgers appear on Eminem's 2009 album Relapse. The song \"Beautiful\" samples \"Reaching Out\" which was used as Queen + Paul Rodgers's live show opener on the 2005-06 tour. \"Reaching Out\" was originally released as a charity single by Rock Therapy, a band which contained both Rodgers and May.", "Queen + Paul Rodgers released a single for World AIDS Day (1 December) in 2007. The track, \"Say It's Not True\", written by Roger Taylor became first available for free download on 30 November, and was subsequently released as a proper CD single on 31 December. Previously, Queen + Paul Rodgers have released a live CD called \"Return of the Champions\" and a DVD of the same name. Both featured recordings from their Sheffield Hallam FM Arena concert on 9 May 2005. The DVD also features a cover of John Lennon's \"Imagine\" from Hyde Park. A single featuring \"Reaching Out\"/\"Tie Your Mother Down\"/\"Fat Bottomed Girls\" was also released. In addition, an American promo featuring two tracks taken from the Italian leg of the European tour was available with some copies of \"Return of the Champions\". Soundboard recordings exist of all European shows, except those in Ireland and Sweden. Sheffield, Lisbon, Hyde Park and possibly Budapest concerts were professionally filmed. The Tokyo show on 26 October 2005 was also professionally filmed and televised, and later released on DVD exclusively in Japan in April 2006, entitled \"Super Live in Japan\". Many soundboard recordings of tracks were released for download on the Queen official website, with blank Q+PR CD-Rs to burn these tracks available for purchase. There are also many bootlegs from nearly every show of the 2005/2006 tour in audio, and some video." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location and description.", "History and legends.", "Geotopes.", "Osser Saddle.", "Little Osser.", "Great Osser.", "Planned pumped-hydropower station." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A distinction is made between the Großer Osser (1,293 m) \"(Velký Ostrý)\", which is right on the border, and the Kleiner Osser (1,266 m) \"(Malý Ostrý)\" to the west which is entirely within Bavaria. Both summits lie on the German side in the county of Cham and on the municipal boundary between Lohberg to the southeast and Lam to the northwest. Due to their pointed shape, both summits are unique within the Bavarian Forest. They dominate the backdrop of the Lamer Winkel, an area of lowland between Arrach, Lam and Lohberg. The Osser lies in the county of Cham and thus within the Bavarian province of Upper Palatinate. The Czechs also called the Osser affectionately the \"breasts of the mother of God\". Locals also call the local mountain of Lam the \"Matterhorn of the Bavarian Forest\". At the summit of the \"Großer Osser\" on the Bavarian side of the border is the mountain hut of \"Haus Willmann\", which is owned by the Bavarian Forest Club, which is managed during the summer months and also offers overnight accommodation. The pointed shape of the summit on the German side of the border means that the last 50 vertical metres or so involve an easy climb. Because the Osser is one of the best viewing mountains in the whole of the Bavarian Forest, it receives large numbers of German and Czech visitors on summer weekends, both hikers and tourists. From the summit cross there is an extensive view into Czechia over the Bohemian Forest, as well as to the nearly summit of the Arber and, in good visibility, even as far as the Alps. Various footpaths lead to the Osser, all of which require sure-footedness. Start points are Lohberg, Silbersbach, Lam, Sattelparkplatz or Lambach. All the routes are steep, rocky and relatively challenging.", "According to more recent research, the name Osser is of Celtic origin. In the 12th century the castle of Osserburg was built on the Osser. It has since been completely destroyed. There are several fairy tales and legends about the Osser. The most popular and best known figure is the Osser Giant (\"Osserriese\") and his stories. For example, it is said that there was once a third summit.", "", "The striking rocky rib of the Osser Saddle (\"Ossersattel\") consists of the so-called Osser Quartzite, which is heavily folded here. Besides mica slates, quartzites are common in the area of the Kunisch Mountains. Quartzites are metamorphic rocks formed from sediments that were very rich in quartz sand. The Osser Saddle is designated by the Bavarian State Office for the Environment (LfU) as a geo-scientifically valuable geotope (Geotope number: 372R009).", "The rocky summit of the Little Osser consists of quartz-rich and heavily folded mica slate. The rocky crags and numerous blocks are the result of increased weathering and erosion under the periglacial climatic conditions of recent geological history. The crags are designated by the LfU as a geotope of geo-scientific importance (Geotope number: 372R011) and as a natural monument.", "The crags of the Great Osser consist of quartz-rich, strongly folded mica slates, which contain numerous garnets (up to 4 mm diameter) in places. The crags are designated by the LfU as a geotope of geo-scientific value (Geotope number: 372R010). They have also been awarded the official seal of approval as one of \"Bavaria's most beautiful geotopes\" by the LfU.", "The planned Johanneszeche pumped storage hydropower station, rejected by the townsfolk of Lam, was to have located its upper basin on the Osser and an almost four kilometre long section of the pressure pipe was to be laid along an existing path." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Evolution.", "Defining records.", "Ethical and safety issues.", "Difficulty in defining records.", "Change in business model.", "Museums.", "Television series.", "Gamer's edition.", "British pop music volume.", "Other media.", "Video games.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "On 10 November 1951, Sir Hugh Beaver, then the managing director of the Guinness Breweries, went on a shooting party in the North Slob, by the River Slaney in County Wexford, Ireland. After missing a shot at a golden plover, he became involved in an argument over which was the fastest game bird in Europe, the golden plover or the red grouse – it is the plover. That evening at Castlebridge House, he realised that it was impossible to confirm in reference books whether or not the golden plover was Europe's fastest game bird. Beaver knew that there must be numerous other questions debated nightly in pubs throughout Ireland and abroad, but there was no book in the world with which to settle arguments about records. He realised then that a book supplying the answers to this sort of question might prove successful. Beaver's idea became reality when Guinness employee Christopher Chataway recommended university friends Norris and Ross McWhirter, who had been running a fact-finding agency in London. The twin brothers were commissioned to compile what became \"The Guinness Book of Records,\" in August 1954. A thousand copies were printed and given away. After the founding of \"The Guinness Book of Records\" office at 107 Fleet Street, London, the first 198-page edition was bound on 27 August 1955 and went to the top of the British best seller lists by Christmas. The following year, it launched in the US, and sold 70,000 copies. Since then, \"Guinness World Records\" has gone on to become a record breaker in its own right. With sales of more than 100 million copies in 100 different countries and 37 languages, \"Guinness World Records\" is the world's best selling copyrighted book. Because the book became a surprise hit, many further editions were printed, eventually settling into a pattern of one revision a year, published in September/October, in time for Christmas. The McWhirters continued to compile it for many years. Both brothers had an encyclopedic memory; on the TV series \"Record Breakers\", based upon the book, they would take questions posed by children in the audience on various world records and were able to give the correct answer. Ross McWhirter was assassinated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in 1975. Following Ross' assassination, the feature in the show where questions about records posed by children were answered was called \"Norris on the Spot\". Guinness Superlatives, later Guinness World Records Limited, was formed in 1954 to publish the first book. Sterling Publishing owned the rights to the \"Guinness\" book in the US for decades. The group was owned by Guinness PLC and subsequently Diageo until 2001, when it was purchased by Gullane Entertainment for $65 million. Gullane was itself purchased by HIT Entertainment in 2002. In 2006, Apax Partners purchased HIT and subsequently sold Guinness World Records in early 2008 to the Jim Pattison Group, the parent company of Ripley Entertainment, which is licensed to operate Guinness World Records' Attractions. With offices in New York City and Tokyo, Guinness World Records' global headquarters remain in London, while its museum attractions are based at Ripley headquarters in Orlando, Florida, US.", "Recent editions have focused on record feats by person competitors. Competitions range from obvious ones such as Olympic weightlifting to the longest egg tossing distances, or for longest time spent playing \"Grand Theft Auto IV\" or the number of hot dogs that can be consumed in three minutes. Besides records about competitions, it contains such facts such as the heaviest tumour, the most poisonous fungus, the longest-running soap opera and the most valuable life-insurance policy, among others. Many records also relate to the youngest people to have achieved something, such as the youngest person to visit all nations of the world; it is Maurizio Giuliano. Each edition contains a selection of the records from the Guinness World Records database, as well as select new records, with the criteria for inclusion changing from year to year. The retirement of Norris McWhirter from his consulting role in 1995 and the subsequent decision by Diageo Plc to sell The Guinness Book of Records brand have shifted the focus of the books from text-oriented to illustrated reference. A selection of records are curated for the book from the full archive but all existing Guinness World Records titles can be accessed by creating a login on the company's website. Applications made by individuals for existing record categories are free of charge. There is an administration fee of $5 to propose a new record title. A number of spin-off books and television series have also been produced. \"Guinness World Records\" bestowed the record of \"Person with the most records\" on Ashrita Furman of Queens, NY, in April 2009; at that time, he held 100 records. In 2005, Guinness designated 9 November as \"International Guinness World Records Day\" to encourage breaking of world records. In 2006, an estimated 100,000 people participated in over 10 countries. Guinness reported 2,244 new records in 12 months, which was a 173% increase over the previous year. In February 2008, NBC aired \"The Top 100 Guinness World Records of All Time\" and Guinness World Records made the complete list available on their website.", "For many records, \"Guinness World Records\" is the effective authority on the exact requirements for them and with whom records reside, the company providing adjudicators to events to determine the veracity of record attempts. The list of records which the \"Guinness World Records\" covers is not fixed, records may be added and also removed for various reasons. The public are invited to submit applications for records, which can be either the bettering of existing records or substantial achievements which could constitute a new record. The company also provides corporate services for companies to \"harness the power of record-breaking to deliver tangible success for their businesses.\"", "\"Guinness World Records\" states several types of records it will not accept for ethical reasons, such as those related to the killing or harming of animals. Several world records that were once included in the book have been removed for ethical reasons, including concerns for the well being of potential record breakers. For example, following publication of the \"heaviest fish\" record, many fish owners overfed their pets beyond the bounds of what was healthy, and therefore such entries were removed. The Guinness Book also dropped records within their \"eating and drinking records\" section of Human Achievements in 1991 over concerns that potential competitors could harm themselves and expose the publisher to potential litigation. These changes included the removal of all spirit, wine and beer drinking records, along with other unusual records for consuming such unlikely things as bicycles and trees. Other records, such as sword swallowing and rally driving (on public roads), were closed from further entry as the current holders had performed beyond what are considered safe human tolerance levels. There have been instances of closed categories being reopened. For example, the sword swallowing category was listed as closed in the 1990 \"Guinness Book of World Records\", but has since been reopened with Johnny Strange breaking a sword swallowing record on Guinness World Records Live. Similarly, the speed beer drinking records which were dropped from the book in 1991, reappeared 17 years later in the 2008 edition, but were moved from the \"Human Achievements\" section of the older book to the \"Modern Society\" section of the newer edition. , it is required in the guidelines of all \"large food\" type records that the item be fully edible, and distributed to the public for consumption, to prevent food wastage. Chain letters are also not allowed: \"Guinness World Records does not accept any records relating to chain letters, sent by post or e-mail.\" At the request of the U.S. Mint, in 1984, the book stopped accepting claims of large hoardings of pennies or other currency.", "For some potential categories, \"Guinness World Records\" has declined to list some records that are too difficult or impossible to determine. For example, its website states: \"We do not accept any claims for beauty as it is not objectively measurable.\" On 10 December 2010, \"Guinness World Records\" stopped its new \"dreadlock\" category after investigation of its first and only female title holder, Asha Mandela, determining it was impossible to judge this record accurately.", "Traditionally, the company made a large amount of its revenue via book sales to interested readers, especially children. The rise of the Internet began to cut into book sales in the 2000s and forward, part of a general decline in the book industry. According to a 2017 story by Planet Money of NPR, Guinness began to realise that a lucrative new revenue source to replace falling book sales was the would-be record-holders themselves. While any person can theoretically send in a record to be verified for free, the process is slow and manual for this. Would-be record breakers that paid fees ranging from US$12,000 to US$500,000 would be given advisors, adjudicators, help in finding good records to break as well as suggestions for how to do it, prompt service, and so on. In particular, corporations and celebrities seeking a publicity stunt to launch a new product or draw attention to themselves began to hire Guinness World Records, paying them for finding a record to break or to create a new category just for them. \"Guinness World Records\" was criticised by television talk show host John Oliver on the program \"Last Week Tonight with John Oliver\" in August 2019. While Oliver lightly mocked the corporate publicity side of Guinness's revenue model, such as General Mills, Inc. being awarded a record for the construction of the world's longest line of tacos, he pointed more serious criticism at Guinness taking money from authoritarian governments for pointless vanity projects. In particular, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow, the autocratic President of Turkmenistan, paid Guinness for a number of world records earned by the Government of Turkmenistan, and has bragged about the records set by Turkmenistan. Oliver mocked the resulting records such as the \"Largest cycling awareness lesson\" and \"Highest density of white marble-clad buildings\". Oliver asked for Guinness to work with \"Last Week Tonight\" to adjudicate a record for largest marble cake featuring an embarrassing picture of Berdimuhamedow, but according to Oliver, the offer did not work out after Guinness insisted on a non-disparagement clause. \"Guinness World Records\" called the accusations false and stated that they declined Oliver's offer to participate because \"it was merely an opportunity to mock one of our record-holders.\" As of 2019, the Guinness World Record for \"Largest marble cake\" remains with Betty Crocker Middle East, set in Saudi Arabia.", "In 1976, a \"Guinness Book of World Records\" museum opened in the Empire State Building. Speed shooter Bob Munden then went on tour promoting \"The Guinness Book of World Records\" by performing his record fast draws with a standard weight single-action revolver from a Western movie-type holster. His fastest time for a draw was 0.02 seconds. Among exhibits were life-size statues of the world's tallest man, Robert Wadlow, and world's largest earth worm, an X-ray photo of a sword swallower, repeated lightning strike victim Roy Sullivan's hat complete with lightning holes and a pair of gem-studded golf shoes on sale for $6,500. The museum closed in 1995. In more recent years, the Guinness company has permitted the franchising of small museums with displays based on the book, all currently () located in towns popular with tourists: Tokyo, Copenhagen, San Antonio. There were once Guinness World Records museums and exhibitions at the London Trocadero, Bangalore, San Francisco, Myrtle Beach, Orlando, Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Las Vegas, Nevada. The Orlando museum, which closed in 2002, was branded \"The Guinness Records Experience\"; the Hollywood, Niagara Falls, Copenhagen, and Gatlinburg, Tennessee museums also previously featured this branding.", "Guinness World Records has commissioned various television series documenting world record breaking attempts, including: Specials: With the popularity of reality television, Guinness World Records began to market itself as the originator of the television genre, with slogans such as \"we wrote the book on Reality TV\".", "In 2008, Guinness World Records released its gamer's edition, a branch that keeps records for popular video game high scores, code and feats in association with Twin Galaxies. The Gamer's Edition contains 258 pages, over 1,236 video game related world records and four interviews including one with Twin Galaxies founder Walter Day. The most recent edition is the \"Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition, 2020,\" which was released September 5, 2019.", "The \"Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums\" was published from 2003 to 2006, based on two earlier, separate HIT publications, \"British Hit Singles\" and \"British Hit Albums\", which began in 1977. It was effectively replaced (in singles part) by the \"Virgin Book of British Hit Singles\" from 2007 onward.", "", "A video game, \"\", was developed by TT Fusion and released for Nintendo DS, Wii and iOS in November 2008.", "In 2012, Warner Bros. announced the development of a live-action film version of \"Guinness World Records\" with Daniel Chun as scriptwriter. The film version will apparently use the heroic achievements of record holders as the basis for a narrative that should have global appeal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Footpaths and roads.", "Outdoor pedestrian networks.", "Indoor pedestrian networks.", "Pedestrianisation.", "Safety issues.", "Road design impact on safety.", "Health benefits and environment.", "Unicode." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Walking has always been the primary means of human locomotion. The first humans to migrate from Africa, about 60,000 years ago, walked. They walked along the coast of India to reach Australia. They walked across Asia to reach the Americas, and from Central Asia into Europe. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pedestrianism (walking) was a popular spectator sport just as equestrianism still is in places such as the United Kingdom and the United States. One of the most famous pedestrians of that period was Captain Robert Barclay Allardice, known as \"The Celebrated Pedestrian\", of Stonehaven in Scotland. His most impressive feat was to walk every hour for 1000 hours, which he achieved between 1 June and 12 July 1809. This feat captured many people's imagination, and around 10,000 people came to watch over the course of the event. During the rest of the 19th century, many people tried to repeat this feat, including Ada Anderson who developed it further and walked a half-mile (800 m) each quarter-hour over the 1,000 hours. Since the 20th century, interest in walking as a sport has dropped. Racewalking is still an Olympic sport, but fails to catch public attention as it did. However major walking feats are still performed, such as the Land's End to John o' Groats walk in the United Kingdom, and the traversal of North America from coast to coast. The first person to walk around the world was Dave Kunst who started his walk travelling east from Waseca, Minnesota on 20 June 1970 and completed his journey on 5 October 1974, when he re-entered the town from the west. These feats are often tied to charitable fundraising and are undertaken by celebrities such as Sir Jimmy Savile and Ian Botham as well as by others.", "", "Roads often have a designated footpath for pedestrian traffic, called the \"sidewalk\" in North American English, the \"pavement\" in British English, and the \"footpath\" in Australian and New Zealand English. There are also footpaths not associated with a road; these include urban short cuts and also rural paths used mainly by ramblers, hikers, or hill-walkers. Footpaths in mountainous or forested areas may also be called \"trails\". Pedestrians share some footpaths with horses and bicycles: these paths may be known as bridleways. Other byways used by walkers are also accessible to vehicles. There are also many roads with no footpath. Some modern towns (such as the new suburbs of Peterborough in England) are designed with the network of sidewalks and cycle paths almost entirely separate from the road network. The term \"trail\" is also used by the authorities in some countries to mean any footpath that is not attached to a road or street. If such footpaths are in urban environments and are meant for both pedestrians and bicyclists, they can be called \"shared use paths\" or \"multi-use paths\" in general and official usage. Some shopping streets are for pedestrians only. Some roads have special pedestrian crossings. A bridge solely for pedestrians is a footbridge. Under British law, regardless of whether there is a footpath, pedestrians have the right to use most public roads, excluding motorways and some toll tunnels and bridges such as the Blackwall Tunnel and the Dartford Crossing. The UK Highway Code advises that pedestrians should walk in the opposite direction to oncoming traffic on a road with no footpath. However sharing roads with fast-moving traffic is highly dangerous.", "Indoor pedestrian networks connect the different rooms or spaces of a building. Airports, museums, campuses, hospitals and shopping malls might have tools allowing for the computation of the shortest paths between two destinations. Their increasing availability is due to the complexity of path finding in these facilities. Different mapping tools, such as OpenStreetMap, are extending to indoor spaces.", "Pedestrianisation might be considered as process of removing vehicular traffic from city streets or restricting vehicular access to streets for use by pedestrians, in order to improve the environment and the safety. Efforts are under way by pedestrian advocacy groups to restore pedestrian access to new developments, especially to counteract newer developments, 20% to 30% of which in the United States do not include footpaths. Some activists advocate large auto-free zones where pedestrians only or pedestrians and some non-motorised vehicles are allowed. Many urbanists have extolled the virtues of pedestrian streets in urban areas. In the U.S. the proportion of households without a car is 8%, but a notable exception is New York City, the only locality in the United States where more than half of all households do not own a car (the figure is even higher in Manhattan, over 75%). The use of cars for short journeys is officially discouraged in many parts of the world, and construction or separation of dedicated walking routes in city centres receives a high priority in many large cities in Western Europe, often in conjunction with public transport enhancements. In Copenhagen, the world's longest pedestrian shopping area, Strøget, has been developed over the last 40 years principally due to the work of Danish architect Jan Gehl, a principle of urban design known as \"copenhagenisation\".", "Safety is an important issue where cars can cross the pedestrian way. Drivers and pedestrians share some responsibility for improving safety of road users. Road traffic crashes are not inevitable; they are both predictable and preventable. Key risks for pedestrians are well known. Among the well documented factors are: driver behaviour, (including speeding, drinking and driving); infrastructure missing facilities (including sidewalks, crossings and raised medians); and vehicle design which are not forgiving to pedestrians crashed by a vehicle. Because pedestrians are not protected by their vehicle while car occupants are, pedestrians are usually classified in the \"vulnerable road user\" category, even in Canada. Most of pedestrian are injured at crossing a street/road. Most of pedestrian crash occur by night. Most of pedestrians are killed by a frontal impact. In such a situation, a pedestrian is struck by a car front; for instance the bumper touch either the leg or knee-joint area; then, the lower part of the body is accelerated forwards, while the upper part of the body rotates and accelerated to the car; this will likely cause damage to the pelvis and thorax. Then the head hits the windscreen with the velocity of the striking car. Finally, the victim falls to the ground. Some special interest groups consider pedestrian fatalities on American roads a carnage. Five states — Arizona, California, Florida, Georgia and Texas — produce 46% of all pedestrians deaths in the country. The advent of SUVs is considered a leading cause; speculation of other factors includes population growth, driver distraction with mobile phones, poor street lighting, alcohol and drugs and speeding. Cities have had mixed result in addressing pedestrian safety with Vizion zero plan: Los Angeles has failes while NYC has had success. Nonetheless in the US, some pedestrians have just 40 seconds to cross a 10 lanes street. Pedestrian fatalities are much more common in accident situations in the European Union than in the USA. In the European Union countries, more than 200,000 pedestrians and cyclists are injured annually. Also, each year, more than 270 000 pedestrians lose their lives on the world's roads. At a global level pedestrians constitute 22% of all road deaths, but might be two thirds in some countries. Pedestrian fatalities, in 2016, are 2.6 per million population in the Netherlands, 4.3 in Sweden, 4.5 per million population in Wales, 5.3 in New Zealand, 6.0 in Germany; 7.1 in United Kingdom, 7.5 in Australia, 8.4 in France, 8.4 in Spain, 9.4 in Italy, 11.1 in Israel, 13 in Japan, 13.8 in Greece, 18.5 in the United States of America, 22.9 in Poland, and 36.3 in Romania", "It is well documented that a minor increase in speed might greatly increase the likelihood of a crash, and exacerbate resulting casualties. For this reason, the recommended maximum speed is 30 km/h or 40 km/h in residential and high pedestrian traffic areas, with enforced traffic rules on speed limits and traffic-calming measures. The design of road and streets plays a key role in pedestrian safety. Roads are too often designed for motorized vehicles, without taking into account pedestrian and bicycle needs. The non-existence of sidewalk and signals increases risk for pedestrians. This defect might more easily be observed on arterial roadways, intersections and fast-speed lanes without adequate attention to pedestrian facilities. For instance, an assessment of roads in countries from many continents shows that 84% of roads are without pedestrian footpaths, while maximum limited speed is greater than 40 km/h. Among the factors which reduce road safety for pedestrians are wider lanes, roadway widening, and roadways designed for higher speeds and with increased numbers of traffic lanes. For this reason, some European cities such as Freiburg (Germany) have lowered the speed limit to 30 km/h on 90% of its streets, to reduce risk for its 15 000 people. With such policy, 24% of daily trips are performed by foot, against 28% by bicycles, 20% by public transport and 28% ( See Zone 30) A similar set of policies to discourage the use of cars and increase safety for pedestrians has been implemented by the Northern European capitals of Oslo and Helsinki. In 2019, this resulted in both cities counting zero pedestrian deaths for the first time.", "Regular walking is important both for human health and for the natural environment. Frequent exercise such as walking tends to reduce the chance of obesity and related medical problems. In contrast, using a car for short trips tends to contribute both to obesity and via vehicle emissions to climate change: internal combustion engines are more inefficient and highly polluting during their first minutes of operation (engine cold start). General availability of public transportation encourages walking, as it will not, in most cases, take one directly to one's destination.", "In Unicode, the hexadecimal code for \"pedestrian\" is 1F6B6. In XML and HTML, the string codice_1 produces 🚶." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "During the Russian Empire.", "In Soviet Ukraine.", "Lines, routes and depots.", "Rolling stock." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before 1886, projects for the construction of a horse-drawn tramway were planned. However, none of these plans had ever proceeded to the construction stage. In 1886, engineer Amand Struve's project was approved for construction. On July 30, 1891, the first horse-drawn tram wagon was set on a track. By August 1, the tram line stretched from the Tsar's Square to the Demiivska Square. Soon after tram operations were started, many problems arose. The hilly terrain of Kyiv presented the largest problem. On Bohdan Khmelnytsky Street, a pair of horses was not enough to pull the trams uphill. Therefore, another two pairs of horses were added, which did not improve the situation. Thus, mechanizing the tram using a steam-powered engine was attempted as a solution to the problem. However, the steam engines produced a lot of noise, which scared the horses and people, and produced a lot of air pollution. The slew of problems experienced by the trams shocked Struve, who in 1890, had written a letter to the City Administration of Kyiv suggesting that for increased safety and easier use, the trams would need to be powered using electric motors. The administration of the Kyiv Telegraph service opposed this move since, in their opinion, the electric motors would interfere with the telephone and telegraph systems. On May 3, 1892, the first two trams with electric motors arrived in Kyiv. They were built by the Struve brothers in a factory located near Moscow, based on American designs. On the same day, the engines were tested on the flat Sahaydachny Street, and once more, on May 8, on the track from Podil Street to Khreshchatyk Street. In 1893, the money earned by these electric trams exceeded the cost to maintain the trams. Furthermore, the electric trams were used whenever the horse-drawn or steam-powered trams had difficulty. Nevertheless, the system's horse-drawn trams were in use until 1895, and the last steam-powered cars ran until 1904, when a diesel electric station, on the so-called Dachnaya (\"Dachna\") to Puschya-Vodytsia line was built. This station had lasted until the 1930s. These trams required very little power, which caused any electric trams, which used the line, to move so slowly that the passengers could get on and off the tram, while the tram remained in motion. A long tram line, about 17 versts (18 kilometres) long, was laid from the Poshtova Square in the Podil neighbourhood, over the Dnieper on the Nicholas Bridge, through the Peredmostna and Nikolska Slobodka neighbourhoods, and to the neighbouring town of Brovary. The line was used until the mid-1930s, and was a one-way line with side-skirts for oncoming trams to drive into. This had made the trip even longer than it really was. The cost was 35 kopecks, a fair amount of money at the time. Nevertheless, the trams were always packed with passengers. By 1893, the city's trams easily climbed the many steep streets of Kyiv, including the Proreznay (\"Prorezna\"), Karavayevskaya (\"Karavaievs’ka,\" now the \"Ploscha L’va Tolstoho Street\") and even the Kruglouniversitetskaya (\"Kruhlouniversitets’ka\") Streets. In 1893, the \"Elektrichestvo\" journal wrote: A major problem of the tram drivers at the time was the rolling stock used. When the city's railroad stock holder Lazar Brodsky died, the stocks were transferred to the Belgian auction firm, and the tram system began running on the Belgian Pullman wagons, with soft, sail-type cloth seats. But not these, nor the earlier seats on the German wagons, gave the tram drivers any comfort while standing in wind, rain, or snow, on the driver's platform on the tram.", "After the Russian Revolution and the Russian Civil War, reconstruction of the tram system began. The old and outdated tram wagons required restoration as the industry of the country could not manufacture new wagons. The train wagons' reconstruction was carried out in the main tram depot of the system, the Dombal Depot. From 1928-1932, 80 two-axel motor tram wagons and 65 regular train wagons were manufactured for Kyiv, and since 1932, the depot started producing four-axel tram wagons, due to Kyiv's geographical relief and climate. On the tram wagons, the conductors place was not warmed during the winter, however, was separated from the passenger part of the wagon. On March 13, 1961, a major landslide hit the city's Podilske Tram Depot, burying it in clay sludge and killing most personnel on site. Additionally, dozens of people died in the tram cars and buses caught by the landslide and subsequent short circuit on the street intersection immediately next to the depot. On December 30, 1978, the first high-speed tram line in the then Soviet Union was opened in Kyiv. It conntected the Victory Square with the Pivdenna Borshchahivka housing estate. The same year Kyiv experienced the peak in tram routes development in its history. In 1978 the length of the lines reached 285 km, the fleet numbered 909 cars, and passenger traffic per year exceeded 396 million people.", "There are 23 different tram routes active(including 5 on the Rapid Tram lines) in two networks - on the Right and Left Banks of Kiev, respectively. There are active tram lines in 9 out of 10 city raions (excluding the Holosiiv Raion). There are 3 rolling stock maintenance depots and dozens of infrastructure units in the system.", "The Kiev tram system uses many different tram cars and types, with some being designed in Moscow and manufactured in Riga, some being manufactured by the ČKD Tatra company in Prague, and with some being manufactured right in the city of Kiev. The following data incorporates only some tram cars used by the system. An agreement has been reached with the Polish manufacturer PESA to supply the city with its \"fokstrot\" tram. 10 vehicles were delivered until the end of December 2016." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Post–World War I origins.", "Nazi control.", "Spanish Civil War.", "Plan Z.", "World War II.", "War crimes.", "Post-war division.", "Ships.", "Surface ships.", "Aircraft carriers.", "Battleships.", "Pocket battleships (\"Panzerschiffe\").", "Pre-dreadnought battleships.", "Battlecruisers.", "Heavy cruisers.", "Light cruisers.", "Auxiliary cruisers.", "Destroyers.", "Torpedo boats.", "E-boats (\"Schnellboote\").", "Miscellaneous.", "Submarines (U-boat).", "Captured ships.", "Major enemy warships sunk or destroyed.", "Organization.", "Command structure.", "Air units.", "Coastal artillery, flak and radar units.", "Marines.", "Ranks and uniforms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Under the terms of the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Germany was only allowed a minimal navy of 15,000 personnel, six capital ships of no more than 10,000 tons, six cruisers, twelve destroyers, twelve torpedo boats and no submarines or aircraft carriers. Military aircraft were also banned, so Germany could have no naval aviation. Under the treaty Germany could only build new ships to replace old ones. All the ships allowed and personnel were taken over from the \"Kaiserliche Marine\", renamed the\" Reichsmarine\". From the outset, Germany worked to circumvent the military restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles. The Germans continued to develop U-boats through a", "When the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler soon began to more brazenly ignore many of the Treaty restrictions and accelerated German naval rearmament. The Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 18 June 1935 allowed Germany to build a navy equivalent to 35% of the British surface ship tonnage and 45% of British submarine tonnage; battleships were to be limited to no more than 35,000", "The first military action of the \"Kriegsmarine\" came during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Following the outbreak of hostilities in July 1936 several large warships of the German fleet were sent to the region. The heavy cruisers and, and the light cruiser were the first to be sent in July 1936. These large ships were accompanied by the 2nd Torpedo-boat Flotilla. The German presence was used to covertly support Franco's Nationalists although the immediate involvement of the \"\" was humanitarian relief operations and evacuating 9,300 refugees, including 4,550 German citizens. Following the brokering of the International Non-Intervention Patrol to enforce an international", "The \"Kriegsmarine\" saw as her main tasks the controlling of the Baltic Sea and winning a war against France in connection with the German army, because France was seen as the most likely enemy in the event of war. But in 1938 Hitler wanted to have the possibility of winning a war against Great Britain at sea in the coming years. Therefore he ordered plans for such a fleet from the \"Kriegsmarine\". From the three proposed plans (X, Y and Z) he approved Plan Z in January 1939. This blueprint for the new German naval construction program envisaged building a navy of approximately 800 ships during the period 1939–1947. Hitler demanded that the program was to be completed by 1945. The main force of", "The \"Kriegsmarine\" participated in the Battle of Westerplatte and the Battle of the Danzig Bay during the invasion of Poland. In 1939, major events for the \"Kriegsmarine\" were the sinking of the British aircraft carrier and the British battleship and the loss of the at the Battle of the River Plate. Submarine attacks on Britain's vital maritime supply routes (Battle of the Atlantic) started immediately at the outbreak of war, although they were hampered by the lack of well placed ports from which to operate. Throughout the war the \"Kriegsmarine\" was responsible for coastal artillery protecting major ports and important coastal areas. It also operated anti-aircraft batteries protecting major ports. In April 1940, the German Navy was heavily involved in the invasion of Norway, where it suffered significant losses, which included the heavy cruiser sunk by artillery and torpedoes from Norwegian shore batteries at the Oscarsborg Fortress in the Oslofjord. Ten destroyers were lost in the Battles of Narvik (half of German destroyer strength at the time), and two light cruisers, the \"Königsberg\" which was bombed and sunk by Royal Navy aircraft in Bergen, and the \"Karlsruhe\" which was sunk off the coast of Kristiansand by a British submarine. The \"Kriegsmarine\" did in return sink some British warships during this campaign, including the aircraft carrier. The losses in the Norwegian Campaign left only a handful of undamaged heavy ships available for the planned, but never executed, invasion of the United Kingdom (Operation Sea Lion) in the summer of 1940. There were serious", "Following the capture of the naval base at Liepāja by the Germans on 29 June 1941, Latvia came under the command of the \"Kriegsmarine\". On 1 July 1941, the town commandant \"Korvettenkapitän\" Stein ordered that ten hostages be shot for every act of sabotage, and further put civilians in the zone of targeting by declaring that Red Army soldiers were hiding among them in civilian attire. On 5 July 1941 \"Korvettenkapitän\" Brückner, who had taken over for Stein, issued a set of anti-Jewish regulations in the local newspaper, \"Kurzemes Vārds\". Summarized these were as follows:", "After the war, the German surface ships that remained afloat (only the cruisers and, and a dozen destroyers were operational) were divided among the victors by the\"Tripartite Naval Commission\". The US used the heavy cruiser in nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll in 1946 as target ship. Some (like the unfinished aircraft carrier ) were used for target practice with conventional weapons, while others (mostly destroyers and torpedo boats) were put into the service of Allied navies that lacked surface ships after the war. The training barque SSS \"Horst Wessel\" was recommissioned USCGC \"Eagle\" and remains in active service, assigned to the United States Coast Guard Academy. The British, French and Soviet navies received the destroyers,", "By the start of World War II, much of the \"Kriegsmarine\" were modern ships: fast, well-armed and well-armoured. This had been achieved by concealment but also by deliberately flouting World War I peace terms and those of various naval treaties. However, the war started with the German Navy still at a distinct disadvantage in terms of sheer size with what were expected to be its primary adversaries – the navies of France and Great Britain. Although a major re-armament of the navy (Plan Z) was planned, and initially begun, the start of the war in 1939 meant that the vast amounts of material required for the project were diverted to other areas. The sheer disparity in size when compared to the other European powers navies prompted German naval commander in chief Grand Admiral Erich Raeder to write of his own navy once the war began \"The surface forces can do no more than show that they know how to die gallantly.\" A number of captured ships from occupied countries were added to the German fleet as the war progressed. Though six major units of the \"Kriegsmarine\" were sunk during the war (both \"Bismarck\"-class battleships and both \"Scharnhorst\"-class battleships, as well as two heavy cruisers), there were still many ships afloat (including four heavy cruisers and four light cruisers) as late as March 1945. Some ship types do not fit clearly into the commonly used ship classifications. Where there is argument, this has been noted.", "The main combat ships of the \"Kriegsmarine\" (excluding U-boats):", "Construction of the was started in 1936 and construction of an unnamed sister ship was started two years later in 1938, but neither ship was completed. In 1942 conversion of three German passenger ships (\"Europa\", \"Potsdam\", \"Gneisenau\") and two unfinished cruisers, the captured French light cruiser and the German heavy cruiser, to auxiliary carriers was begun. In November 1942 the conversion of the passenger ships was stopped because these ships were now seen as too slow for", "The \"Kriegsmarine\" completed four battleships during its existence. The first pair were the 11-inch gun, consisting of the and, which participated in the invasion of Norway (Operation \"Weserübung\") in 1940, and then in commerce raiding until the \"Gneisenau\" was heavily damaged by a British air raid in 1942 and the \"Scharnhorst\" was sunk in the Battle of the North Cape", "The \"Pocket battleships\" were the (renamed \"Lützow\"),, and. Modern commentators favour classifying these as \"heavy cruisers\" and the \"Kriegsmarine\" itself reclassified these ships as such (\"Schwere Kreuzer\") in 1940. In German language usage these three ships were designed and built as \"armoured ships\" (\"Panzerschiffe\") – \"pocket battleship\" is an English label. The \"Graf Spee\" was scuttled by her own crew in the Battle of the River", "The World War I era Pre-dreadnought battleships and were used mainly as training ships, although they also participated in several military operations, with the latter bearing the distinction of firing the opening", "Three s were ordered in 1939, but with the start", ",, and", "The term \"light cruiser\" is a shortening of the phrase \"light armoured cruiser\". Light cruisers were defined under the Washington Naval Treaty by gun caliber. Light cruiser describes a small ship that was armoured in the same way as an armoured cruiser. In other words, like standard cruisers, light cruisers possessed a protective belt and a protective deck. Prior to this, smaller", "During the war, some merchant ships were converted into \"auxiliary cruisers\" and nine were used as commerce raiders sailing under false flags to avoid detection, and operated in", "Although the German World War II destroyer (\"Zerstörer\") fleet was modern and the ships were larger than conventional destroyers of other navies, they had problems. Early classes were unstable, wet in heavy weather, suffered from", "These vessels evolved through the 1930s from small vessels, relying almost entirely on torpedoes, to what", "The E-boats were fast attack craft with torpedo", "Thousands of smaller warships and auxiliaries served in the \"Kriegsmarine\", including minelayers, minesweepers, mine transports, netlayers, floating AA and torpedo batteries, command ships, decoy ships (small merchantmen with hidden weaponry), gunboats, monitors, escorts, patrol boats, sub-chasers, landing craft, landing support ships, training ships, test ships, torpedo recovery boats, dispatch boats, aviso, fishery protection ships, survey ships, harbor defense boats, target ships and their radio control vessels, motor explosive boats, weather ships, tankers, colliers, tenders, supply ships, tugs, barges, icebreakers, hospital and accommodation ships, floating cranes and docks, and many others. The \"Kriegsmarine\" employed hundreds of auxiliary \"Vorpostenboote\" during the war, mostly civilian ships that were drafted and fitted with military equipment, for use in coastal operations.", "At the outbreak of war, the \"Kriegsmarine\" had a fleet of 57 submarines (U-boats). This was increased steadily until mid-1943, when losses from Allied counter-measures matched the new vessels launched. The principal types were the Type IX, a long range type used in the western and southern Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans; the Type VII, the most numerous type, used principally in the north Atlantic; and the small Type II, for coastal waters. Type X was a small class of", "The military campaigns in Europe yielded a large number of captured vessels, many of which were under construction. Nations represented included Austria (riverine craft), Czechoslovakia (riverine craft), Poland, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Yugoslavia, Greece, Soviet Union, United", "The first warship sunk in World War II was the destroyer of the Polish Navy by Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers", "", "Adolf Hitler was the Commander-in-Chief of all German armed forces, including the \"Kriegsmarine\". His authority was exercised through the \"Oberkommando der Marine\", or OKM, with a Commander-in-Chief (\"Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine\"), a Chief of Naval General Staff (\"Chef des Stabes der Seekriegsleitung\") and a Chief of Naval Operations (\"Chef der Operationsabteilung\"). The first Commander-in-Chief of the OKM was Erich Raeder who was the Commander-in-Chief of the \"Reichsmarine\" when it was renamed and reorganized in 1935. Raeder held the post until falling out with Hitler after the German failure in the Battle of the Barents Sea. He was replaced by Karl Dönitz on 30 January 1943 who held the command until he was appointed President of Germany upon Hitler's suicide in April 1945. Hans-Georg von Friedeburg was then Commander-in-Chief of the OKM for the short period of time until Germany", "The \"Luftwaffe\" had a near-complete monopoly on all German military aviation, including naval aviation, a major source of ongoing interservice rivalry with the \"Kriegsmarine\". Catapult-launched spotter planes like Arado Ar 196 twin-float seaplanes were manned by the so-called \"Bordfliegergruppen\" (shipboard flying group). In addition, \"Trägergeschwader 186\" (Carrier Air Wing", "The coastal batteries of the \"Kriegsmarine\" were stationed on the German coasts. With the conquering and occupation of other countries coastal artillery was stationed along the", "At the beginning of World War II, on 1 September 1939, the \"Marine Stoßtrupp Kompanie\" (Marine Attack Troop Company) landed in Danzig from the old battleship for conquering a Polish bastion at Westerplatte. A reinforced platoon of the \"Marine Stoßtrupp Kompanie\" landed with soldiers of the German Army from destroyers on 9 April 1940 in Narvik. In June 1940 the \"Marine Stoßtrupp Abteilung\" (Marine Attack Troop Battalion) was flown in from France to the Channel", "Many different types of uniforms were worn" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early career (2001–2002).", "Major label signing and \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge\" (2003–2006).", "\"The Black Parade\" (2006–2009).", "\"Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys\" (2009–2011).", "\"Conventional Weapons\" and break-up (2011–2013).", "\"May Death Never Stop You\" and post-break-up (2013–2019).", "Reunion (2019–present).", "Musical style and influences.", "Tours.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "2020s.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The band was formed by frontman Gerard Way and drummer Matt Pelissier in Newark, New Jersey, soon after the September 11 attacks. Witnessing the World Trade Center towers fall influenced Way's life to the extent that he decided to start a band. Way wrote the song \"Skylines and Turnstiles\" to express his feelings about September 11 and shortly thereafter, Ray Toro was recruited as the band's guitarist because at the time Way could not sing and play the guitar simultaneously. The name of the band was suggested by bass guitarist Mikey Way, younger brother of Gerard, who was working in a Barnes & Noble when he was struck by the title of a book by Irvine Welsh named \"\". The first recording sessions were undertaken in Pelissier's attic, where the songs \"Our Lady of Sorrows\" and \"Cubicles\" were recorded. The band refers to those sessions as \"The Attic Demos.\" After hearing the demo and dropping out of college, Mikey Way decided to join the band. While with Eyeball Records, the band met Frank Iero, the lead vocalist and guitarist for Pencey Prep. Following Pencey Prep's split in 2002, Iero became a member of My Chemical Romance, just days prior to the recording of the band's debut album. They recorded their debut album, \"I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love\", just three months after the formation of the band and released it in 2002 through Eyeball Records. The album was produced by Thursday frontman Geoff Rickley after the band became friends with him while playing shows in New Jersey. Iero played guitar on two of the tracks, one of which was \"Early Sunsets Over Monroeville.\" During this time, the band was booked at the infamous venue, Big Daddy's, where they began to receive more attention. My Chemical Romance offered free downloads through PureVolume and the social networking website MySpace, where they gained an initial fan base.", "In 2003, the band signed a deal with Reprise Records. Following a tour with Avenged Sevenfold, the band began working on their second album, which was titled \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge\", which was released on June 8, 2004. A month after the album's release, the band replaced Matt Pelissier with Bob Bryar. The band released four singles from the album: \"I'm Not Okay (I Promise)\", \"Thank You for the Venom\", \"Helena\", and \"The Ghost of You\". The album went platinum in just over a year of its release. At the beginning of 2005, the band was featured on the first Taste of Chaos tour along with The Used and Killswitch Engage. The band also was the opening act for Green Day on their \"American Idiot\" tour. They then co-headlined Warped Tour 2005 with Fall Out Boy and co-headlined a tour with Alkaline Trio and Reggie and the Full Effect around the US. That same year, My Chemical Romance collaborated with The Used for a cover of the Queen and David Bowie classic, \"Under Pressure\", which was released as a benefit single for tsunami relief on iTunes and other Internet outlets. In March 2006, the album \"Life on the Murder Scene\" was released, incorporating a CD and two DVDs. It included one documentary DVD chronicling the band's history, and a second DVD with music videos, the making of their videos and live performances. An unauthorized biography DVD \"Things That Make You Go MMM!\" was also released in June 2006. The DVD does not actually feature any My Chemical Romance music clips or performances but contains interviews with those who knew the band before much of their fame. A biography titled \"Something Incredible This Way Comes\" was also released, written by Paul Stenning and published in 2006. It features information on their beginnings right through to their third album, \"The Black Parade\".", "My Chemical Romance started recording their third studio album on April 10, 2006 with Rob Cavallo, producer of many of Green Day's albums. It was originally thought to be titled \"The Rise and Fall of My Chemical Romance\" (in reference to \"The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars\" by David Bowie), but in an interview with \"Kerrang!\" magazine, Gerard Way suggested this was just the album's working title, stating \"It was never the title of the album, more a spoof, or joke.\" On August 3, 2006, the band completed shooting the videos for their first two singles from the album, \"Welcome to the Black Parade\" and although not released until January 2007, \"Famous Last Words\". Both videos were directed by Samuel Bayer, director of Nirvana's \"Smells Like Teen Spirit\" and Green Day's \"American Idiot\" videos. During filming for the second video, band members Gerard Way and Bob Bryar were injured. Way suffered torn ligaments in his ankle, and Bryar a burn to the leg which caused a severe staph infection that needed constant monitoring in the hospital. Consequently, the band was forced to cancel a few tour dates. While these injuries were reported by several news agencies to have been the result of a car accident, a statement released by the band on their website and MySpace page confirmed that these injuries occurred on the set of the video. On August 22, 2006, the band played a special one-off show at the 1,800-capacity London Hammersmith Palais. The show sold out in 15 minutes, which led to tickets being re-sold on eBay at prices well above face value. The name of the album was announced and 20 people dressed in black capes with their faces obscured paraded around the Hammersmith venue, followed by a large group of fans and street team members with signs saying \"The Black Parade\". Later during the show, the album title and the UK release date were confirmed. Before the band took the stage, it was announced that My Chemical Romance was unable to play, but they would be replaced by The Black Parade. After initial crowd hostility, it became clear the band was simply performing under a pseudonym in keeping with the theme of the album. Since then, the band would often perform under the alias \"The Black Parade\", wearing the costumes seen in the album's music videos. Gerard Way would adopt the persona of the leader of the marching band, The Black Parade, and vary his behavior and performance accordingly. \"Welcome to the Black Parade\" was released as a single on September 11, 2006. On September 26, 2006, the music video for \"Welcome to the Black Parade\" was released in the UK, and on September 27 in the US. The single became the band's first number one on the UK Singles Chart in October 2006. \"The Black Parade\" was released on October 23, 2006, in the United Kingdom and on October 24, 2006, in the United States to positive reviews. \"The Black Parade World Tour\" commenced on February 22, 2007, with the eventuating 133 shows featuring Rise Against, Thursday and Muse as support acts. Reggie and the Full Effect frontman James Dewees joined the band to play keyboards and synthesizer from there on. In April 2007, it was announced that Mikey Way would temporarily leave the tour to spend time with his new wife, Alicia Simmons-Way. Way's temporary replacement was Matt Cortez, a friend of the band. During the third leg of the tour, as a support act for Muse, members of My Chemical Romance and their crew, along with members of Muse's crew, suffered food poisoning, and consequently had to cancel six shows. The band later featured on Linkin Park's \"Projekt Revolution\" tour in 2007, along with Placebo, Mindless Self Indulgence, Saosin, Taking Back Sunday and HIM. My Chemical Romance received a range of accolades for \"The Black Parade\". \"Kerrang!\" rated \"The Black Parade\" as the fourth-greatest album of 2006. In \"Rolling Stone\" magazine's ranking of the top 50 albums of 2006, \"The Black Parade\" was voted the 20th best album of the year. My Chemical Romance went on to win the award for Best International Band at the 2007 NME Awards, and Gerard Way also won the Hero of the Year award. My Chemical Romance was also nominated for Best Alternative Group at the 2007 American Music Awards. On May 8, 2008, British tabloid \"The Sun\" published an article titled \"Suicide of Hannah, the Secret Emo\", which reported the death of a thirteen-year-old British girl named Hannah Bond, who had hanged herself supposedly because of her involvement with a reported \"self-harming 'emo' cult\", which the newspaper directly associated with My Chemical Romance, and their then-current album \"The Black Parade\", which was said to be linked to her suicide. In the article, coroner Roger Sykes expressed concern that Bond's \"emo\" lifestyle glamorized suicide and suggested that her obsession with My Chemical Romance was linked to her death. Supporters of emo music contacted \"NME\" to defend the genre against accusations that it promotes suicide. A group of British fans eventually planned a march across London in protest against the depiction of the band in the media. The march was expected to be held on May 31, beginning at Hyde Park's West Pond and ending outside the offices of the \"Daily Mail\", which widely criticized My Chemical Romance and had published general pieces about the dangers of \"suicide cults\". The march was expected to attract 500–1,000 protesters, according to the organizers. After concerns by police, the march was called off and instead about 100 fans congregated at Marble Arch. The band repeated the statement \"fuck the \"Daily Mail\"\" during their gigs in the United Kingdom. \"The Daily Mail\" defended its position saying its coverage was \"balanced and restrained\" and \"in the public interest\" and that they were reporting genuine concerns raised by the coroner at the inquest. They stated that their coverage of the coroner's remarks and the parents' comments was in common with that of other newspapers and pointed to their publishing of readers' letters defending the band and positive reviews of the band's albums and tours. The band announced in a blog on their website that they would be going on a final tour in the United States before taking a break. At the same time, they announced they will be releasing a live DVD/CD collection titled \"The Black Parade Is Dead!\", which includes two concerts from October 2007, the final Black Parade concert in Mexico, and a small show at Maxwell's in New Jersey. The DVD/CD was meant to be released on June 24 in the United States and June 30 in the UK, but was postponed to July 1 because of a technical fault with the Mexico concert. On February 3, 2009, an EP of B-side songs from singles on \"The Black Parade\" was released, titled \"\". The band then announced that they would be releasing \"a collection of nine never-before-seen live videos, straight from the encore set of the Mexico City show from October 2007\" during their Black Parade World Tour, titled \"¡Venganza!\". The release came on a bullet-shaped flash drive and also contained exclusive photos of the band from the show. It was released on April 29, 2009.", "On February 1, 2009, My Chemical Romance released a new single titled \"Desolation Row\" (a cover of the Bob Dylan song). It was recorded to feature as the end credit track for the 2009 film \"Watchmen\", an adaptation of the graphic novel of the same name. On May 27, 2009, My Chemical Romance's web designer, Jeff Watson, announced via the band's website that the band was headed to the studio to record their fourth full-length album. The recording took place over the following few weeks with producer Brendan O'Brien, who has worked with AC/DC, Mastodon, and Pearl Jam. In an interview with \"NME\", Gerard Way said the band's next record would be a rock album, saying, \"I think [the next album] will definitely be stripped down. I think the band misses being a rock band.\" In a separate interview with \"Idiomag\", Way commented that the next release would be less theatrical in scope, stating that \"it's not going to be hiding behind a veil of fiction or uniforms and makeup anymore.\" In an interview with PopEater, Way also stated that the next album will be \"full of hate.\" He also said \"over the years that we've been hearing ourselves live and hearing us on records, we kind of prefer the live. There's more of a garage feel and more energy. I'd like to capture some of that, finally. That's the goal for the next one.\" On July 31 and August 1, 2009, My Chemical Romance played two \"secret\" shows at The Roxy Theater in Los Angeles. The shows were the first concerts the band had played since Madison Square Garden in May 2008. The band also premiered several new songs said to be from their upcoming fourth album during the shows, one reportedly titled \"Death Before Disco\", a song that Way said he was particularly excited about. The song was since renamed \"Party Poison\" and was included on the new album. Way explained further in a \"Rolling Stone\" interview that \"it's a completely different sound for the band — it's like an anti-party song that you can party to. I can't wait for people to hear it. It brings back, lyrically, some of that wonderful fiction from the first album.\" Gerard Way also said in a November 2009 interview with \"Rock Sound\" that the fourth album would be their defining work. \"A friend who heard the record recently said he now had no interest in listening to our older work anymore, that we had made all our old material redundant. I took it as a compliment, the next thing you should always make the last thing seem unimportant and I think that will happen when we finally release this album.\" On March 3, 2010, Iero announced on their official website that Bob Bryar had left the band, writing: In a March 2010 MTV interview about the new album, Way explained, \"There's no title yet... I'm actually kind of excited about that. It's kind of 'anything goes' at this point, but I'm so happy with the songs.\" Though the band since decided on the title of their fourth album, it continued to go unannounced, with various rumors circulating and the band stating on their website that it will be revealed \"all in due time\" and in Way's words, \"a special way this time. Maybe some sort of event, something fun, something soon.\" During the San Diego Comic-Con 2010, Way announced that the band had finished recording the fourth studio album. This was later confirmed by Iero on the band's website, announcing that the album was \"done, finished, kaput, in the proverbial can, and being played loudly as we drive way too fast in our respective cars.\" In September, a trailer video was uploaded to My Chemical Romance's official YouTube page titled \"Art is a Weapon\", which announced the title of the album: \"\". The video featured the band wearing strangely coloured outfits and battling unusual characters in a desert surrounding, and featuring a sample of music from the song \"Na Na Na (Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na)\". Notable comic book author and the band's personal friend, Grant Morrison, makes a special appearance, in the role of an enemy and leader of a band of masked characters. On September 22, 2010, the band premiered their song \"Na Na Na (Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na Na)\" on Zane Lowe's BBC Radio 1 show, and Los Angeles-based radio station KROQ-FM. The album was released on November 22, 2010. \"Rock Sound\" had a preview of the album and gave a positive review, commenting \"the way they've used everything they learned on \"The Black Parade\" and tightened up in certain places feels natural and confident\" and that it sees \"the creativity of the band taking flight musically, graphically and literally.\" Michael Pedicone joined the band as a touring drummer late in 2010, replacing Bryar. During a performance at Wembley Arena on February 12, 2011, Way announced that the band would be appearing at a UK festival later in the year, later confirmed as the Reading and Leeds Festivals, which they headlined. They also performed at Radio 1's Big Weekend in Carlisle, England on May 15, 2011. On September 2, 2011, Frank Iero posted a blog on the band's site stating, \"The relationship between My Chemical Romance and Michael Pedicone is over\" and explaining Pedicone was sacked because \"he was caught red-handed stealing from the band and confessed to police after our show last night in Auburn, Washington.\" He also mentioned his hope of getting a new drummer in time for their next show and avoiding having to cancel any performances in the process. On September 4, 2011, it was revealed through various sources that Jarrod Alexander will be the new touring drummer for the remainder of the Honda Civic tour. He also performed with them in late October at Voodoo Experience and at their Australian + New Zealand shows at Big Day Out in early 2012.", "In an interview with \"Rolling Stone\" in October 2011, guitarist Frank Iero revealed that new music could be out \"by summer\". On April 28, 2011, US broadcaster Glenn Beck labelled the My Chemical Romance song \"Sing\" as \"propaganda\" after it was featured and covered on the US musical drama TV series \"Glee\" in February 2011. Beck stated \"It's an anthem saying 'Join us'. How can you and I possibly win against that?\" The lyrics that Beck pointed out were: \"Cleaned up corporation progress, dying in the process / Children that can talk about it living on the railways / People moving sideways / Sell it till your last days / Buy yourself the motivation / Generation nothing / Nothing but a dead scene / Product of a white dream\". Gerard Way responded to the accusation on the band's official website, writing, \"I think the word Glenn Beck was looking for was'subversion' not 'propaganda', because I don't know what it would be considered propaganda for—truth? Sentiment?\" He also said that he was \"shocked that no actual fact-checking was done on the lyrics\". Bassist Mikey Way told the BBC, \"If we're getting reaction from people like that we're doing something right.\" On December 18, 2011, the band appeared on Nick Jr.'s \"Yo Gabba Gabba!\", and performed a song called \"Every Snowflake Is Different (Just Like You)\". This was part of a Christmas special for the show. The special included other famous guests such as Tony Hawk and Tori Spelling. In February 2012, members of My Chemical Romance revealed that they had been building a studio in Los Angeles to record music for the band's fifth album under the working title MCR5, now with touring keyboardist James Dewees as an official member. The band worked with engineer Doug McKean, who previously worked on \"The Black Parade\" and \"\". On September 14, 2012, Frank Iero announced through the band's official website a new project titled \"Conventional Weapons\". The project revolved around 10 unreleased songs that were recorded in 2009, prior to the making of \"Danger Days\". The band released two songs each month for five months from the \"Conventional Weapons sessions\", starting in October 2012 and finishing in February 2013. According to the October 2012 issue of \"Q magazine\", Frank Iero reported early sessions for MCR's next album with the new drummer Jarrod Alexander were progressing well. \"Jarrod is a rad guy and a fantastic player. It's been really fun making music with him these past few months,\" Iero commented. On March 22, 2013, the band announced their break-up on their official website, issuing this statement: Gerard Way posted an extended tweet on his Twitter account two days after the website announcement, in which he confirmed the disbanding of the group but denied that altercations between band members were the reason for the split.", "On March 25, 2014, the band released a greatest hits collection, titled \"May Death Never Stop You\", containing material spreading their entire career, as well a single unreleased track. The track \"Fake Your Death\" was made available digitally on February 17. It is the only song in MCR's discography that has James Dewees playing on keyboards. Following the band's break-up, the members of the band continued to pursue music. Lead vocalist Gerard Way announced his debut solo album \"Hesitant Alien\" with the release of an advance-single, \"Action Cat\". \"Hesitant Alien\" was released on September 29, 2014 in the UK, and a day later in the U.S. \"Hesitant Alien\" was a moderate commercial success, topping the US \"Billboard\" Alternative Albums chart and reaching No. 16 on the US \"Billboard\" 200. \"Hesitant Alien\" also topped the \"Ten Essential Albums Of 2014\" list in \"Alternative Press\". Rhythm guitarist Frank Iero sporadically collaborated with My Chemical Romance keyboardist James Dewees, forming Death Spells and performing in Reggie and the Full Effect (alongside Ray Toro), releasing \"No Country for Old Musicians\" on November 19, 2013. Afterwards, he announced via his official website that he signed to Staple Records and would be releasing a full-length solo album titled \"Stomachaches\" under the moniker of \"frnkiero andthe cellabration\". The album featured former My Chemical Romance touring drummer Jarrod Alexander. \"Stomachaches\" was released worldwide on August 25, 2014. Bassist Mikey Way formed Electric Century along with Sleep Station vocalist David Debiak in 2014 and released their debut single \"I Lied\" in February 2014. The duo announced their debut self-titled EP on March 10, 2015 and was released on Record Store Day on April 18, 2015. Lead guitarist Ray Toro posted a song on his SoundCloud account titled \"Isn't That Something\" on May 24, 2013. On January 1, 2015, he posted a new song, titled \"For the Lost and Brave\", on his website, dedicating the song to Leelah Alcorn, a transgender teen who committed suicide. On July 20, 2016, the band posted on their official Twitter and Facebook pages a video with the piano intro from \"Welcome to the Black Parade\", ending with a cryptic date, \"9/23/16\". The video was also published on the band's YouTube channel with the video titled \"MCRX\". This led to numerous rumors and reports on the band's possible reunion until it was revealed to be a reissue of \"The Black Parade\" with unreleased demos. The reissue, titled \"The Black Parade/Living with Ghosts\", includes 11 demos and live tracks. Two months before its release, an early version of \"Welcome to the Black Parade\", titled \"The Five of Us Are Dying\", was made available for streaming. In a discussion of his work on the comic book \"Doom Patrol\", Gerard Way told \"Billboard\", \"I wouldn't count (a reunion) out, but at the same time everybody's doing stuff in their lives now that they're really enjoying.\"", "On October 31, 2019, the band announced they would be reuniting in Los Angeles on December 20 and a new merchandise line. The announcement was accompanied by the captions \"Return\" and \"Like Phantoms Forever...\". The show sold out in 4 minutes despite high ticket prices. Believed initially to be a one-off show, almost a week later, the band announced more dates in Australia, Japan and New Zealand for 2020. They later revealed via Twitter that they had first regrouped in 2017 and had been working together since then, before the official 2019 announcement. The concert grossed $1,451,745, with an attendance of 5,113. In January 2020, the group announced plans to present one, then two, then three concerts at Stadium MK (Milton Keynes, England), on 18, 20 and 21 of June 2020 as tickets for each day sold out within minutes. The stadium has an (all round) capacity of 30,500 for sports events. Later in the month, the group premiered a cryptic video on YouTube which ended by announcing a North American tour. The North American shows went on sale on January 31, 2020 and sold out in less than six hours. Due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, all of the shows on the tour that were set to begin in 2020 had been postponed to 2021, including the North American leg.", "My Chemical Romance's general style has been categorized as alternative rock, pop punk, punk rock, emo pop, hard rock, hardcore punk, gothic rock, pop rock, arena rock, glam rock, heavy metal, and, most controversially, emo. The band's official website describes their music as simply \"rock\" or \"violent, dangerous pop\". Gerard Way has publicly rejected the term \"emo\", describing the genre as \"fucking garbage\". However, Way has reportedly also described the band's style as \"What-else-ya-got-emo\". The band's sound usually has elements of punk rock, pop and alternative rock. \"I Brought You My Bullets, You Brought Me Your Love\", the band's debut album, features a raw sound that has guitar riffs, very energetic vocals and sometimes screaming. The album has been described as emo, post-hardcore, alternative rock, screamo, punk rock, gothic rock, pop punk, and garage punk, The album also has some influences from hardcore punk and heavy metal. The second album, \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge,\" was one of the albums that launched the emo genre into the mainstream. \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge\" was described as alternative rock, emo, pop punk, post-hardcore, and punk rock. The band's third album, \"The Black Parade,\" has been described as alternative rock, emo, pop punk, post-hardcore, punk rock, and hard rock. The album has influences from 1970s classic rock, glam rock, pop, and gothic rock. The band's fourth album, \"Danger Days: The True Lives of the Fabulous Killjoys,\" was described as alternative rock pop punk, power pop, pop rock, and electronic rock. Gerard Way said to \"Rolling Stone\", \"we love bands like Queen, where it's huge and majestic, but also bands like Black Flag and the Misfits, who would go absolutely crazy.\" Way has stated that the band is heavily influenced by Queen, Misfits, Black Flag, Iron Maiden, the Cure, Joy Division, Bauhaus, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and the Smiths/Morrissey. Way has also said that his band patterns their career after that of the Smashing Pumpkins, another band they admire. Frank Iero cites the punk band Lifetime as a big influence. My Chemical Romance's other influences include the Stooges, Ramones, Sex Pistols, the Clash, Minor Threat, Nirvana, and Operation Ivy.", "", "My Chemical Romance played in many major tours of 2005. The band toured with Green Day in 2005 on the \"Green Day Presents American Idiot Tour\". They were also part of the Warped Tour in the same year. \"For a lot of kids, it's the one thing they look forward to all year,\" said Gerard Way of the Warped Tour. \"They save up for it. They get to see all the bands they like in one shot.\" Their set list included mostly songs from \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge\". My Chemical Romance co-headlined the main stage with The Used on the Taste of Chaos tour, before starting their first headlining tour, simply named the \"My Chemical Romance Tour\". The tour launched September 15 in Ohio, stopping at 30 locations in the United States, to promote their album, \"Three Cheers for Sweet Revenge\". Supporting acts included Alkaline Trio and Reggie and the Full Effect. This tour marked the beginning of the heavy theatrics later showcased in many of their live shows. Way expressed his plans for the tour in an interview with MTV, saying, \"we'd talked about bringing out dancers for our headlining tour in the fall, but it's a big undertaking; you have to have a bus full of dancers. We've always wanted to do a big theatrical tour. But you have to do it in steps\". The use of theatrics was evident during \"The Black Parade World Tour\", which supported their album of the same name. The tour featured 133 performances worldwide, featuring three legs in North America, one in Europe, Asia, and South America, The band joined headliners Linkin Park on Projekt Revolution 2007, starting on July 25 and ending on September 3, 2007. The band played a one-hour set on center stage, opening with \"This Is How I Disappear\", as flames burst behind the band. The set ended with \"Cancer\", occasionally accompanied by falling confetti, and fireworks. Following the Projekt Revolution tour, they opened for Bon Jovi in October and then departed for a European Tour with Mindless Self Indulgence.", "On September 19, 2010, the band announced \"The World Contamination Tour\", which took place in parts of the UK, France, Amsterdam and Germany. The band reunited out of the public eye in 2017 and announced a reunion show on October 31, 2019, which took place in Los Angeles on December 20, 2019, extending this to a small tour consisting of dates in Australia, New Zealand and Japan a week later.", "On January 28, 2020, the group announced plans to present three concerts in Milton Keynes (UK), on 18, 20 and 21 of June 2020. On January 29, 2020, the band announced a North American tour. In April 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the group postponed its Milton Keynes events to June 2021.", "Past members Touring musicians Timeline" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Birth and early life.", "Education and patronage.", "New patronage and diplomatic career.", "Poetic style.", "In literature and popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ariosto was born in Reggio nell’Emilia, where his father Niccolò Ariosto was commander of the citadel. He was the oldest of 10 children and was seen as the successor to the patriarchal position of his family. From his earliest years, Ludovico was very interested in poetry, but he was obliged by his father to study law. After five years of law, Ariosto was allowed to read classics under Gregorio da Spoleto. Ariosto's studies of Greek and Latin literature were cut short by Spoleto's move to France to tutor Francesco Sforza. Shortly after this, Ariosto's father died.", "After the death of his father, Ludovico Ariosto was compelled to forgo his literary occupations and take care of his family, whose affairs were in disarray. Despite his family obligations, Ariosto managed to write some comedies in prose as well as lyrical pieces. Some of these attracted the notice of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, who took the young poet under his patronage and appointed him one of the gentlemen of his household. Este compensated Ariosto poorly for his efforts; the only reward he gave the poet for \"Orlando Furioso\", dedicated to him, was the question, \"Where did you find so many stories, Master Ludovico?\" Ariosto later said that the cardinal was ungrateful, that he deplored the time which he spent under his yoke, and that if he received some small pension, it was not to reward him for his poetry – which the prelate despised – but for acting as a messenger. Ludovico Ariosto and Leonardo da Vinci shared a patron in Cardinal Ippolito d'Este's older sister the Marchioness Isabella d’Este, the \"First Lady of the Renaissance.\" Isabella d’Este appears in Ludovico's masterpiece, \"Orlando Furioso\". She also appears in Leonardo's, \"Sketch for a Portrait of Isabella d’Este,\" at the Louvre. The cardinal went to Hungary in 1518, and wished Ariosto to accompany him. The poet excused himself, pleading ill health, his love of study, and the need to care for his elderly mother. His excuses were not well-received, and he was denied even an interview. Ariosto and d'Este got into a heated argument, and Ariosto was promptly dismissed from service.", "The cardinal's brother, Alfonso, duke of Ferrara, now took Ariosto under his patronage. By then, Ariosto had already distinguished himself as a diplomat, chiefly on the occasion of two visits to Rome as ambassador to Pope Julius II. The fatigue of one of these journeys brought on an illness from which he never recovered, and on his second mission he was nearly killed by order of the Pope, who happened at the time to be in conflict with Alfonso. On account of the war, his salary of 84 crowns a year was suspended, and it was withdrawn altogether after the peace. Because of this, Ariosto asked the duke either to provide for him, or to allow him to seek employment elsewhere. He was appointed to the province of Garfagnana, then without a governor, situated on the Apennines, an appointment he held for three years. The province was distracted by factions and bandits, the governor had not the requisite means to enforce his authority and the duke did little to support his minister. Ariosto's government satisfied both the sovereign and the people given over to his care, however; indeed, there is a story about a time when he was walking alone and fell into the company of a group of bandits, the chief of which, on discovering that his captive was the author of \"Orlando Furioso\", apologized for not having immediately shown him the respect due his rank. In 1508 Ariosto's play \"Cassaria\" appeared, and the next year \"\" was first acted in Ferrara and ten years later in the Vatican. A prose edition was published in Rome in 1524, and the first verse edition was published at Venice in 1551. The play was translated by George Gascoigne and acted at Gray's Inn in London in 1566 and published in 1573, which was later used by Shakespeare as a source for \"The Taming of the Shrew\". In 1516 the first version of the \"Orlando Furioso\" in 40 cantos, was published at Ferrara. The third and final version of the \"Orlando Furioso\", in 46 cantos, appeared on 8 September 1532.", "Throughout Ariosto's writing are narratorial comments dubbed by Dr. Daniel Javitch as \"Cantus Interruptus\". Javitch's term refers to Ariosto's narrative technique to break off one plot line in the middle of a canto, only to pick it up again in another, often much later, canto. Javitch argues that while many critics have assumed Ariosto does this so as to build narrative tension and keep the reader turning pages, the poet in reality defuses narrative tension because so much time separates the interruption and the resumption. By the time the reader gets to the continuation of the story, he or she has often forgotten or ceased to care about the plot and is usually wrapped up in another plot. Ariosto does this, Javitch argues, to undermine \"man's foolish but persistent desire for continuity and completion\". Ariosto uses it throughout his works. For example, in Canto II, stanza 30, of \"Orlando Furioso\", the narrator says: Some have attributed this piece of metafiction as one component of the \"Sorriso ariostesco\" or Ariosto's smile, the wry sense of humor that Ariosto adds to the text. In explaining this humor, Thomas Greene, in \"Descent from Heaven\", says:", "Letitia Elizabeth Landon' s poem (1836) is supposed to be his address to some unknown beauty on presenting her with his completed Orlando Furioso. Lodovico Ariosto is featured in the novelization of \"\" (the novel describes Ezio's journey to Masyaf, his marriage to Sofia Sartor, the birth of his children and his retirement in more detail) as an Assassin. When Ezio retires after the events of the game, in 1513, he gives his position of Mentor to Lodovico." ] }

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{ "title": [ "1950s and 1960s: origins.", "1970s: peak of popularity.", "1980s and 1990s: continuing influence.", "2000 to present." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rock music's origins lie mostly in the music of the American South, and many stars from the first wave of 1950s rock and roll such as Bo Diddley, Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Buddy Holly, Fats Domino, and Jerry Lee Lewis hailed from the Deep South. However, the British Invasion and the rise of folk rock and psychedelic rock in the middle 1960s shifted the focus of new rock music away from the rural south and to large cities like Liverpool, London, Los Angeles, New York City, and San Francisco. In the early 1960s, blues-rock founding father Lonnie Mack seamlessly blended a number of black and white roots-music genres within the framework of rock. Music historian Dick Shurman considers Mack's recordings from that era \"a prototype of what later could be called Southern rock\". In the late 1960s, Blues rock bands such as Canned Heat (from Los Angeles), Creedence Clearwater Revival (from El Cerrito, California), and the Band (Canadian, though drummer Levon Helm was a native of Arkansas) were under the influence of Southern blues, boogie and country music.", "The Allman Brothers Band, based in Macon, Georgia, made their national debut in 1969 and soon gained a loyal following. Their blues rock sound on one hand incorporated long jams informed by jazz and classical music, and on the other hand drew from native elements of country and folk. They were also contemporary in their electric guitar and keyboard delivery. Gregg Allman commented that \"Southern rock\" was a redundant term, like \"rock rock.\" The Marshall Tucker Band, from Roebuck, South Carolina opened many of The Allman Brothers Band concerts and were creatively on par with The Allman Brothers Band, using elements of blues, country rock and blues rock in their music. \"Can't You See\" and \"Heard it in a Love Song\" incorporated the flute into their music. Loosely associated with the first wave of Southern rock were acts like Barefoot Jerry and Charlie Daniels from North Carolina. Charlie Daniels, a big-bearded fiddler with a knack for novelty songs, gave Southern rock its self-identifying anthem with his 1975 hit \"The South's Gonna Do It\", the lyrics of which mentioned all of the above bands, proclaiming: \"Be proud you're a rebel/'Cause the South's gonna do it again.\" A year earlier, Daniels had started the Volunteer Jam, an annual Southern rock-themed concert held in Tennessee. The Outlaws from Tampa, Florida, brought bluegrass licks into their music. Duane Allman's playing on the two \"Hour Glass\" albums and an \"Hour Glass\" session in early 1968 at FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals, Alabama had caught the ear of Rick Hall, owner of FAME. In November 1968, Hall hired Allman to play on an album with Wilson Pickett. Allman's work on that album, \"Hey Jude\" (1968), got him hired as a full-time session musician at Muscle Shoals and brought him to the attention of a number of other musicians, such as Eric Clapton, who later related how he heard Pickett's version of \"Hey Jude\" on his car radio and called Atlantic Records to find out who the guitarist was: \"To this day,\" Clapton said, \"I’ve never heard better rock guitar playing on an R&B record. It’s the best.\" Allman's performance on \"Hey Jude\" blew away Atlantic Records producer and executive Jerry Wexler when Hall played it over the phone for him. Wexler immediately bought Allman's recording contract from Hall and wanted to use him on sessions with all sorts of Atlantic R&B artists. As Duane Allman's distinctive electric bottleneck steel sound began to mature, it evolved in time into the musical voice of what would come to be known as Southern Rock, being picked up and redefined in their own styles by slide guitarists that included bandmate Dickey Betts (after Allman's death), Rory Gallagher, Derek Trucks and Gary Rossington of Lynyrd Skynyrd. Duane Allman was killed by motorcycle accident in 1971. In the early 1970s other Southern rock groups emerged, influenced by the British rock and hard rock guitar sound: notably, the sound of Keith Richards of the Rolling Stones, exemplified by his riff on \"Brown Sugar,\" and Free guitarist Paul Kossoff's guitar play on \"All Right Now,\" and Led Zeppelin's \"Whole Lotta Love\". The harder rocking Southern groups' music emphasized boogie rhythms and fast guitar leads with lyrics extolling the values, aspirations - and excesses - of Southern working-class young adults, like the outlaw country movement. Lynyrd Skynyrd of Jacksonville, Florida dominated this genre until the airplane crash deaths of lead singer Ronnie Van Zant and two other members of the group in a 1977 airplane crash. After this tragic plane crash, members Allen Collins and Gary Rossington started the Rossington Collins Band. Bloodrock combined Southern rock, hard rock, heavy metal and psychedelic rock. Not all Southern rock artists fit into the above molds. The Atlanta Rhythm Section (former Classics IV), the Amazing Rhythm Aces as well as Orleans were more focused on vocal harmonies, and Louisiana's Le Roux ranged from Cajun-flavored Southern boogie early on to a more arena rock sound later on, while the Dixie Dregs and Allman Brothers' offshoot Sea Level explored crossover and jazz fusion. Wet Willie, Molly Hatchet, Blackfoot, ZZ Top, Johnny Winter and Black Oak Arkansas were also popular southern rock musicians in 1970s.", "By the beginning of the 1980s, the Allman Brothers Band and Lynyrd Skynyrd had disbanded and Capricorn Records had gone bankrupt. Leading acts of the genre (in particular, 38 Special) had become enmeshed in corporate arena rock. With the rise of MTV, new wave, R&B and glam metal, most surviving Southern rock groups were relegated to secondary or regional venues. Bands such as Molly Hatchet, Outlaws, Georgia Satellites, Widespread Panic, Confederate Railroad, and Kentucky Headhunters emerged as popular Southern bands across the Southeastern United States during the 1980s and 1990s. During the 1990s, the Allman Brothers reunited and became a strong touring and recording presence again, and the jam band scene revived interest in extended improvised music. Incarnations of Lynyrd Skynyrd also made themselves heard. Hard rock groups with Southern rock touches such as Jackyl renewed some interest in Southern rock. Georgia's R.E.M. released the album \"Fables of the Reconstruction\", which explicitly invokes the Reconstruction Era in the title and is considered a Southern gothic album. The 1990s also saw the Black Crowes rise to mainstream popularity with the releases of Shake Your Money Maker (3x platinum), the Southern Harmony and Musical Companion (debut at #1 on the Billboard 200 and certified 2x platinum) and Amorica (certified Gold) Several bands from the Southern United States (particularly New Orleans with its metal scene) such as Eyehategod, Acid Bath, Soilent Green, Corrosion of Conformity and Down, influenced by the Melvins, mixed Black Sabbath-style metal, hardcore punk and Southern rock to give shape to what would be known as sludge metal. Most notable sludge metal bands hail from the Southeastern United States. Most bands who have tried this style have slipped out of mainstream popularity, but there are still a few who belong to the genre, such as Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, Pumpjack, Black Label Society and occasionally Hellyeah.", "Kid Rock drew from Southern rock for his single \"I Am the Bullgod\" and the albums \"Cocky\" (2001) and \"Rebel Soul\" (2012), as did Uncle Kracker on his 2002 album \"No Stranger to Shame\". In 2005, singer Bo Bice took an explicitly Southern rock sensibility and appearance to a runner-up finish on the normally pop-oriented \"American Idol\" television program, with a performance of the Allmans' \"Whipping Post\" and later performing Skynyrd's \"Free Bird\" and, with Skynyrd on stage with him, \"Sweet Home Alabama\". Southern rock currently plays on the radio in the United States, but mostly on oldies stations and classic rock stations. Although this class of music gets minor radio play, there is still a following for older bands like Lynyrd Skynyrd and the Allman Brothers play in venues with sizable crowds. Post-grunge bands such as Shinedown, Saving Abel, pre)Thing, Saliva, 3 Doors Down, 12 Stones, Default, Black Stone Cherry and Theory of a Deadman have included a Southern rock feel to their songs and have recorded cover versions of Southern rock classics like \"Simple Man\" and \"Tuesday's Gone\". Metallica has also covered \"Tuesday's Gone\" on their \"Garage Inc.\" album. Blues rock/stoner rock band Five Horse Johnson also have a southern rock influence in their sound. Additionally, alternative rock groups such as Drive-By Truckers, the Bottle Rockets, Band of Horses, My Morning Jacket, Hester, State Line Mob, the Steepwater Band, Greasy Grapes and Kings of Leon combine Southern rock with rawer genres, such as garage rock, alt-country, and blues rock. Much of the old style Southern rock (as well as other classic rock) has made its transition into the country music genre, establishing itself along the lines of outlaw country in recent years. Southern rock influence can also be seen in the metal and hardcore punk genres. This is showcased by such bands as Maylene and the Sons of Disaster, Rebel Meets Rebel, He Is Legend, Nashville Pussy, the Showdown, Alabama Thunderpussy, Every Time I Die, Cancer Bats, Clutch, Once Nothing, Memphis May Fire, Acid Bath, Down, and Of Mice & Men. Several of the original early 1970s hard rock Southern rock groups are still performing in 2011. This list includes Atlanta Rhythm Section (ARS), the Marshall Tucker Band, Molly Hatchet, Outlaws, Gregg Allman, the Allman Brothers Band, Lynyrd Skynyrd, ZZ Top, Canned Heat, Black Oak Arkansas,.38 Special and Dickey Betts. New groups such as Dixie Witch, The Marcus King Band, Widespread Panic, the Black Crowes, Gov't Mule, Blackberry Smoke, and the Derek Trucks Band are continuing the Southern rock art form. A number of books in the 2000s have chronicled Southern rock's history, including Randy Poe's \"Skydog - The Duane Allman Story\" and Rolling Stone writer Mark Kemp's \"Dixie Lullaby: A Story of Music, Race & New Beginnings in a New South.\" More recently \"Turn It Up\" was released by Ron Eckerman, Lynyrd Skynyrd's former manager and plane crash survivor. Sociologist Jason T. Eastman analyzes contemporary southern rock to illustrate changes in today's southern identity in his book \"The Southern Rock Revival: The Old South in a New World.\" Newer bands like the Deadstring Brothers, Fifth on the Floor and Whitey Morgan and the 78's combine the Southern rock sound with country, bluegrass and blues. This has been propelled by record labels like Bloodshot Records and Lost Highway Records." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Formation and early days (1979–1980).", "Early releases and \"Punk's Not Dead\" (1980–1981).", "\"Troops of Tomorrow\", \"Let's Start a War\", and \"Horror Epics\" (1982–1986).", "\"Death Before Dishonour\", \"The Massacre\" and \"Beat the Bastards\" (1987–2002).", "\"Fuck the System\" and next album (2003–present).", "Legacy.", "Musical style and influences.", "Lyrical themes and gigs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The original line-up consisted of: Terry Buchan (vocals), Stevie Ross (guitar), Colin Erskine (bass) and Andy McNiven (drums). Formed in the West Granton area of Edinburgh, a large grey council estate on the north side of the city. The band's politics was reflected in its name, coined by drummer and songwriter McNiven, whose father was a Korean War veteran and a Communist. While in the early stages as a band, with little equipment, the band were invited to play their first gig at Craigmuir School. The band seemed to be a victim of their own publicity here. They had spray-painted their band name locally and had stolen Sunday papers, milk, and rolls in the early hours of Sunday morning and redistributed them outside peoples' front door, with a note saying, \"a gift from the exploited\". Their first gig was on Friday 15 December 1978. The date was recalled by McNiven as it coincided with a performance by the Doomed (the Damned by another name) at Clouds in Edinburgh to which they went after performing their own gig. The gig was attended by Terry's older brother Wattie, who had recently left the army and was a punk in London. Wattie soon replaced Terry, and Andy McNiven and Colin Erskine were dropped from the line-up as well. Jim Park became the drummer in January 1979, first playing on 3 February 1979 at the YMCA in Edinburgh, (the day after Sid Vicious died in New York City). After a few gigs in and around Edinburgh, Stevey Hay left after an appearance in Aberdeen supporting the UK Subs. A few months later, he and Terry Buchan formed The Exposed. The Exposed split in 1980 after a gig supporting the Exploited. Terry left for London. Stevey was prominent in the Edinburgh band scene during the 1980s. Stevey died 14 July 2013 after a successful career as a blues musician. Obituary: Stevey Hay, musician", "Influenced by 1970s punk rock music such as music by the Sex Pistols, the quartet created a simple, no-frills sound characterised by speed and aggression. In 1980, the group founded its own independent record label, Exploited Records, and released their debut EP \"Army Life\", which was #6 in the Indie/Independent charts for eight weeks, then was in the Top 20 for eighteen months. The B-side was called \"Fuck the Mods / Crashed Out\" and the record's back cover stated \"To all the Edinburgh punks and skins - keep on mod-bashing!!\". They then released another single, \"Barmy Army\", which jumped into the independent charts and remained there for 53 weeks, peaking at #4. Their single \"Dead Cities\" peaked at #31 on the UK Charts. Their single \"Exploited Barmy Army\" peaked at #4 on the Independent/Indie In March 1981, the band signed to Secret Records, and spent a month recording their debut album, \"Punks Not Dead\". The Exploited released the single \"Dogs of War\", which peaked at #2 in the Independent charts and #63 on the UK Charts. Also in 1981, the band released their first live album, \"On Stage\", recorded during a concert in Edinburgh. Thereafter, the band performed, along with Discharge, Anti-Nowhere League, Anti-Pasti and Chron Gen on a tour called \"Apocalypse Now\", which was recorded and released as a live album. Their album \"Punks Not Dead\", released in April 1981, went to #20 in May, then number 1 on the Independent Charts. During this time, the Exploited appeared on the popular mainstream TV programme, A lot of fans of the Exploited were unhappy with the band's decision to appear on the show. The hardcore punk band Conflict wrote the song \"Exploitation\" about this appearance, which began a long-standing rivalry between Conflict and the Exploited that divided the punk fan base.", "The band released the albums \"Troops of Tomorrow\" in 1982, \"Let's Start a War\" in 1983 and \"Horror Epics\" in 1985. The period between these albums was marked by severe discord over the band's musical direction: guitarist Big John Duncan and bassist Gary McCormack both left to form new bands—\"bands with disco beats and guitar solos, total shit\", in Wattie's words—and the band went through a rapid succession of drummers, one of whom allegedly left after a \"nervous breakdown\". The band was driven away from the Secret label by new management who demanded unrealistic changes in style and personnel. Their next label, a tiny enterprise named Pax Records, folded after its owner fled with all its assets. The concert album \"Live at the White House\" was recorded in Washington, D.C. in 1985 at the 9:30 Club and was released the following year in 1986. They also released the studio EP \"Jesus Is Dead\" in 1986, following up with \"Live and Loud\", a videography of the Exploited performing around Europe and in the United States. During the tour of the US, Wattie and Karl Morris had a fight on stage, and Karl left shortly afterwards. He was briefly replaced by Mad Mick, who then disappeared without trace. Nigel Swanson was then appointed as the new guitarist.", "\"Sexual Favours\", a single from the album \"Death Before Dishonour\", was released in 1987. The album only ranked in the top 200 of the Britain Alternative Music list. However, the album sold out quickly. The album's cover featured artwork from the American punk artist Pushead, who complained that he was neither paid nor credited for the work. In 1990, the Exploited released their album \"The Massacre\". The album is a crossover thrash album. The band went on to release a \"Singles Collection\" album in 1993. The Exploited also released the videography \"Live in Japan\" in 1993. Their album \"Beat the Bastards\" was released in April 1996.", "In early 2003, the band released the album \"Fuck the System\" on Dream Catcher Records, and in the following year, they toured in the UK and US. On 14 October 2003, about 500 fans started a riot in Montreal, Canada after an Exploited concert was cancelled due to the band not being allowed into the country. Rioters destroyed eight cars and set them on fire; broke eleven shop windows and caused other damage. The band were banned from playing in Mexico City due to the riot. In a 2012 interview, Wattie Buchan claimed that a new album was being finished. In February 2014, Wattie Buchan suffered a heart attack on stage during a performance in Lisbon on the band's \"Taste of Chaos\" Tour with Hatebreed and Napalm Death. He was taken to a hospital, where he was expected to receive treatment for at least a week. The band signed a deal with Nuclear Blast Records, and was to have many of its albums reissued in March 2014. The band had also confirmed that its first album in a decade would be released during the 2010s. It is currently unknown when the album will be released. In March 2020, Wattie Buchan responded to the coronavirus outbreak that was forcing bands to cancel or postpone tours. He commented by taking a shot at Green Day (a band on many occasions he has admitted to hating) saying \"Fuck coronavirus! I have had 5 heart attacks a quad heart bypass and a heart pacemaker fitted. Cancel gigs for a virus? We ain't fucking Green Day piss - We are the real deal. No danger will we be cancelling our upcoming gigs. Punks Not Dead!\" The Australian leg of the tour was then cancelled four days later, though the band completed all the scheduled New Zealand gigs.", "The Exploited are one of the iconic bands of the UK 82 punk movement along with Charged GBH and. The term \"UK 82\" came from the Exploited's song \"UK 82\". AllMusic described the Exploited as \"one of most riveting British punk rock units of the early 1980s\". The Exploited have influenced multiple bands such as Metallica, Slayer, Anthrax, Nirvana, Queens of the Stone Age, Discharge, Stormtroopers of Death, Agnostic Front, Exodus, the Virus, Napalm Death, Terrorizer, NOFX, Rancid, Dropkick Murphys, the Casualties, Pennywise, 7 Seconds, Anti-Flag, Blanks 77, Atari Teenage Riot, Death Angel, and Total Chaos. In the 2007 documentary \"Punk's Not Dead\", both Wattie and Wullie Buchan are interviewed. They are the only two native speakers in the documentary to be given subtitles, as many North Americans struggle to understand the Scots language used.", "The Exploited has been categorised as crossover thrash, punk rock, thrash metal, speed metal, punk metal, anarchist punk, street punk and Originally playing street punk and oi!, the Exploited became a crossover thrash band with their album \"Death Before Dishonour\". The Exploited's influences include Sex Pistols, the Vibrators, the Threats, and Johnny Moped.", "The Exploited have been controversial for their aggressive lyrics and rowdy gigs. They were considered \"cartoon punks\" by Ian Glasper. Glasper wrote: \"For many, the Exploited were the quintessential second wave punk band with their senses-searing high-speed outbursts against the system, and wild-eyed frontman Walter 'Wattie' Buchan's archetypal orange mohican.\" The Exploited are known for their lyrics about anarchy, politics and anti-authority. In a 1983 interview, the Exploited said that they were not a political band, but their lyrics became political in the late 1980s and Wattie Buchan said in the documentary \"Punk's Not Dead\" that punk is defined by its politics. As a band with lyrics that have anarchist themes, the Exploited's vocalist Wattie Buchan describes himself as an anarchist and openly hates politics. The Exploited have made songs about former British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and have expressed a disdainful view towards Thatcher. The Exploited's song \"Maggie\", a song from the band's album \"Horror Epics\", is about Thatcher. The Exploited's third studio album, \"Let's Start a War... (Said Maggie One Day)\", focuses on Margaret Thatcher and the Falklands War. Other topics of the album are police-driven riots, war, unemployment and hopelessness. Many songs from the mid-'80s focus on the threat of nuclear war. The fans of the Exploited were nicknamed \"the Barmy Army\". During the rivalry between the Exploited and Conflict, there were occasional clashes with fans of Conflict, known as \"the Conflict Crew\". In addition to the anti-social behaviour of the band and some of their fans, the Exploited would often pull out of gigs at short notice in the 1980s, which led many venues to refuse to work with them. After the 1981 Southall riot, Oi! bands in general became associated with racism, and the Exploited were sometimes believed to be a racist band because of Wattie's swastika tattoo, an incident in the early '80s where Wattie fought with a group of Asians in a cafe and in 1985 when \"Deptford John\" joined from the skinhead band Combat 84. The band has denied all accusations of racism. As of August 2017, the band's website contains a history of the band that mentions some of the problems that have accompanied their gigs, such as a riot after a gig at the Rainbow in Finsbury Park, London when the Jam were playing nearby and Wattie incited the fans to attack the Mods, and having declared onstage in Argentina that the Falkland Islands are British forever. George Same has written about the fighting after the Finsbury Park gig in his book on modern music, \"Backward Moddy Boy\". In a documentary about the band, former manager Gem Howard said that he would often sneak the band out of hotels late, as they would often vandalise the hotel and steal everything that they could from the rooms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic definitions.", "Prime ideals.", "Maximal ideals.", "Applications.", "History.", "Literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A subset \"I\" of a partially ordered set (\"P\", ≤) is an ideal, if the following conditions hold: While this is the most general way to define an ideal for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the following equivalent definition can be given: a subset \"I\" of a lattice (\"P\", ≤) is an ideal if and only if it is a lower set that is closed under finite joins (suprema), i.e., it is nonempty and for all \"x\", \"y\" in \"I\", the element formula_1 of \"P\" is also in \"I\". The dual notion of an ideal, i.e., the concept obtained by reversing all ≤ and exchanging formula_2 with formula_3, is a filter. Some authors use the term ideal to mean a lower set, i.e., they include only condition 2 above, while others use the term order ideal for this weaker notion. With the weaker definition, an ideal of a lattice seen as a poset is not closed under joins, so it is not necessarily an ideal of the lattice. Wikipedia uses only \"ideal/filter (of order theory)\" and \"lower/upper set\" to avoid confusion. Frink ideals, pseudoideals and Doyle pseudoideals are different generalizations of the notion of a lattice ideal. An ideal or filter is said to be proper if it is not equal to the whole set \"P\". The smallest ideal that contains a given element \"p\" is a principal ideal and \"p\" is said to be a principal element of the ideal in this situation. The principal ideal formula_4 for a principal \"p\" is thus given by formula_4 = {\"x\" in \"P\" | \"x\" ≤ \"p\"}.", "An important special case of an ideal is constituted by those ideals whose set-theoretic complements are filters, i.e. ideals in the inverse order. Such ideals are called prime ideals. Also note that, since we require ideals and filters to be non-empty, every prime ideal is necessarily proper. For lattices, prime ideals can be characterized as follows: A subset \"I\" of a lattice (\"P\", ≤) is a prime ideal, if and only if It is easily checked that this is indeed equivalent to stating that \"P\" \\ \"I\" is a filter (which is then also prime, in the dual sense). For a complete lattice the further notion of a completely prime ideal is meaningful. It is defined to be a proper ideal \"I\" with the additional property that, whenever the meet (infimum) of some arbitrary set \"A\" is in \"I\", some element of \"A\" is also in \"I\". So this is just a specific prime ideal that extends the above conditions to infinite meets. The existence of prime ideals is in general not obvious, and often a satisfactory amount of prime ideals cannot be derived within ZF (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice). This issue is discussed in various prime ideal theorems, which are necessary for many applications that require prime ideals.", "An ideal \"I\" is maximal if it is proper and there is no \"proper\" ideal \"J\" that is a strict superset set of \"I\". Likewise, a filter \"F\" is maximal if it is proper and there is no proper filter that is a strict superset. When a poset is a distributive lattice, maximal ideals and filters are necessarily prime, while the converse of this statement is false in general. Maximal filters are sometimes called ultrafilters, but this terminology is often reserved for Boolean algebras, where a maximal filter (ideal) is a filter (ideal) that contains exactly one of the elements {\"a\", ¬\"a\"}, for each element \"a\" of the Boolean algebra. In Boolean algebras, the terms \"prime ideal\" and \"maximal ideal\" coincide, as do the terms \"prime filter\" and \"maximal filter\". There is another interesting notion of maximality of ideals: Consider an ideal \"I\" and a filter \"F\" such that \"I\" is disjoint from \"F\". We are interested in an ideal \"M\" that is maximal among all ideals that contain \"I\" and are disjoint from \"F\". In the case of distributive lattices such an \"M\" is always a prime ideal. A proof of this statement follows. However, in general it is not clear whether there exists any ideal \"M\" that is maximal in this sense. Yet, if we assume the axiom of choice in our set theory, then the existence of \"M\" for every disjoint filter–ideal-pair can be shown. In the special case that the considered order is a Boolean algebra, this theorem is called the Boolean prime ideal theorem. It is strictly weaker than the axiom of choice and it turns out that nothing more is needed for many order-theoretic applications of ideals.", "The construction of ideals and filters is an important tool in many applications of order theory.", "Ideals were introduced first by Marshall H. Stone, who derived their name from the ring ideals of abstract algebra. He adopted this terminology because, using the isomorphism of the categories of Boolean algebras and of Boolean rings, the two notions do indeed coincide.", "Ideals and filters are among the most basic concepts of order theory. See the introductory books given for order theory and lattice theory, and the literature on the Boolean prime ideal theorem." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Serving Alexander.", "Alexander's death.", "Perdiccas's death.", "Antipater's death and the Second Diadochi War.", "The Third Diadochi War.", "The Fourth Diadochi War.", "Physical appearance.", "Monophthalmus in historical fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Not much is known about Antigonus' early career. He must have been an important figure in the Macedonian Army because when he emerges in historical sources he is in command of a large part of Alexander's army (Antigonus commanded Alexander's 7,000 allied Greek infantry). There is a story in Plutarch about an Antigonus who lost an eye at the Siege of Perinthos (340 BC) when he was struck by a catapult bolt. Since Antigonus was of the same age as Philip, and a nobleman, he almost certainly must have served during Philip’s campaigns. He might even have served under Philip’s brothers (Alexander II and Perdiccas III).", "In 334 BC, Antigonus must have participated in the battle of the Granicus since he commanded a division of the army, and Alexander's entire army was at the Granicus. When Alexander marched east he appointed Antigonus as satrap (governor) of Phrygia. After the Battle of Issus, he succeeded the Achaemenid satrap of Greater Phrygia Atizyes, who died in the battle. Antigonus successfully performed his primary responsibility: to defend Alexander's lines of supply and communication during the latter's extended campaign against the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Following Alexander's victory at Issus, part of the Persian army regrouped in Cappadocia and attempted to sever Alexander's lines of supply and communication running through the centre of Asia Minor; however, Antigonus defeated the Persian forces in three separate battles. After defeating the Persian counter-attack, Antigonus focused on conquering the rest of Phrygia and maintaining Alexander's lines of communication and supply.", "At the division of the provinces (the so-called Partition of Babylon) after Alexander's death in 323 BC, Antigonus had his authority over Phrygia, Lycaonia, Pamphylia, Lycia and western Pisidia confirmed by Perdiccas, the regent of the empire. However, he incurred the enmity of Perdiccas by refusing to assist Eumenes to obtain possession of the provinces allotted to him; Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. Leonnatus had left with his army for Greece, leaving Antigonus alone to deal with Cappadocia, a task he apparently could not or would not complete without additional aid. Perdiccas seems to have viewed this as a direct affront to his authority and led the royal army to conquer the area. From there Perdiccas turned west towards Phrygia in order to humble Antigonus, who escaped with his son Demetrius to Greece, where he obtained the favour of Antipater, the viceroy of Macedonia (321 BC), and Craterus, one of Alexander’s top generals. During the First War of the Diadochi, he formed a coalition with Antipater, Craterus and Ptolemy. In 320 BC, Antigonus sailed to and secured Cyprus. The war ended in 320 BC when Perdiccas was murdered by discontented officers (Seleucus and Antigenes) while unsuccessfully trying to invade Ptolemy's satrapy of Egypt.", "With the death of Perdiccas in 321 BC, a new attempt at dividing the empire took place at Triparadisus. Antipater was made the new Regent of the Empire and Antigonus became Strategos of Asia. Antigonus was entrusted with the command of the war against the former members of the Perdiccan faction who had been condemned at Triparadisus. Antigonus took charge of a part of the Royal Army, and after being reinforced with more reliable troops from Antipater’s European Army, he marched against the ex-Perdiccans Eumenes, Alketas, Domikos, Attalos and Polemon in Asia Minor. Antigonus decided to deal with Eumenes, who was in Cappadocia, first. Despite being outnumbered Antigonus adopted a bold attacking strategy. He eventually outgeneraled and defeated Eumenes at the Battle of Orkynia and forced him to retire to the fortress of Nora (). Leaving Eumenes under siege, Antigonus now marched on the combined forces of Alketas, Domikos, Attalos and Polemon near Cretopolis in Pisidia. Antigonus surprised and defeated his opponents at the Battle of Cretopolis. So Antigonus, in two brilliant campaigns, in the course of one campaigning season had annihilated the remnants of the Perdiccan faction with the exception of Eumenes who was bottled up in Nora.", "When Antipater died in 319 BC, he left the regentship to Polyperchon, excluding Cassander, his son. Antigonus and the other dynasts refused to recognize Polyperchon, since it would have undermined their own ambitions. Antigonus entered into negotiations with Eumenes, but Eumenes had already been swayed by Polyperchon, who gave him authority over all other generals within the empire. Affecting his escape from Nora through trickery, Eumenes raised a small army and fled south into Cilicia. Antigonus did not move against Eumenes directly because he was tied up in northwestern Asia Minor campaigning against Cleitus the White who had a large fleet at the Hellespont. Cleitus was able to defeat Antigonus's admiral Nicanor in a sea battle but he was caught off guard the next morning when Antigonus and Nicanor launched a double assault by land and sea on his camp, Cleitus was taken completely by surprise and his entire force was captured or killed. Meanwhile, Eumenes had taken control of Cilicia, Syria and Phoenicia, he had formed an alliance with Antigenes and Teutamos, the commanders of the Silver Shields and the Hypaspists, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon. When it was ready he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but off the coast of Cilicia it was met by Antigonus’s fleet and changed sides. Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east into Cilicia intent on doing battle with Eumenes in Syria. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies. Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Pheiton Karteau, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Antigonus, finding out Eumenes had left his provinces, took some time securing Cilicia and northern Syria before he marched into Mesopotamia. Unable to sway Seleucus and Pheiton, Eumenes had left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place, while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed of captured 4,000 of his men. Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies. Eumenes wanted to march westward, and cut Antigonus's lines of supply, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east. In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually the two armies in southern Media and fought in the indecisive battle of Paraitakene. Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night. During the winter of 316–315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persia by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard, unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents. A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as previous the previous battle at Parataikene. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. This baggage also included all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare; it contained not only gold, silver, gems and other booty but also the soldiers' women and children) and they wanted it back. Antigonus responded to a request for the return of the baggage train sent by Teutamus, one of their commanders, by demanding they give him Eumenes, the Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers and handed them over. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to pondered his fate. Antigonus was disinclined to kill Eumenes, in this he was backed up by his son Demetrius, but most of the council insisted he execute Eumenes and so it was decided. As a result, Antigonus now was in possession of the empire's Asian territories, his authority stretching from the eastern satrapies to Syria and Asia Minor in the west. He seized the treasuries at Susa and entered Babylon. The governor of Babylon, Seleucus, fled to Ptolemy and entered into a league with him, Lysimachus and Cassander.", "In 314 BC, Antigonus received envoys from the allied dynasts Ptolemy, Cassander and Lysimachus who demanded he cede Cappadocia and Lycia to Cassander, Hellespontine Phrygia to Lysimachus, Phoenicia and Syria to Ptolemy, and Babylonia to Seleucus, and that he should share the treasure he had accumulated. His only answer was to advise the dynasts to be ready for war. Antigonus sent Aristodemus with a 1,000 talents to the Peloponnesus to raise an army there and also to make an alliance with his old enemy Polyperchon, he and Polyperhon were then to make war on Cassander, he sent an army under his nephew Polemaios through Cappadocia to the Hellespont to keep Cassander and Lysimachus from invading Asia Minor, he himself invaded Phoenicia which was under Ptolemy's control, and besieged Tyre. The siege of Tyre took a year, and after securing Phoenicia he marched his main army into Asia Minor intent on taking out Asander (satrap of Lydia and Caria, and ally to Ptolemy and Cassander), leaving the defence of Syria and Phoenicia to his oldest son Demetrius. In 312 BC, Antigonus captured Lydia and all of Caria, and drove off Asander, he then sent his nephews Telesphorus and Polemaios against Cassander in Greece. While Antigonus was engaged in the west, Ptolemy took advantage of the situation and invaded from the south. He met Demetrius's forces at the battle of Gaza where Ptolemy won a stunning victory. After the battle, Seleucus, who was fighting for Ptolemy, made his way back to Babylonia, and soon established control over his old satrapy and went on to secure the eastern provinces against Antigonus. Seleucus's conquest led to the Babylonian War, during which Seleucus defeated both Demetrius and Antigonus, and secured control over the eastern provinces. After the Babylonian War, which lasted from 315 BC to 311 BC, a peace was concluded between Antigonus and Seleucus leaving them both to consolidate their power in their respective realms (Antigonus in the West and Seleucus in the East). In the West, Antigonus had worn down his enemies and forced a peace upon them. By this peace he had attained the zenith of his power. Antigonus' empire and alliance system now comprised: Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia and northern Mesopotamia.", "The peace agreement was soon violated by Ptolemy and Cassander based on the pretext that garrisons had been placed in some of the free Greek cities by Antigonus. Ptolemy and Cassander renewed hostilities against Antigonus. Demetrius Poliorcetes, the son of Antigonus, wrested part of Greece from Cassander. In 306 BC, Philip, Antigonus’s youngest son, died a premature death, aged about 26–28. This was a severe blow to Antigonus, who not only lost a son, but also a general who might have been of the greatest value to him in the campaigns to come. After defeating Ptolemy at the naval Battle of Salamis in 306 BC, Demetrius conquered Cyprus. Following that victory Antigonus assumed the title of king and bestowed the same upon his son. This was effectively a declaration by Antigonus that he now was independent from the empire. The other dynasts, Cassander, Ptolemy, Lysimachus and Seleucus, soon followed Antigonus' lead and declared themselves to be kings. Antigonus now prepared a large army and a formidable fleet, the command of which he gave to Demetrius, and hastened to attack Ptolemy in his own dominions. His invasion of Egypt, however, proved a failure as he was unable to penetrate Ptolemy's defences and was obliged to retire, although he inflicted heavy losses on Ptolemy. In 305 BC, Demetrius attempted the reduction of Rhodes, which had refused to assist Antigonus against Egypt. The siege of Rhodes lasted a year and ended in 304 BC when Demetrius, meeting with obstinate resistance, was obliged to make a peace treaty upon the terms that the Rhodians would build ships for Antigonus and aid him against any enemy except for Ptolemy, on whom they bestowed the title Soter (savior) for his aid during the lengthy siege. The most powerful dynasts of the empire, now kings in their own right, Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, responded to Antigonus' successes by allying with each other, often through marriage. Antigonus soon found himself at war with all four, largely because his territory shared borders with each of them. At one point, Antigonus had Cassander in a difficult position, having gained the support of the Greeks and defeating Cassander repeatedly, Antigonus demanded from Cassander the unconditional submission of Macedonia. Seleucus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy responded by joining forces and attacking him. Lysimachus and Cassander's general Prepelaos invaded Asia Minor from Thrace, crossing the Hellespont. Lysimachus had soon secured most of the Ionian cities. Meanwhile, Seleucus was marching through Mesopotamia and Cappadocia. Antigonus was obliged to recall Demetrius from Greece, where his son had recently had an indecisive encounter with Cassander in Thessaly. Now Antigonus and Demetrius moved against Lysimachus and Prepelaos. However, the army of Antigonus and Demetrius was defeated by the united forces of Seleucus, Lysimachus and Prepelaos at the decisive Battle of Ipsus in 301 BC. Antigonus died in the battle after being struck by a javelin, in the eighty-first year of his life. Prior to Ipsus, he had never lost a battle. With his death, any plans for reuniting Alexander's empire came to an end. Antigonus' kingdom was divided up, with most of his territories ending up in the hands of the new kingdoms ruled by Lysimachus and Seleucus. The victors largely followed Antigonus' precedent and had themselves named as kings, but they did not claim power over the erstwhile empire of Alexander nor each other. Instead, these kings established a troubled (and in the end failed) \"modus vivendi\" with each other, and accepted their kingdoms as separate realms. Meanwhile, Antigonus' surviving son Demetrius took control of Macedonia in 294 BC. Antigonus' descendants held this possession, off and on, until it was conquered by the Roman Republic after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC.", "Antigonus was an exceptionally large man. His son Demetrius is described as being of “heroic stature”, meaning no doubt he was a large man, but Antigonus was even taller. Besides this huge physique, he was made even more formidable in appearance because he was missing an eye, having lost it in battle (possibly at the Siege of Perinthus).", "Mary Renault, in her novel \"Funeral Games\", translates Antigonus' sobriquet into English as \"One Eye.\" In the 2004 film \"Alexander,\" directed by Oliver Stone, Antigonus is played by Ian Beattie. Antigonus appears (under the Greek form of his name, Antigonos) in L. Sprague de Camp's historical novel\" The Bronze God of Rhodes\". Antigonus figures as the main antagonist in Christian Cameron’s historical novel \"A Force of Kings\". Antigonus appears in the earlier chapters of Alfred Duggan's historical novel \"Elephants and Castles\" (U.S. title: \"Besieger of Cities\"), based on the life of his son Demetrius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Youth and debut.", "Later years.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Gjellerup was the son of a vicar in Zealand who died when his son was three years. Karl Gjellerup was raised then by the uncle of Johannes Fibiger, he grew up in a national and romantic idealistic atmosphere. In the 1870s he broke with his background and at first he became an enthusiastic supporter of the naturalist movement and Georg Brandes, writing audacious novels about free love and atheism. Strongly influenced by his origin he gradually left the Brandes line and 1885 he broke totally with the naturalists, becoming a new romanticist. A central trace of his life was his Germanophile attitude, he felt himself strongly attracted to German culture (his wife was a German) and 1892 he finally settled in Germany, which made him unpopular in Denmark on both the right and left wing. As years passed he totally identified with the German Empire, including its war aims 1914–18. Among the early works of Gjellerup must be mentioned his most important novel \"Germanernes Lærling\" (1882, i.e. \"The Germans' Apprentice\"), a partly autobiographic tale of the development of a young man from being a conformist theologian to a pro-German atheist and intellectual, and \"Minna\" (1889), on the surface, a love story but more of a study in woman's psychology. Some Wagnerian dramas show his growing romanticist interests. An important work is the novel \"Møllen\" (1896, i. e. \"The Mill\"), a sinister melodrama of love and jealousy.", "In his last years he was clearly influenced by Buddhism and Oriental culture. His critically acclaimed work \"Der Pilger Kamanita\"/\"Pilgrimen Kamanita\" (1906, i.e. \"The Pilgrim Kamanita\") has been called 'one of the oddest novels written in Danish'. It features the journey of Kamanita, an Indian merchant's son, from earthly prosperity and carnal romance, through the ups and downs of the world's way, a chance meeting with a stranger monk (who, unbeknownst to Kamanita, was actually Gautama Buddha), death, and reincarnation towards nirvana. In Thailand, which is a Buddhist country, the Thai translation of \"The Pilgrim Kamanita\" co-translated by Phraya Anuman Rajadhon was formerly used as part of the school textbooks. \"Den fuldendtes hustru\" (1907, i.e. \"The wife of the perfect\") is a versified drama, inspired by Dante's \"Divine Comedy\", about Buddha's earthly life as Siddharta, being inhibited in his spiritual efforts by his wife, Yasodhara. The giant novel \"Verdensvandrerne\" (1910, i.e. \"The world roamers\") takes its contemporary starting point in a German female academic on a study tour in India, but evolves across chronological levels, in which characters re-experience what has happened in former eons, thus featuring souls roaming from one incarnation to another. \"Rudolph Stens Landpraksis\" (1913, i.e. \"The country practice of [physician] Rudolph Sten\") is set in the rural Zealand of Gjellerup's youth. The main character develops from a liberal, superficial outlook on life, including youthful romantical conflicts, through years of reflection and asketic devotion to duty towards a more mature standpoint, hinting at the author's own course of life. \"Das heiligste Tier\" (1919, i.e. \"The holiest animal\") was Gjellerup's last work. Having elements of self-parody, it is regarded as his only attempt at humour. It is a peculiar mythological satire in which animals arrive at their own Elysium after death. These include the snake that killed Cleopatra, Odysseus' dog Argos, Wisvamitra (the holy cow of India), the donkey of Jesus and the horses of various historical commanders in field. The assembly select, after discussion, Buddha's horse Kantaka as the holiest of animals, but it has left without a trace to follow its master to nirvana.", "In Denmark, Gjellerup's Nobel award was received with little enthusiasm. He had long been regarded as a German writer. During various stages of his career, he had made himself unpopular with both the naturalist left surrounding Georg Brandes and the conservative right. His nomination for the Nobel award was, however, supported from Danish side for several times. Because Sweden was neutral during World War I, the divided prize did not arouse political speculations about partial decision, but showed on the other hand allegiance between the Nordic neighbors. Today Gjellerup is almost forgotten in Denmark. In spite of this, however, literary historians normally regard him as an honest seeker after truth. Gjellerup's works have been translated into several languages, including German (often translated by himself), Swedish, English, Dutch, Polish, Thai and others. \"The Pilgrim Kamanita\" is his most widely translated book, having been published in several European countries and the United States. In Thailand, a Buddhist country, the first half of the Thai translation of \"Kamanita\" have been used in secondary school textbooks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Methods.", "Layer method.", "Sprite method.", "Repeating pattern/animation method.", "Raster method.", "Example.", "Parallax scrolling in Web design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are four main methods of parallax scrolling used in titles for arcade system board, video game console and personal computer systems.", "Some display systems support multiple background layers that can be scrolled independently in horizontal and vertical directions and composited on one another, simulating a multiplane camera. On such a display system, a game can produce parallax by simply changing each layer's position by a different amount in the same direction. Layers that move more quickly are perceived to be closer to the virtual camera. Layers can be placed in front of the \"playfield\"—the layer containing the objects with which the player interacts—for various reasons such as to provide increased dimension, obscure some of the action of the game, or distract the player.", "Programmers may also make pseudo-layers of sprites—individually controllable moving objects drawn by hardware on top of or behind the layers—if they are available on the display system. For instance \"Star Force\", an overhead-view vertically scrolling shooter for NES, used this for its starfield, and \"Final Fight\" for the Super NES used this technique for the layer immediately in front of the main playfield. The Amiga computer has sprites which can have any height and can be set horizontal with the copper co-processor, which makes them ideal for this purpose. Risky Woods on the Amiga uses sprites multiplexed with the copper to create an entire fullscreen parallax background layer as an alternative to the system's dual playfield mode.", "Scrolling displays built up of individual tiles can be made to 'float' over a repeating background layer by animating the individual tiles' bitmaps in order to portray the parallax effect. Color cycling can be used to animate tiles quickly on the whole screen. This software effect gives the illusion of another (hardware) layer. Many games used this technique for a scrolling star-field, but sometimes a more intricate or multi-directional effect is achieved, such as in the game \"Parallax\" by Sensible Software.", "In raster graphics, the lines of pixels in an image are typically composited and refreshed in top-to-bottom order with a slight delay (called the horizontal blanking interval) between drawing one line and drawing the next line. Games designed for older graphical chipsets—such as those of the third and fourth generations of video game consoles, those of dedicated TV games, or those of similar handheld systems—take advantage of the raster characteristics to create the illusion of more layers. Some display systems have only one layer. These include most of the classic 8-bit systems (such as the Commodore 64, Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Master System, PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16 and original Game Boy). The more sophisticated games on such systems generally divide the layer into horizontal strips, each with a different position and rate of scrolling. Typically, strips higher on the screen will represent things farther away from the virtual camera or one strip will be held stationary to display status information. The program will then wait for horizontal blank and change the layer's scroll position just before the display system begins to draw each scanline. This is called a \"raster effect\" and is also useful for changing the system palette to provide a gradient background. Some platforms (such as the Commodore 64, Amiga, Sega Master System, PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16, Sega Mega Drive/Genesis, Super NES, Game Boy, Game Boy Advance and Nintendo DS) provide a horizontal blank interrupt for automatically setting the registers independently of the rest of the program. Others, such as the NES, require the use of cycle-timed code, which is specially written to take exactly as long to execute as the video chip takes to draw one scanline, or timers inside game cartridges that generate interrupts after a given number of scanlines have been drawn. Many NES games use this technique to draw their status bars, and \"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Arcade Game\" and \"\" for NES use it to scroll background layers at different rates. More advanced raster techniques can produce interesting effects. A system can achieve a very effective depth of field if layers with rasters are combined; \"Sonic the Hedgehog\", \"Sonic The Hedgehog 2\", \"ActRaiser\", \"Lionheart\" and \"Street Fighter II\" used this effect well. If each scanline has its own layer, the \"Pole Position\" effect is produced, which creates a pseudo-3D road (or a pseudo-3D ball court as in \"NBA Jam\") on a 2D system. If the display system supports rotation and scaling in addition to scrolling—an effect popularly known as Mode 7—changing the rotation and scaling factors can draw a projection of a plane (as in \"F-Zero\" and \"Super Mario Kart\") or can warp the playfield to create an extra challenge factor. Another advanced technique is row/column scrolling, where rows/columns of tiles on a screen can be scrolled individually. This technique is implemented in the graphics chips of various Sega arcade system boards since the Sega Space Harrier and System 16, the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis console, and the Capcom CP System, Irem M-92 and Taito F3 System arcade game boards.", "In the following animation, three layers are moving leftward at different speeds. Their speeds decrease from front to back and correspond to increases in relative distance from the viewer. The ground layer is moving 8 times as fast as the vegetation layer. The vegetation layer is moving two times as fast as the cloud layer.", "One of the first implementations of parallax scrolling in the browser was created and shared in a blog post by web developer Glutnix in 2007, this included example code and a demo using Javascript and CSS2 that supported IE6 and other browsers of that era. However, it wasn't until 2011 and the introduction of HTML5 and CSS3 coding that the technique became popular with Web designers. Advocates argue it is a simple way to embrace the fluidity of the Web. Proponents use parallax backgrounds as a tool to better engage users and improve the overall experience that a website provides. However, a Purdue University study, published in 2013, revealed the following findings: \"... although parallax scrolling enhanced certain aspects of the user experience, it did not necessarily improve the overall user experience\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Distinction from palatalized consonants and consonant clusters.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The most common type of palatal consonant is the extremely common approximant, which ranks as among the ten most common sounds in the world's languages. The nasal is also common, occurring in around 35 percent of the world's languages, in most of which its equivalent obstruent is not the stop, but the affricate. Only a few languages in northern Eurasia, the Americas and central Africa contrast palatal stops with postalveolar affricates - as in Hungarian, Czech, Latvian, Macedonian, Slovak, Turkish and Albanian. Consonants with other primary articulations may be palatalized, that is, accompanied by the raising of the tongue surface towards the hard palate. For example, English (spelled \"sh\") has such a palatal component, although its primary articulation involves the tip of the tongue and the upper gum (this type of articulation is called palatoalveolar). In phonology, alveolo-palatal, palatoalveolar and palatovelar consonants are commonly grouped as palatals, since these categories rarely contrast with true palatals. Sometimes palatalized alveolars or dentals can be analyzed in this manner as well.", "Palatal consonants can be distinguished from palatalized consonants and consonant clusters of a consonant and the palatal approximant. Palatal consonants have their primary articulation toward or in contact with the hard palate, whereas palatalized consonants have a primary articulation in some other area and a secondary articulation involving movement towards the hard palate. Palatal and palatalized consonants are both single phonemes, whereas a sequence of a consonant and is logically two phonemes. Irish distinguishes the palatal nasal from the palatalized alveolar nasal. In fact, some conservative Irish dialects have two palatalized alveolar nasals, distinguished as \"fortis\" (apical and somewhat lengthened) vs. \"lenis\" (laminal). Spanish marginally distinguishes palatal consonants from sequences of a dental and the palatal approximant: Sometimes the term \"palatal\" is used imprecisely to mean \"palatalized\". Also, languages that have sequences of consonants and /j/, but no separate palatal or palatalized consonants (e.g. English), will often pronounce the sequence with /j/ as a single palatal or palatalized consonant. This is due to the principle of least effort and is an example of the general phenomenon of coarticulation. (On the other hand, Spanish speakers can be careful to pronounce /nj/ as two separate sounds to avoid possible confusion with.)", "For a table of examples of palatal in the Romance languages, see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Postalveolar sibilants.", "Tongue shape.", "Point of tongue contact (laminal, apical, subapical).", "Position of tongue tip (laminal \"closed\").", "Examples.", "Postalveolar non-sibilants.", "Non-palatalized (retroflex).", "Palatalized.", "Examples.", "Postalveolar clicks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The sibilant postalveolars (fricatives and affricates) are sometimes called \"hush consonants\" because they include the sound of English \"Shhh!\" (as distinguished from the hiss consonant, as in \"Ssss!\"). For most sounds involving the tongue, the place of articulation can be sufficiently identified just by specifying the point of contact on the upper part of the mouth (for example, velar consonants involve contact on the soft palate and dental consonants involve the teeth), along with any secondary articulation such as palatalization (raising of the tongue body) or labialization (lip rounding). However, among sibilants, particularly postalveolar sibilants, there are slight differences in the shape of the tongue and the point of contact on the tongue itself, which correspond to large differences in the resulting sound. For example, the alveolar fricative and the three postalveolar fricatives differ noticeably both in pitch and sharpness; the order corresponds to progressively lower-pitched and duller (less \"hissy\" or piercing) sounds. ( is the highest-pitched and most piercing, which is the reason that hissing sounds like \"Sssst!\" or \"Psssst!\" are typically used to attract someone's attention). As a result, it is necessary to specify many additional subtypes.", "The main distinction is the shape of the tongue, which corresponds to differing degrees of palatalization (raising of the front of the tongue). From least to most palatalized, they are \"retroflex\" (such as, unpalatalized); \"palato-alveolar\" (such as, weakly palatalized); and \"alveolo-palatal\" (such as, strongly palatalized). The increasing palatalization corresponds to progressively higher-pitched and sharper-sounding consonants. Less technically, the retroflex consonant sounds somewhat like a mixture between the regular English of \"ship\" and the \"h\" at the beginning of \"heard\", especially when it is pronounced forcefully and with a strong American \"r\". The alveolo-palatal consonant sounds like a strongly palatalized version of, somewhat like \"nourish you\". Palato-alveolar sounds are normally described as having a convex (a bunched-up or \"domed\") tongue. The front, central part of the tongue is somewhat raised compared to the tip, back and sides, which gives it a weak palatalization. For retroflex sounds, the tongue shape is either concave (usually when apical or subapical, made with the tip of the tongue) or flat (usually when laminal, made with the area behind the tongue tip). For alveolo-palatal sounds, the front half of the tongue is flat and raised so that it closely parallels the upper surface of the mouth, from the teeth to the hard palate. Behind that is a sudden convex bend. The following table shows the three types of postalveolar sibilant fricatives defined in the IPA:", "A second variable is whether the contact occurs with the very tip of the tongue (an \"apical\" articulation ). With the surface just above the tip, the \"blade\" of the tongue (a \"laminal\" articulation ), or with the underside of the tip (a \"subapical\" articulation). Apical and subapical articulations are always \"tongue-up\", with the tip of the tongue above the teeth, and laminal articulations are often \"tongue-down\", with the tip of the tongue behind the lower teeth. The upward curvature of the tongue tip to make apical or subapical contact renders palatalization more difficult so domed (palato-alveolar) consonants are not attested with subapical articulation and fully palatalized (such as alveolo-palatal) sounds occur only with laminal articulation. Also, the apical-laminal distinction among palato-alveolar sounds makes little (although presumably non-zero) perceptible difference; both articulations, in fact, occur among English-speakers. As a result, the differing points of tongue contact (laminal, apical and subapical) are significant largely for retroflex sounds. Retroflex sounds can also occur outside of the postalveolar region, ranging from as far back as the hard palate to as far forward as the alveolar region behind the teeth. Subapical retroflex sounds are often palatal (and vice versa), which occur particularly in the Dravidian languages.", "There is an additional distinction that can be made among tongue-down laminal sounds, depending on exactly where behind the lower teeth the tongue tip is placed. A bit behind the lower teeth is a hollow area (or pit) in the lower surface of the mouth. When the tongue tip rests in the hollowed area, there is an empty space below the tongue (a \"sublingual cavity\"), which results in a relatively more \"hushing\" sound. When the tip of the tongue rests against the lower teeth, there is no sublingual cavity, resulting in a more \"hissing\" sound. Generally, the tongue-down postalveolar consonants have the tongue tip on the hollowed area (with a sublingual cavity), whereas for the tongue-down alveolar consonants, the tongue tip rests against the teeth (no sublingual cavity), which accentuates the hissing vs. hushing distinction of these sounds. However, the palato-alveolar sibilants in Northwest Caucasian languages such as the extinct Ubykh have the tongue tip resting directly against the lower teeth rather than in the hollowed area. Ladefoged and Maddieson term it a \"\"closed\" laminal postalveolar\" articulation, which gives the sounds a quality that Catford describes as \"hissing-hushing\" sounds. Catford transcribes them as (that is not IPA notation; the obsolete IPA letters have occasionally been resurrected for these sounds). A laminal \"closed\" articulation could also be made with alveolo-palatal sibilants and a laminal \"non-closed\" articulation with alveolar sibilants, but no language appears to do so. In addition, no language seems to have a minimal contrast between two sounds based only on the \"closed\"/\"non-closed\" variation, with no concomitant articulatory distinctions (for all languages, including the Northwest Caucasian languages, if the language has two laminal sibilants, one of which is \"closed\" and the other is \"non-closed\", they will also differ in some other ways).", "A few languages distinguish three different postalveolar sibilant tongue shapes () such as the Sino-Tibetan Northern Qiang and Southern Qiang, which make such a distinction among affricates (but only a two-way distinction among fricatives) and the Northwest Caucasian languages Ubykh (now extinct) and Abkhaz). More common are languages such as Mandarin Chinese and Polish, which distinguish two postalveolar sibilants, typically since they are maximally distinct. The attested possibilities, with exemplar languages, are as follows. IPA diacritics are simplified, and some articulations would require two diacritics to be fully specified, but only one is used to keep the results legible without the need for OpenType IPA fonts. Also, Peter Ladefoged, whose notation is used here, has resurrected an obsolete IPA symbol, the under dot, to indicate the apical postalveolar, which is normally included in the category of retroflex consonants. The notation is sometimes reversed, and either may also be called'retroflex' and written.", "Non-sibilant sounds can also be made in the postalveolar region, the number of acoustically distinct variations is then significantly reduced. The primary distinction for such sounds is between laminal palatalized and apical retroflex non-palatalized. (Subapical retroflex non-sibilants also occur but tend to be palatal, as for sibilants.)", "Retroflex stops, nasals and laterals (like ) occur in a number of languages across the world such as in South Asian languages such as Hindi and various East Asian languages such as Vietnamese. The sounds are fairly rare in European languages but occur, for example, in Swedish; they are then often considered to be allophones of sequences such as or. Also, for some languages that distinguish \"dental\" vs. \"alveolar\" stops and nasals, they are actually articulated nearer to prealveolar and postalveolar, respectively. The normal rhotic consonant (\"r\"-sound) in American English is a retroflex approximant (the equivalent in British English is an alveolar approximant ). Retroflex rhotics of various sorts, especially approximants and flaps occur commonly in the world's languages. Some languages also have retroflex trills. Tamil and Malayalam have two trills, at least for many speakers, vs., the latter of which being retroflex. Toda is particularly unusual in that it has \"six\" trills, including a palatalized/non-palatalized distinction and a three-way place distinction among dental, alveolar and retroflex trills.", "Palatalized postalveolar non-sibilants are usually considered to be alveolo-palatal. Some non-sibilant sounds in some languages are said to be palato-alveolar rather than alveolo-palatal, but in practice, it is unclear if there is any consistent acoustic distinction between the two types of sounds. In phonological descriptions, alveolo-palatal postalveolar non-sibilants are usually not distinguished as such but are considered to be variants of either palatal non-sibilants (such as or of palatalized alveolar non-sibilants (such as ). Even the two types are often not distinguished among nasals and laterals, as almost all languages have only one palatalized/palatal nasal or lateral in their phonemic inventories. For example, the sound described as a \"palatal lateral\" in various Romance languages and often indicated as is most often alveolo-palatal (like in Catalan and Italian) and sometimes a palatalized alveolar, such as in some northern Brazilian Portuguese dialects. The IPA does not have specific symbols for alveolo-palatal non-sibilants, but they can be denoted using the advanced diacritic like. Sinologists often use special symbols for alveolo-palatal non-sibilants,, created by analogy with the curls used to mark alveolo-palatal sibilants. However, the actual sounds indicated using these symbols are often palatal or palatalized alveolar rather than alveolo-palatal, like the variation for symbols like. The decision to use the special alveolo-palatal symbols in sinology is largely based on distributional similarities between the sounds in question and the alveolo-palatal sibilants, which are prominent in many East Asian languages. However, a few languages distinguish alveolo-palatal sounds from other palatalized non-sibilants in the dental-to-palatal region. Many conservative dialects of Irish in fact have a three-way distinction among palatalized nasals between dorsal palatal, laminal alveolo-palatal, and apical palatalized alveolar. That is typical with oppositions among similar sounds in a single language, the sounds being maximally different in that each one differs both in the point of contact on the tongue (dorsal vs. laminal vs. apical) and the roof of the mouth (palatal vs. postalveolar vs. alveolar from all others). The other dialects have lost one of the two palatalized coronals but still have a two-way distinction. A similar distinction between palatal and alveolo-palatal exists in some nonstandard forms of Malayalam.", "Some languages distinguish palatalized (alveolo-palatal) and non-palatalized (retroflex) postalveolar nasals and/or laterals. Some Australian languages distinguish four coronal nasals and laterals: laminal dental, apical alveolar, laminal postalveolar (palatalized), and apical postalveolar (retroflex). The nonstandard Malayalam dialects mentioned above have five acute (including four coronal) nasals: laminal dental, apical alveolar, laminal postalveolar (palatalized), subapical palatal (retroflex), and dorsal palatal (palatalized) (in addition to labial and velar ). Standard Malayalam lacks the laminal palatalized postalveolar. The conservative Irish dialects mentioned above also have five acute nasals, again including four coronal; however, only four different primary articulations are involved, as a secondary velarized/palatalized distinction is at play. The sounds in question are laminal dental velarized, apical alveolar velarized, apical alveolar palatalized, laminal postalveolar (palatalized), and dorsal palatal (in addition to labial velarized, labial palatalized and velar ). The eight sounds participate in four velarized/palatalized pairs: ; ; ;. Other dialects have variously reduced the four coronal nasals to three or two.", "There are two postalveolar click types that can occur, commonly described as \"postalveolar\" and \"palatal\", but they would be perhaps more accurately described as apical and laminal postalveolar, respectively:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Other sounds.", "Transcription.", "Occurrence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Retroflex consonants, like other coronal consonants, come in several varieties, depending on the shape of the tongue. The tongue may be either flat or concave, or even with the tip curled back. The point of contact on the tongue may be with the tip (), with the blade (), or with the underside of the tongue (). The point of contact on the roof of the mouth may be with the alveolar ridge (), the area behind the alveolar ridge (), or the hard palate (). Finally, both sibilant ( or ) and nonsibilant (,,, ) consonants can have a retroflex articulation. The greatest variety of combinations occurs with sibilants, because for these, small changes in tongue shape and position cause significant changes in the resulting sound. Retroflex sounds in general have a duller, lower-pitched sound than other alveolar or postalveolar consonants, and especially the sibilants. The farther back the point of contact with the roof of the mouth, the more concave is the shape of the tongue, and the duller (lower pitched) is the sound, with subapical consonants being the most extreme. The main combinations normally observed are: The subapical sounds are sometimes called \"true retroflex\" because of the curled-back shape of the tongue, while the other sounds sometimes go by other names. For example, Ladefoged and Maddieson prefer to call the laminal post-alveolar sounds \"flat post-alveolar\".", "Retroflex sounds must be distinguished from other consonants made in the same parts of the mouth: The first three types of sounds above have a convex tongue shape, which gives them an additional secondary articulation of palatalization. The last type has a groove running down the center line of the tongue, which gives it a strongly hissing quality. The retroflex sounds, however, have a flat or concave shape, with no associated palatalization, and no groove running down the tongue. The term \"retroflex\", in fact, literally means \"bent back\" (concave), although consonants with a flat tongue shape are commonly considered retroflex as well.", "In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the symbols for retroflex consonants are typically the same as for the alveolar consonants, but with the addition of a right-facing hook to the bottom of the symbol. Retroflex consonants are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet as follows: Some linguists restrict these symbols for consonants with subapical palatal articulation, in which the tongue is curled back and contacts the hard palate, and use the alveolar symbols with the obsolete IPA underdot symbol for an apical post-alveolar articulation:, and use for laminal retroflex, as in Polish and Russian. The latter are also often transcribed with a retraction diacritic, as. Otherwise they are typically but inaccurately transcribed as if they were palato-alveolar, as. Consonants with more forward articulation, in which the tongue touches the Alveolar or postalveolar region rather than the hard palate, can be indicated with the retracted diacritic (minus sign below). This occurs especially for ; other sounds indicated this way, such as, tend to refer to alveolo-palatal rather than retroflex consonants.", "Although data are not precise, about 20 percent of the world's languages contain retroflex consonants of one sort or another. About half of these possess only retroflex continuants, with most of the rest having both stops and continuants. Retroflex consonants are concentrated in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in the Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages, but are found in other languages of the region as well, such as the Munda languages and Burushaski. The Nuristani languages of eastern Afghanistan also have retroflex consonants. Among Eastern Iranian languages, they are common in Pashto, Wakhi, Sanglechi-Ishkashimi, and Munji-Yidgha. They also occur in some other Asian languages such as Mandarin Chinese, Javanese and Vietnamese. The other major concentration is in the indigenous languages of Australia and the Western Pacific (notably New Caledonia). Here, most languages have retroflex plosives, nasal and approximants. Retroflex consonants are relatively rare among European languages but are used in such languages as Swedish and Norwegian in Northern Europe, some Romance languages of Southern Europe (Sardinian, Sicilian, including Calabrian and Salentino, some Italian dialects such as Lunigianese in Italy, and some Asturian dialects in Spain), and (sibilants only) Faroese and several Slavic languages (Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak and Sorbian). In Swedish and Norwegian, a sequence of \"r\" plus a coronal consonant may be replaced by the coronal's retroflex equivalent, e.g. the name \"Martin\" is pronounced (Swedish) or (Norwegian), and \"nord\" (\"north\") is pronounced. This is sometimes done for several consonants in a row after an \"r\" — Hornstull is pronounced ). The retroflex approximant is an allophone of the alveolar approximant in many dialects of American English, particularly in the Midwestern United States. Polish and Russian possess retroflex sibilants, but no stops or liquids at this place of articulation. Retroflex consonants are largely absent from indigenous languages of the Americas with the exception of the extreme south of South America, an area in Southwestern US as in Hopi and O'odham, and in Alaska and the Yukon Territory as in the Athabaskan languages Gwich’in and Hän. In African languages retroflex consonants are also rare, reportedly occurring in a few Nilo-Saharan languages, as well as in the Bantu language Makhuwa and some other varieties. In southwest Ethiopia, phonemically distinctive retroflex consonants are found in Bench and Sheko, two contiguous, but not closely related, Omotic languages. There are several retroflex consonants not yet recognized by the IPA. For example, the Iwaidja language of northern Australia has a retroflex lateral flap as well as a retroflex tap and retroflex lateral approximant ; and the Dravidian language Toda has a subapical retroflex lateral fricative and a retroflexed trill. Because of the regularity of deriving retroflex symbols from their alveolar counterparts, people will occasionally use a font editor to create the appropriate symbols for such sounds. (Here they were written with diacritics.) The Ngad'a language of Flores has been reported to have a retroflex implosive, but in this case the expected symbol is coincidentally supported by Unicode. Subapical retroflex clicks occur in Central Juu and in Damin. Most languages with retroflex sounds typically have only one retroflex sound with a given manner of articulation. An exception, however, is the Toda language, with a two-way distinction among retroflex sibilants between apical (post)alveolar and subapical palatal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Notation.", "Affricates vs. stop–fricative sequences.", "List of affricates.", "Sibilant affricates.", "Trilled affricates.", "Heterorganic affricates.", "Phonation, coarticulation and other variants.", "Phonological representation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The English sounds spelled \"ch\" and \"j\" (broadly transcribed as and in the IPA), German and Italian \"z\" and Italian \"z\" are typical affricates, and sounds like these are fairly common in the world's languages, as are other affricates with similar sounds, such as those in Polish and Chinese. However, voiced affricates other than are relatively uncommon. For several places of articulation they are not attested at all. Much less common are labiodental affricates, such as in German and Izi, or velar affricates, such as in Tswana (written \"kg\") or in High Alemannic Swiss German dialects. Worldwide, relatively few languages have affricates in these positions even though the corresponding stop consonants, and, are common or virtually universal. Also less common are alveolar affricates where the fricative release is lateral, such as the sound found in Nahuatl and Navajo. Some other Athabaskan languages, such as Dene Suline, have unaspirated, aspirated, and ejective series of affricates whose release may be dental, alveolar, postalveolar, or lateral:,,,,,,,,,,, and.", "Affricates are transcribed in the International Phonetic Alphabet by a combination of two letters, one for the stop element and the other for the fricative element. In order to show that these are parts of a single consonant, a tie bar is generally used. The tie bar appears most commonly above the two letters, but may be placed under them if it fits better there, or simply because it is more legible. Thus: or A less common notation indicates the release of the affricate with a superscript: This is derived from the IPA convention of indicating other releases with a superscript. However, this convention is more typically used for a fricated release that is too brief to be considered a true affricate. Though they are no longer standard IPA, ligatures are available in Unicode for eight common affricates Any of these notations can be used to distinguish an affricate from a sequence of a stop plus a fricative, which exists in some languages such as Polish. However, in languages where there is no such distinction, such as English, the tie bars are commonly dropped. In other phonetic transcription systems, such as the Americanist system, affricates may be transcribed with single letters. The affricates,,,,, are transcribed respectively as or ;,, or (older) ; or ;,, or (older) ; ; and or. Within the IPA, and are sometimes transcribed with the symbols for the palatal stops, and.", "In some languages, affricates contrast phonemically with stop–fricative sequences: The exact phonetic difference varies between languages. In stop–fricative sequences, the stop has a release burst before the fricative starts; but in affricates, the fricative element \"is\" the release. Phonologically, stop–fricative sequences may have a syllable boundary between the two segments, but not necessarily. In English, and (\"nuts\", \"nods\") are considered phonemically stop–fricative sequences. They often contain a morpheme boundary (for example, \"nuts\" = \"nut\" + \"s\"). The English affricate phonemes and do not generally contain morpheme boundaries. Depending on dialect, English speakers may distinguish an affricate from a stop–fricative sequence in some contexts such as when the sequence occurs across syllable boundaries: The in 'bent shudder' debuccalizes to a glottal stop before in many dialects, making it phonetically distinct from. One acoustic criterion for differentiating affricates and stop–fricative sequences is the rate of amplitude increase of the frication noise, which is known as the \"rise time\". Affricates have a short rise time to the peak frication amplitude; stop–fricative sequences have longer rise times (Howell & Rosen 1983, Johnson 2003, Mitani et al. 2006).", "In the case of coronals, the symbols are normally used for the stop portion of the affricate regardless of place. For example, is commonly seen for. The exemplar languages are ones that have been reported to have these sounds, but in several cases they may need confirmation.", "The Northwest Caucasian languages Abkhaz and Ubykh both contrast sibilant affricates at four places of articulation: alveolar, postalveolar, alveolo-palatal and retroflex. They also distinguish voiceless, voiced, and ejective affricates at each of these. When a language only has one type of affricate, it is usually a sibilant; this is the case in e.g. Arabic (), most dialects of Spanish (), and Thai ().", "Pirahã and Wari’ have a dental stop with bilabial trilled release.", "Although most affricates are homorganic, Navajo and Chiricahua Apache have a heterorganic alveolar-velar affricate (Hoijer & Opler 1938, Young & Morgan 1987, Ladefoged & Maddeison 1996, McDonough 2003, McDonough & Wood 2008, Iskarous, et.al. 2012). Wari’ and Pirahã have a voiceless dental bilabially trilled affricate [t̪ʙ̥] (see #Trilled affricates). Other heterorganic affricates are reported for Northern Sotho (Johnson 2003) and other Bantu languages such as Phuthi, which has alveolar–labiodental affricates and, and Sesotho, which has bilabial–palatoalveolar affricates and. Djeoromitxi (Pies 1992) has and.", "The more common of the voiceless affricates are all attested as ejectives as well:. Several Khoisan languages such as!Xóõ are reported to have voiced ejective affricates, but these may actually be consonant clusters:. Affricates are also commonly aspirated:, occasionally murmured:, and sometimes prenasalized:. Labialized, palatalized, velarized, and pharyngealized affricates also occur. Affricates may also have phonemic length, that is, affected by a chroneme, as in Italian and Karelian.", "In phonology, affricates tend to behave similarly to stops, taking part in phonological patterns that fricatives do not. Kehrein analyzes phonetic affricates as phonological stops. A sibilant or lateral (and presumably trilled) stop can be realized phonetically only as an affricate and so might be analyzed phonemically as a sibilant or lateral stop. In that analysis, affricates other than sibilants and laterals are a phonetic mechanism for distinguishing stops at similar places of articulation (like more than one labial, coronal, or dorsal place). For example, Chipewyan has laminal dental vs. apical alveolar ; other languages may contrast velar with palatal and uvular. Affricates may also be a strategy to increase the phonetic contrast between aspirated or ejective and tenuis consonants. According to Kehrein, no language contrasts a non-sibilant, non-lateral affricate with a stop at the same place of articulation and with the same phonation and airstream mechanism, such as and or and. In feature-based phonology, affricates are distinguished from stops by the feature [+delayed release]. Affrication (sometimes called \"affricatization\") is a sound change by which a consonant, usually a stop or fricative, changes into an affricate. Examples include: In rare instances, a fricative–stop contour may occur. This is the case in dialects of Scottish Gaelic that have velar frication where other dialects have pre-aspiration. For example, in the Harris dialect there is'seven' and 'eight' (or, )." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Shop Press.", "An example of peculiar press control: servo-press.", "Types of presses.", "History.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Typically consisting of a simple rectangular frame, often fabricated from C-channel or tubing, containing a bottle jack or hydraulic cylinder to apply pressure via a ram to a workpiece. Often used for general-purpose forming work in the auto mechanic shop, machine shop, garage or basement shops, etc. Typical shop presses are capable of applying between 1 and 30 tons pressure, depending on size and construction. Lighter-duty versions are often called arbor presses. A shop press is commonly used to press interference fit parts together, such as gears onto shafts or bearings into housings.", "A servomechanism press, also known as a \"servo press\" or a \"'electro press\", is a press driven by an AC servo motor. The torque produced is converted to a linear force via a ball screw. Pressure and position are controlled through a load cell and an encoder. The main advantage of a servo press is its low energy consumption; its only 10-20% of other press machines. When stamping, it's really about maximizing energy as opposed to how the machine can deliver tonnage. Up until recently, the way to increase tonnage between the die and workpiece on a mechanical press was through bigger machines with bigger motors.", "The press style used is in direct correlation to the end product. Press types are straightside, BG (back geared), geared, gap, OBI (open back inclinable) and OBS (open back stationary). Hydraulic and mechanical presses are classified by the frame the moving elements are mounted on. The most common are the gap-frame, also known as C-frame, and the straightside press. A straightside press has vertical columns on either side of the machine and eliminates angular deflection. A C-frame allows easy access to the die area on three sides and require less floor space. A type of gap-frame, the OBI pivots the frame for easier scrap or part discharge. The OBS timed air blasts, devices or conveyor for scrap or part discharge.", "Historically, metal was shaped by hand using a hammer. Later, larger hammers were constructed to press more metal at once, or to press thicker materials. Often a smith would employ a helper or apprentice to swing the hammer while the smith concentrated on positioning the workpiece. Drop hammers and trip hammers utilize a mechanism to lift the hammer, which then falls by gravity onto the work. In the mid 19th century, manual and rotary-cam hammers began to be replaced in industry by the steam hammer, which was first described in 1784 by James Watt, a Scottish inventor and Mechanical Engineer who also contributed to the earliest steam engines and condensers, but not built until 1840 by British Inventor James Nasmyth. By the late 19th century, steam hammers had increased greatly in size; in 1891 the Bethlehem Iron Company made an enhancement allowing a steam hammer to deliver a 125-ton blow. Most modern machine presses typically use a combination of electric motors and hydraulics to achieve the necessary pressure. Along with the evolution of presses came the evolution of the dies used within them.", "Machine presses can be hazardous, so safety measures must always be taken. Bi-manual controls (controls the use of which requires both hands to be on the buttons to operate) are a very good way to prevent accidents, as are light sensors that keep the machine from working if the operator is in range of the die." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Complete semilattices.", "Complete sublattices.", "Locally finite complete lattices.", "Morphisms of complete lattices.", "Free construction and completion.", "Free \"complete semilattices\".", "Free complete lattices.", "Completion.", "Representation.", "Further results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A partially ordered set (\"L\", ≤) is a \"complete lattice\" if every subset \"A\" of \"L\" has both a greatest lower bound (the infimum, also called the \"meet\") and a least upper bound (the supremum, also called the \"join\") in (\"L\", ≤). The \"meet\" is denoted by formula_1, and the \"join\" by formula_2. Note that in the special case where \"A\" is the empty set, the meet of \"A\" will be the greatest element of \"L\". Likewise, the join of the empty set yields the least element. Since the definition also assures the existence of binary meets and joins, complete lattices thus form a special class of bounded lattices. More implications of the above definition are discussed in the article on completeness properties in order theory.", "In order theory, arbitrary meets can be expressed in terms of arbitrary joins and vice versa (for details, see completeness (order theory)). In effect, this means that it is sufficient to require the existence of either all meets or all joins to obtain the class of all complete lattices. As a consequence, some authors use the terms \"complete meet-semilattice\" or \"complete join-semilattice\" as another way to refer to complete lattices. Though similar on objects, the terms entail different notions of homomorphism, as will be explained in the below section on morphisms. On the other hand, some authors have no use for this distinction of morphisms (especially since the emerging concepts of \"complete semilattice morphisms\" can as well be specified in general terms). Consequently, \"complete meet-semilattices\" have also been defined as those meet-semilattices that are also complete partial orders. This concept is arguably the \"most complete\" notion of a meet-semilattice that is not yet a lattice (in fact, only the top element may be missing). This discussion is also found in the article on semilattices.", "A sublattice \"M\" of a complete lattice \"L\" is called a \"complete sublattice\" of \"L\" if for every subset \"A\" of \"M\" the elements formula_1 and formula_2, as defined in \"L\", are actually in \"M\". If the above requirement is lessened to require only non-empty meet and joins to be in \"L\", the sublattice \"M\" is called a \"closed sublattice\" of \"M\".", "A complete lattice \"L\" is said to be locally finite if the supremum of any infinite subset is equal to 1, or equivalently, the set formula_5 is finite for any formula_6. The lattice (N, |) is locally finite. Note that in this lattice, the element generally denoted \"0\" is actually 1 and vice versa.", "The traditional morphisms between complete lattices are the \"complete homomorphisms\" (or \"complete lattice homomorphisms\"). These are characterized as functions that preserve all joins and all meets. Explicitly, this means that a function \"f: L→M\" between two complete lattices \"L\" and \"M\" is a complete homomorphism if for all subsets \"A\" of \"L\". Such functions are automatically monotonic, but the condition of being a complete homomorphism is in fact much more specific. For this reason, it can be useful to consider weaker notions of morphisms, that are only required to preserve all joins (giving a category Sup) or all meets (giving a category Inf), which are indeed inequivalent conditions. This notion may be considered as a homomorphism of complete meet-semilattices or complete join-semilattices, respectively. Furthermore, morphisms that preserve all joins are equivalently characterized as the \"lower adjoint\" part of a unique Galois connection. Each of these determines a unique \"upper adjoint\" in the inverse direction that preserves all meets. Hence, considering complete lattices with complete semilattice morphisms boils down to considering Galois connections as morphisms. This also yields the insight that the introduced morphisms do basically describe just two different categories of complete lattices: one with complete homomorphisms and one with meet-preserving functions (upper adjoints), dual to the one with join-preserving mappings (lower adjoints).", "", "As usual, the construction of free objects depends on the chosen class of morphisms. Let us first consider functions that preserve all joins (i.e. lower adjoints of Galois connections), since this case is simpler than the situation for complete homomorphisms. Using the aforementioned terminology, this could be called a \"free complete join-semilattice\". Using the standard definition from universal algebra, a free complete lattice over a generating set \"S\" is a complete lattice \"L\" together with a function \"i\":\"S\"→\"L\", such that any function \"f\" from \"S\" to the underlying set of some complete lattice M can be \"factored uniquely\" through a morphism \"f\"° from \"L\" to \"M\". Stated differently, for every element \"s\" of \"S\" we find that \"f\"(\"s\") = \"f\"°(\"i\"(\"s\")) and that \"f\"° is the only morphism with this property. These conditions basically amount to saying that there is a functor from the category of sets and functions to the category of complete lattices and join-preserving functions which is left adjoint to the forgetful functor from complete lattices to their underlying sets. Free complete lattices in this sense can be constructed very easily: the complete lattice generated by some set \"S\" is just the powerset 2, i.e. the set of all subsets of \"S\", ordered by subset inclusion. The required unit \"i\":\"S\"→2 maps any element \"s\" of \"S\" to the singleton set {\"s\"}. Given a mapping \"f\" as above, the function \"f\"°:2→\"M\" is defined by Then \"f\"° transforms unions into suprema and thus preserves joins. Our considerations also yield a free construction for morphisms that do preserve meets instead of joins (i.e. upper adjoints of Galois connections). In fact, we merely have to dualize what was said above: free objects are given as powersets ordered by reverse inclusion, such that set union provides the meet operation, and the function \"f\"° is defined in terms of meets instead of joins. The result of this construction could be called a \"free complete meet-semilattice\". One should also note how these free constructions extend those that are used to obtain free semilattices, where we only need to consider finite sets.", "The situation for complete lattices with complete homomorphisms obviously is more intricate. In fact, free complete lattices do generally not exist. Of course, one can formulate a word problem similar to the one for the case of lattices, but the collection of all possible words (or \"terms\") in this case would be a proper class, because arbitrary meets and joins comprise operations for argument-sets of every cardinality. This property in itself is not a problem: as the case of free complete semilattices above shows, it can well be that the solution of the word problem leaves only a set of equivalence classes. In other words, it is possible that proper classes of the class of all terms have the same meaning and are thus identified in the free construction. However, the equivalence classes for the word problem of complete lattices are \"too small\", such that the free complete lattice would still be a proper class, which is not allowed. Now one might still hope that there are some useful cases where the set of generators is sufficiently small for a free complete lattice to exist. Unfortunately, the size limit is very low and we have the following theorem: A proof of this statement is given by Johnstone; the original argument is attributed to Alfred W. Hales; see also the article on free lattices.", "If a complete lattice is freely generated from a given \"poset\" used in place of the set of generators considered above, then one speaks of a \"completion\" of the poset. The definition of the result of this operation is similar to the above definition of free objects, where \"sets\" and \"functions\" are replaced by \"posets\" and \"monotone mappings\". Likewise, one can describe the completion process as a functor from the category of posets with monotone functions to some category of complete lattices with appropriate morphisms that is left adjoint to the forgetful functor in the converse direction. As long as one considers meet- or join-preserving functions as morphisms, this can easily be achieved through the so-called Dedekind–MacNeille completion. For this process, elements of the poset are mapped to (Dedekind-) \"cuts\", which can then be mapped to the underlying posets of arbitrary complete lattices in much the same way as done for sets and free complete (semi-) lattices above. The aforementioned result that free complete lattices do not exist entails that an according free construction from a poset is not possible either. This is easily seen by considering posets with a discrete order, where every element only relates to itself. These are exactly the free posets on an underlying set. Would there be a free construction of complete lattices from posets, then both constructions could be composed, which contradicts the negative result above.", "Already G. Birkhoff's \"Lattice Theory\" book contains a very useful representation method. It associates a complete lattice to any binary relation between two sets by constructing a Galois connection from the relation, which then leads to two dually isomorphic closure systems. Closure systems are intersection-closed families of sets. When ordered by the subset relation ⊆, they are complete lattices. A special instance of Birkhoff's construction starts from an arbitrary poset \"(P,≤)\" and constructs the Galois connection from the order relation ≤ between \"P\" and itself. The resulting complete lattice is the Dedekind-MacNeille completion. When this completion is applied to a poset that already is a complete lattice, then the result is isomorphic to the original one. Thus we immediately find that every complete lattice is represented by Birkhoff's method, up to isomorphism. The construction is utilized in formal concept analysis, where one represents real-word data by binary relations (called \"formal contexts\") and uses the associated complete lattices (called \"concept lattices\") for data analysis. The mathematics behind formal concept analysis therefore is the theory of complete lattices. Another representation is obtained as follows: A subset of a complete lattice is itself a complete lattice (when ordered with the induced order) if and only if it is the image of an increasing and idempotent (but not necessarily extensive) self-map. The identity mapping obviously has these two properties. Thus all complete lattices occur.", "Besides the previous representation results, there are some other statements that can be made about complete lattices, or that take a particularly simple form in this case. An example is the Knaster–Tarski theorem, which states that the set of fixed points of a monotone function on a complete lattice is again a complete lattice. This is easily seen to be a generalization of the above observation about the images of increasing and idempotent functions, since these are instances of the theorem." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Sizes.", "Smaller sizes.", "Panamax.", "Post-Panamax.", "Super-post-Panamax.", "Operation.", "Power.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are two common types of container handling gantry crane: \"high profile,\" where the boom is hinged at the waterside of the crane structure and lifted in the air to clear the ships for navigation, and \"low profile,\" where the boom is shuttled toward and over the ship to allow the trolley to load and discharge containers. Low-profile cranes are used where they may be in the flight path of aircraft, such as where a container terminal is located close to an airport. The type of crane selected in container terminal design process is determined by the design vessel and local environment.", "Container cranes are generally classified by their lifting capacity and the size of the container ships they can load and unload.", "Smaller container cranes, such as straddle carriers, are used at railway sidings to transfer containers from flatcars and well cars to semi-trailers or vice versa. Both the rolling stock and the trailers may pass under the base. Smaller container cranes are also used at break-of-gauge transloading facilities.", "A Panamax crane can fully load and unload containers from a panamax class container ship capable of passing through the Panama Canal (190 ft (57.91 m)limit in air draft, 12–13 containers wide).", "A \"post-Panamax\" crane can load and unload containers from a container ship too large (too wide) to pass through the Panama Canal (normally about 18 containers wide).", "The largest modern container cranes are classified as \"super-post-Panamax\" (for vessels of about 22 or more containers wide). A modern container crane capable of lifting two long containers at once (end to end) under the telescopic spreader will generally have a rated lifting capacity of 65 tonnes. Some new cranes have a 120-tonne load capacity, enabling them to lift up to four or two containers. Cranes capable of lifting six 20-foot containers have also been designed. Post-Panamax cranes weigh approximately 800–900 tonnes, while the newer-generation super-post-Panamax cranes can weigh 1,600–2,000 tonnes. The largest Super-post-Panamax cranes have an outreach of 25 container rows.", "The crane is driven by an operator who sits in a cabin suspended from the trolley. The trolley runs along rails located on the top or sides of the boom and girder. The operator runs the trolley over the ship to lift the cargo, usually containers. Once the spreader locks onto the container, the container is lifted, moved over the dock, and placed on a truck chassis (trailer) to be taken to the storage yard. The crane also lifts containers from chassis on the dock to load them onto the ship. Straddle carriers, sidelifts, reach stackers, or container lorries then manoeuvre underneath the crane base and collect the containers, rapidly moving them away from the dock and to a storage yard. Flatcars or well cars may also be loaded directly beneath the crane base.", "A crane can be powered by two types of power supply: a diesel engine–driven generator located on top of the crane or electric power from the dock. The most common is by electric power from the dock (also known as shore power). The voltage required may range from 4,000 to 13,200 volts.", "Cranes were used in harbors starting in the Middle Ages (see crane: harbor usage and list of historical harbour cranes). Modern inter-modal containerization emerged in the mid-1950s from transport strategies developed in the Second World War and the Korean War, and the development of specialized cranes paralleled developments in containerization. The first container crane was built by Paceco (formerly the Pacific Coast Engineering Company) for Matson at the Encinal Terminal in Alameda, California in 1959 https://www.asme.org/wwwasmeorg/media/resourcefiles/aboutasme/who%20we%20are/engineering%20history/landmarks/85-paceco-container-crane.pdf" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Voiceless.", "Examples.", "Sound changes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Whereas obstruents are frequently voiceless, sonorants are almost always voiced. A typical sonorant consonant inventory found in many languages comprises the following: two nasals, two semivowels, and two liquids. In the sonority hierarchy, all sounds higher than fricatives are sonorants. They can therefore form the nucleus of a syllable in languages that place that distinction at that level of sonority; see Syllable for details. Sonorants contrast with obstruents, which do stop or cause turbulence in the airflow. The latter group includes fricatives and stops (for example, and ). Among consonants pronounced in the back of the mouth or in the throat, the distinction between an approximant and a voiced fricative is so blurred that no language is known to contrast them. Thus, uvular, pharyngeal, and glottal fricatives never contrast with approximants.", "Voiceless sonorants are rare; they occur as phonemes in only about 5% of the world's languages. They tend to be extremely quiet and difficult to recognise, even for those people whose language has them. In every case of a voiceless sonorant occurring, there is a contrasting voiced sonorant. In other words, whenever a language contains a phoneme such as, it also contains a corresponding voiced phoneme such as ). Voiceless sonorants are most common around the Pacific Ocean (in Oceania, East Asia, and North and South America) and in certain language families (such as Austronesian, Sino-Tibetan, Na-Dene and Eskimo–Aleut). One European language with voiceless sonorants is Welsh. Its phonology contains a phonemic voiceless alveolar trill, along with three voiceless nasals: velar, alveolar and labial. Another European language with voiceless sonorants is Icelandic, with [l̥ r̥ n̥ m̥ ɲ̊ ŋ̊] for the corresponding voiced sonorants [l r n m ɲ ŋ]. Voiceless and possibly are hypothesized to have occurred in various dialects of Ancient Greek. The Attic dialect of the Classical period likely had as the regular allophone of at the beginning of words and possibly when it was doubled inside words. Hence, many English words from Ancient Greek roots have \"rh\" initially and \"rrh\" medially: \"rhetoric\", \"diarrhea\".", "English has the following sonorant consonantal phonemes:. Old Irish had one of the most complex sonorant systems recorded in linguistics, with 12 coronal sonorants alone. Coronal laterals, nasals, and rhotics had a fortis–lenis and a palatalization contrast:. There were also and, making 16 sonorant phonemes in total.", "Voiceless sonorants have a strong tendency to either revoice or undergo fortition, for example to form a fricative like or. In connected, continuous speech in North American English, and are usually flapped to following sonorants, including vowels, when followed by a vowel or syllabic." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "A fabled life.", "A comic life.", "A tragedian's life.", "Work.", "Reception.", "Texts.", "Transmission.", "Chronology.", "Extant plays.", "Lost and fragmentary plays." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Traditional accounts of the author's life are found in many commentaries and include details such as these: He was born on Salamis Island around 480 BC, with parents Cleito (mother) and Mnesarchus (father), a retailer who lived in a village near Athens. Upon the receipt of an oracle saying that his son was fated to win \"crowns of victory\", Mnesarchus insisted that the boy should train for a career in athletics. In fact the boy was destined for a career on the stage, where however he was to win only five victories, one of which was after his death. He served for a short time as both dancer and torch-bearer at the rites of Apollo Zosterius. His education was not confined to athletics: he also studied painting and philosophy under the masters Prodicus and Anaxagoras. He had two disastrous marriages and both his wivesMelite and Choerine (the latter bearing him three sons)were unfaithful. He became a recluse, making a home for himself in a cave on Salamis (the Cave of Euripides, where a cult of the playwright developed after his death). \"There he built an impressive library and pursued daily communion with the sea and sky\". Eventually he retired to the \"rustic court\" of King Archelaus in Macedonia, where he died in 406 BC. However, as mentioned in the introduction, biographical details such as these should be regarded with scepticism. They are derived almost entirely from three unreliable sources: This biography is divided into three sections corresponding to the three kinds of sources.", "Euripides was the youngest in a set of three great tragedians who were almost contemporaries: his first play was staged thirteen years after Sophocles' debut and only three years after Aeschylus's masterpiece, the \"Oresteia\". The identity of the trio is neatly underscored by a patriotic account of their roles during Greece's great victory over Persia at the Battle of SalamisAeschylus fought there, Sophocles was just old enough to celebrate the victory in a boys' chorus and Euripides was born on the very day of the battle. The apocryphal account that he composed his works in a cave on Salamis island was a late tradition and it probably symbolizes the isolation of an intellectual who was rather ahead of his", "Tragic poets were often mocked by comic poets during the dramatic festivals Dionysia and Lenaia, and Euripides was travestied more than most. Aristophanes scripted him as a character in at least three plays: \"The Acharnians\", \"Thesmophoriazusae\" and \"The Frogs\". Yet Aristophanes borrowed rather than just satirized some of the tragedian's methods; he was once ridiculed by a colleague, Cratinus, as \"a hair-splitting master of niceties, a \"Euripidaristophanist\"\". According to another comic poet, Teleclides, the plays of Euripides were co-authored by the philosopher Socrates. According to Aristophanes, the alleged co-author was a celebrated actor, Cephisophon, who also shared the tragedian's house and his wife, while Socrates taught an entire school of quibblers like Euripides: In \"The Frogs\", composed after Euripides and Aeschylus were both dead, Aristophanes imagines the god Dionysus venturing down to Hades in search of", "Euripides first competed in the City Dionysia, the famous Athenian dramatic festival, in 455 BC, one year after the death of Aeschylus, and it was not until 441 BC that he won a first prize. His final competition in Athens was in 408 BC. \"The Bacchae\" and \"Iphigenia in Aulis\" were performed after his death in 405 BC and first prize was awarded posthumously. Altogether his plays won first prize only five times. His plays and those of Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate a difference in outlook between the three mena generation gap probably due to the Sophistic enlightenment in the middle decades of the 5th century: Aeschylus still looked back to the archaic period, Sophocles was in transition between periods, and Euripides was fully imbued", "Athenian tragedy in performance during Euripides' lifetime was a public contest between playwrights. The state funded it and awarded prizes to the winners. The language was spoken and sung verse, the performance area included a circular floor or orchestra where the chorus could dance, a space for actors (three speaking actors in Euripides' time), a backdrop or skene and some special effects: an ekkyklema (used to bring the skene's \"indoors\" outdoors) and a mechane (used to lift actors in the air, as in deus ex machina). With the introduction of the third actor (an innovation attributed to Sophocles), acting also began to be regarded as a skill to be rewarded with prizes, requiring a long apprenticeship in the chorus. Euripides and other playwrights accordingly composed more and more arias for accomplished actors to sing and this tendency becomes more marked in his later plays: tragedy was a \"living and ever-changing genre\" (other changes in his work are touched on in the previous section and in Chronology; a list of his plays is given in Extant plays below). The comic poet, Aristophanes, is the earliest known critic to characterize Euripides as a spokesman for destructive, new ideas, associated with declining standards in both society and tragedy (see Reception for more). However, 5th century tragedy was a social gathering for \"carrying out quite publicly the maintenance and development of mental infrastructure\" and it offered spectators a \"platform for an utterly unique form of institutionalized discussion\". A dramatist's role was not just to entertain but also to educate his fellow citizenshe was expected to have a message. Traditional myth provided the subject matter but the dramatist was meant to be innovative so as to sustain interest, which led to novel characterization of heroic figures and to use of the mythical past to talk about present issues. The difference between Euripides and his older colleagues was one of degree: his characters talked about the present more controversially and more pointedly than did those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, sometimes even challenging the democratic order. Thus, for example, Odysseus is represented in \"Hecuba\" (lines 131–32) as \"agile-minded, sweet-talking, demos-pleasing\" i.e., a type of the war-time demagogues that were active in Athens during the Peloponnesian War. Speakers in the plays of Aeschylus and Sophocles sometimes distinguished between slaves who are servile by nature and those who are slaves by mere circumstance but Euripides' speakers go further, positing an individual's mental rather than social or physical condition as the true index of worth. Thus in \"Hippolytus\", a love-sick queen rationalizes her position and arrives at this comment on intrinsic merit while reflecting on adultery: Euripides' characters resembled contemporary Athenians rather than heroic figures of myth. As mouthpieces for contemporary issues, they \"all seem to have had at least an elementary course in public speaking\". The dialogue often contrasts so strongly with the mythical and heroic setting, it looks as if Euripides aimed at parody, as for example in \"The Trojan Women\", where the heroine's rationalized prayer provokes comment from Menelaus: Athenian citizens were familiar with rhetoric in the assembly and law courts, and some scholars believe that Euripides was more interested in his characters as speakers with cases to argue than as characters with lifelike personalities. They are self-conscious about speaking formally and their rhetoric is shown to be flawed, as if Euripides was exploring the problematical nature of language and communication: \"For speech points in three different directions at once, to the speaker, to the person addressed, to the features in the world it describes, and each of these directions can be felt as skewed\". Thus in the example above, Hecuba presents herself as a sophisticated intellectual describing a rationalized cosmos yet the speech is ill-matched to her audience, Menelaus (a type of the unsophisticated listener), and soon it is found not to suit the cosmos either (her infant grandson is brutally murdered by the victorious Greeks). In \"Hippolytus\", speeches appear verbose and ungainly as if to underscore the limitations of language. Like Euripides, both Aeschylus and Sophocles created comic effects contrasting the heroic with the mundane, but they employed minor supporting characters for that purpose, whereas the younger poet was more insistent, using major characters as well. His comic touches can be thought to intensify the overall tragic effect, and his realism, which often threatens to make his heroes look ridiculous, marks a world of debased heroism: \"The loss of intellectual and moral substance becomes a central tragic statement\". Psychological reversals are common and sometimes happen so suddenly that inconsistency in characterization is an issue for many critics, such as Aristotle, who cited \"Iphigenia in Aulis\" as an example (\"Poetics\" 1454a32). For others, psychological inconsistency is not a stumbling block to good drama: \"Euripides is in pursuit of a larger insight: he aims to set forth the two modes, emotional and rational, with which human beings confront their own mortality.\" Some however consider unpredictable behaviour to be realistic in tragedy: \"everywhere in Euripides a preoccupation with individual psychology and its irrational aspects is evident...In his hands tragedy for the first time probed the inner recesses of the human soul and let \"passions spin the plot\".\" The tension between reason and passion is symbolized by his character's relationship with the gods, as in Hecuba's prayer, answered not by Zeus, nor by the Law of Reason, but by brutal Menelaus as if speaking on behalf of the old gods, and most famously in \"Bacchae\", where the god Dionysus savages his own converts. And yet when the gods appear deus ex machina, as they do in eight of the extant plays, they appear \"lifeless and mechanical\". Sometimes condemned by critics as an unimaginative way to end a story, the spectacle of a \"god\" making a judgement or announcement from a theatrical crane might actually have been intended to provoke scepticism about the religious and heroic dimension of his plays. Similarly his plays often begin in a banal manner that undermines theatrical illusion. Unlike Sophocles, who established the setting and background of his plays in the introductory dialogue, Euripides used a monologue in which a divinity or human character directly and simply tells the audience all it needs to know in order to understand the subsequent action. Aeschylus and Sophocles were innovative, but Euripides had arrived at a position in the \"ever-changing genre\" where he could move easily between tragic, comic, romantic and political effects, a versatility that appears in individual plays and also over the course of his career. Potential for comedy lay in his use of 'contemporary' characters, in his sophisticated tone, his relatively informal Greek (see In Greek below), and in his ingenious use of plots centred on motifs that later became standard in Menander's New Comedy, such as the'recognition scene'. Other tragedians also used recognition scenes but they were heroic in emphasis, as in Aeschylus's \"The Libation Bearers\", which Euripides parodied with his mundane treatment of it in \"Electra\" (Euripides was unique among the tragedians in incorporating theatrical criticism in his plays). Traditional myth, with its exotic settings, heroic adventures and epic battles, offered potential for romantic melodrama as well as for political comments on a war theme, so that his plays are an extraordinary mix of elements. \"The Trojan Women\" for example is a powerfully disturbing play on the theme of war's horrors, apparently critical of Athenian imperialism (it was composed in the aftermath of the Melian massacre and during the preparations for the Sicilian Expedition) yet it features the comic exchange between Menelaus and Hecuba quoted above and the chorus considers Athens, the \"blessed land of Theus\", to be a desirable refugesuch complexity and ambiguity are typical both of his \"patriotic\" and \"anti-war\" plays. Tragic poets in the 5th century competed against one another at the City Dionysia, each with a tetralogy consisting of three tragedies and a satyr-play. The few extant fragments of satyr-plays attributed to Aeschylus and Sophocles indicate that these were a loosely structured, simple and jovial form of entertainment. However, in \"Cyclops\" (the only complete satyr-play that survives) Euripides structured the entertainment more like a tragedy and introduced a note of critical irony typical of his other work. His genre-bending inventiveness is shown above all in \"Alcestis\", a blend of tragic and satyric elements. This fourth play in his tetralogy for 438 BC (i.e., it occupied the position conventionally reserved for satyr-plays) is a \"tragedy\" that features Heracles as a satyric hero in conventional satyr-play scenes, involving an arrival, a banquet, a victory over an ogre (in this case, Death), a happy ending, a feast and a departure to new adventures. Most of the big innovations in tragedy were made by Aeschylus and Sophocles and yet \"Euripides made innovations on a smaller scale that have impressed some critics as cumulatively leading to a radical change of direction\". Euripides is also known for his use of irony. Many Greek tragedians make use of dramatic irony to bring out the emotion and realism of their characters or plays, but Euripides uses irony to foreshadow events and occasionally amuse his audience. For example, in his play \"Heracles\", Heracles comments that all men love their children and wish to see them grow. The tragic irony and foreshadow here is that later, Heracles will be driven into a madness by Hera and will kill his own children, along with his wife Megara. Similarly, in \"Helen\", Theoclymenus remarks how happy he is that his sister has the gift of prophecy and will warn him of any plots or tricks against him (while the audience already knows that she has betrayed him to help Helen and Menelaus escape). In this instance, not only is Euripides using irony for foreshadow, but for a comedic effect as well—something few tragedians did. Likewise, in the \"Bacchae\", Pentheus’ first threat to the god Dionysus is that if he catches him in his city, he will ‘chop off his head’; in the final acts of the tragic-comic play, Pentheus is killed by his mother (who was driven mad by Dionysus) and is beheaded. While some of his irony can be interpreted as dark humor, Euripides makes use of irony in his works to foreshadow future events and occasionally include a comedic undertone.", "Euripides has aroused and continues to arouse strong opinions for and against his work: Aeschylus gained thirteen victories as a dramatist, Sophocles at least twenty, Euripides only four in his lifetime, and this has often been taken as an indication of the latter's unpopularity with his contemporaries, and yet a first place might not have been the main criterion for success in those times (the system of selecting judges appears to have been flawed) and merely being chosen to compete was in itself a mark of distinction. Moreover, to have been singled out by Aristophanes for so much comic attention is proof of popular interest in his work. Sophocles was appreciative enough of the younger poet to be influenced by him, as is evident in his later plays \"Philoctetes\" and \"Oedipus at Colonus\". According to Plutarch, Euripides had been very well received in Sicily, to the extent that after the failure of the Sicilian Expedition, many Athenian captives were released simply for being able to teach their captors whatever fragments they could remember of his work. Less than a hundred years later, Aristotle developed an almost \"biological' theory of the development of tragedy in Athens: according to this view, the art form grew under the influence of Aeschylus, matured in the hands of Sophocles then began its precipitous decline with Euripides. However, \"his plays continued to be applauded even after those of Aeschylus and Sophocles had come to seem remote and irrelevant\", they became school classics in", "", "The textual transmission of the plays from the 5th century BC, when they were first written, up until the era of the printing press, was largely a haphazard process in which much of Euripides' work was lost and corrupted, but it also included triumphs by scholars and copyists, thanks to whom much was also recovered and preserved. Summaries of the transmission are often found in modern editions of the plays, three of which are used as sources for this summary The plays of Euripides, like those of Aeschylus and Sophocles, were circulated in written form in the 5th century among literary members of the audience and performers at minor festivals, as aide-memoirs. However, literary conventions that we take for granted today had not yet been inventedthere was no spacing between words, no consistency in punctuation nor in vowel elisions, no marks for breathings and accent (guides to pronunciation and hence word recognition), no convention to denote change of speaker and no stage directions, and verse was written straight across the page like prose. Possibly those who bought texts supplied their own interpretative markings. Papyri discoveries have indicated, for example, that a change in speakers was loosely denoted with a variety of signs, such as the equivalent of the modern dash, colon and full-stop. The absence of modern literary conventions, which are an aid to comprehension, was an early and persistent source of errors affecting transmission of the text. Errors crept in also when Athens replaced its old Attic alphabet with the Ionian alphabet, a change sanctioned by law in 403–402 BC, adding a new complication to the task of copying. Many more errors came from the tendency of actors to interpolate words and sentences, producing so many corruptions and variations that a law was proposed by Lycurgus of Athens in 330 BC \"...that the plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides should be written down and preserved in a public office; and that the town clerk should read the text over with the actors; and that all performances which did not comply with this regulation should be illegal.\" The law was soon disregarded and some actors continued to make their own changes up until about 200 BC, after which the habit dies out. It was about then that Aristophanes of Byzantium compiled an edition of all the extant plays of Euripides, collated from pre-Alexandrian texts,", "The original production dates of some of Euripides' plays are known from ancient records, such as lists of prize-winners at the Dionysia, and approximations are obtained for the remainder by various means. Both the playwright and his work were travestied by comic poets such as Aristophanes, the known dates of whose own plays thus serve as a terminus ad quem for those of Euripides, though sometimes the gap can be considerable (e.g. twenty-seven years separate \"Telephus\", known to have been produced in 438 BC, from its parody in \"Thesmophoriazusae\" in 411 BC.) References in Euripides' plays to contemporary events provide a terminus a quo, though sometimes the references might even precede a datable event (e.g. lines 1074–89 in \"Ion\" describe a procession to Eleusis, which was probably written before the Spartans occupied it during the Peloponnesian War). Other indications of dating are obtained by stylometry and this section therefore is an appropriate place to consider some aspects of his style as a Greek poet. Greek tragedy comprised lyric and dialogue, the latter mostly in iambic trimeter (three pairs of iambic feet per line). Euripides sometimes'resolved' the two syllables of the iamb ( ̆ ̄) into three syllables ( ̆ ̆ ̆) and this tendency increased so steadily over time that the number of resolved feet in a play can be understood", "", "The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form, if at all. They are known through quotations in other works, sometimes as little as a single line, or through pieces of papyrus or partial copies in manuscript form; some are known thanks to the survival of part of a collection of hypotheses (or summaries) in papyrus, and others through being parodied in the works of Aristophanes. Some" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Causes.", "Calving law.", "Major calving events.", "Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf.", "Amery Ice Shelf.", "Ward Hunt Ice Shelf.", "Ayles Ice Shelf.", "Larsen Ice Shelf.", "Jakobshavn Isbrae Glacier.", "Glacier surfing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "It is useful to classify causes of calving into first, second, and third order processes. First order processes are responsible for the overall rate of calving at the glacier scale. The first order cause of calving is longitudinal stretching, which controls the formation of crevasses. When crevasses penetrate the full thickness of the ice, calving will occur. Longitudinal stretching is controlled by friction at the base and edges of the glacier, glacier geometry and water pressure at the bed. These factors, therefore, exert the primary control on calving rate. Second and third order calving processes can be considered to be superimposed on the first order process above, and control the occurrence of individual calving events, rather than the overall rate. Melting at the waterline is an important second order calving process as it undercuts the subaerial ice, leading to collapse. Other second order processes include tidal and seismic events, buoyant forces and melt water wedging. When calving occurs due to waterline melting, only the subaerial part of the glacier will calve, leaving a submerged 'foot'. Thus, a third order process is defined, whereby upward buoyant forces cause this ice foot to break off and emerge at the surface. This process is extremely dangerous, as it has been known to occur, without warning, up to 300m from the glacier terminus.", "Though many factors that contribute to calving have been identified, a reliable predictive mathematical formula is still under development. Data is currently being assembled from ice shelves in Antarctica and Greenland to help establish a 'calving law'. Variables used in models include properties of the ice such as thickness, density, temperature, c-axis fabric, impurity loading, though 'ice front normal spreading stress', is likely the most important variable, however it is usually not measured. There are currently several concepts upon which to base a predictive law. One theory states that the calving rate is primarily a function of the ratio of tensile stress to vertical compressive stress, i.e., the calving rate is a function of the ratio of the largest to smallest principle stress. Another theory, based on preliminary research, shows that the calving rate increases as a power of the spreading rate near the calving front.", "", "In October, 1988, the A-38 iceberg broke away from the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. It was about 150 km x 50 km. A second calving occurred in May 2000 and created an iceberg 167 km x 32 km.", "A major calving event occurred in 1962 to 1963. Currently, there is a section at the front of the shelf referred to as the 'loose tooth'. This section, about 30 km by 30 km is moving at about 12 meters per day and is expected to eventually calve away.", "The largest observed calving of an ice island happened at Ward Hunt Ice Shelf. Sometime between August 1961 and April 1962 almost 600 km of ice broke away.", "In 2005, nearly the entire shelf calved from the northern edge of Ellesmere Island. Since 1900, about 90% of Ellesmere Island's ice shelves have calved and floated away. This event was the biggest of its kind for at least the past 25 years. A total of of ice was lost in this event. The largest piece was in area, (slightly larger than the City of Manhattan.)", "This large ice shelf, located in the Weddell Sea, extending along the east coast of Antarctic Peninsula, consists of three segments, two of which have calved. In January 1995, the Larsen A Ice Shelf containing 3,250 km2 of ice 220 m thick calved and disintegrated. Then the Larsen B Ice Shelf calved and disintegrated in February 2002.", "Also known as the Ilulissat Glacier or Sermeq Kujalleq in western Greenland, in an ongoing event, 35 billion tonnes of icebergs calve off and pass out of the fjord every year. Photographer James Balog and his team were examining this glacier in 2008 when their cameras caught a piece of glacier the size of the Lower Manhattan fall into the ocean. The calving event lasted for 75 minutes, during which time the glacier retreated a full mile across a calving face three miles (five kilometers) wide. Adam LeWinter and Jeff Orlowski captured this footage, which is featured in the film \"Chasing Ice\".", "First conceived in 1995 by Ryan Casey while filming for IMAX, this sport involves a surfer being towed into range by a jet ski and waiting for a mass of ice to calve from a glacier. Surfers can wait for several hours in the icy water for an event. When a glacier calves, the mass of ice can produce 8 metre waves. Rides of 300 metres lasting for one minute can be achieved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Genealogy.", "Forms and stages of development.", "Alphabet.", "Phonology.", "Consonants.", "Example phrases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Avestan, which is associated with northeastern Iran, and Old Persian, which belongs to the southwest, together constitute what is called Old Iranian.\" Scholars traditionally classify Iranian languages as \"old\", \"middle\" and \"new\" according to their age, and as \"eastern\" or \"western\" according to geography, and within this framework Avestan is classified as Eastern Old Iranian. But the east-west distinction is of limited meaning for Avestan, as the linguistic developments that later distinguish Eastern from Western Iranian had not yet occurred. Avestan does not display some typical (South-)Western Iranian innovations already visible in Old Persian, and so in this sense, \"eastern\" only means \"non-western\". Old Avestan is closely related to Old Persian and largely agrees morphologically with Vedic Sanskrit. The old ancestor dialect of Pashto was close to the language of the Gathas.", "The Avestan language is attested in roughly two forms, known as \"Old Avestan\" (or \"Gathic Avestan\") and \"Younger Avestan\". Younger Avestan did not evolve from Old Avestan; the two differ not only in time, but are also different dialects. Every Avestan text, regardless of whether originally composed in Old or Younger Avestan, underwent several transformations. Karl Hoffmann traced the following stages for Avestan as found in the extant texts. In roughly chronological order: Many phonetic features cannot be ascribed with certainty to a particular stage since there may be more than one possibility. Every phonetic form that can be ascribed to the Sasanian archetype on the basis of critical assessment of the manuscript evidence must have gone through the stages mentioned above so that \"Old Avestan\" and \"Young Avestan\" really mean no more than \"Old Avestan and Young Avestan of the Sasanian period.\"", "The script used for writing Avestan developed during the 3rd or 4th century AD. By then the language had been extinct for many centuries, and remained in use only as a liturgical language of the Avesta canon. As is still the case today, the liturgies were memorized by the priesthood and recited by rote. The script devised to render Avestan was natively known as \"Din dabireh\" \"religion writing\". It has 53 distinct characters and is written right-to-left. Among the 53 characters are about 30 letters that are – through the addition of various loops and flourishes – variations of the 13 graphemes of the cursive Pahlavi script (i.e. \"Book\" Pahlavi) that is known from the post-Sassanian texts of Zoroastrian tradition. These symbols, like those of all the Pahlavi scripts, are in turn based on Aramaic script symbols. Avestan also incorporates several letters from other writing systems, most notably the vowels, which are mostly derived from Greek minuscules. A few letters were free inventions, as were also the symbols used for punctuation. Also, the Avestan alphabet has one letter that has no corresponding sound in the Avestan language; the character for (a sound that Avestan does not have) was added to write Pazend texts. The Avestan script is alphabetic, and the large number of letters suggests that its design was due to the need to render the orally recited texts with high phonetic precision. The correct enunciation of the liturgies was (and still is) considered necessary for the prayers to be effective. The Zoroastrians of India, who represent one of the largest surviving Zoroastrian communities worldwide, also transcribe Avestan in Brahmi-based scripts. This is a relatively recent development first seen in the ca. 12th century texts of Neryosang Dhaval and other Parsi Sanskritist theologians of that era, which are roughly contemporary with the oldest surviving manuscripts in Avestan script. Today, Avestan is most commonly typeset in the Gujarati script (Gujarati being the traditional language of the Indian Zoroastrians). Some Avestan letters with no corresponding symbol are synthesized with additional diacritical marks, for example, the in \"zaraθuštra\" is written with \"j\" with a dot below.", "Avestan has retained voiced sibilants, and has fricative rather than aspirate series. There are various conventions for transliteration of Dīn Dabireh, the one adopted for this article being: Vowels: Consonants: The glides \"y\" and \"w\" are often transcribed as \"ii\" and \"uu\", imitating Dīn Dabireh orthography. The letter transcribed \"t̰\" indicates an allophone of with no audible release at the end of a word and before certain obstruents.", "According to Beekes, and are allophones of and respectively (in Old Avestan).", "The following phrases were phonetically transcribed from Avestan:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Administrative division.", "History.", "Geography.", "Culture, language and religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "From an administrative point of view, the Polish part of Cieszyn Silesia lies within the Silesian Voivodeship and comprises Cieszyn County, the western part of Bielsko County, and the western part of the town of Bielsko-Biała. The Czech part lies within the Moravian-Silesian Region and comprises the Karviná District, the eastern part of the Frýdek-Místek District, and the eastern parts of the Ostrava-City District and of the city of Ostrava itself.", "Cieszyn Silesia covers the area of the former Duchy of Teschen, which existed from 1290 to 1918. Before 1290 the area constituted a castellany, which together with Castellany of Racibórz formed the Duchy of Racibórz in 1172. From 1202 it was a part of the united Duchy of Opole and Racibórz. From 1290 to 1653 the Duchy of Teschen was ruled by the local branch of the Piast dynasty. In 1327 Casimir I, Duke of Cieszyn, swore homage to the Bohemian king John of Bohemia, and the duchy became an autonomous fiefdom of the Kingdom of Bohemia and later the Bohemian Crown. Piast rule continued until 1653 and the death of the last Piast descendant, Elizabeth Lucretia, Duchess of Cieszyn, after which it lapsed directly to the Kings of Bohemia, at that time from the Habsburg dynasty. From 1722, the dukes of Teschen hailed from the Dukes of Lorraine dynasty, from 1767 to 1822 from the Wettin dynasty, and from 1822 to 1918 from the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. Cieszyn Silesia was cemented as a uniform historic, geopolitical, socio-cultural and economic entity during the period of Habsburg rule. It is distinct from the rest of Silesia because after the First Silesian War between the Austrian Empire and Prussia it remained part of Austria, whereas most of Silesia became a part of Prussia. After the end of World War I, both of the two newly created independent states of Poland and Czechoslovakia claimed the area. Czechoslovakia claimed the area partly on historic and ethnic grounds, but especially on economic and strategic grounds. The area was important for the Czechs, as the crucial railway line connecting Czech Silesia with Slovakia crossed the area (the Košice-Bohumín Railway, which was one of only two railroads that linked the Czech provinces to Slovakia at that time). The western area of Cieszyn Silesia is also very rich in coal. Many important coal mines, facilities and metallurgy factories are located there. The Polish side based its claim to the area on ethnic criteria: a majority of the area's population was Polish according to the last (1910) Austrian census. Two local self-government councils, Polish and Czech, were created. Initially, both national councils claimed the whole of Cieszyn Silesia for themselves, the Polish \"Rada Narodowa Księstwa Cieszyńskiego\" in its declaration \"Ludu śląski!\" of 30 October 1918 and the Czech \"Národní výbor pro Slezsko\" in its declaration of 1 November 1918. On 31 October 1918, in the wake of World War I and the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, most of the area was taken over by local Polish authorities. The short-lived interim agreement of 2 November 1918 reflected the inability of the two national councils to come to final delimitation, and on 5 November 1918 the area was divided between Poland and Czechoslovakia by another interim agreement. In 1919 the councils were absorbed by the newly created and independent central governments in Prague and Warsaw. The former was not satisfied with the situation and on 23 January 1919 invaded the area while both parties were engaged in much larger conflicts elsewhere, Poland in its war against the West Ukrainian National Republic and Czechoslovakia in the war with the Hungarian Soviet Republic over Upper Hungary. The impetus for the Czech invasion in 1919 was Poland's organising of elections to the Sejm (parliament) of Poland in the disputed area. The elections were to be held in the whole of Cieszyn Silesia. The Czechs claimed that the polls must not be held in the disputed area, as the delimitation was only interim and no sovereign rule should be executed there by any party. The Czech demand was rejected by the Poles and, following the rejection, Czechs decided to resolve the issue by force. Czech units led by Colonel Josef Šnejdárek and Polish units commanded by General Franciszek Latinik clashed after the swift Czech advance near Skoczów where a battle took place on 28–30 January. It was inconclusive, and before the reinforced Czech forces could resume the attack on the town, they were pressed by Entente to stop operations and a cease-fire was signed on 3 February. In this tense climate it was decided that a plebiscite would be held in the area asking its people which country the territory should join. Plebiscite commissioners arrived there at the end of January 1920 and after analyzing the situation declared a state of emergency in the territory on 19 May 1920. The situation in the territory remained very tense. Mutual intimidation, acts of terror, beatings and even killings affected the area. A plebiscite could not be held in this atmosphere. On 10 July both sides renounced the idea of plebiscite and entrusted the Conference of Ambassadors with the decision. Eventually 58.1% of the area of Cieszyn Silesia, along with 67.9% of the population, was taken over by Czechoslovakia on 28 July 1920 by decision of the Spa Conference. This decision divided a historically unified region, leaving a sizeable Polish minority in Czechoslovakia and in practice created Zaolzie, the eastern part of the Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia. Zaolzie literally means \"the land beyond the Olza River\" (looking from Poland). The division of 1920 had an immediate impact on the life of the region. Many families were divided by the new border. Several municipalities were divided between the two states—Cieszyn (PL) / Český Těšín (CS), Leszna Górna (PL) / Horní Líštná (CS), and Marklowice Górne (PL) / Dolní Marklovice (CS), to name a few. On 1 October 1938 Zaolzie was annexed by Poland following the Munich Conference. On 1 September 1939 Zaolzie was annexed by Nazi Germany after it invaded Poland. During World War II Cieszyn Silesia was a part of Nazi Germany. Immediately after World War II, its borders were returned to their 1920 state. Poland signed a treaty with Czechoslovakia in Warsaw on 13 June 1958 confirming the border as it had existed on 1 January 1938. The Czech part of Cieszyn Silesia continued to be part of Czechoslovakia until the latter's dissolution in 1993 and since then has been part of the Czech Republic.", "The region is separated from the rest of Silesia (and Upper Silesia in particular) by the Vistula river (the part beginning in Strumień) and from the region of Lesser Poland by the Biała river and Barania Góra mountain, the highest peak of the Polish part of the region at. The highest peak of the region is Lysá hora () in the Czech part. The region also borders Slovakia, along the Polom mountain range and Jablunkov Pass at Mosty u Jablunkova, and Czech Moravia across the rivers Ostravice and Oder. Geographically, the area of Cieszyn Silesia is subdivided into: Major towns of the region include Cieszyn and Bielsko (western part of Bielsko-Biała), as well as Czechowice-Dziedzice, Skoczów, Strumień, Ustroń and Wisła. The Czech part of the region includes the eastern part of Ostrava (called \"Slezská Ostrava\"), Karviná (and in past Fryštát, now a district of Karviná), Frýdek (the eastern part of Frýdek-Místek), Bohumín, Český Těšín, Havířov, Jablunkov and Třinec. Historically Duchy of Teschen and therefore Cieszyn Silesia formed a part of Upper Silesia. After Silesian Wars in the 18th century it was separated from the rest of Silesia, which began the process of forming its own specificity, to the extent that some contemporary authors claim that Cieszyn Silesia and Upper Silesia are separate regions.", "Cieszyn Silesia as a region consolidated in the 19th century, which later becama a discrete eastern part of Austrian Silesia, crownland of the Cisleithanian part of Austria-Hungary, which helped to form a distinct local identity based on language, religious and ethnic pluralism, and distinctiveness from other parts of Silesia. The region was inhabited by several ethnic groups. Most numerous were Poles (historically called also Wasserpolaks), Czechs (mainly in the western part of the region), Germans (especially in the German language island of Bielsko-Biała) and Jews. The northern part, strongly industrialised and urbanised, is more densely populated than the southern part, which is more mountainous. The population density of Cieszyn Silesia is about 360/km (932/mi2). The southern, mountainous part of the region is home to the Silesian Gorals (literally, \"highlanders\"), the indigenous people of the region. They have their own distinct culture which has influenced the culture of whole region. Cieszyn Silesia is known for its religious pluralism. The most widespread religions are Roman Catholicism and Lutheranism. The region is distinct in large part because of its Protestantism, which has an influence on the whole region. Some of the municipalities with a Protestant majority include those in the vicinity of Skoczów and Wisła, the only town in Poland with a Protestant majority. Protestant influence is reflected in the regional saying in the Cieszyn Silesian dialect \"Dzierży sie twardo jak lutersko wiara kole Cieszyna.\" (Stays strong like the Lutheran faith around Cieszyn.) Several towns, especially Bielsko, Cieszyn and Fryštát, in the past had a larger Jewish community, but the local Jews were almost completely annihilated by the Nazis during World War II and the local Germans were all deported to Germany after the war. Today, many other religious, mostly Christian, denominations are present in small numbers, including Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventists and Pentecostals whose movement within Poland originated in Cieszyn Silesia. Cieszyn Silesia is also distinct for its dialect, the Cieszyn Silesian dialect, which differs from the other Silesian dialects spoken in Upper Silesia. It is a distinct dialect with predominantly Polish influences; Czech and German influences are also strong. The inhabitants of Cieszyn Silesia feel a strong regional (Cieszyn Silesian, Goral etc.) identity — locals will say they are \"(tu) stela\" (from here) — but the vast majority declare themselves to be of Polish or Czech nationality in their respective national censuses. This is somewhat different from the situation in Upper Silesia where strong autonomistic tendencies still exist. Local people however regard the Habsburg era rather fondly. The time of Maria Theresa and Franz Josef is viewed nostalgically as a time of justice, development, order and peace. This is in fact also partly rooted in a liberal and pluralistic attitude toward national and ethnic groups, liberal in comparison to other empires of that time, especially Prussia and the Russian Empire. Even in 2006 there were still portraits of Habsburg rulers on the wall in the assembly room of the Cieszyn local council. The most widespread folk costume in the area used to be a Cieszyn folk costume associated with Cieszyn Vlachs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Roles.", "Journalistic freedom.", "Journalist and source relationship.", "The worst year on record for journalists." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a journalist's job is sometimes called \"reporting\", in contrast to the production part of the job such as writing articles. Reporters may split their time between working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a specific beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term \"journalist\" may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, and visual journalists, such as photojournalists (journalists who use the medium of photography). Matthew C. Nisbet, who has written on science communication, has defined a \"knowledge journalist\" as a public intellectual who, like Walter Lippmann, David Brooks, Fareed Zakaria, Naomi Klein, Michael Pollan, Thomas Friedman, and Andrew Revkin, sees their role as researching complicated issues of fact or science which most laymen would not have the time or access to information to research themselves, then communicating an accurate and understandable version to the public as a teacher and policy advisor.In his best-known books, \"Public Opinion\" (1922) and \"The Phantom Public\" (1925), Lippmann argued that most individuals lacked the capacity, time, and motivation to follow and analyze news of the many complex policy questions that troubled society. Nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a news media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints, and prejudices. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as expert analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important.” In 2018, the United States Department of Labor's Occupational Outlook Handbook reported that employment for the category, \"reporters, correspondents and broadcast news analysts,\" will decline 9 percent between 2016 and 2026.", "Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger, particularly when reporting in areas of armed conflict or in states that do not respect the freedom of the press. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom and advocate for journalistic freedom. As of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder (71%), crossfire or combat (17%), or on dangerous assignment (11%). The \"ten deadliest countries\" for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq (230 deaths), Philippines (109), Russia (77), Colombia (76), Mexico (69), Algeria (61), Pakistan (59), India (49), Somalia (45), Brazil (31) and Sri Lanka (30). The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1, 2010, 145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. Current numbers are even higher. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey (95), China (34), Iran (34), Eritrea (17), Burma (13), Uzbekistan (6), Vietnam (5), Cuba (4), Ethiopia (4), and Sudan (3). Apart from physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their editorial offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger. Hence, a systematic and sustainable way of psychological support for traumatized journalists is strongly needed. However, only little and fragmented support programs exist so far.", "The relationship between a professional journalist and a source can be rather complex, and a source can sometimes have an effect on an article written by the journalist. The article 'A Compromised Fourth Estate' uses Herbert Gans' metaphor to capture their relationship. He uses a dance metaphor, \"The Tango,\" to illustrate the co-operative nature of their interactions inasmuch as \"It takes two to tango\". Herbert suggests that the source often leads, but journalists commonly object to this notion for two reasons: The dance metaphor goes on to state: A relationship with sources that is \"too cozy\" is potentially compromising of journalists’ integrity and risks becoming collusive. Journalists have typically favored a more robust, conflict model, based on a crucial assumption that if the media are to function as watchdogs of powerful economic and political interests, journalists must establish their independence of sources or risk the fourth estate being driven by the fifth estate of public relations.", "According to Reporters Without Borders' annual report, the year 2018 was the worst year on record for deadly violence and abuse toward journalists; there was a 15 per cent increase in such killings since 2017. Ruben Pat was gunned down outside a Mexican beach bar. Yaser Murtaja was shot by an Israeli army sniper. Bulgarian Viktoria Marinova was beaten, raped and strangled. Jamal Khashoggi was killed inside Saudi Arabia's consulate in Istanbul on Oct 2." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Orlovsky was born in the Lower East Side of New York City, the son of Katherine (née Schwarten) and Oleg Orlovsky, a Russian immigrant. He was raised in poverty and was forced to drop out of Newtown High School in his senior year so he could support his impoverished family. After many odd jobs, he began working as an orderly at Creedmoor State Mental Hospital, known today as Creedmoor Psychiatric Center. In 1953, Orlovsky was drafted into the United States Army for the Korean War at nineteen years old. Army psychiatrists ordered his transfer off the front to work as a medic in a San Francisco hospital. He later went to Columbia University. He met Allen Ginsberg while working as a model for the painter Robert La Vigne in San Francisco in December 1954. Prior to meeting Ginsberg, Orlovsky had made no deliberate attempts at becoming a poet. With Ginsberg's encouragement, Orlovsky began writing in 1957 while the pair were living in Paris. Accompanied by other beat writers, Orlovsky traveled extensively for several years throughout the Middle East, Northern Africa, India, and Europe. He also helped produce and contributed vocals to Ginsberg's 1970 LP \"Songs of Innocence and Experience\", based on William Blake's poetry collection of the same name. Orlovsky was Ginsberg's lover in an open relationship until Ginsberg's death in 1997. In 1974, Orlovsky joined the faculty of the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado, teaching poetry. In 1979 he received a $10,000 grant from the National Endowment for the Arts to continue his creative endeavors.", "In May 2010, friends reported that Orlovsky, who had had lung cancer for several months, was moved from his home in St. Johnsbury, Vermont, to the Vermont Respite House in Williston. He died there on May 30, 2010, from complications of the disease; he was 76 years old. He was buried at Shambhala Mountain Center in Red Feather Lakes, Colorado. His epitaph reads: \"Train will tug my grave, my breathe hueing gentil vapor between weel & track\". His work has also appeared in \"The New American Poetry 1945–1960\" (1960), \"The Beatitude Anthology\" (1965), as well as the literary magazines \"Yugen\" and \"Outsider\". Orlovsky appeared in four films: Andy Warhol's \"Couch\" (1965) and in three films by photographer Robert Frank, \"Pull My Daisy\" (1959) (a partly improvised 26-minute-long film based on a Kerouac script), \"Me and My Brother\" (1969) (a film documenting his brother Julius Orlovsky's mental illness) and \"C'est Vrai! (One Hour)\" a 60-minute, one-take video made for French television in 1992 whose text was published as a volume in the Hanuman Books series." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Sponsoring.", "Komerční banka Jistota Foundation.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The bank was founded in 1990 following separation of commercial activities from the former Státní banka československá (State Bank of Czechoslovakia). In 1992, the bank was partially privatized in voucher privatization. In 2001, the state’s 60% holding in Komerční banka was purchased by Société Générale. Following privatization, KB began significantly to develop its activities for individual customers and entrepreneurs, in addition to building on its traditionally strong position in the enterprises and municipalities market. In 2014 the Komerční banka signed a partnership with the National Gallery in Prague.", "Komerční banka has been a partner of institutions, projects and events of society-wide importance for many years. It focuses on culture, non-professional sport and education. Support for Czech culture is the main area of the bank’s sponsorship. Komerční banka has been the general partner of the National Theatre, the most important Czech theatrical institution, for more than ten years. The bank has been supporting the French Film Festival for the same time. Since 2014, it has also been a partner of the National Gallery in Prague.", "The Jistota Foundation has been supporting projects in the areas of social and health care services for over 20 years while focusing on senior citizens and children. In 2014, it supported 99 projects, mainly through financial support from the Bank and its associated companies but also thanks to employee initiatives. In addition to their donating money, the employees also constitute the Foundation’s management and supervisory boards. The Foundation’s donations in 2014 exceeded CZK 9 million.", "In 2004, 2005 and 2007 Komerční banka received the Bank of the Year Award from the Mastercard company. The Best Bank of the Year 2017 in the Czech Republic was Komerční banka." ] }

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{ "title": [ "As goddess.", "Mythology.", "Thetis and the other deities.", "Marriage to Peleus.", "Iliad and the Trojan War.", "Worship in Laconia and other places." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Most extant material about Thetis concerns her role as mother of Achilles, but there is some evidence that as the sea-goddess she played a more central role in the religious beliefs and practices of Archaic Greece. The pre-modern etymology of her name, from \"tithemi\" (τίθημι), \"to set up, establish,\" suggests a perception among Classical Greeks of an early political role. Walter Burkert considers her name a transformed doublet of Tethys. In \"Iliad\" I, Achilles recalls to his mother her role in defending, and thus legitimizing, the reign of Zeus against an incipient rebellion by three Olympians, each of whom has pre-Olympian roots: You alone of all the gods saved Zeus the Darkener of the Skies from an inglorious fate, when some of the other Olympians – Hera, Poseidon, and Pallas Athene – had plotted to throw him into chains... You, goddess, went and saved him from that indignity. You quickly summoned to high Olympus the monster of the hundred arms whom the gods call Briareus, but mankind Aegaeon, a giant more powerful even than his father. He squatted by the Son of Cronos with such a show of force that the blessed gods slunk off in terror, leaving Zeus free Quintus of Smyrna, recalling this passage, does write that Thetis once released Zeus from chains; but there is no other reference to this rebellion among the Olympians, and some readers, such as M. M. Willcock, have understood the episode as an \"ad hoc\" invention of Homer's to support Achilles' request that his mother intervene with Zeus. Laura Slatkin explores the apparent contradiction, in that the immediate presentation of Thetis in the \"Iliad\" is as a helpless minor goddess overcome by grief and lamenting to her Nereid sisters, and links the goddess's present and past through her grief. She draws comparisons with Eos' role in another work of the epic Cycle concerning Troy, the lost \"Aethiopis\", which presents a strikingly similar relationship – that of the divine Dawn, Eos, with her slain son Memnon; she supplements the parallels with images from the repertory of archaic vase-painters, where Eos and Thetis flank the symmetrically opposed heroes, Achilles and Memnon, with a theme that may have been derived from traditional epic songs. Thetis does not need to appeal to Zeus for immortality for her son, but snatches him away to the White Island \"Leuke\" in the Black Sea, an alternate Elysium where he has transcended death, and where an Achilles cult lingered into historic times.", "", "Pseudo-Apollodorus' \"Bibliotheke\" asserts that Thetis was courted by both Zeus and Poseidon, but she was married off to the mortal Peleus because of their fears about the prophecy by Themis (or Prometheus, or Calchas, according to others) that her son would become greater than his father. Thus, she is revealed as a figure of cosmic capacity, quite capable of unsettling the divine order. (Slatkin 1986:12) When Hephaestus was thrown from Olympus, whether cast out by Hera for his lameness or evicted by Zeus for taking Hera's side, the Oceanid Eurynome and the Nereid Thetis caught him and cared for him on the volcanic isle of Lemnos, while he labored for them as a smith, \"working there in the hollow of the cave, and the stream of Okeanos around us went on forever with its foam and its murmur\" (\"Iliad\" 18.369). Thetis is not successful in her role protecting and nurturing a hero (the theme of \"kourotrophos\"), but her role in succoring deities is emphatically repeated by Homer, in three \"Iliad\" episodes: as well as her rescue of Zeus (1.396ff) and Hephaestus (18.369), Diomedes recalls that when Dionysus was expelled by Lycurgus with the Olympians' aid, he took refuge in the Erythraean Sea with Thetis in a bed of seaweed (6.123ff). These accounts associate Thetis with \"a divine past—uninvolved with human events—with a level of divine invulnerability extraordinary by Olympian standards. Where within the framework of the \"Iliad\" the ultimate recourse is to Zeus for protection, here the poem seems to point to an alternative structure of cosmic relations\"", "Zeus had received a prophecy that Thetis's son would become greater than his father, as Zeus had dethroned his father to lead the succeeding pantheon. In order to ensure a mortal father for her eventual offspring, Zeus and his brother Poseidon made arrangements for her to marry a human, Peleus, son of Aeacus, but she refused him. Proteus, an early sea-god, advised Peleus to find the sea nymph when she was asleep and bind her tightly to keep her from escaping by changing forms. She did shift shapes, becoming flame, water, a raging lioness, and a serpent. Peleus held fast. Subdued, she then consented to marry him. Thetis is the mother of Achilles by Peleus, who became king of the Myrmidons. According to classical mythology, the wedding of Thetis and Peleus was celebrated on Mount Pelion, outside the cave of Chiron, and attended by the deities: there they celebrated the marriage with feasting. Apollo played the lyre and the Muses sang, Pindar claimed. At the wedding Chiron gave Peleus an ashen spear that had been polished by Athene and had a blade forged by Hephaestus. While the Olympian goddesses brought him gifts: from Aphrodite, a bowl with an embossed Eros, from Hera a chlamys while from Athena a flute. His father-in-law Nereus endowed him a basket of the salt called 'divine', which has an irresistible virtue for overeating, appetite and digestion, explaining the expression \"'...she poured the divine salt\"'. Zeus then bestowed the wings of Arce to the newly-wed couple which was later given by Thetis to his son, Achilles. Furthermore, the god of the sea, Poseidon gave Peleus the immortal horses, Balius and Xanthus. Eris, the goddess of discord, had not been invited, however, and in spite, she threw a golden apple into the midst of the goddesses that was to be awarded only \"to the fairest.\" In most interpretations, the award was made during the Judgement of Paris and eventually occasioned the Trojan War. As is recounted in the \"Argonautica\", written by the Hellenistic poet Apollonius of Rhodes, Thetis, in an attempt to make her son Achilles immortal, would burn away his mortality in a fire at night and during the day, she would anoint the child with ambrosia. When Peleus caught her searing the baby, he let out a cry. Thetis heard him, and catching up the child threw him screaming to the ground, and she like a breath of wind passed swiftly from the hall as a dream and leapt into the sea, exceeding angry, and thereafter returned never again. In a variant of the myth first recounted in the \"Achilleid\", an unfinished epic written between 94–95 AD by the Roman poet Statius, Thetis tried to make Achilles invulnerable by dipping him in the River Styx (one of the five rivers that run through Hades, the realm of the dead). However, the heel by which she held him was not touched by the Styx's waters and failed to be protected. (A similar myth of immortalizing a child in fire is seen in the case of Demeter and the infant Demophoon). Some myths relate that because she had been interrupted by Peleus, Thetis had not made her son physically invulnerable. His heel, which she was about to burn away when her husband stopped her, had not been protected. Peleus gave the boy to Chiron to raise. Prophecy said that the son of Thetis would have either a long but dull life, or a glorious but brief one. When the Trojan War broke out, Thetis was anxious and concealed Achilles, disguised as a girl, at the court of Lycomedes, king of Skyros. When Odysseus found that one of the girls at court was not a girl, he came up with a plan. Raising an alarm that they were under attack, Odysseus knew that the young Achilles would instinctively run for his weapons and armour, thereby revealing himself. Seeing that she could no longer prevent her son from realizing his destiny, Thetis then had Hephaestus make a shield and armor.", "Thetis played a key part in the events of the Trojan War. Beyond the fact that the Judgement of Paris, which essentially kicked off the war, occurred at her wedding, Thetis influenced the actions of the Olympians and her son, Achilles.Nine years after the beginning of the Trojan War, Homer's \"Iliad\" starts with Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the commander of the Achaeans, and Achilles, son of Thetis, arguing over Briseis, a war prize of Achilles. After initially refusing, Achilles relents and gives Briseis to Agamemnon. However, Achilles feels disrespect for having to give up Briseis and prays to Thetis, his mother, for restitution of his lost honor. She urges Achilles to wait until she speaks with Zeus to rejoin the fighting, and Achilles listens. When she finally speaks to Zeus, Thetis convinces him to do as she bids, and he seals his agreement with her by bowing his head, the strongest oath that he can make. Following the death of Patroclus, who wore Achilles' armor in the fighting, Thetis comes to Achilles to console him in his grief. She vows to return to him with armor forged by Hephaestus, the blacksmith of the gods, and tells him not to arm himself for battle until he sees her coming back. While Thetis is gone, Achilles is visited by Iris, the messenger of the gods, sent by Hera, who tells him to rejoin the fighting. He refuses, however, citing his mother's words and his promise to her to wait for her return. Thetis, meanwhile, speaks with Hephaestus and begs him to make Achilles armor, which he does. First, he makes for Achilles a splendid shield, and having finished it, makes a breastplate, a helmet, and greaves. When Thetis goes back to Achilles to deliver his new armor, she finds him still upset over Patroclus. Achilles fears that while he is off fighting the Trojans, Patroclus' body will decay and rot. Thetis, however, reassures him and places ambrosia and nectar in Patroclus' nose in order to protect his body against decay. After Achilles uses his new armor to defeat Hector in battle, he keeps Hector's body to mutilate and humiliate. However, after nine days, the gods call Thetis to Olympus and tell her that she must go to Achilles and pass him a message, that the gods are angry that Hector's body has not been returned. She does as she is bid, and convinces Achilles to return the body for ransom, thus avoiding the wrath of the gods.", "A noted exception to the general observation resulting from the existing historical records, that Thetis was not venerated as a goddess by cult, was in conservative Laconia, where Pausanias was informed that there had been priestesses of Thetis in archaic times, when a cult that was centered on a wooden cult image of Thetis (a \"xoanon\"), which preceded the building of the oldest temple; by the intervention of a highly placed woman, her cult had been re-founded with a temple; and in the second century AD she still was being worshipped with utmost reverence. The Lacedaemonians were at war with the Messenians, who had revolted, and their king Anaxander, having invaded Messenia, took as prisoners certain women, and among them Cleo, priestess of Thetis. The wife of Anaxander asked for this Cleo from her husband, and discovering that she had the wooden image of Thetis, she set up the woman Cleo in a temple for the goddess. This Leandris did because of a vision in a dream, but the wooden image of Thetis is guarded in secret. In one fragmentary hymn by the seventh century Spartan poet, Alcman, Thetis appears as a demiurge, beginning her creation with \"poros\" (πόρος) \"path, track\" and \"tekmor\" (τέκμωρ) \"marker, end-post\". Third was \"skotos\" (σκότος) \"darkness\", and then the sun and moon. A close connection has been argued between Thetis and Metis, another shape-shifting sea-power later beloved by Zeus but prophesied bound to produce a son greater than his father because of her great strength. Herodotus noted that the Persians sacrificed to \"Thetis\" at Cape Sepias. By the process of \"interpretatio graeca\", Herodotus identifies the deity of another culture as the familiar Hellenic \"Thetis\" a sea-goddess who was being propitiated by the Persians." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Law and government.", "Economy.", "Cultural.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name Hhohho was the name of the royal capital of Mswati II, a 19th-century king of Eswatini. After the Anglo-Boer war, Eswatini came under British administration. A partition of the country into districts followed and Hhohho was the name chosen for the northernmost district.", "The region of Eswatini which is today Hhohho was inhabited in earlier times by the Khoisan people. Later, Bantu settlers of Nguni and Sotho origin established settlements in the area. The land was later conquered by King Sobhuza I in the early 19th century as he relocated his capital from Zombodze in present-day Shiselweni, to Zombodze in the centre of Eswatini. Sotho clans such as the Gama, Mnisi and Magagula, and Nguni clans such as the Maseko, were incorporated into the Swazi state. The royal capital of Sobhuza was built in what forms the Ezulwini valley (valley of heaven). This land was chosen for its impenetrability by invaders, and for its fertility, and good rivers. Under the rule of King Mswati II, the royal capital of the king was constructed north of the country and was called Hhohho. This is the eponym of the Hhohho region. This briefly shifted the political centre of Eswatini northwards, first to minimise the danger of invasion by Zulu forces from the south, and later to expand and conquer lands in the north. Indeed, Mswati's armies expanded the territory of Eswatini. More royal outposts were constructed in towns that are now in South Africa's Mpumalanga province. The loss of the territory occurred after Mswati's reign had ended, and was spurred by the concession hunters, and settlers in the territory that became the Transvaal Republic. In the northwest of Eswatini, gold was discovered, drawing a large number of miners and settlers in the area. Gold deposits were first recorded around Piggs Peak during modern times in 1872 and in 1884 a gold-bearing reef was discovered in the hills to the west by the prospector, William Pigg, after whom the town is named. Other mining adventures took place in the neighbouring town of Bulembu, where later on, asbestos was mined. The town of Ngwenya on the western border of Eswatini with South Africa, is home to the oldest known iron-ore mine in the world. Commercial scale mining took place in the mine until 1977. During Eswatini's status as a British protectorate (1903–68), the borders of Hhohho were officially drawn, with its capital – and that of the country – being Mbabane. The British resident commissioner had his offices in the town. The city, the meaning of whose name is believed to originate from a “small and bitter highveld plant” that grew in the area, is named after Chief Mbabane Kunene.", "The Hhohho region is governed by the regional administrator, who is appointed by the king. The present regional administrator is Dr Ben Sibandze. The seat of the regional administration is in the regional capital, Mbabane. Mbabane is also the administrative capital of Eswatini. Hhohho is subdivided to 14 tinkhundla, or constituencies. These are local administration centres, and also parliamentary constituencies. Each inkhundla is headed by an \"indvuna yenkhundla\" or governor with the help of \"bucopho\". The tinkhundla are further divided into chiefdoms. The present tinkhundla are: The legal system in Hhohho follows that of the whole country. There are magistrate courts which administer Roman-Dutch law.", "Hhohho is the most economically advanced region of Eswatini. Being home to the capital of the country, and hosting a significant fraction of the Manzini-Mbabane corridor, it has Eswatini biggest urbanized population. The economy of the region is dominated by services, tourism, and forestry. The capital, Mbabane is home to the headquarters of many of Eswatini corporations. The central bank of Eswatini is located in Mbabane, so are the headquarters of Standard Bank, Nedbank, Swazi Bank, First National Bank and Eswatini Building Society. The other financial services companies located in Mbabane include: African Alliance, Select Management Services, Eswatini Revenue Authority, among many others. The forestry industry is one of the most important sectors of the Hhohho economy. The area around the towns of Piggs Peak and Bulembu is home to many planted forests and sawmills. The wood is exported for processing in South Africa. The remaining agricultural sector remains very small. Most rural dwellers continue to cultivate rain-fed crops on Swazi Nation Land, and keep small amounts of livestock. Mining in Hhohho has declined significantly over the period of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st. Mining in the early 19th century was the dominant industry with mines located in Ngwenya mine, Bulembu, Piggs Peak and other areas. Ngwenya mine is notable for its status as the oldest known iron-ore mine in the world. Some mining activity still continues in this mine under the Indian mining company Salgaocar. The other mines in the region are no longer operational. The Bulembu mining town which was the main centre for asbestos mining, has now diversified to other sectors, and is privately owned. Tourism is one of the largest sectors of the Hhohho economy. The Ezulwini valley is Eswatini's most famous tourist area with many hotels and restaurants. In Lobamba, the royal and legislative capital of Eswatini, various tourist attractions exist. These include the National Museum, the King Sobhuza II Memorial, and the Eswatini National Archives. The umhlanga festival, held at Ludzidzini Royal Kraal, is one of the most famous cultural events in Eswatini. Mantenga Falls and cultural village, also in the Zulwini valley, are magnets for Swazi culture tourists. Further north of the region, lies the Maguga dam and lodge, and further north is the Phophonyane Falls. Hhohho is also home to the Malolotja nature reserve, a place renowned for its hiking trails.", "Hhohho is home to the royal capital of Eswatini at Lobamba. Here the main cultural events of the country are held. These are the Incwala ceremony and the Umhlanga ceremony. Hhohho is also home to art galleries such as the Indingilizi Gallery in Mbabane. Performance arts can be seen at the theater club, also in Mbabane.", "A campus of the national University of Eswatini is located in Mbabane, and specializes in health and environmental sciences. The Eswatini College of Technology (SCOT), is also located in Mbabane, and focuses on various technical trades. Recent tertiary institutions in the region are the Eswatini Christian University and a campus of Limkokwing University." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and Prohibition.", "The Outfit under Nitti.", "Death.", "In popular culture.", "Sports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Nitti was born Francesco Raffaele Nitto on January 27, 1886, in the small town of Angri, province of Salerno, Campania, Italy. He was the second child of Luigi and Rosina (Fezza) Nitto and a first cousin of Al Capone. His father died in 1888, when Frank was two years old, and within a year his mother married Francesco Dolendo. Although two children were born to the couple, neither survived—leaving Francesco and his older sister, Giovannina, the only children. Francesco Dolendo emigrated to the United States in July 1890, and the rest of the family followed in June 1893 when Nitti was seven. The family settled at 113 Navy Street, Brooklyn, New York City. Little Francesco attended public school and worked odd jobs after school to support the family. His 15-year-old sister married a 24-year-old man, and his mother gave birth to his half-brother Raphael, in 1894, and another child, Gennaro, in 1896. He quit school after the seventh grade, and worked as a pinsetter, factory worker, and barber. Al Capone's family lived nearby, and Nitti was friends with Capone's older brothers and their criminal gang (the Navy Street Boys). A worsening relationship with Dolendo urged him to leave home when Nitti was 14, in 1900, to work in various local factories. Around 1910, at the age of 24, he left Brooklyn. The next several years of his life are poorly documented, and little can be ascertained. He may have worked in the Williamsburg neighborhood of Brooklyn around 1911. He probably moved to Chicago around 1913, working as a barber and making the acquaintance of gangsters Alex Louis Greenberg and Dion O'Banion. He married Chicagoan Rosa (Rose) Levitt in Dallas, Texas, on October 18, 1917. The couple's movements after their marriage remain uncertain. He is known to have become a partner in the Galveston crime syndicate run by Johnny Jack Nounes. He is reported to have stolen a large sum of money from Nounes and fellow mobster Dutch Voight, after which Nitti fled to Chicago. By 1918, Nitti had settled there at 914 South Halsted Street. Nitti quickly renewed his contacts with Greenberg and O'Banion, becoming a jewel thief, liquor smuggler, and fence. Through his liquor smuggling activities, Nitti came to the attention of Chicago crime boss John \"Papa Johnny\" Torrio and Torrio's newly arrived soldier, Al Capone. Under Torrio's successor Al Capone, Nitti's reputation soared. Nitti ran Capone's liquor smuggling and distribution operation, importing whisky from Canada and selling it through a network of speakeasies around Chicago. Nitti was one of Capone's top lieutenants, trusted for his leadership skills and business acumen. Because Nitti's ancestry was from the same town as Capone's, he was able to help Capone penetrate the Sicilian and Camorra underworld in a way Capone alone never could. Capone thought so highly of Nitti that when he went to prison in 1929, he named Nitti as a member of a triumvirate that ran the mob in his place. Nitti was head of operations, with Jake \"Greasy Thumb\" Guzik as head of administration and Tony \"Joe Batters\" Accardo as head of enforcement. Despite his nickname, \"The Enforcer\", Nitti used Mafia soldiers and others to commit violence rather than do it himself. In earlier days, Nitti had been one of Capone's trusted personal bodyguards, but as he rose in the organization, Nitti's business instinct dictated that he must personally avoid the \"dirty work\", for which hitmen were paid. Frank and Rose Levitt divorced in 1928, and shortly thereafter he married Anna Ronga, daughter of a mob doctor and former neighbor of the Nittis in the 1920s. The couple adopted a son, Joseph, through the Tennessee Children's Home Society.", "In 1931, both Nitti and Capone were convicted of tax evasion and sent to prison; however, Nitti received an 18-month sentence served at United States Penitentiary, Leavenworth, while Capone was sent away for 11 years. When Nitti was released on March 25, 1932, he took his place as the new boss of the Capone Gang. While some revisionist historians claim that Nitti was a mere \"front boss\" while Paul \"The Waiter\" Ricca was the actual boss of the Chicago Outfit, both contemporary and modern accounts confirm that Capone's successor was indeed Nitti. According to Nitti biographer Mars Eghigian, Nitti's age, brilliance, and reputation in the underworld made him Capone's personal choice for successor, rather than younger, less experienced mobsters such as Ricca or Murray Humphreys. In actuality, Ricca was merely the acting boss of the Chicago Outfit for a six-month period between Capone's October 1931 imprisonment and Nitti's March 1932 release. With the recently released Nitti paranoid about violating his federal parole, Ricca was acting in the capacity of emissary that same month when he was arrested with Lucky Luciano, Meyer Lansky, and other mobsters by Chicago police and prominently photographed. This picture would cause some to incorrectly infer that Ricca was the new boss of the Chicago mob. With Nitti calling the shots, the Chicago Outfit branched out from prostitution and gambling into other areas, including control of labor unions (which led to the extortion of many businesses). On December 19, 1932, a team of Chicago police, headed by Detective Sergeants Harry Lang and Harry Miller, raided Nitti's office in Room 554 at 221 N. LaSalle Street in Chicago. Lang shot Nitti three times in the back and neck. He then shot himself (a minor flesh wound) to make the shooting look like self-defense, claiming that Nitti had shot him first. Court testimony later insisted that the murder attempt was personally ordered by newly elected Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, who supposedly wanted to eliminate the Chicago Outfit in favor of gangsters who answered to him. Nitti survived the shooting and in February 1933 was acquitted of attempted murder. During that same trial, Miller testified that Lang received $15,000 to kill Nitti. Another uniformed officer who was present at the shooting testified that Nitti was shot while unarmed. Harry Lang and Harry Miller were both fired from the police force and each fined $100 for simple assault. Two months later, Cermak was shot and killed by Giuseppe Zangara, a Calabrian immigrant. At the time, Cermak was talking to President-elect Franklin D. Roosevelt. Most historians believe, corroborated by Zangara's own comments and a note left behind at his room, that he intended to kill Roosevelt but missed and hit Cermak instead. Anna Nitto died on November 19, 1940, in Mercy Hospital, Chicago, from an unspecified internal ailment. Nitti married Annette (Toni) Caravetta on May 14, 1942; she was widowed almost a year later when he committed suicide.", "In 1943, many top members of the Chicago Outfit were indicted for extorting the Hollywood film industry. Among those prosecuted were Nitti, Phil D'Andrea, Louis \"Little New York\" Campagna, Nick Circella, Charles \"Cherry Nose\" Gioe, Ralph Pierce, Ricca, and John \"Handsome Johnny\" Roselli. The Outfit was accused of trying to extort money from some of the largest movie studios, including Columbia Pictures, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, RKO Pictures, and 20th Century Fox. The studios had cooperated with The Outfit to avoid union trouble (unrest itself stirred up by the mob). At a meeting of Outfit leaders at Nitti's home, Ricca blamed Nitti for the indictments. Ricca said that since this had been Nitti's scheme and that of the FBI informant (Willie Bioff) one of Nitti's trusted associates, Nitti should go to prison. A severe claustrophobe as a result of his first prison term, Nitti dreaded the idea of another prison confinement. It was also rumored that he was suffering from terminal cancer at this time. For these or possibly other reasons, he ultimately decided to take his own life. The day before his scheduled grand jury appearance, Nitti had breakfast with his wife in their home at 712 Selborne Road in Riverside, Illinois. When his wife left for church, Nitti told her he planned to take a walk, then began to drink heavily. He then loaded a.32 caliber revolver, put it in his coat pocket, and walked five blocks to a local railroad yard. Conductor William F. Seebauer and switchmen L. M. Barnett and E. H. Moran were riding in the caboose, backing their train slowly southward over an ungated Cermak Road. The workers spotted an oblivious Nitti walking on the track away from them and shouted a warning. Nitti walked off the tracks, staggering towards the fence. Two shots rang out. The workers thought Nitti was shooting at them, then realized he was trying to shoot himself in the head. The first shot fired by Nitti's unsteady hand missed and passed through his fedora. The second bullet slammed into the right side of his jaw and exited through the top of his head, taking a lock of his hair with it and leaving the tuft protruding from the hole in the crown of the fedora. The final, fatal bullet entered behind Nitti's right ear and lodged in the top of his skull. Police Chief Allen Rose of North Riverside, rushing to the scene with a sergeant and several beat patrolmen, recognized Nitti immediately. An autopsy by William McNalley, coroner's toxicologist, showed that Nitti's blood alcohol level was 0.23. A coroner's jury ruled the following day that Nitti \"committed suicide while temporarily insane and in a despondent frame of mind\". Frank Nitti died on March 19, 1943, at the age of 57. Nitti is buried at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois. Controversy has persisted regarding the interment of a suicide in a Catholic cemetery. Nitti's grave can be found to the left of the main Roosevelt Road entrance, about from the gate. To the right of the gate is the family plot containing the grave of Al Capone, marked by a white monument stone. Straight up from the gate are the graves of Dean O'Banion and Hymie Weiss, both North Side Gang members who were killed by the Chicago Outfit under Capone.", "", "Ice hockey goaltender Antero Niittymäki has used an image of Nitti on his helmet due to the similarity of their names." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Main works.", "Other works.", "Literary and cultural influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of a Jutlandic vicar and belonging to an old family of vicars and writers, Pontoppidan gave up an education as an engineer, worked as a primary school teacher and finally became a freelance journalist and full-time writer, making his debut in 1881. The first phase of his work constitutes rebellious social criticism, and as such was also a revolt against his own privileged family background. In a famous quote, Henrik Pontoppidan mocked the historic latinisation of his own surname Pontoppidan from its original Danish root \"Broby\" In matter-of-fact short stories he mercilessly describes the life of the peasants and country proletarians, with whom he lived in close contact. He was perhaps the first Danish progressive writer to break with an idealised portrayal of farmers. The tales from this era are collected in \"Landsbybilleder\" (\"Village Pictures\", 1883) and \"Fra Hytterne\" (\"From the Huts\", 1887). An important part is his 1890 political collection of short stories \"Skyer\" (\"Clouds\"), a biting description of Denmark under the authoritarian semi-dictatorship of the Conservatives both condemning the oppressors and scorning the Danes’ lack of disaffection. After this period he increasingly concentrated on psychological and naturalist problems without giving up his social engagement. Pontoppidan's 1889 review \"Messias\" and 1890 piece \"Den gamle Adam\" were anonymously published and triggered a controversy after being denounced as blasphemous. The publisher, newspaper editor Ernst Brandes, was fined 300 kroner for \"Messias\" in December 1891 and committed suicide in 1892.", "The three novels which are normally considered to be Pontoppidan’s main works were written from about 1890 to 1920. In these works he established on his own terms a Danish version of the \"broad description of society\" novel in the tradition of Balzac and Zola. Centred on a hero he paints a picture of Denmark in the era of the Constitutional Struggle between Conservative and Liberals, rising industrialisation, cultural conflicts and awakening revolutionary movements.", "Pontoppidan's last large novel \"Mands Himmerig\" (1927, \"Man’s Heaven\") is an almost desperate description of the crisis of a Danish intellectual at the time of the outbreak of World War I. Pontoppidan also wrote many short novels and long tales in which he discussed political, psychological and sexual themes. \"Isbjørnen\" (1887, \"The Polar Bear\") describes the confrontation between an outspoken vicar from Greenland and his narrow-minded Danish provincial clergymen. \"Mimoser\" (1886, Engl. transl. \"The Apothecary’s Daughters\", 1890) is an ironic-tragic tale about the exaggerated intolerance of unfaithfulness. \"Nattevagt\" (1894, \"Night Watch\") deals with a courageous and revolutionary artist who is nevertheless a frustrated failure as a husband. Pontoppidan drew on the life of his friend the painter L. A. Ring for the portrait of the artist Thorkild Drehling, Ring considered it a betrayal of trust and broke off the friendship. \"Den gamle Adam\" (1894, \"The Old Adam\") deals with both men’s fear of women and of sexuality as a whole. \"Ørneflugt\" (1899, \"Eagles flight\") is a direct commentary on Hans Christian Andersens The Ugly Duckling with the opposite morale. An eagle brought up in a barnyard grows fat and eventually dies crashlanding into a dungpile - the morale being that you may very well have been born in an eagle's egg but that won't matter if you're brought up in a barnyard. \"Borgmester Hoeck og Hustru\" (1905, Engl. transl. \"Burgomaster Hoeck and His Wife\", 1999) portrays a tragic marriage dominated by the husband's jealousy and dislike of his wife's joy in life. A central theme in most of these tales is the difficulties of handling the new tolerance, open-mindedness and democratisation which are introduced by both the transition of society and by literature. Another theme is the conflict between the introverted and closed male nature and the vitality of the woman. Behind all this lies the classic naturalist theme of heritage and milieu against which man has to rebel without quite denying their existence. In his later works he sometimes seems to become a mixture of a castigator of society and a prophet of doom. Between 1933 and 1943 Pontoppidan wrote two different versions of his \"Memoirs\", in which he tried to define his own view of his personal development. Though handicapped by blindness and deafness in later life, he continued to take an interest in politics and cultural life until his final years.", "As a stylist Pontoppidan has been described a born naturalist. His language looks plain, simple and easy but is often loaded with symbols and secret hints, hidden irony and “objective” descriptions. He often revised previous works, simplifying them but also changing their plot or sharpening their attitude. In spite of being well known as a man of positions and attitudes Pontoppidan remains one of the most discussed modern Danish writers. This is partly because of his personal character. Pontoppidan was a man of many paradoxes: a clear liberal in his time, but a stern patriot, an anti-clerical puritan, a disillusioned fighting nature, collaborating with socialists but always from an independent and individualist position. But it is also partly due to his style which has often been regarded as ambiguous and impenetrable; his mixture of partiality and objectivity has often confused both readers and critics and in fact liberals, radicals, conservatives, right wingers and socialists have all tried to reflect their own ideals in his works. He has been regarded both as the absolute antagonist of Georg Brandes and as his most congenial pupil. Among all the authors of the Modern Break-Through, Pontoppidan is probably the most influential and longest living. His social critical writings mark him as a pioneer of 20th Century Danish literature. Cultural conservatives have been inspired by his critique of modernism after World War I. Finally, he set a standard of \"novels about society\" which remains relevant." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Childhood and first compositions.", "Formal education and controversial early works.", "First ballets.", "First World War and Revolution.", "Life abroad.", "First visits to the Soviet Union.", "Return to Russia.", "War years.", "Postwar.", "Death.", "Posthumous reputation.", "Works.", "Recordings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Prokofiev was born in 1891 in Sontsovka (now Sontsivka, Pokrovsk Raion, Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine), a remote rural estate in the Yekaterinoslav Governorate of the Russian Empire. His father, Sergei Alexeyevich Prokofiev, was an agronomist. Prokofiev's mother, Maria (née Zhitkova), came from a family of former serfs who had been owned by the Sheremetev family, under whose patronage serf-children were taught theatre and arts from an early age. She was described by Reinhold Glière (Prokofiev's first composition teacher) as \"a tall woman with beautiful, clever eyes... who knew how to create an atmosphere of warmth and simplicity about her.\" After their wedding in the summer of 1877, the Prokofievs moved to a small estate in the Smolensk governorate. Eventually, Sergei Alexeyevich found employment as a soil engineer, employed", "In 1902, Prokofiev's mother met Sergei Taneyev, director of the Moscow Conservatory, who initially suggested that Prokofiev should start lessons in piano and composition with Alexander Goldenweiser. Unable to arrange that, Taneyev instead arranged for composer and pianist Reinhold Glière to spend the summer of 1902 in Sontsovka teaching Prokofiev. The first series of lessons culminated, at the 11-year-old Prokofiev's insistence, with the budding composer making his first attempt to write a symphony. The following summer, Glière revisited Sontsovka to give further tuition. When, decades later, Prokofiev wrote about his lessons with Glière, he gave due credit to his teacher's sympathetic method but complained that Glière had introduced him to \"square\" phrase", "In 1914, Prokofiev finished his career at the Conservatory by entering the 'battle of the pianos', a competition open to the five best piano students for which the prize was a Schroeder grand piano: Prokofiev won by performing his own Piano Concerto No. 1. Soon afterwards, he journeyed to London where he made contact with the impresario Sergei Diaghilev. Diaghilev commissioned Prokofiev's first ballet, \"Ala and Lolli\"; but when Prokofiev brought the work in progress to him in Italy in 1915 he rejected it as \"non-Russian\". Urging Prokofiev to write \"music that was national in character\", Diaghilev then commissioned the ballet \"Chout\" (\"The Buffoon\"). (The original", "During World War I, Prokofiev returned to the Conservatory and studied organ to avoid conscription. He composed \"The Gambler\" based on Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novel of the same name, but rehearsals were plagued by problems, and the scheduled 1917 première had to be cancelled because of the February Revolution. In the summer of that year, Prokofiev composed his first symphony, the \"Classical\". The name was Prokofiev's own; the music is in a style that, according to Prokofiev, Joseph Haydn would have used if he were alive at the time. The music is more or less Classical in style but incorporates more modern musical elements (see Neoclassicism). The symphony was also an exact contemporary of Prokofiev's Violin Concerto No.", "Arriving in San Francisco after having been released from questioning by immigration officials on Angel Island on 11 August 1918, Prokofiev was soon compared to other famous Russian exiles, such as Sergei Rachmaninoff. His debut solo concert in New York led to several further engagements. He also received a contract from the music director of the Chicago Opera Association, Cleofonte Campanini, for the production of his new opera \"The Love for Three Oranges\"; however, due to Campanini's illness and death, the premiere was postponed. The delay was", "In 1927, Prokofiev made his first concert tour in the Soviet Union. Over the course of more than two months, he spent time in Moscow and Leningrad (as St Petersburg had been renamed), where he enjoyed a very successful staging of \"The Love for Three Oranges\" in the Mariinsky Theatre. In 1928, Prokofiev completed his Third Symphony, which was broadly based on his unperformed opera \"The Fiery Angel\". The conductor Serge Koussevitzky characterized the Third as \"the greatest symphony since Tchaikovsky's Sixth.\" In the meantime, however, Prokofiev, under the influence of the teachings of Christian Science, had turned against the expressionist style and the subject matter of \"The Fiery Angel\". He now preferred what he called a \"new simplicity\", which he believed more sincere than the \"contrivances and complexities\" of so much modern music of the", "In 1936, Prokofiev and his family settled permanently in Moscow, after shifting back and forth between Moscow and Paris for the previous four years. That year, he composed one of his most famous works, \"Peter and the Wolf\", for Natalya Sats' Central Children's Theatre. Sats also persuaded Prokofiev to write two songs for children, \"Sweet Song\", and \"Chatterbox\"; they were eventually joined by \"The Little Pigs\" and published as \"Three Children's Songs\", Op. 68. Prokofiev also composed the gigantic \"Cantata for the 20th Anniversary of the October Revolution,\" originally intended for performance during the", "Prokofiev had been considering making an opera out of Leo Tolstoy's epic novel \"War and Peace\", when news of the German invasion of Russia on 22 June 1941 made the subject seem all the more timely. Prokofiev took two years to compose his original version of \"War and Peace\". Because of the war, he was evacuated together with a large number of other artists, initially to the Caucasus, where he composed his Second String Quartet. By now, his relationship with the 25-year-old writer and librettist Mira Mendelssohn (1915–1968) had finally led to his separation from his wife Lina, although they never divorced; indeed, Prokofiev had tried to persuade Lina and their sons to accompany him as evacuees out of Moscow, but Lina opted to stay. During the war years, restrictions on style and the demand that composers write in a'socialist realist' style were slackened, and Prokofiev was generally able to", "Prokofiev had time to write his postwar Sixth Symphony and his Ninth Piano Sonata (for Sviatoslav Richter) before the so-called \"Zhdanov Decree\". In early 1948, following a meeting of Soviet composers convened by Andrei Zhdanov, the Politburo issued a resolution denouncing Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Myaskovsky, and Khachaturian of the crime of \"formalism\", described as a \"renunciation of the basic principles of classical music\" in favour of \"muddled, nerve-racking\" sounds that \"turned music into cacophony\". Eight of Prokofiev's works were banned from performance: \"The Year 1941\", \"Ode to the End of the War\", \"Festive Poem\", \"Cantata for the Thirtieth Anniversary of October\", \"Ballad of an Unknown Boy\", the 1934 piano cycle \"Thoughts\", and Piano Sonatas Nos. 6 and 8. Such was the perceived threat behind the banning of the works that even works that had avoided censure were no longer programmed: by August 1948, Prokofiev was in severe financial straits, his personal debt amounting to 180,000", "Prokofiev died at the age of 61 on 5 March 1953, the same day as Joseph Stalin. He had lived near Red Square, and for three days the throngs gathered to mourn Stalin, making it impossible to hold Prokofiev's funeral service at the headquarters of the Soviet Composers' Union. Because the hearse was not allowed near Prokofiev's house, his coffin had to be moved by hand through back streets in the opposite direction of the masses of people going to visit Stalin's body. About 30 people attended the funeral, Shostakovich among them. Although they had not seemed to get along when they met, in the later years their interactions had become far more amicable, with Shostakovich writing to Prokofiev that", "Arthur Honegger proclaimed that Prokofiev would \"remain for us the greatest figure of contemporary music,\" and the American scholar Richard Taruskin has recognised Prokofiev's \"gift, virtually unparalleled among 20th-century composers, for writing distinctively original diatonic melodies.\" Yet for some time Prokofiev's reputation in the West suffered as a result of Cold War antipathies, and his music has never won from Western academics and critics the kind of esteem enjoyed by Igor Stravinsky and Arnold Schoenberg, composers purported to have had a greater influence on", "Important works", "Prokofiev was a soloist with the London Symphony Orchestra, conducted by Piero Coppola, in the first recording of his Piano Concerto No. 3, recorded in London by His Master's Voice in June 1932. Prokofiev also recorded some of his solo piano music for HMV in Paris in February 1935; these recordings were issued on CD by Pearl and Naxos. In 1938, he conducted the Moscow Philharmonic Orchestra in a recording of the second suite from his \"Romeo and Juliet\" ballet; this performance was later released on LP and CD. Another reported recording with Prokofiev and the Moscow Philharmonic was of the First Violin Concerto with David Oistrakh as soloist; Everest Records later released this recording on an LP. Despite the attribution, the conductor was Aleksandr Gauk. A short sound film of Prokofiev playing some of the music from his opera \"War and Peace\" and then explaining the music has been discovered." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Already in the 10th and 11th century were established two fortresses (in today's Jílové and in Libouchec). Later, in the 13th century, was established around this royal stronghold new village Libouchec. Its original name was Regis Silva (Königswald). But the first official mention was in a chronicle in 1169. The first settlers were Celts and Germanics, from the 5th century initially mainly Slavic peoples and from the late Middle Ages onwards mainly Germans.After World War II almost the entire population of the town was expropriated without compensation and expelled due to their German ethnicity. Libouchec was mainly resettled with Czechs, Slovaks and Roma. There was a very important Salt trail through Libouchec. Salt was carrying from here to Děčín where it was embarked and sent to inland. There started an important production in manufacture in the end of feudalism (buttons, textile, primitive machines). The nobility from Bynov began in the 16th century with logging, mining of ore and silver. In the 19th century was its surroundings industrial region. There began the production of velvet, liqueurs, mustard and agricultural machines. Very important was also the railway which has led from Duchcov to Děčín. It was built in 1869 by Mr. Zacharias and was the most expensive railway being built at that time. Unfortunately the running of it was canceled in 2008. The most important buildings in Libouchec are The Church of the Three St. Kings and the castle. The church was built in 1357, but after burning out it was repaired in the 16th century and from that time has been rebuilt many times. The castle (its original name was Schönstein) was established by Günter from Bünau in the 16th century. From that time has the castle weathered lots of things (Thirty Years' War, fires...) and it has been in the emergency conditions. In 2003 the castle was sold and has since been repaired." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and release.", "Writing and recording.", "Remix.", "Critical response.", "Chart performance.", "United States.", "Oceania and Europe.", "Music videos.", "Original version.", "Murder remix.", "Live performances.", "Controversies.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original version of \"I'm Real\" was recorded by Lopez for her second studio album, \"J.Lo\" (2001) which had 14 other tracks. Released on January 23, 2001, \"J.Lo\" became a commercial success, debuting at the summit of the \"Billboard\" 200. Describing \"J.Lo\" as a \"reflection of who I am, my own experiences\", Lopez said: \"My fans call me J.Lo. Giving the album this title is my way of telling them that this is for them in appreciation of their support.\" Prior to its release, she knew how important it was to \"stay fresh\", and decided to tweak her public image by dying her hair and changing her stage name to J.Lo. Lopez felt that she had more \"creative control\" on \"J.Lo\" than her debut album \"On the 6\" (1999). The album was reissued on July 24, 2001 (Lopez's thirty-second birthday), now containing the remix version of \"I'm Real\" featuring Ja Rule.", "The original version of \"I'm Real\" was written by Jennifer Lopez, Troy Oliver, Cory Rooney and Leshan David Lewis, with production being handled by Oliver and Rooney. Lyrically, the singer offers voluptuous good times as long as her lover \"don't ask me where I've been.\" While she brags that she's made him fall in love, a male voice chants, \"She's a bad, bad bitch.\" Oliver developed the song's concept while Lewis suggested the use of a loop from the song \"Firecracker\" (1978) by Japanese band Yellow Magic Orchestra from their self-titled album. After hearing the instrumental track, Lopez and Rooney wrote \"I'm Real\", which she said \"was the first time I ever wrote a melody. I just love the hook of the song. I wrote it, so it’s kind of personal.\" Lopez recorded the song that day, and called in her boyfriend at the time Sean Combs to record the lyric, \"She's a bad, bad bitch.\" Rooney revealed: \"She wrote that and she had him stop what he was doing, leave his studio, come across town and just go in the vocal booth and say that one part. Then she said, 'OK, now you can leave.'\"", "Urban radio stations were disappointed that \"J.Lo\" had not produced a single that catered to their audiences, and Epic Records knew that they needed the support of both urban and pop radio. After the album began to decline on the charts, Rooney suggested to Tommy Mottola that the song be remixed, which prompted Mottola to enlist Ja Rule of Murder Inc Records. Ja Rule admitted that he was \"thrown\" when he heard the song, saying: \"I don't do dance music, so what do you want me to do to this?\" Along with Irv Gotti, Ja Rule wrote the Murder remix for \"I'm Real\", which utilizes samples from \"All Night Long\" (1983) by Mary Jane Girls and \"Mary Jane\" by Rick James. \"I'm Real (Murder Remix)\" was produced by Gotti and 7 Aurelius, and was recorded at Record Plant in Hollywood, California and Crackhouse Studios in New York City. Singer Ashanti recorded the demo version of the remix, and provided background vocals for the final version. Ja Rule opens the remix by screaming \"What's my motherfucking name?\", to which Lopez responds \"R-U-L-E\". However, these lyrics resulted in common confusion among listeners, with many having heard \"Are you Ellie?\" instead. Following the release of \"I'm Real (Murder Remix)\", Lopez's personal sound had shifted away from a pure pop sound to more of an R&B/hip hop sound. Ja Rule noted that her audience now wanted a different sound from her, \"It's J.Lo now because of 'I'm Real' [...] It's gonna put her in another zone. After this one, they gonna be expecting hot crossover R&B joints from J.Lo. They ain't gonna want the pop version of J.Lo no more, they gonna want the 'I'm Real' version.\" Rule described it as a \"real collaboration\" by saying \"Sometimes when you do a collaboration with an artist it's not real collaborations [...] 'Send me a reel here. I'll fly it back here.' Me and J. Lo's record was a real collaboration.\"", "The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic picked the song as one of his \"track picks\", noting that the song has \"hook, but it needs a couple of spins before its catch holds\". While saying that the song \"sound like it's straight out of 1986\", Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" called it \"a retro pop track reminiscent of Janet Jackson's \"Control\" era\". Tom Sinclair of \"Entertainment Weekly\" called it \"a chirpy little synth pop number\". The \"Murder Remix\" also received favorable reviews from music critics. William Ruhlmann of \"Allmusic\" picked the song as one of the best from the album, while Sal Cinquemani of \"Slant Magazine\" called it \"edgy, often sexy remix\", naming it \"a significant departure from the retro-hued album version\". Ian Wade of \"Yahoo! Music\" wrote that \"only the Ja Rule assisted 'I'm Real' and 'Ain't It Funny', that makes something vaguely special out of the original versions, Jen'd be better off just hooking up with him for good and they could become a Cristal-sipping, foulmouthed and bling-blinging Sonny & Cher.\" While reviewing Ja Rule's \"Pain Is Love\" album, Soren Baker of \"Los Angeles Times\" noted \"I'm Real\" to be \"one of the album's stronger songs, as Rule's rough voice and Lopez's sugary tones make a surprisingly appealing blend\". In 2011, the remix version was names the sixth-biggest duet of all time by \"Billboard\".", "", "\"I'm Real\" debuted at number 66 on the U.S. \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the week ending July 7, 2001, earning the \"Hot Shot Debut of the Week\" title and debuting on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Airplay at number 55. \"I'm Real\" jumped to number 40 in its second week on the Hot 100 and moved up to number 32 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. In its third week, the song continued to steadily increase, reaching number 25 on the Hot 100 and 20 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart. By its fourth week, the song had reached the top twenty, fueled by increasing airplay. On September 8, 2001, \"I'm Real\" replaced Alicia Keys' \"Fallin'\" as the leader of both the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 and Hot 100 Airplay chart. It was the number one song in the United States during the 9/11. Rooney recalled: \"I didn't get a chance to celebrate the success of \"I'm Real\" so much because of all that was going on. The focus shifted. I remember it putting a really dark cloud over everything.\" \"I'm Real\" spent the next three charting weeks at the summit and was subsequently knocked out of the top spot by \"Fallin'\", which boasted an additional three consecutive weeks at number one. After three weeks stalled at number two, \"I'm Real\" returned to number one again for a final two weeks, through October 27, 2001. \"I'm Real (Murder Remix)\" was a staple on R&B/hip hop and pop radio during the summer and fall of 2001, spending fifteen weeks in the top five of the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. In 2009 the single was named the 30th most successful song of the 2000s, on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Songs of the Decade. The success of \"I'm Real (Murder Remix)\", which became the biggest hit of Lopez's career at the time, propelled the album \"J.Lo\" from number 90 on the \"Billboard\" 200 back to the top ten according to Nielsen SoundScan. The chart position of the Murder Remix was boosted by radio play of the album track, which led to complaints of unfairness and change of \"Billboard\" policy in 2002. Afterwards, airplay of identically named songs but with substantially different melodies was not combined when computing chart positions. Rooney stated that the song's success \"really pissed off everybody in terms of \"Billboard\"s rules\". Following the release of \"Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)\", Chuck Taylor of \"Billboard\" noted: \"Sony has got to be kidding, calling it \"Ain't it Funny\" when not one note of it is held in common with the original\", calling it a \"disturbing trend\".", "Elsewhere, \"I'm Real\" was very successful. In Australia, the song debuted at number nine, before moving to number six; becoming its highest peak. After weeks descending the charts, the song eventually climbed once again to number six, remaining at number seven for two further weeks. Finally, the song climbed to number five, on January 6, 2002, before peaking at number three the following week. It was Lopez's highest charting-single since her debut-single \"If You Had My Love\" (1999). In New Zealand, \"I'm Real\" debuted at number 44, before peaking at number three for two consecutive weeks, becoming her highest single from 'J.Lo' since \"Love Don't Cost a Thing\" and the album's third top-ten single. In Europe, the song continued the success. In the United Kingdom, \"I'm Real\" became Lopez's sixth top-five single, reaching number four, also becoming her fourth consecutive top-five single from the same album. In France, \"I'm Real\" debuted at number 90, on December 15, 2001. The song kept climbing, until it reached a peak of number three, on January 12, 2002. It became her highest charting-single in France, until \"Get Right\" peaked at number two in 2005 and was certified silver by SNEP.", "The music videos for \"I'm Real\" were both directed by Dave Meyers and followed its release as a single in the United States. The original version's music video depicts Lopez driving a motorcycle in the countryside, with Meyers noting that it \"looked very country\". Lopez's soon-to-be husband Cris Judd appeared as a dancer in the clip; the video also featured cameo appearances by Ja Rule, Irv Gotti and underwear model Travis Fimmel. According to Meyers, \"we finished that video very quickly, turned it around and then shot the remix video.\" The director said: \"We got Ja out there and then Irv shakes his head and goes, 'Nah, this is all wrong.' He's like, 'Dave, check it out: We just remixed the song. This is hot. We need to bring Jennifer and Ja to the hood, not out in the wilderness, not in the reeds.' So It was a one-day shoot. Then, of course, the remix video was the one that exploded.\" The second music video features a variety of settings including a dilapidated house, swimming pool and basketball court. Meyers stated that: \"I was really up to capturing the less polished version of the two. The Murder Inc. crew at that time was all about having a good time, and I think Jennifer certainly was infected by that energy as well.\" Ja Rule described the process of making the remix and filming the video as a \"the fastest turnaround probably ever for a record. From the time the record was written to video, it was a two-day spin. It was done that fast.\" The Juicy Couture pink velour tracksuit worn by Lopez in the Murder remix video became iconic according to \"Vogue\". \"Complex\" magazine wrote that the video \"completely dominated TRL and pretty much all of MTV with a visual that perfectly encapsulated the '00s aesthetic of a Juicy sweatsuit and big sunglasses.\" The Murder remix version won the award for Best Hip-Hop Video at the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards.", "The original video for \"I'm Real\" begins with Lopez driving down a highway on a motorcycle, passing various smiling children, who stop what they are doing and run after her. Lopez is also seen at a gas station, where she stops and proceeds to walk into the town. Several more people gaze at her as she walks through the town, and she is later seen eating ice cream with children, until she gets back onto her motorcycle and drives back down the highway. A string of children are running after her, and the music stops as she steps up onto a stage set on a hillside; where she goes into a dance-break to \"More Bounce to the Ounce\" by Zapp. These scenes feature Lopez's second husband, Cris Judd, as a back-up dancer. For the rest of the video, Lopez continues to sing, dance and entertain the crowd on stage as the crowd watch in pleasure. The video also features cameo appearances by Ja Rule and Travis Fimmel.", "A separate video clip was shot for the Murder remix of \"I'm Real\" featuring Ja Rule. It opens with Lopez leaning on a gate of a suburban house and singing in front of a red backdrop along with Ja Rule, who is also seen walking the streets, with a basketball. Men and women are then seen in various locations such as a park and swimming pool. Lopez and Ja Rule are then seen together in a basketball court in the chorus of the song. These locations are shown for a prominent part of the video, until both of them are later at a party; and sitting together at a park watching children play.", "Lopez and Ja Rule performed the murder remix version of the song at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards. The song (original version) was included on the set list for her series of Let's Get Loud concerts in 2001, and later appeared on the Let's Get Loud Concert DVD. She sang the original version of the song on NBC's \"Today\" in the middle of the Rockefeller Plaza. Lopez performed the \"Murder Remix\" version of the song as part of her medley during the 2018 MTV Video Music Awards on August 20, 2018 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. The song was featured in Lopez's setlist during the Super Bowl LIV halftime show.", "Despite the success of \"I'm Real\", there was controversy over the use of the original single's sample and the structure of the song. The original song contains an uncredited sample from Yellow Magic Orchestra's 1978 hit \"Firecracker\" (an electronic synthpop cover of Martin Denny's 1959 melody of the same name. There have been reports that the \"Firecracker\" sample was originally planned to be used for Mariah Carey's \"Loverboy\". According to the music publisher of \"Firecracker\", Carey's team called to license a sample of the song, which had never been sampled, months before Lopez's team called to do the same. Carey felt that former husband and music executive at Sony Music (Columbia Records), Tommy Mottola, was interfering with her career by arranging for the sample to go to Lopez. Upset by the conduct of Lopez and her ex-husband, Carey featured a reference to the song on the remix of her single \"Loverboy\", her first single released by her record company at the time, Virgin Records. The verse can be heard in Da Brat's rap section, where she sings, \"Hate on me much as you want to / You can't do what the fuck I do / Bitches be emulating me daily\" over the melody of \"Firecracker\". Irv Gotti, who produced the Murder remix of \"I'm Real\", openly admitted during an interview with \"XXL\" magazine that Mottola contacted him with instructions to create a song that sounded exactly like a song he had made with Carey for the \"Glitter\" soundtrack entitled \"If We\", also featuring Ja Rule. Furthermore, some in the African American community were outraged by Lopez's use of the racial slur \"nigga\" in the Murder Remix. She said \"I tell them niggas, mind they biz, but they don't hear me, though.\" A free New York concert drew banner-carrying protesters, angry at the lyrics for \"I'm Real\". In response to this, Lopez said in between performances \"For anyone to think or suggest that I'm racist is really absurd and hateful to me. The use of the word in the song — it was actually written by Ja Rule — it was not meant to be hurtful to anybody.\" Ja Rule also responded to this, defending Lopez by stating \"I think it's silly [...] I think the whole thing, like everything else, is being blown out of proportion.\" Rule said that Lopez was not the first Latino to use the word in a song, and that it hadn't been in an issue previously, adding it was something to let people get a chance to \"poke her\". Julian Kimble of the website Genius noted in 2016, \"Other Latino performers had said the word and ducked the backlash, primarily because their reach didn’t compare to Lopez’s. To that effect (and apparently unbeknownst to her at the time), the Bronx native’s position as world-renowned pop star limited what she could do and say.\" Kimble observed that her 2002 single \"Jenny from the Block\" \"has always rung like a response to everyone who derided her for the 'I'm Real' remix.\"", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"J.Lo\". Murder Remix Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"J to tha L–O! The Remixes\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Medieval and early modern period.", "19th and 20th centuries.", "Flag and Coat of Arms.", "Sights." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "One theory of the town's name is that it derives from \"Obora\" (Polish for \"cow-shed\"), denoting a village whose people were engaged in cattle-breeding. Another theory suggests it derives from \"O bor\", meaning forest, indicating it was taken from pine and fir forests that were growing on loess deposited land. However, the town is surrounded by oak trees, not by pine or fir. The town's name remained largely unchanged through its history, including variations like \"Obora\", \"Obornik\", \"Obiring\", \"Obernigk\". The suffix \"Śląskie\" (\"Silesian\") was added after 1945 to differentiate the town from Oborniki in Greater Poland Voivodeship.", "The earliest known human traces in this area comes from the Mesolithic Kurgans characteristic for early Bronze Age Lusatian culture have been found nearby, as well as artifacts such as Mesolithic flint tools and Neolithic axes.", "The area became part of the emerging Polish state under Mieszko I of Poland in the 10th century. Oborniki was first mentioned in a Latin document of Diocese of Wrocław called \"Liber fundationis episcopatus Vratislaviensis\" from around 1305 as \"Obora\" among the villages obliged to pay a tithe to the Bishopric of Wrocław. Cistercians once lived near the town, which was based on Magdeburg rights, although it did not actually have the status of a town. In the early 14th century, the town was transferred from the Bishops of Wrocław to Duke Konrad I of Oleśnica. Along with the rest of Silesia, Oborniki came under the suzerainty of the Kingdom of Bohemia, part of the Holy Roman Empire, during the Late Middle Ages. The region was inherited by the Habsburg Monarchy of Austria in 1526 and taken by the Kingdom of Prussia in 1742 during the Silesian Wars. It was administered in the Prussian Province of Silesia as Obernigk.", "Karl Eduard von Holtei lived in Obernigk for a few years and married Luise Rogée there in 1821. He described the town in his poems. Because of its good climate in the \"Katzengebirge\" (Trzebnickie Hills), Obernigk began to develop from a provincial village into the spa \"Bad Obernigk\" under the guidance of the landowner Carl Wolfgang Schaubert in 1835. In 1856 the town was located along the railway line between Breslau (Wrocław) and Posen (Poznań). When cholera broke out in Breslau in 1866, many inhabitants fled to Obernigk. The town became part of the Prussian-led German Empire in 1871. Until the end of World War II, Bad Obernigk was part of Landkreis Trebnitz in the Province of Lower Silesia, Germany. Because of its spas and sanatoriums, it was popular with the citizens of Breslau and other cities in Lower Silesia. Near the end of World War II, in January 1945, the Germans evacuated most of the settlement's population, and most of the remaining residents were recruited into the Volkssturm. The settlement was captured by the Soviets in late January 1945. According to local Poles, only three buildings were destroyed in battle, and more were destroyed and burned down by the Soviet troops later on. The settlement was transferred from Germany to Poland in 1945 and had its remaining German-speaking population expelled; it received town privileges in the same year.", "The coat-of-arms of the city is a green fir with a brown trunk on a yellow background. The fir, a common tree for this area, is also a symbol referring to the historic character of Karl Eduard von Holtei, a German poet who lived here, and planted such trees in his garden to celebrate birth of his two children. The fir was stamped with postmarks yet before the World War, but as a coat of arms was approved just in 1991. The flag of the city was approved by the Heraldic Commission, and has been the official emblem of Oborniki Śląskie since June 2002. It presents the city's coat-of-arms on a green and yellow background.", "The town's sights and tourist destinations include sanatoria, historic churches of the Sacred Heart of Jesus and of St. Jude Thaddeus and the Grzybek Landscape Park." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Events.", "History.", "All-time medal table." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "All the world championship events, are ridden by national teams, not trade teams such as in most other major races. The winner of each category is entitled to wear the rainbow jersey in races of that category (either mass start or time trial) until the next championships. It currently includes the following championships: Former events:", "The first world championships took place in 1921, though the only event that was contested was the Men's Road Race for Amateurs. The first professional world championship took place in July 1927 at the Nürburgring in Germany where Italian Alfredo Binda won the professional men's race and Belgian Jean Aerts won the men's amateur race. The women's road race was introduced in 1958. A men's team time trial, contested by national teams, was introduced in 1962. Beginning in 1972, the team time trial was discontinued in Olympic years only. Individual time trials in all categories were added in 1994, which was also the last year for the original incarnation of the men's team time trial. In 2012, the men's team time trial was reinstated, and a women's team time trial added to the program; both were contested by trade teams. In 2019, the team time trial events for men and women will be replaced by a mixed relay team time trial. Until 1995, there were separate races for male professional and amateur riders. In 1996, the amateur category was replaced with a category for men under-23 years old with the professional category becoming an open (later elite) category. Since 1995, the race has been held towards the end of the European season in late September, usually following the Vuelta a España. Before that, the event had always been a summer race, held in late August or the first week of September (with the exception of 1970, when it was a mid-season summer event). The world championships are located in a different city or region every year. The event can be held over a relatively flat course which favors cycling sprinters or a hilly course which favors a climbing specialist or all-round. In each case the course is usually held on a circuit of which the riders complete multiple laps. The world championship road race and two of the three Grand Tours (namely the Giro d'Italia and the Tour de France) form the Triple Crown of Cycling.", "Medal table includes only medals achieved in senior events. Mixed nation team events such as the Team Time Trial from 2012 to 2018 are excluded." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fat content.", "Methods of whipping.", "Instant.", "Flavorings.", "History.", "Crème Chantilly.", "Imitation whipped cream.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cream used for whipping cream has a high butterfat content—typically 30%–36%—as fat globules contribute to forming stable air bubbles. During whipping, partially coalesced fat molecules create a stabilized network which traps air bubbles. The resulting colloid is roughly double the volume of the original cream. If, however, the whipping is continued, the fat droplets will stick together destroying the colloid and forming butter. Lower-fat cream (or milk) does not whip well, while higher-fat cream produces a more stable foam.", "Cream is usually mechanically whipped with a whisk, an electric hand mixer, or a food processor. Results are best when the equipment and ingredients are cold. The bubbles in the mechanically whipped cream immediately start to pop, and the whipped cream begins to liquefy. Thus mechanically whipped cream has a useful lifetime of one to two hours. Many 19th-century recipes recommend adding gum tragacanth to stabilize whipped cream, while a few include whipped egg whites. Various other substances, including gelatin and diphosphate, are used in commercial stabilizers.", "Whipped cream may also be made instantly in a whipping siphon or a pre-pressurized can sold at retail. A gas dissolves in the butterfat under pressure. When the pressure is released, the gas leaves solution, producing bubbles. Typically the gas is nitrous oxide, as carbon dioxide tends to give a sour taste.", "Whipped cream is often flavored with sugar, vanilla, coffee, chocolate, orange, and so on.", "Whipped cream, often sweetened and aromatised, was popular in the 16th century, with recipes in the writings of Cristoforo di Messisbugo (Ferrara, 1549), Bartolomeo Scappi (Rome, 1570), and Lancelot de Casteau (Liège, 1604). It was called milk or cream snow (\"neve di latte\", \"neige de lait\", \"neige de crème\"). A 1545 English recipe, \"A Dyschefull of Snow\", includes whipped egg whites as well, and is flavored with rosewater and sugar. (\"cf.\" snow cream) In these recipes, and until the end of the 19th century, naturally separated cream is whipped, typically with willow or rush branches, and the resulting foam on the surface would from time to time be skimmed off and drained, a process taking an hour or more. By the end of the 19th century, centrifuge-separated, high-fat cream made it much faster and easier to make whipped cream. The French name \"crème fouettée\" 'whipped cream' is attested in 1629, and the English name \"whipped cream\" in 1673. The name \"snow cream\" continued to be used in the 17th century. Various desserts consisting of whipped cream in pyramidal shapes with coffee, liqueurs, chocolate, fruits, and so on either in the mixture or poured on top were called \"crème en mousse\" 'cream in a foam', \"crème fouettée\", \"crème mousseuse\" 'foamy cream', \"mousse\" 'foam', and \"fromage à la Chantilly\" 'Chantilly-style molded cream', as early as 1768. Modern mousses, including mousse au chocolat, are a continuation of this tradition. Cream whipped in a whipping siphon with nitrous oxide was invented in the 1930s by both Charles Getz, working with G. Frederick Smith, and Marshall Reinecke. Both filed patents, which were later litigated. The Getz patents were originally deemed invalid, but were upheld on appeal. A popular modern brand is Reddi-Wip.", "\"Crème Chantilly\" is another name for whipped cream. The difference between \"whipped cream\" and \"crème Chantilly\" is not systematic. Some authors distinguish between the two, with crème Chantilly being sweetened, and whipped cream not. However, most authors treat the two as synonyms, with both being sweetened, neither being sweetened, or treating sweetening as optional. Many authors use only one of the two names (for the sweetened or unsweetened version), so it is not clear if they distinguish the two. The invention of crème Chantilly is often credited incorrectly, and without evidence, to François Vatel, \"maître d'hôtel\" at the Château de Chantilly in the mid-17th century. But the name Chantilly is first connected with whipped cream in the mid-18th century, around the time that the Baronne d'Oberkirch praised the \"cream\" served at a lunch at the Hameau de Chantilly—but did not say what exactly it was, or call it Chantilly cream. The names \"crème Chantilly\", \"crème de Chantilly\", \"crème à la Chantilly\", or \"crème fouettée à la Chantilly\" only become common in the 19th century. In 1806, the first edition of Viard's \"Cuisinier Impérial\" mentions neither \"whipped\" nor \"Chantilly\" cream, but the 1820 edition mentions both. The name \"Chantilly\" was probably used because the château had become a symbol of refined food.", "Imitations of whipped cream, often sold under the name whipped topping or squirty cream, are commercially available. They may be used to avoid dairy ingredients, to provide extended shelf life, or to reduce the price (although some popular brands cost twice as much as whipped cream). Artificial whipped topping normally contains some mixture of partially hydrogenated oil, sweeteners, water, and stabilizers and emulsifiers added to prevent syneresis. It may be sold frozen in plastic tubs (\"e.g.\", Cool Whip), or in aerosol containers or in liquid form in cartons, reminiscent of real whipping cream.", "Whipped cream or \"crème Chantilly\" is a popular topping for fruit and desserts such as pie, ice cream (especially sundaes), cupcakes, cakes, milkshakes, waffles, hot chocolate, cheesecakes, Jello and puddings. It is also served on coffee, especially in the Viennese coffee house tradition, where coffee with whipped cream is known as \"Melange mit Schlagobers\". Whipped cream is used as an ingredient in many desserts, for example as a filling for profiteroles and layer cakes. It is often piped onto a dish using a pastry bag to create decorative shapes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Calculation.", "History.", "Applications and observations.", "Architecture.", "Art.", "Books and design.", "Music.", "Nature.", "Optimization.", "Mathematics.", "Irrationality.", "Contradiction from an expression in lowest terms.", "By irrationality of.", "Minimal polynomial.", "Golden ratio conjugate.", "Alternative forms.", "Geometry.", "Dividing a line segment by exterior division.", "Golden triangle, pentagon and pentagram.", "Scalenity of triangles.", "Triangle whose sides form a geometric progression.", "Golden triangle, rhombus, and rhombic triacontahedron.", "Relationship to Fibonacci sequence.", "Symmetries.", "Other properties.", "Decimal expansion.", "Pyramids.", "Mathematical pyramids.", "Egyptian pyramids.", "Disputed observations.", "The Parthenon.", "Modern art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Two quantities \"a\" and \"b\" are said to be in the \"golden ratio\" if One method for finding the value of is to start with the left", "According to Mario Livio: Ancient Greek mathematicians first studied what we now call the golden ratio because of its frequent appearance in geometry; the division of a line into \"extreme and mean ratio\" (the golden section) is important in the geometry of regular pentagrams and pentagons. According to one story, 5th-century BC mathematician Hippasus discovered that the golden ratio was neither a whole number nor a fraction (an irrational number), surprising Pythagoreans. Euclid's \"Elements\" () provides several propositions and their proofs employing the golden ratio and contains the first known definition: The golden ratio was studied peripherally over the next millennium. Abu Kamil (c. 850–930) employed it in his geometric calculations of pentagons and decagons; his writings influenced that of Fibonacci (Leonardo of Pisa) (c. 1170–1250), who used the ratio in related geometry problems, though never connected it to the series of numbers named after him. Luca Pacioli named his book \"Divina proportione\" (1509) after the ratio and explored its properties including its appearance in some of the Platonic solids. Leonardo da Vinci, who illustrated the aforementioned", "", "A 2004 geometrical analysis of earlier research into the Great Mosque of Kairouan (670) reveals an application of the golden ratio in much of the design. They found ratios close to the golden ratio in the overall layout and in the dimensions of the prayer space, the court, and the minaret. However, the areas with ratios close to the golden ratio were not part of the original plan, and were likely added in a reconstruction. It has been speculated that the golden ratio was used by the designers of the Naqsh-e Jahan Square (1629) and the adjacent Lotfollah Mosque. The Swiss architect Le Corbusier, famous for his contributions to the modern international style, centered his design philosophy on systems of harmony and proportion. Le Corbusier's faith in the mathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden ratio and the Fibonacci series, which he described as \"rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms", "\"Divina proportione\" (\"Divine proportion\"), a three-volume work by Luca Pacioli, was published in 1509. Pacioli, a Franciscan friar, was known mostly as a mathematician, but he was also trained and keenly interested in art. \"Divina proportione\" explored the mathematics of the golden ratio. Though it is often said that Pacioli advocated the golden ratio's application to yield pleasing, harmonious proportions, Livio points out that the interpretation has been traced to an error in 1799, and that Pacioli actually advocated the Vitruvian system of rational proportions. Pacioli also saw Catholic religious significance in the ratio, which led to his work's title. Leonardo da Vinci's illustrations of polyhedra in \"Divina proportione\" have led some to speculate that he incorporated the golden ratio in his paintings. But the suggestion that his \"Mona Lisa\", for", "According to Jan Tschichold, There was a time when deviations from the truly beautiful page proportions 2:3, 1:√3, and the Golden Section were rare. Many books produced", "Ernő Lendvai analyzes Béla Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the acoustic scale, though other music scholars reject that analysis. French composer Erik Satie used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including \"Sonneries de la Rose+Croix\". The golden ratio is also apparent in the organization of the sections in the music of Debussy's \"Reflets dans l'eau (Reflections in Water)\", from \"Images\" (1st series, 1905), in which \"the sequence of keys is marked out by", "Johannes Kepler wrote that \"the image of man and woman stems from the divine proportion. In my opinion, the propagation of plants and the progenitive acts of animals are in the same ratio\". The psychologist Adolf Zeising noted that the golden ratio appeared in phyllotaxis and argued from these patterns in nature that", "The golden ratio is", "", "The golden ratio is an irrational number. Below are two short proofs of irrationality:", "Recall that: If we call the whole \"n\" and the longer part \"m\", then the second statement above becomes or, algebraically To say that the golden ratio is rational means that is a fraction \"n\"/\"m\"", "Another short proof—perhaps more commonly known—of the irrationality of the golden ratio makes use of the closure of rational numbers under addition and multiplication. If formula_15 is rational, then formula_16 is also rational, which is a contradiction if it is already known that the square root of a non-square natural number is irrational.", "The golden ratio is also an algebraic number and even an algebraic integer. It", "The conjugate root to the minimal polynomial x − x − 1 is The absolute value of this quantity (≈ 0.618) corresponds to the length ratio taken in reverse order (shorter segment length over longer segment", "The formula = 1 + 1/ can be expanded recursively to obtain a continued fraction for the golden ratio: and its reciprocal: The convergents of these continued fractions (1/1, 2/1, 3/2, 5/3, 8/5, 13/8,..., or 1/1, 1/2, 2/3, 3/5,", "The number turns up frequently in geometry, particularly in figures with pentagonal symmetry. The length of a regular pentagon's diagonal is times its side. The vertices of a regular icosahedron are those of three mutually orthogonal golden rectangles. There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere, for any of several definitions of even distribution (see, for example, \"Thomson problem\"). However, a useful approximation results from dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal surface area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360°/ ≅ 222.5°. This method was used to arrange the 1500 mirrors of the student-participatory satellite Starshine-3. Application examples you can see in the articles Pentagon with a given side length, Decagon with given circumcircle and Decagon with a given side length.", "Both of the above displayed different algorithms produce geometric constructions that determine", "", "Consider a triangle with sides of lengths \"a\", \"b\", and \"c\" in decreasing order. Define the \"scalenity\" of the", "If the side lengths of a triangle form a geometric progression and are in the ratio 1 : \"r\" : \"r\", where \"r\" is the common ratio, then \"r\" must lie in the range −1 < \"r\" <, which is a consequence of the triangle inequality (the", "A golden rhombus is a rhombus whose diagonals are in the golden ratio. The rhombic triacontahedron is a convex polytope that has a very special property: all of its faces are golden rhombi. In the rhombic triacontahedron the dihedral angle between any two adjacent rhombi is 144°, which is twice the isosceles angle of a golden triangle and four times its most acute angle.", "The mathematics of the golden ratio and of the Fibonacci sequence are intimately interconnected. The Fibonacci sequence is: A closed-form expression for the Fibonacci sequence involves the golden ratio: The golden ratio is the limit of the ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like sequence), as shown by Kepler: In other words, if a Fibonacci number is divided by its immediate predecessor in the sequence, the quotient approximates ; e.g., 987/610 1.6180327868852. These approximations are alternately lower and higher than, and converge to as the Fibonacci numbers increase, and: More generally: where above, the", "The golden ratio and inverse golden ratio formula_47 have a set of symmetries that preserve and interrelate them. They are both preserved by the fractional linear transformations formula_48 – this fact corresponds to the identity and the definition quadratic equation. Further, they are interchanged by the three maps formula_49 – they are reciprocals,", "The golden ratio has the simplest expression (and slowest convergence) as a continued fraction expansion of any irrational number (see \"Alternate forms\" above). It is, for that reason, one of the worst cases of Lagrange's approximation theorem and it is an extremal case of the Hurwitz inequality for Diophantine approximations. This may be why angles close to the golden ratio often show up in phyllotaxis (the growth of plants). The defining quadratic polynomial and the conjugate relationship lead to decimal values that have their fractional part in common with : The sequence of powers of contains these values 0.618..., 1.0, 1.618..., 2.618...; more generally, any power of is equal to the sum of the", "The golden ratio's decimal expansion can be calculated directly from the expression with ≈ 2.2360679774997896964. The square root of 5 can be calculated with the Babylonian method, starting with an initial estimate such as \"x\" = 2 and iterating for \"n\" = 1, 2, 3,..., until the difference between \"x\" and \"x\" becomes zero, to the desired number of digits. The Babylonian algorithm for is equivalent to Newton's method for solving the equation \"x\" − 5 = 0. In its more general form, Newton's method can be applied directly to any algebraic equation, including the equation \"x\" − x − 1 = 0 that defines the golden ratio. This gives", "Both Egyptian pyramids and the regular square pyramids that resemble them can be analyzed with respect to the golden ratio and other ratios.", "A pyramid in which the apothem (slant height along the bisector of a face) is equal to times the semi-base (half the base width) is sometimes called a \"golden pyramid\". The isosceles triangle that is the face of such a pyramid can be constructed from the two halves of a diagonally split golden rectangle (of size semi-base by apothem), joining the medium-length edges to make the apothem. The height of this pyramid is formula_73 times the semi-base (that is, the slope of the face is formula_73); the square of the height is equal to the area of a face, times the square of the semi-base. The medial right triangle of this \"golden\" pyramid (see diagram), with sides formula_75 is interesting in its own right, demonstrating via the Pythagorean theorem the relationship formula_76 or formula_77. This Kepler triangle is the only right triangle proportion with edge lengths in geometric progression, just as the 3–4–5", "One Egyptian pyramid that is close to a \"golden pyramid\" is the Great Pyramid of Giza (also known as the Pyramid of Cheops or Khufu). Its slope of 51° 52' is close to the \"golden\" pyramid inclination of 51° 50' – and even closer to the -based pyramid inclination of 51° 51'. However, several other mathematical theories of the shape of the great pyramid, based on rational slopes, have been found to be both more accurate and more plausible explanations for the 51° 52' slope. In the mid-nineteenth century, Friedrich Röber studied various Egyptian pyramids including those of Khafre, Menkaure, and some of the Giza, Saqqara, and Abusir groups. He did not apply the golden ratio to the Great Pyramid of Giza, but instead agreed with John Shae Perring that its side-to-height ratio is 8:5. For all the other pyramids he applied measurements related to the Kepler triangle, and claimed that either their whole or half-side lengths are related to their heights by the golden ratio. In 1859, the pyramidologist John Taylor misinterpreted Herodotus () as indicating that the Great Pyramid's", "Examples of disputed observations of the golden ratio include the following:", "The Parthenon's façade (c. 432 BC) as well as elements of its façade and elsewhere are said by some to be circumscribed by golden rectangles. Other scholars deny that the Greeks had any aesthetic association with golden ratio. For example, Keith Devlin says, \"Certainly, the oft repeated assertion that the Parthenon in Athens is based on the golden ratio is not supported by actual measurements. In fact, the entire story", "The Section d'Or ('Golden Section') was a collective of painters, sculptors, poets and critics associated with Cubism and Orphism. Active from 1911 to around 1914, they adopted the name both to highlight that Cubism represented the continuation of a grand tradition, rather than being an isolated movement, and in homage to the mathematical harmony associated with Georges Seurat. The Cubists observed in its harmonies, geometric structuring of motion and form, the primacy of idea over nature, an absolute scientific clarity of conception. However, despite this general interest in mathematical harmony, whether the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Lupus and Attila." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born at Toul, he was the son of a wealthy nobleman, Epirocus of Toul. He has been called the brother of Vincent of Lérins. Having lost his parents when he was an infant, Lupus was brought up by his uncle Alistocus. Lupus was brother-in-law to Hilary of Arles, as he had married one of Hilary's sisters, Pimeniola. Lupus held a number of estates in Maxima Sequanorum, and worked as a lawyer. After six years of marriage, he and his wife parted by mutual agreement. Lupus sold his estate and gave the money to the poor. He entered Lérins Abbey, a community led by Saint Honoratus, where he stayed about a year. In 427 Honoratus was named Bishop of Arles, and Hilary accompanied him to his new see. Lupus retired to Macon where he came to the attention of Germanus of Auxerre, who appointed Lupus bishop of Troyes. Lupus was reluctant to assume this office and at first declined, but eventually relented. In the autumn of 429, the Council of Arles, at the request of the bishops in Britain, sent Lupus and Germanus of Auxerre to combat Pelagianism. They returned to Gaul just after Easter in the spring of 430. Lupus was bishop for fifty-two years and died at Troyes in 479. Sidonius Apollinaris called him \"The father of fathers and bishop of bishops, the chief of the Gallican prelates, the rule of manners, the pillar of truth, the friend of God, and the intercessor to him for men.\"", "Lupus was credited with saving Troyes from the Huns under Attila, in 451. According to the accounts, after praying for many days, Lupus, dressed in full episcopal regalia, went to meet Attila at the head of a procession of the clergy. Attila was allegedly so impressed with Lupus that he spared the city. Attila went on to lose the Battle of Châlons. Lupus ran into trouble when Attila asked the bishop to accompany him and his army after Châlons; Attila believed that Lupus’ presence would spare his army from extermination. However, Lupus was accused by the Romans of helping the Huns escape. Lupus was forced to leave Troyes, and he became a hermit in the mountains. But \"many scholars doubt the veracity of the account of the Attila incident.\" A similar story is told of Saint Genevieve. Donald Attwater writes that the tale of Lupus and Attila is hagiographical rather than historical. However, the historical kernel it might contain is that Troyes was spared being sacked by Attila's army and that its inhabitants considered this a miraculous deliverance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Service history.", "First patrol.", "Sinking of HMS \"Royal Oak\".", "Third patrol.", "Fourth patrol.", "Fifth patrol.", "Sixth patrol.", "Seventh patrol.", "Eighth patrol.", "Ninth patrol.", "Disappearance.", "Wolfpacks.", "Summary of raiding history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "German Type VIIB submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIA submarines. \"U-47\" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of, a pressure hull length of, a beam of, a height of, and a draught of. The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two AEG GU 460/8-276 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to. The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of. When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at. \"U-47\" was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and one C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.", "\"U-47\" carried out ten combat patrols and spent a total of 238 days at sea. She sank 31 enemy ships (totalling 164,953 tons) and damaged eight more. Prior to her disappearance in March 1941, \"U-47\" lost one crewman, Heinrich Mantyk, who fell overboard on 5 September 1940.", "\"U-47\" was assigned to the 7th U-boat Flotilla on 17 December 1938, (the day she was commissioned). She was an operational boat in the 7th Flotilla for her entire career. \"U-47\" was sent to sea in a pre-emptive move before war broke out in September 1939; this move would enable her to engage enemy vessels as soon as the war began. She left for her first war patrol on 19 August 1939 (two weeks before the commencement of hostilities), from the port of Kiel. During her first patrol, she circumnavigated the British Isles and entered the Bay of Biscay to commence patrol of Area I. On 3 September, war was declared and \"U-47\" received orders to initiate hostilities against British ships, but none were encountered on the first day. News of the sinking of by reached Prien the following day, along with further orders to strictly adhere to the Submarine Protocol. The first ship encountered by \"U-47\" during the war was a neutral Greek freighter which Prien inspected but released unharmed. Two further neutral vessels were encountered and Prien declined to even stop them. Just after dawn on 5 September, Engelbert Endrass--serving as first watch officer aboard \"U-47\"--spotted SS \"Bosnia\" zigzagging and in a darkened state. Prien surfaced and fired a single shot from his 88 mm deck gun to stop the ship but instead \"Bosnia\" made steam and began radioing an alert ('SSS') along with its name and position. Prien then immediately fired an additional four rounds of which three hit the ship, prompting its crew to abandon ship. \"U-47\" rendered assistance to the crew of \"Bosnia\", bringing them aboard the submarine and helping to set up a lifeboat which had capsized during the crew's escape. A Norwegian vessel also arrived and took all of the survivors aboard. Following its departure, Prien fired a single torpedo which wrecked the ship which sunk with its load of sulfur almost immediately. The 2,407-ton \"Bosnia\" became the second British vessel, and first freighter, sunk after \"Athenia\". It was later the next day during which \"U-47\" encountered a larger British freighter, the 4,086-ton SS \"Rio Carlo\". Again, Prien opted to surface and initiate a gun attack on the merchant. While the \"Rio Carlo\" did stop moving, it nonetheless broadcast the submarine alert, prompting Prien to fire an ineffective warning shot. A further three shots from the deck gun onto the bridge of \"Rio Carlo\", upon which the broadcast ceased and the crew abandoned ship. Once the crew was away, Prien finished the vessel and sent its mixed cargo to the bottom with a single torpedo. While \"U-47\"s crew was inspecting the lifeboats and ensuring the survivors had provisions, an aircraft appeared and \"U-47\" dived, departing the area and leaving the crew to others to rescue. On 7 September, Prien encountered yet another British freighter, and once again initiated a surface attack on it. Attempting to escape, SS \"Gartavon\" broadcast the submarine alert, drawing fire from the deck gun. The mast and radio antenna were destroyed by the fire and the ship came about while the crew put to in a lifeboat. Surprising Prien, the \"Gartavon\" crew had rigged the ship to get underway in an attempt to ram the attacking submarine. It began to make steam after its crew departed and Prien was forced to take emergency measures to avoid the vessel. After avoiding the abandoned \"Gartavon\", Prien inspected the lifeboat and after its crew declined the offer to fetch a second lifeboat from the circling freighter, he left them. (All survived.) Prien refused to radio for assistance on account of the attempt to ram him. He returned to \"Gartavon\" and attempted to finish her as he had his previous victims, but the torpedo malfunctioned and Prien instead used the deck gun to wreck the ship and sink its cargo of iron ore. During this first patrol, which ended with her arrival in Kiel on 15 September 1939, three vessels were sunk for a total of 8,270 tons.", "On 8 October 1939, \"U-47\" began her second patrol. On 14 October 1939 (six days after leaving port), she succeeded in penetrating the Royal Navy's primary base at Scapa Flow. Although most of the Home Fleet was not at the base at the time, \"U-47\" managed to find a target, the battleship. Once she had spotted \"Royal Oak\", she opened fire with her torpedoes. Her first two salvos did nothing more than sever an anchor chain. After reloading the bow tubes the last salvo of three torpedoes struck the British warship, causing severe flooding. Taking on a list of 15 degrees, her open portholes were submerged, worsening the flooding and increasing the list to 45 degrees; \"Royal Oak\" sank within 15 minutes with the loss of over 800 men. Following the attack, Prien received the nickname \"Der Stier von Scapa Flow\" (\"\"The Bull of Scapa Flow\"\"); the emblem of a snorting bull was then painted on the conning tower of \"U-47\" and the image soon became the emblem of the entire 7th U-boat Flotilla. Prien was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, the first sailor of a U-boat and the second member of the \"Kriegsmarine\" to receive this decoration. The rest of the crew members were awarded the Iron Cross. Two other \"U-47\" crew members also earned the Knight's Cross later on during World War II: the chief engineer (\"Leitender Ingenieur\") Johann-Friedrich Wessels and 1st watch officer (\"I. Wachoffizier\") Engelbert Endrass. Many years later, in September 2002, one of the unexploded torpedoes that \"U-47\" had fired during the attack on \"Royal Oak\" rose to the surface from its resting place on the bottom. The unexploded torpedo, minus its warhead, gradually drifted towards the shore, where it was spotted by a crewman aboard the Norwegian tanker \"Petrotrym\". A Royal Navy tugboat intercepted the torpedo, and after identifying it as having belonged to \"U-47\" 63 years earlier, EOD (explosive ordnance disposal) personnel discarded it a mile from shore. On 16 April 2016 Royal Navy bomb disposal experts detonated a World War II torpedo found in Scapa Flow. It is believed to have been one of those fired at \"Royal Oak\" by U-47.", "Following a lavish celebration in Berlin for the sinking of HMS \"Royal Oak\" in which the crew members of \"U-47\" were received by Adolf Hitler and decorated, the boat returned to sea on 16 November 1939. Once the U-boat had left Kiel on 16 November, she headed out into the North Sea. After traveling around the British Isles into the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel, \"U-47\" sank a further three vessels, \"Navasota\" on 5 December, the Norwegian steamer MV \"Britta\" on 6 December and \"Tajandoen\" on 7 December. Following the sinking of \"Navasota\", British destroyers briefly fired depth charges at the U-boat but she managed to safely evade the attack without any damage.", "\"U-47\" left the port of Wilhelmshaven and began her fourth patrol on 11 March 1940. For 19 days, she roamed the North Sea in search of any Allied convoys. However, she only managed to torpedo the Danish steam merchantman \"Britta\" north of Scotland on 25 March. Following the sinking of \"Britta\", \"U-47\" returned to Wilhelmshaven on 29 March.", "\"U-47\"s fifth patrol was her first one that resulted in no ships sunk. She left Wilhelmshaven on 3 April 1940, and headed once again out into the North Sea. While she did not sink any Allied vessels on her fifth patrol, around 19 April, she fired a torpedo aimed at the British battleship but the torpedo missed its target or failed to detonate upon impact. Several nearby destroyers attempted to sink the U-boat using depth charges. \"U-47\" managed to escape.", "\"U-47\"s sixth patrol was much more successful. Having left Kiel on 3 June 1940, she ventured out into the North Sea and operated off the southern coast of Ireland. Along with six other U-boats in Wolfpack Prien, she attacked Convoy HX 47 and the first ship to fall victim to the U-boat was the British SS \"Balmoralwood\"<nowiki>;</nowiki> which was sunk on 14 June. Within less than a month, the boat sank a further seven vessels, \"San Fernando\" on the 21st, \"Cathrine\" on the 24th, \"Lenda\" and \"Leticia\" on the 27th, \"Empire Toucan\" on the 29th, \"Georgios Kyriakides\" on the 30th, and on 2 July. The German submarine returned to Kiel on 6 July after 34 days at sea and eight enemy vessels sunk.", "\"U-47\"s seventh patrol consisted of her travelling north of the British Isles and into the North Atlantic, south of Iceland. During a period of 30 days, she sank a total of six enemy vessels and damaged another. \"U-47\"s first victory during her seventh patrol was the sinking of the Belgian passenger ship \"Ville de Mons\" on 2 September 1940. This was followed by the sinking of a British vessel, \"Titan\", on 4 September and \"Gro\", \"José de Larrinaga\", and \"Neptunian\" on the 7th. On the 9th, \"U-47\" sank the Greek merchant ship \"Possidon\", and on 21 September she damaged the British merchant ship \"Elmbank\". Following these victories, on the 25th, \"U-47\" entered the French port of Lorient, which was now under German control following the decisive Battle of France.", "\"U-47\"s eighth patrol began on 14 October 1940 when she left her home port of Lorient. While her eighth patrol lasted ten days, she sank four enemy vessels and damaged a further two in only two days. On 19 October, \"U-47\" damaged the British vessel \"Shirak\" and sank \"Uganda\" and \"Wandby\", both of which were British registered. The next day, the U-boat damaged the British vessel \"Athelmonarch\" and sank \"La Estancia\" as well as \"Whitford Point\". She returned to port three days later on the 23rd.", "\"U-47\" left her home port of Lorient on 3 November 1940 and moved out into the North Atlantic in search of Allied convoys. During her ninth patrol, she damaged three ships, \"Gonçalo Velho\", \"Conch\" and \"Dunsley\", and sank \"Ville d ́Arlon\". \"U-47\" returned to Lorient for the last time on 6 December.", "\"U-47\" departed Lorient on her tenth and last patrol on 20 February 1941. She went missing on 7 March 1941 and was believed at the time to have been sunk by the British destroyer west of Ireland, when a submarine was attacked by \"Wolverine\" and. Postwar assessment showed that the boat attacked there was which was only damaged. To date, there is no official record of what happened to \"U-47\", although a variety of possibilities exist, including mines, a mechanical failure, a victim of her own torpedoes, or possibly a later attack that did not confirm any claims by the corvette team of and. \"U-47\" had a crew of 45 officers and men during her last North Atlantic patrol in early 1941, all of whom were presumed to have died.", "\"U-47\" took part in one wolfpack, namely:", "During her service in the \"Kriegsmarine\", \"U-47\" sank 30 commercial ships totalling and one warship of 29,150 tons; she also damaged eight commercial ships totalling and one warship of 10,035 tons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "The Abduction of Aegina.", "Myrmidons." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Though the name \"Aegina\" betokens a goat-nymph, such as was Cretan Amalthea, she was given a mainland identity as the daughter of the river-god Asopus and the nymph Metope; of their twelve or twenty daughters, many were ravished by Apollo or Zeus. Aegina bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by Zeus, both of whom became kings. A certain Damocrateia, who married Menoetius, was also called her daughter by an unknown consort. The mortal son Menoetius was king of Opus, and was counted among the Argonauts. His son was Patroclus, Achilles' first cousin once removed through their paternal family connection to Aegina, and his intimate companion. The son made immortal, Aeacus, was the king of Aegina, and was known to have contributed help to Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy. Through him Aegina was the great-grandmother of Achilles, who was son of Peleus, son of Aeacus.", "", "It was often said that Zeus took the form of an eagle (or a great flame in Ovid's telling) and abducted Aegina, taking her to an island near Attica, then called Oenone; henceforth known by her name. Aegina's father Asopus chased after them; his search took him to Corinth, where Sisyphus was king. Sisyphus, having chanced to see a great bird bearing a maiden away to a nearby island, informed Asopus. Though Asopus pursued them, Zeus threw down his thunderbolts sending Asopus back to his own waters. Aegina eventually gave birth to her son Aeacus, who became king of the island.", "When the city of Aegina was depopulated by a plague sent by Hera in jealous reprisal for Zeus's love of Aegina, the king Aeacus prayed to Zeus for the ants that were currently infesting an oak tree to morph into humans to repopulate his kingdom. Thus the myrmidons were created." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "A message, carried by pointless albatross, arrives for Lord Vetinari from the Agatean Empire. The message explains that the Silver Horde (a group of aged barbarians introduced in \"Interesting Times\", wherein they conquered the Empire, and led by Cohen the Barbarian, now the Emperor) have set out on a quest. The first hero of the Discworld, \"Fingers\" Mazda, stole fire from the gods and gave it to mankind (analogous to Prometheus), and was chained to a rock to be torn open daily by a giant eagle as punishment. As the last heroes remaining on the Disc, the Silver Horde seek to return fire to the gods with interest, in the form of a large sled packed with explosive Agatean Thunder Clay. They plan to blow up the gods at their mountain home, Cori Celesti. With them is a whiny, terrified bard, whom they have kidnapped so that he can write the saga of their quest. Along the way, they are joined by Evil Harry Dread (the last Dark Lord) and Vena the Raven-haired (an elderly heroine who has now gone grey). The heroes are disillusioned with the way their lives have turned out—having conquered the Empire, they have nothing left to do but die in comfort—and are angry for having been allowed to grow old, rather than dying in battle as most of their friends did. They decided to go out on the quest after one of the Horde members choked to death on a cucumber. Evil Harry is just as angry; despite his efforts to give his opponents the sporting chance that an Evil Overlord should, they won't follow the Code by allowing him to escape in return. The Wizards of Unseen University explain to Lord Vetinari that blowing up Cori Celesti will destroy the Discworld by temporarily disrupting the Disc's magical field—the only thing holding the Disc together—so Vetinari organises an effort to stop the Horde. Since the Horde is already near the centre of the Discworld and the home of the gods, speed is of the essence. Vetinari recruits Leonard of Quirm, who designs the Discworld's second known spacecraft to slingshot under the Discworld and back around the top, landing on Cori Celesti. The vessel, named \"The Kite\" by Leonard, can carry only three people. Leonard of Quirm, Captain Carrot Ironfoundersson, and Rincewind are selected for the trip. The Librarian accidentally stumbles aboard as well, having fallen asleep behind some crates of equipment while loading The Kite. After a few mishaps, including landing on the moon (to replenish their oxygen supply after the Librarian's unexpected presence threatened to leave them without enough air to survive the trip) and nearly having their swamp dragon powered spaceship explode on them, they crash in a spectacular fashion at, or rather, into the main gate of Cori Celesti. Meanwhile, the Horde have already reached Cori Celesti. The gods allow them to sneak in disguised as gods themselves, despite (or perhaps because of) their having been betrayed to the gods by Evil Harry. The Horde suspect that the gods have been manipulating their entire quest. Fate challenges Cohen to roll a 7 on a standard 6-sided die. Cohen cheats Fate by slicing the die in-half in mid-air with his sword; the two halves land with the 6 and 1 both facing up. Cohen also notes that even if he doesn't succeed in killing the gods, someone will have tried, so someone will eventually try harder. Captain Carrot attempts to arrest the Horde, at which point the Horde arms the explosives. While initially intending to attack him, the Horde realise that as a single brave man outnumbered by his foes and trying to save the world, Carrot is a Hero (and probably a king in disguise), and so their defeat is certain. After Rincewind explains that the detonation will destroy the entire Discworld, the Horde grab the explosives and throw them—and themselves—off the mountain. As punishment for creating The Kite (which allowed humans to travel higher than the gods) and for not expressing belief in the gods, Leonard is ordered by the gods to paint the entire ceiling of the Temple of Small Gods with a spectacular mural of the whole world (despite Blind Io saying he would be satisfied with \"a nice duck-egg blue with a few stars\"). They impose a time limit of 10 years on the task—unassisted, \"even with the scaffolding\". (Leonard finishes the task in a few weeks.) Carrot asks for a boon to allow for the repairs of The Kite so that they can return to Ankh-Morpork. Rincewind asks for a blue balloon and the Librarian asks for some library supplies (and a red balloon) and manages to refrain from bouncing Blind Io's head on the ground after Io calls him 'a monkey'. The Horde's end is ambiguous. Valkyries come to take the heroes to the Halls of the Slain, where a feast has been prepared for them. Instead, the Silver Horde, refusing to accept their deaths, steal the valkyries' horses and set off to find other worlds to \"\"do heroic stuff in\".\" Death does not appear to them, as he often does when Discworld characters die, although he subsequently appears to Vena, and is evasive about whether he is \"\"collecting\"\". After the Horde leave with the Valkyries' horses, their first stop is to visit Mazda where he is being punished, cut off his chains, give him something to drink, and leave him a sword so that he may deal with his punisher. The bard, changed by his experience, composes a new style of saga, one with musical accompaniment, about it." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Viking era.", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms.", "First World War.", "Base for the British Grand Fleet.", "The scuttling of the German fleet.", "Salvage operation.", "Second World War.", "Today.", "Use by the petroleum industry.", "Scapa Flow Visitor Centre.", "Scuba diving.", "German battleships.", "German light cruisers.", "Other vessels.", "War grave wrecks.", "Curse." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Viking expeditions to Orkney are recorded in detail in the 11th century \"Orkneyinga sagas\" and later texts such as the \"Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar\". According to the latter, King Haakon IV of Norway anchored his fleet, including the flagship \"Kroussden\" that could carry nearly 300 men, on 5 August 1263 at St Margaret's Hope, where he saw an eclipse of the sun before he sailed south to the Battle of Largs. En route back to Norway Haakon anchored some of his fleet in Scapa Flow for the winter, but he died that December whilst staying at the Bishop's Palace in Kirkwall. In the 15th century towards the end of Norse rule in Orkney, the islands were run by the \"jarls\" from large manor farms, some of which were at Burray, Burwick, Paplay, Hoy, and Cairston (near Stromness) to guard the entrances to the Flow.", "In 1650 during the wars of the Three Kingdoms, the Royalist general James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, moored his ship, the \"Herderinnan\", in Scapa Flow, in preparation for his attempt to raise a rebellion in Scotland. The enterprise ended in failure and rout at the Battle of Carbisdale.", "", "Historically, the main British naval bases were near the English Channel to counter the continental naval powers: the Dutch republic, France, and Spain. In 1904, in response to the build-up of the German \"Kaiserliche Marine\"'s High Seas Fleet, Britain decided that a northern base was needed to control the entrances to the North Sea, as part of a revised policy of 'distant' rather than 'close' blockade. First Rosyth in Fife was considered, then Invergordon at Cromarty Firth. Delayed construction left these largely unfortified by the outbreak of the First World War. Scapa Flow had been used many times for British exercises in the years before the war and when the time came for the fleet to move to a northern station, it was chosen for the main base of the British Grand Fleet – unfortified. John Rushworth Jellicoe, admiral of the Grand Fleet, was perpetually nervous about the possibility of submarine or destroyer attacks on Scapa Flow. Whilst the fleet spent almost the first year of the war patrolling the west coast of the British Isles, their base at Scapa was defensively reinforced, beginning with over sixty blockships sunk in the many entrance channels between the southern islands to enable the use of submarine nets and booms. These blocked approaches were backed by minefields, artillery, and concrete barriers. Two attempts to enter the harbour were made by German U-boats during the war and neither was successful: After the Battle of Jutland, the German High Seas Fleet rarely ventured out of its bases at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel and in the last two years of the war the British fleet was considered to have such a commanding superiority of the seas that some components moved south to the first-class dockyard at Rosyth.", "Following the German defeat, 74 ships of the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet were interned in Gutter Sound at Scapa Flow pending a decision on their future in the peace Treaty of Versailles. On 21 June 1919, after seven months of waiting, German Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter made the decision to scuttle the fleet because the negotiation period for the treaty had lapsed with no word of a settlement. He was not kept informed that there had been a last-minute extension to finalise the details. After waiting for the bulk of the British fleet to leave on exercises, he gave the order to scuttle the ships to prevent their falling into British hands. The Royal Navy made desperate efforts to board the ships to prevent the sinkings, but the German crews had spent the idle months preparing for the order, welding bulkhead doors open, laying charges in vulnerable parts of the ships, and quietly dropping important keys and tools overboard so valves could not be shut. The Royal Navy managed to beach the battleship, the light cruisers \"Nürnberg\", and \"Frankfurt\" and 18 destroyers whereas 53 ships, the vast bulk of the High Seas Fleet, were sunk. Nine German sailors died on one of these ships when British forces opened fire as they attempted to scuttle the ship, reputedly the last casualties of the war. At least seven of the scuttled German ships and a number of sunken British ships can today be visited by divers.", "Although many of the larger ships turned turtle and came to rest upside down or on their sides in relatively deep water (25–45 m), some—including the battlecruiser —were left with parts of their superstructure or upturned bows still protruding from the water or just below the surface. These ships posed a severe hazard to navigation, and small boats, trawlers and drifters, moving around the Flow regularly became snagged on them with the rise and fall of the tides. The Admiralty initially declared that there would be no attempt at salvage, that the sunken hulks would remain where they were, to'rest and rust.' In the first few years after the war, there was abundant scrap metal as a result of the huge quantities of leftover tanks, artillery and ordnance. By the early 1920s, the situation had changed. In 1922, the Admiralty invited tenders from interested parties for the salvage of the sunken ships, although at the time few believed that it would be possible to raise the deeper wrecks. The contract went to a wealthy engineer and scrap metal merchant, Ernest Cox, who created a new company, a division of Cox & Danks Ltd, for the venture, and so began what is often called the greatest maritime salvage operation of all time. During the next eight years, Cox and his workforce of divers, engineers, and labourers engaged in the complex task of raising the sunken fleet. First the relatively small destroyers were winched to the surface using pontoons and floating docks to be sold for scrap to help finance the operation, then the bigger battleships and battlecruisers were lifted, by sealing the multiple holes in the wrecks, and welding to the hulls long steel tubes which protruded above the water, for use as airlocks. In this fashion the submerged hulls were made into air-tight chambers and raised with compressed air, still inverted, back to the surface. Cox endured bad luck and frequent fierce storms which often ruined his work, swamping and re-sinking ships which had just been raised. At one stage, during the General Strike of 1926, the salvage operation was about to grind to a halt due to a lack of coal to feed the many boilers for the water pumps and generators. Cox ordered that the abundant fuel bunkers of the sunken (but only partly submerged) battlecruiser be broken into to extract the coal with mechanical grabs, allowing work to continue. Although he ultimately lost money on the contract, Cox kept going, employing new technology and methods as conditions dictated. By 1939, Cox and Metal Industries Ltd. (the company that he had sold out to in 1932) had successfully raised 45 of the 52 scuttled ships. The last, the massive, was raised from a record depth of 45 metres just before work was suspended with the start of the Second World War, before being towed to Rosyth where it was broken up in 1946. A Morse key recovered from the battleship \"Grosser Kurfürst\" during the salvage is displayed at a Fife museum.", "Primarily because of its great distance from German airfields, Scapa Flow was again selected as the main British naval base during the Second World War. The strong defences built during the First World War had fallen into disrepair. Defence against air attack was inadequate and blockships sunk to stop U-boats from penetrating had largely collapsed. While there were anti-submarine nets in place over the three main entrances, they were made only of single-stranded looped wire; there was also a severe lack of the patrolling destroyers and other anti-submarine craft that had previously been available. Efforts began belatedly to repair peacetime neglect, but were not completed in time to prevent a successful penetration by enemy forces. On 14 October 1939, under the command of Günther Prien, penetrated Scapa Flow and sank the First World War-era battleship anchored in Scapa Bay. After firing its first torpedo, the submarine turned to make its escape; but, upon realising that there was no immediate threat from surface vessels, it returned for another attack. The second torpedo blew a hole in the \"Royal Oak\", which flooded and quickly capsized. Of the 1,400-man crew, 833 were lost. The wreck is now a protected war grave. John Gunther in December 1939 called the attack \"the single most extraordinary feat of the war so far\". Three days after the submarine attack, four Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 88 bombers of \"Kampfgeschwader\" 1/30 led by group commander Hauptmann Fritz Doench raided Scapa Flow on 17 October in one of the first bombing attacks on Britain during the war. The attack badly damaged an old base ship, the decommissioned battleship, which was then beached at Ore Bay by a tug. One man died and 25 were injured. One of the bombers was shot down by No 1 gun of 226 Heavy Anti-Aircraft Battery on Hoy. Three of the crew died, while the radio operator Fritz Ambrosius was badly burned but managed to parachute down. New blockships were sunk, booms and mines were placed over the main entrances, coast defence and anti-aircraft batteries were installed at crucial points, and Winston Churchill ordered the construction of a series of causeways to block the eastern approaches to Scapa Flow; they were built by Italian prisoners of war held in Orkney, who also built the Italian Chapel. These \"Churchill Barriers\" now provide road access from Mainland to Burray and South Ronaldsay, but block maritime traffic. An air base, RAF Grimsetter (which later became HMS \"Robin\"), was built and commissioned in 1940.", "", "Scapa Flow is one of the transfer and processing points for North Sea oil. A 30-inch(-diameter), 128-mile underwater pipeline brings oil from the Piper oilfield to the Flotta oil terminal. The Claymore and Tartan oil fields also feed into this line.", "The Scapa Flow Visitor Centre is at Lyness on Hoy (from \"Háey\" meaning high island) the second largest of Orkney. Morning to evening ferries run from Houton on the Mainland. It occupies a converted naval fuel pumping station and storage tank and next to it is a round stone-built battery emplacement and artillery gun as well as other decommissioned arsenal. It features a large model of the island, Scapa Flow and of the German warships.", "The wreckage of the remaining seven ships of the German fleet (and some other sites such as the blockships) has become increasingly popular as a venue for recreational scuba divers, and is regularly listed in dive magazines and internet forums among the top dive sites in the UK, Europe, and even the world. Although other locations, for example the Pacific regions, offer warmer water and better visibility, there are very few other sites which can offer such an abundance of large, historic wrecks lying in close proximity and shallow, relatively benign diving conditions. As of 2010, at least twelve \"live aboard\" boats—mostly converted trawlers with bunk rooms in their former holds—take recreational divers out to the main sites, primarily from the main harbour at Stromness. Diving provides a substantial amount of trade and income for the local economy. Divers must first obtain a permit from the Island Harbour Authorities, which is available through diving shops and centres. The wrecks are mostly located at depths of 35 to 50 metres. Divers are permitted to enter the wrecks, but not to retrieve artefacts located within 100 metres of any wreck. However, time and tide has washed broken pieces of ships' pottery and glass bottles into shallow waters and onto beaches. The underwater visibility, which can vary between 2 and 20 metres, is not sufficient to view all the length of most wrecks at once; however, current technology is now allowing 3D images of them to be seen. The important wrecks are:", "The three sister battleships of the :, and formed the main component of the 3rd Battleship Squadron which took part in fierce fighting at the Battle of Jutland far off the coast of Jutland, Denmark (31 May to 1 June 1916) and their upturned hulls are around 25 m deep. Never raised, they have been salvaged incrementally: armour plate blasted away and non-ferrous metals removed. They form highly rated dive sites chiefly due to their depth.", "The light cruisers,, and have modest fighting tops, lie side-on with around 16–20 metres of water above, are more accessible for divers and save for the shallowest, \"Karlsruhe\", are less salvaged (stripped of valuable materials) than the battleships.", "Additional sites of interest include the destroyer, which was raised and used by Cox as a working boat during his salvage operations, particularly on, then later abandoned; the Churchill blockships, such as the \"Tabarka\", the \"Gobernador Bories\", and the \"Doyle\" in Burra Sound; the U-boat ; and the trawler \"James Barrie\". Also, some large items from many of the ship hulls that \"were\" raised (such as the main gun turrets, which fell away from the ships as they capsized) were never salvaged, and still exist on the seabed in close proximity to the impact craters created by the scuttled ships.", "The wrecks of the battleships and (which exploded at anchor during the First World War) are war graves designated as Controlled Sites under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986—only divers of the British armed forces may visit these wrecks. With equal legal status, commemorated in a museum by the water is the wreck of the armoured cruiser, which hit a mine when carrying 14 passengers including Lord Kitchener bound for Arkhangelsk, Russia, on 5 June 1916 and sank off the west coast of the mainland. The large armoured cruiser went down in fifteen minutes in a heavy storm four days after the Battle of Jutland leaving 12 survivors and 737 dead in 70 metres of water 1.5 miles off steep cliffs of Marwick Head on which a square tower Memorial stands.", "According to legend, a curse was placed on Scapa long ago by a witch. She buried a thimble in the sand at Nether Scapa, and until it was found no more whales would be caught in the area." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Mythology.", "Marriage to Thetis.", "Peleus' son Achilles.", "In hero-cult.", "In Athenian tragedy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Peleus was the son of Aeacus, king of the island of Aegina, and Endeïs, the oread of Mount Pelion in Thessaly. He married the sea-nymph Thetis with whom he fathered Achilles. Peleus and his brother Telamon were friends of Heracles, and served in Heracles' expedition against the Amazons, his war against King Laomedon, and his quest for the Golden Fleece alongside Jason and the Argonauts. Though there were no further kings in Aegina, the kings of Epirus claimed descent from Peleus in the historic period.", "Peleus and his brother Telamon killed their half-brother Phokos, perhaps in a hunting accident and certainly in an unthinking moment, and fled Aegina to escape punishment. In Phthia, Peleus was purified by the city's ruler, Eurytion, and then married the latter's daughter, Antigone, by whom he had a daughter, Polydora. Eurytion received the barest mention among the Argonauts (both Peleus and Telamon were Argonauts themselves) \"yet not together, nor from one place, for they dwelt far apart and distant from Aigina;\" but Peleus accidentally killed Eurytion during the hunt for the Calydonian Boar and fled from Phthia. Peleus was purified of the murder of Eurytion in Iolcus by Acastus. Acastus' wife, Astydameia, fell in love with Peleus and after he scorned her, she sent a messenger to Antigone to tell her that Peleus was to marry Acastus' daughter. As a result, Antigone hanged herself. Astydameia then told Acastus that Peleus had tried to rape her. Acastus took Peleus on a hunting trip atop Mount Pelion and once Peleus fell asleep, Acastus hid his sword away and abandoned him on the mountainside. Peleus woke up and as a group of centaurs was about to attack him, the wise centaur Chiron, or, according to another source, Hermes, returned his sword to him and Peleus managed to escape. He pillaged Iolcus and dismembered Astydameia, then marched his army between the rended limbs. Acastus and Astydamia were dead and the kingdom fell to Jason's son, Thessalus.", "After Antigone's death, Peleus married the sea-nymph Thetis. He was able to win her with the aid of Proteus, who told Peleus how to overcome Thetis' ability to change her form. Their wedding feast was attended by many of the Olympian gods. As wedding presents, the Poseidon gave Peleus two immortal horses: Balius and Xanthus, the Hephaestus gave him a knife, Aphrodite a bowl with an embossed Eros, Hera a chlamys, Athena a flute, Nereus a basket of the divine salt which has an irresistible virtue for overeating, appetite and digestion and Zeus gave Thetis, as present, the wings of Arke. During the feast, Eris, in revenge for not being invited, produced the Apple of Discord, which started the quarrel that led to the Judgement of Paris and eventually the Trojan War. The marriage of Peleus and Thetis produced seven sons, six of whom died in infancy. The only surviving son was Achilles.", "Thetis attempted to render her son Achilles invulnerable. In the well-known version, she dipped him in the River Styx, holding him by one heel, which remained vulnerable. In an early and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and she abandoned both father and son in a rage, leaving his heel vulnerable. A nearly identical story is told by Plutarch, in his \"On Isis and Osiris\", of the goddess Isis burning away the mortality of Prince Maneros of Byblos, son of Queen Astarte, and being likewise interrupted before completing the process. Later on in life, Achilles is killed by Paris when he is shot in his vulnerable spot, the heel. This is where the term \"Achilles' heel\" is derived from. Peleus gave Achilles to the centaur Chiron, to raise on Mt. Pelion, which took its name from Peleus. In the \"Iliad\", Achilles uses Peleus' immortal horses and also wields his father's spear.", "Though the tomb of Aeacus remained in a shrine enclosure in the most conspicuous part of the port city, a quadrangular enclosure of white marble sculpted with bas-reliefs, in the form in which Pausanias saw it, with the tumulus of Phocus nearby, there was no \"temenos\" of Peleus at Aegina. Two versions of Peleus' fate account for this; in Euripides' \"Troades\", Acastus, son of Pelias, has exiled him from Phthia; and subsequently he dies in exile; in another, he is reunited with Thetis and made immortal. In antiquity, according to a fragment of Callimachus' lost \"Aitia\", there was a tomb of Peleus in Ikos (modern Alonissos), an island of the northern Sporades; there Peleus was venerated as \"king of the Myrmidons\" and the \"return of the hero\" was celebrated annually. And there was his tomb, according to a poem in the Greek Anthology. The only other reference to veneration of Peleus comes from the Christian Clement of Alexandria, in his polemical \"Exhortation to the Greeks\". Clement attributes his source to a \"collection of marvels\" by a certain \"Monimos\" of whom nothing is known, and claims, in pursuit of his thesis that \"daimon\"-worshipers become as cruel as their gods, that in \"Pella of Thessaly human sacrifice is offered to Peleus and Cheiron, the victim being an Achaean\". Of this, the continuing association of Peleus and Chiron is the most dependable detail.", "A \"Peleus\" by Sophocles is lost. He appears as a character in Euripides' tragedy \"Andromache\" (c. 425 BC)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "System.", "Traditional naming.", "Naming simple ionic compounds.", "List of common ion names.", "Naming hydrates.", "Naming molecular compounds.", "Common exceptions.", "Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The names \"caffeine\" and \"3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione\" both signify the same chemical. The systematic name encodes the structure and composition of the caffeine molecule in some detail, and provides an unambiguous reference to this compound, whereas the name \"caffeine\" just names it. These advantages make the systematic name far superior to the common name when absolute clarity and precision are required. However, for the sake of brevity, even professional chemists will use the non-systematic name almost all of the time, because caffeine is a well-known common chemical with a unique structure. Similarly, HO is most often simply called water in English, though other chemical names do exist. Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions are called anions. The cation is always named first. Ions can be metals, non-metals or polyatomic ions. Therefore, the name of the metal or positive polyatomic ion is followed by the name of the non-metal or negative polyatomic ion. The positive ion retains its element name whereas for a single non-metal anion the ending is changed to \"-ide\". When the metal has more than one possible ionic charge or oxidation number the name becomes ambiguous. In these cases the oxidation number (the same as the charge) of the metal ion is represented by a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately following the metal ion name. For example, in uranium(VI) fluoride the oxidation number of uranium is 6. Another example is the iron oxides. FeO is iron(II) oxide and FeO is iron(III) oxide. An older system used prefixes and suffixes to indicate the oxidation number, according to the following scheme: Thus the four oxyacids of chlorine are called hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorous acid (HOClO), chloric acid (HOClO) and perchloric acid (HOClO), and their respective conjugate bases are the hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate and perchlorate ions. This system has partially fallen out of use, but survives in the common names of many chemical compounds: the modern literature contains few references to \"ferric chloride\" (instead calling it \"iron(III) chloride\"), but names like \"potassium permanganate\" (instead of \"potassium manganate(VII)\") and \"sulfuric acid\" abound.", "", "An ionic compound is named by its cation followed by its anion. See polyatomic ion for a list of possible ions. For cations that take on multiple charges, the charge is written using Roman numerals in parentheses immediately following the element name. For example, Cu(NO) is \"copper(II) nitrate\", because the charge of two nitrate ions () is 2 × −1 = −2, and since the net charge of the ionic compound must be zero, the Cu ion has a 2+ charge. This compound is therefore copper(II) nitrate. In the case of cations with a +4 oxidation state, the only acceptable format for the Roman numeral 4 is IV and not IIII. The Roman numerals in fact show the oxidation number, but in simple ionic compounds (i.e., not metal complexes) this will always equal the ionic charge on the metal. For a simple overview see, for more details see selected pages from IUPAC rules for naming inorganic compounds.", "Monatomic anions: Polyatomic ions:", "Hydrates are ionic compounds that have absorbed water. They are named as the ionic compound followed by a numerical prefix and \"-hydrate\". The numerical prefixes used are listed below (see IUPAC numerical multiplier): For example, CuSO·5HO is \"copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate\".", "Inorganic molecular compounds are named with a prefix (see list above) before each element. The more electronegative element is written last and with an \"-ide\" suffix. For example, HO (water) can be called \"dihydrogen monoxide\". Organic molecules do not follow this rule. In addition, the prefix \"mono-\" is not used with the first element; for example, SO is \"sulfur dioxide\", not \"monosulfur dioxide\". Sometimes prefixes are shortened when the ending vowel of the prefix \"conflicts\" with a starting vowel in the compound. This makes the name easier to pronounce; for example, CO is \"carbon monoxide\" (as opposed to \"monooxide\").", "There are a number of exceptions and special cases that violate the above rules. Sometimes the prefix is left off of the initial atom: IO is known as \"iodine pentoxide\", but it should be called \"diiodine pentoxide\". NO is called \"nitrogen sesquioxide\" (\"sesqui-\" means ). The main oxide of phosphorus is called \"phosphorus pentoxide\". It should actually be \"diphosphorus pentoxide\", but it is assumed that there are two phosphorus atoms (PO), as they are needed in order to balance the oxidation numbers of the five oxygen atoms. However, people have known for years that the real form of the molecule is PO, not PO, yet it is not normally called \"tetraphosphorus decaoxide\". In writing formulas, \"ammonia\" is NH even though nitrogen is more electronegative (in line with the convention used by IUPAC as detailed in Table VI of the red book). Likewise, \"methane\" is written as CH even though carbon is more electronegative (Hill system).", "\"Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry\", commonly referred to by chemists as the \"Red Book\", is a collection of recommendations on IUPAC nomenclature, published at irregular intervals by the IUPAC. The last full edition was published in 2005, in both paper and electronic versions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Part 1: Civil War of United States.", "Part 2: Reconstruction.", "Cast.", "Production.", "1911 version.", "Development.", "Filming.", "Score.", "Release.", "Theatrical run.", "Change of title.", "Special screenings.", "White House showing.", "Showing in the Raleigh Hotel ballroom.", "Consequences.", "New opening titles on re-release.", "Contemporary reception.", "Press reaction.", "Box office.", "Criticism.", "Audience reaction.", "Sequel and spin-offs.", "Influence.", "Current reception.", "Critical response.", "Accolades.", "Historical portrayal.", "Academic assessment.", "Legacy.", "Film innovations.", "Home media and restorations.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The film consists of two parts of similar length. The first part closes with the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, after which there is an intermission. At the New York premiere, Dixon spoke on stage between the parts, reminding the audience that the dramatic version of \"The Clansman\" appeared in that venue nine years previously. \"Mr. Dixon also observed that he would have allowed none but the son of a Confederate soldier to direct the film version of \"The Clansman.\"\"", "The film follows two juxtaposed families. One is the Northern Stonemans: abolitionist U.S. Representative Austin Stoneman (based on the Reconstruction-era Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania), his daughter, and two sons. The other is the Southern Camerons: Dr. Cameron, his wife, their three sons and two daughters. Phil, the elder Stoneman son, falls in love with Margaret Cameron, during the brothers' visit to the Cameron estate in South Carolina, representing the Old South. Meanwhile, young Ben Cameron (modeled after Leroy McAfee) idolizes a picture of Elsie Stoneman. When the Civil War arrives, the young men of both families enlist in their respective armies. The younger Stoneman and two of the Cameron brothers are killed", "Stoneman and his protégé Silas Lynch, a psychopathic mulatto (modeled after Alonzo J. Ransier and Richard Howell Gleaves), head to South Carolina to observe the implementation of Reconstruction policies firsthand. During the election, in which Lynch is elected lieutenant governor, blacks are observed stuffing the ballot boxes, while many whites are denied the vote. The newly elected, mostly black members of the South Carolina legislature are shown at their desks displaying extremely racist stereotypical behavior, such as one member taking off his shoe and putting his feet up on his desk, and others drinking liquor and feasting on fried chicken. Meanwhile, inspired by observing white", "Credited", "", "There was an uncompleted, now lost, 1911 version, titled \"The Clansman\". It used Kinemacolor and a new sound process; one reason for this version's failure is the unwillingness of theater owners to purchase the equipment to show it. The director was William F. Haddock, and the producer was George Brennan. Some", "After the failure of the Kinemacolor project, in which Dixon was willing to invest his own money, he began visiting other studios to see if they were interested. In late 1913, Dixon met the film producer Harry Aitken, who was interested in making a film out of \"The Clansman\"; through Aitken, Dixon met Griffith. Like Dixon, Griffith was a Southerner, a fact that Dixon points out; Griffith's father served as a colonel in the Confederate States Army and, like Dixon, viewed Reconstruction negatively. Griffith believed that a passage from \"The Clansman\" where Klansmen ride \"to the rescue of persecuted white Southerners\" could be adapted into a great cinematic sequence. Griffith first announced his intent to adapt Dixon's play to Gish and Walthall after filming \"Home Sweet Home\" in 1914. \"Birth of a Nation\" \"follows \"The Clansman\" [the play] nearly scene by scene\".", "Griffith began filming on July 4, 1914 and was finished by October 1914. Some filming took place in Big Bear Lake, California. D. W. Griffith took over the Hollywood studio of Kinemacolor. West Point engineers provided technical advice on the American Civil War battle scenes, providing Griffith with the artillery used in the film. Much of the filming was done on the Griffith Ranch in San Fernando Valley, with the Petersburg scenes being shot at what is today Forest Lawn Memorial Park and other scenes being shot in Whittier and Ojai Valley. The film's war scenes were influenced after Robert Underwood Johnson's book \"Battles and Leaders of the Civil War\", \"Harper's Pictorial History of the Civil War\", \"The Soldier in Our Civil War\", and Mathew Brady's photography. Many of the African Americans in the film were portrayed by white actors in blackface. Griffith initially claimed this was deliberate, stating \"“on careful weighing of every detail concerned, the decision was to have no black blood among the principals; it was only in the legislative scene that Negroes were used, and then only as ‘extra", "Although \"The Birth of a Nation\" is commonly regarded as a landmark for its dramatic and visual innovations, its use of music was arguably no less revolutionary. Though film was still silent at the time, it was common practice to distribute musical cue sheets, or less commonly, full scores (usually for organ or piano accompaniment) along with each print of a film. For \"The Birth of a Nation\", composer Joseph Carl Breil created a three-hour-long musical score that combined all three types of music in use at the time: adaptations of existing works by classical composers, new arrangements of well-known melodies, and original composed music. Though it had been specifically composed for the film, Breil's score was not used for the Los Angeles première of the film at Clune's Auditorium; rather, a score compiled by Carli Elinor was performed in its stead, and this score was used exclusively in West Coast showings. Breil's score was not used until the film debuted in New York at the", "", "The first public showing of the film, then called \"The Clansman\", was on January 1 and 2, 1915, at the Loring Opera House in Riverside, California. The second night, it was sold out and people were turned away. It was shown on February 8, 1915, to an audience of 3,000 persons at Clune's Auditorium in downtown Los Angeles.", "The title was changed to \"The Birth of a Nation\" before the March 2 New York opening. However, Dixon copyrighted the", "", "\"Birth of a Nation\" was the first movie shown in the White House, in the East Room, on February 18, 1915. (An earlier movie, the Italian \"Cabiria\" (1914), was shown on the lawn.) It was attended by President Woodrow Wilson, members of his family, and members of his Cabinet. Both Dixon and Griffiths were present. As put by Dixon, not an impartial source, \"it repeated the triumph of the first showing\". There is dispute about Wilson's attitude toward the movie. A newspaper reported that he \"received many letters protesting against his alleged action in Indorsing the pictures \", including a letter from Massachusetts Congressman Thomas Chandler Thacher (whose term ended March 3). The showing of the movie had caused \"several near-riots\". When Assistant", "The next day, February 19, 1915, Griffiths and Dixon held a showing of the film in the Raleigh Hotel ballroom, which they had hired for the occasion. Early that morning, Dixon called on a North Carolina friend, the white-supremacist Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the Navy. Daniels set up a meeting that morning for Dixon with Edward Douglass White, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Initially Justice White was not interested", "In Griffith's words, the showings to the president and the entire Supreme Court conferred an \"honor\" upon \"Birth of a Nation\". Dixon and Griffiths used this commercially. The following day, Griffiths and Dixon transported the film to New York City for review by the National Board of Censorship. They presented the film as \"endorsed\" by the President and the cream of Washington society. The Board approved the film by 15 to 8. A warrant to close the theater in which the movie was to open was dismissed after a long-distance call to the White House confirmed that the film had been shown there. Justice White was very angry when advertising for the film stated that he approved it, and he threatened to denounce it publicly. Dixon clearly was rattled and", "One famous part of the film was added by Griffith only on the second run of the film and is missing from most online versions of the film (presumably taken from first run prints). These are the second and third of three opening title cards which defend the film. The added titles read: A PLEA FOR THE ART OF THE MOTION PICTURE: We do not fear censorship, for we have no wish to offend with improprieties or obscenities, but we do demand, as a right, the liberty to show the dark side of wrong, that we may illuminate the bright side of virtue – the same liberty that is conceded", "", "\"The New York Times\" gave it a quite brief review, calling it \"melodramatic\" and \"inflammatory\", adding that: \"A great deal", "The box office gross of \"The Birth of a Nation\" is not known and has been the subject of exaggeration. When the film opened, the tickets were sold at premium prices. The film played at the Liberty Theater at Times Square in New York City for 44 weeks with tickets priced at $2.20 (). By the end of 1917, Epoch reported to its shareholders cumulative receipts of $4.8 million, and Griffith's own records put Epoch's worldwide earnings from the film at $5.2 million as of 1919, although the distributor's share of the revenue at this time was much lower than the exhibition gross. In the biggest cities, Epoch negotiated with individual theater owners for a percentage of the box office; elsewhere, the producer sold all rights in a particular state to a single distributor (an arrangement known as \"state's rights\"", "Like Dixon's novels and play, \"Birth of a Nation\" received considerable criticism, both before and after its premiere. Dixon, who believed it entirely truthful, attributed this to \"Sectionalists\", i.e. non-Southerners who in Dixon's opinion were hostile to the truth about the South. It was to counter these \"sinister forces\" and the \"dangerous...menace\" that Dixon and Griffiths sought \"the backing\" of President Wilson and the Supreme Court. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) protested at premieres of the film in numerous cities. According to the historian David Copeland, \"by the time of the movie's March 3 [1915] premiere in New York City, its subject matter had embroiled the film in charges of racism, protests, and calls for censorship, which began after the Los Angeles branch of the NAACP requested the city's film board", "\"The Birth of a Nation\" was very popular, despite the film's controversy; it was unlike anything that American audiences had ever seen before. The \"Los Angeles Times\" called it \"the greatest picture ever made and the greatest drama ever filmed\". Mary Pickford said: \"\"Birth of a Nation\" was the first picture that really made people take the motion picture industry seriously\". It became a national cultural phenomenon: merchandisers made Ku-Klux hats and kitchen aprons, and ushers dressed in white Klan robes for openings. In New York there were Klan-themed balls and, in Chicago that Halloween, thousands of college students dressed in robes for a massive Klan-themed party. The producers had 15 \"detectives\" at the Liberty Theater in New York City \"to prevent disorder on the part of those who resent the'reconstruction period' episodes", "D. W. Griffith made a film in 1916, called \"Intolerance\", partly in response to the criticism that \"The Birth of a Nation\" received. Griffith made clear within numerous interviews that the film's title and main themes were chosen in response to those who he felt had been intolerant to \"The Birth of a Nation\". A sequel called \"The Fall of a Nation\" was released in 1916, depicting the invasion of the United States by a German-led confederation of European monarchies and criticizing pacifism in the context of the First World War. It was the first sequel in film history. The film was directed by Thomas Dixon Jr.,", "In November 1915, William Joseph Simmons revived the Klan in Atlanta, Georgia, holding a cross burning at Stone Mountain. The historian John Hope Franklin observed that, had it not been for \"The Birth of", "", "Released in 1915, \"The Birth of a Nation\" has been credited as groundbreaking among its contemporaries for its innovative application of the medium of film. According to the film historian Kevin Brownlow, the film was \"astounding in its time\" and initiated \"so many advances in film-making technique that it was rendered obsolete within a few years\". The content of the work, however, has received widespread criticism for its blatant racism. Film critic Roger Ebert wrote: Certainly \"The Birth of a Nation\" (1915) presents a challenge for modern audiences. Unaccustomed to silent films and uninterested in film history, they find it quaint and not to their taste. Those evolved enough to understand what they are looking at find the early and wartime scenes brilliant, but cringe during the postwar and Reconstruction scenes, which are racist in the ham-handed way of an", "In 1992, the U.S. Library of Congress deemed the film \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" and selected it", "The film remains controversial due to its interpretation of American history. University of Houston historian Steven Mintz summarizes its message as follows: \"Reconstruction was an unmitigated disaster, blacks could never be integrated into white society as equals, and the violent actions of the Ku Klux Klan were justified to reestablish honest government\". The South is portrayed as a victim. The first overt mentioning of the war is the scene in which Abraham Lincoln signs the call for the first 75,000 volunteers. However, the first aggression in the Civil War, made when the Confederate troops fired on Fort Sumter in 1861, is not mentioned in the film. The film suggested that the Ku Klux Klan restored order to the postwar South, which was depicted as endangered by abolitionists, freedmen, and carpetbagging Republican politicians from the North. This is similar to the Dunning School of historiography which was current in academe at the time. The film is slightly less extreme than the books upon which it is based, in which Dixon misrepresented Reconstruction as a nightmarish time when black men ran amok, storming into", "The American historian John Hope Franklin wrote that not only did Claude Bowers treat \"The Birth of a Nation\" as accurate history, but his version of history seemed to be drawn from \"The Birth of a Nation\". Historian E. Merton Coulter treated \"The Birth of a Nation\" as historically correct and painted a vivid picture of \"black beasts\" running amok, encouraged by alcohol-sodden, corrupt and vengeful black Republican politicians. Franklin wrote that as recently as the 1970s that the popular journalist Alistair Cooke in his books and TV shows was still essentially following the version of history set out by \"The Birth", "", "In his review of \"The Birth of a Nation\" in \"1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die\", Jonathan Kline writes that \"with countless artistic innovations, Griffith essentially created contemporary film language... virtually every film is beholden to [\"The Birth of a Nation\"] in one way, shape or form. Griffith introduced the use of dramatic close-ups, tracking shots, and other expressive camera movements;", "For many years, \"The Birth of a Nation\" was poorly represented in home media and restorations. This stemmed from several factors, one of which was the fact that Griffith and others had frequently reworked the film, leaving no definitive version. According to the silent film website \"Brenton Film\", many home media releases of the film consisted of \"poor quality DVDs with different edits, scores, running speeds and usually in \"definitely unoriginal\" black and white\". One of the earliest high-quality home versions was film preservationist David Shepard's 1992 transfer of a 16mm print for VHS and LaserDisc release via Image Entertainment. A short documentary, \"The Making of The Birth of a Nation\", newly produced and narrated by Shepard, was also included. Both were released on DVD by Image in 1998 and the United Kingdom's Eureka Entertainment in 2000. In the UK, Photoplay Productions restored the Museum of Modern Art's 35mm print that was the source of Shepard's 16 mm print,", "I've reclaimed this title and re-purposed it as a tool to challenge racism and white supremacy in America, to inspire" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Irish euro design.", "Circulating mintage quantities.", "Commemorative coins.", "Usage of 1 cent and 2 cent coins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "All Irish euro coins bear the same design on their obverse side: a Celtic harp based on the Trinity College Harp, flanked to the left and right by the word \"ÉIRE\" (Irish for Ireland) and the year the coin was struck, written in Gaelic type. These in turn are surrounded by the 12 stars of the flag of Europe. On the one-euro coin the stars appear on the gold coloured surround with the harp and words in the silver coloured centre. The colours are in the reverse for the two euro coin.", "The following table shows the mintage quantity for all Irish euro coins, per denomination, per year.", "Limited release in 2010, featuring an Irish hunter horse and foal. Limited release in 2011, featuring a Salmon and smolt. Limited release in 2012, featuring an Irish wolfhound and pup. Wide release (in common with all Euro nations) in 2007, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Treaty of Rome. Wide release (in common with all Euro nations) in 2009, commemorating the 10th anniversary of the Economic and Monetary Union. Wide release (in common with all Euro nations) in 2012, commemorating the 10th anniversary of the euro coins and banknotes. Wide release (in common with all Euro nations) in 2015, commemorating the 30th anniversary of adoption of the European flag by the European Economic Community. Wide release in 2016, with the figure of Hibernia, commemorating the centenary of the Easter Rising. Wide release in 2019, commemorating the centenary of the First Dáil.", "As 1c and 2c coins are of comparatively low value, a National Payments Plan prepared by the Central Bank of Ireland approved by the Government in April 2013 plans \"to trial the use of a rounding convention in a pilot project in a mid-size Irish town\", with the 1c and 2c no longer being minted while remaining legal tender. The cost of producing a 1 cent coin is 1.65c and the cost of producing a 2 cent coin is 1.94c. Beginning on Wednesday 28 October 2015 Ireland followed The Netherlands, Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Hungary and, in introducing so-called Swedish rounding. While individual prices are still shown and summed up with 1-cent precision, the total sum is then rounded to the nearest 5 cents when paying with cash. Sums ending in 1, 2, 6 and 7 cents are rounded down; sums ending in 3, 4, 8 and 9 cents are rounded up. The 1 cent and 2 cent coins remain legal tender, and rounding is voluntary for both the customer and retailer, the Central Bank of Ireland advises \"for Rounding to happen, both the retailer and the customer must accept it; both will have the right to use exact change\". Rounding applies only to cash payments and does not apply to bills paid electronically - by debit card, credit card or by store card." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Work.", "Linux and FOSS.", "Spaceflight.", "Transport.", "Legal clash with the South African Reserve Bank.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Welkom in South Africa's Orange Free State to a surgeon and a nursery-school teacher, Shuttleworth attended school at Western Province Preparatory School (where he eventually became Head Boy in 1986), followed by one term at Rondebosch Boys' High School, and then at Bishops/Diocesan College, where he was Head Boy in 1991. Shuttleworth obtained a Bachelor of Business Science degree in Finance and Information Systems at the University of Cape Town, where he lived in Smuts Hall. As a student, he became involved in the installation of the first residential Internet connections at the university.", "In 1995, Shuttleworth founded Thawte Consulting, a company which specialized in digital certificates and Internet security. In December 1999, Shuttleworth sold Thawte to VeriSign, earning Shuttleworth R3.5 billion ( million, equivalent to $ million in ). In September 2000, Shuttleworth formed HBD Venture Capital (\"Here be Dragons\"), a business incubator and venture capital provider now managed by Knife Capital. In March 2004 he formed Canonical Ltd., for the promotion and commercial support of free software projects, especially the Ubuntu operating system. In December 2009, Shuttleworth stepped down as the CEO of Canonical Ltd, Jane Silber took Canonical CEO position. Shuttleworth resumed the position of CEO of Canonical in July 2017 at the end of Silber's tenure.", "In the 1990s, Shuttleworth participated as one of the developers of the Debian operating system. In 2001, he formed the Shuttleworth Foundation, a nonprofit organisation dedicated to social innovation which also funds educational, free, and open source software projects in South Africa, such as the Freedom Toaster. In 2004, he returned to the free software world by funding the development of Ubuntu, a Linux distribution based on Debian, through his company Canonical Ltd. In 2005, he founded the Ubuntu Foundation and made an initial investment of 10 million dollars. In the Ubuntu project, Shuttleworth is often referred to with the tongue-in-cheek title \"Self-Appointed Benevolent Dictator for Life\" (SABDFL). To come up with a list of names of people to hire for the project, Shuttleworth took six months of Debian mailing list archives with him while travelling to Antarctica aboard the icebreaker \"Kapitan Khlebnikov\" in early 2004. In September 2005, he purchased a 65% stake of Impi Linux. On 15 October 2006, it was announced that Mark Shuttleworth became the first patron of KDE, the highest level of sponsorship available. This relationship ended in 2012, together with financial support for Kubuntu, the Ubuntu variant with KDE as main desktop. On 17 December 2009, Mark announced that, effective March 2010, he would step down as CEO of Canonical to focus energy on product design, partnership, and customers. Jane Silber, COO at Canonical since 2004, took on the job of CEO at Canonical. In September 2010, he received an honorary degree from the Open University for this work. On 9 November 2012, Shuttleworth and Kenneth Rogoff took part in a debate opposite Garry Kasparov and Peter Thiel at the Oxford Union, entitled \"The Innovation Enigma\". On 25 October 2013, Shuttleworth and Ubuntu were awarded the Austrian anti-privacy \"Big Brother Award\" for sending local Ubuntu Unity Dash searches to Canonical servers by default. A year earlier, in 2012, Shuttleworth had defended the anonymisation method used. He later reversed the decision, and no current Ubuntu version does this.", "Shuttleworth gained worldwide fame on 25 April 2002, as the second self-funded space tourist and the first-ever South African in space. Flying through Space Adventures, he launched aboard the Russian Soyuz TM-34 mission as a spaceflight participant, paying approximately for the voyage. Two days later, the Soyuz spacecraft arrived at the International Space Station, where he spent eight days participating in experiments related to AIDS and genome research. On 5 May 2002, he returned to Earth on Soyuz TM-33. In order to participate in the flight, Shuttleworth had to undergo one year of training and preparation, including seven months spent in Star City, Russia. While in space he had a radio conversation with Nelson Mandela and a 14-year-old South African girl, Michelle Foster, who asked him to marry her. He politely dodged the question, stating that he was \"very honoured at the question\" before changing the subject. The terminally ill Foster was provided the opportunity to have a conversation with Mark Shuttleworth and Nelson Mandela by the Reach for a Dream foundation.", "He has a private jet, a Bombardier Global Express, which is often referred to as \"Canonical One\" but is in fact owned through his HBD Venture Capital company. The dragon depicted on the side of the plane is Norman, the HBD Venture Capital mascot.", "Upon moving R2.5 billion in capital from South Africa to the Isle of Man, the South African Reserve Bank imposed a R250 million levy in order to release his assets. Shuttleworth appealed and, after a lengthy legal battle, on 18 June 2015 the Constitutional Court of South Africa reversed and set aside the findings of the lower courts, ruling that the dominant purpose of an exit charge was to regulate conduct rather than to raise revenue. The Reserve Bank was ordered to repay the R250 million plus interest, which Shuttleworth announced he would be donating to a trust that was established to help others take cases to the Constitutional Court.", "South African inventors" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Spaceflight.", "Inspiration Mars Foundation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Tito was born in Queens, New York. He graduated from Forest Hills High School in New York City. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Astronautics and Aeronautics from New York University, 1962 and a Master of Science degree in Engineering Science from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute satellite campus in Hartford, Connecticut. He is a member of Psi Upsilon and received an honorary doctorate of engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute on May 18, 2002 and is a former scientist of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In 1972, he founded the Wilshire Associates, a leading provider of investment management, consulting and technology services in Santa Monica, California. Tito serves an international clientele representing assets of $71 billion. Wilshire relies on the field of quantitative analytics, which uses mathematical tools to analyze market risks – a methodology Tito is credited with helping to develop by applying the same techniques he used to determine a spacecraft's path at JPL. Despite a career change from aerospace engineering to investment management, Tito remained interested in space. Tito was appointed to the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Board of Commissioners in the 1990s and led the board to support the landmark 1994 state ruling protecting Mono Lake from excessive water diversions by the city.", "In a project first arranged by MirCorp, Tito was accepted by the Russian Federal Space Agency as a candidate for a commercial spaceflight. Tito met criticism from NASA before the launch, primarily from Daniel Goldin, at that time the Administrator of NASA, who considered it inappropriate for a tourist to take a ride into space. MirCorp, Goldin and Tito are profiled in the documentary film \"Orphans of Apollo\". When Tito arrived at the Johnson Space Center for additional training on the American portion of the ISS, Robert D. Cabana, NASA manager, sent Tito and his two fellow cosmonauts home, stating, \"...We will not be able to begin training, because we are not willing to train with Dennis Tito.\" Later, through an arrangement with space tourism company Space Adventures, Ltd., Tito joined the Soyuz TM-32 mission on April 28, 2001. The spacecraft docked with the International Space Station. Tito and his fellow cosmonauts spent 7 days, 22 hours, 4 minutes in space and orbited the Earth 128 times. Tito performed several scientific experiments in orbit that he said would be useful for his company and business. Tito paid a reported $20 million for his trip. Since returning from space, he has testified at the Senate Committee on Commerce, Science & Transportation, Subcommittee on Science, Technology, and Space and the House Committee on Science, Subcommittee on Space & Aeronautics Joint Hearing on \"Commercial Human Spaceflight\" on July 24, 2003. Ten years after his flight, he gave an interview to BBC News about it.", "In February 2013, Tito announced his intention to send a privately financed spaceflight to Mars by 2018, stating that the technology is already in place and that the issues that need to be overcome are only the requirements of the rigor of a 501-day trip on a psychological and physical level for the human crew. However, in November 2013, Tito and other Mars Inspiration team members admitted that their plan was impossible without significant levels of assistance and funding from NASA." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early life.", "Vermillion wedding.", "Malcontent conspiracy.", "A divided family.", "Diplomatic mission in Flanders.", "Court of Nérac.", "Scandal in Paris.", "Rebellion and exile.", "Reconciliation with Henry and annulment of marriage.", "Last years in Paris.", "Legacy.", "Myth of Queen Margot.", "In literature and fiction.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Margaret of Valois was born on 14 May 1553, at the royal Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the seventh child and third daughter of Henry II and Catherine de' Medici. Three of her brothers would become kings of France: Francis II, Charles IX and Henry III. Her sister, Elisabeth of Valois, would become the third wife of King Philip II of Spain, and her brother Francis II, married Mary, Queen of Scots. Her childhood was spent in the French royal nursery of the", "By 1570, Catherine de' Medici was seeking a marriage between Margaret and Henry of Navarre, a Huguenot (French Calvinist Protestant). It was hoped this union would reunite family ties, as the Bourbons were part of the French Royal family and the closest relatives to the reigning Valois branch, and create harmony between Catholics and Huguenots. On 11 April 1572, Margaret was betrothed to Henry of Navarre. Henry was a few months younger than Margaret, and their initial impressions of each other were favorable. In one of her letters to Henry, his mother Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre, wrote about", "In 1573, Charles IX's fragile mental state and constitution deteriorated further, but the heir presumptive, his brother Henry, was elected king of Poland. Due to Henry's support of suppressing Protestant worship, moderate Catholic lords, called Malcontents, supported a plot to raise Charles' youngest brother, Francis of Alençon, to the throne of France instead. Alençon appeared willing to compromise in religious affairs, making him an appealing option to those tired of violence. Allied with the Protestants, the Malcontents executed several plots to seize power. Due to her inclination for her two elder brothers, Margaret initially denounced the plot in which her husband", "Relations between Henry and Margaret deteriorated. Margaret did not get pregnant even though Henry continued to pay his marital debt assiduously. But he had many mistresses and openly deceived Margaret with Charlotte de Sauve, member of Queen-Mother's notorious \"Flying Squadron.\" Charlotte also provoked a quarrel between Alençon and Navarre, both her lovers, spoiling Margaret's attempt at forming an alliance between her husband and youngest brother. This episode may give the impression that despite frequent infidelity, the marriage was a solid political alliance. In reality, Henry only approached his wife when it served his interests, and did not hesitate to abandon her if it did not. For her part, Margaret might have availed herself of the absence of jealousy of her husband to take a lover in the person of the famous Bussy d'Amboise. Alençon", "In 1577, Margaret asked permission to go on a mission in the south of the Netherlands on behalf of her younger brother Francis d'Alençon. The Flemings, who had rebelled against Spanish rule in 1576, seemed willing to offer a throne to a foreign prince who was tolerant and willing to provide them with the diplomatic and military forces necessary to protect their independence. Henry III accepted the proposal of his sister because he would finally release the inconvenient duke of Alençon. On the pretext of a bath in Spa thermal waters, Margaret left Paris with her court. She devoted two months to her mission: at every stage of the journey, during brilliant receptions, the queen of Navarre was entertained with gentlemen hostile to", "Shortly afterwards, Margaret, who denied any participation in this escape, finally got permission to join her husband. Catherine also saw the years pass and still had no heir. She hoped for a new wedding and invited her son-in-law to act as a good husband. Perhaps Henry III and the Queen-Mother also hoped that Margaret could play a conciliation role in the troubled provinces of the southwest. For her return with her husband, Margaret was accompanied by her mother and her chancellor, a renowned humanist, magistrate and poet, Guy Du Faur de Pibrac. This journey was an opportunity for entering", "In 1582, Margaret returned to Paris. She had failed to give her husband an heir, which would have strengthened her position. However, the real reasons for her departure were obscure. No doubt she wanted to escape from an atmosphere that became hostile, perhaps also to approach her lover Champvallon, or to support her younger brother Alençon. Moreover, King Henry III and the Queen-Mother urged her to return, hoping thus to attract the King of Navarre to the court of France.", "In 1585, in an unprecedented gesture for a Queen of the sixteenth century, Margaret abandoned her husband. She rallied the Catholic League, which united as well the intransigent Catholics with the people hostile to the policy of her family and her husband. Determined to overcome her difficulties, Margaret masterminded a coup d'état and seized power over Agen, one of her appanages. The Queen of Navarre spent several months fortifying the city. Recruiting troops, she sent them to the assault of the cities around Agen. But, tired of the Queen's demands, the Agenais revolted and agreed with the lieutenant of", "By 1593, Henry IV first proposed to Margaret an annulment of their marriage. Margaret resumed contact with him to try to improve her financial situation. Her sterility was proven, but she knew that the new King needed a legitimate son to consolidate his power. For this, he needed the support of his wife because he wished to marry again. The negotiations began after the return of peace and Henry IV's return to Catholicism. To support the invalidity of the marriage with the pope, the King and Margaret put forward the sterility of the couple, their consanguinity, and the formal defects of the marriage. During the talks, the queen’s financial situation improved, but she was displeased at the idea of Henry marrying his mistress, Gabrielle d'Estrees, mother of his son, César, who was legitimized in 1595, and refused to endorse what she considered to be a dishonorable remarriage: \"It is repugnant to me to put in my place a woman of such low extraction and of so impure a life as the one about whom rumor speaks.\" She stopped the negotiations, but after the providential death of Gabrielle from eclampsia,", "In 1605, after nineteen years in Usson, Margaret made her return to the capital. She impressed the Parisians for her appearance: her skin was red and raw, she wore an extravagant blonde wig and her clothes were in fashion twenty years before, but despite this she equally won the affection of the people. Even if she had changed little - at least as far as her tastes were concerned - she became \"horribly stout\", according to Tallemant des Réaux. In Paris Queen Margaret established herself as a mentor of the arts and benefactress of the poor. She was also now very devout and Vincent de Paul was her chaplain. In", "", "Queen Margaret's life is obscured by the legend of \"Queen Margot\", the myth of a nymphomaniac and incestuous woman in a damned family. Many slanders were spread throughout the life of the princess, but those in \"The Satiric Divorce\" (\"Le Divorce Satyrique\") pamphlet probably written by Théodore Agrippa d'Aubigné versus King Henry IV were the ones that were most successful and were subsequently handed down as if they had been established. By 1630, after Day of the Dupes, Cardinal Richelieu and his historians initiated a campaign against Marie de' Medici, a systematic discrediting of all women and their political role revived Margaret's black legend. It is in the 19th century that the myth of Queen Margot was born. The nickname was invented by Alexandre Dumas père who titled his first novel on the Trilogy", "The 1845 novel of Alexandre Dumas, père, \"La Reine Margot\", is a fictionalised account of the events surrounding Margaret's marriage to Henry of Navarre. The novel was adapted into film three times, with the 1994 version nominated for the Academy Award for Costume Design (Margaret was played by Isabelle Adjani). The main action of William Shakespeare's early comedy \"Love's Labour's Lost\" (1594–1595) is possibly based on an attempt at reconciliation, made in 1578, between Margaret and Henry. Margaret appears in Jean Plaidy's novel,", "<br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prelude.", "The raid.", "The Dutch approach.", "The attack.", "Account by Samuel Pepys.", "The Dutch withdraw.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1667 Charles II's active fleet was in a reduced state due to recent expenditure restrictions, with the remaining \"big ships\" laid up. The Dutch seized this opportunity to attack the English. They had made earlier plans for such an attack in 1666 after the Four Days Battle but were prevented from carrying them out by their defeat in the St James's Day Battle. The mastermind behind the plan was the leading Dutch politician Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt. His", "", "On 17 May the squadron of the Admiralty of Rotterdam with De Ruyter sailed to Texel to join those of Amsterdam and the Northern Quarter. Hearing that the squadron of Frisia was not yet ready because of recruiting problems (impressment being forbidden in the Republic), he left for the Schooneveld off the Dutch coast to join the squadron of Zealand that, however, suffered from similar problems. De Ruyter then departed for the Thames on 4 June (Old Style used by the English, the Dutch at the time were officially using New Style dates) with 62 frigates or ships-of-the-line, about fifteen lighter ships and twelve fireships, when the wind turned to the east. The fleet was reorganised into three squadrons: the first was commanded by De Ruyter himself, with as Vice-Admiral Johan de Liefde and Rear-Admiral Jan Jansse van Nes; the second was commanded by Lieutenant-Admiral Aert Jansse van Nes with as Vice-Admiral Enno Doedes Star and Rear-Admiral Willem van der Zaan; the third was commanded by Lieutenant-Admiral Baron Willem Joseph van Ghent with Lieutenant-Admiral Jan van Meppel in subcommand and as Vice-Admirals Isaac Sweers and Volckert Schram and as Rear-Admirals David Vlugh and Jan Gideonsz Verburgh. The third squadron thus effectively had a second set of commanders; this was done to use these as", "The Dutch fleet arrived at the Isle of Sheppey on 10 June, and launched an attack on the incomplete Garrison Point Fort. Captain Jan van Brakel in \"Vrede\", (\"peace\") followed by two other men-of-war, sailed as close to the fort as possible to engage it with cannon fire. Sir Edward Spragge was in command of the ships at anchor in the Medway and those off Sheerness, but the only ship able to defend against the Dutch was the frigate \"Unity\", which was stationed off the fort. \"Unity\" was supported by a number of ketches and fireships at Garrison Point, and by the fort, where sixteen guns had been hastily placed. \"Unity\" fired one broadside, but then, when attacked by a Dutch fireship, she withdrew up the Medway, followed by the English fireships and ketches. The Dutch fired on the fort; two men were hit. It then transpired that no surgeon was available and most of the soldiers of the Scottish garrison now deserted. Seven remained, but their position became untenable when some 800 Dutch marines landed about a mile away. With Sheerness thus lost, its guns being captured by", "The diary of Samuel Pepys, as secretary of the Navy Board, is very often cited in descriptions of the raid, as it gives direct information about the attitude of the policy makers in this period and of the psychological impact of the attack. Pepys at first seems to accept the consensus that the Dutch would not dare to launch an expedition against the London area; still on 18 April he writes: \"(...)then to the office, where the news is strong that not only the Dutch cannot set out a fleete this year, but that the French will not, and that he [ Louis XIV ] hath given the answer to the Dutch Embassador, saying that he is for the King of England's having an honourable peace, which, if true, is the best news we have had a good while.\" At that moment De Ruyter had already been on \"De Zeven Provinciën\" for a week. Nevertheless, he is aware of the preparations at Chatham, writing on 23 March: \"At the office all the morning, where Sir W. Pen [\"sic\"] come, being returned from Chatham, from considering the means of fortifying the river Medway, by a chain at the stakes, and ships laid there with guns to keep the enemy from coming up to burn our ships; all our care now being to fortify ourselves against their invading us.\" Also he is the next day present at the meeting where the details are given: \"All their care they now take is to fortify themselves, and are not ashamed of it: for when by and by my Lord Arlington come in with letters, and seeing the King and Duke of York give us and the officers of the Ordnance directions in this matter, he did move that we might do it as privately as we could, that it might not come into the Dutch Gazette presently, as the King's and Duke of York's going down the other day to Sheerenesse was, the week after, in the Harlem Gazette. The King and Duke of York both laughed at it, and made no matter, but said, 'Let us be safe, and let them talk, for there is nothing will trouble them more, nor will prevent their coming more, than to hear that we are fortifying ourselves'.\" Only on 3 June does Pepys become aware that the Dutch are out in force: \"the Dutch are known to be abroad with eighty sail of ships of war, and twenty fire-ships; and the French come into the Channell with twenty sail of men-of-war, and five fireships, while we have not a ship at sea to do them any hurt with; but are calling in all we can, while our Embassadors are treating at Bredah; and the Dutch look upon them as come to beg peace, and use them accordingly; and all this through the negligence of our Prince, who hath power, if he would, to master all these with the money and men that he hath had the command of, and may now have, if he would mind his business.\" Not until 10 June does Pepys understand that the Thames is the target: \"News brought us that, the Dutch are come up as high as the Nore; and more pressing orders for fireships.\" The next day a growing sense of panic becomes apparent: \"Up, and more letters still", "As he expected a stiffening English resistance, Cornelis de Witt on 14 June decided to forego a further penetration and withdraw, towing \"Royal Charles\" along as a war trophy; \"Unity\" also was removed with a prize crew. This decision saved the scuttled capital ships,, and. However, Dutch sailors rowed to any English ship they could reach to set her on fire, thus ensuring their reward money. One boat even re-entered the docks to make sure nothing was left above the waterline of the English vessels \"Royal Oak\", \"Royal James\" and \"Loyal London\"; another burned the merchantman \"Slot van Honingen,\" though it had been intended to salvage this precious ship. By chance, the shore facilities of Chatham Dockyard escaped destruction as no Dutch vessels reached her docks; the survival of these docks ensured the Royal Navy could repair her sunken ships. English villages were plundered – by their own troops. The Dutch fleet, after celebrating by collectively thanking God for \"a great victory", "Wharf official John Norman estimated the damage caused by the raid at about £20,000, apart from the replacement costs of the four lost capital ships; the total loss of the Royal Navy must have been close to £200,000. Pett was made a scapegoat, bailed at £5,000 and deprived of his office while those who had ignored his earlier warnings quietly escaped any blame. \"Royal James\", \"Royal Oak\" and \"Loyal London\" were in the end salvaged and rebuilt, but at great cost and when the City of London refused to share in it, Charles had the name of the latter ship changed to a simple \"London\". For a few years the English fleet was handicapped by its losses during the raid, but by around 1670 a new building programme had restored the English Navy to its former power. The Raid on the Medway was a serious blow to the reputation of the English crown. Charles felt personally offended by the fact the Dutch had attacked while he had laid up his fleet and peace negotiations were in progress, conveniently forgetting he himself had not negotiated in good faith. His resentment was one of the causes of the Third Anglo-Dutch War as it made him enter into the secret Treaty of Dover with Louis XIV of France. In the 19th century, nationalistic British writers expanded on this theme by suggesting it had been the Dutch who had sued for peace after their defeats in 1666 – although in fact these had made them, if anything, more belligerent – and that only by treacherously attacking the English had they nevertheless been able to gain a victory; a typical example of this is \"When London burned\", written by the novelist G. A. Henty in 1895. In the short term, the Lord Chancellor, Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon was made the scapegoat, impeached and forced into exile. Total losses for the Dutch were eight spent fireships and about fifty casualties. In the Republic the populace was jubilant after the victory; many festivities were held, repeated when the fleet returned in October, the various admirals being hailed as heroes. They were rewarded by a flood of eulogies and given honorary golden chains and pensions by the States General and the lesser States of the Provinces; De Ruyter, Cornelis de Witt and Van Ghent were honoured by precious enamelled golden chalices made by Nicolaes Lockeman, depicting the events. Cornelis de Witt had a large \"Sea Triumph\" painted, with himself as the main subject, which was displayed in the townhall of Dordt. This triumphalism by De Witt's States faction caused resentment with the rivalling Orangist faction; when the States regime lost its power during the \"rampjaar\" of 1672, Cornelis's head was to be ceremoniously carved out from the painting, after Charles had for some years insisted the picture would be removed. \"Royal Charles\", her draft too deep to be of use in the shallow Dutch waters, was permanently drydocked near Hellevoetsluis as a tourist attraction, with day trips being organised for large parties, often of foreign state guests. After vehement protests by Charles that this insulted his honour, the official visits were ended and \"Royal Charles\" was eventually scrapped in 1672; however, part of her transom, bearing the coat of arms with the Lion and Unicorn and the Royal inscription \"Dieu et mon droit\", was preserved because Charles earlier had demanded its removal and it has since 1883 been put on display in the cellar of the \"Rijksmuseum\" in Amsterdam. On 14 March 2012 the transom was transported to England on board the Royal Netherlands Navy patrol ship \"Holland\", accompanied by the then Dutch crown prince Willem-Alexander, where it was put on display, in commodate, at the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich as part of the \"Royal River: Power, Pageantry and the Thames\" exhibition held on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Presidential elections.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ilves was born in Stockholm, Sweden; his parents Endel Ilves (1923–1991) and Irene Ilves (\"née\" Rebane;1927–2018) fled Estonia after its occupation by the Soviet Union during World War II. His maternal grandmother was a Russian from Saint Petersburg. He grew up in the United States in Leonia, New Jersey, and graduated from Leonia High School in 1972 as valedictorian. He received a bachelor's degree in psychology from Columbia University in 1976 and a master's degree in the same subject from the University of Pennsylvania in 1978. He also received an honorary degree from St. Olaf College in 2014 in recognition of his relationship with the college. In addition to his native Estonian, Ilves also speaks English, German, Latvian and Spanish.", "Ilves worked as a research assistant in Columbia University Department of Psychology from 1974 to 1979. From 1979 to 1981 he served as assistant director and English teacher at the Open Education Center in Englewood, New Jersey. Ilves then moved to Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; from 1981 to 1983 he was director and administrator of arts in Vancouver Arts Centre and from 1983 to 1984 he taught Estonian literature and linguistics in Simon Fraser University. From 1984 to 1993, Ilves worked in Munich, Germany as a journalist for Radio Free Europe, being the head of its Estonian desk since 1988. As Estonia had restored its independence in 1991, Ilves became Ambassador of Estonia to the United States in 1993, also serving as Ambassador to Canada and Mexico at the same time. In December 1996, Ilves became Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs, serving until he resigned in September 1998, when he became a member of a small opposition party (Peasants' Party, agrarian-conservative). Ilves was soon elected chairman of the People's Party (reformed Peasants' Party), which formed an electoral cartel with the Moderates, a centrist party. After the March 1999 parliamentary election he became foreign minister again, serving until 2002, when the so-called Triple Alliance collapsed. He supported Estonian membership in the European Union and succeeded in starting the negotiations which led to Estonia joining the European Union on 1 May 2004. From 2001 to 2002 he was the leader of the People's Party Moderates. He resigned from the position after the party's defeat in the October 2002 municipal elections, in which the party received only 4.4% of the total votes nationwide. In early 2004, the Moderates party renamed itself the Estonian Social Democratic Party. In 2003, Ilves became an observer member of the European Parliament and, on 1 May 2004, a full member. In the 2004 elections to the European Parliament, Ilves was elected MEP in a landslide victory for the Estonian Social Democratic Party. He sat with the Party of European Socialists group in the Parliament. Katrin Saks took over his MEP seat when Ilves became President of Estonia in 2006. In 2011, he was re-elected for a second five-year term. In 2013, it was announced that Ilves had accepted a position on the Council on CyberSecurity's Advisory Board. In 2015, it was announced that Ilves had agreed to join the group of advisers to the World Bank president Jim Yong Kim. During his presidency, Ilves has been appointed to serve in several high positions in the field of ICT in the European Union. He served as chairman of the EU Task Force on eHealth from 2011 to 2012 and was chairman of the European Cloud Partnership Steering Board at the invitation of the European Commission from 2012 to 2014. In 2013 he chaired the High-Level Panel on Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms convened by ICANN. From 2014 to 2015 Ilves was the co-chair of the advisory panel of the World Bank's World Development Report 2016 \"Digital Dividends\" and was also the chair of World Economic Forum's Global Agenda Council on Cyber Security beginning in June 2014. Beginning in 2016, Ilves has been co-chairing The World Economic Forum working group \"The Global Futures Council on Blockchain Technology\". In 2017 he joined Stanford University as a Bernard and Susan Liautaud Visiting Fellow at the Center for International Security and Cooperation in the Freeman Spogli Institute for International Studies. From July 2017, Ilves has been a Distinguished Visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University. Ilves belongs to the advisory council of the Alliance for Securing Democracy.", "Ilves was nominated by the Reform Party, Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica and his own Social Democratic Party on 23 March 2006, as a candidate for the 2006 presidential election. On 29 August, Ilves was the only candidate in the second and the third round of the presidential election in Riigikogu, the Parliament of Estonia (he was supported by an electoral coalition consisting of the governing Reform Party plus the Social Democrats and the Union of Pro Patria and Res Publica which form the parliamentary opposition). Ilves gathered 64 votes out of 65 ballots. Therefore, one deputy of the three party alliance supporting Ilves did not vote in favour of his candidacy. A two-third majority in the 101-seat Riigikogu was required, so he was not elected in Riigikogu. His candidacy was automatically transferred to the next round in the Electors' Assembly on 23 September. On 13 September 2006, a broad spectrum of 80 well-known intellectuals published a declaration in support of Ilves' candidacy. Among those who signed were Neeme Järvi, Jaan Kross, Arvo Pärt and Jaan Kaplinski. On 23 September 2006 he received 174 ballots in the first round of the presidential election in the Electors' Assembly, thus having been elected the next president of Estonia. His five-year term started on 9 October 2006. On 29 August 2011, he was reelected by the 101-seat legislature to a second five-year term. His opponent was Indrek Tarand. He received support from 73 members of the legislature, and is the first candidate to be elected in the first round since Estonia regained independence in 1991.", "Ilves has been married three times. With his first wife, American psychologist Merry Bullock, he has two children: son Luukas Kristjan (b. 1987) and daughter Juulia Kristiine (b. 1992). In 2004, Ilves married his longtime partner Evelin Int-Lambot with whom he has one daughter, Kadri Keiu (b. 2003). Ilves' representatives announced on 17 April that Ilves and Evelin Ilves have divorced as of 30 April 2015. Their marriage lasted for 10.5 years and broke up after being distant from each other for a while. In December 2015 it was announced that Ilves was engaged in mid-November to Ieva Kupče, the head of the Cybersecurity Division in the Defense Ministry of Latvia. They married on 2 January 2016. On 28 November 2016 they announced the birth of their son Hans Hendrik Ilves. Ilves has been noted for his enthusiasm for social media. He maintains a Twitter account, personally posting on a regular basis to comment on both current events and his own interests, usually in English. In public, Ilves almost exclusively wears bow ties. He says that this is because his late father used to do so. Ilves has a brother, Andres Ilves, formerly head of the Persian and Pashto World Service of the BBC. Until the early 2000s, Andres Ilves was head of the Afghanistan bureau of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty based in Prague, Czech Republic." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uniqueness of aquatic behavior.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Ecology.", "Diving bell.", "Bite." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"A. aquatica\" is the only known species of spider that spends almost all its life underwater, including resting, catching and eating prey, mating, egg laying, and overwintering. It only briefly surfaces to replenish its oxygen supply and occasionally will bring prey to the surface. There are several other spiders that are semiaquatic, either periodically living underwater or willing to dive. For example, certain \"Desis\" species spend the high tide in an air-filled underwater retreat made from silk and forage on land in the intertidal zone during low tide. Some spiders living in periodically flooded habitats can survive for an extended period of time underwater by entering a coma-like state, up to 16–36 hours in \"Arctosa fulvolineata\". Numerous species, including some \"Ancylometes\", \"Dolomedes\", \"Megadolomedes\", \"Pardosa\", \"Pirata\", \"Thalassius\" and others, live above water at the surface, but may actively submerge for a prolonged period of time, are strong swimmers and will catch underwater prey. Several of these, as well as a few others, may dive into water to avoid larger predators.", "\"A. aquatica\" is found in clean freshwater habitats with aquatic vegetation, such as lakes, ponds, canals, marshes and slow-moving streams. It ranges through much of mainland Europe (no records from Portugal, Greece and Albania), the British Isles and northern Asia (Turkey, Caucasus, Russia, Iran, Central Asia, China, Korea and Japan), up to latitude 62°N. Most of the range is inhabited by the nominate subspecies, but Japan has its own subspecies, the very similar \"A. a. japonica\".", "As with other spiders it breathes air; when submerged in water, an air bubble is trapped by a dense layer of hydrophobic hairs on its abdomen and legs, giving the abdomen a silvery appearance. The spider lives for about two years in captivity. \"A. aquatica\" is able to remain submerged for prolonged periods of time due to the silk-based structure it constructs in order to retain an oxygen supply, named after the diving bell structure it resembles. The species range in size, although the size of females may be limited as they put more energy into building and maintaining their larger bells. Males are more active and on average almost 30% larger than females, measuring in head-and-body length compared to. This size differential favoring males is unusual for spiders, where sexual dimorphism is usually in favour of larger females. Theories suggest that the male's more active hunting style requires greater strength to overcome water resistance and counteract the buoyancy of their mobile air supplies. This larger body size is also associated with longer front legs, shown to affect diving ability and giving the males superiority in diving over the more sessile females. The spiders prey on aquatic insects and crustaceans such as mosquito larvae and \"Daphnia\". The spiders themselves fall prey to frogs and fish.", "The appearance of the diving bell gave rise to the genus name \"Argyroneta\", from the Greek \"argyros\" (ἄργυρος), meaning \"silver\", and \"neta\", a neologism (perhaps for *νητής) derived from the verb \"neo\" (νέω) \"spin\", intended to mean \"spinner of silver\". Both sexes build diving bell webs which are used for digesting prey, although only the female's larger bell is used for mating and raising offspring. Females spend most of their time within their bells, darting out to catch prey animals that touch the bell or the silk threads that anchor it and occasionally surfacing to replenish the air within the web. The bells built by males are typically smaller than females and are replenished less often. It is thought that prior to mating, the male constructs a diving bell adjacent to the female's then spins a tunnel from his bell, breaking into hers to gain entrance. Mating takes place in the female's bell. The female spider then constructs an egg sac within her bell, laying between 30 and 70 eggs. Where this species moults is less clear, with some sources stating that it occurs below water in the diving bell and others that it occurs out of water. Diving bells are irregularly constructed sheets of silk and an unknown protein-based hydrogel which is spun between submerged water plants then inflated with air brought down from the surface by the builder. Studies have considered gas diffusion between the diving bell and the spiders’ aquatic environment. The silk is waterproof but allows gas exchange with the surrounding water. There is net diffusion of oxygen into the bell and net diffusion of carbon dioxide out. This process is driven by differences in partial pressure. The production of carbon dioxide and use of oxygen by the spider maintains the concentration gradient, required for diffusion. However, there is net diffusion of nitrogen out of the bell, resulting in a gradually shrinking air bubble which must be regularly replenished by the spider. Larger spiders are able to produce larger bubbles which have a consequently higher oxygen conductance, but all spiders of this species are able to enlarge their bells in response to increased oxygen demands in low aquatic P(O) environments. These spiders voluntarily tolerate internal conditions of low oxygen, enlarging their bells with air when the P(O) drops below 1 kPa; this replenishment process may not need to occur for several days, in some cases. This system has been referred to as \"the water spider's aqua-lung of air bubbles\", though an aqua-lung lacks gas exchange with the surroundings; this system is more properly regarded as an inorganic form of gill.", "Their bite is often described as being quite painful to humans and as causing localised inflammation, vomiting, and slight feverishness that disappears within a few days. However, solid evidence is lacking, with information being based on old unverified reports since recent confirmed reports are lacking, leading some sources to refer to its bite as reputedly painful." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early history.", "Modern practice.", "Savate in the USA.", "Dress.", "Techniques.", "Punches.", "Events.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Savate takes its name from the French for \"old shoe\" (heavy footwear, especially the boots used by French military and sailors) (\"cf.\" French-English loanwords sabot and sabotage and Spanish cognate \"zapato\"). The modern formalized form is mainly an amalgam of French street fighting techniques from the beginning of the 19th century. Savate was then a type of street fighting common in Paris and northern France. In the south, especially in the port of Marseille, sailors developed a fighting style involving high kicks and open-handed slaps. It is conjectured that this kicking style was developed in this way to allow the fighter to use a hand to hold onto something for balance on a rocking ship's deck, and that the kicks and slaps were used on land to avoid the legal penalties for using a closed fist, which was considered a deadly weapon under the law. It was known as the \"jeu marseillais\" (game from Marseille), and was later renamed \"chausson\" (slipper, after the type of shoes the sailors wore). In contrast, at this time in England (the home of boxing and the Queensberry rules), kicking was seen as unsportsmanlike. Traditional savate was a northern French development, especially in Paris' slums, and always used heavy shoes and boots derived from its potential military origins. Street fighting savate, unlike chausson, kept the kicks low, almost never targeted above the groin, and they were delivered with vicious, bone-breaking intent. Parisian savate also featured open hand blows, in thrusting or smashing palm strikes (la baffe) or in stunning slaps targeted to facial nerves. Techniques of savate or chausson were at this time also developed in the ports of northwest Italy and northeastern Spain—hence one savate kick named the \"Italian hunt\" (\"chasse italiane\"). The two key historical figures in the history of the shift from street fighting to the modern sport of savate are Michel Casseux (also known as \"le Pisseux\") (1794–1869) and Charles Lecour (1808–1894). Casseux opened the first establishment in 1825 for practicing and promoting a regulated version of chausson and savate (disallowing head butting, eye gouging, grappling, etc.). However the sport had not shaken its reputation as a street-fighting technique. Casseux's pupil Charles Lecour was exposed to the English art of boxing when he witnessed an English boxing match in France between English pugilist Owen Swift and Jack Adams in 1838. Lecour also took part in a friendly sparring match with Swift later in that same year. Lecour felt that he was at a disadvantage, using his hands only to bat his opponent's fists away, rather than to punch. He then trained in boxing for a time before combining boxing with chausson and savate to create the sport of savate (or \"boxe française\", as we know it today). At some point \"la canne\" and \"le baton\", stick fighting, were added, and some form of stick fencing, such as \"la canne\", is commonly part of savate training. Those who train purely for competition may omit this. Savate was developed professionally by Lecour's student Joseph Charlemont and then his son Charles Charlemont. Charles continued his father's work and in 1899 fought an English boxer named Jerry Driscoll. He won the match with a round-kick (\"fouetté median\") in the eighth round although the English said that it was a kick to the groin. According to the well known English referee, Bernard John Angle of the National Sporting Club, in his book \"My Sporting Memories\" (London, 1925), \"Driscoll did not know what he was taking on\" when he agreed \"to meet the Frenchman at his own game\". Angle also said that, \"The contest ended in Jerry being counted out to a blow in the groin from the Frenchman's knee.\" He further alleged that \"the timekeeper saved Charlemont several times\". After the fight Driscoll bore no grudges, considering the blow to have been \"an accident\". The French claimed victory for their man by stoppage, following a round-kick to Driscoll's stomach. Savate was later codified under a Committee National de Boxe Française under Charles Charlemont's student Count Pierre Baruzy (dit Barozzi). The Count is seen as the father of modern savate and was 11-time Champion of France and its colonies, his first ring combat and title prior to World War I. \"Savate de Dėfense\", \"Défense Savate\" or \"Savate de Rue\" (\"street savate\") is the name given to those methods of fighting excluded from savate competition. The International Savate Federation (FIS) is the official worldwide ruling body of savate. Perhaps the ultimate recognition of the respectability of savate came in 1924 when it was included as a demonstration sport in the Olympic Games in Paris. In 2008, savate was recognised by the International University Sports Federation (FISU) – this recognition allows savate to hold official University World Championships; the first was held in Nantes, France in 2010. The 25th anniversary of the founding of the International Savate Federation, in March 2010, was celebrated with a visit to Lausanne, to meet with International Olympic Committee President Jacques Rogge. FISav President Gilles Le Duigou was presented with a memento depicting the Olympic Rings. In April 2010, the International Savate Federation was accepted as a member of SportAccord (previously known as AGFIS) – a big step forward on the road to Olympic recognition.", "Despite its roots, savate is a relatively safe sport to learn. Today, savate is practiced all over the world by amateurs: from Australia to the U.S. and from Finland to Britain. Many countries (including the United States) have national federations devoted to promoting savate. Modern codified savate provides for three levels of competition: \"assaut\", \"pre-combat\" and \"combat\".<br>Assaut requires the competitors to focus on their technique while still making contact; referees assign penalties for the use of excessive force.<br>Pre-combat allows for full-strength fighting so long as the fighters wear protective gear such as helmets and shinguards.<br>Combat, the most intense level, is the same as pre-combat, but protective gear other than groin protection and mouthguards is prohibited. Many martial arts provide ranking systems, such as belt colours. Savate uses glove colours to indicate a fighter's level of proficiency (unlike arts such as \"karate\", which assign new belts at each promotion, moving to a higher colour rank in savate does not necessarily entail a change in the colour of one's actual gloves, and a given fighter may continue using the same pair of gloves through multiple promotions). Novices begin at no colour. The qualifications for competition vary depending on the association or commission. In the French Federation a yellow glove can compete, and in Belgium a green glove can compete. In the United States, the competition levels start at novice (6 months). In Russia there is no requirement for a specific glove colour in order to compete. The ranking of savate: Boxe Française is divided into three roads that a savateur can choose to take. In some clubs there is also a rank of aide-moniteur, while in other associations there is no rank of initiateur. Eight to twelve years of training on average are necessary for a student to reach professeur level; eight years average depending on skills. In France the professional professeur must have a French state certificate of specialized teaching (CQP AS, BEES 1st, 2nd and 3rd degree, 1st de CCB BPJEPS, DEJEPS, DESJEPS). These diplomas are university level education in sports with specialisation in savate (supervised by the French Federation of BF Savate and associated disciplines ( Canne, Self Defense, Lutte, baton) (i.e.:FFBFSDA). The international federation (FIS), however, is still allowed to award professeur to non-French nationals without requiring such rigid system of education. French nationals have to submit and succeed to the rigid system of education and prove themselves in competition as well as being respected by peers, in order to have a slight chance to become a DTD (directeur technique départemental). Like any sport federations in France, the French and International Federation of Savate are under the control of France Ministry of Sport and Youth. This makes these two federations extremely powerful federations on the world scene. These two federations have followed a set of national traditions. Nowadays, savate is just a term meaning Savate-Boxe Française. In the 1970s the term \"savate\" was rarely used in France to refer to the formalised sport: people mostly used the term Savate boxe française, Boxe-Française Savate, B.F, B.F.S., S.B.F. or simply boxe française. The term savate remains in use mostly outside France or when speaking a language other than French. The global distribution of schools (salles) today is best explained through their stylistic approaches: These are the different stylistic approaches of the French arts of pugilism in the world today.", "In the USA it is said that Daniel Duby brought Savate to the west coast in Southern California. The first real FFBFSDA/ FIS club of boxe-francaise savate was open in 1983 on the east coast in Philadelphia, under Jean-Noel Eynard, FFBFSDA/ FIS Professeur with the assistance of former FFBFSDA/ FIS DTN Bob Alix. In 1988 the US Registry of Savate was created on the east coast which became the American Registry of Savate Instructors and Clubs in 1994 (ARSIC-International). Meanwhile, on the west coast Savate clubs were spurring from the California association of Savate. A couple years later, under the collaborative assistance of a steering committee made of Gilles le Duigou (FIS), JN Eynard, ARSIC-International (PA), Armando Basulto (NJ) and Norman Taylor, USSF president(NJ) as well as few other individuals from California, the official name of United State Savate Federation was given to this combined association. The teaching efforts of Jean-Noel Eynard, Salem Assli and Nicolas Saignac contributed to the further development of Boxe Francaise Savate in the USA. ARSIC-International has been instrumental at promoting Savate in the USA.", "In official competitions, competitors wear an \"intégrale\" or a vest and savate trousers. They wear boxing gloves (with or without padded palms) and savate boots. Savate is the only kicking and punching (only) style to use footwear, although some other Combat sports, such as Shoot Fighting and some forms of MMA sometimes also wear grappling type shoes/boots. Savate boots can be used to hit with the sole, the top of the foot, the toe, or the heel. Sometimes a helmet can be worn, e.g. in junior competitions and in the early rounds of Combat (full contact) bouts.", "In competitive or competition \"savate\", which includes Assaut, Pre-Combat, and Combat types, there are only four kinds of kicks allowed along with four kinds of punches allowed:", "Savate did not begin as a sport, but as a form of self-defence and fought on the streets of Paris and Marseille. This type of savate was known as Savate des Rues. In addition to kicks and punches, training in Savate des Rues (Streets Savate) includes knee and elbow strikes along with locks, sweeps, throws, headbutts, and takedowns.", "The International Savate Federation holds World Championships in three disciplines: Savate Assaut, Savate Combat and Canne de combat. World Savate Combat Championships are being held for Seniors (over 21 years) and Juniors (18 to 21 years).", "In the 1964 beach party film \"Bikini Beach\", a French female bodyguard claims to be an expert in Savate and uses kicks to defend herself. In Marvel comics, movies, and cartoons, the criminal mercenary Batroc the Leaper is a master of Savate. X-Men superhero, Gambit is trained in Savate. In the 1967 novel \"Logan's Run\", protagonist Logan 3 often uses Savate kicks for self-defense. In DC Comics, the character Nightwing is described as having a personal fighting style that combines Savate with the Filipino martial art Arnis. Ash Crimson from \"The King of Fighters\" fights in a basic Savate style that uses his own green flames. Ash himself is portrayed by SNK as a character with an unknown origin, because his lineage as descendant of Saiki (Those from the Past's leader), but it says too that he was raised by the Blanctorche clan, a French family. In the \"Tekken\" series, Brazilian character Katarina Alves uses savate as her fighting syle. In the Japanese manga series \"Medaka Box\" Zenkichi Hitoyoshi is a master of Savate, and emphasizes its Open Handed Style Techniques with his \"Altered God Mode: Model Zenkichi\" which makes his hands as sharp as blades. In the issue \"Flight 714\" of The Adventures of Tintin, Professor Calculus states that he used to be proficient in Savate in his younger years. However, when attempting a kick, he ends up falling terribly, prompting stunned reactions from the onlookers. Dazed, Calculus remarks that he is out of practice. In \"The Black Island\", Tintin himself kicks a villain and calls it a Savate move. In the 1995 martial arts video \"Savate\", Olivier Gruner plays a savate fighter in the American West using Savate to give his enemies a good thrashing. In a 1974 episode of \"The Six Million Dollar Man\" titled \"Dr. Wells is Missing\", a \"Master of the French art of Savate\" called Yamo fights with Steve Austin, using the original style of the art (kicks only)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Mining engineer.", "Bewick, Moreing.", "Sole proprietor.", "Marriage and family.", "World War I and aftermath.", "Relief in Europe.", "U.S. Food Administration.", "Post-war relief.", "1920 election.", "Secretary of Commerce.", "Radio and travel.", "Other initiatives.", "Mississippi flood.", "Presidential election of 1928.", "Presidency.", "Great Depression.", "Early policies.", "Later policies.", "Budget policy.", "Civil rights and Mexican Repatriation.", "Prohibition.", "Foreign relations.", "Bonus Army.", "1932 re-election campaign.", "Post-presidency.", "Roosevelt administration.", "Opposition to New Deal.", "World War II.", "Post–World War II.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Historical reputation.", "Memorials.", "Other honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Herbert Hoover was born on August 10, 1874 in West Branch, Iowa. His father, Jesse Hoover, was a blacksmith and farm implement store owner of German, Swiss, and English ancestry. Hoover's mother, Hulda Randall Minthorn, was raised in Norwich, Ontario, Canada, before moving to Iowa in 1859. Like most other citizens of West Branch, Jesse and Hulda were Quakers. Around age two \"Bertie\", as he was called during that time, contracted a serious bout of croup, and was momentarily thought to have died until resuscitated by his uncle, John Minthorn. As a young child he was often referred to by his father as \"my little stick in the mud\" when he repeatedly got trapped in the mud crossing the unpaved street. Herbert's family figured prominently in the town's public prayer life, due almost entirely to mother Hulda's role in the church. As a child, Hoover consistently attended schools, but he did little reading on his own aside from the Bible. Hoover's father, noted by the local paper for his \"pleasant, sunshiny disposition\", died in 1880 at the age of 34. Hoover's mother died in 1884, leaving Hoover, his older brother, Theodore, and his younger sister, May, as orphans. After a brief stay with one of his grandmothers", "", "When Hoover graduated from Stanford in 1895, the country was in the midst of the Panic of 1893, and he initially struggled to find a job. He worked in various low-level mining jobs in the Sierra Nevada mountain range until he convinced prominent mining engineer Louis Janin to hire him. After working as a mine scout for a year, Hoover was hired by Bewick, Moreing & Co., a London-based company that operated gold mines in Western Australia. Hoover first went to Coolgardie, then the center", "After leaving Bewick, Moreing, Hoover worked as a London-based independent mining consultant and financier. Though he had risen to prominence as a geologist and mine operator, Hoover focused much of his attention on raising money, restructuring corporate organizations, and financing new ventures. He specialized in rejuvenating troubled mining operations, taking a share of the profits in exchange for his technical and financial expertise. Hoover thought of himself and his associates as \"engineering doctors to sick concerns\", and he earned a reputation as a \"doctor of sick mines\". He made investments on every continent and had offices in San Francisco; London; New York City; Paris; Petrograd; and Mandalay, British Burma. By 1914, Hoover was a very wealthy man, with an estimated personal fortune of $4 million (equivalent to $ million in ). He co-founded the Zinc Corporation to extract zinc", "During his senior year at Stanford, Hoover became smitten with a classmate named Lou Henry, though his financial situation precluded marriage at that time. The daughter of a banker from Monterey, California, Lou Henry decided to study geology at Stanford after attending a lecture delivered by John Branner. Immediately after earning a promotion in 1898, Hoover cabled Lou Henry, asking her to marry him. After she cabled", "", "World War I broke out in June 1914, pitting the Allied Powers (France, Russia, Britain, and other countries) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and other countries). Hoover and other London-based American businessmen established a committee to organize the return of the roughly 100,000 Americans stranded in Europe. Hoover was appointed as the committee's chair and, with the assent of Congress and the executive branch, took charge of the distribution of relief to Americans in Europe. Hoover later stated, \"I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914, my career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life.\" By early October 1914, Hoover's organization had distributed relief to at least 40,000 Americans. The German invasion of Belgium in August 1914 set off a food crisis in Belgium, which relied heavily on food imports. The Germans refused to take responsibility for feeding Belgian citizens in captured territory, and the British refused to", "The United States declared war upon Germany in April 1917 after Germany engaged in unrestricted submarine warfare against American vessels in British waters. With the U.S. mobilizing for war, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Hoover to head the U.S. Food Administration, which was charged with ensuring the nation's food needs during the war. Hoover had hoped to join the administration in some capacity since at least 1916, and he obtained the position after lobbying several members of Congress and Wilson's confidant, Edward M. House. Earning the appellation of \"food czar\", Hoover recruited a volunteer force of hundreds of thousands of women and deployed propaganda in movie theaters, schools, and churches. He carefully selected men to assist in the agency leadership—Alonzo Taylor (technical abilities), Robert Taft (political associations), Gifford Pinchot (agricultural influence), and", "World War I came to an end in November 1918, but Europe continued to face a critical food situation; Hoover estimated that as many as 400 million people faced the possibility of starvation. The United States Food Administration became the American Relief Administration (ARA), and Hoover was charged with providing food to Central and Eastern Europe. In addition to providing relief, the ARA rebuilt infrastructure in an effort to rejuvenate the economy of Europe. Throughout the Paris Peace Conference, Hoover served as a close adviser to President Wilson, and he largely shared Wilson's goals of establishing the League of Nations, settling borders on the basis of self-determination, and refraining from inflicting a harsh punishment on the defeated Central Powers. The following year, famed British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote in The Economic Consequences of the Peace that if Hoover's realism, \"knowledge, magnanimity and disinterestedness\" had found wider play in the councils of Paris, the world would have had \"the Good Peace.\" After U.S. government funding for the ARA expired in mid-1919, Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors.", "Hoover had been little known among the American public before 1914, but his service in the Wilson administration established him as a contender in the 1920 presidential election. Hoover's wartime push for higher taxes, criticism of Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer's actions during the First Red Scare, and his advocacy for measures such as the minimum wage, forty-eight-hour workweek, and elimination of child labor made him appealing to progressives of both parties. Despite his service in the Democratic administration of Woodrow Wilson, Hoover had never been closely affiliated with either the Democrats or the Republicans. He initially sought to avoid committing to any party in", "After his election as president in 1920, Harding rewarded Hoover for his support, offering to appoint him as either Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Commerce. Secretary of Commerce was considered a minor Cabinet post, with limited and vaguely defined responsibilities, but Hoover decided to accept the position. Hoover's progressive stances, continuing support for the League of Nations, and recent conversion to the Republican Party aroused opposition to his appointment from many Senate Republicans. To overcome this opposition, Harding paired Hoover's nomination with that of conservative favorite Andrew Mellon as Secretary of the Treasury, and the nominations of both Hoover and Mellon were confirmed by the Senate. Hoover would serve as Secretary of Commerce from 1921 to 1929, serving under Harding and, after Harding's death in 1923, President Calvin Coolidge. While some of the most prominent members of the Harding administration, including Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty and Secretary of Interior Albert B. Fall, were implicated in major scandals, Hoover emerged largely unscathed from investigations into the Harding administration. Hoover envisioned the Commerce Department as the hub of the nation's growth and stability. His experience mobilizing the war-time economy convinced him that the federal government could promote efficiency by eliminating waste, increasing production, encouraging the adoption of data-based practices, investing in infrastructure, and conserving natural resources. Contemporaries described Hoover's approach as a \"third alternative\" between \"unrestrained capitalism\" and socialism, which was becoming increasingly popular in Europe. Hoover sought to foster a balance among labor, capital, and the government, and for this he has been variously labeled a corporatist or an associationalist. Hoover demanded, and received, authority to coordinate economic affairs throughout the government. He created many sub-departments and committees, overseeing and regulating everything from manufacturing statistics to air travel. In some instances he \"seized\" control of responsibilities from other Cabinet departments when he deemed that they were not carrying out their responsibilities well; some began referring to him as the \"Secretary of Commerce and Under-Secretary of all other departments.\" In response to the Depression of 1920–21, he convinced Harding to assemble a presidential commission on unemployment, which encouraged local governments to engage in countercyclical infrastructure spending. He endorsed much of Mellon's tax reduction program, but favored a more progressive tax system and opposed the treasury secretary's efforts to eliminate the estate tax.", "Between 1923 and 1929, the number of families with radios grew from 300,000 to 10 million, and Hoover's tenure as Secretary of Commerce heavily influenced radio use in the United States. In the early and mid-1920s, Hoover's radio conferences played a key role in the organization, development, and regulation of radio broadcasting. Hoover also helped pass the Radio Act of 1927, which allowed the government to intervene and abolish radio stations that were deemed \"non-useful\" to the public. Hoover's attempts at regulating radio were not supported by all congressmen, and he received much opposition from the Senate and from radio station owners. Hoover was also influential in the early development of air travel, and he sought to create a thriving private industry boosted by indirect government", "With the goal of encouraging wise business investments, Hoover made the Commerce Department a clearinghouse of information. He recruited numerous academics from various fields and tasked them with publishing reports on different aspects of the economy, including steel production and films. To eliminate waste, he encouraged standardization of products like automobile tires and baby bottle nipples. Other efforts at eliminating waste included reducing labor losses from trade disputes and seasonal fluctuations, reducing industrial losses from accident and injury, and", "The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 broke the banks and levees of the lower Mississippi River in early 1927, resulting in the flooding of millions of acres and leaving 1.5 million people displaced from their homes. Although disaster response did not fall under the duties of the Commerce Department, the governors of six states along the Mississippi River specifically asked President Coolidge to appoint Hoover to coordinate the response to the flood. Believing that disaster response was not the domain of", "Hoover quietly built up support for a future presidential bid throughout the 1920s, but he carefully avoided alienating Coolidge, who was eligible to run for another term in the 1928 presidential election. Along with the rest of the nation, he was surprised when Coolidge announced in August 1927 that he would not seek another term. With the impending retirement of Coolidge, Hoover immediately emerged as the front-runner for the 1928 Republican nomination, and he quickly put together a strong campaign team led by Hubert Work, Will H. Hays, and Reed Smoot. Coolidge was unwilling to", "Hoover saw the presidency as a vehicle for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging public-private cooperation—what he termed \"volunteerism\". He tended to oppose governmental coercion or intervention, as he thought they infringed on American ideals of individualism and self-reliance. The first major bill that he signed, the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1929, established the Federal Farm Board in order to stabilize farm prices. Hoover made extensive use of commissions to study issues and propose solutions, and many of those commissions were sponsored by private donors rather than by the government. One of the commissions started by Hoover, the Research Committee on Social Trends, was tasked with surveying the entirety of American society. He appointed a Cabinet consisting largely of wealthy, business-oriented conservatives, including Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon. Lou Henry Hoover was an activist First Lady. She typified the new woman of the post-World War I era: intelligent, robust, and aware of multiple female possibilities.", "On taking office, Hoover said that \"given the chance to go forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon with the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished from this nation.\" Having seen the fruits of prosperity brought by technological progress, many shared Hoover's optimism, and the already bullish stock market climbed even higher on Hoover's accession. This optimism concealed several threats to sustained U.S. economic growth, including a persistent farm crisis, a saturation of consumer goods like automobiles, and growing income inequality. Most dangerous of all to the economy was excessive speculation that had raised stock prices", "Though he attempted to put a positive spin on Black Tuesday, Hoover moved quickly to address the stock market collapse. In the days following Black Tuesday, Hoover gathered business and labor leaders, asking them to avoid wage cuts and work stoppages while the country faced what he believed would be a short recession similar to the Depression of 1920–21. Hoover also convinced railroads and public utilities to increase spending on construction and maintenance, and the Federal Reserve announced that it would cut interest rates. In early 1930, Hoover acquired from Congress an additional $100 million to continue the Federal Farm Board lending and purchasing policies. These actions were collectively designed to prevent a cycle of deflation and provide a fiscal stimulus. At the", "By the end of 1930, the national unemployment rate had reached 11.9 percent, but it was not yet clear to most Americans that the economic downturn would be worse than the Depression of 1920–21. A series of bank failures in late 1930 heralded a larger collapse of the economy in 1931. While other countries left the gold standard, Hoover refused to abandon it; he derided any other monetary system as \"collectivism.\" Hoover viewed the weak European economy as a major cause of economic troubles in the United States. In response to the collapse of the German economy, Hoover marshaled congressional support behind a one-year moratorium on European war debts. The Hoover Moratorium was warmly received in Europe and the United States, but Germany remained on the brink of defaulting on its loans. As the worldwide economy worsened, democratic governments fell; in Germany, Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler assumed power. By mid-1931, the unemployment rate had reached 15 percent, giving rise to growing fears that the country was experiencing a depression far worse than recent economic downturns. A reserved man with a fear of public speaking, Hoover", "After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in", "Hoover seldom mentioned civil rights while he was president. He believed that African Americans and other races could improve themselves with education and individual initiative. Hoover appointed more African Americans to federal positions than Harding and Coolidge had combined, but many African-American leaders condemned various aspects of the Hoover administration, including Hoover's unwillingness to push for a federal anti-lynching law. Hoover also continued to pursue the lily-white strategy, removing African Americans from positions of leadership in the Republican Party in an attempt to end the Democratic Party's dominance in the South. Though Robert Moton and some other black leaders accepted the lily-white strategy as a temporary measure, most African-American leaders were outraged. Hoover further alienated black leaders by nominating conservative Southern judge John J. Parker to the Supreme Court; Parker's nomination ultimately failed in the Senate", "Despite his politics, Hoover was never a teetotaler. While serving as Secretary of Commerce he would often stop at the Belgian embassy for cocktails. On taking office, Hoover urged Americans to obey the Eighteenth Amendment and the Volstead Act, which had established Prohibition across the United States. To make public policy recommendations regarding Prohibition, he created the Wickersham Commission. Hoover had hoped that the commission's public report would buttress his stance in favor of Prohibition, but the report criticized the", "According to Leuchtenburg, Hoover was \"the last American president to take office with no conspicuous need to pay attention to the rest of the world\". Nevertheless, during Hoover's term, the world order established in the immediate aftermath of World War I began to crumble. As president, Hoover largely made good on his pledge made prior to assuming office not to interfere in Latin America's internal affairs. In 1930, he released the Clark Memorandum, a rejection of the Roosevelt Corollary and a move towards non-interventionism in Latin America. Hoover did not completely refrain from the use of the military in Latin American affairs; he thrice threatened intervention in the Dominican Republic, and he sent warships to El Salvador to support the government against a left-wing revolution. Notwithstanding those actions, he wound down the Banana Wars, ending the occupation of Nicaragua and nearly bringing an end to the occupation of Haiti. Hoover placed a priority on disarmament, which he hoped would allow the United States to shift", "Thousands of World War I veterans and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, DC, during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of bonuses that had been promised by the World War Adjusted Compensation Act in 1924; the terms of the act called for payment of the bonuses in 1945. Although offered money by Congress to return home, some members of the \"Bonus Army\" remained. Washington", "By mid-1931 few observers thought that Hoover had much hope of winning a second term in the midst of the ongoing economic crisis. Nonetheless, Hoover faced little opposition for re-nomination at the 1932 Republican National Convention, as Coolidge and other prominent Republicans all passed on the opportunity to challenge Hoover. Franklin D. Roosevelt won the presidential nomination on the fourth ballot of the 1932 Democratic National Convention, defeating the 1928 Democratic nominee, Al Smith. The Democrats attacked Hoover as the cause of the Great Depression, and for being indifferent to the suffering of millions. As Governor of New York, Roosevelt had called on the New York legislature to provide aid for the needy, establishing Roosevelt's reputation for being more favorable toward government interventionism during the economic crisis. The Democratic Party, including Al Smith and other national leaders, coalesced behind Roosevelt, while progressive Republicans like George Norris and Robert La Follette Jr. deserted Hoover. Hoover's detractors wondered why he did not do anything to reapportion congress after the 1920 United States Census which saw an increase in urban and immigrant populations. The 1920", "", "", "Hoover departed from Washington in March 1933, bitter at his election loss and continuing unpopularity. As Coolidge, Harding, Wilson, and Taft had all died during the 1920s or early 1930s, Hoover was the sole living ex-president from 1933 to 1953. Hoover and his wife lived in Palo Alto until her death in 1944, at which point Hoover began to live permanently at the Waldorf Astoria hotel in New York City. During the 1930s, Hoover increasingly self-identified as a conservative. He closely followed national events after leaving public office, becoming a constant critic of Franklin Roosevelt. In response to continued attacks on his character and presidency, Hoover wrote more than two dozen", "During a 1938 trip to Europe, Hoover met with Adolf Hitler and stayed at Hermann Göring's hunting lodge. He expressed dismay at the persecution of Jews in Germany and believed that Hitler was mad, but did not present a threat to the U.S. Instead, Hoover believed that Roosevelt posed the biggest threat to peace, holding that Roosevelt's policies provoked Japan and discouraged France and the United Kingdom from reaching an \"accommodation\" with Germany. After the September 1939 invasion of Poland by Germany, Hoover opposed U.S. involvement in World War II, including the Lend-Lease policy. He rejected Roosevelt's offers to help coordinate relief in Europe, but, with the help of old", "Following World War II, Hoover befriended President Harry S. Truman despite their ideological differences. Because of Hoover's experience with Germany at the end of World War I, in 1946 Truman selected the former president to tour Germany to ascertain the food needs of the occupied nation. After touring Germany, Hoover produced a number of reports critical of U.S. occupation policy. He stated in one report that \"there is the illusion that the New Germany left after the annexations can be reduced to a 'pastoral state.' It", "Hoover faced three major illnesses during the last two years of his life, including an August 1962 operation in which a growth on his large intestine was removed. He died on October 20, 1964 in New York City following massive internal bleeding. Though Hoover's last spoken words are unknown, his last known written words were a get well message to his friend Harry Truman, six days before his death, after he heard that Truman sustained injuries from slipping in a bathroom: \"Bathtubs are a menace to ex-presidents for as you may recall a bathtub rose up and fractured my vertebrae when I was in Venezuela", "", "Hoover was extremely unpopular when he left office after the 1932 election, and his historical reputation would not begin to recover until the 1970s. According to Professor David E. Hamilton, historians have credited Hoover for his genuine belief in voluntarism and cooperation, as well as the innovation of some of his programs. However, Hamilton also notes that Hoover was politically inept and failed to recognize the severity of the Great Depression. Nicholas Lemann writes that Hoover has been remembered \"as the man who was too rigidly conservative to react adeptly to the Depression, as the hapless foil to the great Franklin Roosevelt, and as the politician who managed to turn a Republican country into", "The Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum is located in West Branch, Iowa next to the Herbert Hoover National Historic Site. The library is one of thirteen presidential libraries run by the National Archives and Records Administration. The Hoover–Minthorn House, where Hoover lived from 1885 to 1891, is located in Newberg, Oregon. His Rapidan fishing camp in Virginia, which he donated to the government in 1933, is now a National Historic Landmark within the Shenandoah National Park. The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in 1919 in Stanford, California, is now the official residence of", "Hoover was inducted into the National Mining Hall of Fame in 1988 (inaugural class). His wife" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood and education: 1937–1958.", "Early military career: 1958–1965.", "Coups and the Civil War: 1966–1970.", "Post war command: 1970–1975.", "Military Head of State: 1976–1979.", "Economic policy.", "Domestic policies.", "Foreign policy.", "Transition to Civilian Rule.", "Out of office.", "Presidential campaigns and elections.", "1999 presidential elections.", "2003 presidential elections.", "Presidency (1999–2007).", "First term.", "Second term.", "Oil revenue.", "Economic growth and debt payment.", "Third term agenda.", "Corruption.", "Post-presidency.", "Political ideology.", "Personal life.", "Reception and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Matthew Olusegun Aremu Obasanjo was born in the village of Ibogun-Olaogun in southwest Nigeria. His later passport gave his date of birth as 5 March 1937, although this was an estimate, and there are no records of Obasanjo's birthdate from the time itself. His father was Amos Adigun Obaluayesanjo \"Obasanjo\" Bankole and his mother was Bernice Ashabi Bankole. He was the first of nine children; only he and a sister (Adunni Oluwole Obasanjo) survived childhood. He was born to the Owu branch of the Yoruba people. The church in the village was part of a mission set up by the U.S. Southern Baptist Church and Obasanjo was raised Baptist. His village also contained Muslims and his sister would later convert to Islam on marrying a Muslim man. Obasanjo's father was a farmer and until he was eleven years old, the boy was involved in agricultural labour. Aged eleven, he then started an education at the local village primary school, something encouraged by his father. After three years, in", "In March 1958, Obasanjo enlisted in the Nigerian Army. He saw it as an opportunity to continue his education while earning a salary; he did not immediately inform his family, fearing that his parents would object. It was at this time that the Nigerian Army was being transferred to the control of the Nigerian colonial government, in preparation for an anticipated full Nigerian independence, and there were attempts afoot to get more native Nigerians into the higher ranks of its military. He was then sent to a Regular Officers' Training School at Teshie in Ghana.", "Obasanjo flew back to Nigeria in January 1966 to find the country in the midst of a military coup led by Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna. Almost all of those involved in organising the coup were from the Igbo people of southern Nigeria. Obasanjo was among those warning that the situation could descend into civil war. He offered to serve as an intermediary between the coup plotters and the civilian government, which had transferred power to the military Commander-in-Chief Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi. As the coup failed, Olusegun met Ironsi in Lagos. Ironsi soon ended federalism in Nigeria through his unification decree in May 1966, something which inflamed ethnic tensions. In late July, a second coup took place. In Ibadan, troops of northern Nigerian origin rebelled and killed Ironsi, also massacring around two hundred Igbo soldiers. General Yakubu Gowon took power.", "In June 1970, Obasanjo returned to Abeokuta, where crowds welcomed him as a returning hero. He was then posted to Lagos as the Brigadier commanding the Corps of Engineers. In October, Gowon announced that the military government would transfer authority to a civilian administration in 1976. In the meantime, a ban on political parties remained in forces; Gowon made little progress towards establishing a civilian government. Under the military government, Obasanjo sat on the decommissioning committee which recommended dramatic reductions of troop numbers in the Nigerian Army over the course of the 1970s. In 1974 Obasanjo went to the UK for a course at the Royal College of", "In February 1976, Colonel Buka Suka Dimka launched a coup against Nigeria's government, as part of which Murtala was assassinated. An attempt was also made on Obasanjo's life, but killed the wrong individual. Dimka lacked widespread support among the military and his coup failed, forcing him to flee. Obasanjo did not attend Murtala's funeral in Kano, but declared that the government would finance construction of a mosque on the burial site. After the coup attempt, Obasanjo attended a meeting of the Supreme Military Council. He expressed his desire to resign from government, but the Council successfully urged him to replace Murtala as head of state. He therefore became the Council's chair. Concerned about further attempts on his life, Obasanjo moved into the Dodan Barracks, while 39 people accused of being part of Dimka's coup were executed, generating in accusations that Obasanjo's response was excessive. As head of state, Obasanjo vowed to continue Murtala's policies. He encouraged debate and consensus among the Supreme Military Council, and, aware of the importance of not alienating northern Nigerians, relied heavily on his chief of staff, Yar'Adua, who was from the northern aristocracy. Many expected that as a Yoruba and a Christian, he would favour the interests of these groups, however Obasanjo emphasised national concerns over those of the regions. Interested in getting a broader range of perspectives, each Saturday he held an informal seminar on a topical issue to which people other than politicians and civil servants were invited.", "By the mid-1970s, Nigeria had an overheated economy with a 34% inflation rate and declining agricultural production. To deal with this, in his 1976 budget, Obasanjo proposed to reduce government expenditure by a sixth, curtailing prestige projects while spending more on education, health, housing, and agriculture. Obasanjo was generally adverse to borrowing money, but with the support of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Nigeria took out a $1 billion loan from a syndicate of banks. Leftist critics argued that doing so left the country subservient to Western capitalism. In the subsequent two years of Obasanjo’s government, Nigeria borrowed a further $4,983 million. Nigeria was undergoing nearly 3% annual population growth during the 1970s, something which would double the country’s population in just over 25 years. Obasanjo later noted that he was unaware of this at the time, with his government having no policy on population control. Nigeria’s population growth contributed to rapid urbanisation and an urban housing shortage. To deal with this, Obasanjo’s 1976 budget outlined plans for the construction of 200,000 new housing units by 1980, although ultimately only 28,500 were built. Obasanjo continued", "Obasanjo continued the push for universal primary education in Nigeria, a policy inherited from Gowon. Between 1975-76 and 1979-80, enrolment in free but voluntary primary schooling grew from 6 million to 12.5 million, although there was a shortage of teachers and materials to cope with the demand. In the 1977-78 school year, Obasanjo introduced free secondary educational in technical subjects, something extended to all secondary schooling in 1979-80. Concomitantly, Nigeria cut back on university funding; in 1978 it ceased issuing student loans and trebled university food and accommodation charges. Student protests erupted in several cities, resulting in fatal shootings in Lagos and Zaria. In response to the unrest, Obasanjo closed several universities, banned political activity on campus, and proscribed the National Union of Nigerian Students. The severity of these measures", "Obasanjo was eager to establish Nigeria as a prominent leader in Africa and under his tenure its influence in the continent increased. He revived Gowon's plan to hold the second World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture in Nigeria; it took place in Lagos in February 1977, although domestic critics argued that it proved too expensive. Obasanjo gave low priority to the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and angered many Francophone members after insisting that, as the largest financial contributor to the organisation, it should host the organisations headquarters in Lagos. Relations with nearby Ghana also declined; in 1979, Nigeria cut off oil supplies to the country to protest the execution of political opponents by Jerry Rawlings' new military junta. Under Obasanjo, Nigeria loosened its longstanding ties with the United Kingdom and aligned more closely with the United States. Obasanjo was favourable to the U.S.", "The military government has assembled a constituent drafting committee to devise a new constitution which could be used amid a transfer to civilian rule. The committee argued that Nigeria should change its governance system, which was based on the British parliamentary system, to one based on the U.S. presidential system whereby a single elected president would be both head of state and head of government. To avoid this president becoming a dictator, as had happened elsewhere in Africa, it argued for various checks on their power, including a federal structure whereby independent elected institutions would exist at the federal, state, and local level. The draft constitution was published in October 1977 and debated in public for the following year. A constituent assembly met to discuss the draft in October 1977. The assembly deadlocked over what role to give sharia law in the constitution. Obasanjo called the assembly together and warned them of the social impact of their decision, urging them to take a more conciliatory attitude. In September 1978, the", "Before he left office, in April 1979, Obasanjo promoted himself to the role of general; as a four-star general he continued to receive a salary from the state. Having left office in October, he returned to Abeokuta. Following a six-week course at an agricultural training college, Obasanjo then set himself up as a farmer, hoping to set an example in encouraging agricultural self-reliance. He obtained at least 230 hectares of land in Ota on which to establish his farm, there moving in to a brick farmhouse. There was local hostility to his obtaining so much land, and much litigation was brought against him because of it. His agricultural activities were organised through his Temperance Enterprises Limited, later renamed Obasanjo's Farms Limited. He devoted particular attention to poultry farming; by the mid-1980s, his farm was hatching 140,000 chicks a week. He developed farms elsewhere in Yorubaland, and by 1987 he employed over 400 workers at eight locations. As did other senior Yoruba figures, Obasanjo sponsored poor students who attended his former school in Abeokuta. He left his home on several visits; in 1986 he visited Japan, and in 1987 the U.S. Obasanjo grew critical of Shagari's civilian government, deeming the president weak and ill-prepared. Nigeria entered economic recession due to fluctuations in global oil prices. In May 1983, senior military figures asked Obasanjo to take over control in the country again, but he declines. In December, they overthrew Shagari without Obasanjo's involvement, in a coup that saw little violence. Muhammadu Buhari became the new military head of state. Obasanjo was initially supportive of Buhari's government, stating that representative democracy had failed in Nigeria. He praised Buhari's War Against Indiscipline, his halving of imports, and his restoration of a balanced budget. In August 1985, Buhari was also overthrown, with the Army Chief of Staff Ibrahim Babangida taking power. Obasanjo was critical of some of the economic reforms that Babangida introduced, including he devaluation of the naira. During the eleven years after Obasanjo left office, he published four books. In 1980, Obasanjo was a Distinguished Fellow at the University of Ibadan, where he wrote \"My Command\", an account of his experiences during the civil war; it was published in November that year. Some readers criticised what they saw as Obasanjo's disloyalty to Murtala Mohammad, while Robert Adeyinka Adebayo, a senior Yoruba political figure, urged for the book to be withdrawn to prevent it sowing division. A more positive assessment was made by his friend, Ken Saro-Wiwa, who called it masterly but believed that it had involved much editorial assistance. In 1987 he published \"Nzeogwu\", a memoir of his friend Chukwuma Nzeogwu, with whom he had served in the Congo. 1989 saw the publication of Obasanjo's next book, \"Constitution for National Integration and Development\", in which he warned against Babangida's argument for instituting a two-party system in Nigeria. In 1990 his third book, \"Not My Will\", was published. It provided an account of his time governing the country.", "", "Obasanjo won the 1999 Nigerian presidential election, he ran as a candidate of the Peoples Democratic Party, and won with help from", "Obasanjo was re-elected In the 2003 Nigerian presidential", "", "In the 1999 elections, the first in sixteen years, Obasanjo decided to run for the presidency as the candidate of the People's Democratic Party (PDP). Obasanjo won with 62.6% of the vote, sweeping the strongly Christian Southeast and the predominantly Muslim north, but decisively lost his home region, the Southwest, to his fellow-Yoruba and Christian, Olu Falae, the only other candidate. 29 May 1999, the day Obasanjo took office as the first elected and civilian head of state in Nigeria after 16 years of military rule, is now commemorated as Democracy Day, a public holiday in Nigeria. This was later changed to June 12 in honour of Chief M.K.O Abiola by the Muhammadu Buhari Administration in 2018. During Democracy Day, Nigerians host celebratory", "Obasanjo was re-elected in a tumultuous 2003 election that had violent ethnic and religious overtones. His main opponent, fellow former military ruler General Muhammadu Buhari, was Muslim and drew his support mainly from the north. Capturing 61.8% of the vote, Obasanjo defeated Buhari by more than 11 million votes.", "With the oil revenue, Obasanjo created the Niger Delta Development Commission and implemented the Universal Basic Education Program to enhance the literacy level of Nigerians. He constituted both", "Before Obasanjo's administration, Nigeria's GDP growth had been painfully slow since 1987, and only managed 3 percent between 1999/2000. However, under Obasanjo, the growth rate doubled to 6 percent until he left office, helped in part by higher oil prices. Nigeria's foreign reserves rose from $2 billion in 1999 to $43 billion on leaving", "Obasanjo was embroiled in controversy regarding his \"Third Term Agenda,\" a plan to modify the constitution so he could serve a third, four-year term as President. This led to a political media uproar in Nigeria and the bill was not ratified by the National Assembly. Consequently, Obasanjo stepped down after the April 2007 general election. In an exclusive interview granted to Channels Television, Obasanjo denied involvement in what has been defined as \"Third Term Agenda\". He said that it was the National Assembly (Nigeria) that included tenure elongation amongst the other clauses of the Constitution of Nigeria that were to be amended. \"I never toyed with the idea of a third term,\" Obasanjo said. Obasanjo was condemned by major political players during the Third Term Agenda saga. Senator Ken Nnamani, former President of the Nigerian Senate claimed Obasanjo informed him about the agenda shortly after he became President of the Nigerian Senate. “Immediately, I became Senate President, he told me of", "On August 22, 2005, the then governor of Abia State,", "He became chairman of the PDP Board of Trustees, with control over nominations for governmental positions and even policy and strategy. As one Western diplomat said, \"He intends to sit in the passenger seat giving advice and ready to grab the wheel if Nigeria goes off course.\" He voluntarily resigned as the chairman board of trustees of the PDP in April, 2012. Afterwards, he withdrew from political activities with PDP. In March 2008, Obasanjo was \"supposedly\" indicted by a committee of the Nigerian parliament for awarding $2.2bn-worth of energy contracts during his eight-year rule, without due process. The report of this probe was never accepted by the whole Nigerian parliament due to manipulation of the entire process by the leadership of the power probe committee. It is not on any official record that Chief Obasanjo was indicted. Obasanjo was appointed Special Envoy by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon to the war-torn Democratic Republic of the Congo. He held separate meetings with DRC President Joseph", "Ideologically, Obasanjo was a Nigerian nationalist. He was committed to a form of Nigerian patriotism and the belief that Nigeria should be retained as a single nation-state, rather than being broken up along ethnic lines. In 2001, he stated that his long term goal was \"the nullification of all forms of identification except Nigerian citizenship\". He argued that dismantling Nigeria along ethnic lines would result in the ethnic cleansing and violence that had been seen during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. Ilife argued that Obasanjo's Nigerian nationalism was impacted both by his detachment from the Yoruba elite and by his time in the army, where he worked alongside soldiers from a broad range of ethnic backgrounds. Frustrated with what he regarded as the failures of representative democratic rule during the early 1980s, Obasanjo began expressing support for a one-party state in Nigeria. He nevertheless insisted that this one-party state must facilitate general public participation in governance, respect human rights, and protect freedom of expression. He had grown critical of what he described as the \"institutionalised opposition\" facilitated by multi-party systems, believing that it was \"profoundly incongruent with most African political culture and practice.\"", "Obasanjo lived a polygamous lifestyle. Obasanjo married his first wife, Oluremi Akinlawon, in London in 1963; she gave birth to his first child, Iyabo, in 1967. Iyabo had a close relationship with her father. Oluremi was unhappy that Obasanjo maintained relationships with other women and alleged that he beat her. They divorced in the mid 1970s. That decade, he also had a relationship with the reporter Gold Orun, who bore him two children. He married his second wife, Stella Abede, in 1976, having met her on a visit to London. He married Stella in 1976, and she bore him three children. Obasanjo's other wives have included the television producer Gold Orun and the businesswoman Lynda Soares. She was murdered by car thieves in 1986. On 23 October 2005, the President lost his wife, Stella Obasanjo, First Lady of Nigeria the day after she had an abdominoplasty in Spain. In 2009, the doctor, known only as 'AM', was sentenced to one year in jail for negligence in Spain and ordered to pay restitution to her son of about $176,000. He was largely private about his relationships with these women. Some of his", "Ilife described Obasanjo as \"the outstanding member of the second generation of independent African leaders who dedicated themselves to the consolidation of their postcolonial states\". Obasanjo's critics believed that he had been corrupted by power and that, particularly during his second term in office, he became driven by the idea of indefinitely retaining power for himself. During his first term as head of state he earned some enmity from fellow Yoruba who believed that he should have done more to advance the interests of his own ethnic group in government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Variation.", "Age of eruption.", "Function.", "Clinical significance.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Agenesis of wisdom teeth differs by population, ranging from practically zero in Aboriginal Tasmanians to nearly 100% in indigenous Mexicans (see research paper with world map showing prevalence). The difference is related to the PAX9, and MSX1 gene (and perhaps other genes).", "There is significant variation between the reported age of eruption of wisdom teeth between different populations. For example, wisdom teeth tend to erupt earlier in people with African heritage compared to Asian and European heritage. Generally wisdom teeth erupt most commonly between age 17 and 21. Eruption may start as early as age 13 in some groups and typically occurs before the age of 25. If they have not erupted by age 25, oral surgeons generally consider that the tooth will not erupt spontaneously by itself.", "Wisdom teeth are vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue. It is thought that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which possibly helped to chew foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the cellulose that makes up a plant cell wall. After the advent of agriculture over 10,000 years ago, soft human diets became the norm, including carbohydrate and high energy foods. Such diets typically result in jaws growing with less forward growth than our paleolithic ancestors and not enough room for the wisdom teeth.", "Wisdom teeth (often notated clinically as M3 for third molar) have long been identified as a source of problems and continue to be the most commonly impacted teeth in the human mouth. The oldest known impacted wisdom tooth belonged to a European woman of the Magdalenian period (18,000–10,000 BCE). A lack of room to allow the teeth to erupt results in a risk of periodontal disease and dental cavities that increases with age. Less than 2% of adults age 65 years or older maintain the teeth without cavities or periodontal disease and 13% maintain unimpacted wisdom teeth without cavities or periodontal disease. Impacted wisdom teeth are classified by the direction and depth of impaction, the amount of available space for tooth eruption and the amount soft tissue or bone that covers them. The classification structure allows clinicians to estimate the probabilities of impaction, infections and complications associated with wisdom teeth removal. Wisdom teeth are also classified by the presence of symptoms and disease. Treatment of an erupted wisdom tooth is the same as any other tooth in the mouth. If impacted, treatment can be restoration, local treatment to the infected tissue overlying the impaction, extraction or coronectomy.", "Although formally known as third molars, the common name is wisdom teeth because they appear so late – much later than the other teeth, at an age where people are presumably \"wiser\" than as a child, when the other teeth erupt. The term probably came as a translation of the Latin \"dens sapientiae\". Their eruption has been known to cause dental issues for millennia; it was noted at least as far back as Aristotle: Nonetheless, molar impaction was relatively rare prior to the modern era. With the Industrial Revolution, the affliction became ten times more common, owing to the new prevalence of soft, processed, and sugary foods." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gelasian.", "Calabrian.", "Middle Pleistocene.", "Transition to the Middle Paleolithic.", "Lower Paleolithic era by region.", "India." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Lower Paleolithic began with the appearance of the first stone tools in the world. Formerly associated with the emergence of \"Homo habilis\", some 2.8 million years ago, this date has been pushed back significantly by finds of the early 2000s, the Oldowan or Mode 1 horizon, long considered the oldest type of lithic industry, is now considered to have developed from about 2.6 million years ago, with the beginning Gelasian (Lower Pleistocene), possibly first used by australopithecine forbears of the genus \"Homo\" (such as \"Australopithecus garhi\"). Still older tools discovered at the single site of Lomekwi 3 in Kenya, announced in 2015, dated to as early as 3.3 million years ago. As such, they would predate the Pleistocene (the Gelasian), and fall into the late Pliocene (the Piacenzian). The early members of the genus \"Homo\" produced primitive tools, summarized under the Oldowan industry, which remained dominant for nearly a million years, from about 2.5 to 1.7 million years ago. \"Homo habilis\" is assumed to have lived primarily on scavenging, using tools to cleave meat off carrion or to break bones to extract the marrow. The move from the mostly frugivorous or omnivorous diet of hominin \"Australopithecus\" to the carnivorous scavenging lifestyle of early \"Homo\" has been explained by the climate changes in East Africa associated with the Quaternary glaciation. Decreasing oceanic evaporation produced a drier climate and the expansion of the savannah at the expense of forests. Reduced availability of fruits stimulated some proto-australopithecines to search out new food sources found in the drier savannah ecology. Derek Bickerton (2009) has designated to this period the move from simple animal communication systems found in all great apes to the earliest form of symbolic communication systems capable of displacement (referring to items not currently within sensory perception) and motivated by the need to \"recruit\" group members for scavenging large carcasses. \"Homo erectus\" appeared by about 1.8 million years ago, via the transitional variety \"Homo ergaster\".", "\"Homo erectus\" moved from scavenging to hunting, developing the hunting-gathering lifestyle that would remain dominant throughout the Paleolithic into the Mesolithic. The unlocking of the new niche of hunting-gathering subsistence drove a number of further behavioral and physiological changes leading to the appearance of \"Homo heidelbergensis\" by some 600,000 years ago. \"Homo erectus\" migrated out of Africa and dispersed throughout Eurasia. Stone tools in Malaysia have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. The Peking Man fossil, discovered in 1929, is roughly 700,000 years old. In Europe, the Olduwan tradition (known in Europe as Abbevillian) split into two parallel traditions, the Clactonian, a flake tradition, and the Acheulean, a hand-axe tradition. The Levallois technique for knapping flint developed during this time. The carrier species from Africa to Europe was undoubtedly \"Homo erectus\". This type of human is more clearly linked to the flake tradition, which spread across southern Europe through the Balkans to appear relatively densely in southeast Asia. Many Mousterian finds in the Middle Paleolithic have been knapped using a Levallois technique, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from \"Homo erectus\" (or, perhaps, \"Homo heidelbergensis\"; see below). Monte Poggiolo, near Forlì, Italy, is the location of an Acheulian littoral handaxe industry dating from 1.8 to 1.1 million years ago.", "The appearance of \"Homo heidelbergensis\" about 600,000 years ago heralds a number of other new varieties, such as \"Homo rhodesiensis\" and \"Homo cepranensis\" about 400,000 years ago. \"Homo heidelbergensis\" is a candidate for first developing an early form of symbolic language. Whether control of fire and earliest burials date to this period or only appear during the Middle Paleolithic is an open question. Also, in Europe, a type of human appeared that was intermediate between \"Homo erectus\" and \"Homo sapiens\", sometimes summarized under archaic \"Homo sapiens\", typified by such fossils as those found at Swanscombe, Steinheim, Tautavel, and Vertesszollos (\"Homo palaeohungaricus\"). The hand-axe tradition originates in the same period. The intermediate may have been \"Homo heidelbergensis\", held responsible for the manufacture of improved \"Mode 2\" Acheulean tool types, in Africa, after 600,000 years ago. Flakes and axes coexisted in Europe, sometimes at the same site. The axe tradition, however, spread to a different range in the east. It appears in Arabia and India, but more importantly, it does not appear in southeast Asia.", "From about 300,000 years ago, technology, social structures and behaviour appear to grow more complex, with prepared-core technique lithics, earliest instances of burial and changes to hunting-gathering patterns of subsistence. \"Homo sapiens\" first appear about 300,000 years ago, as evidenced by fossils found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco.", "", "Neolithic Stone Age of Indian subcontinent (7000 BCE - 5500 BCE) finds were excavated from Pinjore in Haryana on the banks of the stream (paleochannel of Saraswati river) flowing through HMT complex, by Guy Ellcock Pilgrim, a British geologist and palaeontologist, who discovered 15 million-year-old prehistoric human teeth and part of a jaw denoting that the ancient people, intelligent hominins dating as far back as 1,500,000 ybp Acheulean period, lived in the Pinjore region near Chandigarh. Quartzite tools of the lower Paleolithic period were excavated in this region extending from Pinjore in Haryana to Nalagarh (Solan district in Himachal Pradesh)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery.", "Distance to the Galactic Center.", "Supermassive black hole.", "Stellar population.", "Gamma- and X-ray emitting Fermi bubbles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Because of interstellar dust along the line of sight, the Galactic Center cannot be studied at visible, ultraviolet, or soft (low-energy) X-ray wavelengths. The available information about the Galactic Center comes from observations at gamma ray, hard (high-energy) X-ray, infrared, submillimetre, and radio wavelengths. Immanuel Kant stated in \"General Natural History and Theory of the Heavens\" (1755) that a large star was at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy, and that Sirius might be the star. Harlow Shapley stated in 1918 that the halo of globular clusters surrounding the Milky Way seemed to be centered on the star swarms in the constellation of Sagittarius, but the dark molecular clouds in the area blocked the view for optical astronomy. In the early 1940s Walter Baade at Mount Wilson Observatory took advantage of wartime blackout conditions in nearby Los Angeles to conduct a search for the center with the Hooker Telescope. He found that near the star Alnasl (Gamma Sagittarii) there is a one-degree-wide void in the interstellar dust lanes, which provides a relatively clear view of the swarms of stars around the nucleus of our Milky Way Galaxy. This gap has been known as Baade's Window ever since. At Dover Heights in Sydney, Australia, a team of radio astronomers from the Division of Radiophysics at the CSIRO, led by Joseph Lade Pawsey, used'sea interferometry' to discover some of the first interstellar and intergalactic radio sources, including Taurus A, Virgo A and Centaurus A. By 1954 they had built an fixed dish antenna and used it to make a detailed study of an extended, extremely powerful belt of radio emission that was detected in Sagittarius. They named an intense point-source near the center of this belt Sagittarius A, and realised that it was located at the very center of our Galaxy, despite being some 32 degrees south-west of the conjectured galactic center of the time. In 1958 the International Astronomical Union (IAU) decided to adopt the position of Sagittarius A as the true zero co-ordinate point for the system of galactic latitude and longitude. In the equatorial coordinate system the location is: RA, Dec (J2000 epoch).", "The exact distance between the Solar System and the Galactic Center is not certain, although estimates since 2000 have remained within the range. The latest estimates from geometric-based methods and standard candles yield the following distances to the Galactic Center: An accurate determination of the distance to the Galactic Center as established from variable stars (e.g. RR Lyrae variables) or standard candles (e.g. red-clump stars) is hindered by countless effects, which include: an ambiguous reddening law; a bias for smaller values of the distance to the Galactic Center because of a preferential sampling of stars toward the near side of the Galactic bulge owing to interstellar extinction; and an uncertainty in characterizing how a mean distance to a group of variable stars found in the direction of the Galactic bulge relates to the distance to the Galactic Center. The nature of the Milky Way's bar, which extends across the Galactic Center, is also actively debated, with estimates for its half-length and orientation spanning between 1–5 kpc (short or a long bar) and 10–50°. Certain authors advocate that the Milky Way features two distinct bars, one nestled within the other. The bar is delineated by red-clump stars (see also red giant); however, RR Lyrae variables do not trace a prominent Galactic bar. The bar may be surrounded by a ring called the \"5-kpc ring\" that contains a large fraction of the molecular hydrogen present in the Milky Way, and most of the Milky Way's star formation activity. Viewed from the Andromeda Galaxy, it would be the brightest feature of the Milky Way.", "The complex astronomical radio source Sagittarius A appears to be located almost exactly at the Galactic Center (approx. 18 hrs, −29 deg), and contains an intense compact radio source, Sagittarius A*, which coincides with a supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way. Accretion of gas onto the black hole, probably involving an accretion disk around it, would release energy to power the radio source, itself much larger than the black hole. The latter is too small to see with present instruments. A study in 2008 which linked radio telescopes in Hawaii, Arizona and California (Very Long Baseline Interferometry) measured the diameter of Sagittarius A* to be 44 million kilometers (0.3 AU). For comparison, the radius of Earth's orbit around the Sun is about 150 million kilometers (1.0 AU), whereas the distance of Mercury from the Sun at closest approach (perihelion) is 46 million kilometers (0.3 AU). Thus, the diameter of the radio source is slightly less than the distance from Mercury to the Sun. Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany using Chilean telescopes have confirmed the existence of a supermassive black hole at the Galactic Center, on the order of 4.3 million solar masses. On 5 January 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.", "The central cubic parsec around Sagittarius A* contains around 10 million stars. Although most of them are old red giant stars, the Galactic Center is also rich in massive stars. More than 100 OB and Wolf–Rayet stars have been identified there so far. They seem to have all been formed in a single star formation event a few million years ago. The existence of these relatively young stars was a surprise to experts, who expected the tidal forces from the central black hole to prevent their formation. This \"paradox of youth\" is even stronger for stars that are on very tight orbits around Sagittarius A*, such as S2 and S0-102. The scenarios invoked to explain this formation involve either star formation in a massive star cluster offset from the Galactic Center that would have migrated to its current location once formed, or star formation within a massive, compact gas accretion disk around the central black-hole. Current evidence favors the latter theory, as formation through a large accretion disk is more likely to lead to the observed discrete edge of the young stellar cluster at roughly 0.5 parsec. Most of these 100 young, massive stars seem to be concentrated within one or two disks, rather than randomly distributed within the central parsec. This observation however does not allow definite conclusions to be drawn at this point. Star formation does not seem to be occurring currently at the Galactic Center, although the Circumnuclear Disk of molecular gas that orbits the Galactic Center at two parsecs seems a fairly favorable site for star formation. Work presented in 2002 by Antony Stark and Chris Martin mapping the gas density in a 400-light-year region around the Galactic Center has revealed an accumulating ring with a mass several million times that of the Sun and near the critical density for star formation. They predict that in approximately 200 million years there will be an episode of starburst in the Galactic Center, with many stars forming rapidly and undergoing supernovae at a hundred times the current rate. This starburst may also be accompanied by the formation of galactic relativistic jets as matter falls into the central black hole. It is thought that the Milky Way undergoes a starburst of this sort every 500 million years. In addition to the paradox of youth, there is also a \"conundrum of old age\" associated with the distribution of the old stars at the Galactic Center. Theoretical models had predicted that the old stars—which far outnumber young stars—should have a steeply-rising density near the black hole, a so-called Bahcall–Wolf cusp. Instead, it was discovered in 2009 that the density of the old stars peaks at a distance of roughly 0.5 parsec from Sgr A*, then falls inward: instead of a dense cluster, there is a \"hole\", or core, around the black hole. Several suggestions have been put forward to explain this puzzling observation, but none is completely satisfactory. For instance, although the black hole would eat stars near it, creating a region of low density, this region would be much smaller than a parsec. Because the observed stars are a fraction of the total number, it is theoretically possible that the overall stellar distribution is different from what is observed, although no plausible models of this sort have been proposed yet.", "In November 2010, it was announced that two large elliptical lobe structures of energetic plasma, termed \"bubbles\", which emit gamma- and X-rays, were detected astride the Milky Way galaxy's core. These so-called \"Fermi bubbles\" extend up to about 25,000 light years above and below the galactic center. The galaxy's diffuse gamma-ray fog hampered prior observations, but the discovery team led by D. Finkbeiner, building on research by G. Dobler, worked around this problem. The 2014 Bruno Rossi Prize went to Tracy Slatyer, Douglas Finkeiner, and Meng Su \"for their discovery, in gamma rays, of the large unanticipated Galactic structure called the \"Fermi bubbles\"\". The origin of the bubbles is being researched. The bubbles are connected and seemingly coupled, via energy transport, to the galactic core by columnar structures of energetic plasma dubbed \"chimneys\". They were seen in visible light and optical measurements were made for the first time in 2020." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Jet wingpack.", "Developmental flights.", "Latest media and event appearances.", "October 2015 sustained flight." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Rossy was born in the Swiss canton of Neuchâtel in 1959. He served as a fighter pilot in the Swiss Air Force, where he flew Dassault Mirage IIIs, Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs, and Hawker Hunters. He piloted Boeing 747s for Swissair, and later for Swiss International Air Lines.", "Rossy developed and built a wingsuit system comprising a backpack equipped with semi-rigid aeroplane-type carbon-fiber wings—with a span of about —powered by four Jetcat P400 jet engines, modified from large kerosene-fueled model aircraft engines. This has led to him being referred to in the press by various monikers, such as \"The Airman\", \"Rocketman\", \"Fusionman\", and—most commonly—\"Jetman\".", "In December 2006 (in Bex, Switzerland) Rossy became the first to successfully fly horizontally for six minutes using four jet engines and wings strapped on his back. He was quoted as saying: \"The idea is to have fun, not to kill yourself\". Since 2007 Rossy has conducted some of his flight tests from a private airfield, Skydive Empuriabrava, in Empuriabrava (Girona, Costa Brava), Spain. In May 2008 Rossy made a flight over the Alps Mountain Range, reaching a top speed of, and an average speed of. On 26 September 2008, Jumping from a Pilatus Porter at an altitude of 8,200 feet (2,500 meters) over Calais, France, Rossy crossed the English Channel with a single jet-powered wing strapped on his back, wearing only a helmet and a flight suit for protection. Reaching speeds of up to, he made the 22-mile (35-km) flight to England in 13 minutes, where he deployed his parachute and landed in Dover, UK becoming the first person to cross the Channel in this manner. In November 2009 Rossy attempted a crossing of the Strait of Gibraltar, hoping to be the first person to fly between two continents using a \"Jet pack\". He leapt from a small plane about 1,950 m (6,500 ft) above Tangier in Morocco and headed in the direction of Atlanterra, Spain. The flight was expected to take about a quarter of an hour. Strong winds and cloud banks forced Rossy to ditch into the sea just three miles from the Spanish coast, where his support helicopter picked him up ten minutes later, unhurt. The Spanish Coast Guard retrieved the jetpack, which was equipped with a parachute and float. In 5 November 2010 Rossy flew a new version of his jet-powered flight system and successfully performed two aerial loops before landing via parachute. He had launched from a hot air balloon piloted by Brian Jones at 2,400 meters (7,900 feet). In 7 May 2011 Rossy flew above the Grand Canyon in Arizona. The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) had classified his flight system as an aircraft. When it finally granted him a license, the FAA waived the normal 25 to 40 hours of flight testing time, and Rossy acted quickly to complete his flight.", "Rossy was featured on an episode of \"Stan Lee's Superhumans\". He has appeared on the BBC's \"Top Gear\", where he raced Richard Hammond and Toni Gardemeister. Rossy was a main attraction at the 2013 Experimental Aircraft Association AirVenture Fly-In, America's largest fly-in. Rossy was also a feature of the South Australian Primary School's Music Festival in 2014, when the theme of the Festival was flight. A song was written, 'Jetman' about Yves Rossy by Paul Jarman.", "In 13 October 2015, Rossy and Vince Reffet, wearing jetpacks, deployed from a helicopter flying at 5,500 feet (1,676 meters) and flew in a choreographed demonstration with an Emirates Airbus A380 cruising at an altitude of 4,000 feet (1,219 meters) over Dubai. The flights were documented by the use of helmet-mounted cameras and third-party videos released in early November 2015. The videos show the pair soaring and diving around the airliner, flying in formation with it for about ten minutes. A television program \"City in the Sky, part 2\" about how airliner flights are run, showed at its start Yves Rossy and Vince Reffet flying with Rossy-type jetpacks, to show some principles of how airliners fly. It said that before being allowed to jetpack-fly in Britain, he had to get himself registered as an aeroplane, because parts of his body, rather than parts of his jetpack, acted as control surfaces; but he was exempted from the seat-belt rule. It showed him being lifted to flying height on the outside of a helicopter. He had to fall a distance to build up enough air speed for his airfoils to work." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fossil dinosaur expeditions.", "Earliest anthropoid discovery.", "Public persona.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH), Brown traversed the country bargaining and trading for fossils. His field was not limited to dinosaurs. He was known to collect or obtain anything of possible scientific value. Often, he simply sent money to have fossils shipped to the AMNH, and any new specimen of interest often resulted in a flurry of letters between the discoverer and Brown. After working a handful of years in Wyoming for AMNH in the late 1890s, Brown led an expedition to the Hell Creek Formation of Southeastern Montana. There, in 1902, he discovered and excavated the first documented remains of \"Tyrannosaurus rex\". The Hell Creek digs produced extravagant quantities of fossils, enough to fill up whole train cars. As was common practice then, Brown's crews used controlled blasts of dynamite to remove the tons of rock covering their fossil discoveries. Everything was moved with horse-drawn wagons and pure manpower. Seldom was any site data recorded. After nearly a decade in Montana, Brown headed to Alberta, Canada, and the Red Deer River near Drumheller. There, Brown and his crew spent the middle 1910s floating down the river on a flatboat, stopping along the way to prospect for fossils at promising-looking sites. Trying to outdo them along the same stretch of river was the famous Sternberg family of fossil hunters. There was a playful, friendly rivalry between the Browns and the Sternbergs, and their competing discoveries went down in the annals of paleontology. In 1910, in one of their most significant finds, Brown's team uncovered several hind feet from a group of \"Albertosaurus\" in Dry Island Buffalo Jump Provincial Park. For years the fossils were largely forgotten in the recesses of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. In the 1990s, Dr. Phil Currie, then Head of Dinosaur Research at the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology in Canada, relocated the site of the bones using only an old photograph as a guide. He recommenced excavations there in the summer of 1998, and examination of the site under the Tyrrell Museum's auspices lasted until August, 2005. However, after Currie took a new job at the University of Alberta, a new crew began working at the site in 2006, intending to continue for several years. There was a homage to Brown in the 1998 IMAX film \"\", in which he was played by actor Laurie Murdoch.", "In early 1923, Brown travelled with his then-wife Lilian to Yangon, the capital of what was then Burma. Brown focused his fossil prospection along areas of Pondaung Sandstone. A mandible with three teeth was recorded and catalogued at an exposure of sandstone outside of the town of Mogaung. He did not recognise the significance of his find until 14 years later, when Edwin H. Colbert, of the American Museum of Natural History, identified the fossil as a new species of primate and the earliest known anthropoid in the world. He named the holotype \"Amphipithecus mogaungensis\", or the ape-like creature of Mogaung. There is however considerable debate regarding its status as a primate and the lack of fossils compounds this issue.", "Brown lived at the tail end of an unprecedented age of scientific discovery, and was one of its more colorful practitioners. At dig sites in Canada, Brown was frequently photographed wearing a large fur coat. During World War I and II, he worked as an \"intelligence asset.\" During his many trips abroad he wasn't above picking up spare cash acting as a corporate spy for oil companies.", "Brown's second wife, Lilian MacLaughlin Brown, wrote a book of memoirs, \"I Married a Dinosaur\" (Dodd Mead, 1950), about her expeditions with her husband. She also wrote \"Bring 'em back petrified\" (1950) about a Guatemala expedition, and \"Cleopatra Slept Here\" (Dodd Mead, 1951). Brown was buried in Oxford, New York, the hometown of his first wife. Marion Raymond. Their daughter, Frances Raymond Brown, raised by the Raymonds, was Dean of Residence and Student Affairs at Radcliffe College at the time of her father's death." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Canada East.", "Canada West.", "Parliamentary system.", "Capitals.", "Governors General.", "Charles Poulett Thomson, 1st Baron Sydenham (1839–1841).", "Charles Bagot (1841–1843).", "Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe (1843–1845).", "Charles Cathcart, 2nd Earl Cathcart and Baron Greenock (1845–1847).", "James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin (1847–1854).", "Edmund Walker Head, 8th Baronet (1854–1861).", "Charles Monck, 4th Viscount Monck (1861–1868).", "Executive Council of the Province of Canada.", "Legislative Council.", "Legislative Assembly.", "District councils.", "Political parties.", "Reform Association of Canada.", "Parti rouge.", "Clear Grits.", "Parti bleu.", "Liberal-Conservative Party.", "Impact of responsible government.", "Liberal order.", "Legislative accomplishments.", "\"Baldwin Act 1849\" (municipal government reform).", "Secularizing King's College 1849.", "Reciprocity Treaty of 1854." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Province of Canada was divided into two parts: Canada East and Canada West.", "Canada East was what became of the former colony of Lower Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It became the province of Quebec after Confederation.", "Canada West was what became of the former colony of Upper Canada after being united into the Province of Canada. It became the province of Ontario after Confederation.", "", "The location of the capital city of the Province of Canada changed six times in its 26-year history. The first capital was in Kingston (1841–1844). The capital moved to Montreal (1844–1849) until rioters, spurred by a series of incendiary articles published in \"The Gazette\", protested against the Rebellion Losses Bill and burned down Montreal's parliament buildings. It then moved to Toronto (1849–1852). It moved to Quebec City from 1852 to 1856, then Toronto for one year (1858) before returning to Quebec City from 1859 to 1866. In 1857, Queen Victoria chose Ottawa as the permanent capital of the Province of Canada, initiating construction of Canada's first parliament buildings, on Parliament Hill. The first stage of this construction was completed in 1865, just in time to host the final session of the last parliament of the Province of Canada before Confederation.", "The Governor General remained the head of the civil administration of the colony, appointed by the British government, and responsible to it, not to the local legislature. He was aided by the Executive Council and the Legislative Council. The Executive Council aided in administration, and the Legislative Council reviewed legislation produced by the elected Legislative Assembly.", "Sydenham came from a wealthy family of timber merchants, and was an expert in finance, having served on the English Board of Trade which regulated banking (including the colony). He was promised a barony if he could successfully implement the union of the Canadas, and introduce a new form of municipal government, the District Council. The aim of both exercises in state-building was to strengthen the power of the Governor General, to minimise the impact of the numerically superior French vote, and to build a \"middle party\" that answered to him, rather than the Family Compact or the Reformers. Sydenham was a Whig who believed in rational government, not \"responsible government\". To implement his plan, he used widespread electoral violence through the Orange Order. His efforts to prevent the election of Louis LaFontaine, the leader of the French reformers, were foiled by David Willson, the leader of the Children of Peace, who convinced the electors of the 4th Riding of York to transcend linguistic prejudice and elect LaFontaine in an English-speaking riding in Canada West.", "Bagot was appointed after the unexpected death of Thomson, with the explicit instructions to resist calls for responsible government. He arrived in the capital, Kingston, to find that Thomson's \"middle party\" had become polarised and he therefore could not form an executive. Even the Tories informed Bagot he could not form a cabinet without including LaFontaine and the French Party. LaFontaine demanded four cabinet seats, including one for Robert Baldwin. Bagot became severely ill thereafter, and Baldwin and Lafontaine became the first real premiers of the Province of Canada. However, to take office as ministers, the two had to run for re-election. While LaFontaine was easily re-elected in 4th York, Baldwin lost his seat in Hastings as a result of Orange Order violence. It was now that the pact between the two men was completely solidified, as LaFontaine arranged for Baldwin to run in Rimouski, Canada East. This was the union of the Canadas they sought, where LaFontaine overcame linguistic prejudice to gain a seat in English Canada, and Baldwin obtained his seat in French Canada.", "The Baldwin–LaFontaine ministry barely lasted six months before Governor Bagot also died in March 1843. He was replaced by Charles Metcalfe, whose instructions were to check the \"radical\" reform government. Metcalfe reverted to the Thomson system of strong central autocratic rule. Metcalfe began appointing his own supporters to patronage positions without Baldwin and LaFontaine's approval, as joint premiers. They resigned in November 1843, beginning a constitutional crisis that would last a year. Metcalfe refused to recall the legislature to demonstrate its irrelevance; he could rule without it. This year-long crisis, in which the legislature was prorogued, \"was the final signpost on Upper Canada's conceptual road to democracy. Lacking the scale of the American Revolution, it nonetheless forced a comparable articulation and rethinking of the basics of political dialogue in the province.\" In the ensuing election, however, the Reformers did not win a majority and thus were not called to form another ministry. Responsible government would be delayed until after 1848.", "Cathcart had been a staff officer with Wellington in the Napoleonic Wars, and rose in rank to become commander of British forces in North America from June 1845 to May 1847. He was also appointed as Administrator then Governor General for the same period, uniting for the first time the highest Civil and military offices. The appointment of this military officer as Governor General was due to heightened tensions with the United States over the Oregon boundary dispute. Cathcart was deeply interested in the natural sciences, but ignorant of constitutional practice, and hence an unusual choice for Governor General. He refused to become involved in the day-to-day government of the conservative ministry of William Draper, thereby indirectly emphasising the need for responsible government. His primary focus was on redrafting the Militia Act of 1846. The signing of the Oregon Boundary Treaty in 1846 made him dispensable.", "Elgin's second wife, Lady Mary Louisa Lambton, was the daughter of Lord Durham and niece of Lord Grey, making him an ideal compromise figure to introduce responsible government. On his arrival, the Reform Party won a decisive victory at the polls. Elgin invited LaFontaine to form the new government, the first time a Governor General requested cabinet formation on the basis of party. The party character of the ministry meant that the elected premier – and no longer the governor – would be the head of the government. The Governor General would become a more symbolic figure. The elected Premier in the Legislative Assembly would now become responsible for local administration and legislation. It also deprived the Governor of patronage appointments to the civil service, which had been the basis of Metcalfe's policy. The test of responsible government came in 1849, when the Baldwin–Lafontaine government passed the Rebellion Losses Bill, compensating French Canadians for losses suffered during the Rebellions of 1837. Lord Elgin granted royal assent to the bill despite heated Tory opposition and his own personal misgivings, sparking riots in Montreal, during which Elgin himself was assaulted by an English-speaking Orange Order mob and the Parliament buildings were burned down.", "The appointment of Walker Head (a cousin of Francis Bond Head, whose inept governance of Upper Canada led to the Rebellion of 1837) is ironic. Some have argued that the Colonial Office meant to appoint Walker Head to be Lt. Governor of Upper Canada in 1836. The difference would have meant little. Both men were Assistant Poor Law Commissioners at the time. Walker Head's appointment in Wales led to the Chartist Newport Rising there in 1839. It was under Head, that true political party government was introduced with the Liberal-Conservative Party of John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier in 1856. It was during their ministry that the first organised moves toward Canadian Confederation took place.", "It was under Monck's governorship that the Great Coalition of all of the political parties of the two Canadas occurred in 1864. The Great Coalition was formed to end the political deadlock between predominantly French-speaking Canada East and predominantly English-speaking Canada West. The deadlock resulted from the requirement of a \"double majority\" to pass laws in the Legislative Assembly (i.e., a majority in both the Canada East and Canada West sections of the assembly). The removal of the deadlock resulted in three conferences that led to confederation.", "Thomson reformed the Executive Councils of Upper and Lower Canada by introducing a \"President of the Committees of Council\" to act as a chief executive officer for the Council and chair of the various committees. The first was Robert Baldwin Sullivan. Thomson also systematically organised the civil service into departments, the heads of which sat on the Executive Council. A further innovation was to demand that every Head of Department seek election in the Legislative Assembly.", "The Legislative Council of the Province of Canada was the upper house. The 24 legislative councillors were originally appointed. In 1856, a bill was passed to replace the appointed members by election. Members were to be elected from 24 divisions in each of Canada East and Canada West. Twelve members were elected every two years from 1856 to 1862.", "Canada West, with its 450,000 inhabitants, was represented by 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly, the same number as the more-populated Canada East, with 650,000 inhabitants. The Legislature's effectiveness was further hampered by the requirement of a \"double majority\" where a majority of votes for the passage of a bill had to be obtained from the members of \"both\" Canada East and West. Each administration was led by two men, one from each half of the province. Officially, one of them at any given time had the title of \"Premier\", while the other had the title of \"Deputy\".", "Municipal government in Upper Canada was under the control of appointed magistrates who sat in Courts of Quarter Sessions to administer the law within a District. A few cities, such as Toronto, were incorporated by special acts of the legislature. Governor Thomson, 1st Baron Sydenham, spearheaded the passage of the District Councils Act which transferred municipal government to District Councils. His bill allowed for two elected councillors from each township, but the warden, clerk and treasurer were to be appointed by the government. This thus allowed for strong administrative control and continued government patronage appointments. Sydenham's bill reflected his larger concerns to limit popular participation under the tutelage of a strong executive. The Councils were reformed by the Baldwin Act in 1849 which made municipal government truly democratic rather than an extension of central control of the Crown. It delegated authority to municipal governments so they could raise taxes and enact by-laws. It also established a hierarchy of types of municipal governments, starting at the top with cities and continued down past towns, villages and finally townships. This system was to prevail for the next 150 years.", "", "During the year-long constitutional crisis in 1843–44, when Metcalfe prorogued Parliament to demonstrate its irrelevance, Baldwin established a \"Reform Association\" in February 1844, to unite the Reform movement in Canada West and to explain their understanding of responsible government. Twenty-two branches were established. A grand meeting of all branches of the Reform Association was held in the Second Meeting House of the Children of Peace in Sharon. Over three thousand people attended this rally for Baldwin. the Association was not, however, a true political party and individual members voted independently.", "The Parti rouge (alternatively known as the Parti démocratique) was formed in Canada East around 1848 by radical French Canadians inspired by the ideas of Louis-Joseph Papineau, the Institut canadien de Montréal, and the reformist movement led by the Parti patriote of the 1830s. The reformist \"rouges\" did not believe that the 1840 Act of Union had truly granted a responsible government to former Upper and Lower Canada. They advocated important democratic reforms, republicanism, separation of the state and the church. In 1858, the elected \"rouges\" allied with the Clear Grits. This resulted in the shortest-lived government in Canadian history, falling in less than a day.", "The Clear Grits were the inheritors of William Lyon Mackenzie's Reform movement of the 1830s. Their support was concentrated among southwestern Canada West farmers, who were frustrated and disillusioned by the 1849 Reform government of Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine's lack of democratic enthusiasm. The Clear Grits advocated universal male suffrage, representation by population, democratic institutions, reductions in government expenditure, abolition of the Clergy reserves, voluntarism, and free trade with the United States. Their platform was similar to that of the British Chartists. The Clear Grits and the Parti rouge evolved into the Liberal Party of Canada.", "The Parti bleu was a moderate political group in Canada East that emerged in 1854. It was based on the moderate reformist views of Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine.", "The Liberal-Conservative Party emerged from a coalition government in 1854 in which moderate Reformers and Conservatives from Canada West joined with \"bleus\" from Canada East under the dual prime-ministership of Allan MacNab and A.-N. Morin. The new ministry were committed to secularise the Clergy reserves in Canada West and to abolish seigneurial tenure in Canada East. Over time, the Liberal-Conservatives evolved into the Conservative party.", "No provision for responsible government was included in the Act of Union 1840. Early Governors of the province were closely involved in political affairs, maintaining a right to make Executive Council and other appointments without the input of the legislative assembly. However, in 1848 the Earl of Elgin, the then Governor General, appointed a Cabinet nominated by the majority party of the Legislative Assembly, the Baldwin–Lafontaine coalition that had won elections in January. Lord Elgin upheld the principles of responsible government by not repealing the Rebellion Losses Bill, which was highly unpopular with some English-speaking Loyalists who favoured imperial over majority rule. As Canada East and Canada West each held 42 seats in the Legislative Assembly, there was a legislative deadlock between English (mainly from Canada West) and French (mainly from Canada East). The majority of the province was French, which demanded \"rep-by-pop\" (representation by population), which the Anglophones opposed. The granting of responsible government to the colony is typically attributed to reforms in 1848 (principally the effective transfer of control over patronage from the Governor to the elected ministry). These reforms resulted in the appointment of the second Baldwin–Lafontaine government that quickly removed many of the disabilities on French-Canadian political participation in the colony. Once the English population, rapidly growing through immigration, exceeded the French, the English demanded representation-by-population. In the end, the legislative deadlock between English and French led to a movement for a federal union which resulted in the broader Canadian Confederation in 1867.", "In \"The Liberal Order Framework: A Prospectus for a Reconnaissance of Canadian History\" McKay argues that \"the category 'Canada' should henceforth denote a historically specific project of rule, rather than either an essence we must defend or an empty homogeneous space we must possess. Canada-as-project can be analyzed as the implantation and expansion over a heterogeneous terrain of a certain politico-economic logic—to wit, liberalism.\" The liberalism of which McKay writes is not that of a specific political party, but of certain practices of state building which prioritise property, first of all, and the individual.", "", "The Baldwin Act, also known as the Municipal Corporations Act, replaced the local government system based on district councils in Canada West by government at the county level. It also granted more autonomy to townships, villages, towns and cities.", "In 1849, King's College was renamed the University of Toronto and the school's ties with the Church of England were severed.", "The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, also known as the Elgin–Marcy Treaty, was a trade treaty between the United Province of Canada and the United States. It covered raw materials and was in effect from 1854 to 1865. It represented a move toward free trade. Education in Canada West was regulated by the province through the General Board of Education, in 1846, until 1850, when it was replaced by the Department of Public Instruction, until 1876. Among its accomplishments, the United Province of Canada built the Grand Trunk Railway, improved the educational system in Canada West under Egerton Ryerson, reinstated French as an official language of the legislature and the courts, codified the Civil Code of Lower Canada in 1866, and abolished the seigneurial system in Canada East. Exploration of Western Canada and Rupert's Land with a view to annexation and settlement was a priority of Canada West politicians in the 1850s leading to the Palliser Expedition and the Red River Expedition of Henry Youle Hind, George Gladman and Simon James Dawson." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Themes.", "Morality.", "Psychology.", "Production.", "Adaptation.", "Novelist's response.", "Direction.", "Nature of the society.", "Locations.", "Music.", "Reception.", "Critical reception.", "Box office.", "Responses and controversy.", "American version.", "British withdrawal.", "Censorship in other countries.", "Differences between the film and the novel.", "Home media.", "Legacy and influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In a futuristic Britain, Alex DeLarge is the leader of a gang of \"droogs\": Georgie, Dim and Pete. One night, after getting intoxicated on drug-laden \"milk-plus\", they engage in an evening of \"ultra-violence\", which includes a fight with a rival gang. They drive to the country home of writer F. Alexander and beat him to the point of crippling him for life. Alex then rapes Alexander's wife while singing \"Singin' in the Rain\". The next day, while truant from school, Alex is approached by his probation officer P. R. Deltoid, who is aware of Alex's activities and cautions him. Alex's droogs express discontent with petty crime and want more equality and high-yield thefts, but Alex asserts his authority by attacking them. Later, Alex invades the home of a wealthy \"cat-lady\" and bludgeons her with a phallic sculpture while his droogs remain outside. On hearing sirens, Alex tries to flee but Dim smashes a bottle in his face, stunning him and leaving him to be arrested. With Alex in custody, Deltoid gloats that the cat-lady died, making Alex a murderer. He is sentenced to fourteen years in prison. Two years into the sentence, Alex eagerly takes up an offer to be a test subject for the Minister of the Interior's new Ludovico technique, an experimental aversion therapy for rehabilitating criminals within two weeks. Alex is strapped to a chair, his eyes are clamped open and he is injected with drugs. He is then forced to watch films of sex and violence, some of which are accompanied by the music of his favourite composer, Ludwig van Beethoven. Alex becomes nauseated by the films and, fearing the technique will make him sick upon hearing Beethoven, begs for an end to the treatment. Two weeks later, the Minister demonstrates Alex's rehabilitation to a gathering of officials. Alex is unable to fight back against an actor who taunts and attacks him and becomes ill wanting sex with a topless woman. The prison chaplain complains that Alex has been robbed of his free will; the Minister asserts that the Ludovico technique will cut crime and alleviate crowding in prisons. Alex is let out as a free man, only to find that the police have sold his possessions as compensation to his victims and his parents have let out his room. Alex encounters an elderly vagrant whom he attacked years earlier, and the vagrant and his friends attack him. Alex is saved by two policemen but is shocked to find they are his former droogs Dim and Georgie. They drive him to the countryside, beat him up, and nearly drown him before abandoning him. Alex barely makes it to the doorstep of a nearby home before collapsing. Alex wakes up to find himself in the home of Alexander, where he is being cared for by Alexander's manservant, Julian. Alexander does not recognise Alex from the previous attack but knows of Alex and the Ludovico technique from the newspapers. He sees Alex as a political weapon and prepares to present him to his colleagues. While bathing, Alex breaks into \"Singin' in the Rain\", causing Alexander to realise that Alex was the person who assaulted him and his wife. With help from his colleagues, Alexander drugs Alex and locks him in an upstairs bedroom. He then plays Beethoven's Ninth Symphony loudly from the floor below. Unable to withstand the sickening pain, Alex attempts suicide by throwing himself out the window. Alex wakes up in a hospital with broken bones. While being given a series of psychological tests, he finds that he no longer has aversions to violence and sex. The Minister arrives and apologises to Alex. He offers to take care of Alex and get him a job in return for his co-operation with his election campaign and public relations counter-offensive. As a sign of good will, the Minister brings in a stereo system playing Beethoven's Ninth. Alex then contemplates violence and has vivid thoughts of having sex with a woman in front of an approving crowd, and thinks to himself, \"I was cured, all right!\"", "", "The film's central moral question (as in many of Burgess's novels) is the definition of \"goodness\" and whether it makes sense to use aversion therapy to stop immoral behaviour. Stanley Kubrick, writing in \"Saturday Review\", described the film as: Similarly, on the film production's call sheet (cited at greater length above), Kubrick wrote: After aversion therapy, Alex behaves like a good member of society, though not through choice. His goodness is involuntary; he has become the titular clockwork orange—organic on the outside, mechanical on the inside. After Alex has undergone the Ludovico technique, the chaplain criticises his new attitude as false, arguing that true goodness \"must\" come from within. This leads to the theme of abusing liberties—personal, governmental, civil—by Alex, with two conflicting political forces, the Government and the Dissidents, both manipulating Alex purely for their own political ends. The story portrays the \"conservative\" and \"liberal\" parties as equally worthy of criticism: the writer Frank Alexander, a victim of Alex and his gang, wants revenge against Alex \"and\" sees him as a means of definitively turning the populace against the incumbent government and its new regime. Mr Alexander fears the new government; in a telephone conversation, he says: On the other side, the Minister of the Interior (the Government) jails Mr Alexander (the Dissident Intellectual) on the excuse of his endangering Alex (the People), rather than the government's totalitarian regime (described by Mr Alexander). It is unclear whether or not he has been harmed; however, the Minister tells Alex that the writer has been denied the ability to write and produce \"subversive\" material that is critical of the incumbent government and meant to provoke political unrest.", "Another target of criticism is the behaviourism or \"behavioural psychology\" propounded by psychologists John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner. Burgess disapproved of behaviourism, calling Skinner's book \"Beyond Freedom and Dignity\" (1971) \"one of the most dangerous books ever written\". Although behaviourism's limitations were conceded by its principal founder, Watson, Skinner argued that behaviour modification—specifically, operant conditioning (learned behaviours via systematic reward-and-punishment techniques) rather than the \"classical\" Watsonian conditioning—is the key to an ideal society. The film's Ludovico technique is widely perceived as a parody of aversion therapy, which is a form of classical conditioning. Author Paul Duncan said of Alex: \"Alex is the narrator so we see everything from his point of view, including his mental images. The implication is that all of the images, both real and imagined, are part of Alex's fantasies\". Psychiatrist Aaron Stern, the former head of the MPAA rating board, believed that Alex represents man in his natural state, the unconscious mind. Alex becomes \"civilised\" after receiving his Ludovico \"cure\" and the sickness in the aftermath Stern considered to be the \"neurosis imposed by society\". Kubrick told film critics Philip Strick and Penelope Houston that he believed Alex \"makes no attempt to deceive himself or the audience as to his total corruption or wickedness. He is the very personification of evil. On the other hand, he has winning qualities: his total candour, his wit, his intelligence and his energy; these are attractive qualities and ones, which I might add, which he shares with Richard III\".", "McDowell was chosen for the role of Alex after Kubrick saw him in the film \"if...\" (1968). He also helped Kubrick on the uniform of Alex's gang, when he showed Kubrick the cricket whites he had. Kubrick asked him to put the box (jockstrap) not under but on top of the costume. During the filming of the Ludovico technique scene, McDowell scratched a cornea, and was temporarily blinded. The doctor standing next to him in the scene, dropping saline solution into Alex's forced-open eyes, was a real physician present to prevent the actor's eyes from drying. McDowell also cracked some ribs filming the humiliation stage show. A unique special effect technique was used when Alex jumps out of the window in an attempt to commit suicide and the viewer sees the ground approaching the camera until collision, i.e., as if from Alex's point of view. This effect was achieved by dropping a Newman Sinclair clockwork camera in a box, lens-first, from the third storey of the Corus Hotel. To Kubrick's surprise, the camera survived six takes. On 24 February 1971, the last day of shooting, Progress Report No. 113 has a summary of all the footage shot to date: 39,880 feet wasted, 377,090 feet exposed, 13,120 feet remain as short ends with a total of 452,960 feet used. Sound: 225,880 feet printed from 288 1/4\" reel to reel tapes.", "The cinematic adaptation of \"A Clockwork Orange\" (1962) was not initially planned. Screenplay writer Terry Southern gave Kubrick a copy of the novel, but, as he was developing a Napoleon Bonaparte-related project, Kubrick put it aside. Kubrick's wife, in an interview, stated she then gave him the novel after having read it. It had an immediate impact. Of his enthusiasm for it, Kubrick said, \"I was excited by everything about it: the plot, the ideas, the characters, and, of course, the language. The story functions, of course, on several levels: political, sociological, philosophical, and, what's most important, on a dreamlike psychological-symbolic level.\" Kubrick wrote a screenplay faithful to the novel, saying, \"I think whatever Burgess had to say about the story was said in the book, but I did invent a few useful narrative ideas and reshape some of the scenes.\" Kubrick based the script on the shortened US edition of the book, which omitted the final chapter.", "Burgess had mixed feelings about the film adaptation of his novel, publicly saying he loved Malcolm McDowell and Michael Bates, and the use of music; he praised it as \"brilliant\", even so brilliant that it might be dangerous. Despite this enthusiasm, he was concerned that it lacked the novel's redemptive final chapter, an absence he blamed upon his American publisher and not Kubrick. All US editions of the novel prior to 1986 omitted the final chapter. Kubrick himself called the missing chapter of the book \"an extra chapter\" and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, and that he had never given serious consideration to using it. In Kubrick's opinion – as in the opinion of other readers, including the original American editor – the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book. Burgess reports in his autobiography \"You've Had Your Time\" (1990) that he and Kubrick at first enjoyed a good relationship, each holding similar philosophical and political views and each very interested in literature, cinema, music, and Napoleon Bonaparte. Burgess's novel \"Napoleon Symphony\" (1974) was dedicated to Kubrick. Their relationship soured when Kubrick left Burgess to defend the film from accusations of glorifying violence. A lapsed Catholic, Burgess tried many times to explain the Christian moral points of the story to outraged Christian organisations and to defend it against newspaper accusations that it supported fascist dogma. He also went to receive awards given to Kubrick on his behalf. Despite the benefits Burgess made from the film, he was in no way involved in the production of the book's adaptation. The only profit he made directly from the film was the initial $500 that was given to him for the rights to the adaptation.", "Kubrick was a perfectionist who researched meticulously, with thousands of photographs taken of potential locations, as well as many scene takes; however, per Malcolm McDowell, he usually \"got it right\" early on, so there were few takes. So meticulous was Kubrick that McDowell stated \"If Kubrick hadn't been a film director he'd have been a General Chief of Staff of the US Forces. No matter what it is—even if it's a question of buying a shampoo it goes through him. He just likes total control.\" Filming took place between September 1970 and April 1971, making \"A Clockwork Orange\" the quickest film shoot in his career. Technically, to achieve and convey the fantastic, dream-like quality of the story, he filmed with extreme wide-angle lenses such as the Kinoptik Tegea 9.8mm for 35mm Arriflex cameras.", "The society depicted in the film was perceived by some as Communist (as Michel Ciment pointed out in an interview with Kubrick) due to its slight ties to Russian culture. The teenage slang has a heavily Russian influence, as in the novel; Burgess explains the slang as being, in part, intended to draw a reader into the world of the book's characters and to prevent the book from becoming outdated. There is some evidence to suggest that the society is a socialist one, or perhaps a society evolving from a failed socialism into a fully authoritarian society. In the novel, streets have paintings of working men in the style of Russian socialist art, and in the film, there is a mural of socialist artwork with obscenities drawn on it. As Malcolm McDowell points out on the DVD commentary, Alex's residence was shot on failed municipal architecture, and the name \"Municipal Flat Block 18A, Linear North\" alludes to socialist-style housing. Later in the film, when the new right-wing government takes power, the atmosphere is certainly more authoritarian than the anarchist air of the beginning. Kubrick's response to Ciment's question remained ambiguous as to exactly what kind of society it is. Kubrick asserted that the film held comparisons between both the left and right end of the political spectrum and that there is little difference between the two. Kubrick stated, \"The Minister, played by Anthony Sharp, is clearly a figure of the Right. The writer, Patrick Magee, is a lunatic of the Left... They differ only in their dogma. Their means and ends are hardly distinguishable.\"", "\"A Clockwork Orange\" was photographed mostly on location in metropolitan London and within quick access of Kubrick's then home in Barnet Lane, Elstree. Shooting began on 7 September 1970 with call sheet no. 1 at the Duke Of New York pub: an unused scene and the first of many unused locations. A few days later, shooting commenced in Alex's Ludovico treatment bedroom and the Serum 114 injection by Dr Branom. New Year's Eve started with rehearsals at the Korova Milk Bar and shooting finished after four continuous days on 8 January. The last scenes were shot in February 1971, ending with call sheet no. 113. The last main scene to be filmed was Alex's fight with Billy Boy's gang, which took six days to cover. Shooting encompassed a total of around 113 days over six months of fairly continuous shooting. As is normal practice, there was no attempt to shoot the script in chronological order. The few scenes not shot on location were the Korova Milk Bar, the prison check-in area, Alex having a bath at F. Alexander's house, and two corresponding scenes in the hallway. These sets were built at an old factory on Bullhead Road, Borehamwood, which also served as the production office. Seven call sheets are missing from the Stanley Kubrick Archive, so some locations, such as the hallway, cannot be confirmed. Otherwise, locations used in the film include:", "Despite Alex's obsession with Beethoven, the soundtrack contains more music by Rossini than by Beethoven. The fast-motion sex scene with the two girls, the slow-motion fight between Alex and his Droogs, the fight with Billy Boy's gang, the drive to the writer's home (\"playing 'hogs of the road'\"), the invasion of the Cat Lady's home, and the scene where Alex looks into the river and contemplates suicide before being approached by the beggar are all accompanied by Rossini's music.", "", "\"A Clockwork Orange\" was critically acclaimed, and was nominated for several awards, including the Academy Award for Best Picture (losing to \"The French Connection\")., \"A Clockwork Orange\" holds an 87% \"Certified Fresh\" rating among critics on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 62 reviews with an average rating of 8.41/10. The website's critical consensus states: \"Disturbing and thought-provoking, \"A Clockwork Orange\" is a cold, dystopian nightmare with a very dark sense of humor\". Vincent Canby of \"The New York Times\" praised the film saying: The following year, after the film won the New York Film Critics Award, he called it \"a brilliant and dangerous work, but it is dangerous in a way that brilliant things sometimes are\". Despite praise from many critics, the film had detractors. Film critic Stanley Kauffmann commented, \"Inexplicably, the script leaves out Burgess' reference to the title\". Roger Ebert gave \"A Clockwork Orange\" two stars out of four, calling it an \"ideological mess\". In her \"New Yorker\" review titled \"Stanley Strangelove\", Pauline Kael called it pornographic because of how it dehumanised Alex's victims while highlighting the sufferings of the protagonist. Kael derided Kubrick as a \"bad pornographer\", noting the Billyboy's gang extended stripping of the very buxom woman they intended to rape, claiming it was offered for titillation. John Simon noted that the novel's most ambitious effects were based on language and the alienating effect of the narrator's Nadsat slang, making it a poor choice for a film. Concurring with some of Kael's criticisms about the depiction of Alex's victims, Simon noted that the writer character (young and likeable in the novel) was played by Patrick Magee, \"a very quirky and middle-aged actor who specialises in being repellent\". Simon comments further that \"Kubrick over-directs the basically excessive Magee until his eyes erupt like missiles from their silos and his face turns every shade of a Technicolor sunset\".", "The film was a box-office success grossing more than $26 million in the United States and Canada on a budget of $2.2 million. The film was also successful in the United Kingdom, playing for over a year at the Warner West End in London. After two years of release, the film had earned Warner Bros. rentals of $2.5 million in the United Kingdom and was the number three film for 1973 behind \"Live and Let Die\" and \"The Godfather\". The movie was the most popular film of 1972 in France with 7,611,745 admissions. The film was re-released in North America in 1973 and earned $1.5 million in rentals.", "", "In the United States, \"A Clockwork Orange\" was given an X rating in its original release in 1972. Later, Kubrick replaced approximately 30 seconds of sexually explicit footage from two scenes with less explicit action to obtain an R rating re-release later in 1972. Current DVDs present the original version (reclassified with an \"R\" rating), and only some of the early 1980s VHS editions are the edited version. Because of the explicit sex and violence, The National Catholic Office for Motion Pictures rated it \"C\" (\"Condemned\"), a rating which forbade Roman Catholics seeing the film. In 1982, the Office abolished the \"Condemned\" rating. Subsequently, films deemed to have unacceptable levels of sex and violence by the Conference of Bishops are rated \"O\", \"Morally Offensive\".", "Although it was passed uncut for UK cinemas in December 1971, British authorities considered the sexual violence in the film to be extreme. In March 1972, during the trial of a 14-year-old male accused of the manslaughter of a classmate, the prosecutor referred to \"A Clockwork Orange\", suggesting that the film had a macabre relevance to the case. The film was also linked to the murder of an elderly vagrant by a 16-year-old boy in Bletchley, Buckinghamshire, who pleaded guilty after telling police that friends had told him of the film \"and the beating up of an old boy like this one\". Roger Gray QC, for the defence, told the court that \"the link between this crime and sensational literature, particularly \"A Clockwork Orange\", is established beyond reasonable doubt\". The press also blamed the film for a rape in which the attackers sang \"Singin' in the Rain\" as \"Singin' in the Rape\". Christiane Kubrick, the director's wife, has said that the family received threats and had protesters outside their home. The film was withdrawn from British release in 1973 by Warner Brothers at the request of Kubrick. In response to allegations that the film was responsible for copycat violence Kubrick stated: The Scala Cinema Club went into receivership in 1993 after losing a legal battle following an unauthorised screening of the film. In the same year, Channel 4 broadcast \"Forbidden Fruit\", a 27-minute documentary about the withdrawal of the film in Britain. It contains footage from \"A Clockwork Orange\". It was difficult to see \"A Clockwork Orange\" in the United Kingdom for 27 years. It was only after Kubrick died in 1999 that the film was theatrically re-released and made available on VHS and DVD. On 4 July 2001, the uncut version premiered on Sky TV's \"Sky Box Office,\" where it ran until mid-September.", "In Ireland, the film was banned on 10 April 1973. Warner Bros. decided against appealing the decision. Eventually, the film was passed uncut for cinema on 13 December 1999 and released on 17 March 2000. The re-release poster, a replica of the original British version, was rejected due to the words \"ultra-violence\" and \"rape\" in the tagline. Sheamus Smith explained his rejection to the \"Irish Times\": In Singapore, the film was banned for over 30 years, before an attempt at release was made in 2006. However, the submission for a M18 rating was rejected, and the ban was not lifted. The ban was later lifted and the film was shown uncut (with an R21 rating) on 28 October 2011, as part of the Perspectives Film Festival. In South Africa, it was banned under the apartheid regime for 13 years, then in 1984 was released with one cut and only made available to people over the age of 21. It was banned in South Korea and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Nova Scotia. The Maritime Film Classification Board also reversed the ban eventually. Both jurisdictions now grant an R rating to the film.", "Kubrick's film is relatively faithful to the Burgess novel, omitting only the final, positive chapter, in which Alex matures and outgrows sociopathy. While the film ends with Alex being offered an open-ended government job, implying he remains a sociopath at heart, the novel ends with Alex's positive change in character. This plot discrepancy occurred because Kubrick based his screenplay on the novel's American edition, in which the final chapter had been deleted on the insistence of its American publisher. He claimed not to have read the complete, original version of the novel until he had almost finished writing the screenplay, and that he never considered using it. The introduction to the 1996 edition of \"A Clockwork Orange\" says that Kubrick found the end of the original edition too blandly optimistic and unrealistic.", "In 2000, the film was released on VHS and DVD, both individually and as part of \"The Stanley Kubrick Collection\" DVD set. Due to negative comments from fans, Warner Bros re-released the film, its image digitally restored and its soundtrack remastered. A limited-edition collector's set with a soundtrack disc, film poster, booklet and film strip followed, but later was discontinued. In 2005, a British re-release, packaged as an \"Iconic Film\" in a limited-edition slipcase was published, identical to the remastered DVD set, except for different package cover art. In 2006, Warner Bros announced the September publication of a two-disc special edition featuring a Malcolm McDowell commentary, and the releases of other two-disc sets of Stanley Kubrick films. Several British retailers had set the release date as 6 November 2006; the release was delayed and re-announced for 2007 Holiday Season. An HD DVD, Blu-ray, and DVD re-release version of the film was released on 23 October 2007. The release accompanies four other Kubrick classics. 1080p video transfers and remixed Dolby TrueHD 5.1 (for HD DVD) and uncompressed 5.1 PCM (for Blu-ray) audio tracks are on both the Blu-ray and HD DVD editions. Unlike the previous version, the DVD re-release edition is anamorphically enhanced. The Blu-ray was reissued for the 40th anniversary of the film's release, identical to the previously released Blu-ray, apart from adding a Digibook and the \"\" documentary as a bonus feature.", "Along with \"Bonnie and Clyde\" (1967), \"Night of the Living Dead\" (1968), \"The Wild Bunch\" (1969), \"Soldier Blue\" (1970), \"Dirty Harry\" (1971), and \"Straw Dogs\" (1971), the film is considered a landmark in the relaxation of control on violence in the cinema. \"A Clockwork Orange\" remains an influential work in cinema and other media. The film is frequently referenced in popular culture, which Adam Chandler of \"The Atlantic\" attributes to Kubrick's \"genre-less\" directing techniques that brought novel innovation in filming, music, and production that had not been seen at the time of the film's original release. \"A Clockwork Orange\" appears several times on the American Film Institute's (AFI) top movie lists. The film was listed at No. 46 in the 1998 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies, at No. 70 in the 2007 second listing. \"Alex DeLarge\" is listed 12th in the villains section of the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains. In 2008, the AFI's 10 Top 10 rated \"A Clockwork Orange\" as the 4th greatest science-fiction movie to date. The film was also placed 21st in the AFI's 100 Years... 100 Thrills In the British Film Institute's 2012 \"Sight & Sound\" polls of the world's greatest films, \"A Clockwork Orange\" was ranked 75th in the directors' poll and 235th in the critics' poll. In 2010, \"Time\" magazine placed it 9th on their list of the Top 10 Ridiculously Violent Movies. In 2008, \"Empire\" ranked it 37th on their list of \"The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time\", and in 2013, \"Empire\" ranked it 11th on their list of \"The 100 Best British Films Ever\". The Spanish director Luis Buñuel praised the film highly. He once said: \"\"A Clockwork Orange\" is my current favourite. I was predisposed against the film. After seeing it, I realised it is only a movie about what the modern world really means\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "KGB.", "Post-KGB." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Lubyanka was originally built in 1898 as the headquarters of the All-Russia Insurance Company (Rossiya Insurance Company). It is noted for its parquet floors and pale green walls. Belying its massiveness, the edifice avoids an impression of heroic scale: isolated Palladian and Baroque details, such as the minute pediments over the corner bays and the central loggia, are lost in an endlessly repeating palace facade where three bands of cornices emphasize the horizontal lines. A clock is centered in the uppermost band of the facade. Following the Bolshevik Revolution, the structure was seized by the government for the headquarters of the secret police, then called the Cheka. In Soviet Russian jokes, it was referred to as \"the tallest building in Moscow\", since Siberia (a euphemism for the Gulag labour camp system) could be seen from its basement.", "During the Great Purge, the offices became increasingly cramped due to staff numbers. In 1940, Aleksey Shchusev was commissioned to enlarge the building. His new design doubled the Lubyanka's size horizontally, with the original structure taking up the left half of the facade (as viewed from the street). In addition he added another storey and extended the structure by incorporating backstreet buildings. Shchusev's design accentuated Neo-Renaissance detailing, but only the right part of the facade was constructed under his direction in the 1940s, due to the war and other hindrances. This asymmetric facade survived intact until 1983, when the original structure was reconstructed to match the new build, at the urging of Communist Party General Secretary and former KGB Director Yuri Andropov in accordance with Shchusev's plans. Although the Soviet secret police changed its name many times, its headquarters remained in this building. Secret police chiefs from Lavrenty Beria to Yuri Andropov used the same office on the third floor, which looked down on the statue of Cheka founder Felix Dzerzhinsky. A prison on the ground floor of the building figures prominently in a book written by the author Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, \"The Gulag Archipelago\". Famous inmates held, tortured and interrogated there include Sidney Reilly, Raoul Wallenberg, Ion Antonescu, Genrikh Yagoda, János Esterházy, Alexander Dolgun, Rochus Misch and Walter Ciszek.", "After the dissolution of the KGB in 1991, Lubyanka became the headquarters of the Border Guard Service of Russia, houses the Lubyanka prison, and is one directorate of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation (FSB). In addition, a museum of the KGB (now called Историко-демонстрационный зал ФСБ России, Historical Demonstration hall of the Russian FSB) was opened to the public. In 1990, the Solovetsky Stone was erected across from Lubyanka to commemorate the victims of political repression. In 2015, the Lubyanka's front door was set on fire by Pyotr Pavlensky, a performance artist." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Etymology.", "Early years.", "Beginning of modern Kuala Lumpur.", "20th century–present.", "Geography.", "Climate and weather.", "Governance.", "Local government.", "Districts.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Historical demographics.", "Languages and religions.", "Cityscape.", "Architecture.", "Parks.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Arts.", "Sports and recreation.", "Media.", "Transport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Kuala Lumpur means \"muddy confluence\" in Malay; \"kuala\" is the point where two rivers join together or an estuary, and \"lumpur\" means \"mud\". One suggestion is that it was named after Sungai Lumpur (\"muddy river\"); it was recorded in the 1820s that Sungei Lumpoor was the most important tin-producing settlement up the Klang River. Doubts however have been raised on such a derivation as Kuala Lumpur lies at the confluence of Gombak River and Klang River, therefore should rightly be named Kuala Gombak as the point where one river joins a larger one or the sea is its", "It is unknown who founded or named the settlement called Kuala Lumpur. Chinese miners were involved in tin mining up the Selangor River in the 1840s about ten miles north of present-day Kuala Lumpur, and Mandailing Sumatrans led by Raja Asal and Sutan Puasa were also involved in tin mining and trade in the Ulu Klang region before 1860, and Sumatrans may have settled in the upper reaches of Klang River in the first quarter of the 19th century, possibly", "Early Kuala Lumpur was a small town that suffered from many social and political problems – the buildings were made of wood and \"atap\" (palm frond thatching) that were prone to fire, lack of proper sanitation plagued the town with diseases, and it suffered from a constant threat of flooding. The town became embroiled in the Selangor Civil War due in part to the fight for control of revenues from the tin mines. The Chinese Kapitan Yap Ah Loy aligned himself with Tengku Kudin, and the rival Chinese gang allied themselves with Raja Mahdi. Raja Asal and Sutan Puasa also switched side to Raja Mahdi, and Kuala Lumpur was captured in 1872 and burnt to the ground. Yap escaped to Klang where he reassembled", "The area that is defined as Kuala Lumpur expanded considerably in the 20th century. It was only 0.65 km in 1895, but was extended to encompass 20 km in 1903. By the time it became a municipality in 1948 it had expanded to 93 km, and then to 243 km in 1974 as a Federal Territory. The development of rubber industry in Selangor fueled by the demand for car tyre in the early 20th century led to a boom of the town, with the population of Kuala Lumpur increasing from 30,000 in 1900 to 80,000 in 1920. Previously the commercial activities of Kuala Lumpur were run to a large extent by Chinese businessmen such as Loke Yew who was then the richest and most influential Chinese of Kuala Lumpur. The growth of the rubber industry led to an influx", "The geography of Kuala Lumpur is characterised by the huge Klang Valley. The valley is bordered by the Titiwangsa Mountains in the east, several minor ranges in the north and the south and the Strait of Malacca in the west. Kuala Lumpur is a Malay term that translates to \"muddy confluence\" as it is located at the confluence of the Klang and Gombak rivers. Located in the centre of Selangor state, Kuala Lumpur was a territory of Selangor State Government. In 1974, Kuala Lumpur was separated from Selangor to form the first Federal Territory governed directly by the Malaysian Federal Government. Its location within the most developed state on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, which has wider flat land than the east coast, has contributed to its faster development relative to other cities in Malaysia. The municipality of the city covers an area of, with an average elevation of.", "Protected by the Titiwangsa Range in the east and Indonesia's Sumatra Island in the west, Kuala Lumpur is safe from strong winds and has a tropical rainforest climate (Köppen climate classification \"Af\"), which is warm and sunny, along with abundant rainfall, especially during the northeast monsoon season from October to March. Temperatures tend to remain constant. Maximums hover between and sometimes hit, while", "Kuala Lumpur was administered by a corporation sole called the Federal Capital Commissioner from 1 April 1961, until it was awarded city status in 1972, after which executive power transferred to the Lord Mayor (\"Datuk Bandar\"). Nine mayors have been appointed since then. The current mayor is Nor Hisham Ahmad Dahlan, who has been in office since 18 July 2015.", "The local administration is carried out by the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, an agency under the Federal Territories Ministry of Malaysia. It is responsible for public health and sanitation, waste removal and management, town planning, environmental protection", "Kuala Lumpur's eleven districts, with estimated population and percentage of", "Kuala Lumpur is home to the Parliament of Malaysia. The hierarchy of authority in Malaysia, in accordance with the Federal Constitution, has stipulated the", "Kuala Lumpur and its surrounding urban areas form the most industrialised and economically, the fastest growing region in Malaysia. Despite the relocation of federal government administration to Putrajaya, certain government institutions such as Bank Negara Malaysia (\"National Bank of Malaysia\"), Companies Commission of Malaysia and Securities Commission as well as most embassies and diplomatic missions have remained in the city. The city remains as the economic and business hub in the country. Kuala Lumpur is a centre for finance, insurance, real estate, media and the arts of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur is rated as an alpha world city, and is the only global city in Malaysia, according to the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC). The infrastructure development in the surrounding areas such as the Kuala Lumpur International Airport at Sepang, the creation of the Multimedia Super Corridor and the expansion of Port Klang further reinforce the economic significance of the city. Bursa Malaysia or the Malaysia Exchange is based in the city and forms one of its core economic activities., the market capitalisation stood at US$505.67 billion. The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Kuala Lumpur is estimated at RM73,536 million in 2008 with an average annual growth rate of 5.9 percent. By 2015, the GDP has reached RM160,388 million, representing 15.1% of the total GDP of Malaysia. The per capita GDP for Kuala Lumpur in 2013 was RM79,752 with an average annual growth rate of 5.6 percent, and RM94,722 in 2015. Average monthly household income is RM9,073 (~$2,200) as of 2016, growing at a pace of approximately 6% a year. The service sector comprising finance, insurance, real estate, business services, wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels, transport, storage and communication, utilities, personal services and government services form the largest component of employment representing about 83.0 percent of the total. The remaining 17 percent comes from manufacturing and construction. The large service sector is evident in the number of local and foreign banks and insurance companies operating in the city. Kuala Lumpur is poised to become the global Islamic Financing hub with an increasing number of financial institutions providing Islamic Financing and the strong presence of Gulf's financial institutions such as the world's largest Islamic bank, Al-Rajhi Bank and Kuwait Finance House. Apart from that, the Dow Jones & Company is keen to work with Bursa Malaysia to set up Islamic Exchange Trade Funds (ETFs), which would help raise Malaysia's profile in the Gulf. The city has a large number of foreign corporations and is also host to many multi national companies' regional offices or support centres, particularly for finance and accounting, and information technology functions. Most of the country's largest companies have their headquarters here, and as of December 2007 and excluding Petronas, there are 14 companies that are listed in Forbes 2000 based in Kuala Lumpur. Other important economic activities in the city are education and health services. Kuala Lumpur also has advantages stemming from the high concentration of educational institutions that provide a wide-ranging of courses. Numerous public and private medical specialist centres and hospitals in the city offer general health services, and a wide range of specialist surgery and treatment that caters to locals and tourists. There has been growing emphasis to expand the economic scope of the city into other service activities, such as research and development, which supports the rest of the economy of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur has been home for years to important research centres such as the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, the Forest Research Institute Malaysia and the Institute of Medical Research and more research centres are expected to be established in the coming years.", "Kuala Lumpur is the most populous city in Malaysia, with a population of 1.76 million in the city proper. It has a population density of, and is the most densely populated administrative district in Malaysia. Residents of the city are colloquially known as KLites. Kuala Lumpur is also the centre of the wider Klang Valley metropolitan (covering Petaling Jaya, Klang, Subang Jaya, Puchong, Shah Alam, Gombak and others) which has an estimated metropolitan population of 7.25 million. Kuala Lumpur's heterogeneous populace includes the country's three major ethnic groups: the Malays, the Chinese and the Indians, although the city also has a mix of different cultures including Eurasians, as well as Kadazans, Ibans and other indigenous races from around Malaysia.", "Historically Kuala Lumpur was a predominantly Chinese city, although more recently the Bumiputra component of the city has increased substantially and they are now the dominant group. The Kuala Lumpur of 1872 beside the Klang River was described by Frank Swettenham as a \"purely Chinese village\", although a Malay stockade already existed at Bukit Nanas at that time. By 1875, after the Selangor Civil War participated by Pahang Malays had ended, Swettenham noted Malay quarters near the Chinese area in a sketch map he had drawn, and there were said to be 1,000 Chinese and 700 Malays in the town in this period (many of the Malays may have settled in Kuala", "Kuala Lumpur is pluralistic and religiously diverse. The city has many places of worship catering to the multi-religious population. Islam is practised primarily by the Malays, the Indian Muslim communities and a small number of Chinese Muslims. Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism are practised mainly among the Chinese. Indians traditionally adhere to Hinduism. Some Chinese and Indians also subscribe to Christianity. Kuala Lumpur is one of the three states where less than 50% of the population are self-identified Muslims, the other two being Penang and Sarawak. Statistics from the 2010 Census indicate that 87.4% of the Chinese population identify as Buddhists, with significant minorities of adherents identifying as Christians (7.9%), Chinese folk religions (2.7%) and Muslims (0.6%). The majority of", "", "The architecture of Kuala Lumpur is a mixture of old colonial influences, Asian traditions, Malay Islamic inspirations, modern, and postmodern architecture mix. Being a relatively young city compared with other Southeast Asian capitals such as Bangkok, Jakarta and Manila, most of Kuala Lumpur's notable colonial-era buildings were built toward the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries. These buildings were designed in a number of styles – Mughal/Moorish Revival, Mock Tudor, Neo-Gothic or Grecian-Spanish style or architecture. Most of", "The Lake Gardens, a botanical garden, is the first recreational park created in Kuala Lumpur. The Malaysian Parliament building is located close by, and Carcosa Seri Negara which was once the official residence of British colonial administration is also sited here. The park includes a Butterfly Park, Deer Park, Orchid Garden, Hibiscus Garden and the Kuala Lumpur Bird Park, which is the world's largest aviary bird park. Other parks in the city include the ASEAN Sculpture Garden, KLCC Park, Titiwangsa Lake Gardens, Metropolitan Lake Gardens in Kepong, Forest Research Institute of", "According to government statistics, Kuala Lumpur has a literacy rate of 97.5% in 2000, the highest rate in any state or territory in Malaysia. In Malaysia, Malay is the language of instruction for most subjects while English is a compulsory subject, but, English is still the language of instruction for mathematics and the natural sciences for certain schools. Some schools provide Mandarin and Tamil as languages of instruction for certain subjects. Each level of education demands different skills of teaching and learning ability. Kuala Lumpur contains 13 tertiary education institutions, 79 high schools, 155 elementary schools and 136 kindergartens. Several institutions in the city are older than 100 years—such as Bukit Bintang Girls' School (1893–2000, relocated to Taman Shamelin Perkasa in Cheras and renamed GIS Garden International school Seri Bintang Utara), the Victoria Institution (1893); Methodist Girls' School (1896); Methodist Boys' School (1897); Convent Bukit Nanas (1899), St. John's Institution (1904), Confucian Private Secondary School", "", "Kuala Lumpur is a hub for cultural activities and events in Malaysia. Among the centres is the National Museum, which is situated along the Mahameru Highway. Its collection comprises artefacts and paintings collected throughout the country. The Islamic Arts Museum, which houses more than seven thousand Islamic artefacts including rare exhibits as well as a library of Islamic art books, is the largest Islamic Arts collection in Southeast Asia. The museum's collection not only concentrate on works from the Middle East, but also", "Kuala Lumpur has numerous parks, gardens and open spaces for recreational purposes. Total open space for recreational and sport facilities land use in the city has increased significantly by 169.6 percent from in 1984 to in 2000. Kuala Lumpur was touted as one of the host cities for the Formula One World Championship from 1999 to 2017. The open-wheel auto racing A1 Grand Prix was held until the series folded in 2009. The Motorcycle Grand Prix races are held at the Sepang International Circuit in Sepang in the neighbouring state of Selangor. The Formula One event", "Kuala Lumpur daily, business, and digital papers include \"The Malaysian Reserve\", \"The Edge\", \"The Star\", \"New Straits Times\", \"The Sun\", \"Malay Mail\", \"Berita Harian\", and \"Harian Metro\". Mandarin and Tamil newspapers are also published daily, for example \"Sin Chew Daily\", \"China Press, \"Nanyang Siang Pau\" and \"Tamil Nesan\", \"Malaysia Nanban\", and \"Makkal Osai\". Kuala Lumpur is also the headquarters for Malaysia's state media public government terrestrial television stations: TV1 and TV2, the subsidiaries of RTM, TV Alhijrah, a subsidiary of Alhijrah Media Corporation, and Media Prima Berhad, a media corporation", "Like most other Asian cities, driving is the main mode of commuting in Kuala Lumpur. Hence, every part of the city is well connected by highways. As capital of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur has a comprehensive road network with more transportation development are being planned and carried out. In terms of air connectivity, Kuala Lumpur is served by two airports. The main airport, Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA) at Sepang, Selangor, which is also the aviation hub of Malaysia, is located about south of city. The other airport is Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport, also known as Subang Skypark and served as the main international gateway to Kuala Lumpur from 1965 until KLIA opened in 1998. KLIA connects the city with direct flights to destinations in six continents around the world, and is the main hub for the national carrier, Malaysia Airlines and low-cost carrier, AirAsia. KLIA can be reached using the KLIA Ekspres, an airport rail link service from KL Sentral, which takes twenty-eight minutes and costs RM 55 (roughly US$13.50), while travelling by car or bus via highway will take about an hour but cost a lot less. Direct buses from KLIA to the city centre are plentiful (every 10 to 15 minutes during peak hours), air-conditioned and comfortable with fares ranging from RM 11 (roughly US$2.70) to RM 15 (roughly US$3.70). Air Asia and other low-cost carrier flights do not fly out of KLIA main terminal but from KLIA2 which is two kilometres from KLIA. KLIA2 is served by an extension of the KLIA Ekspres and by a free shuttle bus service from KLIA., Sultan Abdul Aziz Shah Airport is only used for chartered and turboprop flights by airlines such as Firefly and Malindo", "", "Kuala Lumpur is" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Role.", "History.", "Development of navies in England and Scotland.", "Middle Ages.", "Standing Royal Navy 1500–1707.", "Britain's navy in the early modern period 1707–1815.", "1815–1914.", "1914–1939.", "1939–1945.", "Postwar period and early 21st century.", "Royal Navy today.", "Personnel.", "Surface fleet.", "Amphibious warfare.", "Aircraft carriers.", "Escort fleet.", "Mine Countermeasure Vessels (MCMV).", "Offshore Patrol Vessels (OPV).", "Ocean survey ships.", "Royal Fleet Auxiliary.", "Submarine Service.", "Ballistic Missile Submarines (SSBN).", "Fleet Submarines (SSN).", "Fleet Air Arm.", "Royal Marines.", "Naval bases.", "Bases abroad.", "Current deployments.", "Command, control and organisation.", "Organisation.", "Locations.", "Titles and naming.", "Of the Navy.", "Of ships.", "Ranks, rates, and insignia.", "Custom and tradition.", "Traditions.", "\"Jackspeak\".", "Navy Cadets.", "In popular culture.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As the seaborne branch of HM Armed Forces, the RN has various", "", "", "The strength of the fleet of the Kingdom of England was an important element in the kingdom's power in the 10th century. At one point Aethelred II had an especially large fleet built by a national levy of one ship for every 310 hides of land, but it is uncertain whether this was a standard or exceptional model for raising fleets. During the period of Danish rule in the 11th century, the authorities maintained a standing fleet by taxation, and this continued for a time under the restored English regime of Edward the Confessor (reigned 1042–1066), who frequently commanded fleets in person.", "A standing \"Navy Royal\", with its own secretariat, dockyards and a permanent core of purpose-built warships, emerged during the reign of Henry VIII. Under Elizabeth I England became involved in a war with Spain, which saw privately owned vessels combining with the Queen's ships in highly profitable raids against Spanish commerce and colonies. In 1588, Philip II of Spain sent the Spanish Armada against England to end English support for Dutch rebels, to stop English corsair activity and to depose the Protestant Elizabeth I and restore Catholicism to England. Preparations, under the command of the Marqués de Santa Cruz, began in 1586 but were seriously delayed by a surprise attack on Cádiz by Sir Francis Drake in 1587. By the time the expedition was ready Santa Cruz had died, and command was given to the Duke of Medina Sedonia. The Armada consisted of 130 ships, including transports and merchantmen, and carried about 30,000 men. It was to go to Flanders and from there convoy, the army of the Duke of Parma, to invade England. It set out from Lisbon in May 1588 but was forced into A Coruña by storms and did not set sail again until July. The Armada was first sighted by the English off Lizard Point, in Cornwall, on 19 July, and the first engagement took place off Plymouth on 21 July. In four hours the Spanish fired 720 round shot and the English 2,000 rounds, but little real damage was done to either side. In fighting off Portland Bill on 23 July, some 5,000 shots were discharged by the rival fleets. Spanish casualties were about 50 killed and 70 wounded. After another engagement off the Isle of Wight on 24 July, in which the Armada lost another 50 men slain, Medina Sedonia steered for Calais to replenish his empty powder and shot stocks from Parma's ammunition depots. Parma, however, blockaded in Bruges by 60 Dutch ships, was unable to come to the Armada's assistance. After an indecisive engagement with the English off Gravelines, the Armada ran out of ammunition. The Spanish had expended 125,000 cannonballs against the English. Consequently, the Spanish commander decided to retreat to Spain by going north around Scotland and Ireland. The Spanish ships were dispersed by storms; their provisions gave out, and many of those who landed in Ireland were killed by English troops. Only about half the fleet reached home. An English Armada sent to destroy the port at A Coruña in 1589 was itself defeated with 40 ships sunk and 15,000 men lost. In October 1596, another Armada left Lisbon. The invasion fleet numbered 126 ships and carried 9,000 Spaniards and 3,000 Portuguese. The Royal Navy was unprepared, but England was saved by stormy seas that wrecked 72 ships and drowned 3,000 sailors and soldiers. The following year, in October 1597, yet another Armada was sent out, but this also was blown back. During the early 17th century, England's relative naval power deteriorated, and there were increasing raids by Barbary corsairs on ships and English coastal communities to capture people as slaves, which the Navy had little success in countering. Charles I undertook a major programme of warship building, creating a small force of powerful ships, but his methods of fundraising to finance the fleet contributed to the outbreak of the English Civil War. In the wake of the civil war and abolition of the monarchy, the Commonwealth of England (as a republic), officially removed or changed most names and symbols (including heraldry) associated with royalty and/or the high church. This affected the Commonwealth Navy. As early as 1646, vessels were renamed, including \"Liberty\" (previously \"Charles\"), \"Resolution\" (ex-\"Royal Prince\") and \"George\" (ex-\"St George\"); new vessels were often given names associated with institutions or individual officials, including \"President\", \"Speaker\", \"Fairfax\" (after Thomas Fairfax), \"Monck\" (George Monck) and \"Richard\" (Richard Cromwell), or Parliamentary victories in the civil war, such as \"Worcester\", \"Bristol\", \"Gainsborough\", \"Preston\", Langport\", Newbury\", \"Martson Moor\", \"Nantwich\", \"Colchester\", and \"Naseby\". (The prefix \"English ship\" has normally been used of naval vessels before the late 17th century; \"His Majesty's Ship\" was not official usage at the time.) The new regime, isolated and threatened from all sides, dramatically expanded the Commonwealth Navy, which became the most powerful in the world. The Commonwealth's introduction of Navigation Acts, providing that all merchant shipping to and from England or her colonies should be carried out by English ships, led to war with the Dutch Republic. In the early stages of this First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654), the superiority of the large, heavily armed English ships was offset by superior Dutch tactical organisation and the fighting was inconclusive. English tactical improvements resulted in a series of crushing victories in 1653 at Portland, the Gabbard and Scheveningen, bringing peace on favourable terms. This was the first war fought largely, on the English side, by purpose-built, state-owned warships. It was followed by a war with Spain, which saw the English conquest of Jamaica in 1655 and successful attacks on Spanish treasure fleets in 1656 and 1657, but also the devastation of English merchant shipping by the privateers of Dunkirk, until their home port was captured by Anglo-French forces in 1658. The Restoration of the English monarchy occurred in May 1660, and Charles II assumed the throne. One of his first acts was to officially name the Royal Navy, The prefix HMS was also officially", "The Acts of Union, which created the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, established the Royal Navy of the newly united kingdom. The Scots office of Lord High Admiral was subsumed within the office of the Admiral of Great Britain. The three vessels of the small Royal Scottish Navy were transferred to the Royal Navy. Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, the Royal Navy was the largest maritime force in the world, but until 1805 combinations of enemies repeatedly matched or exceeded its forces in numbers. Despite this, it was able to maintain an almost uninterrupted ascendancy over its rivals through superiority in financing, tactics, training, organisation, social cohesion, hygiene, dockyard facilities, logistical support and (from the middle of the 18th century) warship design and construction. During the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714), the Navy operated in conjunction with the Dutch against the navies of France and Spain, in support of the efforts of Britain's Austrian Habsburg allies to seize control of Spain and its Mediterranean dependencies from the Bourbons. Amphibious operations by the Anglo-Dutch fleet brought about the capture of Sardinia, the Balearic Islands and a number of Spanish mainland ports, most importantly Barcelona. While most of these gains were turned over to the Habsburgs, Britain held on to Gibraltar and Menorca, which were retained in the peace settlement, providing the Navy with Mediterranean bases. Early in the war French naval squadrons had done considerable damage to English and Dutch commercial convoys. However, a major victory over France and Spain at Vigo Bay (1702), further successes in battle, and the scuttling", "Between 1815 and 1914, the Navy saw little serious action, owing to the absence of any opponent strong enough to challenge its dominance. During this period, naval warfare underwent a comprehensive transformation, brought about by steam propulsion, metal ship construction, and explosive munitions. Despite having to completely replace its war fleet, the Navy managed to maintain its overwhelming advantage over all potential rivals. Due to British leadership in the Industrial Revolution, the country enjoyed unparalleled shipbuilding capacity and financial resources, which ensured that no rival could take advantage of these revolutionary changes to negate the British advantage in ship numbers. In 1859, the fleet was estimated to number about 1000 in all, including both combat and non-combat vessels. In 1889, Parliament passed the Naval Defence Act, which formally adopted the 'two-power standard', which stipulated that the Royal Navy should maintain a number of battleships at least equal to the combined strength of the next two largest navies. The first major action that the Royal Navy saw during this period was the Bombardment of Algiers in 1816 by a joint Anglo-Dutch fleet under", "During the First World War, the Royal Navy's strength was mostly deployed at home in the Grand Fleet, confronting the German High Seas Fleet across the North Sea. Several inconclusive clashes took place between them, chiefly the Battle of Jutland in 1916. The British numerical advantage proved insurmountable, leading the High Seas Fleet to abandon any attempt to challenge British dominance. Elsewhere in the world, the Navy hunted down the handful of German surface raiders at large. During the Dardanelles Campaign against the Ottoman", "At the start of World War II in 1939, the Royal Navy was the largest in the world, with over 1,400 vessels, including: During one of the earliest phases of the War the Royal Navy provided critical cover during Operation Dynamo, the British evacuations from Dunkirk, and as the ultimate deterrent to a German invasion of Britain during the following four months. At Taranto, Admiral Cunningham commanded a fleet that launched the first all-aircraft naval attack in history. Cunningham was determined that the Navy be perceived as the United Kingdom's most daring military force: when warned of risks to his vessels during the Allied evacuation after the Battle of Crete he said, \"It takes the Navy three years to build a new ship. It will take three hundred years to build a new tradition. The evacuation will continue.\" The Royal Navy suffered heavy losses in the first two years of the war, including the carriers, and, the battleships and and the battlecruiser in the European Theatre, and the carrier, the battleship, the battlecruiser and the heavy cruisers, and in the Asian Theatre. Of the 1,418 men", "After the Second World War, the decline of the British Empire and the economic hardships in Britain forced the reduction in the size and capability of the Royal Navy. All of the pre-war ships (except for the light cruisers) were quickly retired and most sold for scrapping over the years 1945–1948, and only the best condition ships (the four surviving \"King George V\"-class battleships, carriers, cruisers, and some destroyers) were retained and refitted for service. The increasingly powerful United States Navy took on the former role of the Royal Navy as a global naval power and police force of the sea. The combination of the threat of the Soviet Union, and Britain's commitments throughout the world, created a new role for the Navy. Governments since the Second World War have had to balance commitments with increasing budgetary pressures, partly due to the increasing cost of weapons systems, what historian Paul Kennedy called the Upward Spiral. These pressures were exacerbated by bitter inter-service rivalry. A modest new construction programme was initiated with some new carriers (\"Majestic\"- and light carriers, and large carriers, such as, being completed between 1948 through 1958), along with three cruisers (completed", "", "at Torpoint, Cornwall, is the basic training facility for newly enlisted ratings. Britannia Royal Naval College is the initial officer training establishment for the navy, located at Dartmouth, Devon. Personnel are divided into a warfare branch, which includes warfare officers (previously named seamen officers) and Naval Aviators, as well other branches including the Royal Naval Engineers, Royal Navy Medical Branch, and Logistics Officers, the renamed Supply Officer branch. Present-day officers and ratings have several different Royal Navy uniforms; some are designed to be worn aboard ship, others ashore or in ceremonial duties. Women began to join the Royal Navy in 1917 with the formation of the Women's Royal Naval Service (WRNS), which was disbanded after the end of the First World War in 1919. It was revived in 1939, and the WRNS continued until disbandment in 1993, as a result of the decision to fully integrate women into the structures of the Royal", "", "The large fleet units in the Royal Navy consisted of amphibious warfare ships until December 2017, when the first \"Queen Elizabeth-\"class carrier", "The Royal Navy has two s, currently undertaking sea and aircraft trials which are both due to enter naval service within the next few years. These carriers cost £6 billion and displace The first, commenced flight trials in", "The escort fleet comprises guided missile destroyers and frigates and is the traditional workhorse of the Navy. there are six Type 45 destroyers and 13 Type 23 frigates in active service. Among their primary roles is to provide escort for the larger capital ships—protecting them from air, surface and subsurface threats. Other duties include undertaking the Royal Navy's standing deployments across the globe, which often consists of: counter-narcotics, anti-piracy missions and providing humanitarian aid. All six Type 45 destroyers have been built and are in commission, with being the last and final Type 45 entering service in September 2013. The new Type 45 destroyers replaced the older Type 42 destroyers. The Type", "There are two classes of MCMVs in the Royal Navy: seven s and six s. The Hunt-class vessels combine the", "In 1997, three Batch 1 ships were procured; unusually, these were owned by Vosper Thorneycroft, and leased to the Royal Navy until 2013. This relationship was defined by a ground-breaking contractor logistic support contract which contracts the ships' availability to the RN, including technical and stores support. In November 2013, it was announced that in order to sustain shipbuilding capabilities on the Clyde, five", "is a dedicated Antarctic patrol ship that fulfils the nation's mandate to provide support to the British Antarctic Survey (BAS). is an ocean survey vessel and at 13,500 tonnes is", "The Navy's large fleet units are supported by the Royal Fleet Auxiliary which possesses three amphibious transport docks within its operational craft. These are known as the landing ships, of which four were introduced in 2006–2007, but one was sold to the Royal Australian Navy in 2011. In November 2006, the First Sea Lord Admiral Sir Jonathon Band described the Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessels as \"a major uplift in the Royal Navy's war fighting capability\".", "The Submarine Service is the submarine based element of the Royal Navy. It is sometimes referred to as the \"\"Silent Service\"\", as the submarines are generally required to operate undetected. Founded in 1901, the service made history in 1982 when, during the Falklands War, became the first nuclear-powered submarine to sink a surface ship,. Today, all of the Royal Navy's submarines are nuclear-powered.", "The Royal Navy operates four ballistic missile submarines displacing nearly 16,000 tonnes and equipped with Trident II missiles (armed with nuclear weapons) and heavyweight Spearfish torpedoes, with the purpose to carry out Operation Relentless, the United", "Six fleet submarines are presently in service, with three and three (with the remainder in construction) making up the total. The \"Trafalgar\" class displace little over 5,300 tonnes when submerged and are armed with Tomahawk land-attack missiles and Spearfish torpedoes. The \"Astute\" class at 7,400 tonnes are much larger and carry a larger number of Tomahawk missiles and Spearfish torpedoes. Four more \"Astute\"-class fleet submarines are expected to be commissioned and will eventually replace the remaining \"Trafalgar\"-class boats. was the latest \"Astute\"-class boat to be commissioned. In the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review, the UK Government reaffirmed its intention to procure seven \"Astute\"-class submarines.", "The Fleet Air Arm (FAA) is the branch of the Royal Navy responsible for the operation of naval aircraft, it can trace its roots back to 1912 and the formation of the Royal Flying Corps. The Fleet Air Arm currently comprises: Commando Helicopter Force (operating the AW-101 Merlin HC4 in support of 3 Commando Brigade), Maritime Wildcat Force (operating the", "The Royal Marines are an amphibious, specialised light infantry force of commandos, capable of deploying at short notice in support of Her Majesty's Government's military and diplomatic objectives overseas. The Royal Marines are organised into a highly mobile light infantry brigade (3 Commando Brigade) and 7 commando units including 1 Assault Group Royal Marines, 43 Commando Fleet Protection Group Royal Marines and a company strength commitment to the Special Forces Support Group. The Corps operates in all environments and climates, though particular expertise and training is spent on amphibious warfare, Arctic", "The Royal Navy currently uses three major naval port bases in the UK, each housing its own flotilla of ships and boats ready for service along, two naval air stations and a support facility base in Bahrain:", "The current role of the Royal Navy is to protect British interests at home and abroad, executing the foreign and defence policies of Her Majesty's Government through the exercise of military", "The Royal Navy is currently deployed in different areas of the world, including some standing Royal Navy deployments. These include several home tasks as well as overseas deployments. The Navy is deployed in the Mediterranean as part of standing NATO deployments including mine countermeasures and NATO Maritime Group 2. In both the North and South Atlantic, RN vessels are patrolling. There is always a Falkland Islands patrol vessel on deployment, currently HMS Forth. The Royal Navy operates a Response Force Task Group (a product of the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review), which is poised to respond globally to short-notice tasking across a range of defence activities, such as non-combatant evacuation operations, disaster relief, humanitarian aid or amphibious operations. In 2011, the first deployment of the task group occurred under the name 'COUGAR 11' which saw them transit through the Mediterranean where they took part in multinational amphibious exercises before moving further east through the Suez Canal for further exercises", "The titular head of the Royal Navy is the Lord High Admiral, a position which has been held by the Duke of Edinburgh since 2011. The position had been held by Queen Elizabeth II from 1964 to 2011; the Sovereign is the Commander-in-chief of the British Armed Forces. The professional head of the Naval Service is the First Sea Lord, an admiral and member of the Defence Council of the United Kingdom. The Defence Council delegates management of the Naval Service to the Admiralty Board, chaired by the Secretary of State for Defence, which directs the Navy Board, a sub-committee of the Admiralty Board comprising only naval officers and Ministry of Defence (MOD) civil servants. These are all based in MOD Main Building in London, where the First Sea Lord, also known as the Chief of the Naval Staff, is supported by the Naval Staff Department.", "The Fleet Commander has responsibility for the provision of ships, submarines and aircraft ready for any operations that the Government requires. Fleet Commander exercises his authority through the Navy Command Headquarters, based at in Portsmouth. An operational headquarters, the Northwood Headquarters, at Northwood, London, is co-located with the Permanent Joint Headquarters of the United Kingdom's armed forces, and a NATO Regional Command, Allied Maritime Command. The Royal", "The Royal Navy currently operates from three bases in the United Kingdom where commissioned ships are based; Portsmouth, Clyde and Devonport, Plymouth—Devonport is the largest operational naval base in the UK and Western Europe. Each base hosts a flotilla command under a commodore, or, in the case of Clyde, a captain, responsible for the provision of operational capability using the ships and submarines within the flotilla. 3 Commando Brigade Royal Marines is similarly commanded by a brigadier and based in Plymouth. Historically, the Royal Navy maintained Royal Navy Dockyards around the world. Dockyards of the Royal Navy are harbours where ships are overhauled and refitted. Only four are operating today; at Devonport, Faslane, Rosyth and at Portsmouth. A Naval Base Review was undertaken in 2006 and early 2007, the outcome being announced by Secretary of State for Defence, Des Browne, confirming that all would remain however some reductions in manpower were anticipated. The academy where initial", "", "The navy of the United Kingdom is commonly referred to as the \"Royal Navy\" both in the United Kingdom and other countries. Navies of other Commonwealth countries where the British monarch is also head of state include their national name, e.g. Royal Australian Navy. Some navies of", "Royal Navy ships in commission are prefixed since 1789 with Her Majesty's Ship (His Majesty's Ship), abbreviated to \"HMS\"; for example,. Submarines are styled HM Submarine, also abbreviated \"HMS\". Names are allocated to ships and submarines by a naming committee within the MOD and given by class, with the names of ships within a class often being thematic (for example, the Type", "The Royal Navy ranks, rates and insignia form part of the uniform of the Royal Navy. The Royal Navy uniform is the pattern on which many of the uniforms of the other national", "", "The Royal Navy has several formal customs and traditions including the use of ensigns and ships badges. Royal Navy ships have several ensigns used when under way and when in port. Commissioned ships and submarines wear the White Ensign at the stern whilst alongside during daylight hours and at the main-mast whilst under way. When alongside, the \"Union Jack\" is flown from the jackstaff", "There are several less formal traditions including service nicknames and Naval slang, known as \"\"Jackspeak\"\". The nicknames include \"The Andrew\" (of uncertain origin, possibly after a zealous press ganger) and \"The Senior Service\". British sailors are referred to as \"Jack\" (or \"Jenny\"), or more widely as “Matelots”.", "The Royal Navy sponsors or supports three youth organisations: The above organisations are", "The Royal Navy of the 18th century is depicted in many novels and several films dramatising the voyage and mutiny on the Bounty. The Royal Navy's Napoleonic campaigns of the early 19th century are also a popular subject of historical novels. Some of the best-known are Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series and C. S. Forester's Horatio Hornblower chronicles. The Navy can also be seen in numerous films. The fictional spy James Bond is a commander in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (RNVR). The Royal Navy is featured in \"The Spy Who Loved Me\", when a nuclear ballistic-missile submarine is stolen, and in \"Tomorrow Never Dies\" when a media baron sinks a Royal Navy warship in an attempt to trigger a war between the UK and People's Republic of China. \"\" was based on Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey-Maturin series. The \"Pirates of", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "1939–1940: Axis victories.", "Phoney War.", "Scandinavia.", "Battles for Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Belgium and France.", "1941–1944: Interlude.", "1944–1945: The Second Front.", "Normandy.", "Liberation of France.", "Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine.", "Operation Market Garden.", "Winter counter-offensives.", "Invasion of Germany.", "End of the Third Reich." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Phoney War was an early phase of World War II marked by a few military operations in Continental Europe in the months following the German invasion of Poland and preceding the Battle of France. Although the great powers of Europe had declared war on one another, neither side had yet committed to launching a significant attack, and there was relatively little fighting on the ground. This was also the period in which the United Kingdom and France did not supply significant aid to Poland, despite their pledged alliance. While most of the German Army was fighting against Poland, a much smaller German force manned the Siegfried Line, their fortified defensive line along the French border. At the Maginot Line on the other side of the border, French troops stood facing them, whilst the British Expeditionary Force and other elements of the French Army created a defensive line along the Belgian border. There were only some local, minor skirmishes. The British Royal Air Force dropped propaganda leaflets on Germany and the first Canadian troops stepped ashore in Britain, while Western Europe was in a strange calm for seven months. In their hurry to re-arm, Britain and France had both begun to buy large numbers of weapons from manufacturers in the United States at the outbreak of hostilities, supplementing their own production. The non-belligerent United States contributed to the Western Allies by discounted sales of military equipment and supplies. German efforts to interdict the Allies' trans-Atlantic trade at sea ignited the Battle of the Atlantic.", "While the Western Front remained quiet in April 1940, the fighting between the Allies and the Germans began in earnest with the Norwegian Campaign when the Germans launched Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Denmark and Norway. In doing so, the Germans beat the Allies to the punch; the Allies had been planning an amphibious landing in which they could begin to surround Germany, cutting off her supply of raw materials from Sweden. However, when the Allies made a counter-landing in Norway following the German invasion, the Germans repulsed them and defeated the Norwegian armed forces, driving the latter into exile. The \"Kriegsmarine\", nonetheless, suffered very heavy losses during the two-months of fighting required to seize all of mainland Norway.", "In May 1940, the Germans launched the Battle of France. The Western Allies (primarily the French, Belgian and British land forces) soon collapsed under the onslaught of the so-called \"\"blitzkrieg\"\" strategy. The majority of the British and elements of the French forces escaped at Dunkirk. With the fighting ended, the Germans began to consider ways of resolving the question of how to deal with Britain. If the British refused to agree to a peace treaty, one option was to invade. However, Nazi Germany's \"Kriegsmarine\", had suffered serious losses in Norway, and in order to even consider an amphibious landing, Germany's Air Force (the Luftwaffe) had to first gain air superiority or air supremacy.", "With the Luftwaffe unable to defeat the RAF in the Battle of Britain, the invasion of Great Britain could no longer be thought of as an option. While the majority of the German army was mustered for the invasion of the Soviet Union, construction began on the Atlantic Wall – a series of defensive fortifications along the French coast of the English Channel. These were built in anticipation of an Allied invasion of France. Because of the massive logistical obstacles a cross-channel invasion would face, Allied high command decided to conduct a practice attack against the French coast. On 19 August 1942, the Allies began the Dieppe Raid, an attack on Dieppe, France. Most of the troops were Canadian, with some British contingents and a small American and Free French presence along with British and Polish naval support. The raid was a disaster, almost two-thirds of the attacking force became casualties. However, much was learned as a result of the operation – these lessons would be put to good use in the subsequent invasion. For almost two years, there was no land-fighting on the Western Front with the exception of commando raids and the guerrilla actions of the resistance aided by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and Office of Strategic Services (OSS). However, in the meantime, the Allies took the war to Germany, with a strategic bombing campaign the US Eighth Air Force bombing Germany by day and RAF Bomber Command bombing by night. The bulk of the Allied armies were occupied in the Mediterranean, seeking to clear the sea lanes to the Indian Ocean and capture the Foggia Airfield Complex. Two early British raids for which battle honours were awarded were Operation Collar in Boulogne (24 June 1940) and Operation Ambassador in Guernsey (14–15 July 1940). The raids for which the British awarded the \"North-West Europe Campaign of 1942\" battle honour were: Operation Biting – Bruneval (27–28 February 1942), St Nazaire (27–28 March 1942), Operation Myrmidon – Bayonne (5 April 1942), Operation Abercrombie – Hardelot (21–22 April 1942), Dieppe (19 August 1942) and Operation Frankton – Gironde (7–12 December 1942). A raid on Sark on the night of 3/4 October 1942 is notable because a few days after the incursion the Germans issued a propaganda communiqué implying at least one prisoner had escaped and two were shot while resisting having their hands tied. This instance of tying prisoner's hands contributed to Hitler's decision to issue his Commando Order instructing that all captured Commandos or Commando-type personnel were to be executed as a matter of procedure. By the summer of 1944, when expectation of an Allied invasion was freely admitted by German commanders, the disposition of troops facing it came under the command of OB West (HQ in Paris). In turn it commanded three groups: the Wehrmacht Netherlands Command (\"Wehrmachtbefehlshaber Niederlande\") or WBN, covering the Dutch and Belgian coasts and Army Group B, covering the coast of northern France with the German 15th Army (HQ in Tourcoing), in the area north of the Seine; the 7th Army, (HQ in Le Mans), between the Seine and the Loire defending the English Channel and the Atlantic coast, and Army Group G with responsibility for the Bay of Biscay coast and Vichy France, with its 1st Army, (HQ in Bordeaux), responsible for the Atlantic coast between the Loire and the Spanish border and the 19th Army, (HQ in Avignon), responsible for the Mediterranean coast. It was not possible to predict where the Allies might choose to launch their invasion. The chance of an amphibious landing necessitated the substantial dispersal of the German mobile reserves, which contained the majority of their panzer troops. Each army group was allocated its mobile reserves. Army Group B had the 2nd Panzer Division in northern France, 116th Panzer Division in the Paris area, and the 21st Panzer Division in Normandy. Army Group G, considering the possibility of an invasion on the Atlantic coast, had dispersed its mobile reserves, locating the 11th Panzer Division in Gironde, the 2nd SS Panzer Division \"Das Reich\" refitting around the southern French town of Montauban, and the 9th Panzer Division stationed in the Rhone delta area. The OKW retained a substantial reserve of such mobile divisions also, but these were dispersed over a large area: the 1st SS Panzer Division \"Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler\" was still Netherlands, the 12th SS Panzer Division \"Hitlerjugend\" and the \"Panzer-Lehr\" Division were located in the Paris–Orleans area, since the Normandy coastal defence sectors or (\"Küstenverteitigungsabschnitte\" – KVA) were considered the most likely areas for an invasion. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division \"Götz von Berlichingen\" was located just south of the Loire in the vicinity of Tours.", "", "On 6 June 1944, the Allies began Operation Overlord (also known as \"D-Day\") – the long-awaited liberation of France. The deception plans, Operation Fortitude and Operation Bodyguard, had the Germans convinced that the invasion would occur in the Pas-de-Calais, while the real target was Normandy. Following two months of slow fighting in hedgerow country, Operation Cobra allowed the Americans to break out at the western end of the lodgement. Soon after, the Allies were racing across France. They encircled around 200,000 Germans in the Falaise Pocket. As had so often happened on the Eastern Front Hitler refused to allow a strategic withdrawal until it was too late. Approximately 150,000 Germans were able to escape from the Falaise pocket, but they left behind most of their irreplaceable equipment and 50,000 Germans were killed or taken prisoner. The Allies had been arguing about whether to advance on a broad-front or a narrow-front from before D-Day. If the British had broken out of the Normandy bridgehead (or beachhead) around Caen when they launched Operation Goodwood and pushed along the coast, facts on the ground might have turned the argument in favour of a narrow front. However, as the breakout took place during Operation Cobra at the western end of the bridge-head, the 21st Army Group that included the British and Canadian forces swung east and headed for Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern Germany, while the U.S. Twelfth Army Group advanced to their south via eastern France, Luxembourg and the Ruhr Area, rapidly fanning out into a broad front. As this was the strategy favoured by the Supreme Allied Commander, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, and most of the American high command, it was soon adopted.", "On 15 August the Allies launched Operation Dragoon – the invasion of Southern France between Toulon and Cannes. The US Seventh Army and the French First Army, making up the US 6th Army Group, rapidly consolidated this beachhead and liberated southern France in two weeks; they then moved north up the Rhone valley. Their advance only slowed down as they encountered regrouped and entrenched German troops in the Vosges Mountains. The Germans in France were now faced by three powerful Allied army groups: in the north the British 21st Army Group commanded by Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, in the center the American 12th Army Group, commanded by General Omar Bradley and to the south the US 6th Army Group commanded by Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers. By mid-September, the 6th Army Group, advancing from the south, came into contact with Bradley's formations advancing from the west and overall control of Devers' force passed from AFHQ in the Mediterranean so that all three army groups came under Eisenhower's central command at SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces). Under the onslaught in both the north and south of France, the German Army fell back. On 19 August, the French Resistance (FFI) organised a general uprising and the liberation of Paris took place on 25 August when general Dietrich von Choltitz accepted the French ultimatum and surrendered to general Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, commander of the Free French 2nd Armored Division, ignoring orders from Hitler that Paris should be held to the last and destroyed. The liberation of northern France and the Benelux countries was of special significance for the inhabitants of London and the southeast of England, because it denied the Germans launch sites for their mobile V-1 and V-2 \"Vergeltungswaffen\" (reprisal weapons). As the Allies advanced across France, their supply lines stretched to breaking point. The Red Ball Express, the Allied trucking effort, was simply unable to transport enough supplies from the port facilities in Normandy all the way to the front line, which by September, was close to the German border. Major German units in the French southwest that had not been committed in Normandy withdrew, either eastwards towards Alsace (sometimes directly across the US 6th Army Group's advance) or into the ports with the intention of denying them to the Allies. These latter groups were not thought worth much effort and were left \"to rot\", with the exception of Bordeaux, which was liberated in May 1945 by French forces under General Edgard de Larminat (Operation Venerable).", "Fighting on the Western front seemed to stabilize, and the Allied advance stalled in front of the Siegfried Line (\"Westwall\") and the southern reaches of the Rhine. Starting in early September, the Americans began slow and bloody fighting through the Hurtgen Forest (\"\"Passchendaele with tree bursts\"\"—Hemingway) to breach the Line. The port of Antwerp was liberated on 4 September by the British 11th Armoured Division. However, it lay at the end of the long Scheldt Estuary, and so it could not be used until its approaches were clear of heavily fortified German positions. The Breskens pocket on the southern bank of the Scheldt was cleared with heavy casualties by allied forces in Operation Switchback, during the Battle of the Scheldt. This was followed by a tedious campaign to clear a peninsula dominating the estuary, and finally, the amphibious assault on Walcheren Island in November. The campaign to clear the Scheldt Estuary along with Operation Pheasant was a decisive victory for the Allies, as it allowed a greatly improved delivery of supplies directly from Antwerp, which was far closer to the front than the Normandy beaches. In October the Americans decided that they could not just invest Aachen and let it fall in a slow siege, because it threatened the flanks of the U.S. Ninth Army. As it was the first major German city to face capture, Hitler ordered that the city be held at all costs. In the resulting battle, the city was taken, at a cost of 5,000 casualties on both sides, with an additional 5,600 German prisoners. South of the Ardennes, American forces fought from September until mid-December to push the Germans out of Lorraine and from behind the Siegfried Line. The crossing of the Moselle River and the capture of the fortress of Metz proved difficult for the American troops in the face of German reinforcements, supply shortages, and unfavorable weather. During September and October, the Allied 6th Army Group (U.S. Seventh Army and French First Army) fought a difficult campaign through the Vosges Mountains that was marked by dogged German resistance and slow advances. In November, however, the German front snapped under the pressure, resulting in sudden Allied advances that liberated Belfort, Mulhouse, and Strasbourg, and placed Allied forces along the Rhine River. The Germans managed to hold a large bridgehead (the Colmar Pocket), on the western bank of the Rhine and centered around the city of Colmar. On 16 November the Allies started a large scale autumn offensive called Operation Queen. With its main thrust again through the Hürtgen Forest, the offensive drove the Allies to the Rur River, but failed in its core objectives to capture the Rur dams and pave the way towards the Rhine. The Allied operations were then succeeded by the German Ardennes offensive.", "The port of Antwerp was liberated on 4 September by the British 11th Armoured Division. Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery, commanding the Anglo-Canadian 21st Army Group, persuaded the Allied High Command to launch a bold attack, Operation Market Garden, which he hoped would get the Allies across the Rhine and create the narrow-front he favoured. Airborne troops would fly in from the United Kingdom and take bridges over the main rivers of the German-occupied Netherlands in three main cities; Eindhoven, Nijmegen, and Arnhem. The British XXX Corps would punch through the German lines along the Maas–Schelde canal and link up with the airborne troops of the U.S. 101st Airborne Division in Eindhoven, the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division at Nijmegen and the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem. If all went well XXX Corps would advance into Germany without any remaining major obstacles. XXX Corps was able to advance beyond six of the seven airborne-held bridges, but was unable to link up with the troops near the bridge over the Rhine at Arnhem. The result was the near-destruction of the British 1st Airborne Division during the Battle of Arnhem, which sustained almost 8,000 casualties. The offensive ended with Arnhem remaining in German hands and the Allies holding an extended salient from the Belgian border to the area between Nijmegen and Arnhem.", "The Germans had been preparing a massive counter-attack in the West since the Allied breakout from Normandy. The plan called \"Wacht am Rhein (\"Watch on the Rhine\")\" was to attack through the Ardennes and swing north to Antwerp, splitting the American and British armies. The attack started on 16 December in what became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Defending the Ardennes were troops of the US First Army. Initial successes in bad weather, which gave them cover from the Allied air forces, resulted in a German penetration of over to within less than of the Meuse. Having been taken by surprise, the Allies regrouped and the Germans were stopped by a combined air and land counter-attack which eventually pushed them back to their starting points by 25 January 1945. The Germans launched a second, smaller offensive (\"Nordwind\") into Alsace on 1 January 1945. Aiming to recapture Strasbourg, the Germans attacked the 6th Army Group at multiple points. Because the Allied lines had become severely stretched in response to the crisis in the Ardennes, holding and throwing back the \"Nordwind\" offensive was a costly affair that lasted almost four weeks. The culmination of Allied counter-attacks restored the front line to the area of the German border and collapsed the Colmar Pocket.", "In January 1945 the German bridgehead over the river Roer between Heinsberg and Roermond was cleared during Operation Blackcock. This was followed by a pincer movement of the First Canadian Army in Operation Veritable advancing from the Nijmegen area of the Netherlands, and the US Ninth Army crossing the Roer in Operation Grenade. Veritable and Grenade were planned to start on 8 February 1945, but Grenade was delayed by two weeks when the Germans flooded the Roer valley by destroying the gates of the Rur Dam upstream. Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt requested permission to withdraw east behind the Rhine, arguing that further resistance would only delay the inevitable, but was ordered by Hitler to fight where his forces stood. By the time the water had subsided and the US Ninth Army was able to cross the Roer on 23 February, other Allied forces were also close to the Rhine's west bank. Von Rundstedt's divisions which had remained on the west bank, were cut to pieces in the ''battle of the Rhineland' – 280,000 men were taken prisoner. With a large number of men captured, the stubborn German resistance during the Allied campaign to reach the Rhine in February and March 1945 had been costly. Total losses reached an estimated 400,000 men. By the time they prepared to cross the Rhine in late March, the Western Allies had taken 1,300,000 German soldiers prisoner in western Europe. Once the Allies had crossed the Rhine, the British fanned out northeast towards Hamburg crossing the river Elbe and on towards Denmark and the Baltic. British forces captured Bremen on 26 April after a week of combat. British and Canadian paratroopers reached the Baltic city of Wismar just ahead of Soviet forces on 2 May. The US Ninth Army, which had remained under British command since the battle of the Bulge, went south as the northern pincer of the Ruhr encirclement as well as pushing elements east. XIX Corps of the Ninth Army captured Magdeburg on 18 April and the US XIII Corps to the north occupied Stendal. The US 12th Army Group fanned out, and the First Army went north as the southern pincer of the Ruhr encirclement. On 4 April the encirclement was completed and the Ninth Army reverted to the command of Bradley's 12th Army Group. The German Army Group B commanded by Field Marshal Walther Model was trapped in the Ruhr Pocket and 300,000 soldiers became POWs. The Ninth and First American armies then turned east and pushed to the Elbe river by mid-April. During the push east, the cities of Frankfurt am Main, Kassel, Magdeburg, Halle and Leipzig were strongly defended by ad hoc German garrisons made up of regular troops, Flak units, Volkssturm and armed Nazi Party auxiliaries. Generals Eisenhower and Bradley concluded that pushing beyond the Elbe made no sense since eastern Germany was destined in any case to be occupied by the Red Army. The First and Ninth Armies stopped along the Elbe and Mulde rivers, making contact with Soviet forces near the Elbe in late April. The US Third Army had fanned out to the east into western Czechoslovakia and southeast into eastern Bavaria and northern Austria. By V-E Day, the US 12th Army Group was a force of four armies (First, Third, Ninth and Fifteenth) that numbered over 1.3 million men.", "The US 6th Army Group fanned out to the southwest, passing to the east of Switzerland through Bavaria and into Austria and northern Italy. The Black Forest and Baden were overrun by the French First Army. Determined stands were made in April by German forces at Heilbronn, Nuremberg, and Munich but were overcome after several days. Elements of the US 3rd Infantry Division were the first Allied troops to arrive at Berchtesgaden, which they secured, while the French 2nd Armoured Division seized the Berghof (Hitler's Alpine residence) on 4 May 1945. German Army Group G surrendered to US forces at Haar, in Bavaria, on 5 May. Field Marshal Montgomery took the German military surrender of all German forces in The Netherlands, northwest Germany and Denmark on Lüneburg Heath, an area between the cities of Hamburg, Hanover and Bremen, on 4 May 1945. As the operational commander of some of these forces was Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz, the new Reichspräsident (head of state) of the Third Reich this signaled that the European war was over. On 7 May at his headquarters in Rheims, Eisenhower took the unconditional surrender of all German forces to the western Allies and the Soviet Union, from the German Chief-of-Staff, General Alfred Jodl, who signed the first general instrument of surrender at 0241 hours. General Franz Böhme announced the unconditional surrender of German troops in Norway. Operations ceased at 2301 hours Central European time (CET) on 8 May. On that same day Field Marshal Wilhelm Keitel, as head of OKW and Jodl's superior, was brought to Marshal Georgy Zhukov in Karlshorst and signed another instrument of surrender that was essentially identical to that signed in Rheims with two minor additions requested by the Soviets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "History.", "Systematics.", "Common name.", "Description.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Relationship with humans.", "Economic value.", "Cultural references.", "Status and conservation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Emus were first reported as having been seen by Europeans when explorers visited the western coast of Australia in 1696. This was during an expedition led by Dutch captain Willem de Vlamingh who was searching for survivors of a ship that had gone missing two years earlier. The birds were known on the eastern coast before 1788, when the first Europeans settled there. The birds were first mentioned under the name of the \"New Holland cassowary\" in Arthur Phillip's \"Voyage to Botany Bay\", published in 1789 with the following description: The species was named by ornithologist John Latham in 1790", "The emu was long classified, with its closest relatives the cassowaries, in the family Casuariidae, part of the ratite order Struthioniformes. However, an alternate classification was proposed in 2014 by Mitchell et al., based on analysis of mitochondrial DNA. This splits off the Casuariidae into their own order, the Casuariformes, and includes only the cassowaries in the family Casuariidae, placing the emus in their own family, Dromaiidae. The cladogram shown below is from their study. Two different \"Dromaius\" species were present in Australia at the time of European settlement, and one additional species is known from fossil remains. The insular dwarf emus, \"D. n. baudinianus\" and \"D. n. minor\", originally present on Kangaroo Island and King Island respectively, both became extinct shortly after the arrival of Europeans.", "The etymology of the common name \"emu\" is uncertain, but is thought to have come from an Arabic word for large bird that was later used by Portuguese explorers to describe the related cassowary in Australia and New Guinea. Another theory is", "The emu is the second tallest bird in the world, only being exceeded in height by the ostrich; the largest individuals can reach up to in height. Measured from the bill to the tail, emus range in length from, with males averaging and females averaging. Emus are the fourth or fifth heaviest living bird after the two species of ostrich and two larger species of cassowary, weighing slightly more on average than an emperor penguin. Adult emus weigh between, with an average of in males and females, respectively. Females are usually slightly larger than males and are substantially wider across the rump. Although flightless, emus have vestigial wings, the wing chord measuring around, and each wing having a small claw at the tip. Emus flap their wings when running, perhaps as a means of stabilising themselves when moving fast. They have long necks and legs, and can run at speeds of due to their highly specialised pelvic limb musculature. Their feet have only three toes and a similarly reduced number of bones and associated foot muscles; emus are unique among birds in that their gastrocnemius muscles in the back of the lower legs have four bellies instead of the usual three. The pelvic limb muscles of emus contribute a similar proportion of the total body mass as do the flight muscles of flying birds. When walking, the emu takes strides of about, but at full gallop, a stride can be", "Once common on the east coast of Australia, emus are now uncommon there; by contrast, the development of agriculture and the provision of water for stock in the interior of the continent have increased the range of the emu in arid regions. Emus live in various habitats across Australia both inland and near the coast. They are most common in areas of savannah woodland and sclerophyll", "Emus are diurnal birds and spend their day foraging, preening their plumage with their beak, dust bathing and resting. They are generally gregarious birds apart from the breeding season, and while some forage, others remain vigilant to their mutual benefit. They are able to swim when necessary, although they rarely do so unless the area is flooded or they need to cross a river. Emus begin to settle down at sunset and sleep during the night. They do not sleep continuously but rouse themselves several times during the night. When falling asleep, emus first squat on their tarsi and enter a drowsy state during which they are alert enough to react to stimuli and quickly return to a fully awakened state if disturbed. As they fall into deeper sleep, their neck droops closer to the body and the eyelids begin to close. If there are no disturbances, they fall into a deeper sleep after about twenty minutes. During this phase, the body is gradually lowered until it is touching the ground with the legs folded underneath. The beak is turned down so that the whole neck becomes S-shaped and folded onto itself. The feathers direct any rain downwards onto the ground. It has been suggested that the sleeping position is a type of camouflage, mimicking a small mound. Emus typically awake from deep sleep once every ninety minutes or so and stand upright to feed briefly or defecate. This period of wakefulness lasts for ten to twenty minutes, after which they return to slumber. Overall, an emu sleeps for around seven hours in each twenty-four-hour period. Young emus usually sleep with their neck flat and stretched forward along the ground surface. The vocalisations of emus mostly consist of various booming and grunting sounds. The booming is created by the inflatable throat pouch; the pitch can be regulated by the bird and depends on the size of the aperture. Most of the booming is done by females; it is part of the courtship ritual, is used to announce the holding of territory and is issued as a threat to rivals. A high-intensity boom is audible away, while a low, more resonant call, produced during the breeding season, may at first attract mates and peaks while the male is incubating the eggs. Most of the grunting is done by males. It is used principally during the breeding season in territorial defence, as a threat to other males, during courtship and while the female is laying. Both sexes sometimes boom or grunt during threat displays or on encountering strange objects. On very hot days, emus pant to maintain their body temperature, their lungs work as evaporative coolers and, unlike some other species, the resulting low levels of carbon dioxide in the blood do not appear to cause alkalosis. For normal breathing in cooler weather, they have large, multifolded nasal passages. Cool air warms as it passes through into the lungs, extracting heat from the nasal region. On exhalation, the emu's cold nasal turbinates condense moisture back out of the air and absorb it for reuse. As with other ratites, the emu has great homeothermic ability, and can maintain this status from. The thermoneutral zone of emus lies between. As with other ratites, emus have a relatively low basal metabolic rate compared to other types of birds. At, the metabolic rate of an emu sitting down is about 60% of that when standing, partly because the lack of feathers under the stomach leads to a higher rate of heat loss when standing from the exposed underbelly.", "Emus were used as a source of food by indigenous Australians and early European settlers. Emus are inquisitive birds and have been known to approach humans if they see unexpected movement of a limb or piece of clothing. In the wild, they may follow and observe people. Aboriginal Australians used a variety of techniques to catch the birds, including spearing them while they drank at waterholes, catching them in nets, and attracting them by imitating their calls or by arousing their curiosity with a ball of feathers and rags dangled from a tree. The pitchuri thornapple (\"Duboisia hopwoodii\"), or some similar poisonous plant, could be used to contaminate a waterhole, after which the disoriented emus were easy to catch. Another stratagem was for the hunter to use a skin as a disguise, and the birds could be lured into a camouflaged pit trap using rags or imitation calls. Aboriginal Australians only killed emus out of necessity, and frowned on anyone who hunted them for any other reason. Every part of the carcass had some use; the fat was harvested for its valuable, multiple-use oil, the bones were shaped into knives and tools, the feathers were used for body adornment and the tendons substituted for string. The early European settlers killed emus to provide food and used their fat for fuelling lamps. They also tried to prevent them from interfering with farming or invading settlements in search of water during drought. An extreme example of this was the Emu War in Western Australia in 1932. Emus flocked to the Chandler and Walgoolan area during a dry spell, damaging rabbit fencing and devastating crops. An attempt to drive them off was mounted, with the army called in to dispatch them with machine guns; the emus largely avoided the hunters and won the battle. Emus are large, powerful birds, and their legs are among the strongest of any animal and powerful enough to tear down metal fencing. The birds are very defensive of their young, and there have been two documented cases of humans being attacked by emus.", "In the areas in which it was endemic, the emu was an important source of meat to Aboriginal Australians. They used the fat as bush medicine and rubbed it into their skin. It served as a valuable lubricant, was used to oil wooden tools and utensils such as the coolamon, and was mixed with ochre to make the traditional paint for ceremonial body adornment. Their eggs were also foraged for food. An example of how the emu was cooked comes from the Arrernte of Central Australia who called it \"Kere ankerre\": The birds were a food and fuel source for early European settlers, and are now farmed, in Australia and elsewhere, for their meat, oil and leather. Commercial emu farming started in Western Australia around 1970. The commercial industry in the country is based on stock bred in captivity, and all states except Tasmania have licensing", "The emu has a prominent place in Australian Aboriginal mythology, including a creation myth of the Yuwaalaraay and other groups in New South Wales who say that the sun was made by throwing an emu's egg into the sky; the bird features in numerous aetiological stories told across a number of Aboriginal groups. One story from Western Australia holds that a man once annoyed a small bird, who responded by throwing a boomerang, severing the arms of the man and transforming him into a flightless emu. The Kurdaitcha man of Central Australia is said to wear sandals made of emu feathers to mask his footprints. Many Aboriginal language groups throughout Australia have a tradition that the dark dust lanes in the Milky Way represent a giant emu in the sky. Several of the Sydney rock engravings depict emus, and the birds are mimicked in indigenous dances. The emu is popularly but unofficially considered as a faunal emblem – the national bird of Australia. It appears as a shield bearer on the Coat of arms of", "In John Gould's \"Handbook to the Birds of Australia\", first published in 1865, he lamented the loss of the emu from Tasmania, where it had become rare and has since become extinct; he noted that emus were no longer common in the vicinity of Sydney and proposed that the species be given protected status. In the 1930s, emu killings in Western Australia peaked at 57,000, and culls were also mounted in Queensland during this period due to rampant crop damage. In the 1960s, bounties were still being paid in Western Australia for killing emus, but since then, wild emus have been granted formal protection under the \"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999\". Their occurrence range is between, and a 1992 census suggested that their total population was between 630,000 and 725,000. Their population trend is thought to be stable and the International Union for the Conservation of Nature assesses their conservation status as being of least concern. The isolated emu population of the New South Wales North Coast Bioregion and Port Stephens is listed as endangered by the New South Wales Government. Although the population of emus on mainland Australia is thought to be higher now than it was before European settlement, some local populations are at risk of extinction. The threats faced by emus include the clearance and fragmentation of areas of suitable habitat, deliberate slaughter, collisions with vehicles and predation of the eggs and young." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Education.", "Career.", "From theatre to cinema.", "Travels to western Europe.", "American projects.", "Mexican odyssey.", "Return to Soviet Union.", "Comeback.", "Ivan trilogy.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Film theorist." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sergei Eisenstein was born 22 January 1898 in Riga, Latvia (then part of the Russian Empire in the Governorate of Livonia) was born to a middle-class family. His family moved frequently in his early years, as Eisenstein continued to do throughout his life. His father, the famous architect Mikhail Osipovich Eisenstein, was born in Kiev Oblast, to a Jewish merchant father, Osip, and a Swedish mother. The family had converted to the Russian Orthodox Church. His mother, Julia Ivanovna Konetskaya, was from a Russian Orthodox family. She was the daughter of a prosperous merchant. Julia left Riga the same year as the Russian Revolution of 1905, taking Sergei with her to St. Petersburg. Her son would return at times to see his father, who joined them around 1910. Divorce followed and Julia left the family to live in France. Eisenstein was raised as an Orthodox Christian, but became an atheist later on.", "At the Petrograd Institute of Civil Engineering, Eisenstein studied architecture and engineering, the profession of his father. In 1918, he left school and joined the Red Army to serve the Bolshevik Revolution, although his father Mikhail supported the opposite side. This brought his father to Germany after the defeat of the Tsarist government, and Sergei to Petrograd, Vologda, and Dvinsk. In 1920, Sergei was transferred to a command position in Minsk, after success providing propaganda for the October Revolution. At this time, he was exposed to Kabuki theatre and studied Japanese, learning some 300 kanji characters, which he cited as an influence on his pictorial development.", "", "Eisenstein moved to Moscow in 1920, and began his career in theatre working for Proletkult, an experimental Soviet artistic institution which aspired to radically modify existing artistic forms and create a revolutionary working-class aesthetic. His productions there were entitled \"Gas Masks\", \"Listen Moscow\", and \"Wiseman\". He worked as a designer for Vsevolod Meyerhold. Eisenstein began his career as a theorist in 1923, by writing \"The Montage of Attractions\" for art journal \"LEF\". His first film, \"Glumov's Diary\" (for the theatre production \"Wiseman\"), was also made in that same year with Dziga Vertov hired initially as an \"instructor\". \"Strike\" (1925) was Eisenstein's first full-length feature film. \"Battleship Potemkin\" (also 1925) was critically acclaimed worldwide. Mostly owing to this international renown, he was then able to direct \"\" (also known as \"Ten Days That Shook The World\") as part of a grand tenth anniversary celebration of the October Revolution of 1917, and then \"The General Line\" (also known as \"Old and New\"). While critics outside Soviet Russia praised these works, Eisenstein's focus in the films on structural issues such as camera angles, crowd movements, and montage brought him and like-minded others such as Vsevolod Pudovkin and Alexander Dovzhenko under fire from the Soviet film community. This forced him to issue public articles of self-criticism and commitments to reform his cinematic visions to conform to the increasingly specific doctrines of socialist realism.", "In the autumn of 1928, with \"October\" still under fire in many Soviet quarters, Eisenstein left the Soviet Union for a tour of Europe, accompanied by his perennial film collaborator Grigori Aleksandrov and cinematographer Eduard Tisse. Officially, the trip was supposed to allow the three to learn about sound motion pictures and to present themselves as Soviet artists in person to the capitalist West. For Eisenstein, however, it was also an opportunity to see landscapes and cultures outside the Soviet Union. He spent the next two years touring and lecturing in Berlin, Zürich, London, and Paris. In 1929, in Switzerland, Eisenstein supervised an educational documentary about abortion directed by Tisse, entitled \"Frauennot – Frauenglück\".", "In late April 1930, Jesse L. Lasky, on behalf of Paramount Pictures, offered Eisenstein the opportunity to make a film in the United States. He accepted a short-term contract for $100,000 ($1,500,000 in 2017 dollars) and arrived in Hollywood in May 1930, along with Aleksandrov and Tisse. Eisenstein proposed a biography of munitions tycoon Basil Zaharoff and a film version of \"Arms and the Man\" by George Bernard Shaw, and more fully developed plans for a film of \"Sutter's Gold\" by Blaise Cendrars, but on all accounts failed to impress the studio's producers. Paramount proposed a film version of Theodore Dreiser's \"An American Tragedy\". This excited Eisenstein, who had read and liked the work, and had met Dreiser at one time in Moscow. Eisenstein completed a script by the start of October 1930, but Paramount disliked it completely and, additionally, found themselves intimidated by Major Frank Pease, president of the Hollywood Technical Director's Institute. Pease, an anti-communist, mounted a public campaign against Eisenstein. On October 23, 1930, by \"mutual consent\", Paramount and Eisenstein declared their contract null and void, and the Eisenstein party were treated to return tickets to Moscow at Paramount's expense. Eisenstein was thus faced with returning home a failure. The Soviet film industry was solving the sound-film issue without him; in addition, his films, techniques and theories, such as his formalist film theory, were becoming increasingly attacked as 'ideological failures'. Many of his theoretical articles from this period, such as \"Eisenstein on Disney\", have surfaced decades later as seminal scholarly texts used as curriculum in film schools around the world. Eisenstein and his entourage spent considerable time with Charlie Chaplin, who recommended that Eisenstein meet with a sympathetic benefactor in the person of American socialist author Upton Sinclair. Sinclair's works had been accepted by and were widely read in the USSR, and were known to Eisenstein. The two admired each other, and between the end of October 1930 and Thanksgiving of that year, Sinclair had secured an extension of Eisenstein's absences from the USSR, and permission for him to travel to Mexico. The trip to Mexico was for Eisenstein to make a film produced by Sinclair and his wife Mary, and three other investors organized as the \"Mexican Film Trust\".", "On 24 November 1930, Eisenstein signed a contract with the Trust \"upon the basis of his desire to be free to direct the making of a picture according to his own ideas of what a Mexican picture should be, and in full faith in Eisenstein's artistic integrity.\" The contract also stipulated that the film would be \"non-political\", that immediately available funding came from Mary Sinclair in an amount of \"not less than Twenty-Five Thousand Dollars\", that the shooting schedule amounted to \"a period of from three to four months\", and most importantly that: \"Eisenstein furthermore agrees that all pictures made or directed by him in Mexico, all negative film and positive prints, and all story and ideas embodied in said Mexican picture, will be the property of Mrs. Sinclair...\" A codicil to the contract allowed that the \"Soviet Government may have the [finished] film free for showing inside the U.S.S.R.\" Reportedly, it was verbally clarified that the expectation was for a finished film of about an hour's duration. By 4 December, Eisenstein was \"en route\" to Mexico by train, accompanied by Aleksandrov and Tisse. Later he produced a brief synopsis of the six-part film; this would come, in one form or another, to be the final plan he would settle on for his project. The title for the project, \"¡Que viva México!\", was decided on some time later still. Whilst in Mexico, he mixed socially with Frida Kahlo and Diego Rivera; Eisenstein admired these artists and Mexican culture in general, and they inspired him to call his films \"moving frescoes\". The left-wing U.S. film community eagerly followed his progress within Mexico, as is chronicled within Chris Robe's book \"Left of Hollywood: Cinema, Modernism, and the Emergence of U.S. Radical Film Culture\". After a prolonged absence, Joseph Stalin sent a telegram expressing the concern that Eisenstein had become a deserter. Under pressure, Eisenstein blamed Mary Sinclair's younger brother, Hunter Kimbrough, who had been sent along to act as a line producer, for the film's problems. Eisenstein hoped to pressure the Sinclairs to insinuate themselves between him and Stalin, so Eisenstein could finish the film in his own way. The furious Sinclairs shut down production and ordered Kimbrough to return to the United States with the remaining film footage and the three Soviets to see what they could do with the film already shot; estimates of the extent of this range from 170,000 lineal feet with \"Soldadera\" unfilmed, to an excess of 250,000 lineal feet. For the unfinished filming of the \"novel\" of \"Soldadera\", without incurring any cost, Eisenstein had secured 500 soldiers, 10,000 guns, and 50 cannons from the Mexican Army, but this was lost due to Sinclair's cancelling of production. When Eisenstein arrived at the American border, a customs search of his trunk revealed sketches and drawings of Jesus caricatures amongst other lewd pornographic material. His re-entry visa had expired, and Sinclair's contacts in Washington were unable to secure him an additional extension. Eisenstein, Aleksandrov, and Tisse were allowed, after a month's stay at the U.S.-Mexico border outside Laredo, Texas, a 30-day \"pass\" to get from Texas to New York, and thence depart for Moscow, while Kimbrough returned to Los Angeles with the remaining film. Eisenstein toured the American South on his way to New York. In mid-1932, the Sinclairs were able to secure the services of Sol Lesser, who had just opened his distribution office in New York, Principal Distributing Corporation. Lesser agreed to supervise post-production work on the miles of negative—at the Sinclairs' expense—and distribute any resulting product. Two short feature films and a short subject—\"Thunder Over Mexico\" based on the \"Maguey\" footage, \"Eisenstein in Mexico\", and \"Death Day\" respectively—were completed and released in the United States between the autumn of 1933 and early 1934. Eisenstein never saw any of the Sinclair-Lesser films, nor a later effort by his first biographer, Marie Seton, called \"Time in the Sun\", released in 1940. He would publicly maintain that he had lost all interest in the project. In 1978, Gregori Aleksandrov released – with the same name in contravention to the copyright – his own version, which was awarded the Honorable Golden Prize at the 11th Moscow International Film Festival in 1979. Later, in 1998, Oleg Kovalov edited a free version of the film, calling it \"Mexican Fantasy\".", "Eisenstein's foray into the West made the staunchly Stalinist film industry look upon him with a suspicion that would never completely disappear. He apparently spent some time in a mental hospital in Kislovodsk in July 1933, ostensibly a result of depression born of his final acceptance that he would never be allowed to edit the Mexican footage. He was subsequently assigned a teaching position at the State Institute of Cinematography where he had taught earlier, and in 1933 and 1934 was in charge of writing the curriculum. In 1935, Eisenstein was assigned another project, \"Bezhin Meadow\", but it appears the film was afflicted with many of the same problems as \"¡Que viva México!\". Eisenstein unilaterally decided to film two versions of the scenario, one for adult viewers and one for children; failed to define a clear shooting schedule; and shot film prodigiously, resulting in cost overruns and missed deadlines. Boris Shumyatsky, the \"de facto\" head of the Soviet film industry, finally called a halt to the filming and cancelled further production. What appeared to save Eisenstein's career at this point was that Stalin ended up taking the position that the \"Bezhin Meadow\" catastrophe, along with several other problems facing the industry at that point, had less to do with Eisenstein's approach to filmmaking as with the executives who were supposed to have been supervising him. Ultimately this came down on the shoulders of Shumyatsky, who in early 1938 was denounced, arrested, tried and convicted as a traitor, and shot.", "Eisenstein was thence able to ingratiate himself with Stalin for 'one more chance', and he chose, from two offerings, the assignment of a biopic of \"Alexander Nevsky\", with music composed by Sergei Prokofiev. This time, he was assigned a co-scenarist, Pyotr Pavlenko, to bring in a completed script; professional actors to play the roles; and an assistant director, Dmitri Vasilyev, to expedite shooting. The result was a film critically well received by both the Soviets and in the West, which won him the Order of Lenin and the Stalin Prize. It was an allegory and stern warning against the massing forces of Nazi Germany, well played and well made. The script had Nevsky utter a number of traditional Russian proverbs, verbally rooting his fight against the Germanic invaders in Russian traditions. This was started, completed, and placed in distribution all within the year 1938, and represented not only Eisenstein's first film in nearly a decade but also his first sound film. Within months of its release, Stalin entered into a pact with Hitler, and \"Alexander Nevsky\" was promptly pulled from distribution. Eisenstein returned to teaching, and was assigned to direct Richard Wagner's \"Die Walküre\" at the Bolshoi Theatre. After the outbreak of war with Germany in 1941, \"Alexander Nevsky\" was re-released with a wide distribution and earned international success. With the war approaching Moscow, Eisenstein was one of many filmmakers evacuated to Alma-Ata, where he first considered the idea of making a film about Tsar Ivan IV. Eisenstein corresponded with Prokofiev from Alma-Ata, and was joined by him there in 1942. Prokofiev composed the score for Eisenstein's film and Eisenstein reciprocated by designing sets for an operatic rendition of \"War and Peace\" that Prokofiev was developing.", "Eisenstein's film \"Ivan the Terrible, Part I\", presenting Ivan IV of Russia as a national hero, won Stalin's approval (and a Stalin Prize), but the sequel, \"Ivan The Terrible, Part II\", was criticized by various authorities and went unreleased until 1958. All footage from \"Ivan The Terrible, Part III\" was confiscated whilst the film was still incomplete, and most of it was destroyed, though several filmed scenes exist.", "In 1934, in the Soviet Union, Eisenstein married filmmaker and screenwriter Pera Atasheva (born Pearl Moiseyevna Fogelman; 1900 – 24 September 1965). There have been debates about Eisenstein's sexuality, with a film covering Eisenstein's homosexuality allegedly running into difficulties in Russia. Eisenstein never publicly acknowledged his homosexuality, but it has long been a subject of debate.", "Eisenstein suffered a heart attack on 2 February 1946, and spent much of the following year recovering. He died of a second heart attack on 11 February 1948, at the age of 50. His body lay in state in the Hall of the Cinema Workers before being cremated on 13 February, and his ashes were buried in the Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow.", "Eisenstein was among the earliest film theorists. He briefly attended the film school established by Lev Kuleshov and the two were both fascinated with the power of editing to generate meaning and elicit emotion. Their individual writings and films are the foundations upon which Soviet montage theory was built, but they differed markedly in their understanding of its fundamental principles. Eisenstein's articles and books—particularly \"Film Form\" and \"The Film Sense\"—explain the significance of montage in detail. His writings and films have continued to have a major impact on subsequent filmmakers. Eisenstein believed that editing could be used for more than just expounding a scene or moment, through a \"linkage\" of related images—as Kuleshov maintained. Eisenstein felt the \"collision\" of shots could be used to manipulate the emotions of the audience and create film metaphors. He believed that an idea should be derived from the juxtaposition of two independent shots, bringing an element of collage into film. He developed what he called \"methods of montage\": Eisenstein taught film-making during his career at GIK where he wrote the curricula for the directors' course; his classroom illustrations are reproduced in Vladimir Nizhniĭ's \"Lessons with Eisenstein\". Exercises and examples for students were based on rendering literature such as Honoré de Balzac's \"Le Père Goriot.\" Another hypothetical was the staging of the Haitian struggle for independence as depicted in Anatolii Vinogradov's \"The Black Consul\", influenced as well by John Vandercook's \"Black Majesty\". Lessons from this scenario delved into the character of Jean-Jacques Dessalines, replaying his movements, actions, and the drama surrounding him. Further to the didactics of literary and dramatic content, Eisenstein taught the technicalities of directing, photography, and editing, while encouraging his students' development of individuality, expressiveness, and creativity. Eisenstein's pedagogy, like his films, was politically charged and contained quotes from Vladimir Lenin interwoven with his teaching. In his initial films, Eisenstein did not use professional actors. His narratives eschewed individual characters and addressed broad social issues, especially class conflict. He used groups as characters, and the roles were filled with untrained people from the appropriate classes; he avoided casting stars. Eisenstein's vision of communism brought him into conflict with officials in the ruling regime of Stalin. Like many Bolshevik artists, Eisenstein envisioned a new society which would subsidize artists totally, freeing them from the confines of bosses and budgets, leaving them absolutely free to create, but budgets and producers were as significant to the Soviet film industry as the rest of the world. Due to the fledgling war, the revolution-wracked and isolated new nation didn't have the resources to nationalize its film industry at first." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Fulani conquest and rule.", "British colonization and rule.", "Post-independence history.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Education.", "Places of worship.", "Transport.", "Economy.", "Durbar festival.", "Notable people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the 7th century, Dala Hill, a residual hill in Kano, was the site of a hunting and gathering community that engaged in iron work (nok culture); it is unknown whether these were Hausa people or speakers of Niger–Congo languages. Kano was originally known as Dala, after the hill, and was referred to as such as late as the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th by Bornoan sources. The Kano Chronicle identifies Barbushe, a warrior priest of Dala Hill female spirit deity known as Tsumbura, Barbushe is from the lineage of the hunter family (maparauta) who were the city's first settlers. (Elizabeth Isichei notes that the description of Barbushe is similar to those of Sao people.) While small chiefdoms were previously present in the area, according to the Kano Chronicle, Bagauda son of Bawo and grandson of the mythical hero Bayajidda, became the first king of Kano in 999, reigning until 1063. His grandson Gijimasu (1095–1134), the third king, began building city walls (badala/ganuwa) at the foot of Dala Hill. His own son, Tsaraki (1136–1194), the fifth king, completed them during his reign. In the 12th century Ali Yaji as King of Kano renounced his allegiance to the cult of Tsumburbura, converted to Islam and proclaimed the Sultanate that was to last until its fall in the 19th century. The reign of Yaji ensued an era of expansionism that saw Kano becoming the capital of a pseudo Habe Empire. In 1463 Muhammad Rumfa (reigned 1463- 1499) ascended the throne. During his reign, political pressure from the rising Songhai Empire forced him to take Auwa, the daughter of Askiyah the Great as his wife. She was to later become the first female Madaki of Kano. Rumfa reformed the city, expanded the Sahelian Gidan Rumfa (Emir's Palace), and played a role in the further Islamization of the city, as he urged prominent residents to convert. The Kano Chronicle attributes a total of twelve \"innovations\" to Rumfa. According to the Kano Chronicle, the thirty-seventh Sarkin Kano (King of Kano) was Mohammed Sharef (1703–1731). His successor, Kumbari dan Sharefa (1731–1743), engaged in major battles with Sokoto as a longterm rivalry.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, Fulani Islamic leader Usman dan Fodio led a jihad affecting much of central Sudan which demolished the Habe kingdom, leading to the emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate. In 1805 the last sultan of Kano was defeated by the Jobe Clan of the Fulani, and Kano became an Emirate of the Caliphate. Kano was already the largest and most prosperous province of the empire. This was one of the last major slave societies, with high percentages of enslaved population long after the Atlantic slave trade had been cut off. Heinrich Barth called Kano the greatest emporium of central Africa; he was a German scholar who spent several years in northern Nigeria in the 1850s and estimated the percentage of slaves in Kano to be at least 50%, most of whom lived in slave villages. The city suffered famines from 1807–10, in the 1830s, 1847, 1855, 1863, 1873, 1884, and from 1889 until 1890. From 1893 until 1895, two rival claimants for the throne fought a civil war, or \"Basasa\". With the help of royal slaves, Yusufu was victorious over his brother Tukur and claimed the title of emir.", "In March, 1903 after a scant resistance, the Fort of Kano was captured by the British, It quickly replaced Lokoja as the administrative centre of Northern Nigeria. It was replaced as the centre of government by Zungeru and later Kaduna and only regained administrative significance with the creation of Kano State following Nigerian independence. From 1913 to 1914, as the peanut business was expanding, Kano suffered a major drought, which caused a famine. Other famines during British rule occurred in 1908, 1920, 1927, 1943, 1951, 1956, and 1958. By 1922, groundnut trader Alhassan Dantata had become the richest businessman in the Kano Emirate, surpassing fellow merchants Umaru Sharubutu Koki and Maikano Agogo. In May 1953, an inter-ethnic riot arose due to southern newspapers misreporting on the nature of a disagreement between northern and southern politicians in the House of Representatives. Thousands of Nigerians of southern origin died as a result a political sparked riot.", "Ado Bayero became emir of Kano in 1963. Kano state was created in 1967 from the then Northern Nigeria by the Federal military government. The first military police commissioner, Audu Bako, is credited with building a solid foundation for the progress of a modern society. Most of the social amenities in the state are credited to him. The first civilian governor was Abubakar Rimi. In the late 1960s, a ground tracking station was established on the hill called Goron Dutse overlooking Kano to track NASA's Mercury and Gemini spacecraft when they passed over Africa. In December 1980, radical preacher Mohammed Marwa Maitatsine led a riot. He was killed by security forces, but his followers later started uprisings in other northern cities. After the introduction of sharia law in Kano State in the early 2000s, many Christians left the city. 100 people were killed in riots over the sharia issue during October 2001. In November 2007, political violence broke out in the city after the People's Democratic Party (PDP) accused the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP) of rigging the November 17 local government elections. (The ANPP won in 36 of the state's 44 local Government Areas.) Hundreds of youths took to the streets, over 300 of whom were arrested; at least 25 people were killed. Buildings set on fire include a sharia police station, an Islamic centre, and a council secretariat. 280 federal soldiers were deployed around the city. In January 2012, a series of bomb attacks killed up to 162 people. Four police stations, the State Security Service headquarters, passport offices and immigration centres were attacked. Jihadist insurgents Boko Haram claimed responsibility. After the bombings, Kano was placed under curfew. The Boko Haram insurgency continued with mass murders in March 2013 and November 2014.", "Kano is above sea level. The city lies to the north of the Jos Plateau, in the Sudanian Savanna region that stretches across the south of the Sahel. The city lies near where the Kano and Challawa rivers flowing from the southwest converge to form the Hadejia River, which eventually flows into Lake Chad to the east.", "Kano has a tropical savanna climate. The city has on average about of precipitation per year, the large majority of which falls from June through September. Like the vast majority of Nigeria, Kano is very hot for most of the year, peaking in April. From December through February, the city is less hot, with nighttime temperatures during the months of December, January and February having average low temperatures of.", "Notable educational institutions include:-", "Among the places of worship, they are predominantly Muslims mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples : Church of Nigeria (Anglican Communion), Presbyterian Church of Nigeria (World Communion of Reformed Churches), Nigerian Baptist Convention (Baptist World Alliance), Living Faith Church Worldwide, Redeemed Christian Church of God, Assemblies of God, Roman Catholic Diocese of Kano (Catholic Church).", "The city has an airport, the Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport. After a hiatus of many years, the railway line from Kano to Lagos was rehabilitated by 2013. The train trip to Lagos takes 30 hours and costs the equivalent of US$12, only a quarter of the equivalent bus fare. In 2014, a new double track, standard gauge line is under construction from Lagos. From 2006 to 2015, backed by high oil prices, major highways, overhead bridges and other transportation infrastructure were built by the state government. The most notable of these are the Silver Jubilee flyover bridge at Kofar Nassarawa, the Kofar Kabuga underpass and various 6 lane highways in the city. In 2017, a 74 km, four-line light rail network was announced by the Kano State Ministry of Works, Housing & Transport; with a US$1.8 billion contract signed with China Railway Construction Corporation.", "The economic significance of Kano dates back to the pre-colonial Africa when Kano city served as the southernmost point of the famous trans-Sahara trade routes. Kano was well connected with many cities in North Africa and some cities in southern Europe. Formerly walled, most of the gates to the Old City survive. The Old City houses the vast Kurmi Market, known for its crafts, while old dye pits — still in use — lie nearby. In the Old City are the Emir's Palace, the Great Mosque, and the Gidan Makama Museum. The products exported from Kano to North Africa include textile materials, leather and grains. Kano was connected with trans-Atlantic trade in 1911 when a railway line reached Kano. Kano is a major centre for the production and export of agricultural products like hides, skins, peanuts, and cotton. Kano houses a railway station with trains to Lagos routed through Kaduna, while Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport lies nearby. Because Kano is north of the rail junction at Kaduna, it has equal access to the seaports at Lagos and Port Harcourt. The city maintains its economy and business even in the 21st century with it producing the richest black man — Aliko Dangote — whose great grand father Alhassan Dantata was the richest during Nigeria's colonial period. Ado Bayero became emir of Kano in 1963. Kano state was created in 1967 from the then Northern Nigeria by the Federal military government. The first military police commissioner, Audu Bako, is credited with building a solid foundation for the progress of a modern society.I was there at the time, and found him very progressive.He started a lot of developement project - network of roads, a reliable urban water supply. He was a keen farmer himself and funded construction of number of dams to provide irrigation. Thanks to his policies Kano produced all types produce and export it to the neighbouring states. Inconsistent government policies and sporadic electricity supply have hampered industry, so that Kano's economy relies on trade, retail and services. The emergence of large retail outlets starting from early 2000 with Sahad Stores and Jifatu departmental stores revived investor confidence in the sector which led to the construction of the Ado Bayero mall in, then the largest shopping mall in Nigeria with a retail space of It has the popular filmhouse cinemas, the South African retail giants Shoprite and Game stores as anchor partners. Kano has six districts: the Old City, Bompai, Fagge, Sabon Gari, Syrian Quarter, and Nassarawa. As of November 2007, there were plans to establish an information technology park in the city. The city is supplied with water by the nearby Challawa Gorge Dam, which is being considered as a source of hydro power. The airline Kabo Air has its head office in the city.", "The emir of Kano hosts a \"Durbar\" to mark and celebrate the two annual Muslim festivals Eid al-Fitr (to mark the end of the Holy Month of Ramadan) and Eid al-Adha (to mark the Hajj Holy Pilgrimage). The Durbar culminates in a procession of highly elaborately dressed horsemen who pass through the city to the emir's palace. Once assembled near the palace, groups of horsemen, each group representing a nearby village, take it in turns to charge toward the emir, pulling up just feet in front of the seated dignitaries to offer their respect and allegiance.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Elementary properties.", "Alternative definitions, notations and remarks.", "Some examples.", "Real numbers.", "Euclidean space.", "Complex coordinate space.", "Hilbert space.", "Random variables.", "Real matrices.", "Vector spaces with forms.", "Norms on inner product spaces.", "Orthonormal sequences.", "Operators on inner product spaces.", "Generalizations.", "Degenerate inner products.", "Nondegenerate conjugate symmetric forms.", "Related products." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In this article, the field of scalars denoted is either the field of real numbers or the field of complex numbers. Formally, an inner product space is a vector space over the field together with an \"inner product\", i.e., with a map that satisfies the following three properties for all vectors and all scalars : If the positive-definite condition is replaced by merely requiring that formula_5 for all \"x\", then one obtains the definition of \"positive semi-definite Hermitian form\". A positive semi-definite Hermitian form formula_6 is an inner product if and only if for all \"x\", if formula_7 then \"x = 0\".", "Positive-definiteness and linearity, respectively, ensure that: Notice that conjugate symmetry implies that is real for all, since we have: Conjugate symmetry and linearity in the first variable imply that is, conjugate linearity in the second argument. So, an inner product is a sesquilinear form. Conjugate symmetry is also called Hermitian symmetry, and a conjugate-symmetric sesquilinear form is called a \"Hermitian form\". While the above axioms are more mathematically economical, a compact verbal definition of an inner product is a \"positive-definite Hermitian form\". This important generalization of the familiar square expansion follows: These properties, constituents of the above linearity in the first and second argument: are otherwise known as \"additivity\". In the case of, conjugate-symmetry reduces to symmetry, and sesquilinearity reduces to bilinearity. So, an inner product on a real vector space is a \"positive-definite symmetric bilinear form\". That is, and the binomial expansion becomes:", "A common special case of the inner product, the scalar product or dot product, is written with a centered dot formula_15. Some authors, especially in physics and matrix algebra, prefer to define the inner product and the sesquilinear form with linearity in the second argument rather than the first. Then the first argument becomes conjugate linear, rather than the second. In those disciplines we would write the product as (the bra–ket notation of quantum mechanics), respectively (dot product as a case of the convention of forming the matrix product as the dot products of rows of with columns of ). Here the kets and columns are identified with the vectors of and the bras and rows with the linear functionals (covectors) of the dual space, with conjugacy associated with duality. This reverse order is now occasionally followed in the more abstract literature, taking to be conjugate linear in rather than. A few instead find a middle ground by recognizing both and as distinct notations differing only in which argument is conjugate linear. There are various technical reasons why it is necessary to restrict the base field to and in the definition. Briefly, the base field has to contain an ordered subfield in order for non-negativity to make sense, and therefore has to have characteristic equal to 0 (since any ordered field has to have such characteristic). This immediately excludes finite fields. The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism. More generally any quadratically closed subfield of or will suffice for this purpose, e.g., the algebraic numbers or the constructible numbers. However, in these cases when it is a proper subfield (i.e., neither nor ) even finite-dimensional inner product spaces will fail to be metrically complete. In contrast all finite-dimensional inner product spaces over or, such as those used in quantum computation, are automatically metrically complete and hence Hilbert spaces. In some cases we need to consider non-negative \"semi-definite\" sesquilinear forms. This means that is only required to be non-negative. We show how to treat these below.", "", "A simple example is the real numbers with the standard multiplication as the inner product", "More generally, the real -space with the dot product is an inner product space, an example of a Euclidean -space. where is the transpose of.", "The general form of an inner product on is known as the Hermitian form and is given by where is any Hermitian positive-definite matrix and is the conjugate transpose of. For the real case this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally different scaling of the two vectors, with positive scale factors and orthogonal directions of scaling. Up to an orthogonal transformation it is a weighted-sum version of the dot product, with positive weights.", "The article on Hilbert spaces has several examples of inner product spaces wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a complete metric space. An example of an inner product which induces an incomplete metric occurs with the space of continuous complex valued functions \"f\" and \"g\" on the interval. The inner product is This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval the sequence of continuous \"step\" functions,, defined by: This sequence is a Cauchy sequence for the norm induced by the preceding inner product, which does not converge to a \"continuous\" function.", "For real random variables and, the expected value of their product is an inner product. In this case, if and only if (i.e., almost surely). This definition of expectation as inner product can be extended to random vectors as well.", "For real square matrices of the same size, with transpose as conjugation is an inner product.", "On an inner product space, or more generally a vector space with a nondegenerate form (so an isomorphism ) vectors can be sent to covectors (in coordinates, via transpose), so one can take the inner product and outer product of two vectors, not simply of a vector and a covector.", "A linear space with a norm such as: is a normed space but not an inner product space, because this norm does not satisfy the parallelogram equality required of a norm to have an inner product associated with it. However, inner product spaces have a naturally defined norm based upon the inner product of the space itself that does satisfy the parallelogram equality: This is well defined by the nonnegativity axiom of the definition of inner product space. The norm is thought of as the length of the vector. Directly from the axioms, we can prove the following:", "Let be a finite dimensional inner product space of dimension. Recall that every basis of consists of exactly linearly independent vectors. Using the Gram–Schmidt process we may start with an arbitrary basis and transform it into an orthonormal basis. That is, into a basis in which all the elements are orthogonal and have unit norm. In symbols, a basis is orthonormal if for every and for each. This definition of orthonormal basis generalizes to the case of infinite-dimensional inner product spaces in the following way. Let be any inner product space. Then a collection is a \"basis\" for if the subspace of generated by finite linear combinations of elements of is dense in (in the norm induced by the inner product). We say that is an \"orthonormal basis\" for if it is a basis and if and for all. Using an infinite-dimensional analog of the Gram-Schmidt process one may show: Theorem. Any separable inner product space has an orthonormal basis. Using the Hausdorff maximal principle and the fact that in a complete inner product space orthogonal projection onto linear subspaces is well-defined, one may also show that Theorem. Any complete inner product space has an orthonormal basis. The two previous theorems raise the question of whether all inner product spaces have an orthonormal basis. The answer, it turns out is negative. This is a non-trivial result, and is proved below. The following proof is taken from Halmos's \"A Hilbert Space Problem Book\" (see the references). Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem: Theorem. Let be a separable inner product space and an orthonormal basis of. Then the map is an isometric linear map with a dense image. This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of Fourier series, in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of trigonometric polynomials. Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article Hilbert space). In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series: Theorem. Let be the inner product space. Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions is an orthonormal basis of the space with the inner product. The mapping is an isometric linear map with dense image. Orthogonality of the sequence follows immediately from the fact that if, then Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1. Finally the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, in the \"inner product norm\", follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on with the uniform norm. This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials.", "Several types of linear maps from an inner product space to an inner product space are of relevance: From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic. The spectral theorem provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally normal operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces. A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces.", "Any of the axioms of an inner product may be weakened, yielding generalized notions. The generalizations that are closest to inner products occur where bilinearity and conjugate symmetry are retained, but positive-definiteness is weakened.", "If is a vector space and a semi-definite sesquilinear form, then the function: makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that does not imply (such a functional is then called a semi-norm). We can produce an inner product space by considering the quotient }. The sesquilinear form factors through. This construction is used in numerous contexts. The Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of semi-definite kernels on arbitrary sets.", "Alternatively, one may require that the pairing be a nondegenerate form, meaning that for all non-zero there exists some such that, though need not equal ; in other words, the induced map to the dual space is injective. This generalization is important in differential geometry: a manifold whose tangent spaces have an inner product is a Riemannian manifold, while if this is related to nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form the manifold is a pseudo-Riemannian manifold. By Sylvester's law of inertia, just as every inner product is similar to the dot product with positive weights on a set of vectors, every nondegenerate conjugate symmetric form is similar to the dot product with \"nonzero\" weights on a set of vectors, and the number of positive and negative weights are called respectively the positive index and negative index. Product of vectors in Minkowski space is an example of indefinite inner product, although, technically speaking, it is not an inner product according to the standard definition above. Minkowski space has four dimensions and indices 3 and 1 (assignment of \"+\" and \"−\" to them differs depending on conventions). Purely algebraic statements (ones that do not use positivity) usually only rely on the nondegeneracy (the injective homomorphism ) and thus hold more generally.", "The term \"inner product\" is opposed to outer product, which is a slightly more general opposite. Simply, in coordinates, the inner product is the product of a \"covector\" with an vector, yielding a 1 × 1 matrix (a scalar), while the outer product is the product of an vector with a covector, yielding an matrix. Note that the outer product is defined for different dimensions, while the inner product requires the same dimension. If the dimensions are the same, then the inner product is the \"trace\" of the outer product (trace only being properly defined for square matrices). In a quip: \"inner is horizontal times vertical and shrinks down, outer is vertical times horizontal and expands out\". More abstractly, the outer product is the bilinear map sending a vector and a covector to a rank 1 linear transformation (simple tensor of type (1, 1)), while the inner product is the bilinear evaluation map given by evaluating a covector on a vector; the order of the domain vector spaces here reflects the covector/vector distinction. The inner product and outer product should not be confused with the interior product and exterior product, which are instead operations on vector fields and differential forms, or more generally on the exterior algebra. As a further complication, in geometric algebra the inner product and the \"exterior\" (Grassmann) product are combined in the geometric product (the Clifford product in a Clifford algebra) – the inner product sends two vectors (1-vectors) to a scalar (a 0-vector), while the exterior product sends two vectors to a bivector (2-vector) – and in this context the exterior product is usually called the \"outer product\" (alternatively, \"wedge product\"). The inner product is more correctly called a \"scalar\" product in this context, as the nondegenerate quadratic form in question need not be positive definite (need not be an inner product)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Alphabet and literature.", "Geographical distribution.", "Dialects.", "Writing.", "Phonology.", "Vowels.", "Grammar.", "Loan words.", "Music.", "Legal status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bambara is a variety of a group of closely related languages called Manding, whose native speakers trace their cultural history to the medieval Mali Empire. Varieties of Manding are generally considered (among native speakers) to be mutually intelligible – dependent on exposure or familiarity with dialects between speakers – and spoken by 30 to 40 million people in the countries Burkina Faso, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast and the Gambia. Manding is part of the larger Mandé family of languages.", "It uses seven vowels a, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ and u, each of which can be nasalized, pharyngealized and murmured, giving a total number of 21 vowels (the letters approximate their equivalents). Writing with the Latin alphabet began during the French occupation, and the first orthography was introduced in 1967. Literacy is limited, especially in rural areas. Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the \"language of the educated\"), there exists a wealth of oral literature, which is often tales of kings and heroes. This oral literature is mainly tradited by the griots (\"Jeliw\" in Bambara) who are a mixture of storytellers, praise singers, and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years. Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old empire of Mali.", "Bambara is spoken throughout Mali as a lingua franca. The language is most widely spoken in the areas east, south, and north of Bamako, where native speakers and/or those that identify as members of the Bambara ethnic group are most densely populated. These regions are also usually considered to be the historical geographical origin of Bambara people, particularly Ségou, after diverging from other Manding groups.", "The main dialect is Standard Bamara, which has significant influence from Maninkakan. Bambara has many local dialects: Kaarta, Tambacounda (west); Beledugu, Bananba, Mesekele (north); Jitumu, Jamaladugu, Segu (center); Cakadugu, Keleyadugu, Jalakadougu, Kurulamini, Banimɔncɛ, Cɛmala, Cɛndugu, Baninkɔ, Shɛndugu, Ganadugu (south); Kala, Kuruma, Saro, dialects to the northeast of Mopti (especially Bɔrɛ); Zegedugu, Bɛndugu, Bakɔkan, Jɔnka (southeast).,", "Since 1967, Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin script, using some additional phonetic characters. The vowels are \"a, e, ɛ\" (formerly \"è\"), \"i, o, ɔ\" (formerly \"ò\"), \"u\"; accents can be used to indicate tonality. The former digraph \"ny\" is now written \"ɲ\" when it designates a palatal nasal glide; the \"ny\" spelling is kept for the combination of a nasal vowel with a subsequent oral palatal glide. Following the 1966 Bamako spelling conventions, a nasal velar glide \"ŋ\" is written as \"ŋ\", although in early publications it was often transcribed as \"ng\" or \"nk\". The N'Ko () alphabet is a script devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for the Manding languages of West Africa; N’Ko means 'I say' in all Manding languages. Kante created N’Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a \"cultureless people\" since prior to this time there had been no indigenous African writing system for his language. N'ko first gained a strong user base around the Maninka-speaking area of Kante's hometown of Kankan, Guinea and disseminated from there into other Manding-speaking parts of West Africa. N'ko and the Arabic script are still in use for Bambara, although only the Latin-based orthography is officially recognized in Mali. Additionally, a script known as Masaba or Ma-sa-ba was developed for the language beginning in 1930 by Woyo Couloubayi (c.1910-1982) of Assatiémala. Named for the first characters in Couloubayi's preferred collation order, Masaba is a syllabary which uses diacritics to indicate vowel qualities such as tone, length, and nasalization. Though not conclusively related to other writing systems, Masaba appears to draw on traditional Bambara iconography and shares some similarities with the Vai syllabary of Liberia and with Arabic-derived secret alphabets used in Hodh (now Hodh El Gharbi and Hodh Ech Chargui Regions of Mauritania). As of 1978, Masaba was in limited use in several communities in Nioro Cercle for accounting, personal correspondence, and the recording of Muslim prayers; the script's current status and prevalence is unknown.", "", "Each consonant represents a single sound. Although, there are some exceptions:", "Like Turkish and Japanese, it is an agglutinative language, meaning that morphemes are glued together to form a word. The basic sentence structure is Subject Object Verb. Take the phrase, \"n t'a don\" (I don't know [it]). \"n\" is the subject (I), \"a\" is the object (it), and \"[ta] don\" is the verb ([to] know). The \"t'\" is from the present tense marker \"té.\" \"té\" is the negative present tense marker and \"bé\" is the affirmative present tense marker. Therefore, \"n b'a don\" would mean \"I know it\". Bambara is an SOV language and has two (mid/standard and high) tones; e.g. \"sa\" 'die' vs. \"sá\"'snake.' The typical argument structure of the language consists of a subject, followed by an aspectival auxiliary, followed by the direct object, and finally a transitive verb. Naturally, if the verb is intransitive, the direct object is absent. Bambara does not inflect for gender. Gender for a noun can be specified by adding an adjective, \"-cɛ\" or \"-kɛ\" for male and \"-muso\" for female. The plural is formed by attaching a vocalic suffix \"-u\", most often with a low tone (in the orthography, \"-w\") to nouns or adjectives. Bambara uses postpositions in much the same manner as languages like English and French use prepositions. These postpositions are found after the noun and are used to express direction, location, and in some cases, possession.", "In urban areas, many Bamanankan conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches. The Bamako dialect makes use of sentences like: \"N taara Kita mais il n'y avait personne là-bas.\" : \"I went to Kita [Bamanankan ] but there was no one there [French].\" The sentence in Bamanankan alone would be \"Ń taara Kita nka mɔkɔ si tun tɛ yen.\" The French proposition \"est-ce que\" is also used in Bamanankan ; however, it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables,. Bamanankan uses many French loan words. For example, some people might say: \"I ka kurusi ye jauni ye\": \"Your skirt is yellow\" (using a derivation of the French word for yellow, jaune.) However, one could also say: \"I ka kulosi ye nɛrɛmukuman ye\", also meaning \"your skirt is yellow.\" The original Bamanankan word for yellow comes from \"\"nɛrɛmuku\",\" being flour (\"muku\") made from néré (locust bean), a seed from a long seed pod. Nɛrɛmuku is often used in sauces in Southern Mali. Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali. For example, the Bamanankan word for snow is \"niegei\", based on the French word for snow \"neige\". As there has never been snow in Mali, there was no unique word in Bamanankan to describe it.", "Malian artists such as Oumou Sangaré, Sidiki Diabaté, Rokia Traoré, Ali Farka Touré, Salif Keita, Habib Koité, and the married duo Amadou & Mariam often sing in Bambara. Aïda of the band Métisse often sings in Dioula, as does Mory Kanté, born in Guinea to a Malian mother; his most famous song to date is \"Yeke Yeke\" (Alpha Blondy). Lyrics in Bambara occur on \"Stevie Wonder's Journey Through \"The Secret Life of Plants\"\". Tiken Jah Fakoly often sings reggae in Dyula and French. Additionally, in 2010, Spanish rock group Dover released its 7th studio album I Ka Kené with the majority of lyrics in the language. American rapper Nas also released a track titled \"Sabari\" in 2010, which featured Damian Marley. \"Sabari\" is a Bambara word that means patience.", "Bambara is one of several languages designated by Mali as a national language." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "History of the definition.", "Motivation of the modern definition.", "Technical definition.", "Prototypical examples.", "Affine structure.", "Subspaces.", "Lines and segments.", "Parallelism.", "Metric structure.", "Distance and length.", "Orthogonality.", "Angle.", "Cartesian coordinates.", "Other coordinates.", "Isometries.", "Isometry with prototypical examples.", "Euclidean group.", "Topology.", "Axiomatic definitions.", "Usage.", "Other geometric spaces.", "Affine space.", "Projective space.", "Non-Euclidean geometries.", "Curved spaces.", "Pseudo-Euclidean space." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Euclidean space was introduced by ancient Greeks as an abstraction of our physical space. Their great innovation, appearing in Euclid's \"Elements\" was to build and \"prove\" all geometry by starting from a few very basic properties, which are abstracted from the physical world, and cannot be mathematically proved because of the lack of more basic tools. These properties are called postulates, or axioms in modern language. This way of defining Euclidean space is still in use under the name of synthetic geometry. In 1637, René Descartes introduced Cartesian coordinates and showed that this allows reducing geometric problems to algebraic computations with numbers. This reduction of geometry to algebra", "One way to think of the Euclidean plane is as a set of points satisfying certain relationships, expressible in terms of distance and angles. For example, there are two fundamental operations (referred to as motions) on the plane. One is translation, which means a shifting of the plane so that every point is shifted in the same direction and by the same distance. The other is rotation around a fixed point in the plane, in which all points in the plane turn around that fixed point through the same angle. One of the basic tenets of Euclidean geometry is that two figures (usually considered as subsets) of the plane should be considered equivalent (congruent) if one can be transformed into the other by some sequence of translations, rotations and reflections (see below). In order to make all of this mathematically precise, the theory must clearly define what is a Euclidean space, and the related notions of distance, angle, translation, and rotation. Even when used in physical theories, Euclidean space is an abstraction detached from actual physical locations, specific reference frames, measurement instruments,", "A Euclidean vector space is a finite-dimensional inner product space over the real numbers. A Euclidean space is an affine space over the reals such that the associated vector space is a Euclidean vector space. Euclidean spaces are sometimes called \"Euclidean affine spaces\" for distinguishing them from Euclidean vector spaces. The \"dimension\" of a Euclidean space is the dimension of its associated vector space. If is a Euclidean space, its associated vector space is also called its space", "For any vector space, the addition acts freely and transitively on the vector space itself. Thus a Euclidean vector space can be viewed as a Euclidean space that has itself as associated vector space. A typical case of Euclidean vector space is formula_2 viewed as a vector space equipped with the dot product", "Some basic properties of Euclidean spaces depend only of the fact that a Euclidean space is an affine space. They are called affine properties and include the concepts of lines, subspaces, and parallelism. which are detailed in next subsections.", "Let be a Euclidean space and formula_9 its associated vector space. A \"flat\", \"Euclidean subspace\" or \"affine subspace\" of is a subset of such that is a linear subspace of formula_8 A Euclidean subspace is a Euclidean space with formula_19 as associated vector space. This linear subspace formula_19 is called the", "In a Euclidean space, a \"line\" is a Euclidean subspace of dimension one. Since a vector space of dimension one is spanned by any nonzero vector a line is a set of the form where and are two distinct points. It follows that \"there is exactly one line that passes through (contains) two distinct points.\" This implies that two distinct lines", "Two subspaces and of the same dimension in a Euclidean space are \"parallel\" if they have the same direction. Equivalently, they are parallel, if there is a translation vector that maps one to the other: Given a point and a subspace, there exists exactly one subspace that contains", "The vector space formula_9 associated to a Euclidean space is an inner product space. This implies a symmetric bilinear form that is positive definite (that is formula_33 is always positive for ). The inner product of a Euclidean space is often called \"dot product\" and denoted. This is specially the case when a Cartesian coordinate system has been chosen, as, in this case, the inner product of two vectors is the dot product of their coordinate vectors. For this reason, and for historical reasons, the dot notation is more commonly used than the bracket notation for the inner product of Euclidean spaces. This article will follow this usage; that is formula_34 will be denoted in the remainder of this article. The Euclidean norm of a vector is The inner product and the norm allows expressing and proving all metric and topological properties of Euclidean geometry. The next subsection describe the most fundamental ones. \"In these subsections,\" \"denotes an arbitrary Euclidean space, and formula_9 denotes its vector space of translations.\"", "The \"distance\" (more precisely the \"Euclidean distance\") between two points of a Euclidean space is the norm of the translation vector that maps one point to the other; that is The \"length\" of a segment is the distance between its endpoints. It is often denoted.", "Two nonzero vectors and of formula_9 are \"perpendicular\" or \"orthogonal\" if their inner product is zero: Two linear subspaces of formula_9 are orthogonal if every nonzero vector of the first one is perpendicular to every nonzero vector of the second one. This implies that the intersection of the linear subspace is reduced to the zero vector.", "The (non-oriented) \"angle\" between two nonzero vectors and in formula_9 is where is the principal value of the arccosine function. By Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, the argument of the arcsine is in the interval. Therefore is real, and (or } if angles are measured in degrees). Angles are not useful in a Euclidean line, as they can be only 0 or \"\". In an oriented Euclidean plane, one can define the \"oriented angle\" of two vectors. The oriented angle of two vectors and is then the opposite of the oriented angle of and. In this case, the angle of two vectors can have any value modulo an integer multiple of. In particular, a reflex angle equals the negative angle. The angle of two vectors", "Every Euclidean vector space has an orthonormal basis (in fact, infinitely many in dimension higher than one, and two in dimension one), that is a basis formula_51 of unit vectors (formula_52) that are pairwise orthogonal (formula_53 for ). More precisely, given any basis formula_54 the Gram–Schmidt process computes an orthonormal basis such that, for every, the linear spans of formula_55 and formula_56", "As a Euclidean space is an affine space, one can consider an affine frame on it, which is the same as a Euclidean frame, except that the basis is not required to be orthonormal. This define affine coordinates, sometimes called \"skew coordinates\" for emphasizing that the basis vectors are not pairwise orthogonal. An affine basis of a Euclidean space of dimension is a set of points that are not contained in a hyperplan. An affine basis define barycentric coordinates for every point. Many other coordinates systems can be defined on a Euclidean space of", "An isometry between two metric spaces is a bijection preserving the distance, that is In the case of a Euclidean vector space, an isometry preserves the norm since the norm of a vector is its distance from the zero vector. It preserves also the inner product since An isometry Euclidean vector spaces is a linear isomorphism. An isometry formula_68 of Euclidean spaces defines an isometry formula_69 of the associated Euclidean vector spaces. This implies that two isometric Euclidean spaces have the same dimension. Conversely, if and are Euclidean spaces,,, and formula_69 is an isometry, then the map formula_68 defined by is an isometry of Euclidean spaces. It follows from the preceding results that an isometry of Euclidean spaces maps lines to lines, and, more generally Euclidean subspaces to Euclidean subspaces of the same dimension, and that the restriction of the isometry on these subspaces are isometries of these subspaces.", "If is a Euclidean space, its associated vector space formula_9 can be considered as a Euclidean space. Every point defines an isometry of Euclidean spaces which maps to the zero vector and has the identity as associated linear map.", "An isometry from a Euclidean space onto itself is called \"Euclidean isometry\", \"Euclidean transformation\" or \"rigid transformation\". The rigid transformations of a Euclidean space form a group (under composition), called the \"Euclidean group\" and often denoted of. The simplest Euclidean transformations are translations They are in bijective correspondence with vectors. This is a reason for calling \"space of translations\" the vector space associated to a Euclidean space. The translations form a normal subgroup of the Euclidean group. A Euclidean isometry of a Euclidean space defines a linear isometry formula_80 of the associated vector space (by \"linear isometry\", it is meant an isometry that is also a linear map) in the following way: denoting by the vector formula_81, if is an arbitrary point of, one has It is straightforward to prove that this is a linear map that does not depend from the choice of The map formula_83 is a group homomorphism from the Euclidean group onto the group of linear isometries, called the orthogonal group. The kernel of this homomorphism is the translation group, showing that it is a normal subgroup of the Euclidean group.", "The Euclidean distance makes a Euclidean space a metric space, and thus a topological space. This topology is called the Euclidean topology. In the case of formula_1 this topology is also the product topology. The open sets are the subsets that contains an open ball around each of their points. In other words, open balls form a base of the topology. The", "The definition of Euclidean spaces that has been described in this article differs fundamentally of Euclid's one. In reality, Euclid did not define formally the space, because it was thought as a description of the physical world that exists independently of human mind. The need of a formal definition appeared only at the end of 19th century, with the introduction of non-Euclidean geometries. Two different approaches have been used. Felix Klein suggested to define geometries through their symmetries. The presentation of Euclidean spaces given in this article, is essentially issued from his Erlangen program, with the emphasis given on the groups of translations and isometries.", "Since ancient Greeks, Euclidean space is used for modeling shapes in the physical world. It is thus used in many sciences such as physics, mechanics, and astronomy. It is also widely used in all technical areas that are concerned with shapes, figure, location and position, such as architecture, geodesy, topography, navigation, industrial design, or technical drawing. Space of dimensions higher than three occurs in several modern theories of physics; see Higher", "Since the introduction, at the end of 19th century, of Non-Euclidean geometries, many sorts of spaces have been considered, about which one can do geometric reasoning in the same way as with Euclidean spaces. In general, they share some properties with Euclidean spaces, but may also have properties that could appear as rather strange. Some of these spaces use Euclidean geometry for their definition, or can be modeled as subspaces of a Euclidean space of higher dimension. When such a space is defined by geometrical axioms, embedding the space in a Euclidean space is a standard way for proving consistency of its definition, or, more precisely for proving that its theory is consistent, if Euclidean geometry is consistent (which cannot be proved).", "A Euclidean space is an affine space equipped with a metric. Affine spaces have many other uses in mathematics. In particular, as they are defined over any field, they allow doing geometry in other contexts. As soon as non-linear questions are considered, it is generally useful to consider affine spaces over the complex numbers as an extension of Euclidean spaces. For example, a circle and a line have always two intersection points (possibly not distinct) in", "Originally, projective spaces have been introduced by adding \"points at infinity\" to Euclidean spaces, and, more generally to affine spaces, in order to make true the assertion \"two coplanar lines meet in exactly one point\". Projective space share with Euclidean and affine spaces the property of", "\"Non-Euclidean geometry\" refers usually to geometrical spaces where the parallel postulate is false. They include elliptic geometry, where the sum of the angles of a triangle is more than 180°, and hyperbolic geometry, where this sum is less", "A manifold is a space that in the neighborhood of each point resembles a Euclidean space. In technical terms, a manifold is a topological space, such that each point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to an open subset of a Euclidean space. Manifold can be classified by increasing degree of this \"resemblance\" into topological manifolds, differentiable manifolds, smooth manifolds, and analytic manifolds. However, none of these types of \"resemblance\" respect distances and angles, even approximately. Distances and angles can be defined on a smooth manifold by providing a smoothly varying", "The inner product that is defined to define Euclidean spaces is a positive definite bilinear form. If it is replaced by an indefinite quadratic form which is non-degenerate, one gets a pseudo-Euclidean space. A fundamental example of such a space is the Minkowski space, which is the space-time of" ] }