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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Dagpo Kagyu Lineages.", "Teachings.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gampopa was born in the Nyal (or Nyel) district, Central Tibet and from an early age was a student of medicine in the Indian, Chinese and Tibetan medical traditions. Later in his life he moved to the region of Dakpo (\"dwags po\") in southern Tibet and hence was also called Dakpopa (\"dwags po pa\"), the man from Dakpo. The region is also near Gampo Hills, hence his other name, Gampopa. In his youth Gampopa studied under the Nyingma lama Barey as well as under the Kadampa teacher Geshe Yontan Drag. He married a daughter of a man named Chim Jose Darma Wo (\"mchims jo sras dar ma 'od\") and had a child, but they both died, causing him to renounce the householder's life. In 1104, at the age of twenty-five he took ordination, either in Dakpo or in Penyul, at Gyachak Ri monastery (\"'phan yul rgya lcags ri\"), receiving the name Sönam Rinchen (\"bsod nams rin chen\").\" After becoming a monk in the Kadampa lineage under Geshe Lodan Sherab and focused on studying the Kadampa teachings. In his 30s he sought out and became the foremost student of the yogi Milarepa. Milarepa instructed him in the practice of Vajravārahī, \"tummo\" (\"gtum mo\") and Mahāmudrā. Gampopa's position in the transmission lineage of the Mahamudra teaching is as follows: This lineage sequence, taken together, is called the \"Five Founding Masters\" by the Kagyu school. After his studies with Milarepa, Gampopa founded Daklha Gampo Monastery (\"Dwags lha sgam po\") in 1121 CE. He had many great students who were accomplished tantric practitioners, both monks and laymen. Gampopa's teaching joined the Lamrim teachings of the Kadampa school with the Mahamudra and tantric teachings of the Kagyu school. According to Tony Duff, he taught Mahamudra in two approaches, \"one is a gradual approach called the Four Yogas of Mahamudra, the other is a sudden approach called Essence Mahamudra.\"", "Gampopa taught extensively, and attracted many students. He is the source of the major surviving Kagyu sub-schools, all known as the \"Dagpo Kagyu\". Following Gampopa, there evolved the so-called \"Four Major and Eight Minor\" lineages of the Dagpo (sometimes rendered \"Tagpo\" or \"Dakpo\") Kagyu School. This phrase is descriptive of the generation or order in which the schools were founded, not of their importance. The four \"major\" Kagyu schools were those of: The succession of Gampopa's own monastery passed to his nephew, Dakgom Tsültrim Nyingpo (, 1116-1169).", "Gampopa's most famous teaching is known as \"The Four Dharmas of Gampopa\", this is outlined in a key text of Gampopa called \"The Four Dharmas in Brief\":\"It is necessary for: dharma to turn to dharma; dharma to turn into the path; the path to dispel confusion; and confusion to turn into wisdom\"\"The Four Dharmas in Brief\" further states about each of the four Dharmas: (1) Dharma to turn to dharma means to meditate on impermanence, the fact that all things will be left behind at death and that only Dharma is of use, all must be renounced except Dharma. (2) Dharma turns into the path is explained as:if there is the rational mind of loving kindness and compassion that cherishes other more than oneself-the fictional enlightenment mind-and then on top of that the understanding that all phenomena, outer and inner, appearing as the coming together of interdependency are illusory, then the primal dharma turns into the path.(3) The Path is to be used to dispel confusion means that \"confusion has to be dispelled from top to bottom\", Gampopa explains this as follows:First, meditation on impermanence dispels the confusion of clinging to this life, then meditation on karma and effect dispels the confusion of bad views, then meditation on the disadvantages of cyclic existence dispels the confusion of attachment to cyclic existence, then meditation on loving kindness and compassion dispels the confusion of the Lesser Vehicle, then meditation on appearances being dream-like, illusory, dispels the confusion of grasping at conceived-of things...(4) Confusion turns into wisdom:If, the force of meditation done on all phenomena being free from birth and cessation in superfact (paramartha satya) causes whatever appears, whatever is known, to be resolved as its own entity, then confusion has dawned as wisdom.", "Gampopa's collected works (known as the \"Dags po'i Bka' 'bum\") were published in Dvag Lha Gampo monastery, but that edition has been lost. There are three main editions extant today: Gampopa's \"The Jewel Ornament of Liberation\" () is one of his most important works, it has been translated into English, first by Herbert Guenther in 1959 and again by Khenpo Konchok Gyeltsen in 1998." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rationale.", "System details.", "Uses.", "Call forwarding.", "Called party facility.", "ENUM varieties.", "Parties having a direct interest in ENUM." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Being able to dial telephone numbers the way customers have come to expect is considered crucial for the convergence of classic telephone service (PSTN) and Internet telephony (Voice over IP, VoIP), and for the development of new IP multimedia services. The problem of a single universal personal identifier for multiple communication services can be solved with different approaches. One simple approach is the Electronic Number Mapping System (ENUM), developed by the IETF, using existing E.164 telephone numbers, protocols and infrastructure to indirectly access different services available under a single personal identifier. ENUM also permits connecting the IP world to the telephone system in a seamless manner.", "For an ENUM subscriber to be able to activate and use the ENUM service, it needs to obtain three elements from a Registrar: This works as follows: (1) the Registrar provides the Subscriber (or Registrant) with a domain name, the URI, that will be used for accessing a DNS server to fetch a NAPTR record, (2) a personal E.164 telephone number (the ENUM number). The URI domain name of (1) is biunivocally associated (one-to-one mapped) to the subscriber E.164 ENUM number of (2). Finally (3) the NAPTR record corresponding to the subscriber URI contains the subscriber call forwarding/termination preferences. Therefore, if a calling party being at the PSTN network dials a called party ENUM number by touch typing the E.164 called party number, the number will be translated at the ENUM gateway into the corresponding URI. This URI will be used for looking-up and fetching the NAPTR record obtaining the called party wishes about how the call should be forwarded or terminated (either on IP or on PSTN terminations) – the so-called access information – which the registrant (the called party) has specified by writing his/her choice at the NAPTR record (\"Naming Authority Pointer Resource Records\" as defined in RFC 3403), such as e-mail addresses, a fax number, a personal website, a VoIP number, mobile telephone numbers, voice mail systems, IP-telephony addresses, web pages, GPS coordinates, call diversions or instant messaging. Alternatively, when the calling party is at the IP side, the User Agent (UA) piece of software of the dialler will allow to dial a E.164 number, but the dialler UA will convert it into a URI, to be used for looking-up at the ENUM gateway DNS and fetch the NAPTR record obtaining the called party wishes about how the call should be forwarded or terminated (again, either on IP or on PSTN terminations). Calling by using a new personal E.164 number (the ENUM number) to look-up at a database is therefore an \"indirect calling support service\". The ITU ENUM allocates a specific zone, namely \"e164.arpa\" for use with ENUM E.164 numbers on the IP side of the network. RFC 6116 defines how any E.164 number, such as +1 555 42 42 can be transformed into a URI, by reversing the numbers, separating them with dots and adding the e164.arpa suffix thus: 2.4.2.4.5.5.5.1.e164.arpa The URI can then be used for obtaining the Internet Protocol addresses for services such as the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) VoIP telephony. In the DNS, NAPTR records are used for setting the subscriber call forwarding/termination preferences. Therefore, the whole system can 'translate' E.164 addresses to SIP addresses. An example NAPTR record is: This example specifies that if you want to use the \"E2U+sip\" service, you should use <nowiki>sip:[email protected]</nowiki> as the address. The regular expression can be used by a telephone company to easily assign addresses to all of its clients. For example, if your number is +15554242, your SIP address is <nowiki>sip:[email protected];</nowiki> if your number is +15551234, your SIP address is <nowiki>sip:[email protected]</nowiki>. The following Figure illustrates how ENUM works by giving an example: Subscriber A sets out to call Subscriber B. The ENUM user does not notice anything of this reversal and the DNS database look-up, as this is done automatically behind the scenes using a user agent software in his PC or terminal, or at the PABX or Gateway. For instance, when the user types the telephone number in his web browser ENUM enabled agent and indicates what item of information he is looking for (email address, telephone number, web address, etc.) in the PC or terminal the number is converted to a domain name. This is sent to ENUM servers on the Internet, which send back the NAPTR records associated with the name. The access information and any priority indicated for them are stored in these. The user gets the requested address back on his PC or terminal. ENUM therefore in fact functions as a mechanism for translating a telephone number into a domain name with the requested address or number associated with it, but without the user viewing how this is done, just as he is currently unaware that he is using the DNS when he makes a connection with the Internet or what is going on at the telephone switch when he makes a call.", "", "One way of doing call forwarding with ENUM is illustrated in the next figure. The caller uses the telephone to dial the number of another subscriber, which leads to an ENUM lookup (such as is provided by SIP Broker). The DNS responds to the caller by returning a list with NAPTR records for VoIP communication, telephone numbers and email addresses. Next, an attempt will be made, using the VoIP record from this list, to establish a connection with the subscriber. If the subscriber is not online, the next record selected will be that for a connection to a PSTN or mobile telephone. If this attempt fails too, a voice message will be sent to the subscriber via a listed email address. Subdomains of e164.arpa are delegated on a country-code basis by the ITU. Each delegation is normally made to a regulatory body designated by the national government for the country code concerned. What happens at a country level is a National Matter. In general the conventional DNS registry-registrar model is used. The national ENUM registry manages and operates the DNS infrastructure and related systems for \"country-code\".e164.arpa. It takes registration requests from registrars who are agents of the end users, the registrants. Registrars are typically VoIP providers and telcos who bundle an ENUM registration as part of a VoIP service package. People using an ENUM-enabled VoIP service can dial the registrant's existing number and be connected to the registrant's VoIP telephone over the Internet instead of using the PSTN. When they call someone who does not use ENUM, calls complete over the Public Switched Telephone Network or PSTN in the usual manner. Support for.e164.arpa varies widely between countries; many do not support it at all. Alternative ENUM-like registries have also emerged. These services verify PSTN numbers and can be used in addition to or as an alternative to e164.arpa. However, if the registry in which a callee's number is not known by the caller, the choice between registries can create confusion and complexity. Multiple DNS lookups may be needed and it is far from simple to know which E.164 numbers are registered in which of these alternate ENUM-like trees. It is also possible that if an E.164 number is registered in several of these trees, there can be inconsistencies in the information that is returned. Furthermore, the subscriber \"owning\" a particular E.164 number may not be aware that their number has been entered into one or more of these alternate ENUM-like trees or what information these alternate trees are returning for their E.164 number.", "ENUM can also be viewed as a called party facility. Basically, it is an indirect dialling service designed to work seamlessly on PSTN and VoIP that builds on the great value of the E.164 numbers: billions of people knowing how to dial using numbers. If the called person has opted to use ENUM she/he will have published the ENUM number and have entered (via ENUM NAPTR) his/her wishes for how the call should be terminated. This might be a single VoIP identifier, but most likely it will be a list of how the call should be forwarded to various fixed-line, cellphones, secretarial or voice mail services, either at the IP or at the PSTN side of the network. It is the called party choice to opt-in ENUM and also to decide to let the calling party know her/his wishes. Today when a user places a regular phone call, he has to begin deciding how to establish the call with the other party: via VoIP, Fixed-line PSTN, cellphone, entering a URI or dialling a number. With ENUM indirect dialling it is the called party wishes that matter and solve that decision. Another benefit of indirect dialling is to free the user to change his phone telco, webpage, IMS, email or whatever telecom service he uses without having to tell all his contacts about that. A presence enhanced ENUM facility having various profiles could automatically change the called party wishes as a function of where he/she is available. This could be a mechanism to automatically switch between cellphone and VoIP to the most convenient (or the less costing) termination.", "One potential source of confusion, when talking about ENUM, is the variety of ENUM implementations in place today. Quite often, people speaking of ENUM are really referring to only one of the following:", "Various parties are involved with ENUM. These include: You can find more information and further parties involved in the ENUM ecosystem in RFC 4725." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Birth and early years.", "Medea, the Marathonian Bull, Androgeus, and the Pallantides.", "Theseus and the Minotaur.", "Ship of Theseus.", "Theseus and Pirithous.", "Abduction of Persephone and encounter with Hades.", "Phaedra and Hippolytus.", "Other stories and death of Theseus.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Aegeus, one of the primordial kings of Athens, was childless. Desiring an heir, he asked the Oracle of Delphi for advice. Her cryptic words were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\" Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed. He asked the advice of his host Pittheus, king of Troezen. Pittheus understood the prophecy, got Aegeus drunk, and gave Aegeus his daughter Aethra. But following the instructions of Athena in a dream, Aethra left the sleeping Aegeus and waded across to the island of Sphairia that lay close to Troezen's shore. There she poured a libation to Sphairos (Pelops's charioteer) and Poseidon and was possessed by the sea god in the night. The mix gave Theseus a combination of divine as well as mortal characteristics in his nature; such double paternity, with one immortal and one mortal, was a familiar feature of other Greek heroes. After Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens. Before leaving, however, he buried his sandals and sword under a huge rock and told Aethra that when their son grew up, he should move the rock, if he were heroic enough, and take the tokens for himself as evidence of his royal parentage. In Athens, Aegeus was joined by Medea, who had left Corinth after slaughtering the children she had borne and had taken Aegeus as her new consort. Priestess and consort together represented the old order in Athens. Thus Theseus was raised in his mother's land. When Theseus grew up and became a brave young man, he moved the rock and recovered his father's tokens. His mother then told him the truth about his father's identity and that he must take the sword and sandals back to the king Aegeus to claim his birthright. To journey to Athens, Theseus could choose to go by sea (which was the safe way) or by land, following a dangerous path around the Saronic Gulf, where he would encounter a string of six entrances to the Underworld, each guarded by a chthonic enemy. Young, brave, and ambitious, Theseus decided to go alone by the land route and defeated a great many bandits along the way.", "When Theseus arrived in Athens, he did not reveal his true identity immediately. Aegeus gave him hospitality but was suspicious of the young, powerful stranger's intentions. Aegeus's consort Medea recognized Theseus immediately as Aegeus' son and worried that Theseus would be chosen as heir to Aegeus' kingdom instead of her son Medus. She tried to arrange to have Theseus killed by asking him to capture the Marathonian Bull, an emblem of Cretan power. On the way to Marathon, Theseus took shelter from a storm in the hut of an ancient woman named Hecale. She swore to make a sacrifice to Zeus if Theseus were successful in capturing the bull. Theseus did capture the bull, but when he returned to Hecale's hut, she was dead. In her honor Theseus gave her name to one of the demes of Attica, making its inhabitants in a sense her adopted children. When Theseus returned victorious to Athens, where he sacrificed the Bull, Medea tried to poison him. At the last second, Aegeus recognized the sandals and the sword and knocked the poisoned wine cup from Theseus's hands. Thus father and son were reunited, and Medea fled to Asia. When Theseus appeared in the town, his reputation had preceded him, as a result of his having traveled along the notorious coastal road from Troezen and slain some of the most feared bandits there. It was not long before the Pallantides' hopes of succeeding the childless Aegeus would be lost if they did not get rid of Theseus (the Pallantides were the sons of Pallas and nephews of King Aegeus, who was then living at the royal court in the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo). So they set a trap for him. One band of them would march on the town from one side while another lay in wait near a place called Gargettus in ambush. The plan was that after Theseus, Aegeus, and the palace guards had been forced out the front, the other half would surprise them from behind. However, Theseus was not fooled. Informed of the plan by a herald named Leos, he crept out of the city at midnight and surprised the Pallantides. \"Theseus then fell suddenly upon the party lying in ambush, and slew them all. Thereupon the party with Pallas dispersed,\" Plutarch reported.", "Pasiphaë, wife of King Minos of Crete, had several children. The eldest of these, Androgeos, set sail for Athens to take part in the Panathenaic Games, which were held there every four years. Being strong and skillful, he did very well, winning some events outright. He soon became a crowd favorite, much to the resentment of the Pallantides who assassinated him, incurring the wrath of Minos. When King Minos heard what had befallen his son, he ordered the Cretan fleet to set sail for Athens. Minos asked Aegeus for his son's assassins, and if they were to be handed to him, the town would be spared. However, not knowing who the assassins were, King Aegeus surrendered the whole town to Minos' mercy. His retribution was that, at the end of every Great Year, which occurred after every seven cycles on the solar calendar, the seven most courageous youths and the seven most beautiful maidens were to board a boat and be sent as tribute to Crete, never to be seen again. In another version, King Minos had waged war with the Athenians and was successful. He then demanded that, at nine-year intervals, seven Athenian boys and seven Athenian girls were to be sent to Crete to be devoured by the Minotaur, a half-man, half-bull monster that lived in the Labyrinth created by Daedalus. On the third occasion, Theseus volunteered to talk to the monster to stop this horror. He took the place of one of the youths and set off with a black sail, promising to his father, Aegeus, that if successful he would return with a white sail. Like the others, Theseus was stripped of his weapons when they sailed. On his arrival in Crete, Ariadne, King Minos' daughter, fell in love with Theseus and, on the advice of Daedalus, gave him a ball of thread (a ), so he could find his way out of the Labyrinth. That night, Ariadne escorted Theseus to the Labyrinth, and Theseus promised that if he returned from the Labyrinth he would take Ariadne with him. As soon as Theseus entered the Labyrinth, he tied one end of the ball of string to the doorpost and brandished his sword which he had kept hidden from the guards inside his tunic. Theseus followed Daedalus' instructions given to Ariadne: go forwards, always down, and never left or right. Theseus came to the heart of the Labyrinth and also upon the sleeping Minotaur. The beast awoke and a tremendous fight then occurred. Theseus overpowered the Minotaur with his strength and stabbed the beast in the throat with his sword (according to one \"scholium\" on Pindar's Fifth Nemean Ode, Theseus strangled it). After decapitating the beast, Theseus used the string to escape the Labyrinth and managed to escape with all of the young Athenians and Ariadne as well as her younger sister Phaedra. Then he and the rest of the crew fell asleep on the beach of the island of Naxos, where they stopped on their way back, looking for water. Athena woke Theseus and told him to leave early that morning and to leave Ariadne there for Dionysus, for Naxos was his island. Stricken with distress, Theseus forgot to put up the white sails instead of the black ones, so his father, the king, believing he was dead, committed suicide, throwing himself off a cliff of Sounion and into the sea, thus causing this body of water to be named the Aegean Sea.", "According to Plutarch's \"Life of Theseus\", the ship Theseus used on his return from Minoan Crete to Athens was kept in the Athenian harbor as a memorial for several centuries. \"The ship wherein Theseus and the youth of Athens returned had thirty oars, and was preserved by the Athenians down even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus, for they took away the old planks as they decayed, putting in new and stronger timber in their place...\" The ship had to be maintained in a seaworthy state, for, in return for Theseus's successful mission, the Athenians had pledged to honor Apollo every year henceforth. Thus, the Athenians sent a religious mission to the island of Delos (one of Apollo's most sacred sanctuaries) on the Athenian state galley—the ship itself—to pay their fealty to the god. To preserve the purity of the occasion, no executions were permitted between the time when the religious ceremony began to when the ship returned from Delos, which took several weeks. To preserve the ship, any wood that wore out or rotted was replaced; it was thus unclear to philosophers how much of the original ship remained, giving rise to the philosophical question of whether it should be considered \"the same\" ship or not. Such philosophical questions about the nature of identity are sometimes referred to as the \"Ship of Theseus\" paradox. Regardless of these issues, the Athenians preserved the ship. They believed that Theseus had been an actual, historical figure and the ship gave them a tangible connection to their divine provenance.", "Theseus's best friend was Pirithous, king of the Lapiths. Pirithous had heard stories of Theseus's courage and strength in battle but wanted proof so he rustled Theseus's herd of cattle and drove it from Marathon and Theseus set out in pursuit. Pirithous took up his arms and the pair met to do battle but were so impressed with each other they took an oath of friendship and joined the hunt for the Calydonian Boar. In \"Iliad\" I, Nestor numbers Pirithous and Theseus \"of heroic fame\" among an earlier generation of heroes of his youth, \"the strongest men that Earth has bred, the strongest men against the strongest enemies, a savage mountain-dwelling tribe whom they utterly destroyed.\" No trace of such an oral tradition, which Homer's listeners would have recognized in Nestor's allusion, survived in the literary epic. Later, Pirithous was preparing to marry Hippodamia. The centaurs were guests at the wedding feast, but got drunk and tried to abduct the women, including Hippodamia. The Lapiths won the ensuing battle. In Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" Theseus fights against and kills Eurytus, the \"fiercest of all the fierce centaurs\" at the wedding of Pirithous and Hippodamia.", "Theseus, a great abductor of women, and his bosom companion, Pirithous, since they were sons of Zeus and Poseidon, pledged themselves to marry daughters of Zeus. Theseus, in an old tradition, chose Helen, and together they kidnapped her, intending to keep her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose Persephone, even though she was already married to Hades, king of the underworld. They left Helen with Theseus's mother, Aethra at Aphidna, whence she was rescued by the Dioscuri. On Pirithous's behalf they rather unwisely traveled to the underworld, domain of Persephone and her husband Hades. As they wandered through the outskirts of Tartarus, Theseus sat down to rest on a rock. As he did so he felt his limbs change and grow stiff. He tried to rise but could not. He was fixed to the rock. As he turned to cry out to his friend, he saw that Pirithous too was crying out. Around him gathered the terrible band of Furies with snakes in their hair, torches, and long whips in their hands. Before these monsters, the hero's courage failed and he was led away to eternal punishment. For many months in half-darkness, Theseus sat immovably fixed to the rock, mourning for both his friend and for himself. In the end, he was rescued by Heracles who had come to the underworld for his 12th task. There he persuaded Persephone to forgive him for the part he had taken in the rash venture of Pirithous. So Theseus was restored to the upper air but Pirithous never left the kingdom of the dead, for when Heracles tried to free Pirithous, the underworld shook. They then decided the task was beyond any hero and left. When Theseus returned to Athens, he found that the Dioscuri had taken Helen and Aethra to Sparta.", "Phaedra, Theseus' second wife and the daughter of King Minos, bore Theseus two sons, Demophon and Acamas. While these two were still in their infancy, Phaedra fell in love with Hippolytus, Theseus' son by the Amazon queen Hippolyta. According to some versions of the story, Hippolytus had scorned Aphrodite to become a follower of Artemis, so Aphrodite made Phaedra fall in love with him as punishment. He rejected her out of chastity. Alternatively, in Euripides' version, \"Hippolytus\", Phaedra's nurse told Hippolytus of her mistress's love and he swore he would not reveal the nurse as his source of information. To ensure that she would die with dignity, Phaedra wrote to Theseus on a tablet claiming that Hippolytus had raped her before hanging herself. Theseus believed her and used one of the three wishes he had received from Poseidon against his son. The curse caused Hippolytus' horses to be frightened by a sea monster, usually a bull, and drag their rider to his death. Artemis would later tell Theseus the truth, promising to avenge her loyal follower on another follower of Aphrodite. In a version recounted by the Roman playwright Seneca, entitled \"Phaedra\", after Phaedra told Theseus that Hippolytus had raped her, Theseus called upon Neptune (as he did Poseidon in Euripides' interpretation) to kill his son. Upon hearing the news of Hippolytus' death at the hands of Neptune's sea monster, Phaedra committed suicide out of guilt, for she had not intended for Hippolytus to die. In yet another version, Phaedra simply told Theseus Hippolytus had raped her and did not kill herself. Dionysus sent a wild bull that terrified Hippolytus's horses. A cult grew up around Hippolytus, associated with the cult of Aphrodite. Girls who were about to be married offered locks of their hair to him. The cult believed that Asclepius had resurrected Hippolytus and that he lived in a sacred forest near Aricia in Latium.", "According to some sources, Theseus also was one of the Argonauts, although Apollonius of Rhodes states in the \"Argonautica\" that Theseus was still in the underworld at this time. Both statements are inconsistent with Medea being Aegeus' wife by the time Theseus first came to Athens. With Phaedra, Theseus fathered Acamas, who was one of those who hid in the Trojan Horse during the Trojan War. Theseus welcomed the wandering Oedipus and helped Adrastus to bury the Seven Against Thebes. Lycomedes of the island of Skyros threw Theseus off a cliff after he had lost popularity in Athens. In 475 BCE, in response to an oracle, Cimon of Athens, having conquered Skyros for the Athenians, identified as the remains of Theseus \"a coffin of a great corpse with a bronze spear-head by its side and a sword.\" (Plutarch, \"Life of Cimon\"). The remains found by Cimon were reburied in Athens. The early modern name \"Theseion\" (Temple of Theseus) was mistakenly applied to the Temple of Hephaestus which was thought to be the actual site of the hero's tomb.", "Primary sources Secondary sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Sciron, the robber.", "Sciron, the warlord." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Sciron was the son of either Pelops and possibly Hippodameia, or Poseidon and Iphimedeia. Other sources makes his parents as Canethus and Henioche, a daughter of Pittheus which made him a cousin of Theseus. Sciron was also called the son of Pylas, king of Megara and thus great grandson of Lelex. He was the father of Endeis by the daughter of Pandion or Chariclo, daughter of Cychreus. Through his daughter Endeis, Sciron was thus the grandfather of the heroes Telamon and Peleus. A son of Sciron named Alycus, in the army of the Dioscuri was also said to be slain by Theseus when the latter kidnapped the young Helen.", "", "An Isthmian outlaw, Sciron dwelt at the Sceironian Rocks, a cliff on the Saronic coast of the Isthmus of Corinth on the Megarian territory. He robbed travelers passing the Sceironian Rocks and sitting near the sea he made it his practice to force them to wash his feet at a precipitous place. When they knelt before him, he would suddenly give them a kick over the cliff into the sea, where the victim's body was devoured by a huge monstrous sea turtle which used to swim under the rocks or rolled down the crags into the sea at a place called Chelone (i.e. tortoise). As his fourth labour, Theseus slew him in the same way, by pushing him off the cliff or according to some, the hero seized him by the feet and threw him into the sea. In the pediment of the royal Stoa at Athens, there was a group of figures of burnt clay, representing Theseus in the act of throwing Sciron into the sea.", "According to Plutarch, however, the Megarians claimed that Sciron was not a robber, but identified him with the Megarian warlord named Sciron. \"\"Sciron was neither a violent man nor a robber, but a chastiser of robbers, and a kinsman and friend of good and just men. For Aeacus, they say, is regarded as the most righteous of Hellenes, and Cychreus the Salaminian has divine honors at Athens, and the virtues of Peleus and Telamon are known to all men. Well, then, Sciron was a son-in law of Cychreus, father-in law of Aeacus, and grandfather of Peleus and Telamon, who were the sons of Endeis, daughter of Sciron and Chariclo. It is not likely, then, they say, that the best of men made family alliances with the basest, receiving and giving the greatest and most valuable pledges.\"\"When Pylas was exiled from Megara, he gave the rule to his son-in-law Pandion, who then gave it to his son Nisus. Sciron who married the daughter of Pandion disputed with Nisus about the throne. But later on, he agreed to accept the arbitration of Aeacus, king of Aegina, who decided that Nisus and his descendants should be king and have the government while Sciron was entitled as the military leader and in command of war. Sciron accepted this decision and married his daughter Endeïs to the chosen umpire Aeacus. In one version, Theseus instituted the Isthmian Games so as to honor him and made expiation for his murder because of their kinship (they were cousins as their mothers Aethra and Henioche were sisters). Others, Plutarch remarked, related the same of Sinis, another bandit killed by Theseus. A passage in Ovid (\"Met.\" 7.444), where the poet claims that certain cliffs by the name of Sciron owe their name to the man, suggests an aetiological origin for the tale." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Cruelty to a daughter.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "According to the different versions, Cercyon was the son of: (1) Poseidon and one of the daughters of Amphictyon, and accordingly half-brother of Triptolemus or (2) Branchus and the nymph (or naiad) Argiope and finally of Hephaestus. He had one child, Alope but in the Suda, Cercyon was called the father of a certain Ekphantos, ancestor of the epic poet Musaeus (Cercyon-Ekphantos-Euphemus-Antiphemos-Musaeus).", "", "Cercyon's beautiful daughter, Alope, had an affair with (or was raped by) Poseidon. From this union, she begat a child which she gave to her nurse to be exposed, since she did not know its father. When the child was exposed, a mare came and furnished it milk. A certain shepherd, following the mare, saw the child and took it up. When he had taken it home, clothed in its royal garments, a fellow shepherd asked that it be given to him. The first gave it without the garments, and when strife rose between them, the one who had taken the child demanded signs it was free-born, but the other refused to give them, they came to King Cercyon and presented their arguments. The one who had taken the child again demanded the garments, and when they were brought, Cercyon knew that they were taken from the garments of his daughter. Alope's nurse, in fear, revealed to the King that the child was Alope's, and he ordered that his daughter be imprisoned and buried alive, and the child exposed. Again the mare fed it; shepherds again found the child, and took him up, and reared him. Feeling that he was being guarded by the will of the gods, they gave him the name Hippothous (Hippothoon). The body of Alope was then turned by Poseidon into a fountain, called by the name Alope, near Eleusis.", "Cercyon was said to have treated strangers wickedly, especially in wrestling with them against their will. He stood on the roads around Eleusis and challenged passers-by to a wrestling match. Other writers identified Cercyon as a robber who operated around Eleusis. The loser (always the passer-by) was murdered, though Cercyon promised his kingdom to anyone who won. In his fifth labour, journeying from Troezene, Theseus eventually beat and killed Cercyon when he lifted him up and dashed him to the ground. Theseus won owing to his skill, rather than superiority in brute physical strength. With this, Theseus started the sport of wrestling. In the account of Bacchylides, he alludes to the event when saying \"\"Theseus has closed the wrestling school of Cercyon\".\" The place associated with the story, known as the wrestling-school of Cercyon, was near Eleusis, on the road to Megara. According to some, Theseus ravished Cercyon's daughters after taking over the kingdom of Eleusis. He then gave it to Hippothous, who came to him and asked for his grandfather's kingdom. Theseus willingly gave it to him when he learned that he was the son of Poseidon, from whom he claimed his own birth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Description.", "Distribution.", "Habitat.", "Biology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The common names for this insect in many languages follow the binomial name and mention that it has twenty-four spots, but in English there is great variation in how this is written, with little consensus over the use of words or numerals, capitalisation, placement of hyphens and whether to use \"spot\", \"spotted\", \"point\" or \"pointed\"; \"ladybird\", \"ladybird beetle\" or \"ladybug\". There is even disagreement about the spelling of the Latin \"\"vigintiquatuorpunctata\"\" with some authoritative UK lists preferring a double \"t\": \"\"vigintiquattuopunctata\"\". For ease it is often written \"\"Subcoccinella 24-punctata\"\". Given the multitude of name formations, it is probably best to use just the genus \"\"Subcoccinella\"\" when carrying out a web search for information about this insect to avoid missing texts that use variant spellings - it's the only species in the genus. In the US it is also known as the \"Alfalfa Lady Beetle\", though rarely found on alfalfa in North America.", "The adult 24-spot is a small ladybird, usually 3 to 4 mm long. It has the quintessential ladybird shape, quite domed with the sides forming a smooth curve from head to pronotum to wing-cases. The wing-cases are covered with short pale hairs, and though these are hard to see without a hand lens, they give the ladybird a distinctive matt appearance. The ladybird is dark orange, including legs and antennae. There are black spots on the wing cases. These vary in number and size but there are often about 20 to 24 and usually no more than 26. Sometimes spots are joined together or they can be absent completely. Dark (melanic) forms are very rare. Another extremely rare form has yellow spots. Larvae are 4 to 6mm long and pale grey-green with darker speckles. They are covered with branched spines. These spines are also present in the pupa, enabling the pupa to secrete noxious alkaloids as a defence against predators. There are five European species in the Epilachninae subfamily, all herbivorous and somewhat hairy. The 24-spot Ladybird can be distinguished from the similarly patterned Bryony Ladybird - \"Henosepilachna argus\" (6 to 8 mm) by its small size (3 to 4 mm). \"Cynegetis impunctata\", another small ladybird, is browner and has no spots. It also has a black head and this separates it from the form of the 24-spot Ladybird without spots. This ladybird usually has no wings under the elytra (wing cases) and these individuals are unable to fly. A study found no winged specimens in a UK sample whereas 40% of those from Hungary and Romania had wings. However, as even the winged specimens carried the gene that causes atrophy, it is thought that winglessness is a trend that will increase.", "This ladybird is an Old World species occurring across Europe, North Africa, European Russia, the Caucasus, Siberia, the Russian Far East, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Transcaucasia, Kazakhstan, Middle Asia, Western Asia, Afghanistan, Mongolia, China, North and South Korea. It was introduced into North America some time last century with the first records from Pennsylvania in 1972. In Britain it is more common in the south.", "\"S. vigintiquatuorpunctata\" is found in many different habitats (Pontic–Caspian steppe, Pannonian Steppe and unimproved grassland, quarries, wasteland, ruderal areas, Western European broadleaf forests smixed forests and near rivers and in other life zones of central Europe).", "Adults can be found from late Spring until the Autumn. They appear commonly on flowers, especially Apiaceae. Eggs are laid in May and larvae develop in about six weeks. New generation adults usually are active until October or November. Larvae feed only on the mycelium of Erysiphales (mainly \"Podosphaera\" on trees (in particular \"Quercus robur\" and \"Fraxinus excelsior\") Also on these fungi on Poaceae, \"Astragalus\" and some species of the families Fabaceae and Boraginaceae) The insects carry spores of the fungi." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Client software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original software behind CDDB was released under the GNU General Public License, and many people submitted CD information thinking the service would also remain free. The license was later changed, however, and some programmers complained that the new license included certain terms that they couldn't accept: if one wanted to access CDDB, one was not allowed to access any other CDDB-like database (such as freedb), and any programs using a CDDB lookup had to display a CDDB logo while performing the lookup. In March 2001, CDDB, now owned by Gracenote, banned all unlicensed applications from accessing their database. New licenses for CDDB1 (the original version of CDDB) were no longer available, since Gracenote wanted to force programmers to switch to CDDB2 (a new version incompatible with CDDB1 and hence with freedb). The license change motivated the freedb project, which is intended to remain free. freedb is used primarily by media players, cataloguers, audio taggers and CD ripper software. As of version 6 of the freedb protocol, freedb accepts and returns UTF-8 data. Magix acquired freedb in 2006. MusicBrainz – a project with similar goals – released a freedb gateway in 2007, allowing users to harvest information from the MusicBrainz database rather than freedb.. This service was shuttered in 2019. freedb.org and its services was scheduled to be shut down on March 31 of 2020. As of May 28, 2020 the site was still operational. On the 13th of June 2020 it was observed that the URL used for lookups, freedb.freedb.org, no longer resolved to a host name and as a result the service no longer appears to operate.", "Further freedb aware applications include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Colours.", "Symbolism.", "History.", "1902–1910.", "1910–1928.", "1928–1994 flag.", "Current flag since 1994.", "Proper display of the flag.", "Heraldic description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At the time of its adoption, the South African flag was the only national flag in the world to comprise six colours in its primary design and without a seal and brocade. The design and colours are a synopsis of principal elements of the country's flag history. The colours themselves have no essential meaning. The central design of the flag, beginning at the flagpost in a \"V\" form and flowing into a single horizontal band to the outer edge of the fly.", "According to official South African government information, the South African flag is \"a synopsis of principal elements of the country's flag history.\" Although different people may attribute personal symbolism to the individual colours or colour combinations, \"no universal symbolism should be attached to any of the colours.\" The only symbolism in the flag is the V or Y shape, which can be interpreted as \"the convergence of diverse elements within South African society, taking the road ahead in unity\". From time to time explanations of the meanings or symbolism of the flag's colours are published in various media, including official government publications and speeches by government officials. Three of the colours — black, green and gold — are found in the flag of the African National Congress. The other three — red, white and blue — are used in the modern flag of the Netherlands and the flag of the United Kingdom; the colours white and blue were also found in the old flag of South Africa. Former South African President F.W. de Klerk, who proclaimed the new flag on 20 April 1994, stated in his autobiography, \"The Last Trek: a New Beginning\", that chilli red was chosen instead of plain red (which Anglo-Africans would have preferred) or orange (as Afrikaners would have preferred).", "", "The Anglo-Boer War between 1899 and 1902 ended with the Treaty of Vereeniging on 31 May 1902 and resulted in what is now South Africa falling under the British Union Flag. The former Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and the Zuid-Afrikaanse Republiek (Transvaal) became British colonies along with the existing Cape and Natal colonies. Each was also entitled to a colonial flag following in the British tradition.", "On 31 May 1910 these four colonies came together to form the Union of South Africa and the individual colonial flags were no longer used and new South African flags came into being. Once again, as a British dominion the British Union Flag was to continue as the national flag and the standard British ensign pattern was used as a basis for distinctive South African flags. As was the case throughout the British Empire, the Red and Blue Ensigns were the official flags for merchant and government vessels at sea, and the British Admiralty authorised them to be defaced in the fly with the shield from the South African coat of arms. These ensigns were not intended to be used as the Union's national flag, although they were used by some people as such. Although these ensigns were primarily intended for maritime use, they were also flown on land. These flags never enjoyed much popular support due to the animosities lingering after the Anglo-Boer War - the Afrikaner descendants of the Dutch settlers from the former Boer Republics saw it as a British flag, and the English-speakers saw it was not the Union Flag alone.", "Due to the lack of popularity of these flags, there were intermittent discussions about the desirability of a more distinctive national flag for South Africa after 1910, it was only after a coalition government took office in 1925 that a bill was introduced in Parliament to introduce a national flag for the Union. This provoked an often violent controversy that lasted for three years based on whether the British Union Flag should be included in the new flag design or not. The Natal Province even threatened to secede from the Union should it be decided to remove it. Finally, a compromise was reached that resulted in the adoption of a separate flag for the Union in late 1927 and the design was first hoisted on 31 May 1928. The design was based on the so-called Van Riebeeck flag or \"Prince's Flag\" (\"Prinsenvlag\" in Afrikaans) that was originally the Dutch flag; it consisted of orange, white, and blue horizontal stripes. A version of this flag had been used as the flag of the Dutch East India Company (known as the VOC) at the Cape (with the VOC logo in the centre) from 1652 until 1795. The South African addition to the design was the inclusion of three smaller flags centred in the white stripe. The miniature flags were the British Union Flag (mirrored) towards the hoist, the flag of the Orange Free State hanging vertically in the middle and the Transvaal Vierkleur towards the fly. The position of each of the miniature flags is such that each has equal status. However, to ensure that the Dutch flag in the canton of the Orange Free State flag is placed nearest to the upper hoist of the main flag, the Free State flag must be reversed. The British Union Flag, which is nearest to the hoist and is thus in a more favoured position, is spread horizontally from the Free State flag towards the hoist and is thus also reversed. Although placed horizontally furthest from the hoist, to balance the British Union Flag, the Vierkleur is the only one of the miniature flags which is spread in the same direction as the main flag. This compensates for its otherwise less favourable position. In this arrangement, each of the miniature flags enjoy equal precedence. Note that the miniature flag of the Orange Free State contains a miniature of the Dutch flag, making the old South African flag the only former national flag in the world containing a flag in a flag in a flag. The choice of the \"Prinsenvlag\" (which was believed to be the first flag hoisted on South African soil by Jan van Riebeeck of the VOC) as the basis upon which to design the South African flag had more to do with compromise than Afrikaner political desires, since the \"Prinsenvlag\" was politically neutral, as it was no longer the national flag of any nation. A further element of this compromise was that the British Union Flag would continue to fly alongside the new South African national flag over official buildings. This dual flag arrangement continued until 1957 when the British Union Flag lost its official status per an Act of Parliament. Following a referendum the country became a republic on 31 May 1961, but the design of the flag remained unchanged. However, there was intense pressure to change the flag, particularly from Afrikaners who still resented the fact that the British Union Flag was a part of the flag. In 1968, the then Prime Minister, John Vorster, proposed the adoption of a new flag from 1971, to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the declaration of a republic but this never materialised.", "The present South African national flag was first flown on 27 April 1994, the day of the 1994 election. However, the flag was first intended to be an interim flag only, and its design was decided upon only a week beforehand. The choice of a new flag was part of the negotiation process set in motion when Nelson Mandela was released from prison in 1990. When a nationwide public competition was held in 1993, the National Symbols Commission received more than 7,000 designs. Six designs were shortlisted and presented to the public and the Negotiating Council, but none elicited enthusiastic support. A number of design studios were then contacted to submit further proposals, but these also did not find favour. Parliament went into recess at the end of 1993 without a suitable candidate for the new national flag. In February 1994, Cyril Ramaphosa and Roelf Meyer, the chief negotiators of the African National Congress and the National Party government of the day respectively, were given the task of resolving the flag issue. A final design was adopted on 15 March 1994, derived from a design developed by the State Herald Fred Brownell, who had also previously designed the Namibian flag. This interim flag was hoisted officially for the first time on the 27 April 1994, the day when the nation's first fully inclusive elections commenced which resulted in Nelson Mandela being inaugurated as South Africa's first democratically elected president on 10 May 1994. The flag was well-received by most South Africans, though a small minority objected to it; hundreds of Afrikaner Volksfront members in Bloemfontein burned the flag in protest a few weeks before the April 1994 elections. The proclamation of the new national flag by South African President F. W. de Klerk was only published on 20 April 1994, a mere seven days before the flag was to be inaugurated, sparking a frantic last-minute flurry for flag manufacturers. As stated in South Africa's post-apartheid interim constitution, the flag was to be introduced on an interim probationary period of five years, after which there would be discussion about whether or not to change the national flag in the final draft of the constitution. The Constitutional Assembly was charged with the responsibility of drafting the country's new constitution and had called for submissions, inter alia, on the issues of its various national symbols. It received 118 submissions recommending the retention of the new flag and 35 suggesting changes to it. Thus on 28 September 1995 it decided that the flag should be retained unchanged and accordingly it was included as Section One of the Constitution of South Africa which came into force in February 1997.", "The South African government published guidelines for proper display of the flag at designated flag stations, in Government Notice 510 of 8 June 2001 (Gazette number 22356). These rules apply only to official flag stations and not to the general public. The Southern African Vexillological Association (SAVA), a non-official association for the study of flags, published their own guide for proper display of the flag in 2002. This guide has no official authority but was drawn up with generally accepted vexillological etiquette and principles in mind.", "An addendum to the Transitional Executive Council agenda (April 1994) described the flag in heraldic terms as follows: \"The National flag shall be rectangular in the proportion of two in the width to three to the length; per pall from the hoist, the upper band red (chilli) and lower band blue, with a black triangle at the hoist; over the partition lines a green pall one fifth the width of the flag, fimbriated white against the red and blue, and gold against the black triangle at the hoist, and the width of the pall and its fimbriations is one third the width of the flag.\" Schedule One of the Constitution of South Africa (1996) replaced the heraldic definition and described the flag in plain English as follows:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Initial fielding.", "Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP).", "Operation Enduring Freedom Pattern (MultiCam).", "Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP).", "Components.", "Blouse.", "Trousers.", "Headgear.", "T-shirt.", "Footwear." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In early 2004, some U.S. Army soldiers in Iraq were issued the \"Close Combat Uniform\" a variant of the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU) that featured new features such as shoulder pockets affixed with hook-and-loop \"Velcro\" fasteners, chest-worn rank insignia, and a new collar. The experimental features used on the CCU were eventually incorporated into the ACU, which was publicly announced in June 2004.", "The process of replacing the U.S. Army's BDUs and DCUs with the ACU was to set to begin in April 2005. However, the fielding process began two months earlier through the Rapid Fielding Initiative. Soldiers from the 48th Infantry Brigade Combat Team were the first in the U.S. Army to receive the ACU, subsequently deploying with them into Iraq in May 2005.", "The ACU originally used the Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP), which used a pixelated pattern of tan, gray and green (Desert Sand 500, Urban Gray 501 and Foliage Green 502) and was intended to work in desert, woodland, and urban environments. For uniforms, the pattern was fully phased out and replaced by the Operational Camouflage Pattern on 30 September 2019, though UCP remains in service in limited capacities such as on some cold weather overgear and older body armor.", "Beginning in late 2010 U.S. Army soldiers deployed to Afghanistan (starting with the 173rd Airborne Brigade) were issued an Army-developed variant of the Crye Precision \"MultiCam\" pattern, known as the Operation Enduring Freedom Pattern (OEF, OEF-CP, or OCP), which was far more effective for use in Afghanistan's terrain. The flame-retardant variants of the uniforms are designed to prevent third-degree burns, along with up to thirty percent of second degree burns. Additionally, all uniforms are treated with the chemical permethrin to help protect soldiers from insect-borne diseases like malaria. Some U.S. Army soldiers during the latter stages of the Iraq War also wore the OEF patterned ACU; some were seen wearing them as late as December 2011, when the United States withdrew its military forces from the country at the end of the war. The MultiCam-patterned ACUs were retired in 2019 with the UCP-patterned ones.", "In May 2014, the Army unofficially announced that the Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP) would replace UCP on the ACU. The original \"Scorpion\" pattern was developed at United States Army Soldier Systems Center by Crye Precision in 2002 for the Objective Force Warrior program. Crye later modified and trademarked their version of the pattern as MultiCam, which was selected for use by U.S. soldiers and airmen in Afghanistan in 2010 as the Operation Enduring Freedom Pattern. After talks to officially adopt MultiCam broke down over costs in late 2013, the Army began experimenting with the original Scorpion pattern, creating a variant code named \"Scorpion W2\", noting that while a pattern can be copyrighted, a color palette cannot and that beyond 50 meters the actual pattern is \"not that relevant.\" The pattern resembles MultiCam with muted greens, light beige, and dark brown colors, but uses fewer beige and brown patches and no vertical twig and branch elements. On 31 July 2014, the Army formally announced that the pattern would begin being issued in uniforms in summer 2015. The official name is intended to emphasize its use beyond Afghanistan to all combatant commands. The OCP pattern fully replaced the UCP pattern on the ACU by 1 October 2019. ACUs printed in OCP first became available for purchase on 1 July 2015, with deployed soldiers already being issued uniforms and equipment in the new pattern. The Air Force has also started to adopt the OCP Uniform from 2018 onward, with it slated to replace the Airman Battle Uniform by April 2021. The U.S. Space Force has also adopted the OCP uniform, but with navy blue thread for ranks and tapes.", "The ACU features hook-and-loop fasteners, also known by the genericized trademark Velcro, on its sleeve pockets.", "The ACU jacket originally used hook-and-loop-backed attachments to secure items such as name tapes, rank insignia, and shoulder patches and tabs, as well as recognition devices such as the U.S. flag patch and the infrared (IR) tab. Originally only pin-on skill badges were authorized for wear on the ACU, with no more than 5 at any one time. In the summer of 2011, regulations were changed to allow for wearing of sew-on embroidered skill badges. The 5-badge limit remained in effect, and there could be no mixing of sew-on and pin-on badges. At the same time, the branch tape, name tapes, and rank insignia could be sewn-on at the wearers preference. Skill tabs, such as the President's Hundred Tab, Special Forces, Ranger, and Sapper are worn on the left sleeve pocket flap, and are subject to a 3-tab-only rule. A tab that is an integral part of a unit patch, such as the \"Mountain\" or \"Airborne\" tab, is not counted against the rule. The U.S. Army Chaplain insignia is the only authorized army branch insignia to be worn on the ACU. It is centered 1/8 inch above the right name tape. The insignia may be the metal pin-on variety or the black embroidered insignia on digitized fabric with Velcro fasteners. Near Infrared (NIR) Signature Management Technology is incorporated to minimize the infrared silhouette. Permanent IR IFF squares are sewn to each shoulder to help identify friendly personnel when night vision devices are used, and are protected by Velcro tabs in garrison or when not in use. Three U.S. flag insignia are authorized for wear with the ACU: full-color, full-color infrared, and subdued infrared. The U.S. flag insignia is worn on the right shoulder pocket flap of the ACU coat. The subdued version is only worn as directed under tactical or field conditions in the Army, while the Air Force only authorizes the subdued flag. Subdued shoulder sleeve insignia are worn. The jacket's Mandarin collar was intended to be worn up in combat to fit with the Improved Outer Tactical Vest (IOTV) body armor, and worn in the down position otherwise. With the change of pattern to OCP, the Velcro tab that closed the Mandarin collar was removed, along with other Velcro closures. The front closure is zippered and reinforced with Velcro, designed for use with OTV. The tilted chest pockets, cuffs, and elbow pad insert pockets also utilize hook-and-loop closure. There is a three slot pen pocket on the left arm of the jacket, and blouse bellows for increased mobility. The jacket is worn so that its bottom is between the bottom of the pocket and the top of the cargo pocket. In the field, the jacket may be replaced by the flame resistant Army Combat Shirt when worn directly under the IOTV.", "The ACU trousers (or ACU pants) are worn with a two-inch nylon web belt, and feature Velcro pouches for knee pad inserts, two forward-tilted thigh storage pockets with elastic drawstring and Velcro for closure during movement, and two calf storage pockets one on each pant leg with a Velcro closure. ACU trousers with flame resistant materials are being issued for use in Iraq and Afghanistan. The updates to the ACU trousers in late 2010 included removal of Velcro fasteners from forward-tilted thigh cargo pocket flaps which were replaced with 3 buttons. This change was introduced gradually from 2009 onward and is now in full effect. Two buttons are standard (same function as on BDU trouser cargo pockets), while the third button located at the very end of the pocket can be used to allow for more load and extra volume in cargo pockets. On the small calf pockets the 3-piece Velcro (2 square hook on pocket and one rectangular loop patch on the flap) have been replaced with a single button in 2012. Buttons were re-introduced and replaced Velcro on pockets after numerous complaints from soldiers in the field. The belt loops are of new design. The width has doubled, and there are now 8 of them compared to 7 in the past. The waist adjustment cord has been removed and replaced by the Velcro waistband fine-adjusters, one at each hip. Instead of a knee pocket which could only accommodate soft knee inserts in the past, the knee area now features multi-layered comprehensive design which allows external hard-type knee pads to be inserted and secured. Back of the knee area has Velcro hook and loop patches to further secure knee inserts around the knee area. Cuffs at the bottom of the trousers do not use drawstrings anymore for blousing; those have been again replaced by the Velcro cuff adjusters. Further changes as part of the transition to OCP removed the pockets for insertable knee pads altogether, along with the replacement of more Velcro with buttons. To be able to differentiate the Fire-Retardant ACU (FRACU) from the regular ACU at a distance, a small square inch tan patch is affixed to the left sleeve cuff on the jacket and the middle of the left cargo pocket flap on the trousers.", "Typically, the ACU is worn with the Advanced Combat Helmet, a patrol cap, or a boonie hat and/or fleece cap as appropriate in winter months. The patrol cap is a kepi-styled straight-sided, flat-topped soft cap, with a double thick bill and internal pocket. When in garrison, the maroon, tan, brown, and green berets may be worn by paratroopers, rangers, advisors, and special forces respectively. The green micro fleece cap is authorized for field and garrison use outside of unit PT, per local command. A name tape is worn on the back of the patrol cap. Sew-on rank is recommended but pin-on rank is authorized on the ACU Patrol Cap and ACU Boonie Hat. The MICH (Modular Integrated Communications Helmet) Camouflage cover rank must be sewn on if worn but is often not used as the night vision device mount would obstruct it.", "The ACU's UCP variant was typically worn with a moisture-wicking sand colored T-shirt. A Tan 499 T-shirt was authorized with the ACU's OCP variant and became the sole authorized T-shirt upon completion of the full transition to OCP in 2019.", "The UCP variant of the ACU was worn with tan Army Combat Boots and olive drab cotton socks. Commercial versions of this boot are authorized without limitation, complying with the following regulations—must be 8 to 10 inches in height, be made of tan rough side out cattle hide leather with a plain toe and tan rubber outsoles, and be without zippers, metal cleats, or side tabs. The Mountain Combat Boot is available for difficult terrain, and the Extreme Cold Vapor Barrier Boots for cold weather. As with the T-shirt, coyote brown boots are authorized with ACU-OCP and will become the sole boot authorized following the completion of the transition in 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Royal standard." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Since around 1850, the Cambodian flag has featured a depiction of Angkor Wat in the centre. The current flag, with a blue border and red central (the stripes are in the ratio 1:2:1) was adopted following Cambodia's independence in 1948. It was used until 9 October 1970, when a new flag was introduced for Lon Nol's Khmer Republic that lasted until the takeover of the Khmer Rouge in 1975. The subsequent state of Democratic Kampuchea, which existed from 1975 to 1979, used a red flag with a three-towered Angkor Wat design retained in yellow beginning in 1976. The People's Republic of Kampuchea was established in 1979, after the Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia. The Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (FUNSK) revived the flag adopted by the Khmer Issarak in the days of anti-French resistance for the new state. This flag had the same colour pattern as the DK flag, but with a yellow five-towered Angkor Wat silhouette. When the PRK renamed itself as \"State of Cambodia\" (SOC) in 1989, the flag's lower half became blue. The UNTAC flag was used during the 1992–1993 transitional period along with the flag of the SOC within Cambodia. In 1993, the 1948 Cambodian flag was readopted. The current Cambodian flag, together with the flags of Afghanistan, Spain, San Marino, and Portugal, are the only five state flags to feature a building. Red and blue are traditional colours of Cambodia. The flag used today is the same as that established in 1948, although the older flag is sometimes said to have used a red outline for Angkor Wat while the current flag uses black specifically. Since that time, five other intervening designs have been used. Almost all made use of the image of the temple of Angkor Wat in one form or another. This famous temple site, which dates from the 12th century, was built by the Mahidharapura monarchs. It has five towers, but these were not always all depicted in the stylised version used on flags. The monarchy was restored in September 1993, the 1948 flag having been readopted in June of that year.", "The Royal Standard of the King of Cambodia (; literally, \"King's Flag\") is the personal flag of the Cambodian monarch. It was officially adopted in 1993, but its initial use dates back to 1941. It is also considered among the national symbols of Cambodia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Motivation.", "Statement of the lemma.", "Example application.", "Proof sketch.", "Alternative formulation.", "History.", "Equivalent forms of Zorn's lemma.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sometimes one wants to prove the existence of a mathematical object (which can be viewed as a maximal element in some poset). One could try proving the existence of such an object by assuming there is no maximal element and using transfinite induction and the assumptions of the situation to get a contradiction. Zorn's lemma tidies up the conditions a situation needs to satisfy in order for such an argument to work. Therefore Zorn's lemma enables mathematicians to not have to repeat the transfinite induction argument by hand each time, but just check the conditions of Zorn's lemma.", "Zorn's lemma can be stated as: Variants of this formulation are sometimes used, such as requiring that the set \"P\" and the chains be non-empty. See the discussion below.", "Zorn's lemma can be used to show that every nontrivial ring \"R\" with unity contains a maximal ideal. In the terminology above, the set \"P\" consists of all (two-sided) ideals in \"R\" except \"R\" itself. Since \"R\" is non-trivial, the set \"P\" contains the trivial ideal {0}, and therefore \"P\" is non-empty. This set \"P\" is partially ordered by set inclusion. Finding a maximal ideal is the same as finding a maximal element in \"P\". The ideal \"R\" was excluded because maximal ideals by definition are not equal to \"R\". To apply Zorn's lemma, take a chain \"T\" in \"P\" (that is, \"T\" is a subset of \"P\" that is totally ordered). If \"T\" is the empty set, then the trivial ideal {0} is an upper bound for \"T\" in \"P\". Assume then that \"T\" is non-empty. It is necessary to show that \"T\" has an upper bound, that is, there exists an ideal \"I\" ⊆ \"R\" which is bigger than all members of \"T\" but still smaller than \"R\" (otherwise it would not be in \"P\"). Take \"I\" to be the union of all the ideals in \"T\". We wish to show that \"I\" is an upper bound for \"T\" in \"P\". We will first show that \"I\" is an ideal of \"R\", and then that it is a proper ideal of \"R\" and so is an element of \"P\". Since every element of \"T\" is contained in \"I\", this will show that \"I\" is an upper bound for \"T\" in \"P\", as required. Because \"T\" contains at least one element, and that element contains at least 0, the union \"I\" contains at least 0 and is not empty. To prove that \"I\" is an ideal, note that if \"a\" and \"b\" are elements of \"I\", then there exist two ideals \"J\", \"K\" ∈ \"T\" such that \"a\" is an element of \"J\" and \"b\" is an element of \"K\". Since \"T\" is totally ordered, we know that \"J\" ⊆ \"K\" or \"K\" ⊆ \"J\". In the first case, both \"a\" and \"b\" are members of the ideal \"K\", therefore their sum \"a\" + \"b\" is a member of \"K\", which shows that \"a\" + \"b\" is a member of \"I\". In the second case, both \"a\" and \"b\" are members of the ideal \"J\", and thus \"a\" + \"b\" ∈ \"I\". Furthermore, if \"r\" ∈ \"R\", then \"ar\" and \"ra\" are elements of \"J\" and hence elements of \"I\". Thus, \"I\" is an ideal in \"R\". Now, an ideal is equal to \"R\" if and only if it contains 1. (It is clear that if it is equal to \"R\", then it must contain 1; on the other hand, if it contains 1 and \"r\" is an arbitrary element of \"R\", then \"r1\" = \"r\" is an element of the ideal, and so the ideal is equal to \"R\".) So, if \"I\" were equal to \"R\", then it would contain 1, and that means one of the members of \"T\" would contain 1 and would thus be equal to \"R\" – but \"R\" is explicitly excluded from \"P\". The hypothesis of Zorn's lemma has been checked, and thus there is a maximal element in \"P\", in other words a maximal ideal in \"R\". Note that the proof depends on the fact that our ring \"R\" has a multiplicative unit 1. Without this, the proof wouldn't work and indeed the statement would be false. For example, the ring with formula_1 as additive group and trivial multiplication (i.e. formula_2 for all formula_3) has no maximal ideal (and of course no 1): Its ideals are precisely the additive subgroups. The factor group formula_4 by a proper subgroup formula_5 is a divisible group, hence certainly not finitely generated, hence has a proper non-trivial subgroup, which gives rise to a subgroup and ideal containing formula_5.", "A sketch of the proof of Zorn's lemma follows, assuming the axiom of choice. Suppose the lemma is false. Then there exists a partially ordered set, or poset, \"P\" such that every totally ordered subset has an upper bound, and that for every element in \"P\" there is another element bigger than it. For every totally ordered subset \"T\" we may then define a bigger element \"b\"(\"T\"), because \"T\" has an upper bound, and that upper bound has a bigger element. To actually define the function \"b\", we need to employ the axiom of choice. Using the function \"b\", we are going to define elements \"a\" < \"a\" < \"a\" < \"a\" <... in \"P\". This sequence is really long: the indices are not just the natural numbers, but all ordinals. In fact, the sequence is too long for the set \"P\"; there are too many ordinals (a proper class), more than there are elements in any set, and the set \"P\" will be exhausted before long and then we will run into the desired contradiction. The \"a\" are defined by transfinite recursion: we pick \"a\" in \"P\" arbitrary (this is possible, since \"P\" contains an upper bound for the empty set and is thus not empty) and for any other ordinal \"w\" we set \"a\" = \"b\"({\"a\" : \"v\" < \"w\"}). Because the \"a\" are totally ordered, this is a well-founded definition. This proof shows that actually a slightly stronger version of Zorn's lemma is true:", "Zorn's lemma is sometimes stated as follows: Suppose a non-empty partially ordered set \"P\" has the property that every non-empty chain has an upper bound in \"P\". Then the set \"P\" contains at least one maximal element. Although this formulation appears to be formally weaker (since it places on \"P\" the additional condition of being non-empty, but obtains the same conclusion about \"P\"), in fact the two formulations are equivalent. To verify this, suppose first that \"P\" satisfies the condition that every chain in \"P\" has an upper bound in \"P\". Then the empty subset of \"P\" is a chain, as it satisfies the definition vacuously; so the hypothesis implies that this subset must have an upper bound in \"P\", and this upper bound shows that \"P\" is in fact non-empty. Conversely, if \"P\" is assumed to be non-empty and satisfies the hypothesis that every non-empty chain has an upper bound in \"P\", then \"P\" also satisfies the condition that \"every\" chain has an upper bound, as an arbitrary element of \"P\" serves as an upper bound for the empty chain (that is, the empty subset viewed as a chain). The difference may seem subtle, but in many proofs that invoke Zorn's lemma one takes unions of some sort to produce an upper bound, and so the case of the empty chain may be overlooked; that is, the verification that all chains have upper bounds may have to deal with empty and non-empty chains separately. So many authors prefer to verify the non-emptiness of the set \"P\" rather than deal with the empty chain in the general argument.", "The Hausdorff maximal principle is an early statement similar to Zorn's lemma. Kazimierz Kuratowski proved in 1922 a version of the lemma close to its modern formulation (it applies to sets ordered by inclusion and closed under unions of well-ordered chains). Essentially the same formulation (weakened by using arbitrary chains, not just well-ordered) was independently given by Max Zorn in 1935, who proposed it as a new axiom of set theory replacing the well-ordering theorem, exhibited some of its applications in algebra, and promised to show its equivalence with the axiom of choice in another paper, which never appeared. The name \"Zorn's lemma\" appears to be due to John Tukey, who used it in his book \"Convergence and Uniformity in Topology\" in 1940. Bourbaki's \"Théorie des Ensembles\" of 1939 refers to a similar maximal principle as \"le théorème de Zorn\". The name \"\" prevails in Poland and Russia.", "Zorn's lemma is equivalent (in ZF) to three main results: A well-known joke alluding to this equivalency (which may defy human intuition) is attributed to Jerry Bona: \"The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the well-ordering principle obviously false, and who can tell about Zorn's lemma?\" Zorn's lemma is also equivalent to the strong completeness theorem of first-order logic. Moreover, Zorn's lemma (or one of its equivalent forms) implies some major results in other mathematical areas. For example, In this sense, we see how Zorn's lemma can be seen as a powerful tool, especially in the sense of unified mathematics.", "The 1970 film, \"Zorns Lemma\", is named after the lemma. This lemma was referenced on \"The Simpsons\" in the episode \"Bart's New Friend\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Name and pronunciation.", "Crest and colours.", "Home kit.", "Kit suppliers and shirt sponsors.", "Grounds.", "Ali Sami Yen Stadium.", "Türk Telekom Stadium.", "Stadium anthems.", "Support.", "European matches.", "Record.", "Popularity of Galatasaray in Turkey.", "Istanbul derbies.", "Players.", "Current squad.", "Youth team.", "Youth facilities.", "Sponsorship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Galatasaray SK was founded in October 1905 (the exact day is disputed, but is traditionally accepted as \"17 Teşrinievvel 1321\" according to the Rumi calendar, which corresponds to \"30 October 1905\" according to the Gregorian calendar) by Ali Sami Yen and other students of Galatasaray High School (a high school in Istanbul which was established in 1481) as a football club. Ali Sami Yen became Galatasaray SK's first president and was given the club's membership number \"1\". The team's first match was against Cadi-Keuy FC and Galatasaray won this match with a score of 2–0. There were discussions about the club's name, in which some suggested \"Gloria\" (victory) and others \"Audace\" (courage), but it was decided that its name would be Galatasaray. In addition to Ali Sami Yen (Club member No. 1), who was the driving force behind the club's foundation, Asim Tevfik Sonumut (2), Emin Bülent Serdaroğlu (3), Celal İbrahim (4), Boris Nikolov (5), Milo Bakić (6), Pavle Bakić (7), Bekir Sıtkı Bircan (8), Tahsin Nihat (9), Reşat Şirvanizade (10), Hüseyin Hüsnü (11), Refik Cevdet Kalpakçıoğlu (12) and Abidin Daver (13) were also involved in the decision to organize such a club. The name Galatasaray itself comes from that of Galatasaray High School, which in turn takes its name from Galata Sarayı Enderûn-u Hümâyûn (Galata Palace Imperial School), the name of the original school founded on the site in 1481, and which in turn took its name from the nearby medieval Genoese citadel of Galata (the modern quarter of Karaköy) in the Beyoğlu (Pera) district of Istanbul. Galatasaray literally means \"Galata palace\". According to researcher Cem Atabeyoğlu, Galatasaray took its name from one of its first matches. In that match, Galatasaray won 2–0 over a local Greek club and the spectators called them \"\"Galata Sarayı efendileri\"\" (English: \"Gentlemen of Galata Palace\"), and, after this incident, they adopted that name and started to call their club \"Galata Sarayı\". In 1905, during the era of the Ottoman Empire, there were no laws for associations so the club could not be registered officially, but, after the 1912 Law of Association, the club registered legally. Since there weren't any other Turkish teams, Galatasaray joined the Istanbul League that was consisting of English and Greek teams in the season of 1905–1906. With their first championship title they won in 1908–1909, they heralded the beginning of Turkish football history. While football in Turkey began to fully develop, Galatasaray won ten more \"Istanbul League\" titles until 1952. Upon the initiation of professional football in 1952, the first professional but non-national league of Turkey, \"Istanbul Professional League\", was played between 1952 and 1959. Galatasaray won three of these seven titles. \"Türkiye Profesyonel 1. Ligi\" (Turkish Super League today) formed in 1959. This is the top-flight professional league in Turkish nationwide football, and the most popular sporting competition in the country. Galatasaray joined all seasons and won 22 league titles since then. The Turkish Football Federation began organizing the Turkish Cup (today it is organized with the name Ziraat Turkish Cup) in the 1962–63 season for Turkish clubs to qualify for the UEFA competitions. This is the only national cup competition in Turkey. Galatasaray joined all seasons and won 16 trophies since then. Probably the greatest record that the club holds is winning national championships in 15 different sport branches in the 1986–87 season. Another achievement in this period was reaching the semi-final of the European Cup in the 1988–89 season, making Galatasaray the first and only Turkish team to have played a semi-final in this competition. Galatasaray's most successful era came in the late 1990s, when the club become the first and only Turkish football club to win a major UEFA competition. They were aided in this by one of Turkey's best generation of homegrown footballers who went on to finish third in the 2002 FIFA World Cup, after having played in the quarter-finals of UEFA Euro 2000. Besides the talented players, visiting teams also disliked traveling into Ali Sami Yen Stadium, literally dubbed \"Hell\" by Galatasaray supporters due to the intimidating atmosphere provided by the fans including chants and riots in the crowds. There are many successful footballers who have played for Galatasaray and made their mark on Turkish football history. The team's legendary players include Nihat Bekdik nicknamed \"Aslan\" (Lion); the 1930s national hero Eşfak Aykaç; Boduri who died aged 21; Mehmet Leblebi who scored a domestic record of 14 goals in a single match; Gündüz Kılıç nicknamed \"Baba\" (Father) who was the coach but also the player of his team in the 1950s, with great success in both duties; Bülent-Reha Eken brothers; Suat Mamat who scored three goals in the 1954 FIFA World Cup; Coşkun Özarı who devoted his life to Galatasaray; Turgay Şeren the heroic goalkeeper who was called \"the Panther of Berlin\"; Fatih Terim, the team captain of Galatasaray and Turkish national football team for many years, who won the UEFA Cup in 2000 as the team's coach; Metin Oktay the legendary six-time top-scorer of the Turkish Super League; Zoran Simović, another skilled goalkeeper known for his penalty saves; Cüneyt Tanman who played a record of 342 games for Galatasaray; Tanju Çolak, an extraordinary goalscorer and the 1988 European Golden Boot winner with Galatasaray; Cevad Prekazi, an Albanian teammate of Tanju Çolak specializing in free kicks; Cláudio Taffarel the World Cup-winning goalkeeper for Brazil; Gheorghe Hagi, the Romanian football hero who is still described as the best foreign player ever to play in Turkey; Brazilian striker Mário Jardel, dubbed \"Super Mário\" by the fans and scored both of Galatasaray's two goals in the 2000 European Super Cup Final against Real Madrid; and last, but not least, Hakan Şükür, the player who scored most goals in Süper Lig history with 249.", "The name \"Galatasaray\" () itself comes from that of Galatasaray High School, which took its name from \"Galata Sarayı Enderûn-u Hümâyûn\" (\"Galata Palace Imperial School\"), the name of the original school founded on the site in 1481, and which in turn took its name from the nearby medieval Genoese citadel of Galata (the modern quarter of Karaköy) in the Beyoğlu (Pera) district of Istanbul. Thus \"Galatasaray\" literally means \"Galata Palace\". \"Galatasaray\" is a compound word and it is pronounced as such, with a very brief pause between the two words. There is no diminutive form of the club's name. Fans refer to the club either by its full name or by its nickname \"Cim-Bom(-Bom)\"—pronounced )—of uncertain etymology. However, the shortened form \"Gala\" is sometimes used by English speakers.", "Galatasaray's first emblem was drawn by 333 [School Number] Şevki Ege. This was the figure of a spread-winged eagle with a football in its beak. The eagle was a model emblem that Galatasaray dwelled on in the beginning. But when the name did not attract too much interest, Şevki Ege's composition was pushed aside. It was replaced by the current design in the 1920s. This replaced in 1925 by the current \"Ghayn-Sin\" crest, which are the first two Arabic letters of \"G\"alata \"S\"aray, designed by Ayetullah Emin. At first, the colours of Galatasaray were red and white. These are the colours in the modern Turkish flag. The Turkish Republic, however, was not founded at that time. Therefore, this decision caused the repressive administration of the day to feel uncomfortable and the administration subsequently pressured the footballers. For this reason, on December 26, 1906 the colors were changed to yellow and black. The eight-piece halved design kit was ordered from the Sports Outfitter William Shillcock based in Birmingham, United Kingdom. After a heavy 0-5 loss to Baltalimanı in a friendly match the new colours yellow and black were counted as inauspicious. On 6 December 1908, for a match against the football team of the Royal Navy cruiser, Galatasaray finally settled on playing in red and yellow, inspired by the roses which Gül Baba offered to Sultan Bayezid II. Ali Sami Yen stated, \"\"After we have been in and out of several shops, we saw two different elegant-looking wool materials in Fatty Yanko's store at Bahçekapısı (between Eminönü and Sirkeci in Istanbul, now called Bahçekapı). One of them was quite dark red, resembling the cherry color, and the other a rich yellow with a touch of orange. When the sales clerk made the two fabrics fly together with a twist of his hand they became so bright that it reminded us the beauty of a goldfinch. We thought we were looking at the colors flickering in burning fire. We were picturing the yellow-red flames shining on our team and dreaming that it would take us to victories. Indeed it did\".\"", "The Galatasaray home kit have always been fundamentally the same since 1908. The traditional shirt of Galatasaray is the eight-piece halved design. This consists of the shirt’s front, back and sleeves being made up of two colours, resulting in the shirt being split into eight parts. (Two same colours are never next to each other within the 8 parts.) The colours continue in an alternating order, from yellow to red. This results in the front of the shirt being the opposite of the back and the shirt also having an halved design from the side. This alternating colour order of eight parts creates a complete halved design for the shirt. The classic eight-piece halved design would become the look of Galatasaray for around 80 years, until 1985 when sportswear manufacturer Adidas began to provide the shirts and the sleeves were made up by one colour and not halved. Created over a century ago, the classic Galatasaray kit combination consists of the eight-piece halved traditional shirt, white shorts and red socks and are usually worn as part of the home strp. This changed in the mid-1980s, when sportswear manufacturer Adidas began to provide the shirts. The club reverted to the \"classic\" kit in 2012. The official colours are Pantone shades 1235 (yellow) and 201 (red).", "Galatasaray's kit is manufactured by Nike, who have held the contract since 2011. Previous kit manufacturers have been: Çamlıca (1978–79); Adidas (1978–82, 1984–91, 1995–2001, and 2005–11); Umbro (1979–81, 1982–83, 1991–95, and 2002–05); Puma (1980–81); Gola (1981–82); Fatih (1984–85); and Lotto (2001–02). Since 2019, Galatasaray's shirt sponsors have been Terra Pizza. Previous sponsors include: Volvo and PeReJa (1977–78); Halı Fleks (1979–80); Telefunken, Alo, and THY (1980–81); Borsaş and Meban (1981–83); Telefunken (1983–84); Modell's (1984–85); Denizbank (1984–86); TürkBank (1986–91); ADEC Saat (1991–92); SHOW TV (1991–95); Emek Sigorta (1992–95); VakıfBank (1995–97); Bank Ekspres (1997–98); Marshall (1998–2000); Telsim (2000–01); Aria (2001–04); Avea (2004–09); Türk Telekom (2009–14); Huawei (2014–2015) and nef (2016–2019) for domestic matches and since 2014 for UEFA Champions League matches Turkish Airlines.", "", "When Galatasaray were formed no Turkish teams had their own home ground, and all games in the Istanbul Football League took place at Papazın Çayırı – now the site of Fenerbahçe's Şükrü Saracoğlu Stadium. In 1921 the city's first proper football stadium was constructed, Taksim Stadium, which was used as the home ground for all of Istanbul's teams. When historic Taksim Stadium was demolished in 1940, Galatasaray decided to build a large, modern stadium. Due to difficulties stemming from World War II, construction was delayed for over two decades. In this period, they played in Şeref Stadi and Dolmabahçe Stadi On 20 December 1964, Ali Sami Yen Stadium opened. Named after the founder of Galatasaray, Ali Sami Yen, it is in the Mecidiyeköy quarter of the Şişli district at the center of the city. In 1964, the stadium had capacity over 35,000. Due to improvements in security and prohibition of non-seater spectators, the all-seater capacity reduced to 22,000 in 1993. A few years later, the rebuilt of main stand, which was damaged by an earthquake, slightly increased the capacity. After 2002, when Atatürk Olympic Stadium was built for Istanbul's Olympic Games bid, Galatasaray started to play European Cup matches there. The attendance record among Turkish stadiums was broken there, in Galatasaray–Olympiacos match played in front of 79,414 spectators. Yet, Ali Sami Yen Stadium has historic importance for Galatasaray fans although it is smaller and older. The stadium was in 2011 demolished after Galatsaray moved to the newly built Türk Telekom Stadium.", "The new home ground of Galatasaray is the newly built Türk Telekom Stadium in the Seyrantepe area of Sarıyer. The new stadium, which was opened 15 January 2011, has a capacity of 52,223 seats, making it the largest private stadium used by a club in Turkey.", "Since 1992, after every goal scored by Galatasaray, the last part of the song \"I Will Survive\" by the Hermes House Band is played. Although the song is in English, the part used has no lyrics except \"la la la la\". In addition, before every game the Galatasaray War Chant is played accompanied by what the fans call a \"scarf show\" where fans display and wave their Galatasaray scarves, banners and flags. Many people call the Turk Telekom Stadium 'Cehennem' (hell) because of stadium anthems and the continuous roar of the fans.", "", "Galatasaray fans attach high importance to European competitions, and Galatasaray is known as the \"Conqueror of Europe\" by their fans. This nickname underlines the importance of the UEFA Cup and Super Cup Galatasaray managed to win during the 1999–2000 season. Galatasaray fans also have a reputation in Europe as being one of the most fanatic in the world, along with ultrAslan. Ryan Giggs once said \"<nowiki>I've never experienced anything like Galatasaray. Three hours before kick-off, we went out to have a look at the pitch and the stadium was overcrowded! The chanting was brilliant: one side starts, then the other, then quiet, then all of them chanting! The players really enjoyed it. Before it was good, after it wasn't for us.'</nowiki>\"", "Galatasaray fans broke the \"loudest crowd roar at a sport stadium\" record on 18 March 2011 at Galatasaray's new stadium Türk Telekom Stadium in Istanbul. A peak reading of 140.76 dBA was recorded.", "The poll in June 2012 placed Galatasaray in the first place with a 41.8% level of popularity while Fenerbahçe S.K. comes second with a 35.9% level, Beşiktaş J.K. third with 16.3% and Trabzonspor fourth with 4.7%. The same result was announced in another poll dated September 2019 which included a sample of 7500 Turkish people.", "\"The big three\" clubs of Istanbul – Beşiktaş, Fenerbahçe and Galatasaray – have a century-long history of rivalry. The Galatasaray–Fenerbahçe rivalry is the primary Istanbul derby and the most important rivalry in Turkish football. The rivalry poses a symbolic importance to supporters due to an assumed superiority that comes with winning the derby. Supporters are often quoted as stating that winning the league without winning the derby is hollow. There is always huge interest in the derby due to its fierce nature on and off the pitch. Many documentaries have been made about the derby including an episode of The Real Football Factories International. The rivalry has led to violence among supporters on numerous occasions, though this has been on the decline in recent years. The typical features of derby days include sell out stadiums, loud support throughout the match and taunting choreography displays by supporters before kick off. Other top level İstanbul derbies include the teams; İstanbul BB and Kasımpaşa although these teams pose a minor rivalry as the history and the nationwide attention to the derbies among the big three is unmatched. Torches, smoke, drums, flags and giant posters used to create visual grandeur and apply psychological pressure on visiting teams, which fans call \"welcoming them to hell\".", "", "\"As of 2 February 2020\"", "\"As of 30 November 2019\"", "Galatasaray has one of the most successful youth facilities in Turkey. Gündüz Kılıç Youth Facilities in Florya is the center of the department. Galatasaray S.K. PAF have won the Turkish Youth League three times. Galatasaray football academy trains children between seven and fifteen. They are located in 79 sites, in Turkey, Australia, Germany, Belgium and the UK.", "Companies that Galatasaray S.K. currently has sponsorship deals with include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Under French colonial rule over French Congo, the authorities forbade the colony from utilizing its own distinctive colonial flag. This was because they were worried that this could increase nationalistic sentiment and lead to calls for independence. However, with the rise of the decolonization movement in Africa, the French were obliged to grant limited autonomy to the Congo as a self-governing republic within the French Community. This was granted on November 28, 1958, after a referendum was held and nine months later, the Legislative Assembly began deliberating over a national flag. The new flag was officially adopted on September 15, 1959 and remained unchanged when the French Congo became an independent state less than a year later on August 15, 1960. It was hoisted on top of the building that formerly housed the French high commission to mark the proclamation of independence. In 1968, a coup d'état took place in the country, with the new government proclaiming the People's Republic of the Congo a year later. By doing so, it became the first Marxist–Leninist country in Africa. In order to symbolize the revolutionary change, the regime instituted a new national anthem and chose a new flag. This featured a red field charged with the country's new coat of arms—a gold star with an overlapping hammer and hoe encircled by a wreath—in the top-left canton. The design was inspired by that of the Soviet Union's flag. The red flag remained in place until 1991, when economic problems and the weakening of the Soviet Union's power due to the Revolutions of 1989 culminated in democratic elections and ultimately, the collapse of the People's Republic of the Congo. The National Conference, which oversaw the transition to a democratic government, reinstated the original flag from 1959 on June 10, 1991. The colours and shapes on the flag are mentioned in Article 5 of the constitution of the Republic of the Congo.", "The colours of the flag carry cultural, political, and regional meanings. The green symbolizes the agriculture and forests of the Congo, while the yellow represents the \"friendship and nobility\" of the Congolese people. However, the symbolism behind the red was left unexplained. From a continental viewpoint, the green, yellow and red are the colours of the Pan-Africanist movement.; it is the only Pan-Africanist flag to utilize a diagonal pattern in its design. They are also the same colours utilized in the flag of Ethiopia, the oldest independent country in Africa and the only nation other than Liberia to remain independent during the Scramble for Africa." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Symbology.", "Proportions.", "Colour shades.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The National Flag of the Republic of Cabo Verde has five unequal horizontal bands of blue, white, and red, with a circle of ten yellow five-pointed stars, all pointing upwards. The topmost blue stripe is half the width of the flag. Each of the three stripes of white and red are one twelfth of the width, and the bottom blue stripe is one quarter. Therefore, the width of the stripes are in a 6:1:1:1:3 ratio. The circle of stars is centered at of the width from the bottom (which corresponds to the center of the red stripe), and the same distance from the hoist side. The lowest star is inscribed in an invisible circle centered at the middle of the lower blue stripe (that is, one eight of the width from the bottom). The size of this invisible circle (which determines the size of the stars) is not specified by the constitution, but it is commonly constructed with a diameter equal to 1/12 of the width of the flag.", "The 10 stars on the flag represent the main islands of the nation (a chain of islands off the coast of West Africa). The blue represents the ocean and the sky. The band of white and red represents the road toward the construction of the nation, and its colours stand for peace (white) and effort (red). The circle of yellow stars on a dark blue field is similar to the flag of Europe (which has 12 stars instead of 10).", "The Constitution of the Republic does not specify official proportions for the height and the width of the flag. The dimensions of the parts that make up the flag are given proportionally to the dimensions of the sides, without specifying the side dimensions. However, the proportion most widely used is 2:3, which is the same proportion that was used in the flag prior to 1992. Consequently, 2:3 is the \"de facto\" (but not \"de jure\") proportion.", "The \"Boletim Oficial\" gives the official shades of the flag's colours (as well as the colours of the Arms of the Republic): The Pantone, CMYK and RGB are official as published in the bulletin. The other colour shades (Web and HSV) are interpretations of the Pantone standards.", "Before independence from Portugal, Cape Verde did not have an official flag, and the Portuguese national flag was used. In the late 1960s, a flag for the Portuguese overseas province of Cape Verde was proposed, consisting of the flag of Portugal with the shield from the provincial arms added to the lower fly. However, this flag was never adopted. The original national flag of Cape Verde was introduced on independence in 1975 and was based on the flag of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC). It used the common African colours of red, green and yellow, and was identical to the flag of Guinea-Bissau except for the proportions and the charge in the hoist-side stripe. Their similarity evoked the plans to unite both countries, which, however, was abandoned shortly after independence. Guinea-Bissau gained independence on 10 September 1974." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Miles MacDonell was the governor of the Red River Colony in 1814, the area around Winnipeg, Manitoba. He issued the Pemmican Proclamation which prohibited export of pemmican from the colony for the next year. It was meant to guarantee adequate supplies for the Hudson's Bay Colony, but the North West Company viewed it as a ploy by the Earl of Selkirk to monopolize the commodity, which was important to the North West Company. The Métis tribe did not acknowledge the authority of the Red River Settlement, and the Pemmican Proclamation was a blow to both the Métis and North West Company. The North West Company accused the HBC of unfairly monopolizing the fur trade. MacDonnell resigned as governor of the Red River Colony in 1815, after several conflicts and suffering from \"severe emotional instability.\" He was replaced by Robert Semple, an American businessman with no previous experience in the fur trade.", "Cuthbert Grant led a group of North West Company employees in 1816 to seize a supply of pemmican from the Hudson's Bay Company that had been stolen from the Métis. They were travelling to meet traders of the North West Company to whom they intended to sell it. Grant's group encountered Semple and a group of HBC men and settlers north of Fort Douglas along the Red River at a location known as Seven Oaks, which the Métis called \"la Grenouillière\" (Frog Plain). The North West Company sent François-Firmin Boucher to speak to Semple's men. He and Semple argued, and a gunfight ensued when the English tried to arrest Boucher and seize his horse. Early reports said that the Métis fired the first shot and began the fray, but Royal Commissioner W.B. Coltman determined with \"next to certainty\" that it was one of Semple's men who fired first. The Métis were skilled sharpshooters and outnumbered Semple's forces by nearly 3 to 1 and they repulsed the attack, killing 21 men, including Governor Semple, while suffering only one fatality.", "The settlers were demoralized from the losses, so they gathered their belongings the day after the battle and sailed north, leaving the Métis in command of the settlement. Royal Commissioner W.B. Coltman was appointed to investigate the incident, and he exonerated the Métis. Lord Selkirk attempted to prosecute several members of the North West Company for murder and kept Boucher in prison for nearly two years without specific charges. All trials ended in acquittals, and the remaining charges were dropped. Members of the North West Company counter-sued Selkirk, whose health and influence subsequently declined. Selkirk died in 1820, and the two companies merged in 1821. The Hudson's Bay Company gave Cuthbert Grant an annual salary in 1828 and the position of \"warden of the plains of Red River\". The Manitoba Historical Society erected an obelisk monument in 1891 commemorating the battle at the intersection of Main Street and Rupertsland Boulevard in the Winnipeg district of West Kildonan, the approximate centre of the battle site. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1920. New interpretive plaques were installed as part of Parks Canada reconciliation with the Métis, and the Seven Oaks Park was re-landscaped. The site was officially reopened on 19 June 2016 to mark the 200th anniversary of the battle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Editions.", "Configuration.", "Package management.", "Applications.", "Installation.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Since version 4.1, Sabayon has been released in two different flavors featuring either the GNOME or KDE desktop environments, with the ultralight Fluxbox environment included as well. (In the previous versions all three environments were included in a DVD ISO image). Since Sabayon's initial release, additional versions of Sabayon have added other X environments, including Xfce and LXDE. A CoreCD edition which featured a minimal install of Sabayon was released to allow the creation of spins of the Sabayon operating system; however, this was later discontinued and replaced by CoreCDX (fluxbox window manager) and Spinbase (no X environment) first and by \"Sabayon Minimal\" later. A ServerBase edition was released which features a server-optimized kernel and a small footprint, but this was later discontinued and integrated into the \"Sabayon Minimal\". Daily build images are available to the Sabayon testers, but are released weekly to the public on the system mirrors containing stable releases. Official releases are simply DAILY versions which have received deeper testing. The adoption of Molecule led the team to change the naming system for releases. Currently available versions are: Derivatives Additional X window managers may also be installed from the Sabayon repositories, such as Cinnamon and Razor-qt.", "Sabayon uses the same core components as the Gentoo Linux distribution. Sabayon now uses systemd. All of the Gentoo configuration tools, such as codice_1 and codice_2 are fully functional. Sabayon also includes additional tools for automatic configuration of various system components such as OpenGL. Sabayon provides proprietary video drivers for both nVidia and ATI hardware. These are enabled if compatible hardware is found; otherwise, the default open-source drivers are used. Because of the automatic driver configuration, the compositing window manager Compiz Fusion and KWin are used for the GNOME and KDE editions, respectively. The discovery and configuration of network cards, wireless cards, and webcams is similarly automatic. Most printers are detected automatically but require specific manual configuration through the CUPS interface.", "Sabayon Linux relies on two package managers. Portage is inherited from Gentoo, while Entropy was developed for Sabayon by Fabio Erculiani and others. Portage downloads source-code and compiles it specifically for the target system, whereas Entropy manages binary files from servers. The binary tarball packages are precompiled using the Gentoo Linux unstable tree. Entropy clients then pull these tarballs and perform the various post- and pre-compilation calls of the Gentoo ebuild to set up a package correctly. This means the system is completely binary-compatible with a Gentoo system using the same build configuration. The adoption of two package managers allows expert users to access the full flexibility of the Gentoo system and others to easily and quickly manage software applications and updates. The Entropy software features the ability of allowing users to help generate relevant content by voting and by attaching images, files and web links to a package. Rigo application browser is a new GUI front end to Entropy that is the successor to Sulfur (aka Entropy Store). Taking on a \"less is more\" approach, Rigo is designed to be simple and fast. During an interview with Fabio Erculiani he described Rigo as a ”Google-like” Applications Management UI. Rigo handles system updates, package searching, install/removal of packages, up/down voting of packages, and many other common Entropy tasks. Rigo is currently available in the sabayon weekly repository.", "The number of applications installed by default is higher for DVD editions than for editions small enough to fit on a CD. Their selection is also tailored to the choice between GNOME, KDE, Xfce, and MATE. The XBMC environment can be run without loading the full desktop environment. The following table summarizes the software included in GNOME, KDE, Xfce, and MATE versions: Considerable software is also available in the main repository. Many Microsoft Windows executables are automatically run in Wine. Other applications include Adobe Reader, Audacity, Clementine, aMSN, Celestia, Eclipse, FileZilla, GnuCash, Google Earth, Inkscape, Kdenlive, Mozilla Firefox, Mozilla Sunbird, Mozilla Thunderbird, Nero Burning ROM, Opera, Picasa, Skype, Teamviewer, VirtualBox, Vuze and Wireshark. Games (open-source and proprietary) include \"Doom 3\", \"Eternal Lands\", \"Nexuiz\", \"OpenArena\", \"Quake\", \"Quake 2\", \"Quake 3\", \"Quake 4\", \"\", \"The Battle for Wesnoth\", \"Tremulous\", \"Unreal\", \"Unreal Tournament\", \"Urban Terror\", \"Vendetta Online\", \"Warsow\", \"Warzone 2100\", \"\", \"World of Padman\" and \"Xonotic\".", "Gentoo's installation is generally not recommended for beginners because its package management system requires users to compile source code to install packages (most distributions rely on precompiled binaries). Compiling larger programs and the base operating system can take several hours. Sabayon is considered easier to install than \"pure Gentoo\" because it uses both the Portage package management system and its own Entropy package management, which allows the user the option of using precompiled binary files during installation. Although the distribution is a LiveDVD (or a LiveCD for LXDE, CoreCDX, SpinBase and ServerBase) it can be installed on a hard disk once the system is fully booted. Sabayon Linux uses the Calamares installer. In previous releases, Anaconda and the Gentoo Linux Installer were used. Installation is designed to be simpler than is typical for Gentoo, which requires more extensive knowledge of the operating system (particularly for the compilation of the Linux kernel). Installation takes up to 30 minutes depending on the speed of the DVD drive. Those without a DVD drive can install the GNOME and KDE versions through a USB drive, which can be created with Unetbootin. A program plays music during the boot process.", "Tux Machines reviewed Sabayon Linux in 2005. Tux Machines wrote: Dedoimedo wrote post in 2008. Its review of Sabayon Linux: Linux.com wrote review about Sabayon 3.4: LWN.net reviewed Sabayon 4.0: DistroWatch Weekly reviewed Sabayon Linux in 2009: LinuxBSDos wrote post in 2009. Its review of Sabayon 5:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Statistics.", "History.", "Early years.", "Article count.", "Topics.", "In the press." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As of May 2020, the Greek Wikipedia: As of May 2019, Greek Wikipedia is usually visited by 5,500,000 to 6,500,000 unique devices per month, while the unique devices per day are approximately 440,000. The origin of pageviews is mainly from Greece. The remainder of the pageviews comes from Cyprus, Germany, United States, United Kingdom and other countries. As of May 2019, Greece is the source for the bulk of the pageviews, being the source for nearly 27,000,000 pageviews out of 32,500,000 on the same month. As of May 2019, Greek Wikipedia receives approximately 30,000,000 pageviews per month, with a peak at winter months. Together with an increasing number of articles and improvements on quality, the pageviews have improved substantially in the last three years. Since 2017, the annual article growth amounts to 15,000 articles annually, while the average monthly growth amounts to 1,020-1,300 articles per month.", "", "Greek Wikipedia was created on 1 December 2002. At the first months of existence, the new articles were very small and a handful of users was contributing, some of them just adding interwikis to other Wikipedias. The first were launched on November 2005.", "The Greek Wikipedia was created on 4 December 2002. On 16 May 2006 it reached 10,000 articles. On 10 October 2006 it reached 15,000 articles, while on 17 March 2007 it reached 20,000 articles. On this period there were 30 new articles being created every day, while there were 50 active users. In December of that year the Greek Wikipedia reached 30,000 articles, while on 14 February 2009 it reached 40,000 articles. Fourteen months later, on 10 April 2010, it reached 50,000 articles; eleven months later, on 8 March 2011 it reached 60,000 articles. In February 2012 it had 70,000 articles, while 252 days later it reached 80,000 articles. In July 2013, it reached 90,000 articles, while 271 days later it reached 100,000 articles, while 195 days later it reached 110,000 articles. In 11 July 2016, after 629 days, it reached 120,000 articles, due to the general recount of late March 2015 which removed several thousand redirects from the mainspace. As a result, the article count fell to 105,500 articles, while before the recount the article count was 119,500 articles.", "In 2019 the Greek Wikipedia has 60 thousand unique categories and 6.37% of them do not have appropriate page in the category. The average article in this language version has 8 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.374. The largest number of articles has Geography (13%) and Arts (10%) category. In Greek Wikipedia articles related to Food and drink and Sports has the highest average quality. Content about Health is read more often and articles in Entertainment category have the highest authors' interest on average.", "In the press, Wikipedia has been referred as a good source of information; however periodically it has been criticised for having a non-neutral point of view in political articles. Also, Greek Wikipedia has received extensive coverage from the Greek-language press for some of its actions, such as the anniversary of 10 years since its opening. In addition to, full articles of Greek Wikipedia or parts of them are often included in news articles and other websites in Greek language." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "7 (415S).", "New 7 (474S).", "Turbocharged 7 (578A)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The 7, known by the internal code \"415S\" was developed by Jiro Kawano, who had also developed the 2000GT that Toyota had previously entered in the Japanese Grand Prix. Yamaha constructed the chassis while the new 3.0-litre V8 engine was built by Toyota. The V8 that powered the 7 replaced the straight-six engine used in the 2000GT due to the higher power potential of the larger engine. This engine was capable of producing up to 300 PS, thanks to the addition of a dual overhead cam design and four valves per cylinder. However, the 3.0-litre V8 which was used in the early years was not powerful enough to compete with the Chevrolet and Porsche-powered competitors. This led to the development of a 5.0-litre version, capable of at 8,000 rpm. The initial bodywork was similar to other Group 7 cars, with an open two-seater cockpit and large intakes behind the doors. Exhaust pipes were placed directly on top of the engine, exiting straight off the tail of the car. A simple rollhoop protected the driver. The 7s made their debut at the, four entries starting and two of those finishing, taking eighth and ninth places. Although the 7s finished, they were well behind their main competitor, Nissan, who had not only two new R381s, but also three older R380-IIs finish in the top six. Porsche also managed to finish ahead of Toyota with their 906. Toyota entered the 7s in several other Japanese events that year, including the 1000 km Suzuka, where the cars took the top four positions. A event was held at Fuji against invited contenders from the Can Am series, with five 7s entered; the Toyotas finished fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth, and ninth.", "For 1969, the 7s were evolved in order to adapt to problems on the original cars. The bodywork was completely redesigned, shaped similar to a large broad wedge for increased front downforce. For the rear of the car, the exhaust pipes were placed within the bodywork, while an intake scoop was mounted over the rollbar. These new 7s were referred to internally as the \"474S\", while press material referred to it as the New 7. The revised New 7s continued to show their potential, winning the 1000 km Suzuka once again. For the New 7s main event, the, Nissan arrived with their revised R382s. Although Toyota was able to outperform Porsche, including a factory-run squad in a new 917, the Nissans once again proved too daunting, taking the top two spots by a lap over the Toyota.", "Toyota made plans to revise the car once again for 1970, most notably by the addition of two turbochargers to the V8 engine. These additions boosted power to 800 hp. A large rear wing was also added to the 7, helping to increase rear downforce and traction. This car was known by the name \"578A.\" However, the (JAF) announced that the Japanese Grand Prix was to be revised for use by open wheel cars from 1970 on. This forced Toyota to cancel the 7 program, although at least one turbocharged 7 had been completed prior to the announcement. Toyota planned to move the cars to North America and enter Can-Am, however drivers and were killed in separate testing accidents in February 1969 and August 1970. Sachio was in fact testing the only coupé version of the car that was especially built when he fatally crashed. This would be the last sports prototype built by Toyota until the 1980s. Toyota used the 7 once more in 1970 as a base for the EX-7, publicly shown at that year's Tokyo Motor Show. The turbochargers were removed from the V8 engine to bring the power down to while the bodywork was a streamlined coupe design similar to other supercars of the era." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Style.", "The site.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Angkor Thom () is the transform name from another alternative name of Nokor Thom (), which is believed to be the correct one, due to neglect of calling it in incorrect pronunciation. The word \"Nokor\" () is literally derived from Sanskrit word of \"Nagara\" (Devanāgarī: नगर), which means \"City\", combining with Khmer word \"Thom\" (), which means \"Big\" or \"Great\" so as to form \"Nokor Thom\" then being altered to current name of \"Angkor Thom\".", "Angkor Thom was established as the capital of Jayavarman VII's empire, and was the centre of his massive building program. One inscription found in the city refers to Jayavarman as the groom and the city as his bride. Angkor Thom seems not to be the first Khmer capital on the site, however. Yasodharapura, dating from three centuries earlier, was centred slightly further northwest, and Angkor Thom overlapped parts of it. The most notable earlier temples within the city are the former state temple of Baphuon, and Phimeanakas, which was incorporated into the Royal Palace. The Khmers did not draw any clear distinctions between Angkor Thom and Yashodharapura: even in the fourteenth century an inscription used the earlier name. The name of Angkor Thom—great city—was in use from the 16th century. The last temple known to have been constructed in Angkor Thom was Mangalartha, which was dedicated in 1295. Thereafter the existing structures continued to be modified from time to time, but any new creations were in perishable materials and have not survived. The Ayutthaya Kingdom, led by King Borommarachathirat II, sacked Angkor Thom, forcing the Khmers under Ponhea Yat to relocate their capital southeast to Phnom Penh. Angkor Thom was abandoned some time prior to 1609, when an early western visitor wrote of an uninhabited city, \"as fantastic as the Atlantis of Plato\". It is believed to have sustained a population of 80,000–150,000 people.", "Angkor Thom is in the Bayon style. This manifests itself in the large scale of the construction, in the widespread use of laterite, in the face-towers at each of the entrances to the city and in the naga-carrying giant figures which accompany each of the towers.", "The city lies on the west bank of the Siem Reap River, a tributary of Tonle Sap, about a quarter of a mile from the river. The south gate of Angkor Thom is 7.2 km north of Siem Reap, and 1.7 km north of the entrance to Angkor Wat. The walls, 8 m high and flanked by a moat, are each 3 km long, enclosing an area of 9 km2. The walls are of laterite buttressed by earth, with a parapet on the top. There are gates at each of the cardinal points, from which roads lead to the Bayon at the centre of the city. As the Bayon itself has no wall or moat of its own, those of the city are interpreted by archaeologists as representing the mountains and oceans surrounding the Bayon's Mount Meru. Another gate—the Victory Gate—is 500 m north of the east gate; the Victory Way runs parallel to the east road to the Victory Square and the Royal Palace north of the Bayon. It is around 30 minutes from central Siem Reap. The faces on the 23 m towers at the city gates, which are later additions to the main structure, take after those of the Bayon and pose the same problems of interpretation. They may represent the king himself, the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, guardians of the empire's cardinal points, or some combination of these. A causeway spans the moat in front of each tower: these have a row of devas on the left and asuras on the right, each row holding a naga in the attitude of a tug-of-war. This appears to be a reference to the myth, popular in Angkor, of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. The temple-mountain of the Bayon, or perhaps the gate itself, would then be the pivot around which the churning takes place. The nagas may also represent the transition from the world of men to the world of the gods (the Bayon), or be guardian figures. The gateways themselves are 3.5 by 7 m, and would originally have been closed with wooden doors. The south gate is now by far the most often visited, as it is the main entrance to the city for tourists. At each corner of the city is a Prasat Chrung—corner shrine—built of sandstone and dedicated to Avalokiteshvara. These are cruciform with a central tower, and orientated towards the east. Within the city was a system of canals, through which water flowed from the northeast to the southwest. The bulk of the land enclosed by the walls would have been occupied by the secular buildings of the city, of which nothing remains. This area is now covered by forest. Most of the great Angkor ruins have vast displays of bas-relief depicting the various gods, goddesses, and other-worldly beings from the mythological stories and epic poems of ancient Hinduism (modified by centuries of Buddhism). Mingled with these images are actual known animals, like elephants, snakes, fish, and monkeys, in addition to dragon-like creatures that look like the stylized, elongated serpents (with feet and claws) found in Chinese art. But among the ruins of Ta Prohm, near a huge stone entrance, one can see that the \"roundels on pilasters on the south side of the west entrance are unusual in design.\" What one sees are roundels depicting various common animals—pigs, monkeys, water buffaloes, roosters and snakes. There are no mythological figures among the roundels, so one can reasonably conclude that these figures depict the animals that were commonly seen by the ancient Khmer people in the twelfth century.", "Notes Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Episcopate and cardinalate.", "Papacy.", "Election.", "Modernism and Biblical translations.", "Other activities.", "Health and death.", "Episcopal lineage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Francesco Saverio Castiglioni was born in Cingoli, Marche, the third of eight children of Count Ottavio Castiglioni and his wife Sanzia Ghislieri. His baptismal name was recorded as Francesco Saverio Maria Felice. An ancestor of his was Pope Celestine IV. He studied at the Collegio Campana run by the Society of Jesus and, after that, at the University of Bologna where he earned a doctorate in canon law and in civil law in 1785. He was ordained to the priesthood in Rome on 17 December 1785. He served as the Vicar General of Anagni (1788–1790), Fano (1790–1797) and Ascoli Piceno (1797–1800).", "On 11 August 1800 Castiglioni was appointed Bishop of Montalto. He received episcopal consecration on 17 August in Rome at the Church of Santi Domenico e Sisto. Cardinal Giuseppe Doria Pamphili served as consecrator, assisted by Nicola Buschi and Camillo Campanelli. He refused to swear allegiance to Napoleon or to his client state, the Kingdom of Italy. On 29 July 1808 he was arrested and taken to Milan. Castiglioni was subsequently taken to Pavia, to Mantua, and then to Turin, where he arrived on 10 November 1813. On 18 November he was brought back to Milan. Finally, after Napoleon fell, Castiglioni returned to his diocese on 16 June 1814. He was praised by Pope Pius VII who in 1816 elevated him to the cardinalate as the Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria in Traspontina. He held various high offices thereafter, including that of Apostolic Penitentiary. He soon became a Cardinal-Bishop of the suburbicarian see of Frascati. Castiglioni was considered a front-runner in the conclave of 1823. He was known to be close to Pius VII, who often referred to Castiglioni as \"Pius VIII.\" However, he failed to gain the necessary votes, in part due to controversy surrounding an alliance between him and another favorite, Secretary of State Ercole Consalvi. Annibale Cardinal della Genga was elected instead, and he took the name of Pope Leo XII.", "", "After the death of Pope Leo XII in 1829, Castiglioni was again considered to be a major candidate, though was questioned due to his frail health. Despite these concerns, he was elected as pope in the papal conclave of 1829. Given that Pope Pius VII had referred to him as Pius VIII, it seemed only suitable that it was the pontifical name that he chose. He was crowned on 5 April 1829 by Cardinal Giuseppe Albani.", "As Pope Pius VIII, he initiated some reforms in the Papal States. On 24 May 1829 he issued an encyclical, \"Traditi humilitati\". Regarding religious pluralism, he condemned the \"foul contrivance of the sophists of this age\" that would place Catholicism on par with any other religion. Regarding Bible translations, he wrote in that encyclical: On 25 March 1830, in the brief \"Litteris altero,\" he condemned the masonic secret societies and modernist biblical translations. Pius VIII accepted the situation on mixed marriages between Protestants and Catholics in Germany, but he opposed changes in Ireland and Poland, which were still strongly Catholic. In \"Litteris altero abhinc,\" he declared that a mixed marriage could only be blessed by a priest if proper promises had been made to educate the children of the marriage as Catholics.", "His brief pontificate saw the Catholic Emancipation in the United Kingdom and the July Revolution in France, which occurred in 1829 and 1830, respectively. Pius VIII recognised Louis Philippe I (1830–48) as French king and allowed him to use the French king's customary title \"Roi Très Chretien,\" which means \"His Most Christian Majesty.\" Pius VIII also held three consistories in which he elevated a total of six men into the cardinalate. He held these ceremonies on 27 July 1829, 15 March 1830 and 5 July 1830. He canonized no saints during his brief pontificate but he beatified two individuals. On 23 December 1829 he beatified Benincasa da Montepulciano, and on 4 March 1830 he beatified Chiara Gambacorti. In 1830 Pius VIII proclaimed Saint Bernard of Clairvaux a Doctor of the Church. Of remarkable importance to the future is a letter of his to a French bishop, in which he allowed the taking of moderate interest (under the principle of foregoing a profit by investing the lent capital; see Vix pervenit for the discussion of the topic). Being, at that time, head of the Roman State, he remained popular for decades for removing the so-called \"cancelletti\" (grids) from the taverns, which Leo XII had ordered to be put there to hinder the consumption of wine unless accompanied by a meal. A poem was written about him that ran thus: \"Allor che il sommo Pio / comparve innanzi a Dio / gli domandò: Che hai fatto? / Rispose: Nient'ho fatto. / Corresser gli angeletti: / Levò i cancelletti.\" (Which is approximately in English: At the time when the highest Pius / approached God in the highest / He asked him: What have you got done? / He answered: \"There's nothing I've got done.\" / But the angels present knew better: / \"He cancelled the cancelletter\".)", "Pius VIII was in very poor health during most of his papacy. He became very ill in early November 1830, developing fistulas on his neck and knee while his entire body became covered with pustules, which the doctors were able to manage by 15 November. Pius VIII became seriously ill on 23 November and had difficulties in breathing for the following three nights until being given the Viaticum on 28 November and the Extreme Unction later that day. He died on 30 November 1830 at the age of 69 in the Quirinal Palace in Rome. Certain theories have emerged suggesting that Pius VIII was poisoned, but no proof has been found to verify this claim. Cardinal Camillo di Pietro gave the funeral oration for the late pope, before the cardinals entered the conclave to choose a successor. Pius VIII was succeeded by Pope Gregory XVI.", "The pope's episcopal lineage, or apostolic succession was:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Policies.", "Content.", "Namespaces.", "Criticism.", "History.", "Early years.", "Troubles with the government." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Difficult issues are resolved through the, which handles content disputes, blocks users or prohibits certain users from editing articles on certain topics. Administrators (currently ) are elected through a vote; a minimum quorum of 30 voters and 66% of support votes are required if the request is to be considered successful. Administrators who have become inactive (i.e. have not used administrative tools, such as \"delete\" or \"block\" buttons, at least 25 times in six months) may lose their privileges by an Arbitration Committee decision.", "As of 1 June 2012, some of the biggest categories (which contain more than 5,000 articles) in the Russian Wikipedia are: 10,340 articles contain material from the \"Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary\". More than 47,000 articles were translated from the English Wikipedia. In 2019 the Russian Wikipedia has 469 thousand unique categories and 11.31% of them do not have appropriate page in the category namespace. The average article in this language version has 11 categories, while number of unique categories per articles ratio is 0.305. The largest number of articles has People (19%) and Nature (9%) category. In Russian Wikipedia the highest average quality has articles related to Events and Military. Content about Entertainment is read more often and has the highest authors' interest on average. In March 2020 the Russian Wikipedia contained 8.9 million references, wherein 1.51% of them had the DOI identifier and 7.22% of references contained the ISBN number. Total share of articles on the Russian Wikipedia with at least one reference was 61.06%. At the time it had 13.67% and 0.5% of articles with at least 10 and 100 references respectively.", "In addition to common Wikipedia namespaces, the Russian Wikipedia has three custom ones: \"Incubator\" (# 102–103) – which is used as a training camp for new users and their first articles, \"Project\" (# 104–105) – for and \"Arbitration\" (# 106–107) – for requests.", "In 2015,, a professor at University of Tartu, in an interview opined that articles related to humanities in the Russian Wikipedia are of considerably inferior quality compared to English Wikipedia, and some articles even deteriorate with time. He suggested that this effect is due to overzealous policing of intellectual property rights by the community and bemoaned poor editing skills of some Wikipedians.", "", "The Russian Wikipedia was created on 20 May 2001 in the first wave of non-English Wikipedias, along with editions in Catalan, Chinese, Dutch, German, Esperanto, French, Hebrew, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish. The first edit of the Russian Wikipedia was on 24 May 2001, and consisted of the line (\"\"Russia is a great nation\"\"). The following edit changed it to the joke: (\"\"Russia is the motherland of elephants (big-eared, improved cross-country capability, see Mammoth.\"\") For a long time development was slow (especially after some participants left for WikiZnanie), but in the 12-month period between February 2005 and February 2006 it surpassed nine editions in other languages – the Catalan, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Hebrew, Finnish, Norwegian, Chinese, Esperanto and Danish Wikipedias. In 2006, 2007, 2009 and 2010 the Russian Wikipedia won the \"Science and education\" category of the \"Runet Prize\" () award, supervised by the Russian government agency FAPMC.", "On 10 July 2012 Russian Wikipedia closed access to its content for 24 hours in protest against proposed amendments to Russia's Information Act (Bill No. 89417-6) regulating the accessibility of Internet-based information to children. Among other things, the bill stipulates the creation and country-wide enforcement of blacklists, which would block access to forbidden sites. Several aspects of this amendment drew criticism from various civil rights activists and Internet providers. In particular, the blacklist inclusion criteria were characterized as \"too vague\" and \"paving the way for Internet censorship\". Supporters of the amendment stated that it is aimed only at widely prohibited content such as child pornography and similar information, but the Russian has declared that conditions for determining the content falling under this law will create a thing like the \"great Chinese firewall\". They further claimed that existing Russian legal practice demonstrates a high likelihood of a worst-case scenario, resulting in a country-wide ban of Wikipedia. The second and the third readings of the law were held in the State Duma on 11 July; no essential corrections were introduced. The law will come into force after three readings in the State Duma, one reading in the Federation Council and presidential approval. On 10 July, Nikolai Nikiforov, Russian Minister for Telecommunications and Mass Media announced in his Twitter account, that the organization of the List of the prohibited websites (that was sited on the Law Project No. 89417-6) will be suspended until 1 November 2012. On the same day Yelena Mizulina, a Duma deputy and the head of the subcommittee which sponsored the law, said that the blackout is an attempt to blackmail the Duma and was sponsored by the \"pedophile lobby\". Also, since 2012, Russian foreign agent law resulted in reduced funding available for the Russian Wikipedia and its volunteers, who no longer can receive financial aid from abroad, including their share of funds raised through global Wikipedia fundraisers. On 5 April 2013, it was confirmed by a spokesperson for the Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media that Wikipedia had been blacklisted over the article \"\" (\"Cannabis smoking\") on Russian Wikipedia. On 31 March 2013, \"The New York Times\" reported that Russia was 'Selectively Blocking [the] Internet', though Wikipedia itself was not blocked at that time. Articles on Russian Wikipedia, and also on other Wikipedia versions, concerning the flight MH17 down-shoot and the 2014 Ukraine conflict have been targeted by Internet propaganda outlets associated with the Russian government. Some of the edits were spotted by a Twitter bot which monitors Wikipedia edits made from Russian government IP addresses. The entire Russian Wikipedia was blocked in the Russian Federation for a few hours in August 2015 due to the contents of the article on charas. In November 2019, Russian president Vladimir Putin called for a government-run alternative to Wikipedia. \"The Guardian\" reported state funds had already been allocated according to official documents published the previous September. The new electronic alternative was intended to be based on the \"Great Russian Encyclopedia\". According to the London \"Times\", the proposal had been abandoned by mid-May 2020, however, according to \"Great Russian Encyclopedia\" employee Yekaterina Chukovskaya, only the working group was disbanded and work on the project as a whole will continue." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "History.", "Geography.", "Subdivisions.", "Cities.", "Science and technology.", "Economy.", "Politics and government.", "History of Walloon autonomy.", "Symbols.", "Religion.", "Regional languages.", "Culture.", "Literature.", "In Walloon.", "In French.", "In Picard.", "Mosan art, painting, architecture.", "Music.", "Cinema.", "Festivals.", "Cuisine.", "Transportation.", "Airports.", "Railways, motorways, buses.", "Waterways.", "International relations.", "Trade." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The term \"Wallonia\" can mean slightly different things in different contexts. One of the three federal regions of Belgium is still constitutionally defined as the \"Walloon Region\" as opposed to \"Wallonia\", but the regional government has renamed itself Wallonia, and it is commonly called Wallonia. Preceding 1 April 2010, when the renaming came into effect, Wallonia would sometimes refer to the territory governed by the Walloon Region, whereas \"Walloon Region\" referred specifically", "Julius Caesar conquered Gaul in 57 BC. The Low Countries became part of the larger Gallia Belgica province which originally stretched from southwestern Germany to Normandy and the southern part of the Netherlands. The population of this territory was Celtic with a Germanic influence which was stronger in the north than in the south of the province. Gallia Belgica became progressively romanized. The ancestors of the Walloons became Gallo-Romans and were called the \"Walha\" by their Germanic neighbours. The \"Walha\" abandoned their Celtic dialects and started to speak Vulgar Latin. The Merovingian Franks gradually gained control of the region during the 5th century, under Clovis. Due to the fragmentation of the former Roman Empire, Vulgar Latin regionally developed along different lines and evolved into several \"langue d'oïl\" dialects, which in Wallonia became Picard, Walloon and Lorrain. The oldest surviving text written in a \"langue d'oïl\", the \"Sequence of Saint Eulalia\", has characteristics of these three languages and was likely written in or very near to what is now Wallonia around 880 AD. From the 4th to the 7th century, the Franks established several settlements, probably mostly in the north of the province where the romanization was less advanced and some Germanic trace was still present. The language border (that now splits Belgium in the middle) began to crystallize between 700 under the reign of the Merovingians and Carolingians and around 1000 after the Ottonian Renaissance. French-speaking cities, with Liège as the largest one, appeared along the Meuse river and Gallo-Roman cities such as Tongeren, Maastricht and Aachen became Germanized. The Carolingian dynasty dethroned the Merovingians in the 8th century. In 843, the Treaty of Verdun gave the territory of present-day Wallonia to Middle Francia, which would shortly fragment, with the region passing to Lotharingia. On Lotharingia's breakup in 959, the present-day territory of Belgium became part of Lower Lotharingia, which then fragmented into rival principalities and duchies by 1190. Literary Latin, which was taught in schools, lost its hegemony during the 13th century and was replaced by Old French. In the 15th century, the Dukes of Burgundy took over the Low Countries. The death of Charles the Bold in 1477 raised the issue of succession, and the Liégeois took advantage of this to regain some of their autonomy. From the 16th to the 18th century, the Low Countries were governed successively by the Habsburg dynasty of Spain (from the early 16th century until 1713–14) and later by Austria (until 1794). This territory was enlarged in 1521–22 when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor gained the Tournai region from France. Present-day Belgium was conquered in 1795 by the French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars. It was annexed to the Republic, which later became the Napoleonic Empire. After the Battle of Waterloo, Wallonia became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands under King William of Orange. The Walloons played an active part in the Belgian Revolution in 1830. The Provisional Government of Belgium proclaimed Belgium's independence and held elections for the National Congress.", "Wallonia is landlocked, with an area of, or 55 percent of the total area of Belgium. The Sambre and Meuse valley, from Liège () to Charleroi () is an entrenched river in a fault line which separates Middle Belgium (elevation ) and High Belgium (). This fault line corresponds to a part of the southern coast of the late London-Brabant Massif. The valley, along with Haine and Vesdre valleys form the \"sillon industriel\", the historical centre of the Belgian coalmining and steelmaking industry, and is also called the Walloon industrial backbone. Due to their long industrial historic record, several segments of the valley have received specific names: Borinage, around Mons, le Centre, around La Louvière, the Pays noir, around", "The Walloon region covers and is divided into five provinces, 20 arrondissements and 262 cities or municipalities. The province of Walloon Brabant is the most recent one, being formed in 1995 after the splitting of the province of Brabant.", "The largest cities in Wallonia are:", "Contributions to the development of science and technology have appeared since the beginning of the country's history. Baptismal font of Renier de Huy, is not the only example of medieval Walloon working expertise. An indication of that : the words \"houille\" (coal) or \"houilleur\" (coal miner) or \"grisou\" (damp) were coined in Wallonia and are from walloon origin. The economically important very deep coal mining in the course of the First Industrial Revolution has required highly reputed specialized studies for mining engineers. But that was already the case before the Industrial Revolution, with an engineer as Rennequin Sualem for instance. Engineer Zenobe Gramme invented the Gramme dynamo, the first generator to produce power on a commercial scale for industry. Chemist Ernest Solvay", "Wallonia is rich in iron and coal, and these resources and related industries have played an important role in its history. In ancient times, the Sambre and Meuse valley was an important industrial area in the Roman Empire. In the Middle Ages, Wallonia became a center for brass working and bronze working, with Huy, Dinant and Chimay being important regional centers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the iron masters of Liège developed a method of refining iron ore by the use of a blast furnace, called the Walloon Method. There were also a few coal mines around Charleroi and the Borinage during this period, but their output was small, and was principally consumed as a fuel by various industries such as the important glass making industry that sprang up in the Charleroi basin during the 14th century. In the 19th century, the area began to industrialize, mainly along the so-called sillon industriel. It was the first fully industrialized area in continental Europe, and Wallonia was the second industrial power in the world, in proportion to its population and its territory, after the United Kingdom. The sole industrial centre in Belgium outside the collieries", "Belgium is a federal state made up of three communities and three regions, each with considerable autonomy. One of these is the Walloon Region, which is governed by the Parliament of Wallonia and the executive Walloon Government. The Walloon Region's autonomy extends even to foreign policy; Wallonia is entitled to pursue its own foreign policy, including the signing of treaties, and in many domains even the Belgian federal government is not able to sign an international treaty without the agreement of the Parliament of Wallonia. Wallonia is also home to about 80 percent of the population of the French Community of Belgium, a political level responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education, with the remainder living in Brussels. Wallonia is also home to the small German-speaking Community of Belgium in the east, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues. Although in Flanders, the Flemish Region assigned all of its powers to the Flemish Community, the Walloon Region remains in principle distinct from and independent from the French Community, and vice versa. Despite this, the French Community's parliament is almost entirely composed of members of Wallonia's and Brussels' parliaments, so the bodies are governed by the same individuals. Additionally, the French Community of Belgium has controversially begun referring to itself exclusively as the 'Wallonia-Brussels Federation' to emphasize the links between the French Community, Wallonia and Brussels. The Walloon Region has a unicameral parliament with 75 members elected for five years by direct universal suffrage, and an executive, the Walloon Government, elected by a political majority in Parliament. The Government numbers nine members with the president. Each member is called a \"Walloon minister\". The head of the Government is called the Minister-President of Wallonia. The coalition government for the 2014–2019 legislature was a center-left coalition PS-cdH until July 28 when it was replaced by a center-left coalition MR-cdH. The current Minister-President is Elio Di Rupo.", "\"From 1831, the year of Belgium's independence, until the federalization of the country in 1970, Wallonia has increasingly asserted itself as a region in its own right.\" Following several state reforms, especially the 1993 state reform, Belgium became a federal state made up", "The first appearance of the French word \"Wallonie\" as a reference to the romance world as opposed to Germany is said to date from 1842. Two years later, it was first used to refer to the Romance part of the young country of Belgium. In 1886, the writer and Walloon militant Albert Mockel, first used the word with a political meaning of cultural and regional affirmation, in opposition with the word \"Flanders\" used by the Flemish Movement. The word had previously appeared in German and Latin as early as the 17th century. The rising of a Walloon identity led the Walloon Movement to", "In 2016, 68% of residents of Wallonia declared themselves Catholics, 21% were practising Catholics", "French is the major language spoken in Wallonia. German is spoken in the German-speaking Community of Belgium, in the east. Belgian French is rather similar to that spoken in France, with slight differences in pronunciation and some vocabulary differences, notably the use of the words \"septante\" (70) and \"nonante\" (90), as opposed to \"soixante-dix\" and \"quatre-vingt-dix\" in France. There are noticeable Walloon accents, with the accent from Liège and its surroundings being perhaps the most striking. Other regions of Wallonia also have characteristic accents, often linked to the regional", "", "", "Literature is written principally in French but also in Walloon and other regional languages, colloquially called Walloon literature. Walloon literature (regional language not French) has been printed since the 16th century. But it did have its golden age, paradoxically, during the peak of the Flemish immigration to Wallonia in the 19th century: \"That period saw an efflorescence of Walloon literature, plays and poems primarily, and the founding of many theaters and periodicals.\" The New York Public Library possesses a surprisingly large collection of literary works in Walloon, quite possibly the largest outside Belgium, and its holding are representative of the output. Out of nearly a thousand, twenty-six were published before 1880. Thereafter the numbers rise gradually year by year, reaching a peak of sixty-nine in 1903, and then they fall again, down", "Jean-Marie Klinkenberg (member of the Groupe μ) wrote that Wallonia, and literature in Wallonia, has been present in French language since its formation. In their 'Histoire illustrée des lettres française de Belgique', Charlier and Hanse (editors), La Renaissance du livre, Bruxelles, 1958, published 247 pages (on 655 ), about the \"French\" literature in the Walloon provinces (or Walloon principalities of the Middle-Age, sometimes also Flemish provinces and principalities), for a period from the 11th to the 18th century. Among the works or the authors,the Sequence of Saint Eulalia (9th century), La Vie", "Picard is spoken in the western province of Hainaut. Notable Belgian authors who wrote in Picard include Géo Libbrecht, Paul Mahieu, Paul André, Francis Couvreur and Florian Duc.", "Mosan art is a regional style of Romanesque art from the valleys of the Meuse in present-day Wallonia, and the Rhineland, with manuscript illumination, metalwork, and enamel work from the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. Among them the masterpiece of Renier de Huy and perhaps of the whole Mosan art Baptismal font at St Bartholomew's Church, Liège. The architecture of Roman churches of the Walloon country are also named mosan, exemplified by the Collegiate Church of Saint Gertrude in Nivelles, and the churches of Waha and Hastière, Dinant. The Ornamental brassware is also a part of the Mosan art and among these dinandiers Hugo d'Oignies and Nicholas of Verdun. Jacques du Broeucq was a sculptor of the 16th century. Flemish art was not confined to the boundaries of modern Flanders and several leading artists came from or worked", "There was an important musical life in Prince-Bishopric of Liège since the beginning. Between 1370 and 1468 flourished a school of music in Liège, with Johannes Brassart, Johannes de Sarto and firstly Johannes Ciconia, the third Master of Ars Nova. The vocal music of the so-called Franco-Flemish School developed in the southern part of the Low Countries and was an important contribution to Renaissance culture. Robert Wangermée and Philippe Mercier wrote in their encyclopedic book about the Walloon music that Liège, Cambrai and Hainaut played a leading part in the so-called Franco-Flemish School. Among them were Orlande de Lassus, Gilles Binchois, Guillaume Dufay In the 19th and 20th centuries, there", "Walloon films are often characterized by social realism. It is perhaps the reason why the documentary \"Misère au Borinage\", and especially its co-director Henri Storck, is considered by Robert Stallaerts as the father of the Walloon cinema. He wrote: \"Although a Fleming, he can be called the father of the Walloon cinema.\". For F.André between \"Misère au Borinage\" and the films like those of the Dardenne brothers (since 1979), there is \"Déjà s'envole la fleur maigre\" (1960) (also shot in the Borinage), a film regarded as a", "The Ducasse de Mons (Walloon French for Kermesse), is one of the UNESCO Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It comprises two important parts: the procession, the descent and the ascent of the shrine of Waltrude, and the combat between Saint George and the dragon. The combat (after the procession), plays out on the Trinity Sunday between 12:30", "Wallonia is famous for a number of different foods and drinks, a great many of which are specialties of certain cities or regions. The 1957 Michelin Guide noted that \"regional food has put up heroic resistance and the Walloon provinces and Flemish provinces are proud of their specialities.\" The Liège waffle a rich, dense, sweet, and chewy waffle native to Liège, is the most popular type of waffle in Belgium, and can be found in stores and even vending machines throughout the country. Cougnou, or the \"bread of Jesus\", is a sweet bread typically eaten around Christmas time and found throughout the region. Other specialties include Herve cheese, an apple butter called \"sirop de Liège\", the Garden strawberry of Wépion. Also notable is the Dinant specialty Flamiche: These cheese tarts are not found in window displays as they are", "", "The two largest cities in Wallonia each have an airport. The Brussels South Charleroi Airport has become an important passenger airport, especially with low fares companies such as Ryanair or Wizzair. It serves", "TEC is the single public transit authority for all of Wallonia, operating buses and trams. Charleroi is the sole Walloon city to have a metro system, the Charleroi Pre-metro. Wallonia has an extensive and well-developed rail network,", "With traffic of over 20 million tonnes and 26 kilometres of quays, the autonomous port of Liège (PAL) is the third largest inland port in Europe. It carries out the management of 31 ports along the Meuse and the Albert Canal. It is accessible to sea and river transporters weighing up to 2,500 tonnes, and to push two-barge convoys (4,500 tonnes, soon to be raised to 9,000 tonnes). Even if Wallonia does", "", "The Walloon Export and Foreign Investment Agency (AWEX) is the Wallonia Region of Belgium's government agency in charge of foreign trade promotion and foreign investment attraction. The AWEX" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Interpretations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pherecydes of Syros's \"Heptamychia\" is the first attested mention of Ophion. The story was apparently popular in Orphic poetry, of which only fragments survive. Apollonius of Rhodes in his \"Argonautica\" (1.495f) summarizes a song of Orpheus: Lycophron (1191) relates that Zeus' mother, Rhea, is skilled in wrestling, having cast the former queen Eurynome into Tartarus. Nonnus in his \"Dionysiaca\" has Hera say (8.158f): \"Harmonia\" here is probably an error in the text for \"Eurynome\". Ophion is mentioned again by Nonnus (12.43): We also have fragments of the writings of the early philosopher Pherecydes of Syros (6th century ), who devised a myth or legend in which powers known as Zas and Chronos (\"Time\") and Chthonie (\"Of the Earth\") existed from the beginning and in which Chronos creates the universe. Some fragments of this work mention a birth of Ophioneus and a battle of the gods between Cronus (not Chronos) on one side and Ophioneus and his children on the other in which an agreement is made that whoever pushes the other side into \"Ogenos\" will lose and the winner will hold heaven. Eusebius of Caesarea in his \"Praeparatio Evangelica\" (1.10) cites Philo of Byblos as declaring that Pherecydes took Ophion and the Ophionidae from the Phoenicians.", "Robert Graves in his book \"The Greek Myths\" imaginatively reconstructs a Pelasgian creation myth involving Ophion as a serpent created by a supreme goddess called Eurynome dancing on the waves. She is fertilized by the serpent and in the form of a dove lays an egg on the waters about which Ophion entwines until it hatches and the world issues forth. Then Ophion and Eurynome dwell on Mt. Olympus until Ophion boasts that he made the world alone. Eurynome, as punishment, kicked out his teeth and banished him to the underworld. From Ophion's teeth sprang Pelasgus who taught man all the arts and crafts. This particular interpretation shares many similarities with some Gnostic traditions, with the Demiurge, often represented in the form of a serpent (as with Yaldabaoth), claiming to have created the world alone despite the assistance of others - often Sophia, who is associated with doves through the Holy Spirit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Origins.", "The Early Town.", "The Industrial City.", "The Troubles.", "21st century.", "Governance.", "Local government.", "Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Areas and districts.", "Cityscape.", "Architecture.", "Parks and gardens.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "After \"the Troubles\".", "Infrastructure.", "Utilities.", "Health care.", "Transport.", "Culture.", "Notable people.", "Education.", "Tourism.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name Belfast is derived from the Irish ', which was later spelt '. The word'means \"mouth\" or \"rivermouth\" while'is the genitive singular of'and refers to a sandbar or tidal ford across a river's mouth. The name therefore translates literally as \"(river) mouth of the sandbar\" or \"(river) mouth of the ford\". This sandbar was formed at the confluence of two rivers at what is now Donegall Quay: the Lagan, which", "The county borough of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by Queen Victoria in 1888, and the city continues to straddle County Antrim and County Down.", "The site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the Middle Ages. John de Courcy built a castle on what is now Castle Street in the city", "Belfast became a substantial settlement in the 17th century after being established as an English town by Sir Arthur Chichester. As it grew with the port, and with textile manufacture, the English element was overwhelmed by the influx of Scottish Presbyterians. As \"Dissenters\" from the established Church of Ireland communion, the Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's largely dispossessed Roman Catholic majority. When, in the American War Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer, John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled", "Rapid industrial growth in the nineteenth century drew in landless Catholics from outlying rural and western districts, most settling to the west of the town. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract the English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised to protect \"their\" jobs giving a new lease of life in the town to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions were heightened by movements to repeal the Acts of Union and to restore a Parliament in Dublin. Given the progressive enlargement of the British electoral franchise, this would have had an overwhelming Catholic majority and, it was widely believed, interests inimical to the Protestant and industrial north. In 1864 and 1886 the issue had helped trigger deadly sectarian riots. Sectarian tension was not in itself unique to Belfast: it was shared with Liverpool and Glasgow, cities that following the Great Famine had also experienced large scale Irish Catholic immigration. But also common to this \"industrial triangle\" were traditions of labour militancy. In 1919, workers in all three", "Belfast has been the capital of Northern Ireland since its establishment in 1921 following the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It had been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations. These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed republican and loyalist respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as 'nationalist' and 'unionist'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from around 1969 to 1998. Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing,", "Belfast city centre has undergone expansion and regeneration since the late 1990s, notably around Victoria Square. In late 2018, it was announced that Belfast would undergo a £500 million urban regeneration project known as \"Tribeca\" on a large city centre site. However, tensions and", "Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast is represented in both the British House of Commons and in the Northern Ireland Assembly. For elections to the European Parliament, Belfast is within the Northern Ireland constituency.", "Belfast City Council is the local council with responsibility for the city. The city's elected officials are the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff who are elected from among 60 councillors. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was Daniel Dixon, who was elected in 1892. The Lord Mayor for 2019–20 is John Finucane Sinn Féin, while the Deputy Lord Mayor is an Alliance Party of Northern Ireland councillor. The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving", "As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Castlereagh, Lisburn and Newtownabbey districts. In the", "Belfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the \"Titanic\" was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, Harland and Wolff had the largest shipyard in the world. Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern coast at. A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the summer solstice in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00. In 1994, a weir was built across the river by the Laganside Corporation to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name (). The area of Belfast Local Government District is. The River Farset is also named after this silt deposit (from the Irish \"feirste\" meaning \"sand spit\"). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the city centre referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge. Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. There are no less than eleven other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet. The city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and Cavehill, thought to be the inspiration for Jonathan Swift's \"Gulliver's Travels\". When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city. The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as \"Napoleon's Nose\", is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time. The Castlereagh Hills overlook the city on the southeast.", "As with the vast majority of the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a temperate oceanic climate (\"Cfb\" in the Koeppen climate classification), with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than most other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. There are currently five weather observing stations in the Belfast area: Helens Bay, Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road. Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport. The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was at Shaws Bridge on 12 July 1983. The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of, less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than", "Belfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as Manchester or Birmingham. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the Falls Road or the Newtownards Road) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than", "", "The architectural style of Belfast's public buildings range from a small set of Georgian buildings, many examples of Victorian, including the main \"Lanyon Building\" at Queen's University Belfast and the Linenhall Library, (both designed by Sir Charles Lanyon). There are also many examples of Edwardian, such as the City Hall, to modern, such as the Waterfront Hall. The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by Queen Victoria in 1888. The Edwardian architectural", "Sitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture. From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of Lagan Valley Regional Park to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks. Parks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife", "At the 2001 census, the population was 276,459, while 579,554 people lived in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area. This made it the fifteenth-largest city in the United Kingdom, but the eleventh-largest conurbation. Belfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the 20th century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area. Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the Greater Belfast suburb population. The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391 people, with 579,554 people living in the wider Belfast Metropolitan Area. The 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast. The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland). As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. An area of deprivation is found in the inner parts of the north and west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) are among the ten most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods. These zones – Catholic/Republican on one side and Protestant/Loyalist on the other – are invariably marked by flags, graffiti and murals. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a \"ratchet effect\", has shown little sign of decreasing. The highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast. Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as interface areas and sometimes marked by peace lines. When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas. Ethnic minority communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s. The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European immigrants. Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in south Belfast, where they comprise 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland live in the Greater Belfast area.", "When the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce. It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of Belfast Lough gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco. Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast. The present city however is a product of the Industrial Revolution. It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world, earning the nickname \"Linenopolis\". Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished. The Harland and Wolff shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the \"Titanic\" was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world. Short Brothers plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast. The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following World War I were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade. Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s. For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the British exchequer of up to £4 billion per year.", "The IRA Ceasefire in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast. This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, and the Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. Other major developments include the regeneration of the Titanic Quarter, and the erection of the Obel Tower, a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island. Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland and the UK average of 5.5%. Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4%, compared with 9.2% for the UK as a whole. Northern Ireland's peace dividend has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK. In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000. In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in", "Belfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, there has been significant urban regeneration in the city centre including Victoria Square, Queen's Island and Laganside as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall. The city is served by two airports: The George Best Belfast City Airport adjacent to Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport which is near Lough Neagh. Queen's University of Belfast is the main university in the city. The Ulster University also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture. Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the Dublin-Belfast corridor region, which has a population of just under 3 million.", "Most of Belfast's water is supplied from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The rest of the city's water is sourced from Lough Neagh, via \"Dunore Water Treatment Works\" in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by devolution in May 2007. Belfast has approximately of sewers,", "The Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Victoria Hospital is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland. It also provides the city's specialist neurosurgical, ophthalmology, ENT, and dentistry services. The", "Belfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot. It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland. A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the Westlink dual-carriageway to grade-separated standard. The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule on February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009. Commentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York", "Belfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents. These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the Good Friday Agreement in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation. In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 European Capital of Culture. The bid was run by an independent company, \"Imagine Belfast\", who boasted that it would \"make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion.\" According to \"The Guardian\" the bid may have been undermined by the city's history and volatile politics. In 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04. A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million. The Ulster Orchestra, based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time symphony orchestra and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the BBC Northern Ireland Orchestra was disbanded. The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square). There are many Traditional Irish bands playing throughout the city and quite a few music schools concentrate on teaching Traditional music. Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast: U2, Van Morrison, Snow Patrol, Simple Minds, Elton John, Rogue Male, Katie Melua, Boney M, Paul Muldoon, Stiff Little Fingers, Nanci Griffith, Glenn Patterson, Orbital, James Taylor, Fun Boy Three, Spandau Ballet, The Police, Barnbrack, Gary Moore, Neon Neon, Toxic Waste, Energy Orchard, and Billy Bragg. The City is the subject of the Boney M hit, \"Belfast\" which features the recognisable refrain, \"Belfast/Belfast/Belfast\". Further in Belfast the Oh Yeah Music Centre is located (Cathedral Quarter), a project founded to give young musicians and artists a place where they can share ideas and kick-start their music careers as a chance to be supported and promoted by professional musicians of Northern Ireland's music scene. Belfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s. Like all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the Gaeltacht, the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission. Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the Shaws Road Gaeltacht community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a'mother-tongue' community of speakers. The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual. Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish speakers in Northern Ireland. Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably Foras na Gaeilge, an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments. There are a number of Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast. The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA. In late August 2018, at least three groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 RMS Titanic relics that were an asset of the bankrupt Premier Exhibitions. One of the offers was by a group including the National Maritime Museum and National Museums Northern Ireland, with assistance by James Cameron. Oceanographer Robert Ballard said he favored this bid since it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the Titanic was built) and in Greenwich. A decision as to the outcome was to be made by a United States district court judge.", "Academia and science", "Belfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded in 1845 and is a member of the Russell Group, an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK. It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The Jordanstown campus, just from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The Coleraine campus, about from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects. Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science", "Belfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK, and the second most visited on the island of Ireland. In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city. Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year, including tours based on the popular series Game of Thrones, which has had various filming locations around Northern Ireland. Frommer's, the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its \"Top 12 Destinations to Visit\" in 2009. The other listed destinations were Berlin (Germany), Cambodia, Cape Town (South Africa), Cartagena (Colombia), Istanbul (Turkey), the Lassen Volcanic National Park (US), Saqqara (Egypt), the Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail (US), Waiheke Island (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (US), and Waterton Lakes National Park (Canada). The Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is", "Belfast has the following sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "The Oceanic Steam Navigation Company.", "The North Atlantic Run.", "The \"Oceanic\" class.", "\"Britannic\" and \"Germanic\".", "\"Teutonic\" and \"Majestic\".", "\"Cymric\" and the move from speed to comfort.", "\"Oceanic\" and the death of Thomas Ismay.", "\"The Big Four\".", "Engines.", "Capacities.", "Construction.", "Intermediate liners and rapid expansion, 1903–07.", "Olympic class ships.", "First World War.", "Interwar years.", "Cunard merger.", "The Australia Run.", "White Star Line today." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first company bearing the name \"White Star Line\" was founded in Liverpool, England, by John Pilkington and Henry Wilson in 1845. It focused on the UK–Australia trade, which increased following the discovery of gold in Australia. The fleet initially consisted of the chartered sailing ships RMS \"Tayleur\", \"Blue Jacket\", \"White Star\", \"Red Jacket\", \"Ellen\", \"Ben Nevis\", \"Emma\", \"Mermaid\" and \"Iowa\". \"Tayleur\", the largest ship of its day, was wrecked on its maiden voyage to Australia at Lambay Island, near Ireland, a disaster that haunted the company for years. In addition, the company also ran voyages from Liverpool to", "On 18 January 1868, Thomas Ismay, a director of the National Line, purchased the house flag, trade name and goodwill of the bankrupt company for £1,000 (), with the intention of operating large ships on the North Atlantic service between Liverpool and New York. Ismay established the company's headquarters at Albion House, Liverpool. Ismay was approached by Gustav Christian Schwabe, a prominent Liverpool merchant, and his nephew, the shipbuilder", "", "White Star began its North Atlantic run between Liverpool and New York with six nearly identical ships, also known as the 'Oceanic' class: \"Oceanic\" (I), \"Atlantic\", \"Baltic\", and \"Republic\", followed by the slightly larger \"Celtic\" and \"Adriatic\". It had long been customary for many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships. White Star gave their ships names ending in \"-ic\". The line also adopted a buff-coloured funnel with a black top as a distinguishing feature for their ships, as well as a distinctive house flag, a red broad pennant with two tails, bearing a white five-pointed star. In the initial designs for this first fleet of liners, each ship was to measure 420 feet in length, 40 feet in width and approximately 3,707 in gross tonnage, equipped with compound expansion engines powering a single screw, and capable of speeds of up to 14 knots. They were also identical in passenger accommodations based on a two-class system, providing", "In the wake of the \"Atlantic\" disaster, White Star ordered two new steamers from Harland & Wolff, both of which were designed as considerably larger, two-funneled versions of the \"Oceanic\" class steamers. These two ships measured in design at 455 feet in length, 45 in width, each with a gross tonnage of roughly 5,000 tons and with engines of similar design as seen in the earlier ships, with the exception of greater horsepower, capable of driving their single screws at speeds of up to 15 knots. Also increased was passenger capacity, as designs for these ships provided for 200 Saloon passengers and 1,500 Steerage passengers. The first of the pair, which had initially been named \"Hellenic\", was launched as \"Britannic\" on 3 February 1874 and commenced on her maiden voyage", "Over the next 12 years, White Star focused their attention on other matters of business, expanding their services with the introduction of several cargo and livestock carriers on the North Atlantic as well as establishing a small but lucrative passenger and cargo service to New Zealand. By 1887, however, the \"Britannic\" and \"Germanic\" and the four remaining \"Oceanic\" class liners had aged significantly and were now being outdone in speed and comfort by newer ships brought into service by White Star's competitors such as Cunard and Inman. In an effort to outdo their competitors, White Star began making plans to put two new liners into service which would prove to be exceptionally innovative in design for the time, \"Teutonic\" and \"Majestic\". In order to build these new ships, Thomas Ismay made arrangements with the British Government under which in exchange for financial support from the British government, the two", "Beginning in the late 1890s, White Star experienced an explosion of rapid growth and expansion of its services, highlighted by a dramatic shift in focus from building the fastest ships on the North Atlantic to building the most comfortable and luxurious. Their first step in this direction came in 1897 during the construction of a new ship, \"Cymric\". Initially designed as an enlarged version of the livestock carrier \"Georgic\", which had entered service in 1895, \"Cymric\" had been planned as a combination passenger and livestock carrier, and thus was not designed with engines necessary to qualify her for the express service maintained by \"Britannic\", \"Germanic\", \"Teutonic\" and \"Majestic\". However, while she was under construction at Harland & Wolff, a decision was made to convert spaces aboard her designated for cattle into Third Class accommodations after it was deemed that carrying passengers and livestock aboard the same vessel would not likely prove a popular venture. Therefore, in addition to the accommodations planned for 258 First Class passengers, her designs were altered to include berthing for 1,160 Third Class passengers. Overall, her modest", "In the early months of 1897, while \"Cymric\" was still under construction at Harland & Wolff, it became clear to Thomas Ismay and other line officials that a new addition to the North Atlantic fleet was needed, as compared to the fleets of many of their competitors such as Cunard and North German Lloyd, White Star was lagging behind. By this point, the only remaining ship of the original 'Oceanic' class of liners was the \"Adriatic\", and in her old age of a full quarter century, her days on the North Atlantic were now numbered. \"Britannic\" and \"Germanic\" were not too far behind after more than twenty years service, and with the advancements seen in shipbuilding during the 1890s \"Teutonic\" and \"Majestic\" had been eclipsed by several newer vessels, most recently North", "Even before \"Oceanic\" had been completed, White Star had already started making plans for a considerably larger addition to their fleet. In September 1898, before his health began failing, Thomas Ismay negotiated the terms for the orders for the last passenger liner he would ever order for the line he'd built. This time around, plans were essentially the same as they had been with \"Oceanic\", only taking considerable more steps in innovation. While staying with the trend in focusing more on comfort than speed as had been set with \"Cymric\" and \"Oceanic\", Ismay's plans called for a new passenger liner of dimensions the world had never seen, and her chosen name was to be \"Celtic\", a name taken and reused from the original \"Oceanic\" class. The initial designs for \"Celtic\" had her at 680 feet in length, a tad bit shorter than \"Oceanic\", but with a greater breadth of her predecessor at 75 feet. Additionally, while the \"Oceanic\" had set the record for length, \"Celtic\" would triumph in tonnage, weighing in at just over 20,000 tons.", "One interesting note about this new ship was in regards to her engines. Historian Mark Chirnside made a notable comparison between the machinery installed aboard \"Cymric\" and that placed in \"Oceanic\". Because \"Cymric\" had initially been designed as a livestock carrier, she was built with smaller engines capable of modest speeds which both consumed less coal and occupied less space within the hull. As a result, there was an astonishing difference which gave \"Cymric\" a considerable advantage over \"Oceanic\". Although \"Cymric\" was overall only about two-thirds the size of \"Oceanic\" in terms of gross tonnage (12,552 to 17,274), her net tonnage, a unit of measurement used", "Additionally, \"Celtic\" was to be designed with far greater capacities for both passengers and cargo. Her plans called for accommodations for a staggering 2,859 passengers: 347 in First Class, 160 in Second Class, and a total of 2,352 in Third Class, the latter being largest capacity seen of any liner on the North Atlantic at the time. Passenger accommodations were spread across six decks, titled from top to bottom: Boat Deck (A Deck), Upper Promenade (B Deck), Promenade (C Deck),", "On 22 March 1899, just two months after \"Oceanic\" was launched, the first keel plates of the \"Celtic\" were laid at Harland & Wolff. Construction progressed on her rapidly, and as White Star had planned, the new fleet of liners would be constructed in overlapping succession, as in October 1900, while \"Celtic\"'s hull was nearing completion, construction began on the second ship, \"Cedric\". When \"Celtic\" was launched in April 1901, there was much fanfare, as she was hailed the largest ship in the world in terms of tonnage, as well as being the first to exceed the tonnage of the infamous \"Great Eastern\". She took a mere four additional months for fitting out before sailing on her maiden voyage from Liverpool on 26 July of that year. Upon her entry into service, one of her most attractive features was her seaworthiness, as on her maiden voyage it was noted how while at sea, she was \"as steady as the Rock of Gibraltar.\" Meanwhile, construction on \"Cedric\" had proceeded as planned and she was launched on 21 August 1902. Although she was of exactly the same dimensions as \"Celtic\" in length and width, she outweighed her twin by a mere 155 tons, making her now the largest ship in the world. Despite their similarities, the two had distinct differences. Aboard \"Cedric\", First Class accommodations included more private bathrooms as well as more suites consisting of interconnecting cabins provided with sitting rooms. In all, she had accommodations for 2,600 passengers, with a slightly increased number of First Class passengers at 350, her Second Class capacity was increased to 250, while Third Class was scaled back to approximately 2,000. \"Cedric\" entered service later that winter, departing Liverpool on her maiden voyage on 11 February 1903. The keel of the third sister, \"Baltic\" had been laid down at Harland & Wolff in June 1902, while construction on \"Cedric\" was still underway. One notable instance in her construction was once", "As White Star gradually brought the 'Big Four' into service, they also attained several smaller 'intermediate' liners in preparation for a considerable expansion of their passenger services on the North Atlantic. In 1903 alone they came to obtain five new liners, beginning with \"Arabic\". Originally laid down as \"Minnewaska\" for the Atlantic Transport Line, she was transferred to White Star prior to completion and was launched under her new name on 18 December 1902. Similar in size and appearance to \"Cymric\" with a single funnel and four masts, she measured at 600 feet in length with a beam of 65 feet, weighing in at 15,801 gross tons with quadruple expansion engines geared to twin screws capable of a service speed of 16 knots. She was fitted with fairly modest accommodations for 1,400 passengers: 200 in First Class, 200 in Second Class and 1,000 in Third Class. She sailed on her maiden voyage out of Liverpool to New York", "The Cunard Line was the chief competitor to White Star. In response to Cunard's \"Lusitania\" and \"Mauretania\", White Star ordered the \"Olympic\" class liners: \"Olympic\", \"Titanic\" and \"Britannic\". While Cunard was famed for the speed of their ships, the \"Olympic\" class were to be the largest and most", "Like many other shipping lines, the White Star Line suffered heavy losses during the First World War which began in August 1914, including some of their most prestigious vessels. The first major war loss was of RMS \"Oceanic\" of 1899, which was converted into an armed merchant cruiser and ran aground near the Shetland Islands due to navigational error in September 1914. The first White Star ship lost to enemy action was the liner \"Arabic\" which was torpedoed off the Irish coast in August 1915 with the loss of 44 lives. 1916 would see the largest loss of the war, Titanic's sister ship \"Britannic\" which was sunk near the Greek island of Kea", "The losses of the \"Titanic\" and \"Britannic\" left \"Olympic\" as the only surviving member of White Star's planned trio of express liners. In 1922 the White Star Line obtained two former German liners which had been ceded to Britain as war reparations under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, ostensibly as replacements for the war losses of \"Britannic\", \"Oceanic\", \"Arabic\", \"Cymric\" and \"Laurentic\": The former \"SS Bismarck\" which was renamed \"Majestic\", and the former \"SS Columbus\" which was renamed \"Homeric\". At 56,551 gross tons, \"Majestic\" was then the world's largest liner and became the company's flagship. The two former German liners operated successfully alongside \"Olympic\" for an express service on the Southampton–New York route until the Great Depression reduced demand after 1930. In the immediate post-war period there was a boom in the transatlantic emigrant trade, from which White Star was able to benefit for a time, however this trade was", "In 1933 White Star and Cunard were both in serious financial difficulties because of the Great Depression, falling passenger numbers and the advanced age of their fleets. Work was halted on Cunard's new giant, Hull 534 (later the \"Queen Mary\") in 1931 to save money. In 1933 the British government agreed to provide assistance to the two competitors on the condition that they merge their North Atlantic operations. The agreement was completed on 30 December 1933. The merger took place on 10 May 1934, creating Cunard-White Star Limited. White Star contributed ten ships to the new company while Cunard contributed 15 ships. Because of this, and since Hull 534 was Cunard's ship, 62% of the company was owned by Cunard's shareholders and 38% of the company was owned for the benefit of White Star's creditors. White Star's Australia and New Zealand services were not involved in the merger, but were separately disposed of to Shaw,", "White Star had begun as a line serving traffic to and from Australia, especially during the gold rushes of the 1850s, but following the line's collapse and its purchase by Thomas Ismay in 1868 the company was rebuilt as a trans-Atlantic line. However, in the late 1890s White Star decided to reinstate a service to Australia, partly because of the discovery of further gold deposits in Western Australia leading to another series of gold rushes and an increased traffic in emigrants to Australia, while there was also an increasing trade in minerals, agricultural produce, wool and meat in the other direction. The latter had become a major source of revenue for shipping lines already on the route after the advent of effective mechanical refrigeration systems in the late 1880s, allowing large quantities of cattle carcasses to be preserved on the long voyage back to the British Isles. Thomas Ismay decided to re-enter the Australian run in 1897 with a monthly service between Liverpool, Cape Town and Sydney. A stop at Tenerife was included in the schedule both outbound and inbound. Outbound ships would call at Adelaide and Melbourne and the return trip would call at Plymouth before ending at Liverpool. With that route taking six weeks, five ships would be needed to maintain the service in both directions. The specification for the new ships was drawn up and the order placed with Harland & Wolff in the summer of 1897, coinciding with the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, thus they became known as the Jubilee-class ocean liners. In keeping with White Star's new philosophy on the Atlantic of size over speed, the Jubilee-class were to be the largest ships ever put on the Australia run, at 550 ft (168 metres) in length and nearly 12,000 gross tons. They were single-funnel, twin-screw ships designed as mixed cargo/passenger vessels, being in essence enlarged versions of White Star's Naronic-class ships. With a service speed of 14 knots the Jubilee-class were significantly slower than the smaller mailships run by the Orient Line and P&O. Their size meant they could not transit the Suez Canal and would have to take the long route via South Africa so would not attract first-class passengers. Instead they were intended for the emigrant/seasonal worker traffic, carrying 320 passengers solely in what was described as third-class accommodation. However, following White Star's long tradition of improving standards for third-class passengers, these facilities were considerably ahead of the equivalent on other lines, being broadly in line with second-class facilities on other ships. Although all of the same class, prices for berths on the Jubilee-class varied, allowing passengers the choice of two- or four-berth cabins for a premium or open dormitories. Passengers had use of facilities such as a large dining room, a library and a smoking room, as well as free run of nearly all the ship's deck space during the voyage. The ships could carry 15,000 tons of cargo in seven holds, including capacity for 100,000 meat carcasses. The first Jubilee-class ship, \"Afric\", was launched in November 1898, but her maiden voyage in February 1899 was to New York as a shakedown cruise and to test the new ship on a shorter route – small improvements were made to \"Afric\" and her sisterships in-build as a result of this trip. The Australian service was actually inaugurated by the second ship, \"Medic\", which left Liverpool in August 1899 and arrived in Sydney in October. The third ship, \"Persic\", began her maiden voyage in December 1899 but was", "The White Star Line's Head Offices still exist in Liverpool, standing in James Street within sight of the more grandiose headquarters of their rivals, the Cunard Building. The building has a plaque commemorating the fact that the building was the head office of the White Star Line. It was the first open plan office building in Liverpool. J. Bruce Ismay, the chairman of the line who sailed on \"Titanic\", had his office in the building. The White Star Line's London offices, named Oceanic House, still exist today, and have been converted into apartments. They are on Cockspur Street, off Trafalgar Square, and one can still see the name on the building over the entrances. The Southampton offices still exist, now known as Canute Chambers, they are situated in Canute Road. The French passenger tender \"Nomadic\", the last surviving vessel of the White Star Line, was purchased by the Northern Ireland Department for Social Development in January 2006. She has since been returned to Belfast, where she has been fully restored to her original and elegant 1912 appearance under the auspices of the Nomadic Preservation Society along with the assistance of her original builders, Harland and Wolff. She is intended to serve as the centerpiece of a museum dedicated to the history of Atlantic steam, the White Star Line, and its most famous ship, the \"Titanic\". The historic \"Nomadic\" was opened ceremoniously to the public on 31 May 2013. Cunard Line itself has, since 1995, introduced White Star Service as the brand of services on their ships \"RMS Queen Mary 2\", \"MS Queen Victoria\" and the \"MS Queen Elizabeth\". The company has also created the White Star Academy, an in-house programme for preparing new crew members for Cunard ships. The White Star flag is raised on all Cunard ships and on the \"Nomadic\" in Belfast, Northern Ireland every 15 April in memory of the \"Titanic\" disaster." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Outlets.", "Extent.", "Protected areas.", "Undersea features.", "Cultural importance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Gulf of Saint Lawrence is bounded on the north by the Labrador Peninsula and Quebec, to the east by Saint-Pierre and Newfoundland, to the south by the Nova Scotia peninsula and Cape Breton Island, and to the west by the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick, and Quebec. As for significant islands the Gulf of Saint Lawrence contains Anticosti Island, Prince Edward Island, Îles-de-la-Madeleine, Cape Breton Island, Saint Pierre Island, and Miquelon-Langlade. Half of the ten provinces of Canada adjoin the Gulf: New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Besides the Saint Lawrence River itself, significant streams emptying into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence include the Miramichi River, Natashquan River, Romaine River, Restigouche River, Margaree River, and Humber River. Branches of the Gulf include the Chaleur Bay, Fortune Bay, Miramichi Bay, St. George's Bay, Bay St. George, Bay of Islands, and Northumberland Strait.", "The gulf flows into the Atlantic Ocean through the following outlets:", "The limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence vary between sources. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence as follows: <poem>\"On the Northeast.\" A line running from Cape Bauld (North point of Kirpon Island, ) to the East extreme of Belle Isle and on to the Northeast Ledge (). Thence a line joining this ledge with the East extreme of Cape St. Charles (52°13'N) in Labrador. \"On the Southeast.\" A line from Cape Canso () to Red Point () in Cape Breton Island, through this Island to Cape Breton [] and on to Pointe Blanche () in the Island of St. Pierre, and thence to the Southwest point of Morgan Island (). \"On the West.\" The meridian of 64°30'W, but the whole of Anticosti Island is included in the Gulf.</poem> Fisheries and Oceans Canada places the western limit at Pointe-des-Monts.", "St. Paul Island, Nova Scotia, off the northeastern tip of Cape Breton Island, is referred to as the \"\"Graveyard of the Gulf\"\" because of its many shipwrecks. Access to this island is controlled by the Canadian Coast Guard. Bonaventure Island on the eastern tip of the Gaspe Peninsula, Île Brion and Rochers-aux-Oiseaux (Bird Rock) northeast of the Magdalen Islands are important migratory bird sanctuaries administered by the Canadian Wildlife Service. The Federal Government of Canada has national parks along the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at Forillon National Park on the eastern tip of the Gaspe Peninsula, Prince Edward Island National Park on the northern shore of the island, Kouchibouguac National Park on the northeastern coast of New Brunswick, Cape Breton Highlands National Park on the northern tip of Cape Breton Island, Gros Morne National Park on the west coast of Newfoundland, and a National Park Reserve in the Mingan Archipelago on the Côte-Nord of Quebec. The five provinces bordering the Gulf of Saint Lawrence also have several provincial parks apiece, some of which preserve coastal features.", "The Laurentian Channel is a feature of the floor of the Gulf that was formed during previous ice ages, when the Continental Shelf was eroded by the Saint Lawrence River during the periods when the sea level plunged. The Laurentian Channel is about deep and about long from the Continental Shelf to the mouth of the Saint Lawrence River. Deep waters with temperatures between enter the Gulf at the continental slope and are slowly advected up the channel by estuariane circulation. Over the 20th century, the bottom waters of the end of the channel (i.e. in the Saint Lawrence estuary) have become hypoxic.", "The gulf has provided a historically important marine fishery for various First Nations that have lived on its shores for millennia and used its waters for transportation. The first documented voyage by a European in its waters was by the French explorer Jacques Cartier in the year 1534. Cartier named the shores of the Saint Lawrence River \"The Country of Canadas\", after an indigenous word meaning \"village\" or \"settlement\", thus naming the world's second largest country. At just about the same period, Basques came to frequent the area for whale-hunting and trade with the First Nations people of the modern Canadian Atlantic and Quebec provinces. They left vestiges of their presence in many locations of the area—docks, furnaces, graveyards, etc." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early broadcast career.", "Web and MTV.com.", "Enterprises in the U.S. and Europe.", "Podcasting.", "Creative Commons licensing.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Curry was born in Arlington, Virginia, but lived in Amstelveen, Netherlands, from 1972 to 1987. After a time working in Dutch pirate radio at Radio Picasso in Amstelveen and in Amsterdam in the early eighties under the pseudonym \"John Holden\", he got a break in broadcasting as the host of the Dutch weekly pop-music television program \"Countdown\", and the English version of the same show, which was broadcast on pan-European music channel Music Box. He also hosted several other radio and television programs for the Dutch broadcast station Veronica. Aside Countdown, in the Netherlands Adam Curry is mostly known for his part in the Curry and Van Inkel radioshow (together with Dutch DJ Jeroen van Inkel), broadcast on Radio 3 for Veronica between 19:00 and 22:00 on Friday. In 1987, Curry became a VJ for MTV. Besides making spot appearances between music videos, he was also host of the programs \"Headbangers Ball\" and \"MTV Top 20 Video Countdown\" in which he interviewed stars like Michael Jackson and Paul McCartney. While working for MTV, he also did radio work, including drive-time host for the New York City radio station WHTZ, and host of the national program \"HitLine USA\". Curry hosted the radio countdown show \"Adam Curry's Top 30 Hitlist\" for Entertainment Radio Networks from November 1991 to June 1994.", "Curry registered the then-unclaimed domain name \"mtv.com\" in 1993 with the idea of being MTV's unofficial new voice on the Internet. Although this move was sanctioned by his superiors at MTV Networks at the time, when Curry left to start his own web-portal design and hosting company, OnRamp Inc, MTV subsequently sued him for the domain name. OnRamp eventually grew to 4,000 employees and was sold to Think New Ideas Inc., another company that he co-founded, becoming Chief Technology Officer of Think. In 1996, as the Internet was undergoing its \"bubble\", the company made an initial public offering on NASDAQ under the ticker symbol THNK. It subsequently grew to employ over 7400 people and with offices in seven countries, and was absorbed into Answerthink Inc., in a later merger. In 2005, Curry founded a video sharing site called PodShow, which later changed its name to Mevio, with Ron Bloom. In May 2008, Mevio claimed to have reached 9 million unique visitors. It offers advertisers \"brand safe\" content on a large scale. It raised a US$15 million third round in July 2008, bringing the total amount it has raised since its launch to over US$38 million. Mevio later rebranded as Bitesize Entertainment and ultimately BiteSizeTV, located in Los Angeles, CA.", "After selling his business in the U.S., Curry and his family moved to the Netherlands in 1999, where Curry hosted a morning talk/music show for Radio Veronica. He also landed various television assignments and his family briefly starred in the reality show \"Adam's Family\". Curry and two business partners founded the multimedia company United Resources of Jamby in 1999. It was to act as an incubator and cultivator for new internet-related businesses. The business was ultimately unsuccessful. Curry's participation in \"Kennisnet\", another venture to introduce the Internet to Dutch schools, ended in a bitter argument and lawsuits. Sportus.nl, an online webshop in collaboration with Dutch athletes like Marcel Wouda, Jacco Eltingh, Ron Zwerver and Daniëlle Overgaag, started in 1999, went bankrupt in 2001. Another content exchange project, Freedom Controller, was cancelled in 2002. In 2000 he and business partner Simon Cavendish, a participant in his earlier ventures, founded the RotorJet company to offer helicopter services. The company filed for bankruptcy in 2005. In the subsequent dispute, Cavendish seized the assets of the company, and in April 2005, Curry was ordered by a Dutch court to repay approximately US$3 million that he had withdrawn from RotorJet. In 2002 he produced and starred in the reality soap \"Adam's Family: een kijkje in het leven van de familie Curry\" which was aired by the Dutch SBS6 network.", "Curry founded PodShow, now Mevio, with his business partner Ron Bloom, in January 2005. PodShow is a podcast promotions and advertising company that encompasses the Podshow Podcast Network, the Podcast Delivery Network, and the Podsafe Music Network. Some of Podshow's top podcasts are Curry's own \"Daily Source Code\", \"The Dawn and Drew Show\", and \"GeekBrief.TV\". From June 2005 to May 2007, Curry hosted a weekday evening show on Sirius Satellite Radio called 'Adam Curry's PodShow'. In late 2005 Curry was caught making anonymous edits to the Podcast Wikipedia page, deleting several sections concerning contributions made by fellow podcasting pioneers, Kevin Marks and Stephen Downes, while adding material that emphasized his own involvement with the development of the medium. Curry went on to evoke ignorance as his primary defense stating, \"I edited out the Marks part previously because I never saw a full front-to-back solution that he was credited for...Once I saw the video of the session where he does demo it, after saying he had spoken to me and I had 'challenged' him to create it, I realized I was in error.\" He also claimed to have difficulty with the Wikipedia interface, claiming he had originally planned to revise the paragraphs to include his recollections of events but instead became \"exasperated\" with the process and decided to give up. Since October 2007, he has hosted the twice-weekly podcast the \"No Agenda\" Show with John C. Dvorak, discussing recent news whilst deconstructing mainstream news media. The podcast does not accept any advertising and is solely supported by the listeners. Curry has heavily promoted his podcasting endeavors. He promoted his podcast \"Daily Source Code\" in Second Life under the name 'Adam Neumann', along with a Second Life island called Podshow Island. Curry used podcasting to endorse 2008 Republican Presidential hopeful Ron Paul. He also uses his show to discuss alternative takes on topics in the daily news, as well as offering up topics of discussion that are \"off the beaten path\", such as Free energy suppression and the 9/11 Truth Movement. Curry is widely credited for popularizing the podcast medium. As Annalee Newitz noted in \"Wired\", \"Every new medium needs a celebrity, and Curry is happy to fill that role.\"", "In February 2006, Curry sued the Dutch tabloid \"Weekend\" for reprinting photos from his Flickr page and publishing details about his daughter. The photos were released under a version of the Creative Commons license that forbids commercial use and requires acknowledgement, but the tabloid printed a few of them without contacting Curry. The verdict did not award Curry any damages, but forbade the tabloid from reprinting the photos in the future, setting a fine of €1,000 for each subsequent violation. It was one of the first times the license was tested in court. In May 2009, Curry posted on his blog that another Dutch tabloid had published another Creative Commons-licensed photo from Curry's Flickr account. After Curry asserted Creative Commons license requirements, the publisher settled on Curry's terms.", "Since 1999, Curry has, at one time or another, lived in Belgium, Guildford, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Austin. Curry was married to Dutch television/radio personality Patricia Paay from 1989 to 2009. They have a daughter, Christina. In July 2012, Curry married Micky Hoogendijk. On January 29, 2015, Curry announced on the \"No Agenda\" show that he and Hoogendijk had separated. Hoogendijk and Curry divorced in 2015. Curry married his girlfriend of four years, Tina Snider \"(dubbed \"The Keeper\" by John C. Dvorak on the No Agenda Show)\", on May 19, 2019 in Austin, Texas. Curry is the nephew of former CIA official and United States Ambassador to Korea, Donald Gregg, whom he calls \"Uncle Don\" in his podcast." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Types.", "Capital territory.", "Dependent territory.", "Federal territory.", "Overseas territory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of the word territory begin with the Proto-Indo-European root \"ters\" ('to dry'). From this emerged the Latin word \"terra\" ('earth, land') and later the Latin word \"territorium\" ('land around a town'). Territory made its debut as a word in Middle English during the 14th century. At this point the suffix -orium, which denotes place, was replaced with -ory which also expresses place.", "Examples of terms for types territory include the following:", "A capital territory or federal capital territory is usually a specially designated territory where a country's seat of government is located. As such, in the federal model of government, no one state or territory takes pre-eminence because the capital lies within its borders. A capital territory can be one specific form of federal district.", "Dependent territory is a designation for a territory that is not an independent sovereign state, yet remains politically outside the governing state's integral area. Presently, all dependent territories are either overseas territories or non-sovereign associated states. Only four countries currently possess dependent territories: the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Norway and the United States. Examples include:", "A federal territory is an area within the direct and usually exclusive jurisdiction of the central or national government within a federation. Federal territories include:", "Overseas territory is a broad designation for a territorial entity that is separated from the country that governs it by an ocean. An overseas territory may be either a constituent part of the governing state or a dependent territory. Examples include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General.", "Places of interest.", "Speranza Chapel.", "Marquis Mallia Tabone Farmhouse.", "Cumbo Tower.", "St Marija Assunta Basilica.", "Twin cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mosta has been inhabited since pre-history. Dolmens in the limits of Mosta are primary evidence of this. Each dolmen has two rectangular standing stones and one other similar stone positioned horizontally above the other two. As Mosta is at the centre of Malta; buses pass through Mosta on the way to Buġibba, Burmarrad, St. Paul's Bay, Qawra, Xemxija, Mġarr, Ċirkewwa, Mellieħa and other places in the North. The town has several legends such as \"The Bride of Mosta\" (L-Għarusa tal-Mosta), and a number of historic places such as the Victoria Lines and medieval chapels. Mosta has its own scouts and girl guides, two band clubs (Nicolo' Isouard and Santa Marija), and two fireworks factories. A lot of traffic passes through Constitution Street, one of Mosta's main streets, connecting the South to the North of Malta.", "", "An attraction in Mosta is the Speranza Chapel, which is situated at the Speranza Valley. It was built in the 18th century, between 1760 and 1761. A legend tied to the Chapel recounts that, during a Turkish invasion, a young girl and her sisters taking care of their family's sheep were at risk to be taken by the invaders. While the sisters escaped, the young girl could not run fast enough because she limped slightly. It is said that she hid in a cave (found under the Chapel, on its left side), and meanwhile she prayed to Mary, mother of Jesus, promising that if she were saved, she would build a chapel dedicated to Our Lady. When the Turkish invaders chasing her arrived, they didn't look for her in the cave because they thought the girl could not be hiding there as there was an intact web at the entrance, which would have not been so if someone had gone in.", "The Marquis Mallia Tabone Farmhouse is a folklore attraction, run by the \"Talent Mosti\" philanthropy and in collaboration with the adjacent school's council. The farmhouse overlooks the valley of Wied il-Ghasel. It houses exhibitions varying from paintings, photography, artisan work, hobbies and a permanent folklore museum.", "The Cumbo Tower is a fortified residence in Mosta.", "Mosta boasts the third largest unsupported dome in the world. The church is dedicated to the Assumption. The Feast of the Assumption is held on 15 August and it is a public holiday. The church is also known as the Rotunda of St Marija Assunta. On 9 April 1942, the church was nearly destroyed during World War II. An Axis bomb hit the dome of the church but failed to explode. The detonator was removed and a replica bomb is now displayed as a memorial. The Rotunda was designed by Giorgio Grognet de Vassé, a French citizen resident of Mosta. Mosta residents, at that time totalling not more than 1500, built the church. The church took 27 years to complete and resulted in a major attraction.", "Mosta has two sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Etymology.", "History.", "Tradition.", "Anchorites.", "Contemporary Christian life.", "Catholicism.", "Eremitic members of religious institutes.", "Diocesan hermits.", "Anglicanism.", "Eastern Orthodoxy.", "Notable Christian hermits.", "Modern times.", "Other religions.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Christian who lives the eremitic life out of a religious conviction, namely the Desert Theology of the Old Testament (i.e., the 40 years wandering in the desert that was meant to bring about a change of heart). In the Christian tradition the eremitic life is an early form of monastic living that preceded the monastic life in the cenobium. In chapter 1, the Rule of St Benedict lists hermits among four kinds of monks. In the Roman Catholic Church, in addition to hermits who are members of religious institutes, the Canon law (canon 603) recognizes also diocesan hermits under the direction of their bishop as members of the consecrated life. The same is true in many parts of the Anglican Communion, including the Episcopal Church in the United States, although in the canon law of the Episcopal Church they are referred to as \"solitaries\" rather than \"hermits\". Often, both in religious and secular literature, the term \"hermit\" is used loosely for any Christian living a secluded prayer-focused life, and sometimes interchangeably with anchorite/anchoress, recluse and \"solitary\". Other religions, for example, Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam (Sufism), and Taoism, also have hermits in the sense of individuals living an ascetic form of life. In modern colloquial usage, \"hermit\" denotes anyone living apart from the rest of society, or simply participating in fewer social events, for any reason.", "The word \"hermit\" comes from the Latin \"ĕrēmīta\", the latinisation of the Greek ἐρημίτης (\"erēmitēs\"), \"of the desert\", which in turn comes from ἔρημος (\"erēmos\"), signifying \"desert\", \"uninhabited\", hence \"desert-dweller\"; adjective: \"eremitic\".", "", "In the common Christian tradition the first known Christian hermit in Egypt was Paul of Thebes (fl. 3rd century), hence also called \"St. Paul the first hermit\". Antony of Egypt (fl. 4th century), often referred to as \"Antony the Great\", is perhaps the most renowned of all the very early Christian hermits owing to the biography by Athanasius of Alexandria. An antecedent for Egyptian eremiticism may have been the Syrian solitary or \"son of the covenant\" (Aramaic \"bar qəyāmā\") who undertook special disciplines as a Christian. Christian hermits in the past have often lived in isolated cells or hermitages, whether a natural cave or a constructed dwelling, situated in the desert or the forest. People sometimes sought them out for spiritual advice and counsel. Some eventually acquired so many disciples that they no longer had physical solitude. Some early Christian Desert Fathers wove baskets to exchange for bread. In medieval times hermits were also found within or near cities where they might earn a living as a gate keeper or ferryman. In the 10th century, a rule for hermits living in a monastic community was written by Grimlaicus. In the 11th century, the life of the hermit gained recognition as a legitimate independent pathway to salvation. Many hermits in that century and the next came to be regarded as saints.From the Middle Ages and down to modern times, eremitical monasticism has also been practiced within the context of religious institutes in the Christian West. In the Catholic Church the Carthusians and Camaldolese arrange their monasteries as clusters of hermitages where the monks live most of their day and most of their lives in solitary prayer and work, gathering only briefly for communal prayer and only occasionally for community meals and recreation. The Cistercian, Trappist and Carmelite orders, which are essentially communal in nature, allow members who feel a calling to the eremitic life, after years living in the cenobium or community of the monastery, to move to a cell suitable as a hermitage on monastery grounds. There have also been many hermits who chose that vocation as an alternative to other forms of monastic life.", "The term \"anchorite\" (from the Greek \"anachōreō\", signifying \"to withdraw\", \"to depart into the country outside the circumvallate city\") is often used as a synonym for hermit, not only in the earliest written sources but throughout the centuries. Yet the anchoritic life, while similar to the eremitic life, can also be distinct from it. Anchorites lived the religious life in the solitude of an \"anchorhold\" (or \"anchorage\"), usually a small hut or \"cell\", typically built against a church. The door of an anchorage tended to be bricked up in a special ceremony conducted by the local bishop after the anchorite had moved in. Medieval churches survive that have a tiny window (\"squint\") built into the shared wall near the sanctuary to allow the anchorite to participate in the liturgy by listening to the service and to receive Holy Communion. Another window looked out into the street or cemetery, enabling charitable neighbors to deliver food and other necessities. Clients seeking the anchorite's advice might also use this window to consult them.", "", "Catholics who wish to live in eremitic monasticism may live that vocation as a hermit: There are also lay people who informally follow an eremitic lifestyle and live mostly as solitaries. Not all the Catholic lay members that feel that it is their vocation to dedicate themselves to God in a prayerful solitary life perceive it as a vocation to some form of consecrated life. An example of this is life as a Poustinik, an Eastern Catholic expression of eremitic living that is finding adherents also in the West.", "In the Catholic Church, the institutes of consecrated life have their own regulations concerning those of their members who feel called by God to move from the life in community to the eremitic life, and have the permission of their religious superior to do so. The Code of Canon Law (1983) contains no special provisions for them. They technically remain a member of their institute of consecrated life and thus under obedience to their religious superior. The Carthusian and Camaldolese orders of monks and nuns preserve their original way of life as essentially eremitical within a cenobitical context, that is, the monasteries of these orders are in fact clusters of individual hermitages where monks and nuns spend their days alone with relatively short periods of prayer in common. Other orders that are essentially cenobitical, notably the Trappists, maintain a tradition under which individual monks or nuns who have reached a certain level of maturity within the community may pursue a hermit lifestyle on monastery grounds under the supervision of the abbot or abbess. Thomas Merton was among the Trappists who undertook this way of life.", "The earliest form of Christian eremitic or anchoritic living preceded that as a member of a religious institute, since monastic communities and religious institutes are later developments of the monastic life. Bearing in mind that the meaning of the eremitic vocation is the Desert Theology of the Old Testament, it may be said that the desert of the urban hermit is that of their heart, purged through kenosis to be the dwelling place of God alone. So as to provide for men and women who feel a calling to the eremitic or anchoritic life without being or becoming a member of an institute of consecrated life, but desire its recognition by the Roman Catholic Church as a form of consecrated life nonetheless, the Code of Canon Law 1983 legislates in the Section on Consecrated Life (canon 603) as follows: Canon 603 §2 therefore lays down certain requirements for those who feel a vocation to the kind of eremitic life that is recognized by the Roman Catholic Church as one of the \"other forms of consecrated life\". They usually are referred to as \"diocesan hermits\". The norms of canon 603 do not apply to the many other Catholic faithful who live alone and devote themselves to fervent prayer for the love of God without however feeling called by God to seek recognition of their prayerful solitary life from the Roman Catholic Church by entering the consecrated life. The Catechism of the Catholic Church of 11 October 1992 (§§918–921) comments on the eremitic life as follows: Catholic Church norms for the consecrated eremitic and anchoritic life do not include corporal works of mercy. Nevertheless, every hermit, like every Christian, is bound by the law of charity and therefore ought to respond generously, as his or her own circumstances permit, when faced with a specific need for corporal works of mercy. Hermits, like every Christian, are also bound by the law of work. If they are not financially independent, they may engage in cottage industries or be employed part-time in jobs that respect the call for them to live in solitude and silence with extremely limited or no contact with other persons. Such outside jobs may not keep them from observing their obligations of the eremitic vocation of stricter separation from the world and the silence of solitude in accordance with canon 603, under which they have made their vow. Although canon 603 makes no provision for associations of hermits, these do exist (for example the \"Hermits of Bethlehem\" in Chester NJ and the \"Hermits of Saint Bruno\" in the United States; see also lavra, skete).", "Many of the recognised religious communities and orders in the Anglican Communion make provision for certain members to live as hermits, more commonly referred to as solitaries. One Church of England community, the Society of St. John the Evangelist, now has only solitaries in its British congregation. Anglicanism also makes provision for men and women who seek to live a single consecrated life, after taking vows before their local bishop; many who do so live as solitaries. The \"Handbook of Religious Life\", published by the Advisory Council of Relations between Bishops and Religious Communities, contains an appendix governing the selection, consecration, and management of solitaries living outside recognised religious communities. In the Canon Law of the Episcopal Church (United States), those who make application to their diocesan bishop and who persevere in whatever preparatory program the bishop requires, take vows that include lifelong celibacy. They are referred to as solitaries rather than hermits. Each selects a bishop other than their diocesan as an additional spiritual resource and, if necessary, an intermediary. At the start of the twenty-first century the Church of England reported a notable increase in the number of applications from people seeking to live the single consecrated life as Anglican hermits or solitaries.", "In the Orthodox Church and Eastern Rite Catholic Churches, hermits live a life of prayer as well as service to their community in the traditional Eastern Christian manner of the poustinik. The poustinik is a hermit available to all in need and at all times. In the Eastern Christian churches one traditional variation of the Christian eremitic life is the semi-eremitic life in a lavra or skete, exemplified historically in Scetes, a place in the Egyptian desert, and continued in various sketes today including several regions on Mount Athos.", "", "Members of religious orders: Diocesan hermits according to canon 603: Others:", "From a religious point of view, the solitary life is a form of asceticism, wherein the hermit renounces worldly concerns and pleasures. This can be done for many reasons, including: to come closer to the deity or deities they worship or revere, to devote one's energies to self-liberation from saṃsāra, etc. This practice appears also in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sufism. Taoism also has a long history of ascetic and eremitical figures. In the ascetic eremitic life, the hermit seeks solitude for meditation, contemplation, prayer, self-awareness and personal development on physical and mental levels; without the distractions of contact with human society, sex, or the need to maintain socially acceptable standards of cleanliness, dress or communication. The ascetic discipline can also include a simplified diet and/or manual labor as a means of support.", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "History.", "U.S. Army.", "U.S. Department of Defense.", "U.S. Marine Corps.", "U.S. Air Force.", "U.S. Navy.", "U.S. Coast Guard.", "Successors.", "U.S. Marine Corps.", "U.S. Army.", "U.S. Department of Defense.", "U.S. Navy.", "U.S. Air Force.", "U.S. Coast Guard." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "While the Italian Army was the first military organization to issue camouflaged clothing, albeit in limited numbers, the Germans were noted for their efforts in this field before the Second World War. After much trial, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (abbrev. OKW) authorized Heeres-Splittermuster 31, more commonly known as \"splinter pattern\", for use in shelter-quarters (\"Zeltbahnen\") in the 1930s. In 1940, SS-Verfügungstruppe (abbrev. SS-VT; renamed Waffen-SS) designed, tested and issued its own distinctive patterns and layout not long after. The United States Marine Corps received its first military camouflage pattern in 1942, when the reversible, beach-jungle, three- and five-color frog-skin pattern uniform was issued, based on a 1940 trial design. The pattern was mostly employed in the Pacific Theatre, but was not found to be particularly effective and in the European Theatre the pattern was withdrawn altogether in 1944—in part because of anticipated friendly fire incidents after D-Day, due to its similarity to the Waffen SS's pattern (not to be confused with Flecktarn, a post-war design). Camouflaged helmet covers and shelters were issued in the 1950s in \"wine leaf\" and \"brown cloud\" patterns. The U.S. Army also tried a lesser-known camouflage uniform on D-Day and throughout the Normandy operations, like the Marine Corps' uniforms, but it was replaced by the M43 uniform before being used much. During the Vietnam War, the United States Armed Forces' four-color ERDL pattern saw limited use among specialist units in the U.S. Army, though most were issued the solid olive green OG107 sateens or jungle fatigues, while the Marines adopted the pattern service-wide after 1968. The ERDL pattern fatigues were identical in cut to the third-pattern OD jungle fatigues, and were available in both a highland pattern (more brown), and a lowland pattern (more green), though the lowland pattern was eventually phased out. Other, unofficial, patterns utilized in Vietnam included black-dyed or spray painted jungle fatigues, often used by special purpose forces, and various Vietnamese Tigerstripe patterns (themselves being based on French Army airborne and Foreign Legion patterns and a British design utilized in Malaysia), or commercial \"duck hunter\" patterns. The general design and configuration of the U.S. BDU uniform was similar to that of Vietnam War's jungle fatigues, which were in turn similar in configuration to specialty uniforms worn by U.S. paratroopers during World War II.", "First issued in limited number to garrison leaders, officers and generals to all branches of the U.S. Armed Forces in September 1981 for replacement of the long worn and aging Olive Drab colored uniforms or OG-107, the following month, the Battle Dress Uniform began field issue military wide. Since 1981, changes included the addition and subsequent elimination of buttoned waist adjustment tabs, the size reduction of the collar, and refinements in stitching and fit. BDUs were initially only issued in a 50/50 nylon and cotton twill blend, called the Temperate Weather BDU, or TWBDU. Complaints regarding the heat retention of these uniforms, especially following the invasion of Grenada in 1983, led to the introduction of the Hot Weather BDU, the HWBDU. The Hot Weather BDU coat and trousers were constructed of 100 percent ripstop cotton, in a four-color woodland camouflage pattern. However, after complaints of shorter wear and frayed cuffs, along with requirements imposed by unit commanders to starch the all-cotton uniform for parade, the Enhanced Hot Weather BDU (EHWBDU) replaced the HWBDU commencing in 1996. The EHWBDU's components are made with 50/50 ripstop nylon and cotton poplin blend. BDUs were printed with infrared-brightened dyes. Near infrared (NIR) Signature Management Technology is used in the uniforms to help prevent detection by NIR Image Converters. These photocathode devices do not detect temperatures, but rather infrared radiation variances. NIR-compliant uniforms use a special fabric that allows soldiers to appear at the same radiation level as the surrounding terrain, thus making them more difficult to detect. It is advised not to use starch when cleaning or ironing BDUs, since starch weakens the fabric and ruins the infrared protective coating. A pair of BDUs that has been starched even once should not be worn in combat. The tropical weight uniform was not as durable as the temperate weight uniform. The tropical uniform would only last for 4–6 months of use when rotating four uniforms for duty, while the temperate uniform would last over a year under the same conditions.", "All United States Army soldiers formally received their first batches of the BDU as its new field and garrison uniform in the temperate weight cut on October 1, 1981. In addition, Patrol caps, boonie hats and the M-65 jacket were issued in the new camouflage pattern in time, including a new light brown T-shirt and black webbed belt with brass buckle. The BDU was the first camouflage uniform approved by the U.S. Army since the Vietnam War, where the ERDL pattern was in limited use. The BDU soon replaced all earlier camouflage pattern uniforms for all wooded, jungle, and tropical environments, and by 1989, had completely replaced the standard olive drab uniforms that had been used since 1952.", "The BDU was worn by DoD civilians and DoD Police officers.", "The ERDL-patterned BDU was first introduced to the United States Marine Corps in 1977, as they phased out the olive green OG-107, which had been standard wear since the early 1950s. Originally, no nametapes were worn with the USMC's BDUs, which was officially referred to by the USMC as a \"camouflage utility uniform\" (CCU) during its usage. However, in October 1991, the USMC began the wearing of nametapes on their BDUs (and DCUs and DBDUs) in order to comply with NATO Standardization Agreement (STANAG), becoming mandatory by October 1992. In the USMC's case, a nametape bearing the wearer's last name was worn embroidered above the right pocket, and a nametape reading \"U.S. MARINES\" being embroidered was worn above the left pocket. The MCCUU which replaced the BDU continues this. The USMC's BDU was worn with a stenciled iron-on Eagle, Globe, and Anchor (EGA) centered on the wearer's left breast pocket, below the pocket flap. Early USMC BDUs featured \"USMC\" lettering below that EGA, however, that was discontinued later on, with only the EGA being used by the end of the BDU's tenure with the USMC. The EGA was ironed-on to the BDU blouse pocket by USMC recruits at the end of MCRD upon completion of their training to signify their christening as U.S. Marines. The same was done on the eight-pointed \"utility cover\" hat that was worn with the USMC's version of the BDU. The BDU's successor, the MCCUU, has the EGA embroidered instead of stenciled on the blouse's chest pocket and all hats.", "The U.S. Air Force initially only issued ERDL BDUs to combat arms units stationed overseas, such as United States Air Force Security Forces, Combat Controllers, and United States Air Force Pararescue, as of October 1981, the same time as the Army and Marines. The Air Force did not allow non combat arms to wear the woodland pattern BDU until the summer of 1987, and mandated them as the only \"Fatigue\" uniform in 1988. The BDU was no longer authorized for wear in the USAF on November 1, 2011.", "Sailors of the United States Navy started issuing the BDU in the new woodland scheme and temperate cut the same time as the other branches. The U.S. Navy referred to the uniform as the \"Camouflage Utility Uniform\" (CUU) during its usage.", "Coast Guardsmen started issuing the new woodland BDU around the same time as the other service branches.", "The U.S. military has run trials of many camouflage patterns (some being used by foreign militaries), and issued environment-specific uniforms, notably the six-color Desert Battle Dress Uniform (DBDU), nicknamed the \"chocolate chip camouflage\", designed in 1962, and the \"nighttime desert grid\" (NCDBDU). Both uniforms were used in 1991, during the Persian Gulf War. These Desert BDUs were discontinued after the war. The Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU) in three-color desert camouflage was introduced in 1992, and was utilized in operations in Somalia (1993); it was in service in Afghanistan and Iraq from the start of hostilities, but the U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps have both replaced the DCU with newer uniforms (ACU and MCCUU, respectively). In testing, U.S. Army researchers found that, as in other environments, the color of desert terrain varies, and can range from pink to blue, depending on the minerals in the soil and the time of the day. Since patches of uniform color in the desert are usually 10 times larger than those in wooded areas, it was decided to alter the existing six-color DBDU pattern. This led to the development of a three-color pattern DCU, which was adopted. The BDU is made in various camouflage patterns by various manufacturers, such as in the MultiCam camouflage, which is in use today mainly by the public, public service persons, and some foreign military units. BDUs can be purchased from civilian vendors in the UCP pattern analogous to the ACU as well, but these are not authorized for wear by the U.S. Army's soldiers.", "The development of modern camouflage patterns and the rising desire of the various U.S. military branches to differentiate themselves from each other has resulted in new patterns for uniforms. The U.S. Marine Corps was the first branch to replace their BDUs. The Marine Corps Combat Utility Uniform (MCCUU) uses the computer-generated MARPAT pattern and several other enhancements. It was approved for wear in June 2001, became available for purchase in 2002, and the changeover was completed by October 1, 2004. Beyond that date, the BDU was authorized for wear until April 1, 2005 in limited exceptions for those small numbers of Marine Corps personnel who did not yet have the MCCUU. USMC Special Operations units (MARSOC) have recently issued M81 woodland-patterned uniforms to supplement MARPAT uniforms for special missions.", "In 2004, the U.S. Army unveiled the Army Combat Uniform (ACU), its successor to the BDU. From late 2005 to early 2008, the U.S. Army undertook the process of replacing the BDU with the ACU, with the BDU being formally discontinued by the Army in April 2008 (though most soldiers had been wearing the ACU for years by then). The Army Junior ROTC followed suit thereafter in 2009. The original version of the ACU used a pixelated \"digital\" pattern known as the Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP). UCP is similar to MARPAT, but uses more neutral, less saturated colors. The neutral colors, primarily foliage green and sand yellow, are designed to be work best in desert, woodland, and urban combat situations. The ACU in UCP was used by the army in all environments except for areas with snow, as the UCP pattern works poorly against white despite the heavy use of grey. An all-white BDU and the ECWCS are used instead for winterized warfare. Beginning in 2014, the Army switched the ACU to use the Operational Camouflage Pattern (OCP), as UCP was seen as inadequate in many environments.", "Civilian employees of the U.S. Department of Defense in combat zones began wearing the Airman Battle Uniform and Army Combat Uniform in place of the BDU (and its cousin DCU) after it was replaced.", "From 2004 to 2007, the U.S. Navy began issuing a pixelated blue and gray \"digital\" pattern Navy Working Uniform (NWU) in limited quantities to some sailors on an experimental test basis. While the NWU is neither a tactical uniform nor a battle dress uniform, it is intended to take the place of many existing work ensembles (utilities, wash khaki, coveralls, M81 BDU, etc.). The disruptive pattern is primarily intended to complement U.S. Navy ship colors and to hide stains and wear, and supposedly to make the wearer a less obvious visual target for hostile forces while working aboard a naval vessel in port. To meet the Navy's cold-weather requirements, the NWU includes a fleece jacket, pullover sweater, and parka options. U.S. Navy SEALs, Seabees, and other U.S. Navy personnel deployed ashore under the cognizance of U.S. Naval Forces Central Command used \"M81\" woodland BDUs (referred to by the navy as CCUs) and DCUs for outdoor operations or activities in specific areas of responsibility (AOR), until the issuance of the NWU Type III in the AOR camouflage pattern.", "In 2004 and 2005, the U.S. Air Force experimented with, but rejected, a blue-toned tigerstripe uniform. In 2006, a new BDU-style uniform called the \"Airman Battle Uniform\" (ABU) was adopted, using a semi-pixelated tiger pattern with four soft earth tones consisting of tan, grey, green and blue. It failed, however, to incorporate many of the significant improvements of the ACU and MCCUU. By 2007, it was in current production. In 2008, responding to criticism that the new Airman Battle Uniform was too heavy and hot in high-temperature environments, the USAF's 648th Aeronautical Systems Squadron at Brooks City-Base revealed plans to switch to a lighter, more breathable fabric for the combat blouse section of the ABU. The original heavyweight nylon-cotton blend was changed to a lighter-weight nylon-cotton poplin material. Priority will go to those serving in the Middle East or other hot-weather theaters. On May 4, 2016, the National Commander of the Civil Air Patrol announced the USAF's approval for the Civil Air Patrol to begin its transition to the Airman Battle Uniform. On May 14, 2018, the Air Force announced the adoption of the Army's Operational Camouflage Pattern uniform, however, insignia will be distinctive. Transition is to be complete by April 1, 2021.", "The U.S. Coast Guard has introduced the new Operational Dress Uniform (ODU) uniform in 2004 to replace the winter and summer \"Undress Duty\" uniform. Resembling the BDU, the ODU retains the basic design of the old-style BDU uniforms, but with the lower pockets on the blouse being eliminated. The sleeves can be worn \"folded up\" in a manner similar to the old U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force BDUs and the trousers \"bloused\" into the boots (unless boating shoes are worn, as is common for the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary, which patrols for the Coast Guard aboard privately owned watercraft), with the ODU black belt and blackened buckle being worn with the metal tip two to four inches from the buckle. The ODU is also issued in a single blue color as opposed to any camouflage pattern. The BDU and DCU were formally retired by the USCG in 2012. The dark blue Coast Guard unit baseball-style cap is worn with this uniform. The ODU also has all of its allowable insignia sewn on, eliminating the chance of puncture wounds created by the pins if the individual suffers a blow to the chest while wearing a PFD or body armor. The ODU is not intended to be worn by Coast Guard units which engage in combat operations or are deployed overseas. These units continued to wear older woodland BDU and DCU uniforms before adopting the Navy Work Uniform for USCG units overseas or part of other DoD operations." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Orthogonal coordinates.", "Cartesian coordinates.", "Cylindrical coordinates.", "Spherical coordinates.", "General unit vectors.", "Curvilinear coordinates.", "Right versor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Unit vectors may be used to represent the axes of a Cartesian coordinate system. For instance, the unit vectors in the direction of the \"x\", \"y\", and \"z\" axes of a three dimensional Cartesian coordinate system are They form a set of mutually orthogonal unit vectors, typically referred to as a standard basis in linear algebra. They are often denoted using common vector notation (e.g., i or formula_4) rather than standard unit vector notation (e.g., formula_5). In most contexts it can be assumed that i, j, and k, (or formula_6 formula_7 and formula_8) are versors of a 3-D Cartesian coordinate system. The notations formula_9, formula_10, formula_11, or formula_12, with or without hat, are also used, particularly in contexts where i, j, k might lead to confusion with another quantity (for instance with index symbols such as \"i\", \"j\", \"k\", used to identify an element of a set or array or sequence of variables). When a unit vector in space is expressed, with Cartesian notation, as a linear combination of i, j, k, its three scalar components can be referred to as direction cosines. The value of each component is equal to the cosine of the angle formed by the unit vector with the respective basis vector. This is one of the methods used to describe the orientation (angular position) of a straight line, segment of straight line, oriented axis, or segment of oriented axis (vector).", "The three orthogonal unit vectors appropriate to cylindrical symmetry are: They are related to the Cartesian basis formula_18, formula_19, formula_20 by: It is important to note that formula_13 and formula_16 are functions of formula_28, and are \"not\" constant in direction. When differentiating or integrating in cylindrical coordinates, these unit vectors themselves must also be operated on. For a more complete description, see Jacobian matrix. The derivatives with respect to formula_29 are:", "The unit vectors appropriate to spherical symmetry are: formula_33, the direction in which the radial distance from the origin increases; formula_34, the direction in which the angle in the \"x\"-\"y\" plane counterclockwise from the positive \"x\"-axis is increasing; and formula_35, the direction in which the angle from the positive \"z\" axis is increasing. To minimize redundancy of representations, the polar angle formula_36 is usually taken to lie between zero and 180 degrees. It is especially important to note the context of any ordered triplet written in spherical coordinates, as the roles of formula_16 and formula_35 are often reversed. Here, the American \"physics\" convention is used. This leaves the azimuthal angle formula_39 defined the same as in cylindrical coordinates. The Cartesian relations are: The spherical unit vectors depend on both formula_39 and formula_36, and hence there are 5 possible non-zero derivatives. For a more complete description, see Jacobian matrix and determinant. The non-zero derivatives are:", "Common general themes of unit vectors occur throughout physics and geometry:", "In general, a coordinate system may be uniquely specified using a number of linearly independent unit vectors formula_50 equal to the degrees of freedom of the space. For ordinary 3-space, these vectors may be denoted formula_51. It is nearly always convenient to define the system to be orthonormal and right-handed: where formula_54 is the Kronecker delta (which is 1 for \"i\" = \"j\" and 0 otherwise) and formula_55 is the Levi-Civita symbol (which is 1 for permutations ordered as \"ijk\" and −1 for permutations ordered as \"kji\").", "A unit vector in R was called a right versor by W. R. Hamilton as he developed his quaternions H ⊂ R. In fact, he was the originator of the term \"vector\" as every quaternion formula_56 has a scalar part \"s\" and a vector part \"v\". If \"v\" is a unit vector in R, then the square of \"v\" in quaternions is –1. By Euler's formula then, formula_57 is a versor in the 3-sphere. When θ is a right angle, the versor is a right versor: its scalar part is zero and its vector part \"v\" is a unit vector in R." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Design and colors.", "Similar designs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "MARPAT was designed by Timothy O'Neill, Anabela Dugas, Kenneth G. Henley, John Joseph Heisterman, Jr., Luisa DeMorais Santos, Gabriel R. Patricio, and Deirdre E. Townes. The concept of using miniature swatches of color as opposed to large splotches is not new. In World War II, German troops used various patterns similar to the current German \"Flecktarn\", which involved similar small dabs of color on a uniform to provide camouflage. The Canadian Forces originally developed the pattern called CADPAT, on which MARPAT was based. Timothy O'Neill's USMC design team in charge of this process, initially with the assistance of Kenneth G. Henley and then John Joseph Heisterman, Jr. (both active duty U.S. Marine Scout Snipers), went through over 150 different camo patterns before selecting three samples that met their initial objectives. These were two versions of tigerstripe and an older design of Rhodesian Brushstroke. The influence of tigerstripe can still be seen in the final MARPAT. These three samples were then reconstructed using new shapes and unique color blends that would allow a more effective uniform in a great range of environments. The new patterns were then field tested in different environments, day and night, with night vision and various optics. MARPAT did exceptionally well in their wet uniform test when viewed with night vision while illuminated with IR, where normally patterns appear as a solid. The MARPAT patent lists U.S. Army research into fractal pattern camouflage as the basis for MARPAT. The MARPAT pattern was chosen in a run-off against seven other patterns at the USMC Scout Sniper Instructor School. Preliminary development of MARPAT began in April 2000, with field testing of the pattern and the MCCUU beginning in 2001. The patent for the MARPAT pattern was filed on 19 June 2001, whereas the patent for the MCCUU uniform was filed on 7 November 2001. Early prototypes of the MARPAT desert pattern from 2001 featured grey, whereas the finished product did not. The uniform made its official debut at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina on 17 January 2002. In February 2003, MARPAT-patterned helmet covers began to be produced. The replacement of the BDU and DCU by the MCCUU was completed on 1 October 2004, a year ahead of the original requirement date set in 2001 of 1 October 2005. The MARPAT uniform was officially fielded as standard issue to the recruits of 3rd BN Mike Company in late 2002 at MCRD San Diego; it continues to be the USMC's standard issue uniform pattern to date. In all, the MARPAT development process from concept to completion took 18 months, the fastest time for a U.S. military-developed camouflage pattern to be produced.", "Different ratios and variations of colors were tested before final candidate patterns were actually printed to textile for field trials. A modified version of Vietnam War–era tiger stripe also made it to final trials but was eliminated due to MARPAT being superior in all environments. The purpose of the digitized pattern is to create visual \"noise\" and prevent the eye from identifying any visual templates. Thus, the pattern is intended to not register as any particular shape or pattern that could be distinguished. There were initially three MARPAT patterns tested: Woodland, Desert, and Urban. While keeping the rights for Urban, only the Woodland and Desert patterns were adopted by the Marine Corps for general issue, replacing the U.S. Woodland pattern and the U.S. Three-Color Desert pattern. Webbing and equipment worn with MARPAT Woodland and MARPAT Desert is produced in Coyote Brown, a mid-tone color common to both the woodland and desert patterns. Although a digital snow pattern has also been adopted on cold-weather training over-garments, this uses a different pattern from the Canadian company Hyperstealth. Authentic MARPAT material is distinguishable by a miniature \"Eagle, Globe, and Anchor\" emblem incorporated into the pattern above the letters \"USMC\", in both the woodland and desert patterns.", "MARPAT is aesthetically similar to Canadian Forces CADPAT, which was first developed in the 1990s. The United States Army used the same shapes in designing its Universal Camouflage Pattern, which uses a much paler three-color scheme of sage green, grey and sand for use on the Army Combat Uniform. After major questions about its effectiveness arose, the Army adopted the \"Scorpion W2\" Operational Camouflage Pattern in 2015, to be fully phased in by 2019. The United States Air Force has designed its own Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) using a standard tiger stripe pattern and slight variation on the color scheme of ACU, also designed to be phased out by the OCP uniform by 2021. The United States Navy announced approval for a digital \"BDU-style\" work uniform in late 2008. The Navy Working Uniform (NWU) was chosen by surveyed sailors for consistency and longer life, while the blue-grey-black Type I pattern was designed for aesthetic purposes rather than camouflage to disguise them at sea. In January 2010, the Navy began considering new Navy Working Uniform patterns modified from MARPAT, named Type II and Type III, desert and woodland respectively. The Woodland pattern was actually an earlier coloration of the MARPAT scheme, not adopted following USMC trials. These patterns are overall darker than their respective MARPAT progenitors, modified with different color shades, and addressed the fact that the blue and grey Type I pattern was not meant for a tactical environment (the Battle Dress Uniform in M81 woodland and Desert Camouflage Uniform were still used for this purpose until the Type II and III patterns were introduced). Backlash from Marines, including an objection from former Commandant Conway, led to restrictions when NAVADMIN 374/09 was released: Type II pattern to Naval Special Warfare personnel, while the NWU Type III is the standard shore working uniform for all Naval personnel effective 1 October 2019.." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical uses.", "Ibuprofen lysine.", "Adverse effects.", "Cardiovascular risk.", "Skin.", "Interactions.", "Alcohol.", "Aspirin.", "Paracetamol.", "Overdose.", "Miscarriage.", "Pharmacology.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Chemistry.", "Stereochemistry.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Availability.", "Route.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Ibuprofen is used primarily to treat fever (including post-vaccination fever), mild to moderate pain (including pain relief after surgery), painful menstruation, osteoarthritis, dental pain, headaches, and pain from kidney stones. About 60% of people respond to any NSAID; those who do not respond well to a particular one may respond to another. It is used for inflammatory diseases such as juvenile idiopathic arthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. It is also used for pericarditis and patent ductus arteriosus.", "In some countries, ibuprofen lysine (the lysine salt of ibuprofen, sometimes called \"ibuprofen lysinate\") is licensed for treatment of the same conditions as ibuprofen; the lysine salt is used because it is more water-soluble. In 2006, ibuprofen lysine was approved in the U.S. by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for closure of \"patent ductus arteriosus\" in premature infants weighing between, who are no more than 32 weeks' gestational age when usual medical management (such as fluid restriction, diuretics, and respiratory support) is not effective.", "Adverse effects include nausea, dyspepsia, diarrhea, constipation, gastrointestinal ulceration/bleeding, headache, dizziness, rash, salt and fluid retention, and high blood pressure. Infrequent adverse effects include esophageal ulceration, heart failure, high blood levels of potassium, kidney impairment, confusion, and bronchospasm. Ibuprofen can exacerbate asthma, sometimes fatally. Ibuprofen may be quantified in blood, plasma, or serum to demonstrate the presence of the drug in a person having experienced an anaphylactic reaction, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in people who are hospitalized, or assist in a medicolegal death investigation. A monograph relating ibuprofen plasma concentration, time since ingestion, and risk of developing renal toxicity in people who have overdosed has been published.", "Along with several other NSAIDs, chronic ibuprofen use has been found correlated with risk of hypertension and myocardial infarction (heart attack), particularly among those treated chronically using high doses. On 9 July 2015, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) toughened warnings of increased heart attack and stroke risk associated with ibuprofen and related NSAIDs; the NSAID aspirin is not included in this warning. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) issued similar warnings in 2015.", "Along with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen has been associated with the onset of bullous pemphigoid or pemphigoid-like blistering. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen has been reported to be a photosensitising agent, but it is considered a weak photosensitising agent compared to other members of the 2-arylpropionic acid class. Like other NSAIDs, ibuprofen is an extremely rare cause of the autoimmune disease Stevens–Johnson syndrome (SJS). Ibuprofen is also an extremely rare cause of toxic epidermal necrolysis.", "", "Drinking alcohol when taking ibuprofen may increase the risk of stomach bleeding.", "According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), \"ibuprofen can interfere with the antiplatelet effect of low-dose aspirin, potentially rendering aspirin less effective when used for cardioprotection and stroke prevention.\" Allowing sufficient time between doses of ibuprofen and immediate-release (IR) aspirin can avoid this problem. The recommended elapsed time between a dose of ibuprofen and a dose of aspirin depends on which is taken first. It would be 30 minutes or more for ibuprofen taken after IR aspirin, and eight hours or more for ibuprofen taken before IR aspirin. However, this timing cannot be recommended for enteric-coated aspirin. But, if ibuprofen is taken only occasionally without the recommended timing, the reduction of the cardioprotection and stroke prevention of a daily aspirin regimen is minimal.", "Ibuprofen combined with paracetamol is considered generally safe in children for short-term usage.", "Ibuprofen overdose has become common since it was licensed for OTC use. Many overdose experiences are reported in the medical literature, although the frequency of life-threatening complications from ibuprofen overdose is low. Human response in cases of overdose ranges from absence of symptoms to fatal outcome despite intensive-care treatment. Most symptoms are an excess of the pharmacological action of ibuprofen, and include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, headache, ear ringing, and nystagmus. Rarely, more severe symptoms, such as gastrointestinal bleeding, seizures, metabolic acidosis, high blood levels of potassium, low blood pressure, slow heart rate, fast heart rate, atrial fibrillation, coma, liver dysfunction, acute kidney failure, cyanosis, respiratory depression, and cardiac arrest have been reported. The severity of symptoms varies with the ingested dose and the time elapsed; however, individual sensitivity also plays an important role. Generally, the symptoms observed with an overdose of ibuprofen are similar to the symptoms caused by overdoses of other NSAIDs. Correlation between severity of symptoms and measured ibuprofen plasma levels is weak. Toxic effects are unlikely at doses below 100mg/kg, but can be severe above 400mg/kg (around 150 tablets of 200mg units for an average man); however, large doses do not indicate the clinical course is likely to be lethal. A precise lethal dose is difficult to determine, as it may vary with age, weight, and concomitant conditions of the individual person. Treatment to address an ibuprofen overdose is based on how the symptoms present. In cases presenting early, decontamination of the stomach is recommended. This is achieved using activated charcoal; charcoal adsorbs the drug before it can enter the bloodstream. Gastric lavage is now rarely used, but can be considered if the amount ingested is potentially life-threatening, and it can be performed within 60 minutes of ingestion. Purposeful vomiting is not recommended. The majority of ibuprofen ingestions produce only mild effects and the management of overdose is straightforward. Standard measures to maintain normal urine output should be instituted and kidney function monitored. Since ibuprofen has acidic properties and is also excreted in the urine, forced alkaline diuresis is theoretically beneficial. However, because ibuprofen is highly protein-bound in the blood, the kidneys' excretion of unchanged drug is minimal. Forced alkaline diuresis is, therefore, of limited benefit.", "A study of pregnant women suggests that those taking any type or amount of NSAIDs (including ibuprofen, diclofenac and naproxen) were 2.4 times more likely to miscarry than those not taking the medications. However, an Israeli study found no increased risk of miscarriage in the group of mothers using NSAIDs.", "NSAIDs such as ibuprofen work by inhibiting the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, which convert arachidonic acid to prostaglandin H (PGH). PGH, in turn, is converted by other enzymes to several other prostaglandins (which are mediators of pain, inflammation, and fever) and to thromboxane A (which stimulates platelet aggregation, leading to the formation of blood clots). Like aspirin and indomethacin, ibuprofen is a nonselective COX inhibitor, in that it inhibits two isoforms of cyclooxygenase, COX-1 and COX-2. The analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activity of NSAIDs appears to operate mainly through inhibition of COX-2, which decreases the synthesis of prostaglandins involved in mediating inflammation, pain, fever, and swelling. Antipyretic effects may be due to action on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increased peripheral blood flow, vasodilation, and subsequent heat dissipation. Inhibition of COX-1 instead would be responsible for unwanted effects on the gastrointestinal tract. However, the role of the individual COX isoforms in the analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and gastric damage effects of NSAIDs is uncertain and different compounds cause different degrees of analgesia and gastric damage. Ibuprofen is administered as a racemic mixture. The R-enantiomer undergoes extensive interconversion to the S-enantiomer \"in vivo\". The S-enantiomer is believed to be the more pharmacologically active enantiomer. The R-enantiomer is converted through a series of three main enzymes. These enzymes include acyl-CoA-synthetase, which converts the R-enantiomer to (-)-R-ibuprofen I-CoA; 2-arylpropionyl-CoA epimerase, which converts (-)-R-ibuprofen I-CoA to (+)-S-Ibuprofen I-CoA; and hydrolase, which converts (+)-S-ibuprofen I-CoA to the S-enantiomer. In addition to the conversion of ibuprofen to the S-enantiomer, the body can metabolize ibuprofen to several other compounds, including numerous hydroxyl, carboxyl and glucuronyl metabolites. Virtually all of these have no pharmacological effects.", "After oral administration, peak serum concentration is reached after 1–2 hours and up to 99% of the drug is bound to plasma proteins. The majority of ibuprofen is metabolised and eliminated within 24 hours in the urine; however, 1% of the unchanged drug is removed through biliary excretion.", "Ibuprofen is practically insoluble in water, but very soluble in most organic solvents like ethanol (66.18 g/100mL at 40°C for 90% EtOH), methanol, acetone and dichloromethane. The original synthesis of ibuprofen by the Boots Group started with the compound 2-methylpropylbenzene. The synthesis took six steps. A modern, greener technique for the synthesis involves only three steps.", "It is an optically active compound with both \"S\" and \"R\"-isomers, of which the \"S\" (dextrorotatory) isomer is the more biologically active; this isomer has also been isolated and used medically (see dexibuprofen for details). Ibuprofen is produced industrially as a racemate. The compound, like other 2-arylpropionate derivatives (including ketoprofen, flurbiprofen, naproxen, etc.), does contain a stereocenter in the α-position of the propionate moiety. So two enantiomers of ibuprofen occur, with the potential for different biological effects and metabolism for each enantiomer. An isomerase (alpha-methylacyl-CoA racemase) converts (\"R\")-ibuprofen to the active (\"S\")-enantiomer.", "Ibuprofen was derived from propionic acid by the research arm of Boots Group during the 1960s. The name is derived from the 3 functional groups: isobutyl (ibu) propionic acid (pro) phenyl (fen). Its discovery was the result of research during the 1950s and 1960s to find a safer alternative to aspirin. The molecule was discovered and synthesized by a team led by Stewart Adams, with a patent application filed in 1961. Adams initially tested the drug as treatment for his hangover. The drug was launched as a treatment for rheumatoid arthritis in the United Kingdom in 1969, and in the United States in 1974. Later, in 1983 and 1984, it became the first NSAID (other than aspirin) to be available over the counter (OTC) in these two countries. Dr. Adams was subsequently awarded an Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1987. Boots was awarded the Queen's Award for Technical Achievement in 1987 for the development of the drug. In November 2013, work on ibuprofen was recognized by the erection of a Royal Society of Chemistry blue plaque at Boots' Beeston Factory site in Nottingham, which reads: and another at BioCity Nottingham, the site of the original laboratory, which reads:", "", "Ibuprofen was made available under prescription in the United Kingdom in 1969, and in the United States in 1974. In the years since, the good tolerability profile, along with extensive experience in the population, as well as in so-called phase-IV trials (postapproval studies), have resulted in the availability of ibuprofen OTC in pharmacies worldwide, as well as in supermarkets and other general retailers. Ibuprofen is its International nonproprietary name (INN), British Approved Name (BAN), Australian Approved Name (AAN) and United States Adopted Name (USAN). In the U.S., Motrin has been on the market since 1974, and Advil has been on the market since 1984. Ibuprofen is commonly available in the United States up to the FDA's 1984 dose limit OTC, rarely used higher by prescription. In 2009, the first injectable formulation of ibuprofen was approved in the United States, under the trade name Caldolor.", "It can be used by mouth, as a tablet, capsule or suspension, or intravenously.", "Ibuprofen is sometimes used for the treatment of acne because of its anti-inflammatory properties, and has been sold in Japan in topical form for adult acne. As with other NSAIDs, ibuprofen may be useful in the treatment of severe orthostatic hypotension (low blood pressure when standing up). NSAIDs are of unclear utility in the prevention and treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Ibuprofen has been associated with a lower risk of Parkinson's disease, and may delay or prevent it. Aspirin, other NSAIDs, and paracetamol (acetaminophen) had no effect on the risk for Parkinson's. In March 2011, researchers at Harvard Medical School announced in \"Neurology\" that ibuprofen had a neuroprotective effect against the risk of developing Parkinson's disease. People regularly consuming ibuprofen were reported to have a 38% lower risk of developing Parkinson's disease, but no such effect was found for other pain relievers, such as aspirin and paracetamol. Use of ibuprofen to lower the risk of Parkinson's disease in the general population would not be problem-free, given the possibility of adverse effects on the urinary and digestive systems. Some dietary supplements might be dangerous to take along with ibuprofen and other NSAIDs, but more research needs to be conducted to be certain. These supplements include those that can prevent platelet aggregation, including ginkgo, garlic, ginger, bilberry, dong quai, feverfew, ginseng, turmeric, meadowsweet, and willow; those that contain coumarin, including chamomile, horse chestnut, fenugreek and red clover; and those that increase the risk of bleeding, like tamarind." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and political career.", "Origins.", "Rise to the Soviet leadership.", "Leader of the Soviet Union.", "Health problems, death and legacy.", "Honors and awards.", "Personal life.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Chernenko was born to a poor family in the Siberian village of Bolshaya Tes (now in Novosyolovsky District, Krasnoyarsk Krai) on 24 September 1911. His father, Ustin Demidovich (of Ukrainian origin), worked in copper mines and gold mines while his mother took care of the farm work. Chernenko joined the Komsomol (Communist Youth League) in 1929, and became a full member of the Communist Party in 1931. From 1930 to 1933, he served in the Soviet frontier guards on the Soviet–Chinese border. After completing his military service, he returned to Krasnoyarsk as a propagandist. In 1933 he worked in the Propaganda Department of the Novosyolovsky District Party Committee. A few years later he was promoted to head of the same department in Uyarsk Raykom. Chernenko then steadily rose through the Party ranks, becoming the Director of the Krasnoyarsk House of Party Enlightenment, then in 1939 the Deputy Head of the Agitprop Department of Krasnoyarsk Territorial Committee, and finally in 1941 Secretary of the Territorial Party Committee for Propaganda. In the 1940s he established a close relationship with Fyodor Kulakov. In 1945, he acquired a diploma from a party training school in Moscow, and in 1953 he finished a correspondence course for schoolteachers.", "The turning point in Chernenko's career was his assignment in 1948 to head the Communist Party's propaganda department in the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. There, he met and won the confidence of Leonid Brezhnev, the first secretary of the Moldavian SSR from 1950 to 1952 and future leader of the Soviet Union. Chernenko followed Brezhnev in 1956 to fill a similar propaganda post in the CPSU Central Committee in Moscow. In 1960, after Brezhnev was named chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet (titular head of state of the Soviet Union), Chernenko became his chief of staff. In 1964, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was deposed, and succeeded by Brezhnev. During Brezhnev's tenure as Party leader, Chernenko's career continued successfully. He was nominated in 1965 as head of the General Department of the Central Committee, and given the mandate to set the Politburo agenda and prepare drafts of numerous Central Committee decrees and resolutions. He also monitored telephone wiretaps and covert listening devices in various offices of the top Party members. Another of his jobs was to sign hundreds of Party documents daily, a job he did for the next 20 years. Even after he became General Secretary of the Party, he continued to sign papers referring to the General Department (when he could no longer physically sign documents, a facsimile was used instead). In 1971, Chernenko was promoted to full membership in the Central Committee: Overseeing Party work over the Letter Bureau, dealing with correspondence. In 1976, he was elected secretary of the Letter Bureau. He became Candidate in 1977, and in 1978 a full member of the Politburo, second to the General Secretary in the Party hierarchy. During Brezhnev's final years, Chernenko became fully immersed in ideological Party work: heading Soviet delegations abroad, accompanying Brezhnev to important meetings and conferences, and working as a member of the commission that revised the Soviet Constitution in 1977. In 1979, he took part in the Vienna arms limitation talks. After Brezhnev's death in November 1982, there was speculation that the position of General Secretary would fall to Chernenko, but he was unable to rally enough support for his candidacy within the Party. Ultimately, KGB chief Yuri Andropov, who had been more mindful of Brezhnev's failing health, succeeded to the position.", "Yuri Andropov died in February 1984, after just 15 months in office. Chernenko was then elected to replace Andropov even though Andropov himself stated he wanted Gorbachev to succeed him. Additionally, Chernenko was terminally ill himself. Despite these factors, Yegor Ligachev writes in his memoirs that Chernenko was elected general secretary without a hitch. At the Central Committee plenary session on 13 February 1984, four days after Andropov's death, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, Premier, and Politburo member Nikolai Tikhonov moved that Chernenko be elected general secretary, and the Committee duly voted him in. Arkady Volsky, an aide to Andropov and other general secretaries, recounts an episode that occurred after a Politburo meeting on the day following Andropov's demise: As Politburo members filed out of the conference hall, either Andrei Gromyko or (in later accounts) Dmitriy Ustinov is said to have put his arm round Nikolai Tikhonov's shoulders and said: \"It's okay, Kostya is an agreeable guy (\"pokladisty muzhik\"), one can do business with him...\" The Politburo failed to pass the decision for Gorbachev, who was nominally Chernenko's second in command, to run the meetings of the Politburo itself in the absence of Chernenko; the latter due to his declining health began to miss those meetings with increasing frequency. As Nikolai Ryzhkov describes it in his memoirs, \"every Thursday morning he (Mikhail Gorbachev) would sit in his office like a little orphan – I would often be present at this sad procedure – nervously awaiting a telephone call from the sick Chernenko: Would he come to the Politburo himself or would he ask Gorbachev to stand in for him this time again?\" At Andropov's funeral, he could barely read the eulogy. Those present strained to catch the meaning of what he was trying to say in his eulogy. He spoke rapidly, swallowed his words, kept coughing and stopped repeatedly to wipe his lips and forehead. He ascended Lenin's Mausoleum by way of a newly installed escalator and descended with the help of two bodyguards. Chernenko represented a return to the policies of the late Brezhnev era. Nevertheless, he supported a greater role for the labour unions, and reform in education and propaganda. The one major personnel change Chernenko made was the dismissal of the Chief of the General Staff, Marshal Nikolai Ogarkov, who had advocated less spending on consumer goods in favour of greater expenditures on weapons research and development. Ogarkov was subsequently replaced by Marshal Sergey Akhromeyev. In foreign policy, he negotiated a trade pact with China. Despite calls for renewed détente, Chernenko did little to prevent the escalation of the Cold War with the United States. For example, in 1984, the Soviet Union prevented a visit to West Germany by East German leader Erich Honecker. However, in late autumn of 1984, the U.S. and the Soviet Union did agree to resume arms control talks in early 1985. In November 1984 Chernenko met with Britain's Labour Party leader, Neil Kinnock. In 1980, the United States had boycotted the Summer Olympics held in Moscow in protest at the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The following 1984 Summer Olympics were due to be held in Los Angeles, California. On 8 May 1984, under Chernenko's leadership, the USSR announced its intention not to participate, citing security concerns and \"chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria being whipped up in the United States\". The boycott was joined by 14 Eastern Bloc countries and allies, including Cuba (but not Romania). The action was widely seen as revenge for the U.S. boycott of the Moscow Games. The boycotting countries organised their own \"Friendship Games\" in the summer of 1984.", "Chernenko started smoking at the age of nine, and he was always known to be a heavy smoker as an adult. Long before his election as general secretary, he had developed emphysema and right-sided heart failure. In 1983 he had been absent from his duties for three months due to bronchitis, pleurisy and pneumonia. Historian John Lewis Gaddis describes him as \"an enfeebled geriatric so zombie-like as to be beyond assessing intelligence reports, alarming or not\" when he succeeded Andropov in 1984. In early 1984, Chernenko was hospitalised for over a month but kept working by sending the Politburo notes and letters. During the summer, his doctors sent him to Kislovodsk for the mineral spas, but on the day of his arrival at the resort Chernenko's health deteriorated, and he contracted pneumonia. Chernenko did not return to the Kremlin until later in 1984. He awarded Orders to cosmonauts and writers in his office, but was unable to walk through the corridors of his office and was driven in a wheelchair. By the end of 1984, Chernenko could hardly leave the Central Clinical Hospital, a heavily guarded facility in west Moscow, and the Politburo was affixing a facsimile of his signature to all letters, as Chernenko had done with Andropov's when he was dying. Chernenko's illness was first acknowledged publicly on 22 February 1985 during a televised election rally in Kuibyshev Borough of northeast Moscow, where the General Secretary stood as candidate for the Supreme Soviet of the Russian SFSR, when Politburo member Viktor Grishin revealed that the General Secretary was absent in accordance with doctors' advice. Two days later, in a televised scene that shocked the nation, Grishin dragged the terminally ill Chernenko from his hospital bed to a ballot box to vote. On 28 February 1985, Chernenko appeared once more on television to receive parliamentary credentials and read out a brief statement on his electoral victory: \"the election campaign is over and now it is time to carry out the tasks set for us by the voters and the Communists who have spoken out\". Emphysema and the associated lung and heart damage worsened significantly for Chernenko in the last three weeks of February 1985. According to the Chief Kremlin doctor, Yevgeny I. Chazov, Chernenko had also developed both chronic hepatitis and cirrhosis of the liver. On 10 March at 15:00, Chernenko fell into a coma and died later that evening at 19:20. He was 73 years old. An autopsy revealed the cause of death to be a combination of chronic emphysema, an enlarged and damaged heart, congestive heart failure and liver cirrhosis. Chernenko became the third Soviet leader to die in less than three years. Upon being informed in the middle of the night of his death, U.S. President Ronald Reagan is reported to have remarked \"How am I supposed to get anyplace with the Russians if they keep dying on me?\" Chernenko was honored with a state funeral and was buried in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis. He is the last person to have been interred there. The impact of Chernenko—or the lack thereof—was evident in the way in which his death was reported in the Soviet press. Soviet newspapers carried stories about Chernenko's death and Gorbachev's selection on the same day. The papers had the same format: page 1 reported the party Central Committee session on 11 March that elected Gorbachev and printed the new leader's biography and a large photograph of him; page 2 announced the demise of Chernenko and printed his obituary. After the death of a Soviet leader it was customary for his successors to open his safe. When Gorbachev had Chernenko's safe opened, it was found to contain a small folder of personal papers and several large bundles of money; a large amount of money was also found in his desk. It is not known where he had obtained the money or what he intended to use it for.", "Chernenko was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour, 1976, in 1981 and in 1984 he was awarded Hero of the Socialist Labour: on the latter occasion, Minister of Defence Ustinov underlined his rule as an \"outstanding political figure, a loyal and unwavering continuer of the cause of the great Lenin\"; in 1981 he was awarded with the Bulgarian Order of Georgi Dimitrov and in 1982 he received the Lenin Prize for his \"Human Rights in Soviet Society\".", "Chernenko had a son from his first marriage, Albert, who became a noted Soviet legal theorist. With his second wife, Anna Dmitrevna Lyubimova (1913–2010), who married him in 1944, he also had two daughters, Yelena (who worked at the Institute of Party History) and Vera (who worked at the Soviet Embassy in Washington, D.C. in the United States), and a son, Vladimir, who was a Goskino editorialist. In 2015, archival documents were published, according to which Konstantin Chernenko had many more wives, and many more children with them; this circumstance, perhaps, was the reason for the slowing of Chernenko's career growth in the 1940s. He had a gosdacha (state-owned vacation house) named Sosnovka-3 in Troitse-Lykovo by the Moskva River with a private beach, while Sosnovka-1 was used by Mikhail Suslov.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pattern variations.", "Temperate woodland.", "Arid regions.", "Winter/arctic.", "Urban." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Canada's desire for a new soldier system dates back to November 1988 and closely followed efforts in many NATO countries. The first research effort, called Integrated Protective Clothing and Equipment (IPCE) Technology Demonstration, was initiated in 1995 but then was cancelled, due to high systems cost and failure to meet the majority of the requirements. Ongoing operations in the mid-1990s led to the creation of the Clothe the Soldier (CTS) Project, which directly addressed the NATO soldier system capability areas of survivability and sustainability. The Canadian Disruptive Pattern was a part of ongoing research and implemented during the CTS Project. The use of CADPAT AR overseas was first reported in Afghanistan when Taliban prisoners of war were seen escorted by armed Canadian commandos in the camo. This nearly made things complicated for the Department of National Defence, since it had said that no Canadian commandos were officially in Afghanistan. The use of CADPAT TW was reported in September 2001 with Canadian soldiers serving under PALLADIUM ROTATION 09. In 2019, tests were conducted for plans to eventually replace CADPAT in service with the Canadian Forces. Under the Soldier Operational Clothing and Equipment Modernization (SOCEM) project, the DND will seek feedback and advice from users of the trial camouflage known as Prototype J before a decision is made in 2022. A new camouflage pattern would be adopted by 2027.", "In development for the better part of a decade, the pattern comes in three varieties: temperate woodland (TW), arid region (AR), and winter/arctic (WA). The temperate woodland pattern became the standard issue for the Army in 2002, with the Air Force following suit in 2004. Uniforms and equipment in CADPAT material replaced the olive green material in use since the early 1960s.", "The temperate woodland (TW) pattern has four specific colours—light green, dark green, brown, and black—and was first introduced in 1996 on the helmet cover for the new CG634 helmet then coming into service. At the same time, the pattern was also introduced on a new soldier's individual camouflage net. The CADPAT TW uniform allows Canadian soldiers protection from observation by the naked eye and night vision devices.", "Concurrent with the trials of CADPAT TW, work was carried out to identify a uniform for operations in desert, near desert, and savanna environmental conditions. This three-colour pattern, known as CADPAT arid regions (AR), incorporates three different colours of brown. The CADPAT design for arid regions has been approved, and the transfer of this digital technology is ongoing to the textiles industry. CADPAT AR also features two additional arm pockets and Velcro on the arms compared to the TW uniform. In light of the deployment of the Immediate Reaction Force to Afghanistan, the CADPAT AR project was expedited with the intent that it would be issued to soldiers in summer 2002.", "The winter/arctic pattern was introduced as an upgrade to the monochrome winter whites to further enhance the Canadian soldier's camouflage capability by day and night. It includes near infra-red (NIR) technology.", "Defence Research and Development Canada based at CFB Suffield (DRDC-S) has a requirement to develop a new urban pattern for the Canadian Forces based on the three major metropolitan areas of Canada: Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal. This new pattern is known as the Canadian urban environment pattern (CUEPAT)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Linear elasticity.", "Finite elasticity.", "Cauchy elastic materials.", "Hypoelastic materials.", "Hyperelastic materials.", "Applications.", "Factors affecting elasticity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When an elastic material is deformed due to an external force, it experiences internal resistance to the deformation and restores it to its original state if the external force is no longer applied. There are various elastic moduli, such as Young's modulus, the shear modulus, and the bulk modulus, all of which are measures of the inherent elastic properties of a material as a resistance to deformation under an applied load. The various moduli apply to different kinds of deformation. For instance, Young's modulus applies to extension/compression of a body, whereas the shear modulus applies to its shear. Young's modulus and shear modulus are only for solids, whereas the bulk modulus is for solids, liquids, and gases. The elasticity of materials is described by a stress–strain curve, which shows the relation between stress (the average restorative internal force per unit area) and strain (the relative deformation). The curve is generally nonlinear, but it can (by use of a Taylor series) be approximated as linear for sufficiently small deformations (in which higher-order terms are negligible). If the material is isotropic, the linearized stress–strain relationship is called Hooke's law, which is often presumed to apply up to the elastic limit for most metals or crystalline materials whereas nonlinear elasticity is generally required to model large deformations of rubbery materials even in the elastic range. For even higher stresses, materials exhibit plastic behavior, that is, they deform irreversibly and do not return to their original shape after stress is no longer applied. For rubber-like materials such as elastomers, the slope of the stress–strain curve increases with stress, meaning that rubbers progressively become more difficult to stretch, while for most metals, the gradient decreases at very high stresses, meaning that they progressively become easier to stretch. Elasticity is not exhibited only by solids; non-Newtonian fluids, such as viscoelastic fluids, will also exhibit elasticity in certain conditions quantified by the Deborah number. In response to a small, rapidly applied and removed strain, these fluids may deform and then return to their original shape. Under larger strains, or strains applied for longer periods of time, these fluids may start to flow like a viscous liquid. Because the elasticity of a material is described in terms of a stress–strain relation, it is essential that the terms \"stress\" and \"strain\" be defined without ambiguity. Typically, two types of relation are considered. The first type deals with materials that are elastic only for small strains. The second deals with materials that are not limited to small strains. Clearly, the second type of relation is more general in the sense that it must include the first type as a special case. For small strains, the measure of stress that is used is the Cauchy stress while the measure of strain that is used is the infinitesimal strain tensor; the resulting (predicted) material behavior is termed linear elasticity, which (for isotropic media) is called the generalized Hooke's law. Cauchy elastic materials and hypoelastic materials are models that extend Hooke's law to allow for the possibility of large rotations, large distortions, and intrinsic or induced anisotropy. For more general situations, any of a number of stress measures can be used, and it generally desired (but not required) that the elastic stress–strain relation be phrased in terms of a finite strain measure that is work conjugate to the selected stress measure, i.e., the time integral of the inner product of the stress measure with the rate of the strain measure should be equal to the change in internal energy for any adiabatic process that remains below the elastic limit.", "As noted above, for small deformations, most elastic materials such as springs exhibit linear elasticity and can be described by a linear relation between the stress and strain. This relationship is known as Hooke's law. A geometry-dependent version of the idea was first formulated by Robert Hooke in 1675 as a Latin anagram, \"ceiiinosssttuv\". He published the answer in 1678: \"\"Ut tensio, sic vis\"\" meaning \"\"As the extension, so the force\"\", a linear relationship commonly referred to as Hooke's law. This law can be stated as a relationship between tensile force and corresponding extension displacement, where is a constant known as the \"rate\" or \"spring constant\". It can also be stated as a relationship between stress and strain formula_2: where is known as the elastic modulus or Young's modulus. Although the general proportionality constant between stress and strain in three dimensions is a 4th-order tensor called stiffness, systems that exhibit symmetry, such as a one-dimensional rod, can often be reduced to applications of Hooke's law.", "The elastic behavior of objects that undergo finite deformations has been described using a number of models, such as Cauchy elastic material models, Hypoelastic material models, and Hyperelastic material models. The deformation gradient (F) is the primary deformation measure used in finite strain theory.", "A material is said to be Cauchy-elastic if the Cauchy stress tensor σ is a function of the deformation gradient F alone: It is generally incorrect to state that Cauchy stress is a function of merely a strain tensor, as such a model lacks crucial information about material rotation needed to produce correct results for an anisotropic medium subjected to vertical extension in comparison to the same extension applied horizontally and then subjected to a 90-degree rotation; both these deformations have the same spatial strain tensors yet must produce different values of the Cauchy stress tensor. Even though the stress in a Cauchy-elastic material depends only on the state of deformation, the work done by stresses might depend on the path of deformation. Therefore, Cauchy elasticity includes non-conservative \"non-hyperelastic\" models (in which work of deformation is path dependent) as well as conservative \"hyperelastic material\" models (for which stress can be derived from a scalar \"elastic potential\" function).", "A hypoelastic material can be rigorously defined as one that is modeled using a constitutive equation satisfying the following two criteria: 1. The Cauchy stress formula_5 at time formula_6 depends only on the order in which the body has occupied its past configurations, but not on the time rate at which these past configurations were traversed. As a special case, this criterion includes a Cauchy elastic material, for which the current stress depends only on the current configuration rather than the history of past configurations. 2. There is a tensor-valued function formula_7 such that formula_8 in which formula_9 is the material rate of the Cauchy stress tensor, and formula_10 is the spatial velocity gradient tensor. If only these two original criteria are used to define hypoelasticity, then hyperelasticity would be included as a special case, which prompts some constitutive modelers to append a third criterion that specifically requires a hypoelastic model to \"not\" be hyperelastic (i.e., hypoelasticity implies that stress is not derivable from an energy potential). If this third criterion is adopted, it follows that a hypoelastic material might admit nonconservative adiabatic loading paths that start and end with the same deformation gradient but do \"not\" start and end at the same internal energy. Note that the second criterion requires only that the function formula_7 \"exists\". As detailed in the main Hypoelastic material article, specific formulations of hypoelastic models typically employ so-called objective rates so that the formula_7 function exists only implicitly and is typically needed explicitly only for numerical stress updates performed via direct integration of the actual (not objective) stress rate.", "Hyperelastic materials (also called Green elastic materials) are conservative models that are derived from a strain energy density function (\"W\"). A model is hyperelastic if and only if it is possible to express the Cauchy stress tensor as a function of the deformation gradient via a relationship of the form This formulation takes the energy potential (\"W\") as a function of the deformation gradient (formula_14). By also requiring satisfaction of material objectivity, the energy potential may be alternatively regarded as a function of the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor (formula_15), in which case the hyperelastic model may be written alternatively as", "Linear elasticity is used widely in the design and analysis of structures such as beams, plates and shells, and sandwich composites. This theory is also the basis of much of fracture mechanics. Hyperelasticity is primarily used to determine the response of elastomer-based objects such as gaskets and of biological materials such as soft tissues and cell membranes.", "For isotropic materials, the presence of fractures affects the Young and the shear moduli perpendicular to the planes of the cracks, which decrease (Young's modulus faster than the shear modulus) as the fracture density increases, indicating that the presence of cracks makes bodies brittler. Microscopically, the stress–strain relationship of materials is in general governed by the Helmholtz free energy, a thermodynamic quantity. Molecules settle in the configuration which minimizes the free energy, subject to constraints derived from their structure, and, depending on whether the energy or the entropy term dominates the free energy, materials can broadly be classified as \"energy-elastic\" and \"entropy-elastic\". As such, microscopic factors affecting the free energy, such as the equilibrium distance between molecules, can affect the elasticity of materials: for instance, in inorganic materials, as the equilibrium distance between molecules at 0 K increases, the bulk modulus decreases. The effect of temperature on elasticity is difficult to isolate, because there are numerous factors affecting it. For instance, the bulk modulus of a material is dependent on the form of its lattice, its behavior under expansion, as well as the vibrations of the molecules, all of which are dependent on temperature." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Du riechst so gut '98.", "Music video." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "A music video was released for the song, depicting the band members shirtless in an all-white environment. The video opens with a Doberman Pinscher walking across the screen, with repeated cuts throughout of the dog looking curiously at the camera along with flowers shown in the \"Herzeleid\" album cover and this single. Till Lindemann is portrayed in simple close-up shots, sternly singing the lyrics and at one point sporting a menacing pair of goggles. The goggles known as \"Schlitzbrille\" were shown again in the music video for \"Ohne dich\".", "The song was first performed during the very first Rammstein show, on 14 April 1994 in Leipzig, Germany. A fan favorite, it was used as the last song of the show during many of the \"Herzeleid\" tour concerts. During live concerts in the \"Sehnsucht\" tour, Till usually simulated firing rockets over the audience with a bow (actually propelled sitting on a string) and then the bow started to propel sparks in all directions as Till rotated it. During some concerts, he used it during different songs, like Laichzeit at the Bizarre Festival in 1997, or Du hast, during the Family Values tour in 1998. Guitarists Paul and Richard would conduct the audience during the extended solo. The song wasn't played at all during the 2001-2002 \"Mutter\" tour, but it returned to the setlists on their \"Reise, Reise\" tour. This time, Richard and Paul wore jackets that shot flames/sparks from one of their sleeves, running from the shoulder down to their forearms; one would stand facing away from the audience, the other would stand facing the audience, and then the pyrotechnics would be activated simultaneously while the two performed the tapping hammer on solo. After being dropped for the Liebe Ist Für Alle Da tour in 2009, the song returned to the setlist on the 2010 part of the tour, and the song was occasionally performed with the pyrotechnic jackets, however this time it was done with both guitarists facing the audience.", "On 17 April 1998, \"Du riechst so gut\" was re-released as a single under the title, \"Du riechst so gut '98\". The song retains its original arrangement, except the start is shorter.", "A new music video was filmed as well. It depicts the band members as albino werewolf creatures, who follow a young woman to a castle where a masquerade ball is taking place. They track the woman's scent, infiltrating the ball until they find her. They seduce her into being their meal, then transform into a pack of wolves, escaping as the castle's attendants pursue them. By the end of the video, it is shown that the young woman has become a werewolf herself as the werewolves turned her. The video first premiered on 25 May 1998. The videoclip was shot between 20 and 25 April 1998, at castle Babelsberg in Potsdam/Berlin, Jagdschloß in Berlin district Pankow and was directed by Philipp Stölzl. The video was inspired by the 1984 film \"The Company of Wolves\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career in the Communist Party.", "Suppression of the Hungarian Uprising.", "Chairmanship of the KGB and Politburo career.", "Crushing the Prague Spring.", "Suppression of dissidents.", "Role in the invasion of Afghanistan.", "Role in the non-invasion of Poland.", "Promotion of Gorbachev.", "Leader of the Soviet Union.", "Domestic policy.", "Economy.", "Anti-corruption campaign.", "Foreign policy.", "Death and funeral.", "Personal life.", "Legacy.", "Attitudes to Andropov." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There has been much contention over his family background. According to the official biography, Andropov was born in Stanitsa Nagutskaya (modern-day Stavropol Krai of Russia) on 15 June 1914. His father, Vladimir Konstantinovich Andropov, was a railway worker of Don Cossack descent who died from typhus in 1919. His mother, Yevgenia Karlovna Fleckenstein, (none of the official sources mention her name) was a school teacher who died in 1931. She was born in the Ryazan Governorate into a family of town dwellers and was abandoned on the doorstep of a Finnish citizen, a Jewish watchmaker, Karl Franzevich Fleckenstein, who lived in Moscow; he and his wife, Eudokia Mikhailovna Fleckenstein, adopted and raised her. Later research has shown that many details about Andropov's biography were largely falsified during his lifetime which has contributed to the confusion connected to his family history. His earliest documented name was Grigory Vladimirovich Andropov-Fyodorov; he changed it to Yuri Andropov several years later. While his original birth certificate disappeared, it was established that Andropov was in fact born in Moscow where his mother had been working in a women's gymnasium from 1913 until 1917. To make things more complicated, he named different dates of her death at various occasions: 1927, 1929, 1930 and 1931. The story of her adoption was also highly likely a mystification. In 1937 Andropov went through a check when he applied for Communist Party membership, and it turned out that \"the sister of his native maternal grandmother\" (he called her his aunt) who was living with him and who supported the legend of his Ryazan peasant origins was in fact his nurse who had been working at Fleckenstein's long before he was born. It was also reported that his mother belonged to merchantry. In fact Karl Fleckenstein was a rich jewel merchant, owner of a jewellers, and so was his wife who took over her husband's business after his accidental death in 1915 (he was confused for a German during the infamous anti-German pogrom in Moscow, although Andropov preferred to refer to it as anti-Jewish). The whole family could've turned into lishentsy and stripped of basic rights if she hadn't abandoned the store after another pogrom in 1917, invented a proletarian background, and left Moscow for the Stavropol Governorate along with Andropov's mother. He gave different versions of his father's fate: in one case he divorced his mother soon after his birth, and in another he died of illness. The \"father\" he referred to, Vladimir Andropov, was in fact his stepfather who lived and worked at Nagutskaya and died from typhus in 1919. The Fyodorov surname belonged to his second stepfather (since 1921) Viktor Fyodorov, a machinist's assistant turned school teacher. His real father remains unknown; he probably died in 1916 – a date written in Andropov's 1932 résumé. During the 1937 check it was reported that his father served as an officer in the Imperial Russian Army. Andropov was thoroughly interviewed four times, yet he was so convincing that he managed to have all charges dropped. He joined the Communist Party in 1939.", "Andropov was educated at the Rybinsk Water Transport Technical College and graduated in 1936. As a teenager he worked as a loader, a telegraph clerk, and a sailor for the Volga steamship line. At 16, Yuri Andropov, then a member of the All-Union Leninist Young Communist League (YCL, or Komsomol), was a worker in the town of Mozdok in the North Ossetian ASSR. He became full-time Secretary of the YCL organization of the Water Transport Technical School in Rybinsk in the Yaroslavl Region and was soon promoted to the post of organizer of the YCL Central Committee at the Volodarsky Shipyards in Rybinsk. In 1938, he was elected First Secretary of the Yaroslavl Regional Committee of the YCL, and was First Secretary of the Central Committee of Komsomol in the Soviet Karelo-Finnish Republic from 1940 to 1944. According to the official biography, during World War II Andropov took part in partisan guerrilla activities in Finland, although modern researchers didn't manage to find any traces of his supposed partisan squad. From 1944 onwards, he left Komsomol for Communist Party work. Between 1946 and 1951, he studied at the university of Petrozavodsk. In 1947, he was elected Second Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Karelo-Finnish SSR. In 1951 Andropov was transferred to CPSU Central Committee. He was appointed an inspector and then the head of a subdepartment of the Committee.", "In July 1954, he was appointed Soviet Ambassador to Hungary and held this position during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. Andropov played a key role in crushing the Hungarian uprising. He convinced a reluctant Nikita Khrushchev that military intervention was necessary. He is known as 'The Butcher of Budapest' for his ruthless suppression of the Hungarian uprising. The Hungarian leaders were arrested and Imre Nagy and others executed. After these events, Andropov suffered from a \"Hungarian complex\", according to historian Christopher Andrew: \"He had watched in horror from the windows of his embassy as officers of the hated Hungarian security service [the \"Államvédelmi Hatóság or AVH]\" were strung up from lampposts. Andropov remained haunted for the rest of his life by the speed with which an apparently all-powerful Communist one-party state had begun to topple. When other Communist regimes later seemed at risk – in Prague in 1968, in Kabul in 1979, in Warsaw in 1981, he was convinced that, as in Budapest in 1956, only armed force could ensure their survival\".", "In 1957, Andropov returned to Moscow from Budapest in order to head the Department for Liaison with Communist and Workers' Parties in Socialist Countries, a position he held until 1967. In 1961, he was elected full member of the CPSU Central Committee and was promoted to the Secretariat of the CPSU Central Committee in 1962. In 1967, he was relieved of his work in the Central Committee apparatus and appointed head of the KGB on recommendation of Mikhail Suslov, at the same time promoted a Candidate Member of the Politburo. He gained additional powers in 1973, when he was promoted to full member of the Politburo.", "During the events of the Prague Spring in 1968, Andropov was the main advocate for \"extreme measures\" being taken against Czechoslovakia. According to classified information released by Vasili Mitrokhin, \"[t]he KGB whipped up the fear that Czechoslovakia could fall victim to NATO aggression or to a coup\". At this time, agent Oleg Kalugin reported from Washington that he gained access to \"absolutely reliable documents proving that neither the CIA nor any other agency was manipulating the Czechoslovak reform movement\". However his message was destroyed because it contradicted the conspiracy theory fabricated by Andropov. Andropov ordered a number of active measures, collectively known as operation PROGRESS, against Czechoslovak reformers.", "Throughout his career, Andropov aimed to achieve \"the destruction of dissent in all its forms\" and insisted that \"the struggle for human rights was a part of a wide-ranging imperialist plot to undermine the foundation of the Soviet state\". Towards this end, he launched a campaign to eliminate all opposition in the USSR through a mixture of mass arrests, involuntary commitments to psychiatric hospitals, and pressuring on rights activists to emigrate from the Soviet Union.These measures were meticulously documented throughout his time as KGB chairman by the underground Chronicle of Current Events, a samizdat publication which was itself finally forced out of existence with its last published issue, dated 30 June 1982. On 3 July 1967, he made a proposal to establish the KGB's Fifth Directorate for dealing with the political opposition (ideological counterintelligence). At the end of July, the directorate was established and entered in its files cases of all Soviet dissidents including Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn. In 1968, Andropov as the KGB Chairman issued his order \"On the tasks of State security agencies in combating the ideological sabotage by the adversary\", calling for struggle against dissidents and their imperialist masters. After the assassination attempt against Brezhnev in January 1969, Andropov led the interrogation of the captured gunman, Viktor Ivanovich Ilyin. Ilyin was pronounced insane and sent to Kazan Psychiatric Hospital. Later, on 29 April 1969, he submitted to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union an elaborated plan for creating a network of psychiatric hospitals to defend the \"Soviet Government and socialist order\" from dissidents. In January 1970 Andropov submitted an alarming account to his fellow Politburo members of the widespread threat of the mentally ill to stability and the security of the regime. The proposal by Andropov to use psychiatry for struggle against dissidents was implemented. Andropov was in charge of the widespread deployment of psychiatric repression since he was the head of the KGB. According to Yuri Felshtinsky and Boris Gulko, the originators of the idea to use psychiatry for punitive purposes were the head of the KGB (Andropov) and the head of the Fifth Directorate, Philipp Bobkov. The repression of dissidents included plans to maim the dancer Rudolf Nureyev, who had defected in 1961. There are some who believe that Andropov was behind the deaths of Fyodor Kulakov and Pyotr Masherov, the two youngest members of the Soviet leadership. A declassified document revealed that Andropov as KGB director gave the order to prevent unauthorized gatherings mourning the death of John Lennon. In 1977, Andropov convinced Brezhnev that the Ipatiev House, where Tsar Nicholas II and his family were murdered by communist revolutionaries, had become a site of pilgrimage for covert monarchists. With the Politburo's approval the house, deemed to be not of \"sufficient historical significance\", was demolished in September 1977, less than a year before the 60th anniversary of the murders. According to Yaakov Kedmi, Andropov was particularly keen to persecute any sign of Zionism in order to distance himself from his Jewish heritage. Andropov was personally responsible for orchestrating the arrest and persecution of Soviet Jewish activist Natan Sharansky.", "In March 1979, Andropov and the Politburo initially opposed their subsequent decision to intervene militarily in Afghanistan. Among their concerns were that the international community would blame the USSR for its \"aggression\" and that it would derail the upcoming Salt II negotiation meeting with President Carter. However, his bottom line: \"under no circumstances can we lose Afghanistan,\" led him and the Politburo to invade Afghanistan on 24 December 1979. The invasion led to the extended Soviet–Afghan War (1979–1989) and a boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympic Games in Moscow by 66 countries, something of concern to Andropov since spring 1979. Some have proposed that the Soviet-Afghan War also played an important role in the breakdown of the Soviet Union.", "On 10 December 1981, in the face of Poland's Solidarity movement, Andropov, along with Mikhail Suslov and Wojciech Jaruzelski, persuaded Brezhnev that it would be counterproductive for the Soviet Union to invade Poland by repeating Prague 1968. This effectively marked the end of the Brezhnev Doctrine. The pacification of Poland was thus left to Jaruzelski, Kiszczak and their Polish forces.", "From 1980 to 1982, while still chairman of the KGB, Andropov opposed plans to occupy Poland after the emergence of the Solidarity movement and promoted reform-minded party cadres including Mikhail Gorbachev. Andropov was the longest-serving KGB chairman and did not resign as head of the KGB until May 1982, when he was again promoted to the Secretariat to succeed Mikhail Suslov as secretary responsible for ideological affairs.", "Two days after Leonid Brezhnev's death, on 12 November 1982, Andropov was elected General Secretary of the CPSU, the first former head of the KGB to become General Secretary. His appointment was received in the West with apprehension, in view of his roles in the KGB and in Hungary. At the time his personal background was a mystery in the West, with major newspapers printing detailed profiles of him that were inconsistent and in several cases fabricated. Andropov divided responsibilities in the Politburo with his chief deputy Konstantin Chernenko. Andropov took control of organizing the work of the Politburo, supervising national defense, supervising the main issues of domestic and foreign policy and foreign trade, and making leadership assignments in the top ranks of the Party and the government. Chernenko handled espionage, KGB, the Interior Ministry, party organs, ideology, and organizational matters, as well as propaganda, culture, science, and higher education. He was also given charge of the Central Committee. It was far too much for Chernenko to handle, and the other Politburo members were not given major assignments.", "", "At home, Andropov attempted to improve the nation's economy by increasing its workforce's efficiency. He cracked down on Soviet laborers' lack of discipline by decreeing the arrest of absentee employees and penalties for tardiness. For the first time, the facts about economic stagnation and obstacles to scientific progress were made available to the public and open to criticism. Furthermore, the KGB Chairman-turned-\"Gensek\" gave select industries greater autonomy from state regulations and enabled factory managers to retain control over more of their profits. Such policies resulted in a 4% rise in industrial output and increased investment in new technologies such as robotics. Despite such reforms, Andropov refused to consider any changes that sought to dispense with the command economy introduced under Joseph Stalin. In his memoirs, Mikhail Gorbachev recalled that when Andropov was the leader, Gorbachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov, the chairman of Gosplan, asked him for access to real budget figures. \"You are asking too much,\" Andropov responded. \"The budget is off limits to you.\"", "In contrast to Brezhnev's policy of avoiding conflicts and dismissals, he began to fight violations of party, state and labour discipline, which led to significant personnel changes during an anti-corruption campaign against many of Brezhnev's cronies. During 15 months in office, Andropov dismissed 18 ministers and 37 first secretaries of obkoms, kraikoms and Central Committees of Communist Parties of Soviet Republics, and criminal cases against high level party and state officials were started. Biographers including Solovyov and Klepikova (1983) and Zhores Medvedev (1983) have discussed the complex possibilities underlying the motivations of anti-corruption campaigning in the Soviet Union during the 1970s and early 1980s: at the same time that it is true that Andropov fought corruption for moral, ethical, ascetic, and ideological reasons, it is also true that it was an effective way for party members from the police and security organizations to defeat competitors for power at the senior levels of the party. Thus Andropov himself, as well as his protégés including Eduard Shevardnadze, could advance their own power by the same efforts that also promised to be better for the country in terms of justice, economic performance, and even defense readiness (which depended on economic performance). Thus there was a certain inevitable amount of \"what's better for the country also happens to align with what's best for my own power.\" It is not possible to measure the exact balance of self-interest versus selfless altruism and patriotism in this equation. Part of the complexity is that in the Brezhnev era, much corruption was implicitly tolerated and was pervasive (although officially denied), and many a member of the police and security organizations themselves participated in it to various degrees, but only those organizations had access to the power to measure it and monitor its details. In such an environment, anti-corruption campaigning is inherently a path by which police and security people have the potential or opportunity to appear to be white-hat heroes cleaning up the malfeasance of black-hat villains and 'coincidentally' increasing their own power, whereas there may be an underlying reality of one set of gray-hat antiheroes defeating another set of gray-hat antiheroes in a morally gray power struggle. This complex dynamic is perennial; 21st-century anti-corruption campaigns are just as subject to its possibilities as were 20th-century instances.", "Andropov faced a series of foreign policy crises: the hopeless situation of the Soviet army in Afghanistan, threatened revolt in Poland, growing animosity with China, the polarization threat of war in the Middle East, and the civil strife in Ethiopia and South Africa. The most critical threat was the \"Second Cold War\" launched by American President Ronald Reagan and a specific attack on rolling back what he denounced as the \"Evil Empire\". Reagan was using American economic power, and Soviet economic weakness, to escalate massive spending on the Cold War, emphasizing high technology that Moscow lacked. The main response was raising the military budget to 70 percent of the national budget, and supplying billions of dollars worth of military aid to Syria, Iraq, Libya, South Yemen, the PLO, Cuba, and North Korea. That included tanks and armored troop carriers, hundreds of fighter planes, as well as anti-aircraft systems, artillery systems, and all sorts of high tech equipment for which the USSR was the main supplier for its allies. Andropov's main goal was to avoid an open war. In foreign policy, the conflict in Afghanistan continued even though Andropov, who now felt the invasion was a mistake, half-heartedly explored options for a negotiated withdrawal. Andropov's rule was also marked by deterioration of relations with the United States. During a much-publicized \"walk in the woods\" with Soviet dignitary Yuli Kvitsinsky, American diplomat Paul Nitze suggested a compromise for reducing nuclear missiles in Europe on both sides that was ultimately ignored by the Politburo. Kvitsinsky would later write that, despite his own efforts, the Soviet leadership was not interested in compromise, instead calculating that peace movements in the West would force the Americans to capitulate. On 8 March 1983, during Andropov's reign as General Secretary, U.S. President Ronald Reagan famously labeled the Soviet Union an \"evil empire\". The same month, on 23 March, Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative. Reagan claimed this research program into ballistic missile defence would be \"consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty\". However, Andropov was dismissive of this claim, and said that \"It is time they [Washington] stopped... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war.... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane\". In August 1983, Andropov made an announcement that the country was stopping all work on space-based weapons. One of his most notable acts during his short time as leader of the Soviet Union was in response to a letter from a 10-year-old American child from Maine named Samantha Smith, inviting her to the Soviet Union. She came, but he was too ill to meet with her, thus revealing his grave condition to the world. Meanwhile, Soviet–U.S. arms control talks on intermediate-range nuclear weapons in Europe were suspended by the Soviet Union in November 1983 and by the end of the year, the Soviets had broken off all arms control negotiations. Massive bad publicity worldwide came when Soviet fighters shot down a civilian jet liner, Korean Air Flight KAL-007, which carried 269 passengers and crew. It had strayed over the Soviet Union on 1 September 1983 on its scheduled route from Anchorage, Alaska, US to Seoul, South Korea. Andropov kept secret the fact that the Soviet Union held in its possession the black box from KAL 007 which proved the pilot had made a typographical error when entering data in the automatic pilot. Soviet air defence system was unprepared to deal with a civilian airliner, and the shooting down was a matter of following orders without question. Instead of admitting an accident, Soviet media proclaimed a brave decision to meet a Western provocation. Together with the low credibility created by the poor explanation in 1986 of the meltdown of the nuclear reactor at Chernobyl, the episode demonstrated an inability to deal with public relations crises; the propaganda system was only useful for individuals and states that were aligned with the Soviet Union. Both crises were escalated by technological and organizational failures, compounded by human error.", "In February 1983, Andropov suffered total kidney failure. In August 1983, he entered the Central Clinical Hospital in western Moscow on a permanent basis, where he would spend the remainder of his life. In late January 1984, Andropov's health deteriorated sharply and due to growing toxicity in his blood, he had periods of falling consciousness. He died on 9 February 1984 at 16:50 in his hospital room at age 69. Few of the top Soviet leaders, not even all the Politburo members, learned of his death on that day. According to the Soviet post mortem medical report, Andropov suffered from several medical conditions: interstitial nephritis, nephrosclerosis, residual hypertension and diabetes, which were worsened by chronic kidney deficiency. A four-day period of nationwide mourning was announced. Andropov was succeeded by Konstantin Chernenko, who seemed to mirror Andropov's tenure. Chernenko had already been afflicted with severe health problems when he ascended to the USSR's top spot, and served an even shorter time in office (13 months). Like Andropov, Chernenko spent much of his time hospitalized, and also died in office, in March 1985.", "Andropov lived at 26 Kutuzovsky Prospekt, the same building in which Suslov and Brezhnev also lived. He was first married to Nina Ivanovna; she was born not far from the local farm in which Andropov was born. In 1983, she was diagnosed with cancer and underwent a successful operation. He met his second wife, Tatyana Filipovna, during World War II on the Karelian Front when she was Komsomol secretary. She had suffered a nervous breakdown during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Andropov's chief guard informed Tatyana about the death of her husband. She was too grief-stricken to join in the procession and during the funeral her relatives helped her to walk. Before the lid could be closed on Andropov's coffin, she bent to kiss him. She touched his hair and then kissed him again. In 1985, a respectful 75-minute film was broadcast in which Tatyana (not even seen in public until Andropov's funeral) reads love poems written by her husband. Tatyana became ill and died in November 1991.", "Andropov's legacy remains the subject of much debate in Russia and elsewhere, both among scholars and in the popular media. He remains the focus of television documentaries and popular non-fiction, particularly around important anniversaries. As KGB head, Andropov was ruthless against dissent, and author David Remnick, who covered the Soviet Union for the \"Washington Post\" in the 1980s, called Andropov \"profoundly corrupt, a beast\". Alexander Yakovlev, later an advisor to Mikhail Gorbachev and the ideologist of perestroika, said: \"In a way I always thought Andropov was the most dangerous of all of them, simply because he was smarter than the rest.\" However, it was Andropov himself who recalled Yakovlev back to high office in Moscow in 1983 after a ten-year exile as ambassador to Canada after attacking Russian chauvinism. Yakovlev was also a close colleague of Andropov associate KGB General Yevgeny Primakov, later Prime Minister of Russia. Andropov began to follow a trend of replacing elderly officials with considerably younger replacements. According to his former subordinate Securitate general Ion Mihai Pacepa, In the West, if Andropov is remembered at all, it is for his brutal suppression of political dissidence at home and for his role in planning the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. By contrast, the leaders of the former Warsaw Pact intelligence community, when I was one of them, looked up to Andropov as the man who substituted the KGB for the Communist party in governing the Soviet Union, and who was the godfather of Russia's new era of deception operations aimed at improving the badly damaged image of Soviet rulers in the West. Despite Andropov's hard-line stance in Hungary and the numerous banishments and intrigues for which he was responsible during his long tenure as head of the KGB, he has become widely regarded by many commentators as a reformer, especially in comparison with the stagnation and corruption during the later years of his predecessor, Leonid Brezhnev. Andropov, \"a throwback to a tradition of Leninist asceticism\", was appalled by the corruption during Brezhnev's regime, and ordered investigations and arrests of the most flagrant abusers. The investigations were so frightening that several members of Brezhnev's circle \"shot, gassed or otherwise did away with themselves.\" He was certainly generally regarded as inclined to more gradual and constructive reform than was Gorbachev; most of the speculation centres around whether Andropov would have reformed the USSR in a manner which did not result in its eventual dissolution. The Western media favored Andropov because of his supposed passion for Western music and scotch. However, these were unproven rumours. The short time he spent as leader, much of it in a state of extreme ill health, leaves debaters few concrete indications as to the nature of any hypothetical extended rule. The 2002 Tom Clancy novel \"Red Rabbit\" focuses heavily on Andropov during his tenure of KGB chief, when his health is slightly better. It mirrors his secrecy in that British and American intelligence know little about him, not even able to confirm he was a married man. The novel also depicts Andropov as being a fan of Marlboros and starka vodka, almost never available to ordinary Soviet citizens.", "In a message read out at the opening of a new exhibition dedicated to Andropov, Vladimir Putin called him \"a man of talent with great abilities.\" Putin has praised Andropov's \"honesty and uprightness.\" According to Russian historian Nikita Petrov, \"He was a typical Soviet jailer who violated human rights. Andropov headed the organisation which persecuted the most remarkable people of our country.\" From Petrov's point, it was a shame for the country that the persecutor of intelligentsia, the persecutor of freedom of thought, a man of whom as an oppressor of freedom legends were composed, became leader of the country. According to Roy Medvedev, the year that Andropov spent in power was memorable for increasing repression against dissidents. During most of his KGB career, Andropov crushed dissident movements, isolated people in psychiatric hospitals, sent them to prison and deported them from the Soviet Union. According to political scientist Georgy Arbatov, Andropov bears responsibility for many injustices in the 1970s and early 1980s: for deportations, for political arrests, for persecuting dissidents, for the abuse of psychiatry, for notorious cases such as the persecution of academician Andrei Sakharov. According to Dmitri Volkogonov and Harold Shukman, it was Andropov who approved the numerous trials of human rights activists such as Andrei Amalrik, Vladimir Bukovsky, Vyacheslav Chornovil, Zviad Gamsakhurdia, Alexander Ginzburg, Natalya Gorbanevskaya, Pyotr Grigorenko, Anatoly Shcharansky, and others. According to Soviet dissident Yuri Glazov, Andropov was a paradigmatic \"Homo Sovieticus\" and personally conducted disinformation campaigns against his main opponents and dissidents Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn. According to Natalya Gorbanevskaya, after Andropov's coming to power the dissident movement went into decline – not of its own but because it was strangled. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, repression was most severe, many people were picked up for a second time, and sentenced to longer terms. The camp regime was not strict but specific, and when Andropov became General Secretary, he introduced an Article under which violations of camp regime resulted in a punishment cell and an additional term up to three years. A person for his two or three remarks could be sent not home but to another camp with [non-political] criminals. And in those years there were a lot of deaths in camps not from hunger-strikes, but just from disease and lack of medical care. Various people who closely knew Andropov, including Vladimir Medvedev,, Vladimir Kryuchkov and Roy Medvedev, remembered him for his politeness, calmness, unselfishness, patience, intelligence and exceptionally sharp memory. According to Chuchyalin, while working at Kremlin Andropov would read ca. 600 pages per day and remember everything he had read. Andropov read English literature and could communicate in Finnish, English and German." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Doctrine.", "Quran.", "Hadith.", "Amount.", "Failure to pay.", "Distribution.", "Role in society.", "Historical practice.", "Contemporary practice.", "Collection.", "Distribution.", "Role in society.", "Related terms.", "\"Zakat al-Fitr\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Zakat literally means \"that which purifies\". Zakat is considered a way to purify one's income and wealth from sometimes worldly, impure ways of acquisition. According to Sachiko Murata and William Chittick, \"Just as ablutions purify the body and salat purifies the soul (in Islam), so zakat purifies possessions and makes them pleasing to God.\"", "", "The Quran discusses charity in many verses, some of which relate to zakat. The word zakat, with the meaning used in Islam now, is found, for example, in suras: 7:156, 9:60, 19:31, 19:55, 21:73, 23:4, 27:3, 30:39, 31:4 and 41:7. Zakat is found in the early Medinan suras and described as obligatory for Muslims. It is given for the sake of salvation. Muslims believe those who give zakat can expect reward from God in the afterlife, while neglecting to give zakat can result in damnation. Zakat is considered part of the covenant between God and a Muslim. Verse 2.177 (Picktall translation) sums up the Quranic view of charity and alms giving (Another name for Zakat is the \"Poor Due\"): According to Yusuf al-Qaradawi, verse 9.5 of the Quran makes zakat one of three prerequisites for pagans to become Muslims: \"but if they repent, establish prayers, and practice zakat they are your brethren in faith\". The Quran also lists who should receive the benefits of zakat, discussed in more detail below.", "Each of the most trusted hadith collections in Islam have a book dedicated to zakat. Sahih Bukhari's Book 24, Sahih Muslim's Book 5, and Sunan Abu-Dawud's Book 9 discuss various aspects of zakat, including who must pay, how much, when and what. The 2.5% rate is also mentioned in the hadiths. The hadiths admonish those who do not give the zakat. According to the hadith, refusal to pay or mockery of those who pay zakat is a sign of hypocrisy, and God will not accept the prayers of such people. The sunna also describes God's punishment for those who refuse or fail to pay zakat. On the day of Judgment, those who did not give the zakat will be held accountable and punished. The hadith contain advice on the state-authorized collection of the zakat. The collectors are required not to take more than what is due, and those who are paying the zakat are asked not to evade payment. The hadith also warn of punishment for those who take zakat when they are not eligible to receive it (see Distribution below).", "The amount of zakat to be paid by an individual depends on the amount of money and the type of assets the individual possesses. The Quran does not provide specific guidelines on which types of wealth are taxable under the zakat, nor does it specify percentages to be given. But the customary practice is that the amount of zakat paid on capital assets (e.g. money) is 2.5% (1/40). Zakat is additionally payable on agricultural goods, precious metals, minerals, and livestock at a rate varying between 2.5% and 20% (1/5), depending on the type of goods. Zakat is usually payable on assets continuously owned over one lunar year that are in excess of the \"nisab\", a minimum monetary value. However, Islamic scholars have disagreed on this issue. For example, Abu Hanifa did not regard the nisab limit to be a pre-requisite for zakat, in the case of land crops, fruits and minerals. Other differences between Islamic scholars on zakat and nisab are acknowledged as follows by Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Unlike prayers, we observe that even the ratio, the exemption, the kinds of wealth that are zakatable are subject to differences among scholars. Such differences have serious implications for Muslims at large when it comes to their application of the Islamic obligation of zakat. For example, some scholars consider the wealth of children and insane individuals zakatable, others don't. Some scholars consider all agricultural products zakatable, others restrict zakat to specific kinds only. Some consider debts zakatable, others don't. Similar differences exist for business assets and women's jewelry. Some require certain minimum (nisab) for zakatability, some don't. etc. The same kind of differences also exist about the disbursement of zakat.<br> – Shiekh Mahmud Shaltut", "The consequence of failure to pay zakat has been a subject of extensive legal debate in traditional Islamic jurisprudence, particularly when a Muslim is willing to pay zakat but refuses to pay it to a certain group or the state. According to classical jurists, if the collector is unjust in the collection of zakat but just in its distribution, the concealment of property from him is allowed. If, on the other hand, the collector is just in the collection but unjust in the distribution, the concealment of property from him is an obligation (\"wajib\"). Furthermore, if the zakat is concealed from a just collector because the property owner wanted to pay his zakat to the poor himself, they held that he should not be punished for it. If collection of zakat by force was not possible, use of military force to extract it was seen as justified, as was done by Abu Bakr during the Ridda Wars, on the argument that refusing to submit to just orders is a form of treason. However, Abu Hanifa, the founder of the Hanafi school, disapproved of fighting when the property owners undertake to distribute the zakat to the poor themselves. Some classical jurists held the view that any Muslim who consciously refuses to pay zakat is an apostate, since the failure to believe that it is a religious duty (\"fard\") is a form of unbelief (\"kufr\"), and should be killed. However, prevailing opinion among classical jurists prescribed sanctions such as fines, imprisonment or corporal punishment. Some classical and contemporary scholars such as Ishaq Ibn Rahwayh and Yusuf al-Qaradawi have stated that the person who fails to pay Zakat should have the payment taken from them, along with half of his wealth. Additionally, those who failed to pay the zakat would face God's punishment in the afterlife on the day of Judgment. In modern states where zakat payment is compulsory, failure to pay is regulated by state law similarly to tax evasion.", "According to the Quran's Surah Al-Tawba, there are eight categories of people (\"asnaf\") who qualify to benefit from zakat funds. Islamic scholars have traditionally interpreted this verse as identifying the following eight categories of Muslim causes to be the proper recipients of zakat: Zakat should not be given to one's own parents, grandparents, children, grandchildren, spouses or the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. Neither the Quran nor the Hadiths specify the relative division of zakat into the above eight categories. According to the Reliance of the Traveller, the Shafi'i school requires zakat is to be distributed equally among the eight categories of recipients, while the Hanafi school permits zakat to be distributed to all the categories, some of them, or just one of them. Classical schools of Islamic law, including Shafi'i, are unanimous that collectors of zakat are to be paid first, with the balance to be distributed equally amongst the remaining seven categories of recipients, even in cases where one group's need is more demanding. Muslim scholars disagree whether zakat recipients can include non-Muslims. Islamic scholarship, historically, has taught that only Muslims can be recipients of zakat. In recent times, some state that zakat may be paid to non-Muslims after the needs of Muslims have been met, finding nothing in the Quran or sunna to indicate that zakat should be paid to Muslims only. Additionally, the zakat funds may be spent on the administration of a centralized zakat collection system. Representatives of the Salafi movement include propagation of Islam and any struggle in righteous cause among permissible ways of spending, while others argue that zakat funds should be spent on social welfare and economic development projects, or science and technology education. Some hold spending them for defense to be permissible if a Muslim country is under attack. Also, it is forbidden to disburse zakat funds into investments instead of being given to one of the above eight categories of recipients.", "The zakat is considered by Muslims to be an act of piety through which one expresses concern for the well-being of fellow Muslims, as well as preserving social harmony between the wealthy and the poor. Zakat promotes a more equitable redistribution of wealth and fosters a sense of solidarity amongst members of the \"Ummah\".", "Zakat, an Islamic practice initiated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad, was first collected on the first day of Muharram. It has played an important role throughout its history. Schact suggests that the idea of zakat may have entered Islam from Judaism, with roots in the Hebrew and Aramaic word \"zakut\". However, some Islamic scholars disagree that the Qur'anic verses on zakat (or zakah) have roots in Judaism. The caliph Abu Bakr, believed by Sunni Muslims to be Muhammad's successor, was the first to institute a statutory zakat system. Abu Bakr established the principle that the zakat must be paid to the legitimate representative of the Prophet's authority (i.e. himself). Other Muslims disagreed and refused to pay zakat to Abu Bakr, leading to accusations of apostasy and, ultimately, the Ridda wars. The second and third caliphs, Umar bin Al-Khattab and Usman ibn Affan, continued Abu Bakr's codification of the zakat. Uthman also modified the zakat collection protocol by decreeing that only \"apparent\" wealth was taxable, which had the effect of limiting zakat to mostly being paid on agricultural land and produce. During the reign of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the issue of zakat was tied to legitimacy of his government. After Ali, his supporters refused to pay zakat to Muawiyah I, as they did not recognize his legitimacy. The practice of Islamic state-administered zakat was short-lived in Medina. During the reign of Umar bin Abdul Aziz (717–720 A.D.), it is reported that no one in Medina needed the zakat. After him, zakat came more to be considered as an individual responsibility. This view changed over Islamic history. Sunni Muslims and rulers, for example, considered collection and disbursement of zakat as one of the functions of an Islamic state; this view has continued in modern Islamic countries. Zakat is one of the five pillars of Islam, and in various Islamic polities of the past was expected to be paid by all practising Muslims who have the financial means (\"nisab\"). In addition to their zakat obligations, Muslims were encouraged to make voluntary contributions (\"sadaqat\"). The zakat was not collected from non-Muslims, although they were required to pay the \"jizyah\" tax. Depending on the region, the dominant portion of zakat went typically to \"Amil\" (the zakat collectors) or Sabīlillāh (those fighting for religious cause, the caretaker of local mosque, or those working in the cause of God such as proselytizing non-Muslims to convert to Islam).", "According to the researcher Russell Powell in 2010, zakat was mandatory by state law in Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Yemen. There were government-run voluntary zakat contribution programs in Bahrain, Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Maldives and the United Arab Emirates. In a 2019 study conducted by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding that examined philanthropy for American Muslims in comparison to other faith and non-faith groups, it was found that for American Muslims, Zakat was an important driver of charitable giving. This results in American Muslims being the most likely faith group studied to be motivated to donate based on a believed religious obligation (zakat), and a “feeling that those with more should help those with less”, referencing again the concept and religious imperative behind Zakat.", "Today, in most Muslim countries, zakat is at the discretion of Muslims over how and whether to pay, typically enforced by fear of God, peer pressure and an individual's personal feelings. Among the Sunni Muslims, The Zakat committees are established, linked to a religious cause or local mosque, which collect zakat. Among the Shia Muslims, deputies on behalf of Imams collect the zakat. In six of the 47 Muslim-majority countries—Libya, Malaysia, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan and Yemen—zakat is obligatory and collected by the state. In Jordan, Bahrain, Kuwait, Lebanon, and Bangladesh, the zakat is regulated by the state, but contributions are voluntary. The states where zakat is compulsory differ in their definition of the base for zakat computation. Zakat is generally levied on livestock (except in Pakistan) and agricultural produce, although the types of taxable livestock and produce differ from country to country. Zakat is imposed on cash and precious metals in four countries with different methods of assessment. Income is subject to zakat in Saudi Arabia and Malaysia, while only Sudan imposes zakat on \"wealth that yields income\". In Pakistan, property is exempt from the zakat calculation basis, and the compulsory zakat is primarily collected from the agriculture sector. Under compulsory systems of zakat tax collection, such as Malaysia and Pakistan, evasion is very common and the alms tax is regressive. A considerable number of Muslims accept their duty to pay zakat, but deny that the state has a right to levy it, and they may pay zakat voluntarily while evading official collection. In discretion-based systems of collection, studies suggest zakat is collected from and paid only by a fraction of Muslim population who can pay. In the United Kingdom, which has a Muslim minority, more than three out of ten Muslims gave to charity (Zakat being described as \"the Muslim practice of charitable donations\"), according to a 2013 poll of 4000 people. According to the self-reported poll, British Muslims, on average, gave US$567 to charity in 2013, compared to $412 for Jews, $308 for Protestants, $272 for Catholics and $177 for atheists.", "The primary sources of sharia also do not specify to whom the zakat should be paid to zakat collectors claiming to represent one class of zakat beneficiary (for example, poor), collectors who were representing religious bodies, or collectors representing the Islamic state. This has caused significant conflicts and allegations of zakat abuse within the Islamic community, both historically and in modern times. \"Fi Sabillillah\" is the most prominent \"asnaf\" in Southeast Asian Muslim societies, where it broadly construed to include funding missionary work, Quranic schools and anything else that serves the Islamic community (\"ummah\") in general.", "In 2012, Islamic financial analysts estimated annual zakat spending exceeded US$200 billion per year, which they estimated at 15 times global humanitarian aid contributions. Islamic scholars and development workers state that much of this zakat practice is mismanaged, wasted or ineffective. About a quarter of the Muslim world continues to live on $1.25 a day or less, according to the 2012 report. A 1999 study of Sudan and Pakistan, where zakat is mandated by the state, estimated that zakat proceeds ranged between 0.3 and 0.5 percent of GDP, while a more recent report put zakat proceeds in Malaysia at 0.1% of GDP. These numbers are far below what was expected when the governments of these countries tried to Islamize their economies, and the collected amount is too small to have a sizeable macroeconomic effect. In a 2014 study, Nasim Shirazi states widespread poverty persists in Islamic world despite zakat collections every year. Over 70% of the Muslim population in most Muslim countries is impoverished and lives on less than US$2 per day. In over 10 Muslim-majority countries, over 50% of the population lived on less than $1.25 per day income, states Shiraz. Zakat has so far failed to relieve large scale absolute poverty among Muslims in most Muslim countries.", "Zakat is required of Muslims only. For non-Muslims living in an Islamic state, sharia was historically seen as mandating \"jizya\" (poll tax). Other forms of taxation on Muslims or non-Muslims, that have been used in Islamic history, include \"kharaj\" (land tax), \"khums\" (tax on booty and loot seized from non-Muslims, sudden wealth), \"ushur\" (tax at state border, sea port, and each city border on goods movement, customs), \"kari\" (house tax) and \"chari\" (sometimes called \"maara\", pasture tax). There are differences in the interpretation and scope of zakat and other related taxes in various sects of Islam. For example, \"khums\" is interpreted differently by Sunnis and Shi'ites, with Shia expected to pay one fifth of their excess income after expenses as \"khums\", and Sunni don't. At least a tenth part of zakat and \"khums\" every year, among Shi'ites, after its collection by Imam and his religious deputies under its doctrine of \"niyaba\", goes as income for its hierarchical system of Shia clergy. Among Ismaili sub-sect of Shias, the mandatory taxes which includes zakat, is called \"dasond\", and 20% of the collected amount is set aside as income for the Imams. Some branches of Shia Islam treat the right to lead as Imam and right to receive 20% of collected zakat and other alms as a hereditary right of its clergy. \"Sadaqah\" is another related term for charity, usually construed as a discretionary counterpart to zakat.", "\"Zakat al-Fitr\" or \"Sadaqat al-Fitr\" is another, smaller charitable obligation, mandatory for all Muslims — male or female, minor or adult as long as he/she has the means to do so — that is traditionally paid at the end of the fasting in the Islamic holy month of Ramadan. The collected amount is used to pay the zakat collectors and to the poor Muslims so that they may be provided with a means to celebrate 'Eid al-Fitr (the festival of breaking the fast) following Ramadan, along with the rest of the Muslims. Zakat al-Fitr is a fixed amount assessed per person, while Zakat al mal is based on personal income and property. According to one source, the Hidaya Foundation, the suggested Zakat al Fitr donation is based on the price of 1 Saa (approx. 3 kg) of rice or wheat at local costs, (as of 2015, approximately $7.00 in the U.S.)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Prey.", "Life cycle.", "Sex ratio anomalies.", "Symbiosis.", "Parasitism.", "As biological control agent." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The two-spotted ladybird was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th-century work \"Systema Naturae\"; its original name was \"Coccinella bipunctata\". Its specific name is from the Latin \"bi-\" \"two\", and \"punctata\" \"spotted\". The name can also be written as \"Adalia 2-punctata\" depending on author preference.", "\"Adalia bipunctata\" is a small Coccinellid that can feature any one of a large selection of red and black forms. Some forms are similar to Mulsantina picta, but the two white spots on the head of \"Adalia\" (in contrast with a large white region or more than two spots, readily separates it. Additionally \"Adalia\" is entirely black on the ventral surface with black legs, which helps rule out any other options. The two-spotted ladybird is highly variable in many parts of its native range. The most familiar form, form \"typica\" with two black spots on a red base, is common throughout. A melanistic form that is black with 4 or 6 red spots is uncommon, but not rare, while the truly melanistic form \"purpurea\" is exceedingly rare. In North America the species shows the most variation, with several forms that do not occur elsewhere including a spotless form, a four-banded form, a 9-12 spotted form, and a \"cross-hatched\" form. In addition, there are intermediate forms such as form \"annulata\", but they occur rarely.", "Two-spotted lady beetles feed on aphids and other small insects. However, the sterile soldiers within colonies of aphids such as the gall-forming Pemphigus spyrothecae, can attempt to protect the aphid colony by fighting this species.", "The two-spotted lady beetle's life cycle starts with eggs that are usually laid in clutches. The larva hatches from the egg by biting a hole in it. The larva looks very different from an adult: it has an elongated, grey, soft body with six legs but no wings. They are cannibalistic. A larva goes through four larval stages: by eating it grows and at some point it sheds its old skin and appears in a new one in which it can grow more. The last larval stage is approximately the size of an adult beetle. Once it has eaten enough, the larva attaches itself to a substrate and moults into a pupa. Inside the pupa, the adult develops. Finally the adult ecloses from the pupa.", "", "In some populations, the majority of the beetles are female. In these populations, 80-90% of the offspring of a female are female. The cause of this anomaly is the presence of symbiotic bacteria living within the gametic cells of the female lady beetles. The bacterium is too large to live in the male gametes (sperm), so the bacterium can be transmitted to the next generation only through female gametes. When it ends up in a male, it will die when the male dies. Therefore, it kills most of the male embryos in the newly laid eggs. These dead embryos then serve as food for their sisters when they emerge from their eggs. This trait is associated with a variety of different bacteria (\"Wolbachia\", \"Rickettsia\", \"Spiroplasma\"), which are present in between 0 and 20% of females, depending on locality.", "The two spot ladybird also carries a sexually transmitted infection in Central and Eastern Europe. The infection is an ectoparasitic mite Coccipolipus hippodamiae that transfers between male and female (and female and male) during copulation. The infection sterilizes female two spot ladybirds, and at some points of the year, up to 90% of adult 2-spots become infected.", "\"A. bipunctata\" is used as a localised biological control agent against aphids in, for example, greenhouses.. The Two-spotted lady beetle was introduced into Australia specifically as a biological control agent." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Cover Art Archive.", "Fingerprinting.", "Proprietary services.", "AcoustID and Chromaprint.", "Licensing.", "Client software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "MusicBrainz allows contributors to upload cover art images of releases to the database; these images are hosted by Cover Art Archive (CAA), a joint project between Internet Archive and MusicBrainz started in 2012. Internet Archive provides the bandwidth, storage and legal protection for hosting the images, while MusicBrainz stores metadata and provides public access through the web and via an API for third parties to use. As with other contributions, the MusicBrainz community is in charge of maintaining and reviewing the data. Cover art is also provided for items on sale at Amazon.com and some other online resources, but CAA is now preferred because it gives the community more control and flexibility for managing the images.", "Besides collecting metadata about music, MusicBrainz also allows looking up recordings by their acoustic fingerprint. A separate application, such as MusicBrainz Picard, must be used for this.", "In 2000, MusicBrainz started using Relatable's patented TRM (a recursive acronym for TRM Recognizes Music) for acoustic fingerprint matching. This feature attracted many users and allowed the database to grow quickly. However, by 2005 TRM was showing scalability issues as the number of tracks in the database had reached into the millions. This issue was resolved in May 2006 when MusicBrainz partnered with MusicIP (now AmpliFIND), replacing TRM with MusicDNS. TRMs were phased out and replaced by MusicDNS in November 2008. In October 2009 MusicIP was acquired by AmpliFIND. Some time after the acquisition, the MusicDNS service began having intermittent problems.", "Since the future of the free identification service was uncertain, a replacement for it was sought. The Chromaprint acoustic fingerprinting algorithm, the basis for AcoustID identification service, was started in February 2010 by a long-time MusicBrainz contributor Lukáš Lalinský. While AcoustID and Chromaprint are not officially MusicBrainz projects, they are closely tied with each other and both are open source. Chromaprint works by analyzing the first two minutes of a track, detecting the strength in each of 12 pitch classes, storing these 8 times per second. Additional post-processing is then applied to compress this fingerprint while retaining patterns. The AcoustID search server then searches from the database of fingerprints by similarity and returns the AcoustID identifier along with MusicBrainz recording identifiers if known.", "Since 2003, MusicBrainz's core data (artists, recordings, releases, and so on) are in the public domain, and additional content, including moderation data (essentially every original content contributed by users and its elaborations), is placed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-NC-SA-2.0 license. The relational database management system is PostgreSQL. The server software is covered by the GNU General Public License. The MusicBrainz client software library, \"libmusicbrainz\", is licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License, which allows use of the code by proprietary software products. In December 2004, the MusicBrainz project was turned over to the MetaBrainz Foundation, a non-profit group, by its creator Robert Kaye. On 20 January 2006, the first commercial venture to use MusicBrainz data was the Barcelona, Spain-based Linkara in their Linkara Música service. On 28 June 2007, BBC announced that it has licensed MusicBrainz's live data feed to augment their music Web pages. The BBC online music editors will also join the MusicBrainz community to contribute their knowledge to the database. On 28 July 2008, the beta of the new BBC Music site was launched, which publishes a page for each MusicBrainz artist.", "Freedb clients could also access MusicBrainz data through the freedb protocol by using the MusicBrainz to FreeDB gateway service, mb2freedb. The gateway was shutdown on March 18, 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Differentiation from other transport systems.", "Similarities.", "Differences.", "Maglev.", "History.", "Early years.", "1900s–1950s.", "1950s–1980s.", "Perceptions of monorail as public transport.", "Recent history.", "Types and technical aspects.", "Power.", "Magnetic levitation.", "Switching.", "Grades.", "Monorail systems.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Monorails have found applications in airport transfer and medium capacity metros. To differentiate monorails from other transport modes, the Monorail Society defines a monorail as a \"single rail serving as a track for passenger or freight vehicles. In most cases rail is elevated, but monorails can also run at grade, below grade or in subway tunnels. Vehicles either are suspended from or straddle a narrow guide way. Monorail vehicles are wider than the guide way that supports them.”", "Monorails are often elevated, sometimes leading to confusion with other elevated systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, Vancouver SkyTrain and the AirTrain JFK, which run on two rails. Monorail vehicles often appear similar to light rail vehicles, and can be manned or unmanned. They can be individual rigid vehicles, articulated single units, or multiple units coupled into trains. Like other advanced rapid transit systems, monorails can be driven by linear induction motors; like conventional railways, vehicle bodies can be connected to the beam via bogies, allowing curves to be negotiated.", "Unlike some trams and light rail systems, modern monorails are always separated from other traffic and pedestrians due to the geometry of the rail. They are both guided and supported via interaction with the same single beam, in contrast to other guided systems like rubber-tyred metros, the Sapporo Municipal Subway; or guided buses or trams, such as Translohr. Monorails do not use pantographs. From the passenger's perspective, monorails can have some advantages over trains, buses, and automobiles. As with other grade-separated transit systems, monorails avoid red lights, intersection turns, and traffic jams. Surface-level trains, buses, automobiles, and pedestrians can collide each one with the other, while vehicles on dedicated, grade-separated rights-of-way such as monorails can collide only with other vehicles on the same system, with much fewer opportunities for collision. As with other elevated transit systems, monorail passengers enjoy sunlight and views and by watching for familiar landmarks, they can know better when to get off to reach their destinations. Monorails can be quieter than diesel buses and trains. They obtain electricity from the track structure, eliminating costly and, to many people, unsightly overhead power lines and poles. Compared to the elevated train systems of New York, Chicago and elsewhere, a monorail beamway casts a narrow shadow. (\"See 'Chicago \"L\"' \")", "Under the Monorail Society's beam-width criterion, some, but not all, maglev systems are considered monorails, such as the Transrapid and Linimo. Maglevs differ from other monorails in that they do not (normally) physically contact the beam.", "", "The first monorail prototype was made in Russia in 1820 by Ivan Elmanov. Attempts at creating monorail alternatives to conventional railways have been made since the early part of the 19th century. The Centennial Monorail was featured at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876. Around 1879 a \"one-rail\" system was proposed independently by Haddon and by Stringfellow, which used an inverted \"V\" rail (and thus shaped like \"Λ\" in cross-section). It was intended for military use, but was also seen to have civilian use as a \"cheap railway.\" The Boynton Bicycle Railroad was a steam-powered monorail in Brooklyn on Long Island, New York. It ran on a single load-bearing rail at ground level, but with a wooden overhead stabilising rail engaged by a pair of horizontally opposed wheels. The railway operated for only two years beginning in 1890. The Hotchkiss Bicycle Railroad was a monorail on which a matching pedal bicycle could be ridden. The first example was built between Smithville and Mount Holly, New Jersey, in 1892. It closed in 1897. Other examples were built in Norfolk from 1895 to 1909, Great Yarmouth, and Blackpool, UK from 1896.", "Early designs used a double-flanged single metal rail alternative to the double rail of conventional railways, both guiding and supporting the monorail car. A surviving suspended version is the oldest still in service system: the Wuppertal monorail in Germany. Also in the early 1900s, Gyro monorails with cars gyroscopically balanced on top of a single rail were tested, but never developed beyond the prototype stage. The Ewing System, used in the Patiala State Monorail Trainways in Punjab, India, relies on a hybrid model with a load-bearing single rail and an external wheel for balance. One of the first systems put into practical use was that of French engineer Charles Lartigue, who built a line between Ballybunion and Listowel in Ireland, opened in 1888 and closed in 1924 (due to damage from Ireland's Civil War). It uses a load-bearing single rail and two lower, external rails for balance, the three carried on triangular supports. Possibly the first monorail locomotive was a 0-3-0 steam locomotive. A highspeed monorail using the Lartigue system was proposed in 1901 between Liverpool and Manchester. In 1910, the Brennan gyroscopic monorail was considered for use to a coal mine in Alaska. In June 1920, the French Patent Office published FR 503782, by Henri Coanda, on a 'Transporteur Aérien' -Air Carrier. In the northern Mojave desert, the Epsom Salts Monorail was built in 1924. It ran for 28 miles from a connection on the Trona Railway, eastward to harvest epsomite deposits in the Owlshead Mountains. This non-passenger, Lartigue type monorail achieved gradients of up to ten percent. It only operated until June 1926, when the mineral deposits become uneconomic, and was dismantled for scrap in the late 1930s. The first half of the 20th century saw many further proposed designs that either never left the drawing board or remained short-lived prototypes. One of the first monorails planned in the United States was in New York City in the early 1930s, scrubbed for an elevated train system.", "In the latter half of the 20th century, monorails had settled on using larger beam- or girder-based track, with vehicles supported by one set of wheels and guided by another. In the 1950s, a 40% scale prototype of a system designed for speed of on straight stretches and on curves was built in Germany. There were designs with vehicles supported, suspended or cantilevered from the beams. In the 1950s the ALWEG straddle design emerged, followed by an updated suspended type, the SAFEGE system. Versions of ALWEG's technology are used by the two largest monorail manufacturers, Hitachi Monorail and Bombardier. In 1956, the first monorail to operate in the US began test operations in Houston, Texas. Disneyland in Anaheim, California, opened the United States' first daily operating monorail system in 1959. Later during this period, additional monorails were installed at Walt Disney World in Florida, Seattle, and in Japan. Monorails were promoted as futuristic technology with exhibition installations and amusement park purchases, as seen by the legacy systems in use today. However, monorails gained little foothold compared to conventional transport systems. In March 1972, Alejandro Goicoechea-Omar had patent DE1755198 published, on a 'Vertebrate Train', build as experimental track in Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain. Niche private enterprise uses for monorails emerged, with the emergence of air travel and shopping malls, with shuttle-type systems being built.", "From 1950 to 1980, the monorail concept may have suffered, as with all public transport systems, from competition with the automobile. At the time, the was riding high and people were buying automobiles in large numbers due to suburbanization and the Interstate Highway System. Monorails in particular may have suffered from the reluctance of public transit authorities to invest in the perceived high cost of un-proven technology when faced with cheaper mature alternatives. There were also many competing monorail technologies, splitting their case further. One notable example of a public monorail is the AMF Monorail that was used as transportation around the 1964-1965 World's Fair. This high-cost perception was challenged most notably in 1963 when the ALWEG consortium proposed to finance the construction of a major system in Los Angeles County, California in return for the right of operation. This was turned down by the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors under pressure from Standard Oil of California and General Motors (which were strong advocates for automobile dependency), and the later subway system faced criticism by famed author Ray Bradbury as it had yet to reach the scale of the proposed monorail. Several monorails initially conceived as transport systems survive on revenues generated from tourism, benefiting from the unique views offered from the largely elevated installations.", "From the 1980s, most monorail mass transit systems are in Japan, with a few exceptions. Tokyo Monorail, today one of the world's busiest, averages 127,000 passengers per day and has served over 1.5 billion passengers since 1964. Monorails have seen continuing use in niche shuttle markets and amusement parks. Modern mass transit monorail systems use developments of the ALWEG beam and tire approach, with only two suspended types in large use. Monorail configurations have also been adopted by maglev trains. Since the 2000s, with the rise of traffic congestion and urbanization, there has been a resurgence of interest in the technology for public transport. With a number of cities such as Malta and Istanbul today investigating monorails as a possible mass transit solution. In 2004, Chongqing Rail Transit in China has adopted a unique ALWEG-based design with rolling stock that is much wider than most monorails, with capacity comparable to heavy rail. This is because Chongqing is criss-crossed by numerous hills, mountains and rivers, therefore tunneling is not feasible except in some cases (for example, lines 1 and 6) due to the extreme depth involved. Today it is the largest and busiest monorail system in the world. São Paulo, Brazil is building a Bombardier Innovia Monorail system as part of its public transportation network. The 14.9 mile guideway will have 17 stations, 54 monorail trains and a passenger capacity of 40,000 commuters per hour in each direction. Another city installing a Bombardier Innovia Monorail system in an urban centre is Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, for its new King Abdullah Financial District. India has proposed monorails in several cities for mass rapid transit; Mumbai Monorail is the first one in operation. China, already home to the world's largest and busiest monorail system has a number of mass transit monorails under construction in several of cities. A Bombardier Innovia Monorail-based system is under construction in Wuhu and several \"Cloudrail\" systems developed by BYD under construction a number of cities such as Guang'an, Liuzhou Bengbu and Guilin.", "Modern monorails depend on a large solid beam as the vehicles' running surface. There are a number of competing designs divided into two broad classes, \"straddle-beam\" and \"suspended\" monorails. The most common type is the straddle-beam, in which the train straddles a steel or reinforced concrete beam wide. A rubber-tired carriage contacts the beam on the top and both sides for traction and to stabilize the vehicle. The style was popularized by the German company ALWEG. There is also a historical type of \"suspension monorail\" developed by German inventors Nicolaus Otto and Eugen Langen in the 1880s. It was built in the twin cities of Barmen and Elberfeld in Wuppertal, Germany, opened in 1901, and is still in operation. The Chiba Urban Monorail is the world's largest suspended network.", "Almost all modern monorails are powered by electric motors fed by dual third rails, contact wires or electrified channels attached to or enclosed in their guidance beams, but diesel-powered monorail systems also exist. Historically some systems, such as the Lartigue Monorail, used steam locomotives.", "Magnetic levitation train (maglev) systems by the German Transrapid were built as straddle-type monorails, as they are highly stable and allow rapid deceleration from great speed. At speed, maglev trains hover over the track and are not in physical contact with it. The maglev is the fastest train of any type, the experimental SCMaglev having recorded a speed of. The commercial Shanghai Maglev Train has run at. However, the guideway is so wide that it can be argued it is not legitimate to call it a monorail. There are also slower maglev monorails intended for urban transport, such as Japan's Linimo (2003).", "Some early monorails (notably the suspended monorail at Wuppertal, Germany) have a design that makes it difficult to switch from one line to another. Some other monorails avoid switching as much as possible by operating in a continuous loop or between two fixed stations, as in the Seattle Center Monorail. Current monorails are capable of more efficient switching than in the past. With suspended monorails, switching may be accomplished by moving flanges inside the beamway to shift trains to one line or another. Straddle-beam monorails require that the beam moves for switching, which was an almost prohibitively ponderous procedure. Now the most common way of achieving this is to place a moving apparatus on top of a sturdy platform capable of bearing the weight of vehicles, beams and its own mechanism. Multiple-segmented beams move into place on rollers to smoothly align one beam with another to send the train in its desired direction, with the design originally developed by ALWEG capable of completing a switch in 12 seconds. Some of these beam turnouts are quite elaborate, capable of switching between several beams or simulating a railroad double-crossover. An alternative to using a wye or other form of switch, is to use a turntable, where a car sits upon a section of track that can be reoriented to several different tracks. For example, this can be used to switch a car from being in a storage location, to being on the main line. The now-closed Sydney Monorail had a traverser at the depot, which allowed a train on the main line to be exchanged with another from the depot. There were about six lines in the depot, including one for maintenance.", "Rubber-tired monorails are typically designed to cope with a 6% grade. Rubber-tired light rail or metro lines can cope with similar or greater grades - for example, the Lausanne Metro has grades of up to 12% and the Montreal Metro up to 6.5%, while VAL systems can handle 7% grades.", "Only 4 companies make monorail rolling stock: Hitachi, CRRC, Intamin and Bombardier Transportation (now Alstom)", "The fourth season of the American animated television show \"The Simpsons\" features the episode \"Marge vs. the Monorail\". In it the town of Springfield impulse purchases a faulty monorail from a conman at a wildly inflated price. Blaine the Mono is a train featured in Stephen King's \"Dark Tower\" series of books and first appears in *Wizard and Glass.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Arthropods.", "Plants and fungi.", "World Health Organization and vector-borne disease.", "Vector-borne zoonotic disease and human activity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Arthropods form a major group of pathogen vectors with mosquitoes, flies, sand flies, lice, fleas, ticks, and mites transmitting a huge number of pathogens. Many such vectors are haematophagous, which feed on blood at some or all stages of their lives. When the insects blood feed, the pathogen enters the blood stream of the host. This can happen in different ways. The \"Anopheles\" mosquito, a vector for malaria, filariasis, and various arthropod-borne-viruses (arboviruses), inserts its delicate mouthpart under the skin and feeds on its host's blood. The parasites the mosquito carries are usually located in its salivary glands (used by mosquitoes to anaesthetise the host). Therefore, the parasites are transmitted directly into the host's blood stream. Pool feeders such as the sand fly and black fly, vectors for pathogens causing leishmaniasis and onchocerciasis respectively, will chew a well in the host's skin, forming a small pool of blood from which they feed. \"Leishmania\" parasites then infect the host through the saliva of the sand fly. Onchocerca force their own way out of the insect's head into the pool of blood. Triatomine bugs are responsible for the transmission of a trypanosome, \"Trypanosoma cruzi\", which causes Chagas Disease. The Triatomine bugs defecate during feeding and the excrement contains the parasites which are accidentally smeared into the open wound by the host responding to pain and irritation from the bite.", "Some plants and fungi act as vectors for various pathogens. For example, the big-vein disease of lettuce was long thought to be caused by a member of the fungal division Chytridiomycota, namely \"Olpidium brassicae\". Eventually however, the disease was shown to be viral. Later it transpired that the virus was transmitted by the zoospores of the fungus and also survived in the resting spores. Since then, many other fungi in the Chytridiomycota have been shown to vector plant viruses. Many plant pests that seriously damage important crops depend on other plants, often weeds, to harbour or vector them; the distinction is not always clear. In the case of \"Puccinia graminis\" for example, \"Berberis\" and related genera act as alternate hosts in a cycle of infection of grain. More directly, when they twine from one plant to another, parasitic plants such as \"Cuscuta\" and \"Cassytha\" have been shown to convey phytoplasmal and viral diseases between plants.", "The World Health Organization (WHO) states that control and prevention of vector-borne diseases are emphasizing \"Integrated Vector Management (IVM)\", which is an approach that looks at the links between health and environment, optimizing benefits to both. In April 2014, WHO launched a campaign called “Small bite, big threat” to educate people about vector-borne illnesses. WHO issued reports indicating that vector-borne illnesses affect poor people, especially people living in areas that do not have adequate levels of sanitation, drinking water and housing.", "Several articles, recent to early 2014, warn that human activities are spreading vector-borne zoonotic diseases. Several articles were published in the medical journal \"The Lancet\", and discuss how rapid changes in land use, trade globalization, and \"social upheaval\" are causing a resurgence in zoonotic disease across the world. Examples of vector-borne zoonotic diseases include: Many factors affect the incidence of vector-borne diseases. These factors include animals hosting the disease, vectors, and people." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Family.", "Decorations and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born as the son of Antoni Izydor Latinik, high school geography teacher and author of the work \"Jeografija Galicyi dla szkół ludowych\" (\"Geography of Galicia for the People's Schools\"), and Kornelia née Romer, daughter of Teofil Romer, nobleman and Kraków Uprising participant, and granddaughter of Ignacy Łempicki. In 1882 he graduated from the Cadets School in Łobzów (currently a part of Kraków) and started service in Austro-Hungarian Army. He studied at the Academy of the General Staff in Vienna (1889–1891), also serving in the line, the staffs of the units, and in the General Staff. In 1896 he was promoted to Captain, and in 1909 to Major. In 1909–1913 he commanded his original Cadets School in Łobzów. He was the commanding officer of the reserve officer school, lecturer in tactics at the Officer School of Infantry. In 1911 he was awarded the rank of Lieutenant Colonel, and in 1913 he was transferred to the 1st Infantry Regiment in Opava to the deputy commander of the regiment. After the outbreak of World War I he fought on the Eastern Front. He took part in the offensive towards Lublin, he fought near Annopol, Ratoszyn, Kraśnik, Rozwadów and Mielec. On September 17, 1914 he took over the command of the 100th Infantry Regiment of Austria-Hungary, with which he initially participated in fights at Nida. He then fought at the head of that unit in the Battle of Gorlice on 2–4 May 1915. On May 2, 1915, the Regiment participated in the attack on the Pustki Hill, which was one of the main positions of Russian forces north of the city and later in the pursuit actions. Also in 1915 Latinik was promoted to the Colonel. He then fought on the Romanian front. In the spring of 1917 he was transferred to the Italian front, near Soča. In the autumn of this year, the brigade under his command took part in the offensive of Caporetto. From February 1918 he fought on the Tirol front and took command of the 8th Infantry Brigade. In June he was seriously injured. After Poland gained independence in the second half of 1918, he joined the Polish Army. From November 1918 to January 1919 he was the commander of garrison Zamość and then the Military District in Cieszyn. In January 1919, he commanded the Polish troops during the Polish-Czechoslovak War with the Czech forces over Cieszyn Silesia, stopping the enemy offensive. On May 22, 1919 he was appointed commander of the Cieszyn Front of the South-West Front and on 30 May 1919 he was appointed commander of the 6th Infantry Division. From October 13, 1919 to March 1920, he commanded the 7th Infantry Division and at the same time ilesian Front. By the decision of the Chief Commander of November 23, 1919, he was appointed Lieutenant General on December 1, 1919. From February to August 1920 he was a representative of the Polish Army in the Border and Plebiscite Commission in Cieszyn. On August 5, 1920, in the face of Red Army pushing west, just few days before Battle of Warsaw, Latinik was appointed Military Governor of Warsaw by the Chief Commander Józef Piłsudski. The main task of the Governor was to fortify the Modlin–Zegrze–Warsaw triangle. The Governor was supervising local civil and military authorities and had the right to appoint civilians for war benefits and to give local administrative authorities instructions on security, public order and peace. The Governor's adjutants could have arrested all suspected persons, regardless of their military rank and position. Evacuation of military and civilian institutions was prepared in the event of the collapse of defense of the Warsaw pretext. The Governorate also dealt with food supplies for the city and set maximum prices for groceries in order to prevent speculation. At the same time Latinik served as the commander of the 1st Polish Army, repelling the Bolshevik blow to the city. He took part in the fights in the Northern Front, among others in Battle of Radzymin. The Military Governorate of Warsaw was dissolved on September 23, 1920. During the pursuit after the Red Army, Latinik was the commander of the Southern Group of the 6th Army. On April 20, 1921 he was appointed the commander of General District „Kielce”. He took over the duties of the district commander on 14 May, after his transfer holiday, and held the position until the General District Command \"Kielce\" was liquidated. Between September 20 and October 9, 1921, he stayed in Poznań for \"family affairs\". At the command of the district commander, he was temporarily replaced by a lieutenant general Eugeniusz Pogorzelski. From November 15, 1921 he commanded the District No. X Corps in Przemysl. In the years 1920–22 he was part of the First Interim Chapter of the Virtuti Militari Order. He was an antagonist to Piłsudski, who criticized Latinik's activity in Przemyśl. Latinik retired from active service in March 1925, after being conflicted with some former members of Polish Legions. He lived in Kraków at the address Studencka Street 2. He was socially active, being a member of the \"Development\" Society. After the Second World War, at the age of 81, he founded and organized the Association of Military Returnees and Widows. Although he never engaged politically, he sympathized with the National Democracy; he had a guide of Kraków, in which only the shops belonging to Catholics were marked, as his grandson recalled: „Here and there, manually, grandfather marked a point and added word \"Jew\"”. He published several military memoir books, including \"Żołnierz polski pod Gorlicami 1915\" (\"Polish Soldier at Gorlice\", Przemyśl, 1923), \"Walka o Śląsk Cieszyński w r. 1919\" (\"Fight for Teschen Silesia in year 1919\"), \"Bój o Warszawę. Rola wojskowego gubernatora i 1-ej armii w bitwie pod Warszawą w 1920 r.\" (\"Fight for Warsaw. The Role of the Military Governor and the 1st Army at the Battle of Warsaw in year 1920\", Bydgoszcz, 1931) and a chapter \"Wspomnienie o generale broni Tadeuszu Rozwadowskim\" (\"The memory of General Tadeusz Rozwadowski\") in a monograph dedicated to Tadeusz Rozwadowski (published in Kraków, 1929). He died in 1949 and was buried in the family tomb at the Rakowicki Cemetery.", "In 1902 he married Helena Stiasny-Strzelbicka. They had three daughters: Anna (1902–1969), Irena (1904–1974) and Antonina (1906–1989), and six grandchildren: Irena and Andrzej Popiel, Janusz and Jerzy Rieger and Jerzy and Jan Vetulani.", "He refused to accept Military Order of Maria Theresa for venturesome attitude during battle of Gorlice, claiming that after Poland reclaimed independence, he may accept only distinctions from the Polish government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rationale for the amendment.", "Fast BSS Transition.", "Protocol operation.", "Problems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "802.11, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi, is widely used for wireless communications. Many deployed implementations have effective ranges of only a few hundred meters, so, to maintain communications, devices in motion that use it will need to handoff from one access point to another. In an automotive environment, this could easily result in a handoff every five to ten seconds. Handoffs are already supported under the preexisting standard. The fundamental architecture for handoffs is identical for 802.11 with and without 802.11r: the mobile device is entirely in charge of deciding when to hand off and to which access point it wishes to hand off. In the early days of 802.11, handoff was a much simpler task for the mobile device. Only four messages were required for the device to establish a connection with a new access point (five if you count the optional \"I'm leaving\" message (deauthentication and disassociation packet) the client could send to the old access point). However, as additional features were added to the standard, including 802.11i with 802.1X authentication and 802.11e or WMM with admission control requests, the number of messages required went up dramatically. During the time these additional messages are being exchanged, the mobile device's traffic, including that from voice calls, cannot proceed, and the loss experienced by the user could amount to several seconds. Generally, the highest amount of delay or loss that the edge network should introduce into a voice call is 50 ms. 802.11r was launched to attempt to undo the added burden that security and quality of service added to the handoff process, and restore it to the original four-message exchange. In this way, handoff problems are not eliminated, but at least are returned to the status quo ante. The primary application currently envisioned for the 802.11r standard is voice over IP (VOIP) via mobile phones designed to work with wireless Internet networks, instead of (or in addition to) standard cellular networks.", "IEEE 802.11r specifies fast Basic Service Set (BSS) transitions between access points by redefining the security key negotiation protocol, allowing both the negotiation and requests for wireless resources (similar to RSVP but defined in 802.11e) to occur in parallel. The key negotiation protocol in 802.11i specifies that, for 802.1X-based authentication, the client is required to renegotiate its key with the RADIUS or other authentication server supporting Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) on every handoff, a time-consuming process. The solution is to allow for the part of the key derived from the server to be cached in the wireless network, so that a reasonable number of future connections can be based on the cached key, avoiding the 802.1X process. A feature known as \"opportunistic key caching\" (OKC) exists today, based on 802.11i, to perform the same task. 802.11r differs from OKC by fully specifying the key hierarchy.", "The non-802.11r BSS transition goes through six stages: At this point in an 802.1X BSS, the AP and Station have a connection, but are not allowed to exchange data frames, as they have not established a key. A fast BSS transition performs the same operations except for the 802.1X negotiation, but piggybacks the PTK and QoS admission control exchanges with the 802.11 Authentication and Reassociation messages.", "In October 2017 security researchers Mathy Vanhoef (imec-DistriNet, KU Leuven) and Frank Piessens (imec-DistriNet, KU Leuven) published their paper \"Key Reinstallation Attacks: Forcing Nonce Reuse in WPA2\" (KRACK). This paper also listed a vulnerability of common 802.11r implementations and registered the CVE identifier CVE-2017-13082. On August 4th, 2018 researcher Jens Steube (of Hashcat) described a new technique to crack WPA PSK (Pre-Shared Key) passwords that he states will likely work against all 802.11i/p/q/r networks with roaming functions enabled." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Background and youth.", "Education and party membership.", "Ambassador and World War II.", "At the helm of Soviet foreign policy.", "The United Nations.", "Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom.", "Foreign Minister of the Soviet Union.", "Head of state, retirement and death.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Gromyko was born to a poor \"semi-peasant, semi-worker\" Belarusian family in the Belarusian village of Staryya Gramyki, near Gomel on 18 July 1909. Gromyko's father, Andrei Matveyevich, worked as a seasonal worker in a local factory. Andrei Matveyevich was not a very educated man, having only attended four years of school, but knew how to read and write. He had fought in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. Gromyko's mother, Olga Yevgenyevna, came from a poor peasant family in the neighbouring city of Zhelezniki. She attended school only for a short period of time as, when her father died, she left to help her mother with the harvest. Gromyko grew up near the district town of Vetka where most of the inhabitants were devoted Old Believers in the Russian Orthodox Church. Gromyko's own village was also predominantly religious, but Gromyko started doubting the supernatural at a very early age. His first dialog on the subject was with his grandmother Marfa, who answered his inquiry about God with \"Wait until you get older. Then you will understand all this much better\". According to Gromyko, \"Other adults said basically the same thing\" when talking about religion. Gromyko's neighbour at the time, Mikhail Sjeljutov, was a freethinker and introduced Gromyko to new non-religious ideas and told Gromyko that scientists were beginning to doubt the existence of God. From the age of nine, after the Bolshevik revolution, Gromyko started reading atheist propaganda in flyers and pamphlets. At the age of thirteen Gromyko became a member of the Komsomol and held anti-religious speeches in the village with his friends as well as promoting Communist values. The news that Germany had attacked the Russian Empire in August 1914 came without warning to the local population. This was the first time, as Gromyko notes, that he felt \"love for his country\". His father, Andrei Matveyevich, was again conscripted into the Imperial Russian Army and would serve for three years on the southwestern front, under the leadership of General Aleksei Brusilov. Andrei Matveyevich returned home on the eve of the 1917 October Revolution in Russia. Gromyko was elected First Secretary of the local Komsomol chapter at the beginning of 1923. Following Vladimir Lenin's death in 1924, the villagers asked Gromyko what would happen in the leader's absence. Gromyko remembered a communist slogan from the heyday of the October Revolution: \"The revolution was carried through by Lenin and his \"helpers\".\" He then told the villagers that Lenin was dead but \"his aides, the Party, still lived on.\"", "When he was young Gromyko's mother Olga told him that he should leave his home town to become an educated man. Gromyko followed his mother's advice and, after finishing seven years of primary school and vocational education in Gomel, he moved to Borisov to attend technical school. Gromyko became a member of the All-Union Communist Party Bolsheviks in 1931, something he had dreamed of since he learned about the \"difference between a poor farmer and a landowner, a worker and a capitalist\". Gromyko was voted in as secretary of his party cell at his first party conference and would use most of his weekends doing volunteer work. Gromyko received a very small stipend to live on, but still had a strong nostalgia for the days when he worked as a volunteer. It was about this time that Gromyko met his future wife, Lydia Dmitrievna Grinevich. Grinevich was the daughter of a Belarusian peasant family and came from Kamenki, a small village to the west of Minsk. She and Gromyko would have two children, Anatoly and Emiliya. After studying in Borisov for two years Gromyko was appointed principal of a secondary school in Dzerzhinsk, where he taught, supervised the school and continued his studies. One day a representative from the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Byelorussia offered him an opportunity to do post-graduate work in Minsk. Gromyko traveled to Minsk for an interview with the head of the university, I.M. Borisevich, who explained that a new post-graduate program had been formed for training in economics; Gromyko's record in education and social work made him a desirable candidate. Gromyko advised Borisevich that he would have difficulty living on a meager student stipend. Borisevich assured him that on finishing the program, his salary would be at the party's top pay grade – \"a decent living wage\". Gromyko accepted the offer, moving his family to Minsk in 1933. Gromyko and the other post-graduates were invited to an anniversary reception at which, as recounted in Gromyko's \"Memoirs\": We were amazed to find ourselves treated as equals and placed at their table to enjoy what for us was a sumptuous feast. We realised then that not for nothing did the Soviet state treat its scientists well: evidently science and those who worked in it were highly regarded by the state. After that day of pleasantry, Gromyko for the first time in his life wanted to enter higher education, but without warning, Gromyko and his family were moved in 1934 to Moscow, settling in the northeastern Alexeyevsky District. In 1936, after another three years of studying economics, Gromyko became a researcher and lecturer at the Soviet Academy of Sciences. His area of expertise was the US economy, and he published several books on the subject. Gromyko assumed his new job would be a permanent one, but in 1939 he was called upon by a Central Committee Commission which selected new personnel to work in diplomacy. (The Great Purge of 1938 opened many positions in the diplomatic corps.) Gromyko recognised such familiar faces as Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov. A couple of days later he was transferred from the Academy of Sciences to the diplomatic service.", "In early 1939, Gromyko started working for the People's Commissariat for Foreign Affairs in Moscow. Gromyko became the Head of the Department of Americas and because of his position Gromyko met with United States ambassador to the Soviet Union Lawrence Steinhardt. Gromyko believed Steinhardt to be \"totally uninterested in creating good relations between the US and the USSR\" and that Steinhardt's predecessor Joseph Davies was more \"colourful\" and seemed \"genuinely interested\" in improving the relations between the two countries. Davies received the Order of Lenin for his work in trying to improve diplomatic relations between the US and the USSR. After heading the Americas department for 6 months, Gromyko was called upon by Joseph Stalin. Stalin started the conversation by telling Gromyko that he would be sent to the Soviet embassy in the United States to become second-in-command. \"The Soviet Union,\" Stalin said, \"should maintain reasonable relations with such a powerful country like the United States, especially in light of the growing fascist threat\". Vyacheslav Molotov contributed with some minor modifications but mostly agreed with what Stalin had said. \"How are your English skills improving?,\" Stalin asked, \"Comrade Gromyko you should pay a visit or two to an American church and listen to their sermons. Priests usually speak correct English with good accents. Do you know that the Russian revolutionaries when they were abroad, always followed this practice to improve their skills in foreign languages?\" Gromyko was quite amazed about what Stalin had just told him but he never visited an American church. Gromyko had never been abroad before and, to get to the United States, he had to travel via airplane through Romania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia to Genoa, Italy, where they boarded a ship to the United States. He later wrote in his \"Memoirs\" that New York City was a good example on how humans, by the \"means of wealth and technology are able to create something that is totally alien to our nature\". He further noticed the New York working districts which, in his own opinion, were proof of the inhumanity of capitalism and of the system's greed. Gromyko met and consulted with most of the senior officers of the United States government during his first days and succeeded Maxim Litvinov as ambassador to the United States in 1943. In his \"Memoirs\" Gromyko wrote fondly of President Franklin D. Roosevelt even though he believed him to be a representative of the bourgeoisie class. During his time as ambassador, Gromyko met prominent personalities such as British actor Charlie Chaplin, American actress Marilyn Monroe and British economist John Maynard Keynes. Gromyko was a Soviet delegate to the Tehran, Dumbarton Oaks, Yalta and Potsdam conferences. In 1943, the same year as the Tehran Conference, the USSR established diplomatic relations with Cuba and Gromyko was appointed the Soviet ambassador to Havana. Gromyko claimed that the accusations brought against Roosevelt by American right-wingers, that he was a socialist sympathizer, were absurd. While he started out as a member delegate Gromyko later became the head of the Soviet delegation to the San Francisco conference after Molotov's departure. When he later returned to Moscow to celebrate the Soviet victory in the Great Patriotic War, Stalin commended him saying a good diplomat was \"worth two or three armies at the front\".", "", "Gromyko was appointed Permanent Representative of the Soviet Union to the United Nations (UN) in April 1946. The USSR supported the election of the first Secretary-General of the United Nations, Trygve Lie, a former Norwegian Minister of Foreign Affairs. However, in the opinion of Gromyko, Lie became an active supporter of the \"expansionist behaviour\" of the United States and its \"American aggressionist\" policy. Because of this political stance, Gromyko believed Lie to be a poor Secretary-General. Trygve's successor, Swede Dag Hammarskjöld also promoted what Gromyko saw as \"anti-Soviet policies\". U Thant, the third Secretary-General, once told Gromyko that it was close to impossible to have an objective opinion of the USSR in the Secretariat of the United Nations because the majority of secretariat members were of American ethnicity or supporters of the United States. Gromyko often used the Soviet veto power in the early days of the United Nations. So familiar was a Soviet veto in the early days of the UN that Gromyko became known as \"Mr Nyet\", literally meaning \"Mr No\". During the first 10 years of the UN, the Soviet Union used its veto 79 times. In the same period, the Republic of China used the veto once, France twice and the others not at all. On May 14, 1947, Gromyko advocated the one-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and the two-state solution as the second best option in the case that \"relations between the Jewish and Arab populations of Palestine... proved to be so bad that it would be impossible to reconcile them\".", "Gromyko was appointed Soviet ambassador to the United Kingdom at a June 1952 meeting with Joseph Stalin in the Kremlin. Stalin paced back and forth as normal, telling Gromyko about the importance of his new office, and saying \"The United Kingdom now has the opportunity to play a greater role in international politics. But it is not clear in which direction the British government with their great diplomatic experience will steer their efforts [...] This is why we need people who understand their way of thinking\". Gromyko met with Winston Churchill in 1952 not to talk about current politics but nostalgically about World War II. Gromyko met Churchill again in 1953 to talk about their experiences during World War II before returning to Russia when he was appointed Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs.", "Andrei Gromyko spent his initial days as Minister of Foreign Affairs solving problems between his ministry and the International Department (ID) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) headed by Boris Ponomarev. Ponomarev advocated an expanded role for the ID in Soviet foreign relations; Gromyko flatly refused it. Valentin Falin, a top Soviet official, said the ID \"interfered in the activities\" of Gromyko and his ministry countless times. Gromyko disliked both Ponomarev and the power sharing between the ID and the foreign ministry. In 1958 Mao Zedong tried to look for supporters within the Soviet leadership for his planned war with the Republic of China (Taiwan). He flabbergasted Gromyko by telling him that he was willing to sacrifice the lives of \"300 million people\" just for the sake of annexing the Republic of China into the People's Republic of China. Gromyko assured Mao that the proposal would never get the approval of the Soviet leadership. When the Soviet leadership learnt of this discussion they responded by terminating the Soviet-Chinese nuclear program and various industrialization projects in the People's Republic of China. Years later during the Cuban Missile Crisis, Gromyko met John F. Kennedy, then President of the United States, while acting on the instruction of the Soviet leadership under Nikita Khrushchev. In his \"Memoirs\", Gromyko wrote that Kennedy seemed out of touch when he first met him, and was more ideologically driven than practical. In a 1988 interview, he further described Kennedy as nervous and prone to making contradictory statements involving American intentions towards Cuba. During his twenty-eight years as Minister of Foreign Affairs Gromyko supported the policy of disarmament, stating in his \"Memoirs\" that \"Disarmament is the ideal of Socialism\". Throughout his career as Soviet Foreign Minister, Gromyko explicitly promoted the idea that no important international agreement could be reached without the Soviet Union's involvement. One accomplishment he took particular pride in was the signing of the 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty whose negotiation could be traced back to 1958. Additionally, in 1966, Gromyko and Alexei Kosygin persuaded both Pakistan and India to sign the Tashkent Declaration, a peace treaty in the aftermath of the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965. Later in the same year, he engaged in a dialog with Pope Paul VI, as part of the pontiff's ostpolitik that resulted in greater openness for the Roman Catholic Church in Eastern Europe although there was still heavy persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union. Gromyko also prided himself on the signing of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons on 1 July 1968, the 1972 ABM and SALT I treaties, and the Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War in 1973. After joining the Politburo in 1973 during Leonid Brezhnev's rule, Gromyko steadily consolidated his position in the party hierarchy to become the Soviet Union's chief foreign policy strategist. Upon reaching the peak of his power and influence, Gromyko's approach to diplomacy began to suffer from the same qualities that underpinned his early career. His exceptional memory and confidence in his experience now made him inflexible, unimaginative and devoid of a long-term vision for his country. By the time Andropov and Chernenko rose to the Soviet leadership, Gromyko frequently found himself advocating a harder line than his superiors. As Brezhnev grew increasingly incapable of governing following a stroke in 1975, Gromyko formed a de facto troika with KGB Chairman Yuri Andropov and Defense Minister Dmitry Ustinov that became the driving force behind Soviet policymaking. After Brezhnev's death in 1982, Andropov was voted in as General Secretary by the Politburo. Immediately after his appointment Andropov asked Gromyko if he wanted to take over Brezhnev's old office of the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. Gromyko turned down Andropov's offer, believing that Andropov would eventually take the office for himself. After Chernenko's death in 1985, Gromyko nominated Mikhail Gorbachev for the General Secretary on 11 March 1985. In supporting Gorbachev, Gromyko knew that the influence he carried would be strong. After being voted in Gorbachev relieved Gromyko of his duty as foreign minister and replaced him with Eduard Shevardnadze and Gromyko was appointed to the largely honorary position of Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet.", "Gromyko held the office of the Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, literally head of state, which was largely ceremonial, and his influence in ruling circles diminished. A number of First World journalists believed Gromyko was uncomfortable with many of Gorbachev's reforms, however, in his \"Memoirs\" Gromyko wrote fondly of Gorbachev and the policy of perestroika. Gromyko believed that perestroika was about working for the construction of a socialist society and saw glasnost and perestroika as an attempt at making the USSR more democratic. During a party conference in July 1988 Vladimir Melnikov called for Gromyko's resignation. Melnikov blamed Brezhnev for the economic and political stagnation that had hit the Soviet Union and, seeing that Gromyko, as a prominent member of the Brezhnev leadership, was one of the men which had led the USSR into the crisis. Gromyko was promptly defended as \"a man respected by the people\" in a note by an anonymous delegate. After discussing it with his wife Gromyko decided to leave Soviet politics for good. Gromyko recounts in his \"Memoirs\" that he told Gorbachev that he wished to resign before he made it official. The following day, 1 October 1988, Gromyko sat beside Gorbachev, Yegor Ligachev and Nikolai Ryzhkov in the Supreme Soviet to make his resignation official: Such moments in life are just as memorable as when one is appointed to prominent positions. When my comrades took farewell to me, I was equally moved as I had ever been when I was given an important office. What I thought most about was that I had finished my duties towards the people, the Party and the state. This memory is very precious to me. Gorbachev succeeded Gromyko in office as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. After his resignation Gorbachev praised Gromyko for his half-century of service to USSR. Critics, such as Alexander Belonogov, the Permanent Representative of the Soviet Union to the United Nations, claimed Gromyko's foreign policy was permeated with \"a spirit of intolerance and confrontation\". After retiring from active politics in 1989 Gromyko started working on his memoirs. Gromyko died on 2 July 1989, days before what would have been his 80th birthday, after being hospitalised for a vascular problem that was not further identified. His death was followed by a minute of silence at the Congress of People's Deputies to commemorate him. The Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS), the central news organ in the USSR, called him one of the country's most \"prominent leaders\". President of the United States George H. W. Bush sent his condolences to Gromyko's son, Anatoly. Gromyko was offered a grave in the Kremlin Wall Necropolis, but at the request of his family he was not buried near the Kremlin wall but instead at the Novodevichy cemetery.", "Having been a person of considerable stature during his life Gromyko held an unusual combination of personal characteristics. Some were impressed by his diplomatic skills, while others called Gromyko mundane and boring. An article written in 1981 in \"The Times\" said, \"He is one of the most active and efficient members of the Soviet leadership. A man with an excellent memory, a keen intellect and extraordinary endurance [...] Maybe Andrey is the most informed Minister for Foreign affairs in the world\". Gromyko's dour demeanour was shown clearly during his first term in Washington and echoed throughout his tenure as Soviet foreign minister. Ambassador Charles W. Yost, who worked with Gromyko at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, the UN founding conference, and at the United Nations, recalled that the \"humorless\" Soviet ambassador \"looked as though he was sucking a lemon.\" There is a story that Gromyko was leaving a Washington hotel one morning and was asked by a reporter; \"Minister Gromyko, did you enjoy your breakfast today?\" His response was \"Perhaps.\" During his twenty-eight years as minister of foreign affairs Gromyko became the \"number-one\" on international diplomacy at home, renowned by his peers to be consumed by his work. Henry Kissinger once said \"If you can face Gromyko for one hour and survive, then you can begin to call yourself a diplomat\". Gromyko's work influenced Soviet and Russian ambassadors such as Anatoly Dobrynin. Mash Lewis and Gregory Elliott described Gromyko's main characteristic as his \"complete identification with the interest of the state and his faithful service to it\". According to historians Gregory Elliot and Moshe Lewin this could help explain his so-called \"boring\" personality and the mastery of his own ego. West German politician Egon Bahr, when commenting on Gromyko's memoirs, said; He has concealed a veritable treasure-trove from future generations and taken to the grave with him an inestimable knowledge of international connection between the historical events and major figures of his time, which only he could offer. What a pity that this very man proved incapable to the very end of evoking his experience. As a faithful servant of the state, he believed that he should restrict himself to a sober, concise presentation of the bare essentials. On 18 July 2009, Belarus marked the 100th anniversary of Gromyko's birth with nationwide celebrations. In the city of his birth many people laid flowers in front of his bust. A ceremony was held attended by his son and daughter, Anatoly and Emiliya. Several exhibitions were opened and dedicated to his honour and a school and a street in Gomel were renamed in honour of him." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Olympic flame.", "Olympic torch relay.", "Main ceremonies.", "Olympic flame lighting.", "Olympic torch relay.", "Notable torch relays.", "Protests against relays.", "Re-igniting the flame.", "Olympic cauldron lighting.", "Notable cauldron ceremonies.", "Design of equipment used.", "Olympic torch designs.", "Olympic cauldron designs.", "Coinage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Olympic flame as a symbol of the modern Olympic movement was introduced by architect Jan Wils who designed the stadium for the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. The idea for the Olympic flame was derived from ancient Greece, where a sacred fire was kept burning throughout the celebration of the ancient Olympics on the altar of the sanctuary of Hestia. In Ancient Greek mythology, fire had divine connotations — it was thought to have been stolen from the gods by Prometheus. Sacred fires were present at many ancient Greek sanctuaries, including those at Olympia. Every four years, when Zeus was honoured at the Olympic Games, additional fires were lit at his temple and that of his wife, Hera. The modern Olympic flame is ignited at the site where the temple of Hera used to stand. When the tradition of an Olympic fire was reintroduced during the 1928 Summer Olympics, an employee of the Electric Utility of Amsterdam lit the first modern Olympic flame in the Marathon Tower of the Olympic Stadium in Amsterdam. The Olympic flame has been part of the Summer Olympics ever since. The Olympic flame was first introduced to the Winter Olympics at the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen.", "By contrast to the Olympic flame, the Olympic torch relay, which transports the flame from Olympia, Greece to the various designated sites of the Games, had no ancient precedent and was introduced by Carl Diem at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin which were organized by the Nazis under the guidance of Joseph Goebbels. At the first Olympic torch relay, the flame was transported from Olympia to Berlin over 3,187 kilometres by 3,331 runners in twelve days and eleven nights. There were minor protests in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia on the way, which were suppressed by the local security forces. Leni Riefenstahl later staged the torch relay for the 1938 film \"Olympia\".", "", "The Olympic fire is ignited several months before the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games at the site of the ancient Olympics in Olympia, Greece. Eleven women, representing the Vestal Virgins, perform a celebration at the Temple of Hera in which the first torch of the Olympic Torch Relay is kindled by the light of the Sun, its rays concentrated by a parabolic mirror. At the beginning of the ceremony, the Olympic anthem was sung first followed by the national anthem of the country hosting the Olympics and the national anthem of Greece along with the hoisting of the flags.", "After the ceremony at Olympia, the Olympic flame first travels around Greece, and is then transferred during a ceremony in the Panathenaic Stadium in Athens from the prior Olympic city to the current year's host city. The Olympic torch relay in the host country ends with the lighting of the Olympic cauldron during the opening ceremony in the central host stadium of the Games. The final carrier is often kept unannounced until the last moment. Over the years, it has become a tradition to let a famous athlete of the host nation, former athletes or athletes with significant achievements and milestones be the last runner in the Olympic torch relay.", "The Olympic torch travels routes that symbolise human achievement. Although most of the time the torch with the Olympic flame is still carried by runners, it has been transported in many different ways. The fire travelled by boat in 1948 and 2012 to cross the English Channel and was carried by rowers in Canberra as well as by dragon boat in Hong Kong in 2008. It was first transported by airplane in 1952, when the fire travelled to Helsinki. In 1956, all carriers in the torch relay to Stockholm, where the equestrian events were held instead of in Melbourne, travelled on horseback. Remarkable means of transportation were used in 1976, when the flame was transformed to a radio signal and transmitted from Europe to the New World: Heat sensors in Athens detected the flame, the signal was sent to Ottawa via satellite where it was received and used to trigger a laser beam to re-light the flame. The torch, but not the flame, was taken into space by astronauts in 1996, 2000 and 2013. In 2000, the torch was carried under the water by divers near the Great Barrier Reef. Other unique means of transportation include a Native American canoe, a camel, and Concorde. The torch has been carried across water; the 1968 Grenoble Winter Games was carried across the port of Marseilles by a diver holding it aloft above the water. In 2000, an underwater flare was used by a diver across the Great Barrier Reef en route to the Sydney Games. In 2012 it was carried by boat across Bristol harbour in the UK and on the front of a London Underground train to Wimbledon. In 2004, the first global torch relay was undertaken, a journey that lasted 78 days. The Olympic flame covered a distance of more than 78,000 km in the hands of some 11,300 torchbearers, travelling to Africa and South America for the first time, visiting all previous Olympic cities and finally returning to Athens for the 2004 Summer Olympics. The 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay spanned all six inhabited continents before proceeding through China, but was met with protests in London, Paris, and San Francisco. As a result, in 2009, the International Olympic Committee announced that future torch relays could be held only within the country hosting the Olympics after the initial Greek leg. Although this rule took effect with the 2014 Winter Olympics, the organizers of the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London chose to hold their torch relays only in their respective hosting countries of Canada and the United Kingdom (except for brief stops in the United States and Ireland, respectively). The London 2012 torch travelled 8,000 miles across the UK. The Rio 2016 torch travelled 12,000 miles across Brazil.", "There have been protests against Olympic torch relays since they were first introduced. In 1936, there were minor protests against the torch relay to Nazi Germany in Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia, which were suppressed by the local security forces. In the 1956 Melbourne Games in Australia, local veterinary student Barry Larkin protested against the relay when he tricked onlookers by carrying a fake flame, consisting of a pair of underpants set on fire in a plum pudding can, attached to a chair leg. He successfully managed to hand over the fake flame to the Mayor of Sydney, Pat Hills and escape without being noticed. In 2008 there were various attempts to stop the Olympic flame as a protest against China's human rights record. In London, a \"ring of steel\" was formed around the flame to protect it, but one protester managed to grab hold of the torch while it was being held by television presenter Konnie Huq. In 2016, ten days before the beginning of the Rio Games in Brazil, citizens of Angra dos Reis, a city near Rio de Janeiro, managed to put out the Olympic flame when protesting against the city's spending money on hosting the games, despite the economic crisis that took hold of Brazil.", "It is not uncommon for the Olympic flame to be accidentally or deliberately extinguished during the course of the torch relay (and on at least one occasion the cauldron itself has gone out during the Games). To guard against this eventuality, multiple copies of the flame are transported with the relay or maintained in backup locations. When a torch goes out, it is re-lit (or another torch is lit) from one of the backup sources. Thus, the fires contained in the torches and Olympic cauldrons all trace a common lineage back to the same Olympia lighting ceremony. The current design of the torch has a safeguard built into it: There are two flames inside the torch. There is a highly visible (yellow flame) portion which burns cooler and is more prone to extinguish in wind and rain, but there is also a smaller hotter (blue in the candle's wick) flame akin to a pilot light hidden inside the torch which is protected from wind and rain and is capable of relighting the cooler more visible portion if it is extinguished. The fuel inside the torch lasts for approximately 15 minutes before the flame is exhausted.", "During the opening ceremony, the final bearer of the torch runs towards the cauldron, often placed at the top of a grand staircase, and then uses the torch to start the flame in the stadium. The climactic transfer of the Olympic flame from the final torch to the cauldron at the central host stadium marks the symbolic commencement of the Games. As with being the final runner of the Olympic torch relay, it is considered to be a great honor to light the Olympic cauldron, and similarly it has become a tradition to select notable athletes to conduct this part of the ceremony. After being lit, the flame in the Olympic cauldron continues to burn throughout the Games, until the closing ceremony, when it is finally put out, symbolizing the official end of the Games.", "The first well-known athlete to light the cauldron in the stadium was ninefold Olympic Champion Paavo Nurmi, who excited the home crowd in Helsinki in 1952. In 1968, Enriqueta Basilio became the first woman to light the Olympic Cauldron at the Olympic Games in Mexico City. Perhaps one of the most spectacular of Olympic cauldron lighting ceremonies took place at the 1992 Summer Olympics, when Paralympic archer Antonio Rebollo lit the cauldron by shooting a burning arrow over it, which ignited gas rising from the cauldron. Unofficial videos seem to indicate that the flame was lit from below. Twenty years after the Barcelona Games one of those involved said that the flame was \"switched on\" (\"Se encendió con un botón\", in Spanish). Two years later, the Olympic fire was brought into the stadium of Lillehammer by a ski jumper. In Beijing 2008, Li Ning \"ran\" on air around the Bird's Nest and lit the flame. In Vancouver 2010, four athletes—Catriona Le May Doan, Wayne Gretzky, Steve Nash and Nancy Greene—were given the honour of lighting the flame simultaneously indoors before Wayne Gretzky transferred the flame to an outdoor cauldron at Vancouver's waterfront. Other famous last bearers of the torch include heavyweight boxing champion Muhammad Ali (1996), Australian aboriginal runner Cathy Freeman (2000) and the and more recently Brazilian marathon runner Vanderlei Cordeiro de Lima (2016), and South Korean figure skater Yuna Kim (2018). On other occasions, the people who lit the cauldron in the stadium are not famous, but nevertheless symbolize Olympic ideals. Japanese runner Yoshinori Sakai was born in Hiroshima on 6 August 1945, the day the nuclear weapon Little Boy destroyed that city. He symbolized the rebirth of Japan after the Second World War when he opened the 1964 Tokyo Games. At the 1976 Games in Montreal, two teenagers — one from the French-speaking part of the country, one from the English-speaking part — symbolized the unity of Canada. At the 2012 Games in London, the torch was carried by Sir Steve Redgrave to a group of seven young British athletes (Callum Airlie, Jordan Duckitt, Desiree Henry, Katie Kirk, Cameron MacRitchie, Aidan Reynolds and Adelle Tracey) — each nominated by a British Olympic champion — who then each lit a single tiny flame on the ground, igniting 204 copper petals before they converged to form the cauldron for the Games.", "", "The design of the torch used in the relay to the Games changes for each Games. They may be designed to represent a classical ideal, or to represent some local aspect of those particular Games. The first Olympic torches in 1936 were produced by the Krupp armaments company in wood and metal, inspired by an olive leaf. The distinctive 1976 torch was manufactured by John L. Saksun's The Queensway Machine Products Ltd. Some (such as Albertville in 1992 and Turin in 2006) have been designed by famous industrial designers. These design-led torches have been less popular than the more classical designs, the Turin torch in particular was criticised for being simply too heavy for the runners. The torch for the 1948 London Olympics was designed by architect Ralph Lavers. They were cast in Hiduminium aluminium alloy with a length of 47 cm and a weight of 960 g. This classical design of a long handle capped by a cylindrical bowl re-appeared in many later torch designs. The torch used for the final entry to the stadium and the lighting of the cauldron was of a different design, also a feature that would re-appear in later years. This torch did not require the long distance duration or weather resistance of the other torches, but did need a spectacular flame for the opening ceremony. At the Melbourne Olympics of 1956, the magnesium/aluminium fuel used for the final torch was certainly spectacular, but also injured its holder. Runners were also burned by the solid-fueled torch for the 1968 Mexico Games. The fuel used for the torch has varied. Early torches used solid or liquid fuels, including olive oil. For a particularly bright display, pyrotechnic compounds and even burning metals have been used. Since the Munich Games of 1972, most torches have instead used a liquefied gas such as propylene or a propane/butane mixture. These are easily stored, easily controlled and give a brightly luminous flame. The number of torches made has varied from, for example, 22 for Helsinki in 1952, 6,200 for the 1980 Moscow Games and 8,000 for the London 2012 Games. In transit, the flame sometimes travels by air. A version of the miner's safety lamp is used, kept alight in the air. These lamps are also used during the relay, as a back-up in case the primary torch goes out. This has happened before several Games, but the torch is simply re-lit and carries on.", "The cauldron and the pedestal are always the subject of unique and often dramatic design. These also tie in with \"how\" the cauldron is lit during the Opening Ceremony.", "The Olympic flame has been used as a symbol and main motif numerous times in different commemorative coins. A recent sample was the 50th anniversary of the Helsinki Olympic Games commemorative coin, minted in 2002. In the obverse, the Olympic flame above the Earth can be seen. Note that Finland is the only country highlighted, as the host of the 1952 games." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Career.", "Investigation.", "First quarantine (1907–1910).", "Release and second quarantine (1915–1938).", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Aftermath.", "Ethical and Legal Issues.", "In Culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Mary Mallon was born in 1869 in Cookstown, County Tyrone, in what is now Northern Ireland. Presumably, she was born with typhoid because her mother was infected during pregnancy. At the age of 15, she migrated to the United States. She lived with her aunt and uncle for a time and worked as a maid, but eventually became a cook for affluent families.", "From 1900 to 1907, Mallon worked as a cook in the New York City area for eight families, seven of which contracted typhoid. In 1900, she worked in Mamaroneck, New York, where within two weeks of her employment, residents developed typhoid fever. In 1901, she moved to Manhattan, where members of the family for whom she worked developed fevers and diarrhea, and the laundress died. Mallon then went to work for a lawyer and left after seven of the eight people in that household became ill. In June 1904, she was hired by a prosperous lawyer, Henry Gilsey. Within a week, the laundress was infected with typhoid, and soon four of the seven servants were ill. No members of Gilsey's family were infected, because they resided separately, and the servants lived in their own house. The investigator Dr. R. L. Wilson concluded that the laundress had caused the outbreak, but he failed to prove it. Immediately after the outbreak began, Mallon left and moved to Tuxedo Park, where she was hired by George Kessler. Two weeks later, the laundress in his household was infected and taken to St. Joseph's Regional Medical Center, where her case of typhoid was the first in a long time. In August 1906, Mallon took a position in Oyster Bay on Long Island with the family of a wealthy New York banker, Charles Henry Warren. Mallon went along with the Warrens when they rented a house in Oyster Bay for the summer of 1906. From August 27 to September 3, six of the 11 people in the family came down with typhoid fever. The disease at that time was \"unusual\" in Oyster Bay, according to three medical doctors who practiced there. The landlord, understanding that it would be impossible to rent a house with the reputation of typhoid, hired several independent experts to find the source of infection. They took water samples from pipes, faucets, toilets, and the cesspool, all of which were negative for typhoid.", "In late 1906, Mallon was hired by Walter Bowen, whose family lived on Park Avenue. Their maid got sick on January 23, 1907, and soon Charles Warren’s only daughter got typhoid and died. This case helped to identify Mallon as the source of the infections. George Soper, an investigator hired by Warren after the outbreak in Oyster Bay, had been trying to determine the cause of typhoid outbreaks in well-to-do families, when it was known that the disease typically struck in unsanitary environments. He discovered that a female Irish cook, who fit the physical description he had been given, was involved in all of the outbreaks. He was unable to locate her because she generally left after an outbreak began, without giving a forwarding address. Soper then learned of an active outbreak in a penthouse on Park Avenue and discovered Mallon was the cook. Two of the household's servants were hospitalized, and the daughter of the family died of typhoid. Soper first met Mallon in the kitchen of the Bowens and accused her of spreading the disease. Though Soper himself recollected his behavior as \"as diplomatic as possible\", he infuriated Mallon and she threatened him with a carving fork. When Mallon refused to give samples, Soper decided to compile a five-year history of her employment. He found that of the eight families that had hired Mallon as a cook, members of seven claimed to have contracted typhoid fever. Then Soper found out where Mallon's lover lived and arranged a new meeting there. He took Dr. Raymond Hoobler in an attempt to convince Mary to give them samples of urine and stool for analysis. Mallon again refused to cooperate, believing that typhoid was everywhere and that the outbreaks had happened because of contaminated food and water. At that time, the concept of healthy carriers was unknown even to healthcare workers. Soper published his findings on June 15, 1907, in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\". He wrote: It was found that the family changed cooks on August 4. This was about three weeks before the typhoid epidemic broke out. The new cook, Mallon, remained in the family only a short time and left about three weeks after the outbreak occurred. Mallon was described as an Irish woman about 40 years of age, tall, heavy, single. She seemed to be in perfect health.", "Soper notified the New York City Health Department, whose investigators realized that Mallon was a typhoid carrier. Under sections 1169 and 1170 of the Greater New York Charter, Mallon was arrested as a public health threat. She was forced into an ambulance by five policemen and Dr. Josephine Baker, who at some point had to sit on Mallon to restrain her. Mallon was transported to the Willard Parker Hospital, where she was restrained and forced to give samples. For four days, she wasn't even allowed to get up and use the bathroom on her own. The massive amounts of typhoid bacteria that were discovered in her stool samples indicated that the infection center was in her gallbladder. Under questioning, Mallon admitted that she almost never washed her hands. This was not unusual at the time; the germ theory of disease still was not fully accepted. On March 19, 1907, Mary was sentenced to quarantine on North Brother Island. While quarantined, she gave stool and urine samples three times per week. Authorities suggested removing her gallbladder, but she refused because she did not believe she carried the disease. At the time, gallbladder removal was dangerous, and people had died from the procedure. Mallon was also unwilling to stop working as a cook, a job that earned her more money than any other. Having no home of her own, she was always on the verge of poverty. After Soper's publication in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\", Mary attracted extensive media attention and received the nickname \"Typhoid Mary\". Later, in a textbook that defined typhoid fever, she again was called \"Typhoid Mary\" Soper visited Mallon in quarantine, telling her he would write a book and give her part of the royalties. She angrily rejected his proposal and locked herself in the bathroom until he left. She hated the nickname and wrote in a letter to her lawyer: I wonder how the said Dr. William H. Park would like to be insulted and put in the Journal and call him or his wife Typhoid William Park. Not all medical experts supported the decision to forcibly quarantine Mallon. For example, Milton J. Rosenau and Charles V. Chapin both argued that she just had to be taught to carefully treat her condition and ensure that she would not transmit the typhoid to others. Both considered isolation to be an unnecessary, overly strict punishment. Mallon suffered from a nervous breakdown after her arrest and forcible transportation to the hospital. In 1909, she tried to sue the New York Health Department, but her complaint was denied and the case closed by the New York Supreme Court. In a letter to her lawyer, she complained that she was treated like a \"guinea pig\". She was obliged to give samples for analysis three times a week, but for six months was not allowed to visit an eye doctor, even though her eyelid was paralyzed and she had to bandage it at night. Her medical treatment was hectic: she was given urotropin in three-month courses for a year, threatening to destroy her kidneys, then changed to brewers yeast and hexamethylenamin in increasing doses. She was first told that she had typhoid in her intestinal tract, then in her bowel muscles, then in her gallbladder. Mallon herself never believed that she was a carrier. With the help of a friend, she sent several samples to an independent New York laboratory. All came back negative for typhoid. On North Brother Island, almost a quarter of her analyses from March 1907 through June 1909 were also negative. After 2 years and 11 months of Mallon's quarantine, Eugene H. Porter, the New York State Commissioner of Health, decided that disease carriers should no longer be kept in isolation and that Mallon could be freed if she agreed to stop working as a cook and take reasonable steps to avoid transmitting typhoid to others. On February 19, 1910, Mallon said she was \"prepared to change her occupation (that of a cook), and would give assurance by affidavit that she would upon her release take such hygienic precautions as would protect those with whom she came in contact, from infection.\" She was released from quarantine and returned to the mainland.", "Upon her release, Mallon was given a job as a laundress, which paid less than cooking — only 20 dollars per month instead of 50. At some point she wounded her arm, the wound became infected, and she could not work at all for six months. After several unsuccessful years, she started cooking again. She used fake surnames like Breshof or Brown and took jobs as a cook against the explicit instructions of health authorities. No agencies that hired servants for upscale families would offer her employment, so for the next five years she moved to the mass sector. She worked in a number of kitchens in restaurants, hotels, and spa centers. Almost wherever she worked, there were outbreaks of typhoid. However, she changed jobs frequently, and Soper was unable to find her. In 1915, Mallon started working at Sloane Hospital for Women in New York City. Soon 25 people were infected, and two died. The head obstetrician, Dr. Edward B. Cragin, called Soper and asked him to help in the investigation. Soper identified Mallon from the servants' verbal descriptions and also by her handwriting. Mallon again fled, but the police were able to find and arrest her when she took food to a friend on Long Island. Mallon was returned to quarantine on North Brother Island on March 27, 1915. Little is known about her life during the second quarantine. She remained on North Brother for more than 23 years, the authorities gave her a private one-storey cottage. Since 1918 she was allowed one-day trips to mainland. In 1925, Dr. Alexandra Plavska came to the island for internship. She organized a laboratory on the second floor of the chapel and offered Mallon the technician's job. Mallon washed bottles, did recordings, and prepared glasses for pathologists.", "Mallon spent the rest of her life in quarantine at Riverside Hospital on North Brother Island. Six years before her death, she had a stroke. Mary Mallon never completely recovered, and half of her body remained paralyzed. On November 11, 1938, she died of pneumonia at age 69. Mallon's body was cremated, and her ashes were buried at Saint Raymond's Cemetery in the Bronx. Only nine people attended the funeral. Some sources claim that a post-mortem found evidence of live typhoid bacteria in Mallon's gallbladder. Soper wrote, however, that there was no autopsy, a claim cited by other researchers to assert a conspiracy to calm public opinion after her death.", "", "At least three deaths were attributed to Mallon, but because of her use of aliases and refusal to cooperate, the exact number is not known. Some have estimated that she may have caused 50 fatalities. Other healthy typhoid carriers identified in the first quarter of the 20th century include Tony Labella, an Italian immigrant, presumed to have caused over 100 cases (with five deaths); an Adirondack guide dubbed \"Typhoid John\", presumed to have infected 36 people (with two deaths); and Alphonse Cotils, a restaurateur and bakery owner. The 1910s medicine could not offer 100% effective solution — there were no antibiotics to fight the infection; and the gallbladder removal was a dangerous operation and people died from it. Some modern specialists claim that the typhoid bacteria can hide in macrophages and then hide in the intestinal lymph nodes or spleen.", "Mallon's case became the first in which an asymptomatic carrier was discovered and forcibly isolated. Ethical and legal issues, raised by her case, are still being argued. Personal rights and liberty were balanced for the sake of public health.", "Today, the phrase \"Typhoid Mary\" is a colloquial term for anyone who, knowingly or not, spreads disease or some other undesirable thing. Mallon's urban legend status in New York inspired the name of the rap group Hail Mary Mallon." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Etymology.", "Origin.", "Origin myths.", "Description.", "Preparation.", "Varieties.", "Regular.", "Fine.", "Sweets.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The breadstuff or pastry is called \"kifli\" in Hungarian and \"Kipferl\" in Austrian German. It is called \"kifla\" (pl. \"kiflice\") in Croatian, Bosnian and Serbian, \"кифла\" or kifla in Bulgarian, \"кифла\" in Macedonian, \"kifle\" in Albanian, \"giffel\" in Danish and Swedish, \"rohlík\" in Czech, \"rožok\" in Slovak, рогалик/\"rogalik\" in Russian, рогалик/\"rohalyk\" in Ukrainian, \"rogljiček\" in Slovene, \"rogal\" in Polish, \"cornuleț\" in Romanian, \"Hörnchen\" (little horn) in German, \"gipfel\" in Switzerland, and \"kipfl\" in Austrian Italy. In Vienna it is sometimes called a Meidlinger roll or küpfel.", "In Old High German, Kipfa means \"carriage stanchion\", referring to the stanchions or \"horns\" of a cart. From the 13th century this usage refers to a bread shape of pagan origin. In Hungarian, kifli means \"twist\" or \"crescent\".", "Breads or pastries in the shape of a crescent moon are believed to have been served in ancient times as offerings to the goddess of the moon, Selene. The shape is also reminiscent of horns; both are associated with ancient symbolism and considered the oldest surviving pastry shape. A moon shaped pastry creates itself naturally by hand-rolling a ball of dough into a cylinder form. A list of foods eaten in a 10th-century convent include \"panis lunatis\", described as a small crescent-shaped roll often eaten during fasts. The kipfel has been documented in Austria to at least 1227 when they were recorded in Babenberg-ruled Vienna as chipfen: In Austria kipfel is formally recognized by the government as a traditional food. According to the Austrian Ministry of Sustainability and Tourism, kipfel were probably a traditional monastery pastry baked for Easter. They are described as crescent-shaped rolls made of yeast wheat dough in a variety of shapes and as being popular for coffee breaks and breakfasts, particularly in Vienna. The kipfel likely inspired the similarly-shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough.", "A common culinary myth claims that when Christian forces freed Buda from Ottoman occupation in 1686 the bakers of the town celebrated the victory the next day by selling freshly baked bread rolls made into a crescent shape. Another story claims the kipfel was invented in Vienna after or during the siege of the city by Ottoman Turks.", "Kifli are a traditional Hungarian yeasted bread rolled into a crescent shape. Kifli are often baked to enhance the flavour. The Austrian kipfel is a small wheat roll with pointed ends. The 17th-century Austrian monk Abraham a Sancta Clara described the roll as crescent shaped, writing \"the moon in the first quarter shines like a kipfl\", and noted there were kipfel in various forms: \"vil lange, kurze, krumpe und gerade kipfel\" (\"many long, short, crooked and straight kipfel\").", "Traditionally, kifli are made by cutting sheets of soft yeast dough into triangular wedges, rolling them into crescent shapes and baking them. Unlike the French croissant (crescent), Kifli is made from a plain, bread-like dough and is more akin to a roll than to pastry. Kifli is also thinner and longer than the croissant. Kifli are made in various sizes; some of them weigh as much as small bread loaf. In commercial preparation, the dough is mixed, cut into small pieces, and fed into a machine that flattens and rolls it. The following manual process is similar to the traditional process.", "", "When they come out of the oven, the rolls can be left plain or brushed with water to make them shiny. They can be given an egg wash and sprinkled with either poppy seeds or caraway seeds mixed with coarse salt. The latter variety is often made into a straight shape rather than a crescent. Kifli is eaten like bread or rolls; it is usually made into a sandwich, sometimes plain or with butter like a fresh baguette. Often, especially for breakfast, the topping is jam or honey. They may also be used for dunking.", "This is the same as the regular style but the dough may contain butter or other shortening and milk. It is sweeter than the regular variety and is well-suited to be eaten with jam or honey, and is commonly eaten for breakfast with coffee, hot chocolate or milk. It might also be an accompaniment for drinks like Doogh and Kumis.", "There are a couple of sweet rolls named \"kifli\" to describe their shape; they are eaten at the end of a meal or with an afternoon drink; these are not kifli, which when used on its own, always means the regular or fine varieties. In German, these are differentiated with a different spelling: \"kipferl\" compared to \"kipfel\" for the yeast bread.", "Stale kipfel are used to make a sweet bread pudding called Kipfelkoch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Research.", "Professional Membership.", "Politics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hampl was born in Prague, Czechoslovakia in 1962. He received his PhD from the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in 1990. He did postgraduate work at the University of Minnesota Medical School and, since 2002, has been a professor of physiology at Charles University in Prague. His research has focused on the pulmonary circulation and its use of nitric oxide as a signaling agent. His research publications have been cited more than 2,500 times, his H-index is 22. In February 2006, Hampl became the 507th rector of Charles University. After serving two four-years terms stipulated by law, he stepped down on 31 January 2014, leaving the university in the hands of his elected successor Tomáš Zima.", "In 2006-2011 Hampl served in the association of rectors of public, state and private higher education institutions in the Czech Republic, the Czech Rectors Conference, as its Vice-President for public relations and foreign affairs, and Vice-President for creative activities, respectively; in 2011-2014 he served as its President. In 2009 he was a member of the Board of Trustees of the Europaeum. In 2010-2011 he served as the Chair of the Bioethical Committee of the Czech Republic. In 2011-2015 he was a Board member of the European University Association, where he also serves in the Research policy working group (since 2009) and the Steering Committee of Council for Doctoral Education (since 2013).", "He became publicly known mostly for successfully opposing the proposals of Minister of Health Tomáš Julínek to privatize public university hospitals in 2008, the proposals for considerably reduce academic decision-making in public universities by Minister of Education Josef Dobeš in 2012, and the successful conflict with the president of the country Miloš Zeman about the president's legal duty to nominate new university professors by following the rigorous procedures at individual school. During his rectorship three large infrastructural project were prepared and mostly completed utilizing the European structural funds - the biomedical centers in Plzeň and Hradec Králové and a biotechnology center common with six institutions of Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic - BIOCEV in Vestec near Prague. Charles University also acquired a large building complex \"Crystal\" near the location of Faculty of sports, making expansion in the direction of \"mini campuses\" possible. The same is true for the acquisition of a double object in Opeatalova street in the centre of Prague, where still significant adjustments have to be done. In September 2014 he was elected Senator in the district of central Prague (he run as independent with a joint support from Christian democrats and Green party). He serves as the chair of the Senate's Committee on European Union Affairs. In 2018 Christian and Democratic Union – Czechoslovak People's Party nominated him for the President of the Senate. Election was held on 14 November 2018. Hampl advanced to the second round but was defeated by Jaroslav Kubera." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Therapeutic uses.", "Methemoglobin saturation.", "Blood stains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Amyl nitrite is administered to treat cyanide poisoning. It works by converting hemoglobin to methemoglobin, which allows for the binding of cyanide and the formation of cyanomethemoglobin. The immediate goal of forming this cyanide adduct is to prevent the binding of free cyanide to the cytochrome a group in cytochrome c oxidase.", "Methemoglobin is expressed as a concentration or a percentage. Percentage of methemoglobin is calculated by dividing the concentration of methemoglobin by the concentration of total hemoglobin. Percentage of methemoglobin is likely a better indicator of illness severity than overall concentration, as underlying medical conditions play an important role. For example, a methemoglobin concentration of 1.5 g/dL may represent a percentage of 10% in an otherwise healthy patient with a baseline hemoglobin of 15 mg/dL, whereas the presence of the same concentration of 1.5 g/dL of methemoglobin in an anemic patient with a baseline hemoglobin of 8 g/dL would represent a percentage of 18.75%. The former patient will be left with a functional hemoglobin concentration of 13.5 g/dL and potentially remain asymptomatic while the latter patient with a functional hemoglobin concentration 6.5 g/dL may be severely symptomatic with a methemoglobin of less than 20%. This may be further compounded by the \"functional hemoglobin's\" decreased ability to release oxygen in the presence of methemoglobin. Anemia, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and essentially any pathology that impairs the ability to deliver oxygen may worsen the symptoms of methemoglobinemia.", "Increased levels of methemoglobin are found in blood stains. Upon exiting the body, bloodstains transit from bright red to dark brown, which is attributed to oxidation of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) to methemoglobin (met-Hb) and hemichrome (HC)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "It is unclear who developed the first tigerstripe pattern, consisting of sixty-four (64) stripes. The French used a similar pattern (Lizard) in their war in Vietnam. After the French left Vietnam, the Republic of Vietnam Marine Corps continued using the pattern, a variant of which was later adopted by Vietnamese Rangers (Biệt Động Quân) and Special Forces (Lực Lượng Đặc Biệt). When the United States began sending advisors to South Vietnam, USMAAG advisors attached to the ARVN were authorized to wear their Vietnamese unit's combat uniform with US insignia. Soon, many American special operations forces in the Vietnamese theater of operations wore the pattern, despite not always being attached to ARVN units: it became the visible trademark of Marine Corps Recon, Green Berets, LRRPs, SEALs, and other elite forces. MAC-V SOG also adopted the tiger stripe as one of their main camos. Tigerstripe was never an official US-issue item. Personnel permitted to wear it at first had their camo fatigues custom-made by local tailors, ARVN uniforms being too small for most Americans; for this reason there were many variations of the basic tigerstripe pattern. In 1963, Marine Corps Advisors and from 1964, 5th Special Forces Group contracted with Vietnamese and other Southeast Asian producers to make fatigues and other items such as boonie hats using tigerstripe fabric. Being manufactured by different producers in places like Thailand, Korea and in Japan via Okinawa, there was a wide variety of patterns and color shade variations. They were made in both Asian and US sizes. During the latter stages of the war, tigerstripe was gradually replaced in American reconnaissance units by the-then-new ERDL pattern, a predecessor of the woodland BDU pattern. The Special Forces-advised Civilian Irregular Defense Group (CIDG) used tigerstripes from 1963 until disbanded in 1971. Special Forces personnel wore tigerstripes when conducting operations with the CIDG. Besides American and ARVN forces, Australian and New Zealand military personnel used tigerstripe uniforms while on advisory duty with the ARVN units. Personnel from the Australian Special Air Service Regiment and the New Zealand Special Air Service were the principal wearers of tigerstripe uniforms (and ERDL uniforms) in theater, while regular Australian and New Zealand troops wore the standard-issue olive drab green uniforms. Outside of Vietnam, Thailand and Philippines have been the most prolific manufacturers of tiger stripe designs since the Vietnam War. The pattern became popular throughout the Middle East and South America as well. The pattern was tested by the USMC prior to the adoption of MARPAT through the Scout Sniper Instructor School." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Ambient Networks Project.", "Interfaces and their use.", "ACS Functional Entities.", "Example situation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ambient Networks was a collaborative project within the European Union's Sixth Framework Programme that investigates future communications systems beyond fixed and 3rd generation mobile networks. It is part of the Wireless World Initiative. The project worked at a new concept called Ambient Networking, to provide suitable mobile networking technology for the future mobile and wireless communications environment. Ambient Networks aimed to provide a unified networking concept that can adapt to the very heterogeneous environment of different radio technologies and service and network environments. Special focus was put on facilitating both competition and cooperation of various market players by defining interfaces, which allow the instant negotiation of agreements. This approach went beyond interworking of well-defined protocols and was expected to have a long-term effect on the business landscape in the wireless world. Central to the project was the concept of composition of networks, an approach to address the dynamic nature of the target environment, based on an open framework for network control functionality, which can be extended with new capabilities as well as operating over existing connectivity infrastructure.", "The ACS (Ambient Control Space) is the internal of an ambient network. It has the functions that can be accessed and it is in full control of the resources of the network. The Ambient Networks infrastructure does not deal with nodes, instead it deals with networks, though at the beginning, all the \"networks\" might only consist of just one node: these \"networks\" need to merge to form a network in the original sense of the word. A composition establishment consists of the negotiation and then the realization of a Composition Agreement. This merging can happen be fully automatic. The decision to merge or not is decided using pre-configured policies. There are three interfaces present to communicate with an ACS. These are: Interfaces are used to hide the internal structures of the underlying network. If two networks meet, and decide to merge, a new ACS will be formed of the two (though the two networks will have their own ACS along with the interfaces inside this global, new ACS). The newly composed ACS will of course have its own ANI, ASI and ARI, and will use these interfaces to merge with other Ambient Networks. Other options for composition are to not merge the two Ambient Networks (Network Interworking) or to establish a new virtual ACS that exercises joint control over a given set of shared resources (Control Sharing).", "Functions are divided into Functional Entities (FEs). The ACS provides a flexible and extensible framework to run these FEs as a distributed system. Examples are More information on FEs is contained in the Ambient Networks Framework Architecture and the latest version of the System Description.", "Alice has a PAN, a Personal Area Network on her body: she has a Bluetooth enabled PDA, mobile phone and laptop that she is carrying, and are all currently turned on, and forming a network. Her laptop also has the ability to connect using an available WLAN, and her mobile phone has the ability to connect through GPRS, though GPRS is slower and much more costly for Alice to use. She is now on the move, and her laptop is downloading her emails using the GPRS connection on the mobile: While walking, she passes into an area covered by a free WLAN hotspot: Her PAN now immediately starts to initiate a connection with the hotspot. This is called \"merging\" of the networks (that of the hotspot and that of her PAN). Once this merging is complete, the downloading of her email continues totally unaffected, but instead of using the expensive and slow GPRS connection, it is now using the newly established WLAN connection. If she now wants to browse the web with her PDA, the PDA will also use the WLAN connection of the laptop:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "First Intercalated Games.", "Games.", "Opening.", "Closing ceremony.", "Participating nations.", "Medals awarded.", "Medal count." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first Intercalated Games had been scheduled by the International Olympic Committee in 1901 as part of a new schedule, where every four years, in between the internationally organized games, there would be intermediate games held in Athens. This was apparently a compromise: after the successful games of Athens 1896, the Greeks suggested they could organize the games every four years. Since they had the accommodation and had proven they could hold well-organized games, they received some support. However, Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the International Olympic Committee, opposed this. Coubertin had intended the first games to be in Paris in 1900. After Paris lost the premiere Olympics, Coubertin did not want the games to be permanently hosted elsewhere. When the 1900 Olympic Games failed to meet expectations and were overshadowed by the Exposition Universelle, the IOC supported the Greek idea by granting them a second series of quadrennial games in between the first series. All of the games would be International Olympic Games; the difference was that half of them would follow Coubertin's idea of \"organisation internationale\", while the other half would follow the Greeks' idea of a permanent home with the Greek NOC as experienced organizers. This was a departure from the ancient schedule, but it was expected that, if the ancient Greeks could keep a four-year schedule, the modern Olympic Movement could keep a two-year schedule. As 1902 was now too close, and Greece experienced internal difficulties, the 2nd Olympic Games in Athens were scheduled for 1906. The IOC as a whole gave the Greek NOC full support for the organization.", "The 1906 games were quite successful. Unlike the 1900, 1904 or 1908 games, they were neither stretched out over months nor overshadowed by an international exhibition. Their crisp format was most likely instrumental in the continued existence of the games. These Games also were the first games to have all athlete registration go through the NOCs. They were the first to have the Opening of the Games as a separate event: an event at which for the first time the athletes marched into the stadium in national teams, each following its national flag. They were also the first with an Olympic Village, at the Zappeion. They introduced the closing ceremony, the raising of national flags for the victors, and several less visible changes now accepted as tradition.", "The Games were held from 22 April to 2 May 1906, in Athens, Greece. They took place in the Panathenaic Stadium, which had already hosted the 1896 Games and the earlier Zappas Olympics of 1870 and 1875. The games excluded several disciplines that had occurred during the past two games; it was unclear whether they ought to have been part of the Olympic Games. Added to the program were the javelin throw and the pentathlon.", "The games included a real opening ceremony, watched by a large crowd. The athletes, for the first time, entered the stadium as national teams, marching behind their flags. The official opening of the games was done by King George I.", "Six thousand schoolchildren took part in possibly the first ever Olympic closing ceremony.", "854 athletes, 848 men and 6 women, from 20 countries, competed at the 1906 Intercalated Games.", "78 events in 14 disciplines, comprising 12 sports, were part of the 1906 Games.", "These medals were distributed but are no longer recognized by the International Olympic Committee. \"The mixed team medal is for Belgian/Greek athletes in the Coxed Pairs 1 mile rowing event. In the football event, the silver medal for the team from Smyrna was won by footballers from various nationalities (English, French and Armenian), while the bronze medal for the team from Thessalonica was won by ethnic Greeks competing for Greece, despite both cities being Ottoman possessions at the time. \"The only country that did not win medals—Egypt.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Themes.", "Hope and faith.", "Religion.", "Contemporary references.", "Production.", "Location.", "Style and design.", "Single-shot sequences.", "Sound.", "Release.", "Critical reception.", "Top 10 lists.", "Accolades.", "Home media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 2027, after 18 years of global human infertility and depression, the world is on the brink of collapse and humanity faces extinction. The United Kingdom, one of the few nations with a functioning government, is deluged by asylum seekers fleeing radiation and plague. In response, the UK has become a police state as the British Army rounds up and executes immigrants. Theo Faron, a former activist turned cynical bureaucrat, is kidnapped by the Fishes, a militant immigrants' rights group. They are led by Theo's estranged wife, Julian Taylor, from whom he separated after their son's death during a 2008 flu pandemic. Julian offers Theo money to acquire transit papers for a young refugee, Kee. Theo obtains the papers from his cousin, a government minister who runs a state-sponsored collection of salvaged art. Theo agrees to escort Kee in exchange for a large sum. Luke, a Fishes member, drives Theo, Kee, and former midwife Miriam towards Canterbury. They are ambushed by an armed gang, and Julian is killed. When the group is stopped by the police, Luke kills the officers and the group hides Julian's body before heading to a Fishes safehouse. Kee reveals to Theo that she is pregnant. Julian had intended to hand Kee to the Human Project, a supposed scientific group in the Azores dedicated to curing infertility. However, Luke persuades Kee to stay and is voted as the new leader of the Fishes. That night, Theo eavesdrops on a discussion and learns that Julian's death was orchestrated by the Fishes so that Luke could become leader; they intend to kill Theo and use the baby as a political tool to support the coming revolution. Theo wakes Kee and Miriam, and they steal a car, escaping to the secluded hideaway of Theo's ageing friend Jasper Palmer, a former political cartoonist turned pot dealer. The group makes plans to board the Human Project ship, the \"Tomorrow\", which will arrive offshore from a refugee camp at Bexhill-on-Sea. Jasper proposes having Syd, a camp border guard to whom he frequently sells drugs, smuggle them into Bexhill, masquerading as refugees. When the Fishes discover Jasper's house, the group flees while Jasper stays behind to stall the Fishes. Luke shoots and kills Jasper as Theo watches from the woods. The group meets Syd at an abandoned school, and he helps them board a bus to Bexhill. When Kee experiences contractions at a checkpoint, Miriam distracts a guard by feigning religious mania and is taken away. Inside the camp, Theo and Kee meet a Romanian woman, Marichka, who provides a room where Kee gives birth to a baby girl. The next day, Syd informs Theo and Kee that war has broken out between the British military and the refugees, led by the Fishes. Having learned that they have a bounty on their heads, Syd attempts to capture them, but Theo kills him with a car battery and they escape. Amidst the fighting, the Fishes capture Kee and the baby. Theo tracks them to an apartment building under heavy fire; he confronts Luke, who is killed in an explosion, and escorts Kee and the baby out. Awed by the baby, the British soldiers and Fishes temporarily stop fighting and allow the trio to leave. Marichka leads them to a hidden boat, but stays behind as they depart, despite Theo imploring her to come along. As British fighter jets bomb Bexhill from a distance, Theo reveals that he was mortally wounded by Luke. He tells Kee how to soothe her baby, and Kee tells Theo she will name her Dylan after Theo and Julian's lost son. Theo dies as the \"Tomorrow\" approaches. As the credits roll, the sound of children laughing and playing can be heard in the background.", "", "\"Children of Men\" explores the themes of hope and faith in the face of overwhelming futility and despair. The film's source, P. D. James' novel \"The Children of Men\" (1992), describes what happens when society is unable to reproduce, using male infertility to explain this problem. In the novel, it is made clear that hope depends on future generations. James writes \"It was reasonable to struggle, to suffer, perhaps even to die, for a more just, a more compassionate society, but not in a world with no future where, all too soon, the very words 'justice', 'compassion','society’,'struggle', 'evil', would be unheard echoes on an empty air.\". The title can therefore be explained as such: children are representing new life, with new chances, choices and possibilities, however with the flip side that they carry the burden of mankind. The film switches the infertility from male to female but never explains its cause: environmental destruction and divine punishment are considered. This unanswered question (and others in the film) have been attributed to Cuarón's dislike for expository film: \"There's a kind of cinema I detest, which is a cinema that is about exposition and explanations... It's become now what I call a medium for lazy readers... Cinema is a hostage of narrative. And I'm very good at narrative as a hostage of cinema.\" Cuarón's disdain for back-story and exposition led him to use the concept of female infertility as a \"metaphor for the fading sense of hope\". The \"almost mythical\" Human Project is turned into a \"metaphor for the possibility of the evolution of the human spirit, the evolution of human understanding\". Without dictating how the audience should feel by the end of the film, Cuarón encourages viewers to come to their own conclusions about the sense of hope depicted in the final scenes: \"We wanted the end to be a glimpse of a possibility of hope, for the audience to invest their own sense of hope into that ending. So if you're a hopeful person you'll see a lot of hope, and if you're a bleak person you'll see a complete hopelessness at the end.\"", "Like Virgil's \"Aeneid\", Dante's \"Divine Comedy\", and Chaucer's \"Canterbury Tales\", the crux of the journey in \"Children of Men\" lies in what is uncovered along the path rather than the terminus itself. Theo's heroic journey to the south coast mirrors his personal quest for \"self-awareness\", a journey that takes him from \"despair to hope\". According to Cuarón, the title of P. D. James' book (\"The Children of Men\") is an allegory derived from a passage of scripture in the Bible. (Psalm 90 (89):3 of the KJV: \"Thou turnest man to destruction; and sayest, Return, ye children of men\") James refers to her story as a \"Christian fable\" while Cuarón describes it as \"almost like a look at Christianity\": \"I didn't want to shy away from the spiritual archetypes\", Cuarón told \"Filmmaker Magazine\". \"But I wasn't interested in dealing with dogma.\" The film has been noted for its use of Christian symbolism; for example, British terrorists named \"Fishes\" protect the rights of refugees. Opening on Christmas Day in the United States, critics compared the characters of Theo and Kee with Joseph and Mary, calling the film a \"modern-day Nativity story\". Kee's pregnancy is revealed to Theo in a barn, alluding to the manger of the Nativity scene; when Theo asks Kee who the father of the baby is she jokingly states she is a virgin; and when other characters discover Kee and her baby, they respond with \"Jesus Christ\" or the sign of the cross. Also the Archangel Gabriel (among other religious figures) is invoked in the bus scene. To highlight these spiritual themes, Cuarón commissioned a 15-minute piece by British composer John Tavener, a member of the Eastern Orthodox Church whose work resonates with the themes of \"motherhood, birth, rebirth, and redemption in the eyes of God\". Calling his score a \"musical and spiritual reaction to Alfonso's film\", snippets of Tavener's \"Fragments of a Prayer\" contain lyrics in Latin, German and Sanskrit sung by mezzo-soprano, Sarah Connolly. Words like \"mata\" (mother), \"pahi mam\" (protect me), \"avatara\" (saviour), and \"alleluia\" appear throughout the film. In the closing credits, the Sanskrit words \"Shantih Shantih Shantih\" appear as end titles. Writer and film critic Laura Eldred of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill observes that \"Children of Men\" is \"full of tidbits that call out to the educated viewer\". During a visit to his house by Theo and Kee, Jasper says \"Shanti, shanti, shanti\". Eldred notes that the \"shanti\" used in the film is also found at the end of an Upanishad and in the final line of T. S. Eliot's poem \"The Waste Land\", a work Eldred describes as \"devoted to contemplating a world emptied of fertility: a world on its last, teetering legs\". \"Shanti\" is also a common beginning and ending to all Hindu prayers, and means \"peace\", referencing the invocation of divine intervention and rebirth through an end to violence.", "\"Children of Men\" takes an unconventional approach to the modern action film, using a documentary, newsreel style. Film critics Michael Rowin, Jason Guerrasio and Ethan Alter observe the film's underlying touchstone of immigration. For Alter and other critics, the structural support and impetus for the contemporary references rests upon the visual nature of the film's exposition, occurring in the form of imagery as opposed to conventional dialogue. Other popular images appear, such as a sign over the refugee camp reading \"Homeland Security\". The similarity between the hellish, cinéma vérité stylized battle scenes of the film and current news and documentary coverage of the Iraq War, is noted by film critic Manohla Dargis, describing Cuarón's fictional landscapes as \"war zones of extraordinary plausibility\". In the film, refugees are \"hunted down like cockroaches\", rounded up and put into roofless cages open to the elements and camps, and even shot, leading film critics like Chris Smith and Claudia Puig to observe symbolic \"overtones\" and images of the Holocaust. This is reinforced in the scene where an elderly refugee woman speaking German is seen detained in a cage, and in the scene where British troops strip and assault refugees; a song by The Libertines, \"Arbeit macht frei\", plays in the background. \"The visual allusions to the Nazi round-ups are unnerving\", writes Richard A. Blake. \"It shows what people can become when the government orchestrates their fears for its own advantage.\" Cuarón explains how he uses his imagery to cross-reference fictional and futuristic events with real, contemporary, or historical incidents and beliefs:", "The adaptation of the P. D. James novel was originally written by Paul Chart, and later rewritten by Mark Fergus and Hawk Ostby. The studio brought director Alfonso Cuarón on board in 2001. Cuarón and screenwriter Timothy J. Sexton began rewriting the script after the director completed \"Y tu mamá también\". Afraid he would \"start second guessing things\", Cuarón chose not to read P. D. James' novel, opting to have Sexton read the book while Cuarón himself read an abridged version. Cuarón did not immediately begin production, instead directing \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\". During this period, David Arata rewrote the screenplay and delivered the draft which secured Clive Owen and sent the film into pre-production. The director's work experience in the United Kingdom exposed him to the \"social dynamics of the British psyche\", giving him insight into the depiction of \"British reality\". Cuarón used the film \"The Battle of Algiers\" as a model for social reconstruction in preparation for production, presenting the film to Clive Owen as an example of his vision for \"Children of Men\". In order to create a philosophical and social framework for the film, the director read literature by Slavoj Žižek, as well as similar works. The film \"Sunrise\" was also influential.", "\"A Clockwork Orange\" was one of the inspirations for the futuristic, yet battered patina of 2027 London. \"Children of Men\" was the second film Cuarón made in London, with the director portraying the city using single, wide shots. While Cuarón was preparing the film, the London bombings occurred, but the director never considered moving the production. \"It would have been impossible to shoot anywhere but London, because of the very obvious way the locations were incorporated into the film\", Cuarón told \"Variety\". \"For example, the shot of Fleet Street looking towards St. Paul's would have been impossible to shoot anywhere else.\" Due to these circumstances, the opening terrorist attack scene on Fleet Street was shot a month and a half after the London bombing. Cuarón chose to shoot some scenes in East London, a location he considered \"a place without glamour\". The set locations were dressed to make them appear even more run-down; Cuarón says he told the crew \"'Let's make it more Mexican'. In other words, we'd look at a location and then say: yes, but in Mexico there would be this and this. It was about making the place look run-down. It was about poverty.\" He also made use of London's most popular sites, shooting in locations like Trafalgar Square and Battersea Power Station. The power station scene (whose conversion into an art archive is a reference to the Tate Modern), has been compared to Antonioni's \"Red Desert\". Cuarón added a pig balloon to the scene as homage to Pink Floyd's \"Animals\". Other art works visible in this scene include Michelangelo's \"David\", Picasso's \"Guernica\", and Banksy's \"British Cops Kissing\". London visual effects companies Double Negative and Framestore worked directly with Cuarón from script to post production, developing effects and creating \"environments and shots that wouldn't otherwise be possible\". The Historic Dockyard in Chatham was used to film the scene in the empty activist safehouse.", "\"In most sci-fi epics, special effects substitute for story. Here they seamlessly advance it\", observes Colin Covert of \"Star Tribune\". Billboards were designed to balance a contemporary and futuristic appearance as well as easily visualizing what else was occurring in the rest of the world at the time, and cars were made to resemble modern ones at first glance, although a closer look made them seem unfamiliar. Cuarón informed the art department that the film was the \"anti-\"Blade Runner\"\", rejecting technologically advanced proposals and downplaying the science fiction elements of the 2027 setting. The director focused on images reflecting the contemporary period.", "\"Children of Men\" used several lengthy single-shot sequences in which extremely complex actions take place. The longest of these are a shot in which Kee gives birth (199 seconds; 3:19); an ambush on a country road (247 seconds; 4:07); and a scene in which Theo is captured by the Fishes, escapes, and runs down a street and through a building in the middle of a raging battle (378 seconds; 6:18). These sequences were extremely difficult to film, although the effect of continuity is sometimes an illusion, aided by CGI effects. Cuarón had experimented with long takes in \"Great Expectations\", \"Y tu mamá también\", and \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\". His style is influenced by the Swiss film \"Jonah Who Will Be 25 in the Year 2000\", a favorite of Cuarón's. Cuarón said \"I was studying cinema when I first saw [\"Jonah\"], and interested in the French New Wave. \"Jonah\" was so unflashy compared with those films. The camera keeps a certain distance and there are relatively few close-ups. It's elegant and flowing, constantly tracking, but very slowly and not calling attention to itself.\" The creation of the single-shot sequences was a challenging, time-consuming process that sparked concerns from the studio. It took fourteen days to prepare for the single shot in which Clive Owen's character searches a building under attack, and five hours for every time they wanted to reshoot it. In the middle of one shot, blood splattered onto the lens, and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki convinced the director to leave it in. According to Owen, \"Right in the thick of it are me and the camera operator because we're doing this very complicated, very specific dance which, when we come to shoot, we have to make feel completely random.\" Cuarón's initial idea for maintaining continuity during the roadside ambush scene was dismissed by production experts as an \"impossible shot to do\". Fresh from the visual effects-laden \"Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban\", Cuarón suggested using computer-generated imagery to film the scene. Lubezki refused to allow it, reminding the director that they had intended to make a film akin to a \"raw documentary\". Instead, a special camera rig invented by Gary Thieltges of Doggicam Systems was employed, allowing Cuarón to develop the scene as one extended shot. A vehicle was modified to enable seats to tilt and lower actors out of the way of the camera, and the windshield was designed to tilt out of the way to allow camera movement in and out through the front windscreen. A crew of four, including the director of photography and camera operator, rode on the roof. However, the commonly reported statement that the action scenes are continuous shots is not entirely true. Visual effects supervisor Frazer Churchill explains that the effects team had to \"combine several takes to create impossibly long shots\", where their job was to \"create the illusion of a continuous camera move\". Once the team was able to create a \"seamless blend\", they would move on to the next shot. These techniques were important for three continuous shots: the coffee shop explosion in the opening shot, the car ambush, and the battlefield scene. The coffee shop scene was composed of \"two different takes shot over two consecutive days\"; the car ambush was shot in \"six sections and at four different locations over one week and required five seamless digital transitions\"; and the battlefield scene \"was captured in five separate takes over two locations\". Churchill and the Double Negative team created over 160 of these types of effects for the film. In an interview with \"Variety\", Cuarón acknowledged this nature of the \"single-shot\" action sequences: \"Maybe I'm spilling a big secret, but sometimes it's more than what it looks like. The important thing is how you blend everything and how you keep the perception of a fluid choreography through all of these different pieces.\" Tim Webber of VFX house Framestore CFC was responsible for the three-and-a-half-minute single take of Kee giving birth, helping to choreograph and create the CG effects of the childbirth. Cuarón had originally intended to use an animatronic baby as Kee's child with the exception of the childbirth scene. In the end, two takes were shot, with the second take concealing Clare-Hope Ashitey's legs, replacing them with prosthetic legs. Cuarón was pleased with the results of the effect, and returned to previous shots of the baby in animatronic form, replacing them with Framestore's computer-generated baby.", "Cuarón uses sound and music to bring the fictional world of social unrest and infertility to life. A creative yet restrained combination of rock, pop, electronic music, hip-hop and classical music replaces the typical film score. The mundane sounds of traffic, barking dogs, and advertisements follow the character of Theo through London, East Sussex and Kent, producing what \"Los Angeles Times\" writer Kevin Crust calls an \"urban audio rumble\". For Crust, the music comments indirectly on the barren world of \"Children of Men\": Deep Purple's version of \"Hush\" blaring from Jasper's car radio becomes a \"sly lullaby for a world without babies\" while King Crimson's \"The Court of the Crimson King\" make a similar allusion with their lyrics, \"three lullabies in an ancient tongue\". Amongst a genre-spanning selection of electronic music, a remix of Aphex Twin's \"Omgyjya Switch 7\", which includes the 'Male Thijs Loud Scream' audio sample by Thanvannispen, not present on the original (nor indeed on the official soundtrack) can be heard during the scene in Jasper's house, where Jasper's \"Strawberry Cough\" (a potent, strawberry-flavoured strain of marijuana) is being sampled. During a conversation between the two men, Radiohead's \"Life in a Glasshouse\" plays in the background. A number of dubstep tracks, most notably \"Anti-War Dub\" by Digital Mystikz, as well as tracks by Kode9 & The Space Ape and Pressure are also featured. For the Bexhill scenes during the film's second half, the director makes use of silence and cacophonous sound effects such as the firing of automatic weapons and loudspeakers directing the movement of \"fugees\" (slang in the film's timeline for refugee). Here, classical music by George Frideric Handel, Gustav Mahler, and Krzysztof Penderecki's \"Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima\" complements the chaos of the refugee camp. Throughout the film, John Tavener's \"Fragments of a Prayer\" is used as a spiritual motif to explain and interpret the story without the use of narrative. A few times during the film, a loud, ringing tone evocative of tinnitus is heard. This sound generally coincides with the death of a major character (Julian, Jasper) and is referred to by Julian herself, who describes the tones as the last time you'll ever hear that frequency. In this way, then, the loss of the tones is symbolic of the loss of the characters.", "\"Children of Men\" had its world premiere at the 63rd Venice International Film Festival on 3 September 2006. On 22 September 2006, the film debuted at number 1 in the United Kingdom with $2.4 million in 368 screens. It debuted in a limited release of 16 theaters in the United States on 22 December 2006, expanding to more than 1,200 theaters on 5 January 2007., \"Children of Men\" had grossed $69,612,678 worldwide, with $35,552,383 of the revenue generated in the United States.", "\"Children of Men\" received critical acclaim; on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 92% approval rating based on 247 reviews from critics, with an average rating of 8.06/10. The site's critical consensus states: \"\"Children of Men\" works on every level: as a violent chase thriller, a fantastical cautionary tale, and a sophisticated human drama about societies struggling to live.\" On Metacritic, the film has a score of 84 out of 100, based on 38 reviews, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Dana Stevens of \"Slate\" called it \"the herald of another blessed event: the arrival of a great director by the name of Alfonso Cuarón\". Stevens hailed the film's extended car chase and battle scenes as \"two of the most virtuoso single-shot chase sequences I've ever seen\". Manohla Dargis of \"The New York Times\" called the film a \"superbly directed political thriller\", raining accolades on the long chase scenes. \"Easily one of the best films of the year\" said Ethan Alter of \"Film Journal International\", with scenes that \"dazzle you with their technical complexity and visual virtuosity\". Jonathan Romney of \"The Independent\" praised the accuracy of Cuarón's portrait of the United Kingdom, but he criticized some of the film's futuristic scenes as \"run-of-the-mill future fantasy\". \"Film Comment's\" critics' poll of the best films of 2006 ranked the film number 19, while the 2006 readers' poll ranked it number two. On their list of the best movies of 2006, \"The A.V. Club\", the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", \"Slate\", and \"The Washington Post\" placed the film at number one. \"Entertainment Weekly\" ranked the film seventh on its end-of-the-decade top 10 list, saying, \"Alfonso Cuarón's dystopian 2006 film reminded us that adrenaline-juicing action sequences can work best when the future looks just as grimy as today\". Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" ranked it number two on his list of best films of the decade, writing: According to Metacritic's analysis of the most often and notably noted films on the best-of-the-decade lists, \"Children of Men\" is considered the 11th greatest film of the 2000s. In the wake of the European migrant crisis of 2015, the British withdrawal from the European Union of the late 2010s, and the election of Donald Trump in 2016, all of which involved divisive debates about immigration and increasing border enforcement, several commentators reappraised the film's importance, with some calling it \"prescient\".", "The film appeared on many critics' top 10 lists as one of the best films of 2006: In 2012, director Marc Webb included the film on his list of Top 10 Greatest Films when asked by \"Sight & Sound\" for his votes for the BFI The Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time. In 2015, the film was named number one on an all-time Top 10 Movies list by the blog \"Pop Culture Philosopher\". In 2017 \"Rolling Stone\" magazine ranked \"Children of Men\" as the best Sci-fi film of the 21st century.", "P. D. James was reported to be pleased with the film, and the screenwriters of \"Children of Men\" were awarded the 19th annual USC Scripter Award for the screen adaptation of the novel. Howard A. Rodman, chair of the USC School of Cinematic Arts Writing Division, described the book-to-screen adaptation as \"writing and screen writing of the highest order\", although Gerschatt, writing in \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\", noted that the screenplay bore very little resemblance to the novel: The gender of the baby was changed (to female), as was the character who was pregnant (Julian, in the novel); Theo, who appears to die in the film, does not die in the novel.", "The HD-DVD and DVD were released in Europe on 15 January 2007 and in the United States on 27 March 2007. Extras include a half-hour documentary by director Alfonso Cuarón, entitled \"The Possibility of Hope\" (2007), which explores the intersection between the film's themes and reality with a critical analysis by eminent scholars: the Slovenian sociologist and philosopher Slavoj Žižek, anti-globalization activist Naomi Klein, environmentalist futurist James Lovelock, sociologist Saskia Sassen, human geographer Fabrizio Eva, cultural theorist Tzvetan Todorov, and philosopher and economist John N. Gray. \"Under Attack\" features a demonstration of the innovative techniques required for the car chase and battle scenes; in \"Theo & Julian\", Clive Owen and Julianne Moore discuss their characters; \"Futuristic Design\" opens the door on the production design and look of the film; \"Visual Effects\" shows how the digital baby was created. Deleted scenes are included. The film was released on Blu-ray Disc in the United States on 26 May 2009." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Soil types.", "Sources and influences on microclimate.", "Cold air pool.", "Craters.", "Caves and lava tubes.", "Plant microclimate.", "Dams." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The terminology \"micro-climate\" first appeared in the 1950s in publications such as \"Climates in Miniature: A Study of Micro-Climate Environment\" (Thomas Bedford Franklin, 1955). The area in a developed industrial park may vary greatly from a wooded park nearby, as natural flora in parks absorb light and heat in leaves that a building roof or parking lot just radiates back into the air. Advocates of solar energy argue that widespread use of solar collection can mitigate overheating of urban environments by absorbing sunlight and putting it to work instead of heating the foreign surface objects. A microclimate can offer an opportunity as a small growing region for crops that cannot thrive in the broader area; this concept is often used in permaculture practiced in northern temperate climates. Microclimates can be used to the advantage of gardeners who carefully choose and position their plants. Cities often raise the average temperature by zoning, and a sheltered position can reduce the severity of winter. Roof gardening, however, exposes plants to more extreme temperatures in both summer and winter. In an urban area, tall buildings create their own microclimate, both by overshadowing large areas and by channeling strong winds to ground level. Wind effects around tall buildings are assessed as part of a microclimate study. (Urban Microclimate) Microclimates can also refer to purpose-made environments, such as those in a room or other enclosure. Microclimates are commonly created and carefully maintained in museum display and storage environments. This can be done using passive methods, such as silica gel, or with active microclimate control devices. Usually, if the inland areas have a humid continental climate, the coastal areas stay much milder during winter months, in contrast to the hotter summers. This is the case further north on the American west coast, such as in British Columbia, Canada, where Vancouver has an oceanic wet winter with rare frosts, but inland areas that average several degrees warmer in summer have cold and snowy winters.", "The type of soil found in an area can also affect microclimates. For example, soils heavy in clay can act like pavement, moderating the near ground temperature. On the other hand, if soil has many air pockets, then the heat could be trapped underneath the topsoil, resulting in the increased possibility of frost at ground level.", "Two main parameters to define a microclimate within a certain area are temperature and humidity. A source of a drop in temperature and/or humidity can be attributed to different sources or influences. Often microclimate is shaped by a conglomerate of different influences and is a subject of microscale meteorology.", "The well known examples of cold air pool (CAP) effect are Gstettneralm Sinkhole in Austria (lowest recorded temperature ) and Peter Sinks in the US. The main criterion on the wind speed formula_1 in order to create a warm air flow penetration into a CAP is the following: where formula_3 is the Froude number, formula_4 — the Brunt–Väisälä frequency, formula_5 — depth of the valley, and formula_6 — Froude number at the threshold wind speed.", "The presence of permafrost close to the surface in a crater creates a unique microclimate environment.", "As similar as lava tubes can be to caves which are not formed due to volcanic activity the microclimate within the former is different due to dominant presence of basalt. Lava tubes and basaltic caves are important astrobiological targets on Earth and Mars (see also Martian lava tube).", "As pointed out by Rudolf Geiger in his book not only climate influences the living plant but the opposite effect of the interaction of plants on their environment can also take place, and is known as \"plant climate\". This effect has important consequences for forests in the midst of a continent; indeed, if forests were not creating their own clouds and water cycle with their efficient evapo-transpiration activity, there would be no forest far away from coasts, as statistically, without any other influence, rainfall occurrence would decrease from the coast towards innland. Planting trees to fight drought has also been proposed in the context of afforestation.", "Artificial reservoirs as well as natural ones create microclimates and often influence the macroscopic climate as well." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ancient & Classical period.", "Feudal period.", "Christianity in Tōhoku.", "Early modern period.", "Contemporary period.", "Geography.", "Subdivision.", "Climate.", "Demographics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In mythological times, the area was known as Azuma (吾妻, あづま) and corresponded to the area of Honshu occupied by the native Emishi and Ainu. The area was historically the Dewa and the Michinoku regions, a term first recorded in (654). There is some variation in modern usage of the term \"Michinoku\". Tōhoku's initial historical settlement occurred between the seventh and ninth centuries, well after Japanese civilization and culture had become firmly established in central and southwestern Japan. The last stronghold of the indigenous Emishi on Honshu and the site of many battles, the region has maintained a degree of autonomy from Kyoto at various times throughout history. The \"Northern Fujiwara\" (奥州藤原氏 \"Ōshū Fujiwara-shi\") were a Japanese noble family that ruled the Tōhoku region during the 12th century as their own realm. They kept their independence vis-a-vis the Imperial Court in Kyoto by the strength of their warrior bands until they were overwhelmed by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1189.", "", "Date Masamune (1567–1636), feudal lord of Date clan, expanded trade in the Tōhoku region. Although initially faced with attacks by hostile clans, he managed to overcome them after a few defeats and eventually ruled one of the largest fiefdoms of the later Tokugawa shogunate. He built many palaces and worked on many projects to beautify the region. He is also known to have encouraged foreigners to come to his land. Even though he funded and promoted an envoy to establish relations with the Pope in Rome, he was likely motivated at least in part by a desire for foreign technology, similar to that of other lords, such as Oda Nobunaga. Further, once Tokugawa Ieyasu (1543–1616) outlawed Christianity, Masamune reversed his position, and though disliking it, let Ieyasu persecute Christians in his domain. For 270 years, Tōhoku remained a place of tourism, trade and prosperity. Matsushima, for instance, a series of tiny islands, was praised for its beauty and serenity by the wandering haiku poet Matsuo Bashō. He showed sympathy for Christian missionaries and traders in Japan. In addition to allowing them to come and preach in his province, he also released the prisoner and missionary Padre Sotelo from the hands of Tokugawa Ieyasu. Date Masamune allowed Sotelo as well as other missionaries to practice their religion and win converts in Tōhoku.", "The haiku poet Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) wrote \"Oku no Hosomichi\" (\"The Narrow Road to the Deep North\") during his travels through Tōhoku.", "In the 1960s, ironworks, Steelmaking, cement, chemical industry, pulp, and petroleum refining industries began developing. The region is traditionally known as a less developed area of Japan. The catastrophic 9.0-Magnitude earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011, inflicted massive damage along the east coast of this region, killed 15,894 people and was the costliest natural disaster ever which left 500,000 people homeless along with radioactive fallout from the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.", "Tōhoku, like most of Japan, is hilly or mountainous, with the Ōu Mountains running north–south. The inland location of many of the region's lowlands has led to a concentration of much of the population there. Coupled with coastlines that do not favor seaport development, this settlement pattern resulted in a much greater than usual dependence on land and rail transportation. Low points in the central mountain range make communications between lowlands on either side of the range moderately easy. Tōhoku was traditionally considered the granary of Japan because it supplied Sendai and the Tokyo-Yokohama market with rice and other farming commodities. Tōhoku provided 20 percent of the nation's rice crop.", "The most often used subdivision of the region is dividing it to consisting of Aomori, Akita, and Iwate Prefectures and consisting of Yamagata, Miyagi, and Fukushima Prefectures.", "The climate is colder than in other parts of Honshū due to the stronger effect of the Siberian High, and permits only one crop a year on paddy fields. The pacific coast of Tohoku, however, is generally much less snowy than the region's popular image and has among the smallest seasonal temperature variation in Japan. The city of Iwaki, for instance, has daily mean temperatures ranging from 3°C in January to 23.9°C in August.", "The population decline of Tōhoku, which began before the year 2000, has accelerated, now including previously dynamic Miyagi. Despite this, Sendai City has grown, in part due to relocations of people affected by the 2011 disaster. The population decline of Aomori, Iwate and Akita Prefectures, Honshu's three northernmost, began in the early 1980s after an initial loss of population in the late 1950s. Fukushima Prefecture, prior to 1980, had traditionally been the most populated, but today Miyagi is the most populated and urban by far." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Motivation and definition.", "Numeral systems and dates.", "Monoid of words.", "Cartesian products.", "Functions over a well-ordered set.", "Finite subsets.", "Group orders of formula_6.", "Colexicographic order.", "Monomials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The words in a lexicon (the set of words used in some language) have a conventional ordering, used in dictionaries and encyclopedias, that depends on the underlying ordering of the alphabet of symbols used to build the words. The lexicographical order is one way of formalizing word order given the order of the underlying symbols. The formal notion starts with a finite set, often called the alphabet, which is totally ordered. That is, for any two symbols and in that are not the same symbol, either or. The \"words\" of are the finite sequences of symbols from, including words of length 1 containing a single symbol, words of length 2 with 2 symbols, and so on, even including the empty sequence formula_1 with no symbols at all. The lexicographical order on the set of all these finite words orders the words as follows: However, in combinatorics, another convention is frequently used for the second case, whereby a shorter sequence is always smaller than a longer sequence. This variant of the lexicographical order is sometimes called \"shortlex order\". In lexicographical order, the word \"Thomas\" appears before \"Thompson\" because they first differ at the fifth letter ('a' and 'p'), and letter 'a' comes before the letter 'p' in the alphabet. Because it is the first difference, in this case the 5th letter is the \"most significant difference\" for alphabetical ordering. An important property of the lexicographical order is that for each, the set of words of length is well-ordered by the lexicographical order (provided the alphabet is finite); that is, every decreasing sequence of words of length is finite. It is not true that the set of \"all\" finite words is well-ordered; for example, the set has no least element.", "The lexicographical order is used not only in dictionaries, but also commonly for numbers and dates. One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller. On the other hand, with the positional notation of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, comparing numbers is easy, because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order. In fact, with positional notation, a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits, and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits (ignoring leading zeroes) or the number of digits is the same and the first (most significant) digit which differs is larger. For real numbers written in decimal notation, a slightly different variant of the lexicographical order is used: the parts on the left of the decimal point are compared as before; if they are equal, the parts at the right of the decimal point are compared with the lexicographical order. The padding 'blank' in this context is a trailing \"0\" digit. When negative numbers are also considered, one has to reverse the order for comparing negative numbers. This is not usually a problem for humans, but it may be for computers (testing the sign takes some time). This is one of the reasons for adopting two's complement representation for representing signed integers in computers. Another example of a non-dictionary use of lexicographical ordering appears in the ISO 8601 standard for dates, which expresses a date as YYYY-MM-DD. This formatting scheme has the advantage that the lexicographical order on sequences of characters that represent dates coincides with the chronological order: an earlier date is smaller in the lexicographical order than a later date. This date ordering makes computerized sorting of dates easier by avoiding the need for a separate sorting algorithm.", "The \"monoid of words\" over an alphabet is the free monoid over. That is, the elements of the monoid are the finite sequences (words) of elements of (including the empty sequence, of length 0), and the operation (multiplication) is the concatenation of words. A word is a prefix (or 'truncation') of another word if there exists a word such that. By this definition, the empty word (formula_1) is a prefix of every word, and every word is a prefix of itself (with formula_3); care must be taken if these cases are to be excluded. With this terminology, the above definition of the lexicographical order becomes more concise: Given a partially or totally ordered set, and two words and over such that is non-empty, then one has under lexicographical order, if at least one of the following conditions is satisfied: Notice that, due to the prefix condition in this definition, formula_4, where formula_1 is the empty word. If < is a total order on \"A\", then so is the lexicographic order on the words of. However, in general this is not a well-order, even if the alphabet is well-ordered. For instance, if, the language has no least element in the lexicographical order:. Since many applications require well orders, a variant of the lexicographical orders is often used. This well-order, sometimes called \"shortlex\" or \"quasi-lexicographical order\", consists in considering first the lengths of the words (if, then ), and, if the lengths are equal, using the lexicographical order. If the order on is a well-order, the same is true for the shortlex order.", "The lexicographical order defines an order on a Cartesian product of ordered sets, which is a total order when all these sets are themselves totally ordered. An element of a Cartesian product is a sequence whose th element belongs to for every. As evaluating the lexicographical order of sequences compares only elements which have the same rank in the sequences, the lexicographical order extends to Cartesian products of ordered sets. Specifically, given two partially ordered sets and, the lexicographical order on the Cartesian product is defined as The result is a partial order. If and are each totally ordered, then the result is a total order as well. The lexicographical order of two totally ordered sets is thus a linear extension of their product order. One can define similarly the lexicographic order on the Cartesian product of an infinite family of ordered sets, if the family is indexed by the nonnegative integers, or more generally by a well-ordered set. This generalized lexicographical order is a total order if each factor set is totally ordered. Unlike the finite case, an infinite product of well-orders is not necessarily well-ordered by the lexicographical order. For instance, the set of countably infinite binary sequences (by definition, the set of functions from non-negative integers to, also known as the Cantor space ) is not well-ordered; the subset of sequences that have precisely one (i.e. ) does not have a least element under the lexicographical order induced by, because is an infinite descending chain. Similarly, the infinite lexicographic product is not Noetherian either because is an infinite ascending chain.", "The functions from a well-ordered set to a totally ordered set may be identified with sequences indexed by of elements of. They can thus be ordered by the lexicographical order, and for two such functions and, the lexicographical order is thus determined by their values for the smallest such that. If is also well-ordered and is finite, then the resulting order is a well-order. As shown above, if is infinite this is not the case.", "In combinatorics, one has often to enumerate, and therefore to order the finite subsets of a given set. For this, one usually chooses an order on. Then, sorting a subset of is equivalent to convert it into an increasing sequence. The lexicographic order on the resulting sequences induces thus an order on the subsets, which is also called the \"lexicographical order\". In this context, one generally prefer to sort first the subsets by cardinality, such as in the shortlex order. Therefore, in the following, we will consider only orders on subsets of fixed cardinal. For example, using the natural order of the integers, the lexicographical ordering on the subsets of three elements of is For ordering finite subsets of a given cardinality of the natural numbers, the \"colexicographical\" order (see below) is often more convenient, because all initial segments are finite, and thus the colexicographical order defines an order isomorphism between the natural numbers and the set of sets of natural numbers. This is not the case for the lexicographical order, as, with the lexicographical order, we have, for example, for every.", "Let formula_6 be the free Abelian group of rank, whose elements are sequences of integers, and operation is the addition. A group order on formula_6 is a total order, which is compatible with addition, that is The lexicographical ordering may also be used to characterize all group orders on formula_10 In fact, linear forms with real coefficients, define a map from formula_6 into formula_12 which is injective if the forms are linearly independent (it may be also injective if the forms are dependent, see below). The lexicographic order on the image of this map induces a group order on formula_10 Robbiano's theorem is that every group order may be obtained in this way. More precisely, given a group order on formula_14 there exist an integer and linear forms with real coefficients, such that the induced map formula_15 from formula_6 into formula_17 has the following properties;", "The colexicographic or colex order is a variant of the lexicographical order that is obtained by reading finite sequences from the right to the left instead of reading them from the left to the right. More precisely, whereas the lexicographical order between two sequences is defined by the colexicographical order is defined by In general, the difference between the colexicographical order and the lexicographical order is not very significant. However, when considering increasing sequences, typically for coding subsets, the two orders differ significantly. For example, for ordering the increasing sequences (or the sets) of two natural integers, the lexicographical order begins by and the colexicographic order begins by The main property of the colexicographical order for increasing sequences of a given length is that every initial segment is finite. In other words, the colexicographical order for increasing sequences of a given length induces an order isomorphism with the natural numbers, and allows enumerating these sequences. This is frequently used in combinatorics, for example in the proof of the Kruskal-Katona theorem.", "When considering polynomials, the order of the terms does not matter in general, as the addition is commutative. However, some algorithms, such as polynomial long division, require the terms to be in a specific order. Many of the main algorithms for multivariate polynomials are related with Gröbner bases, concept that requires the choice of a monomial order, that is a total order, which is compatible with the monoid structure of the monomials. Here \"compatible\" means that formula_22) with their exponent vectors (here ). If is the number of variables, every monomial order is thus the restriction to formula_23 of a monomial order of formula_6 (see above formula_6, for a classification). One of these admissible orders is the lexicographical order. It is, historically, the first to have been used for defining Gröbner bases, and is sometimes called \"pure lexicographical order\" for distinguishing it from other orders that are also related to a lexicographical order. Another one consists in comparing first the total degrees, and then resolving the conflicts by using the lexicographical order. This order is not widely used, as either the lexicographical order or the degree reverse lexicographical order have generally better properties. The \"degree reverse lexicographical order\" consists also in comparing first the total degrees, and, in case of equality of the total degrees, using the reverse of the colexicographical order. That is, given two exponent vectors, one has if either or For this ordering, the monomials of degree one have the same order as the corresponding indeterminates (this would not be the case if the reverse lexicographical order would be used). For comparing monomials in two variables of the same total degree, this order is the same as the lexicographic order. This is not the case with more variables. For example, for exponent vectors of monomials of degree two in three variables, one has for the degree reverse lexicographic order: For the lexicographical order, the same exponent vectors are ordered as A useful property of the degree reverse lexicographical order is that a homogeneous polynomial is a multiple of the least indeterminate if and only if its leading monomial (its greater monomial) is a multiple of this least indeterminate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Vector spaces.", "Vectors vs kets.", "Bra-Ket notation.", "Inner product and bra-ket identification on Hilbert space.", "Bras and kets as row and column vectors.", "Non-normalizable states and non-Hilbert spaces.", "Usage in quantum mechanics.", "Spinless position–space wave function.", "Overlap of states.", "Changing basis for a spin- particle.", "Misleading uses.", "Linear operators.", "Linear operators acting on kets.", "Linear operators acting on bras.", "Outer products.", "Hermitian conjugate operator.", "Properties.", "Associativity.", "Hermitian conjugation.", "Composite bras and kets.", "The unit operator.", "Notation used by mathematicians." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bra–ket notation is a notation for linear algebra and linear operators on complex vector spaces together with their dual space both in the finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional case. It is specifically designed to ease the types of calculations that frequently come up in quantum mechanics. Its use in quantum mechanics is quite widespread. Many phenomena that are explained using quantum mechanics are explained using bra–ket notation.", "", "In mathematics, the term \"vector\" is used for an element of any vector space. In physics, however, the term \"vector\" is much more specific: \"vector\" refers almost exclusively to quantities like displacement or velocity, which have components that relate directly to the three dimensions of space, or relativistically, to the four of space time. Such vectors are typically denoted with over arrows (formula_24), boldface (formula_25) or indices (formula_26). In quantum mechanics, a quantum state is typically represented as an element of a complex Hilbert space, for example, the infinite-dimensional vector space of all possible wavefunctions (square integrable functions mapping each point of 3D space to a complex number) or some more abstract Hilbert space constructed more algebraically. Since the term \"vector\" is already used for something else (see previous paragraph), and physicists tend to prefer conventional notation to stating what space something is an element of, it is common and useful to denote an element formula_27 of an abstract complex vector spaces as a ket formula_28 using vertical bars and angular brackets and refer to them as \"kets\" rather than as vectors and pronounced \"ket-formula_27\" or \"ket-A\" for. Symbols, letters, numbers, or even words—whatever serves as a convenient label—can be used as the label inside a ket, with the formula_30 making clear that the label indicates a vector in vector space. In other words, the symbol \"\" has a specific and universal mathematical meaning, while just the \"\" by itself does not. For example, is not necessarily equal to. Nevertheless, for convenience, there is usually some logical scheme behind the labels inside kets, such as the common practice of labeling energy eigenkets in quantum mechanics through a listing of their quantum numbers. Ket notation was invented by Paul Dirac", "Since kets are just vectors in a Hermitian vector space they can be manipulated using the usual rules of linear algebra, for example: Note how the last line above involves infinitely many different kets, one for each real number. If the ket is an element of a vector space, a bra formula_32 is an element of its dual space, i.e. a bra is a linear functional which is a linear map from the vector space to the complex numbers. Thus, it is useful to think of kets and bras as being elements of different vector spaces (see below however) with both being different useful concepts. A bra formula_33 and a ket formula_34 (i.e. a functional and a vector), can be combined to an operator formula_35 of rank one with outer product", "The bra-ket notation is particularly useful in Hilbert spaces which have an inner product that allows Hermitian conjugation and identifying a vector with a linear functional, i.e. a ket with a bra, and vice versa (see Riesz representation theorem). The inner product on Hilbert space formula_9 (with the first argument anti linear as preferred by physicists) is fully equivalent to an (anti linear) identification between the space of kets and that of bras in the bra ket notation: for a vector ket formula_38 define a functional (i.e. bra) formula_39 by", "In the simple case where we consider the vector space formula_41, a ket can be identified with a column vector, and a bra as a row vector. If moreover we use the standard hermitian innerproduct on formula_41, the bra corresponding to a ket, in particular a bra and a ket with the same label are conjugate transpose. Moreover, conventions are set up in such a way that writing bras, kets, and linear operators next to each other simply imply matrix multiplication. In particular the outer product formula_43 of a column and a row vector ket and bra can be identified with matrix multiplication (column vector times row vector equals matrix). For a finite-dimensional vector space, using a fixed orthonormal basis, the inner product can be written as a matrix multiplication of a row vector with a column vector: Based on this, the bras and kets can be defined as: and then it is understood that a bra next to a ket implies matrix multiplication. The conjugate transpose (also called \"Hermitian conjugate\") of a bra is the corresponding ket and vice versa: because if one starts with the bra then performs a complex conjugation, and then a matrix transpose, one ends up with the ket Writing elements of a finite dimensional (or mutatis mutandis, countably infinite) vector space as a column vector of numbers requires picking a basis. Picking a basis is not always helpful because quantum mechanics calculations involve frequently switching between different bases (e.g. position basis, momentum basis, energy eigenbasis), and one can write something like \"\" without committing to any particular basis. In situations involving two different important basis vectors, the basis vectors can be taken in the notation explicitly and here will be referred simply as \"\" and \"\".", "Bra–ket notation can be used even if the vector space is not a Hilbert space. In quantum mechanics, it is common practice to write down kets which have infinite norm, i.e. non-normalizable wavefunctions. Examples include states whose wavefunctions are Dirac delta functions or infinite plane waves. These do not, technically, belong to the Hilbert space itself. However, the definition of \"Hilbert space\" can be broadened to accommodate these states (see the Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction or rigged Hilbert spaces). The bra–ket notation continues to work in an analogous way in this broader context. Banach spaces are a different generalization of Hilbert spaces. In a Banach space, the vectors may be notated by kets and the continuous linear functionals by bras. Over any vector space without topology, we may also notate the vectors by kets and the linear functionals by bras. In these more general contexts, the bracket does not have the meaning of an inner product, because the Riesz representation theorem does not apply.", "The mathematical structure of quantum mechanics is based in large part on linear algebra: Since virtually every calculation in quantum mechanics involves vectors and linear operators, it can involve, and often does involve, bra–ket notation. A few examples follow:", "The Hilbert space of a spin-0 point particle is spanned by a \"position basis\", where the label extends over the set of all points in position space. This label is the eigenvalue of the position operator acting on such a basis state, formula_49. Since there are an uncountably infinite number of vector components in the basis, this is an uncountably infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The dimensions of the Hilbert space (usually infinite) and position space (usually 1, 2 or 3) are not to be conflated. Starting from any ket in this Hilbert space, one may \"define\" a complex scalar function of, known as a wavefunction, On the left-hand side, is a function mapping any point in space to a complex number; on the right-hand side, is a ket consisting of a superposition of kets with relative coefficients specified by that function. It is then customary to define linear operators acting on wavefunctions in terms of linear operators acting on kets, by For instance, the momentum operator formula_52 has the following form, One occasionally encounters an expression such as though this is something of an abuse of notation. The differential operator must be understood to be an abstract operator, acting on kets, that has the effect of differentiating wavefunctions once the expression is projected onto the position basis, formula_55 even though, in the momentum basis, this operator amounts to a mere multiplication operator (by ). That is, to say, or", "In quantum mechanics the expression is typically interpreted as the probability amplitude for the state to collapse into the state. Mathematically, this means the coefficient for the projection of onto. It is also described as the projection of state onto state.", "A stationary spin- particle has a two-dimensional Hilbert space. One orthonormal basis is: where is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to + and is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to −. Since these are a basis, \"any\" quantum state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination (i.e., quantum superposition) of these two states: where and are complex numbers. A \"different\" basis for the same Hilbert space is: defined in terms of rather than. Again, \"any\" state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination of these two: In vector form, you might write depending on which basis you are using. In other words, the \"coordinates\" of a vector depend on the basis used. There is a mathematical relationship between,, and ; see change of basis.", "There are a few conventions and abuses of notation that are generally accepted by the physics community, but which might confuse the non-initiated. It is common to use the same symbol for \"labels\" and \"constants\" in the same equation. For example,, where the symbol is used simultaneously as the \"name of the operator\", its \"eigenvector\" and the associated \"eigenvalue\". Something similar occurs in component notation of vectors. While (uppercase) is traditionally associated with wavefunctions, (lowercase) may be used to denote a \"label\", a \"wave function\" or \"complex constant\" in the same context, usually differentiated only by a subscript. The main abuses are including operations inside the vector labels. This is done for a fast notation of scaling vectors. E.g. if the vector is scaled by, it might be denoted by, which makes no sense since is a label, not a function or a number, so you can't perform operations on it. This is especially common when denoting vectors as tensor products, where part of the labels are moved outside the designed slot, e.g.. Here part of the labeling that should state that all three vectors are different was moved outside the kets, as subscripts 1 and 2. And a further abuse occurs, since is meant to refer to the norm of the first vector—which is a \"label\" denoting a \"value\".", "", "A linear operator is a map that inputs a ket and outputs a ket. (In order to be called \"linear\", it is required to have certain properties.) In other words, if is a linear operator and is a ket, then is another ket. In an -dimensional Hilbert space, can be written as an column vector, and then is an matrix with complex entries. The ket can be computed by normal matrix multiplication. Linear operators are ubiquitous in the theory of quantum mechanics. For example, observable physical quantities are represented by self-adjoint operators, such as energy or momentum, whereas transformative processes are represented by unitary linear operators such as rotation or the progression of time.", "Operators can also be viewed as acting on bras \"from the right hand side\". Specifically, if is a linear operator and is a bra, then is another bra defined by the rule In an -dimensional Hilbert space, can be written as a row vector, and (as in the previous section) is an matrix. Then the bra can be computed by normal matrix multiplication. If the same state vector appears on both bra and ket side, then this expression gives the expectation value, or mean or average value, of the observable represented by operator for the physical system in the state.", "A convenient way to define linear operators on a Hilbert space is given by the outer product: if is a bra and is a ket, the outer product denotes the rank-one operator with the rule For a finite-dimensional vector space, the outer product can be understood as simple matrix multiplication: The outer product is an matrix, as expected for a linear operator. One of the uses of the outer product is to construct projection operators. Given a ket of norm 1, the orthogonal projection onto the subspace spanned by is This is an idempotent in the algebra of observables that acts on the Hilbert space.", "Just as kets and bras can be transformed into each other (making into ), the element from the dual space corresponding to is, where denotes the Hermitian conjugate (or adjoint) of the operator. In other words, If is expressed as an matrix, then is its conjugate transpose. Self-adjoint operators, where, play an important role in quantum mechanics; for example, an observable is always described by a self-adjoint operator. If is a self-adjoint operator, then is always a real number (not complex). This implies that expectation values of observables are real.", "Bra–ket notation was designed to facilitate the formal manipulation of linear-algebraic expressions. Some of the properties that allow this manipulation are listed herein. In what follows, and denote arbitrary complex numbers, denotes the complex conjugate of, and denote arbitrary linear operators, and these properties are to hold for any choice of bras and kets.", "Given any expression involving complex numbers, bras, kets, inner products, outer products, and/or linear operators (but not addition), written in bra–ket notation, the parenthetical groupings do not matter (i.e., the associative property holds). For example: and so forth. The expressions on the right (with no parentheses whatsoever) are allowed to be written unambiguously \"because\" of the equalities on the left. Note that the associative property does \"not\" hold for expressions that include nonlinear operators, such as the antilinear time reversal operator in physics.", "Bra–ket notation makes it particularly easy to compute the Hermitian conjugate (also called \"dagger\", and denoted ) of expressions. The formal rules are: These rules are sufficient to formally write the Hermitian conjugate of any such expression; some examples are as follows:", "Two Hilbert spaces and may form a third space by a tensor product. In quantum mechanics, this is used for describing composite systems. If a system is composed of two subsystems described in and respectively, then the Hilbert space of the entire system is the tensor product of the two spaces. (The exception to this is if the subsystems are actually identical particles. In that case, the situation is a little more complicated.) If is a ket in and is a ket in, the direct product of the two kets is a ket in. This is written in various notations: See quantum entanglement and the EPR paradox for applications of this product.", "Consider a complete orthonormal system (\"basis\"), for a Hilbert space, with respect to the norm from an inner product. From basic functional analysis, it is known that any ket formula_82 can also be written as with the inner product on the Hilbert space. From the commutativity of kets with (complex) scalars, it follows that must be the \"identity operator\", which sends each vector to itself. This, then, can be inserted in any expression without affecting its value; for example where, in the last line, the Einstein summation convention has been used to avoid clutter. In quantum mechanics, it often occurs that little or no information about the inner product of two arbitrary (state) kets is present, while it is still possible to say something about the expansion coefficients and of those vectors with respect to a specific (orthonormalized) basis. In this case, it is particularly useful to insert the unit operator into the bracket one time or more. For more information, see Resolution of the identity, Since, plane waves follow,. Typically, when all matrix elements of an operator such as are available, this resolution serves to reconstitute the full operator,", "The object physicists are considering when using bra–ket notation is a Hilbert space (a complete inner product space). Let be a Hilbert space and a vector in. What physicists would denote by is the vector itself. That is, Let be the dual space of. This is the space of linear functionals on. The isomorphism is defined by, where for every we define where,, and are just different notations for expressing an inner product between two elements in a Hilbert space (or for the first three, in any inner product space). Notational confusion arises when identifying and with and respectively. This is because of literal symbolic substitutions. Let and let. This gives One ignores the parentheses and removes the double bars. Some properties of this notation are convenient since we are dealing with linear operators and composition acts like a ring multiplication. Moreover, mathematicians usually write the dual entity not at the first place, as the physicists do, but at the second one, and they usually use not an asterisk but an overline (which the physicists reserve for averages and the Dirac spinor adjoint) to denote complex conjugate numbers; i.e., for scalar products mathematicians usually write whereas physicists would write for the same quantity" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Example lexical analyzer.", "Internals.", "Issues.", "Time complexity.", "Reentrancy.", "Usage under non-Unix environments.", "Using flex from other languages.", "Flex++." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Flex was written in C around 1987. by Vern Paxson, with the help of many ideas and much inspiration from Van Jacobson. Original version by Jef Poskanzer. The fast table representation is a partial implementation of a design done by Van Jacobson. The implementation was done by Kevin Gong and Vern Paxson.", "This is an example of a Flex scanner for the instructional programming language PL/0. The tokens recognized are: 'codice_3', 'codice_4', 'codice_5', 'codice_6', 'codice_7', 'codice_8', 'codice_9', 'codice_10', 'codice_11', 'codice_12', 'codice_13', 'codice_14', 'codice_15', 'codice_16', 'codice_17', 'codice_18'; numbers: codice_19; identifiers: codice_20 and keywords: codice_21, codice_22, codice_23, codice_24, codice_25, codice_26, codice_27, codice_28, codice_29, codice_30, codice_31. %{ digit [0-9] letter [a-zA-Z] [ \\t\\n\\r] /* skip whitespace */. { printf(\"Unknown character [%c]\\n\",yytext[0]);", "These programs perform character parsing and tokenizing via the use of a deterministic finite automaton (DFA). A DFA is a theoretical machine accepting regular languages. These machines are a subset of the collection of Turing machines. DFAs are equivalent to read-only right moving Turing machines. The syntax is based on the use of regular expressions. See also nondeterministic finite automaton.", "", "A Flex lexical analyzer usually has time complexity formula_1 in the length of the input. That is, it performs a constant number of operations for each input symbol. This constant is quite low: GCC generates 12 instructions for the DFA match loop. Note that the constant is independent of the length of the token, the length of the regular expression and the size of the DFA. However, using the REJECT macro in a scanner with the potential to match extremely long tokens can cause Flex to generate a scanner with non-linear performance. This feature is optional. In this case, the programmer has explicitly told Flex to \"go back and try again\" after it has already matched some input. This will cause the DFA to backtrack to find other accept states. The REJECT feature is not enabled by default, and because of its performance implications its use is discouraged in the Flex manual.", "By default the scanner generated by Flex is not reentrant. This can cause serious problems for programs that use the generated scanner from different threads. To overcome this issue there are options that Flex provides in order to achieve reentrancy. A detailed description of these options can be found in the Flex manual.", "Normally the generated scanner contains references to \"unistd.h\" header file which is Unix specific. To avoid generating code that includes \"unistd.h\", \"%option nounistd\" should be used. Another issue is the call to \"isatty\" (a Unix library function), which can be found in the generated code. The \"%option never-interactive\" forces flex to generate code that doesn't use \"isatty\".", "Flex can only generate code for C and C++. To use the scanner code generated by flex from other languages a language binding tool such as SWIG can be used.", "flex++ is a similar lexical scanner for C++ which is included as part of the flex package. The generated code does not depend on any runtime or external library except for a memory allocator (malloc or a user-supplied alternative) unless the input also depends on it. This can be useful in embedded and similar situations where traditional operating system or C runtime facilities may not be available. The flex++ generated C++ scanner includes the header file codice_32, which defines the interfaces of the two C++ generated classes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Galvanic corrosion.", "Galvanic series.", "Corrosion removal.", "Resistance to corrosion.", "Intrinsic chemistry.", "Passivation.", "Corrosion in passivated materials.", "Pitting corrosion.", "Weld decay and knifeline attack.", "Crevice corrosion.", "Hydrogen grooving.", "High-temperature corrosion.", "Microbial corrosion.", "Metal dusting.", "Protection from corrosion.", "Surface treatments.", "Applied coatings.", "Reactive coatings.", "Anodization.", "Biofilm coatings.", "Controlled permeability formwork.", "Cathodic protection.", "Sacrificial anode protection.", "Impressed current cathodic protection.", "Anodic protection.", "Rate of corrosion.", "Economic impact.", "Corrosion in nonmetals.", "Corrosion of polymers.", "Corrosion of glass.", "Glass corrosion tests." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Galvanic corrosion occurs when two different metals have physical or electrical contact with each other and are immersed in a common electrolyte, or when the same metal is exposed to electrolyte with different concentrations. In a galvanic couple, the more active metal (the anode) corrodes at an accelerated rate and the more noble metal (the cathode) corrodes at a slower rate. When immersed separately, each metal corrodes at its own rate. What type of metal(s) to use is readily determined by following the galvanic series. For example, zinc is often used as a sacrificial anode for steel structures. Galvanic corrosion is of major interest to the marine industry and also anywhere water (containing salts) contacts pipes or metal structures. Factors such as relative size of anode, types of metal, and operating conditions (temperature, humidity, salinity, etc.) affect galvanic corrosion. The surface area ratio of the anode and cathode directly affects the corrosion rates of the materials. Galvanic corrosion is often prevented by the use of sacrificial anodes.", "In any given environment (one standard medium is aerated, room-temperature seawater), one metal will be either more \"noble\" or more \"active\" than others, based on how strongly its ions are bound to the surface. Two metals in electrical contact share the same electrons, so that the \"tug-of-war\" at each surface is analogous to competition for free electrons between the two materials. Using the electrolyte as a host for the flow of ions in the same direction, the noble metal will take electrons from the active one. The resulting mass flow or electric current can be measured to establish a hierarchy of materials in the medium of interest. This hierarchy is called a \"galvanic series\" and is useful in predicting and understanding corrosion.", "Often it is possible to chemically remove the products of corrosion. For example, phosphoric acid in the form of \"naval jelly\" is often applied to ferrous tools or surfaces to remove rust. Corrosion removal should not be confused with electropolishing, which removes some layers of the underlying metal to make a smooth surface. For example, phosphoric acid may also be used to electropolish copper but it does this by removing copper, not the products of copper corrosion.", "Some metals are more intrinsically resistant to corrosion than others (for some examples, see galvanic series). There are various ways of protecting metals from corrosion (oxidation) including painting, hot dip galvanizing, cathodic protection, and combinations of these.", "The materials most resistant to corrosion are those for which corrosion is thermodynamically unfavorable. Any corrosion products of gold or platinum tend to decompose spontaneously into pure metal, which is why these elements can be found in metallic form on Earth and have long been valued. More common \"base\" metals can only be protected by more temporary means. Some metals have naturally slow reaction kinetics, even though their corrosion is thermodynamically favorable. These include such metals as zinc, magnesium, and cadmium. While corrosion of these metals is continuous and ongoing, it happens at an acceptably slow rate. An extreme example is graphite, which releases large amounts of energy upon oxidation, but has such slow kinetics that it is effectively immune to electrochemical corrosion under normal conditions.", "Passivation refers to the spontaneous formation of an ultrathin film of corrosion products, known as a passive film, on the metal's surface that act as a barrier to further oxidation. The chemical composition and microstructure of a passive film are different from the underlying metal. Typical passive film thickness on aluminium, stainless steels, and alloys is within 10 nanometers. The passive film is different from oxide layers that are formed upon heating and are in the micrometer thickness range – the passive film recovers if removed or damaged whereas the oxide layer does not. Passivation in natural environments such as air, water and soil at moderate pH is seen in such materials as aluminium, stainless steel, titanium, and silicon. Passivation is primarily determined by metallurgical and environmental factors. The effect of pH is summarized using Pourbaix diagrams, but many other factors are influential. Some conditions that inhibit passivation include high pH for aluminium and zinc, low pH or the presence of chloride ions for stainless steel, high temperature for titanium (in which case the oxide dissolves into the metal, rather than the electrolyte) and fluoride ions for silicon. On the other hand, unusual conditions may result in passivation of materials that are normally unprotected, as the alkaline environment of concrete does for steel rebar. Exposure to a liquid metal such as mercury or hot solder can often circumvent passivation mechanisms.", "Passivation is extremely useful in mitigating corrosion damage, however even a high-quality alloy will corrode if its ability to form a passivating film is hindered. Proper selection of the right grade of material for the specific environment is important for the long-lasting performance of this group of materials. If breakdown occurs in the passive film due to chemical or mechanical factors, the resulting major modes of corrosion may include pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion, and stress corrosion cracking.", "Certain conditions, such as low concentrations of oxygen or high concentrations of species such as chloride which compete as anions, can interfere with a given alloy's ability to re-form a passivating film. In the worst case, almost all of the surface will remain protected, but tiny local fluctuations will degrade the oxide film in a few critical points. Corrosion at these points will be greatly amplified, and can cause \"corrosion pits\" of several types, depending upon conditions. While the corrosion pits only nucleate under fairly extreme circumstances, they can continue to grow even when conditions return to normal, since the interior of a pit is naturally deprived of oxygen and locally the pH decreases to very low values and the corrosion rate increases due to an autocatalytic process. In extreme cases, the sharp tips of extremely long and narrow corrosion pits can cause stress concentration to the point that otherwise tough alloys can shatter; a thin film pierced by an invisibly small hole can hide a thumb sized pit from view. These problems are especially dangerous because they are difficult to detect before a part or structure fails. Pitting remains among the most common and damaging forms of corrosion in passivated alloys, but it can be prevented by control of the alloy's environment. Pitting results when a small hole, or cavity, forms in the metal, usually as a result of de-passivation of a small area. This area becomes anodic, while part of the remaining metal becomes cathodic, producing a localized galvanic reaction. The deterioration of this small area penetrates the metal and can lead to failure. This form of corrosion is often difficult to detect due to the fact that it is usually relatively small and may be covered and hidden by corrosion-produced compounds.", "Stainless steel can pose special corrosion challenges, since its passivating behavior relies on the presence of a major alloying component (chromium, at least 11.5%). Because of the elevated temperatures of welding and heat treatment, chromium carbides can form in the grain boundaries of stainless alloys. This chemical reaction robs the material of chromium in the zone near the grain boundary, making those areas much less resistant to corrosion. This creates a galvanic couple with the well-protected alloy nearby, which leads to \"weld decay\" (corrosion of the grain boundaries in the heat affected zones) in highly corrosive environments. This process can seriously reduce the mechanical strength of welded joints over time. A stainless steel is said to be \"sensitized\" if chromium carbides are formed in the microstructure. A typical microstructure of a normalized type 304 stainless steel shows no signs of sensitization, while a heavily sensitized steel shows the presence of grain boundary precipitates. The dark lines in the sensitized microstructure are networks of chromium carbides formed along the grain boundaries. Special alloys, either with low carbon content or with added carbon \"getters\" such as titanium and niobium (in types 321 and 347, respectively), can prevent this effect, but the latter require special heat treatment after welding to prevent the similar phenomenon of \"knifeline attack\". As its name implies, corrosion is limited to a very narrow zone adjacent to the weld, often only a few micrometers across, making it even less noticeable.", "Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion occurring in confined spaces (crevices), to which the access of the working fluid from the environment is limited. Formation of a differential aeration cell leads to corrosion inside the crevices. Examples of crevices are gaps and contact areas between parts, under gaskets or seals, inside cracks and seams, spaces filled with deposits and under sludge piles. Crevice corrosion is influenced by the crevice type (metal-metal, metal-nonmetal), crevice geometry (size, surface finish), and metallurgical and environmental factors. The susceptibility to crevice corrosion can be evaluated with ASTM standard procedures. A critical crevice corrosion temperature is commonly used to rank a material's resistance to crevice corrosion.", "In the chemical industry, hydrogen grooving is the corrosion of piping by grooves created by the interaction of a corrosive agent, corroded pipe constituents, and hydrogen gas bubbles. For example, when sulfuric acid () flows through steel pipes, the iron in the steel reacts with the acid to form a passivation coating of iron sulfate () and hydrogen gas (). The iron sulfate coating will protect the steel from further reaction; however, if hydrogen bubbles contact this coating, it will be removed. Thus, a groove will be formed by a traveling bubble, exposing more steel to the acid: a vicious cycle. The grooving is exacerbated by the tendency of subsequent bubbles to follow the same path.", "High-temperature corrosion is chemical deterioration of a material (typically a metal) as a result of heating. This non-galvanic form of corrosion can occur when a metal is subjected to a hot atmosphere containing oxygen, sulfur, or other compounds capable of oxidizing (or assisting the oxidation of) the material concerned. For example, materials used in aerospace, power generation and even in car engines have to resist sustained periods at high temperature in which they may be exposed to an atmosphere containing potentially highly corrosive products of combustion. The products of high-temperature corrosion can potentially be turned to the advantage of the engineer. The formation of oxides on stainless steels, for example, can provide a protective layer preventing further atmospheric attack, allowing for a material to be used for sustained periods at both room and high temperatures in hostile conditions. Such high-temperature corrosion products, in the form of compacted oxide layer glazes, prevent or reduce wear during high-temperature sliding contact of metallic (or metallic and ceramic) surfaces. Thermal oxidation is also commonly used as a route towards the obtainment of controlled oxide nanostructures, including nanowires and thin films.", "Microbial corrosion, or commonly known as microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC), is a corrosion caused or promoted by microorganisms, usually chemoautotrophs. It can apply to both metallic and non-metallic materials, in the presence or absence of oxygen. Sulfate-reducing bacteria are active in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic); they produce hydrogen sulfide, causing sulfide stress cracking. In the presence of oxygen (aerobic), some bacteria may directly oxidize iron to iron oxides and hydroxides, other bacteria oxidize sulfur and produce sulfuric acid causing biogenic sulfide corrosion. Concentration cells can form in the deposits of corrosion products, leading to localized corrosion. Accelerated low-water corrosion (ALWC) is a particularly aggressive form of MIC that affects steel piles in seawater near the low water tide mark. It is characterized by an orange sludge, which smells of hydrogen sulfide when treated with acid. Corrosion rates can be very high and design corrosion allowances can soon be exceeded leading to premature failure of the steel pile. Piles that have been coated and have cathodic protection installed at the time of construction are not susceptible to ALWC. For unprotected piles, sacrificial anodes can be installed locally to the affected areas to inhibit the corrosion or a complete retrofitted sacrificial anode system can be installed. Affected areas can also be treated using cathodic protection, using either sacrificial anodes or applying current to an inert anode to produce a calcareous deposit, which will help shield the metal from further attack.", "Metal dusting is a catastrophic form of corrosion that occurs when susceptible materials are exposed to environments with high carbon activities, such as synthesis gas and other high-CO environments. The corrosion manifests itself as a break-up of bulk metal to metal powder. The suspected mechanism is firstly the deposition of a graphite layer on the surface of the metal, usually from carbon monoxide (CO) in the vapor phase. This graphite layer is then thought to form metastable MC species (where M is the metal), which migrate away from the metal surface. However, in some regimes no MC species is observed indicating a direct transfer of metal atoms into the graphite layer.", "Various treatments are used to slow corrosion damage to metallic objects which are exposed to the weather, salt water, acids, or other hostile environments. Some unprotected metallic alloys are extremely vulnerable to corrosion, such as those used in neodymium magnets, which can spall or crumble into powder even in dry, temperature-stable indoor environments unless properly treated to discourage corrosion.", "When surface treatments are used to retard corrosion, great care must be taken to ensure complete coverage, without gaps, cracks, or pinhole defects. Small defects can act as an \"Achilles' heel\", allowing corrosion to penetrate the interior and causing extensive damage even while the outer protective layer remains apparently intact for a period of time.", "Plating, painting, and the application of enamel are the most common anti-corrosion treatments. They work by providing a barrier of corrosion-resistant material between the damaging environment and the structural material. Aside from cosmetic and manufacturing issues, there may be tradeoffs in mechanical flexibility versus resistance to abrasion and high temperature. Platings usually fail only in small sections, but if the plating is more noble than the substrate (for example, chromium on steel), a galvanic couple will cause any exposed area to corrode much more rapidly than an unplated surface would. For this reason, it is often wise to plate with active metal such as zinc or cadmium. If the zinc coating is not thick enough the surface soon becomes unsightly with rusting obvious. The design life is directly related to the metal coating thickness. Painting either by roller or brush is more desirable for tight spaces; spray would be better for larger coating areas such as steel decks and waterfront applications. Flexible polyurethane coatings, like Durabak-M26 for example, can provide an anti-corrosive seal with a highly durable slip resistant membrane. Painted coatings are relatively easy to apply and have fast drying times although temperature and humidity may cause dry times to vary.", "If the environment is controlled (especially in recirculating systems), corrosion inhibitors can often be added to it. These chemicals form an electrically insulating or chemically impermeable coating on exposed metal surfaces, to suppress electrochemical reactions. Such methods make the system less sensitive to scratches or defects in the coating, since extra inhibitors can be made available wherever metal becomes exposed. Chemicals that inhibit corrosion include some of the salts in hard water (Roman water systems are famous for their mineral deposits), chromates, phosphates, polyaniline, other conducting polymers and a wide range of specially-designed chemicals that resemble surfactants (i.e. long-chain organic molecules with ionic end groups).", "Aluminium alloys often undergo a surface treatment. Electrochemical conditions in the bath are carefully adjusted so that uniform pores, several nanometers wide, appear in the metal's oxide film. These pores allow the oxide to grow much thicker than passivating conditions would allow. At the end of the treatment, the pores are allowed to seal, forming a harder-than-usual surface layer. If this coating is scratched, normal passivation processes take over to protect the damaged area. Anodizing is very resilient to weathering and corrosion, so it is commonly used for building facades and other areas where the surface will come into regular contact with the elements. While being resilient, it must be cleaned frequently. If left without cleaning, panel edge staining will naturally occur. Anodization is the process of converting an anode into cathode by bringing a more active anode in contact with it.", "A new form of protection has been developed by applying certain species of bacterial films to the surface of metals in highly corrosive environments. This process increases the corrosion resistance substantially. Alternatively, antimicrobial-producing biofilms can be used to inhibit mild steel corrosion from sulfate-reducing bacteria.", "Controlled permeability formwork (CPF) is a method of preventing the corrosion of reinforcement by naturally enhancing the durability of the cover during concrete placement. CPF has been used in environments to combat the effects of carbonation, chlorides, frost and abrasion.", "Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making that surface the cathode of an electrochemical cell. Cathodic protection systems are most commonly used to protect steel pipelines and tanks; steel pier piles, ships, and offshore oil platforms.", "For effective CP, the potential of the steel surface is polarized (pushed) more negative until the metal surface has a uniform potential. With a uniform potential, the driving force for the corrosion reaction is halted. For galvanic CP systems, the anode material corrodes under the influence of the steel, and eventually it must be replaced. The polarization is caused by the current flow from the anode to the cathode, driven by the difference in electrode potential between the anode and the cathode. The most common sacrificial anode materials are aluminum, zinc, magnesium and related alloys. Aluminum has the highest capacity, and magnesium has the highest driving voltage and is thus used where resistance is higher. Zinc is general purpose and the basis for galvanizing.", "For larger structures, galvanic anodes cannot economically deliver enough current to provide complete protection. Impressed current cathodic protection (ICCP) systems use anodes connected to a DC power source (such as a cathodic protection rectifier). Anodes for ICCP systems are tubular and solid rod shapes of various specialized materials. These include high silicon cast iron, graphite, mixed metal oxide or platinum coated titanium or niobium coated rod and wires.", "Anodic protection impresses anodic current on the structure to be protected (opposite to the cathodic protection). It is appropriate for metals that exhibit passivity (e.g. stainless steel) and suitably small passive current over a wide range of potentials. It is used in aggressive environments, such as solutions of sulfuric acid.", "The formation of an oxide layer is described by the Deal–Grove model, which is used to predict and control oxide layer formation in diverse situations. A simple test for measuring corrosion is the weight loss method. The method involves exposing a clean weighed piece of the metal or alloy to the corrosive environment for a specified time followed by cleaning to remove corrosion products and weighing the piece to determine the loss of weight. The rate of corrosion (R) is calculated as where \"k\" is a constant, \"W\" is the weight loss of the metal in time \"t\", \"A\" is the surface area of the metal exposed, and \"ρ\" is the density of the metal (in g/cm3). Other common expressions for the corrosion rate is penetration depth and change of mechanical properties.", "In 2002, the US Federal Highway Administration released a study titled \"Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States\" on the direct costs associated with metallic corrosion in the US industry. In 1998, the total annual direct cost of corrosion in the U.S. was ca. $276 billion (ca. 3.2% of the US gross domestic product). Broken down into five specific industries, the economic losses are $22.6 billion in infrastructure; $17.6 billion in production and manufacturing; $29.7 billion in transportation; $20.1 billion in government; and $47.9 billion in utilities. Rust is one of the most common causes of bridge accidents. As rust has a much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its build-up can also cause failure by forcing apart adjacent parts. It was the cause of the collapse of the Mianus River Bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support. Three drivers on the roadway at the time died as the slab fell into the river below. The following NTSB investigation showed that a drain in the road had been blocked for road re-surfacing, and had not been unblocked; as a result, runoff water penetrated the support hangers. Rust was also an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a steel suspension bridge collapsed within a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on the bridge at the time. Similarly, corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall, creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of reinforced concrete bridges. Measuring instruments based on the half-cell potential can detect the potential corrosion spots before total failure of the concrete structure is reached. Until 20–30 years ago, galvanized steel pipe was used extensively in the potable water systems for single and multi-family residents as well as commercial and public construction. Today, these systems have long ago consumed the protective zinc and are corroding internally resulting in poor water quality and pipe failures. The economic impact on homeowners, condo dwellers, and the public infrastructure is estimated at 22 billion dollars as the insurance industry braces for a wave of claims due to pipe failures.", "Most ceramic materials are almost entirely immune to corrosion. The strong chemical bonds that hold them together leave very little free chemical energy in the structure; they can be thought of as already corroded. When corrosion does occur, it is almost always a simple dissolution of the material or chemical reaction, rather than an electrochemical process. A common example of corrosion protection in ceramics is the lime added to soda-lime glass to reduce its solubility in water; though it is not nearly as soluble as pure sodium silicate, normal glass does form sub-microscopic flaws when exposed to moisture. Due to its brittleness, such flaws cause a dramatic reduction in the strength of a glass object during its first few hours at room temperature.", "Polymer degradation involves several complex and often poorly understood physiochemical processes. These are strikingly different from the other processes discussed here, and so the term \"corrosion\" is only applied to them in a loose sense of the word. Because of their large molecular weight, very little entropy can be gained by mixing a given mass of polymer with another substance, making them generally quite difficult to dissolve. While dissolution is a problem in some polymer applications, it is relatively simple to design against. A more common and related problem is \"swelling\", where small molecules infiltrate the structure, reducing strength and stiffness and causing a volume change. Conversely, many polymers (notably flexible vinyl) are intentionally swelled with plasticizers, which can be leached out of the structure, causing brittleness or other undesirable changes. The most common form of degradation, however, is a decrease in polymer chain length. Mechanisms which break polymer chains are familiar to biologists because of their effect on DNA: ionizing radiation (most commonly ultraviolet light), free radicals, and oxidizers such as oxygen, ozone, and chlorine. Ozone cracking is a well-known problem affecting natural rubber for example. Plastic additives can slow these process very effectively, and can be as simple as a UV-absorbing pigment (e.g. titanium dioxide or carbon black). Plastic shopping bags often do not include these additives so that they break down more easily as ultrafine particles of litter.", "Glass is characterized by a high degree of corrosion-resistance. Because of its high water-resistance it is often used as primary packaging material in the pharma industry since most medicines are preserved in a watery solution. Besides its water-resistance, glass is also robust when exposed to certain chemically aggressive liquids or gases. Glass disease is the corrosion of silicate glasses in aqueous solutions. It is governed by two mechanisms: diffusion-controlled leaching (ion exchange) and hydrolytic dissolution of the glass network. Both mechanisms strongly depend on the pH of contacting solution: the rate of ion exchange decreases with pH as 10 whereas the rate of hydrolytic dissolution increases with pH as 10. Mathematically, corrosion rates of glasses are characterized by normalized corrosion rates of elements NR (g/cm·d) which are determined as the ratio of total amount of released species into the water M (g) to the water-contacting surface area S (cm), time of contact t (days) and weight fraction content of the element in the glass f: The overall corrosion rate is a sum of contributions from both mechanisms (leaching + dissolution) NR=NR\"x\"+NR\"h\". Diffusion-controlled leaching (ion exchange) is characteristic of the initial phase of corrosion and involves replacement of alkali ions in the glass by a hydronium (HO) ion from the solution. It causes an ion-selective depletion of near surface layers of glasses and gives an inverse square root dependence of corrosion rate with exposure time. The diffusion-controlled normalized leaching rate of cations from glasses (g/cm·d) is given by: where t is time, \"D\" is the i-th cation effective diffusion coefficient (cm/d), which depends on pH of contacting water as \"D\" = D·10, and \"ρ\" is the density of the glass (g/cm). Glass network dissolution is characteristic of the later phases of corrosion and causes a congruent release of ions into the water solution at a time-independent rate in dilute solutions (g/cm·d): where r is the stationary hydrolysis (dissolution) rate of the glass (cm/d). In closed systems the consumption of protons from the aqueous phase increases the pH and causes a fast transition to hydrolysis. However, a further saturation of solution with silica impedes hydrolysis and causes the glass to return to an ion-exchange, e.g. diffusion-controlled regime of corrosion. In typical natural conditions normalized corrosion rates of silicate glasses are very low and are of the order of 10–10 g/(cm·d). The very high durability of silicate glasses in water makes them suitable for hazardous and nuclear waste immobilisation.", "There exist numerous standardized procedures for measuring the corrosion (also called chemical durability) of glasses in neutral, basic, and acidic environments, under simulated environmental conditions, in simulated body fluid, at high temperature and pressure, and under other conditions. The standard procedure ISO 719 describes a test of the extraction of water-soluble basic compounds under neutral conditions: 2 g of glass, particle size 300–500 μm, is kept for 60 min in 50 ml de-ionized water of grade 2 at 98 °C; 25 ml of the obtained solution is titrated against 0.01 mol/l HCl solution. The volume of HCl required for neutralization is classified according to the table below. The standardized test ISO 719 is not suitable for glasses with poor or not extractable alkaline components, but which are still attacked by water, e.g. quartz glass, BO glass or PO glass. Usual glasses are differentiated into the following classes: Hydrolytic class 1 (Type I): This class, which is also called neutral glass, includes borosilicate glasses (e.g. Duran, Pyrex, Fiolax). Glass of this class contains essential quantities of boron oxides, aluminium oxides and alkaline earth oxides. Through its composition neutral glass has a high resistance against temperature shocks and the highest hydrolytic resistance. Against acid and neutral solutions it shows high chemical resistance, because of its poor alkali content against alkaline solutions. Hydrolytic class 2 (Type II): This class usually contains sodium silicate glasses with a high hydrolytic resistance through surface finishing. Sodium silicate glass is a silicate glass, which contains alkali- and alkaline earth oxide and primarily sodium oxide and Calcium oxide. Hydrolytic class 3 (Type III): Glass of the 3rd hydrolytic class usually contains sodium silicate glasses and has a mean hydrolytic resistance, which is two times poorer than of type 1 glasses. Acid class DIN 12116 and alkali class DIN 52322 (ISO 695) are to be distinguished from the hydrolytic class DIN 12111 (ISO 719)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Practice.", "Qualifying.", "Warm-up.", "Race.", "Post-race.", "Race classification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Grand Prix was contested by eleven teams, each of two drivers. The teams, also known as constructors, were McLaren, Ferrari, Jordan, Jaguar, Williams, Benetton, Prost, Sauber, Arrows, Minardi and BAR. Tyre supplier Bridgestone brought two different tyre compounds to the race; the Hard and the Extra Hard dry compound tyres. The race marked the return to the Formula One calendar for the United States after being off the calendar since 1991. The race was removed from the calendar because of low attendance and its slot was given to the South African Grand Prix for the 1992 season. It was reinstated in December 1998 following a seven-year campaign pursued by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway owners Hulman and Co. To celebrate its return to the calendar, Jaguar drivers Eddie Irvine and Johnny Herbert drove a demonstration lap aboard a Jaguar R1 and a Taxicab around Broadway in New York City on the Tuesday afternoon before the race. Going into the race, McLaren driver Mika Häkkinen led the Drivers' Championship with 80 points, ahead of Michael Schumacher on 78 points and David Coulthard on 61 points. Rubens Barrichello was fourth on 49 points with Ralf Schumacher fifth on 24 points. In the Constructors' Championship, McLaren were leading with 131 points ahead of their rivals Ferrari on 127 points. Williams were third with 34 points, while Benetton on 20 and Jordan with 17 points contended for fourth place. McLaren and Ferrari had so far dominated the championship, winning the previous fourteen races. Championship competitors Barrichello and Giancarlo Fisichella had gained second-place finishes while Ralf Schumacher and Heinz-Harald Frentzen had each achieved third place podium finishes. Following the Italian Grand Prix on 10 September, the teams conducted testing sessions at various circuits across Europe between 11 and 15 September. Ferrari, McLaren and Sauber opted to test at the Mugello Circuit. McLaren test driver Olivier Panis was fastest on the first day, ahead of Sauber's Pedro Diniz. Panis remained fastest on the second and final days. The Williams and Benetton teams chose to test at the Autódromo do Estoril circuit where Ralf Schumacher set the first day's fastest times. Jaguar and BAR performed their testing at the Silverstone Circuit where Jaguar's test driver Luciano Burti was fastest on the first day. The circuit received an mixed response. Willams driver Jenson Button described the track as a \"great circuit\". However, BAR's Jacques Villeneuve was vocally critical of the track claiming that it would be \"very difficult to get a good lap\" and he also found the infield section \"very slow\". Mika Salo of Sauber stated that he disliked the first three hairpins although he was satisfied with the rest of the circuit.", "Four practice sessions were held before the Sunday race—two on Friday, and two on Saturday. The Friday morning and afternoon sessions each lasted an hour. The third and final practice sessions were held on Saturday morning and lasted 45 minutes. The Friday morning and afternoon practice sessions took place in warm and dry conditions. Michael Schumacher was fastest in the first practice session, with a time of 1 minute and 14.927 seconds; Barrichello had the second fastest time. Häkkinen set the third fastest time although his car's gearbox was changed. Button was fourth fastest, ahead of Villeneuve and Alexander Wurz. The two Jordan drivers were seventh and eighth (with Trulli ahead of Frentzen). Irvine and Nick Heidfeld rounded out the top ten fastest drivers. A electrical failure prevented Coulthard from participating as he was pushed onto the circuit by marshals and Fisichella removed his Benetton's left front wheel in a crash at turn 11. In the second practice session, Coulthard set the fastest lap time of the day, a 1:14.561, one tenth of a second quicker than teammate Häkkinen. Michael Schumacher and Barrichello slipped to third and fourth fastest respectively although both drivers stated that they were pleased with their pace. Frentzen and Trulli set the fifth and seventh fastest times respectively; they were separated by Ralf Schumacher. Button, Marc Gené and Villeneuve completed the top ten fastest drivers in the session. A crash by Herbert at turn 1 damaged his car's rear wheel and ended his session early. The Saturday morning sessions were held on a wet track from overnight rain, resulting in low levels of grip and some drivers went off the track during the session. Häkkinen set the third session's fastest lap, a 1:15.802; Coulthard ended with the third fastest lap. Button was running quicker and set the second fastest time. Both Ferrari drivers were fourth and fifth–Barrichello quicker than Michael Schumacher. Fisichella, Frentzen, Ralf Schumacher, Verstappen and Diniz followed in the top ten. In the final practice session, Both Ferraris continued their good pace; Michael Schumacher was the quickest driver with a lap of 1:14.804. Barrichello had the second fastest time. The McLaren drivers remained quick—Coulthard in third and Häkkinen fifth—they were separated by Button. Frentzen was sixth quickest and found it difficult to adjust to the changeable conditions. Fisichella, Villeneuve, Ralf Schumacher and Trulli completed the top ten fastest drivers ahead of qualifying.", "Saturday's afternoon one hour qualifying session saw each driver limited to twelve laps, with the starting order decided by their fastest laps. During this session, the 107% rule was in effect, which necessitated each driver set a time within 107 per cent of the quickest lap to qualify for the race. The session was held in cloudy weather with occasional rain showers. Michael Schumacher clinched his seventh pole position of his career, his first at the circuit, with a time of 1:14.266. He was joined on the front row of the grid by Coulthard, who was one-tenth of a second slower and was helped by running in the slipstream of teammate Häkkinen on the main straight. Häkkinen qualified third and stated that he was not unhappy with his starting position. Barrichello qualified fourth, three-tenths of a second behind Michael Schumacher, and said he had more grip in his car to improve his time. Trulli qualified fifth. Button took sixth and was happy with his effort despite encountering a yellow flag on his third run and admitted to pushing too hard on his fourth attempt. Frentzen slid onto the grass during the session and managed to record the seventh quickest time. Villeneuve who secured eighth believed he could have set a faster time as he spun while on a quick lap. Diniz took ninth having removed some downforce which improved the feel of his car. Ralf Schumacher rounded out the top ten having suffered his spin on his fourth run. Wurz qualified eleventh and said that he was happy with his car. Ricardo Zonta qualified twelfth, blaming his car for his qualifying performance. He was ahead of Verstappen and Salo. Fisichella, who started 15th, stated that understeer and poor grip prevented him from setting a faster lap time. He managed to qualify ahead of Heidfeld and Irvine, who spun during the session. Arrows driver Pedro de la Rosa, Herbert and Alesi filled the next three positions; the latter had a lack of running due to a pneumatic valve system failure in his engine. The two Minardi drivers qualified at the rear of the grid; Gastón Mazzacane in front of Gené.", "The drivers took to the track at 09:30 Eastern Standard Time (UTC-5) for a 30-minute warm-up session. It took place in wet conditions, where grip was poor and many drivers were forced onto the grass after sliding off the track. Both McLarens maintained their good performance from qualifying; Coulthard had the fastest time, a 1:23.14. Häkkinen was second in the other McLaren car. Michael Schumacher was third fastest and Villeneuve rounded out the top four, eight-tenths of a second behind Coulthard. After the warm-up session, but before the race, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) safety delegate, Charlie Whiting, announced that he had moved the front row of the grid back eight meters after concerns were raised by Coulthard and Michael Schumacher who had experienced wheel spin when crossing the \"Yard of Bricks\". Whiting also confirmed that the pit lane speed limit zone would be advanced deeper into turn 13.", "The race started at 14:00 local time. The conditions on the grid were dry and damp before the race; the air temperature was and the track temperature. Approximately 250,000 people attended the race, breaking the record attendance figure set at the 1995 Australian Grand Prix. Every driver except for Herbert started on the intermediate compound tyre. Coulthard, who started alongside Michael Schumacher, jumped the start and moved into the lead. Coulthard was later issued with a ten-second stop-go penalty. Going into the first corner, Häkkinen withstood Barrichello attempts to pass him for third place. Herbert made a poor start, dropping from 19th to 22nd at the end of the first lap. Frentzen lost seventh place mid-lap after running wide, losing two positions to Villeneuve and Ralf Schumacher. At the end of the first lap, Coulthard led from Michael Schumacher, Häkkinen, Barrichello, Trulli, Button, Villeneuve, Ralf Schumacher, Frentzen, Diniz, Zonta, Wurz, Irvine, Verstappen, Heidfeld, Salo, de la Rosa, Alesi, Fisichella, Gene, Mazzacane and Herbert. Coulthard had built a 1.7-second lead over Michael Schumacher by the start of lap two. On the back straight, Button attempted to overtake Trulli for fifth, but the two drivers collided. Both drivers made pit stops for repairs and emerged at the back of the field. Frentzen passed Ralf Schumacher for sixth position, while Zonta overtook Diniz for eighth and Verstappen moved up two positions to tenth after overtaking Irvine and Wurz. Heidfeld was overtaken by de la Rosa for 13th on lap three, while Gené passed Fisichella for 17th position. On the next lap, Coulthard's lead to Michael Schumacher was reduced by one second. de la Rosa continued moving up the field by passing Wurz for twelfth. On the same lap, Alesi became the first driver to pit for dry tyres. Michael Schumacher began attacking Coulthard for the lead on lap five with the McLaren driver moving to defend his position. On lap six, Barrichello became the first of the frontrunners to pit, while Irvine lost eleventh position to de la Rosa. Häkkinen led several cars in the pit lane to change to dry tyres on lap seven, while Ralf Schumacher, Zonta, Verstappen, Irvine and Wurz. Coulthard took his penalty on lap eight and dropped from second to sixth. Fisichella made a pit stop to serve his identical penalty on the same lap, from twenty-second position and remained in that position. Michael Schumacher, Frentzen, Diniz and Mazzacane were the only drivers not to change tyres by lap 9, while Coulthard made a pit stop and rejoined in 16th. Over the next three laps, de la Rosa and Zonta traded twelfth position, while Ralf Schumacher passed Barrichello for seventh. Diniz, who was running third, made a pit stop on lap twelve and emerged in sixth. Both Williams drivers began trading fastest laps on the same lap. During lap 13, Mazzacane began resisting Häkkinen's attempts to overtake him and Ralf Schumacher passed Diniz for fifth. Trulli became the first retirement of the race on the same lap after making a pit stop. Frentzen and Mazzacane made their pit stops on lap 14, allowing Häkkinen into second. Button retired two laps later due to mechanical issues. Michael Schumacher made a pit stop on lap 16 and emerged ten seconds ahead of Häkkinen in the lead. Häkkinen began gradually reducing Michael Schumacher's lead. Salo spun off on lap 19 and became the race's third retirement. Seven laps later, Häkkinen had reduced Michael Schumacher's lead to four seconds before the McLaren driver suffered an engine failure. Herbert made a pit stop for a new nose cone on lap 27 and came out in 17th. Coulthard passed Irvine for ninth one lap later. Verstappen suffered from an brake failure on lap 35 and retired. Coulthard continued to gain positions by passing de la Rosa for seventh on lap 37. Ralf Schumacher became the first driver to make a scheduled pit stop two laps later. On lap 40, Coulthard set the fastest lap of the race, a 1:14.710, while moved into fifth after overtaking Diniz and made his pit stop one lap later, rejoining in eleventh. On the next lap, Ralf Schumacher made another pit stop and remerged in 15th. de la Rosa retired with an gearbox failure on lap 46, while Fisichella went out one lap later with engine problems. Race leader Michael Schumacher made a pit stop on lap 49 and retained a ten-second lead over Frentzen. Mazzacane made a pit stop on the same lap and missed his stopping position striking one of his team's mechanics. Barrichello became the final driver to make a scheduled pit stop on lap 53. By the end of lap 55, with the scheduled pit stops completed, the order was Michael Schumacher, Barrichello, Frentzen, Villeneuve, Coulthard, Diniz, Zonta, Irvine, Alesi, Heidfeld, Wurz, Herbert, Gene, Ralf Schumacher and Mazzacane. Diniz made two more pit stops on laps 58 and 59 and dropped to tenth. At the start of lap 65, Villeneuve attempted to pass Frentzen for the third position heading into turn one but overshot the manoeuvre. Alesi became the race's final retirement when he retired with an engine failure on the same lap. Four laps later, Michael Schumacher spun off after putting a wheel onto the grass but retained the lead. He crossed the finish line on lap 73 to win his seventh win of the season in a time of 1'36:30.883 at an average speed of. Barrichello finished second 12.1 seconds behind, ahead of Frentzen in third, Villeneuve in fourth, Coulthard in fifth and Zonta rounding out the points scoring positions in sixth. Irvine in seventh was the last driver on the lead lap, with Diniz, Heidfeld, Wurz, Herbert, and Gené the last of the classified runners, albeit one lap behind.", "The top three drivers appeared on the podium to collect their trophies and in the subsequent press conference. Michael Schumacher explained that his late race spin was due to a lack of concentration after his team told him to reduce his pace. Nevertheless, he was happy with his victory and stated that his team would be concentrated on winning the Drivers' and Constructors' championships. Barrichello said that the wet-weather tyres allowed him to lap two seconds faster than on dry tyres. He also added that although his advantage lay on the wet track, he had struggled with excessive oversteer and maintaining his car on a heavy fuel load after taking his pitstop. During the post-race interview Frentzen described his race as \"hard\" due to the amount of time spent overtaking other drivers. He also praised his team for his result after a period of poor results. Villeneuve expressed his disappointment at missing out on a third-place finish which would have been his team's first podium position: \"Today was a lot of fun and we were really quick in the race, but it's frustrating to get so close to a podium. I made a couple of mistakes, but it probably wouldn't have made a difference in the end.\" Coulthard said that he felt disappointed over his jump-start for which he apologised. Zonta scored for the second consecutive race, having finished in sixth in the previous race in Italy. He said that he was pleased with the result, and that his rivals were quicker in the early stages of the race due to fuel loads but said that he managed to keep up with them. After the race, Michael Schumacher accused Coulthard of \"unsporting behaviour\" in the battle for the race lead. The accusation arose from Coulthard's minor collision with the Ferrari driver. Michael Schumacher believed that Coulthard was driving dangerously: \"He [Coulthard] ran in a way that he thought it [touching] could happen, and he didn't try to avoid that, that's pretty simple. As he is not fighting for the championship...I just want to make sure that we don't see teammates helping the drivers fighting for the championship in the way which is not appropriate.\" Coulthard denied any wrongdoing: \"I could have easily pushed him off the circuit. But I didn't and I won't in the future because it is not sporting and it is not the way I do things.\" There was similar ill-feeling between Trulli and Button after their collision on lap two. Trulli called the Williams driver an \"idiot\" and accused him of \"driving like a crazy\". Button defended his actions and suggested that Trulli had moved slightly towards him although he believed he took the right line. He also believed Trulli moved towards him under braking. Fifteen out of twenty Indianapolis 500 winners praised the inaugural running of the United States Grand Prix at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. 1985 Indianapolis 500 winner Danny Sullivan heralded the race organisers for their efforts, \"Tony George has done a phenomenal job of integrating it into (the schedule) and not losing the integrity of the current Indianapolis 500 track. I think this shows this is the place it (Formula One) should be.\" 1993 winner and double Formula One World Champion Emerson Fittipaldi believed that it would create a new era of Formula One motor racing in the United States. Fittipaldi's view was backed up by 1998 winner Eddie Cheever who thought the event would inspire more Americans to move into Formula One. The Grand Prix was awarded the Race Promoters' Trophy at the FIA Prize Giving Awards in Monte Carlo in December 2000. As a consequence of the race, Michael Schumacher regained the lead in the Drivers' Championship, on 88 points, taking the Championship lead for the second time in the 2000 season. Häkkinen, who failed to score points, lost the lead in the Drivers' Championship, falling eight points behind Michael Schumacher. Coulthard, who finished fifth, remained third, twenty-five points behind Michael Schumacher which ruled out any chance of Coulthard claiming the Drivers' Championship. The poor results of the McLaren team, combined with the Ferraris clinching a one-two finish, meant that Ferrari retook the lead of the Constructors' Championship, eight points in front of McLaren.", "Drivers who scored championship points are denoted in bold and by a." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Previous flag (2004–2010)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "During the 8th African Union Summit which took place in Addis Ababa on 29 and 30 January 2007, the Heads of State and Government decided to launch a competition for the selection of a new flag for the Union. They prescribed a green background for the flag symbolising hope of Africa and stars to represent Member States. Pursuant to this decision, the Muammar Gaddafi-led African Union Commission (AUC) organised a competition for the selection of a new flag for the African Union. The AUC received a total of 106 entries proposed by citizens of 19 African countries and two from the Diaspora. The proposals were then examined by a panel of experts put in place by the African Union Commission and selected from the five African regions for short listing according to the main directions given by the Heads of State and Government. The winning design was created by Yadesa Bojia, an Ethiopian-born American artist and graphic designer. The flag contains a green background symbolizing the hope of Africa and 53 gold stars to represent the Member States. However, South Sudan became the 54th member state on 27 July 2011, and Morocco rejoined in January 2017, bringing the total to 55.", "The previous flag of the African Union was used from 2004 to 2010 and was composed of a broad green horizontal stripe at the top followed by a narrow band of gold. Below is a broad white stripe bearing the then emblem of the African Union at its center followed by a narrow gold band and broad green stripe at the bottom. The AU was formed in 2002, without an official flag. In 2003, a competition was announced for designing a new emblem and flag. However, the Assembly of the African Union decided at the Addis Ababa session of 2004 to retain the emblem and flag of its predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity, and adopt them as the new AU flag and emblem. That flag was used from 1970 to 2002 as the OAU's flag. The color symbolism of the old flag is as follows:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Differences between marshes and swamps.", "Hydrology.", "Values and ecosystem services.", "Impacts and conservation.", "Notable examples.", "Africa.", "Asia.", "North America.", "List of major swamps." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Swamps and marshes are specific types of wetlands that form along waterbodies containing rich; hydric soils. Marshes are wetlands, continually or frequently flooded by nearby running bodies of water, that are dominated by emergent soft-stem vegetation and herbaceous plants. Swamps are wetlands consisting of saturated soils or standing water and are dominated by water-tolerant woody vegetation such as shrubs, bushes, and trees.", "Swamps are characterized by their saturated soils and slow-moving waters. The water that accumulates in swamps comes from a variety of sources including precipitation, groundwater, tides and/or freshwater flooding. These hydrologic pathways all contribute to how energy and nutrients flow in and out of the ecosystem. As water flows through the swamp, nutrients, sediment and pollutants are naturally filtered out. Chemicals like phosphorus and nitrogen that end up in our waterways get absorbed and used by the aquatic plants within the swamp, purifying the water. Any remaining or excess chemicals present will accumulate at the bottom of the swamp, being removed from the water and buried within the sediment. The biogeochemical environment of a swamp is dependent on its hydrology, affecting the levels and availability of resources like oxygen, nutrients, water pH and toxicity, which will influence the whole ecosystem.", "Swamps and other wetlands have traditionally held a very low property value compared to fields, prairies, or woodlands. They have a reputation for being unproductive land that cannot easily be utilized for human activities, other than perhaps hunting and trapping. Farmers, for example, typically drained swamps next to their fields so as to gain more land usable for planting crops. In reality, swamps play an important ecological role in our environment and provide a variety of resources that we depend on. Swamps and other wetlands are used as a tool in flood management. In circumstances of flooding, swamps absorb and use the excess water within the wetland, preventing it from traveling and protecting surrounding areas from flooding. Dense vegetation within the swamp also provides structure to the land, holding sediment in place and preventing erosion and land loss. Swamps are critically important to providing fresh water and oxygen to all life, and they are often breeding grounds for a wide variety of species. Floodplain swamps are extremely important in fish production. Two thirds of global fish and shellfish are commercially harvested and dependent on wetlands.", "Historically, humans have been known to drain and/or fill swamps and other wetlands in order to create more space for human development and to reduce the threat of diseases borne by swamp insects. Wetlands are removed and replaced with land that is then used for things like agriculture, real estate, and recreational uses. Many swamps have also undergone intensive logging and farming, requiring the construction of drainage ditches and canals. These ditches and canals contributed to drainage and, along the coast, allowed salt water to intrude, converting swamps to marsh or even to open water. Large areas of swamp were therefore lost or degraded. Louisiana provides a classic example of wetland loss from these combined factors. Europe has probably lost nearly half its wetlands. New Zealand lost 90 percent of its wetlands over a period of 150 years. Ecologists recognize that swamps provide valuable ecological services including flood control, fish production, water purification, carbon storage, and wildlife habitats. In many parts of the world authorities protect swamps. In parts of Europe and North America, swamp restoration projects are becoming widespread. The United States government began enforcing stricter laws and management programs in the 1970's in efforts to protect and restore these valuable ecosystems. Often the simplest steps to restoring swamps involve plugging drainage ditches and removing levees. Conservationists work to preserve swamps such as those in northwest Indiana in the United States Midwest that were preserved as part of the Indiana Dunes.", "Swamps can be found on all continents except Antarctica. The largest swamp in the world is the Amazon River floodplain, which is particularly significant for its large number of fish and tree species.", "The Sudd and the Okavango Delta are Africa's best known marshland areas. The Bangweulu Floodplains make up Africa's largest swamp.", "The Tigris-Euphrates river system is a large swamp and river system in southern Iraq, traditionally inhabited in part by the Marsh Arabs. In Asia, tropical peat swamps are located in mainland East Asia and Southeast Asia. In Southeast Asia, peatlands are mainly found in low altitude coastal and sub-coastal areas and extend inland for distance more than along river valleys and across watersheds. They are mostly to be found on the coasts of East Sumatra, Kalimantan (Central, East, South and West Kalimantan provinces), West Papua, Papua New Guinea, Brunei, Peninsular Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, Southeast Thailand, and the Philippines (Riley \"et al.\",1996). Indonesia has the largest area of tropical peatland. Of the total tropical peat swamp, about are located in Indonesia (Page, 2001; Wahyunto, 2006). The Vasyugan Swamp is a large swamp in the western Siberia area of the Russian Federation. This is one of the largest swamps in the world, covering an area larger than Switzerland.", "The Atchafalaya Swamp at the lower end of the Mississippi River is the largest swamp in the United States. It is an important example of southern cypress swamp but it has been greatly altered by logging, drainage and levee construction. Other famous swamps in the United States are the forested portions of the Everglades, Okefenokee Swamp, Barley Barber Swamp, Great Cypress Swamp and the Great Dismal Swamp. The Okefenokee is located in extreme southeastern Georgia and extends slightly into northeastern Florida. The Great Cypress Swamp is mostly in Delaware but extends into Maryland on the Delmarva Peninsula. Point Lookout State Park on the southern tip of Maryland contains a large amount of swamps and marshes. The Great Dismal Swamp lies in extreme southeastern Virginia and extreme northeastern North Carolina. Both are National Wildlife Refuges. Another swamp area, Reelfoot Lake of extreme western Tennessee and Kentucky, was created by the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes. Caddo Lake, the Great Dismal and Reelfoot are swamps that are centered at large lakes. Swamps are often called \"bayous\" in the southeastern United States, especially in the Gulf Coast region.", "The world's largest wetlands include significant areas of swamp, such as in the Amazon and Congo River basins. Further north, however, the largest wetlands are bogs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Flowering and pollination.", "Nutrition, aroma, and taste.", "Varieties.", "Slicing.", "Pickling.", "Gherkin.", "Burpless.", "Other.", "Cultivation history.", "Roman Empire.", "Middle Ages.", "Early-modern age.", "Age of Enlightenment and later.", "Modern era." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The cucumber is a creeping vine that roots in the ground and grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around supports with thin, spiraling tendrils. The plant may also root in a soilless medium, whereby it will sprawl along the ground in lieu of a supporting structure. The vine has large leaves that form a canopy over the fruits. The fruit of typical cultivars of cucumber is roughly cylindrical, but elongated with tapered ends, and may be as large as long and in diameter. Cucumber fruits consist of 95% water (see nutrition table).In botanical terms, the cucumber is classified as a \"pepo\", a type of botanical berry with a hard outer rind and no internal divisions. However, much like tomatoes and squashes, it is often perceived, prepared, and eaten as a vegetable.", "A few cultivars of cucumber are parthenocarpic, the blossoms of which create seedless fruit without pollination, as such degrades the quality for these cultivars. In the United States, these are usually grown in greenhouses, where bees are excluded. In Europe, they are grown outdoors in some regions, where bees are likewise excluded. Most cucumber cultivars, however, are seeded and require pollination. For this purpose, thousands of honey beehives are annually carried to cucumber fields just before bloom. Cucumbers may also be pollinated via bumblebees and several other bee species. Most cucumbers that require pollination are self-incompatible, thus requiring the pollen of another plant in order to form seeds and fruit. Some self-compatible cultivars exist that are related to the 'Lemon' cultivar. Symptoms of inadequate pollination include fruit abortion and misshapen fruit. Partially-pollinated flowers may develop fruit that are green and develop normally near the stem end, but are pale yellow and withered at the blossom end. Traditional cultivars produce male blossoms first, then female, in about equivalent numbers. Newer gynoecious hybrid cultivars produce almost all female blossoms. They may have a pollenizer cultivar interplanted, and the number of beehives per unit area is increased, but temperature changes induce male flowers even on these plants, which may be sufficient for pollination to occur.", "In a serving, raw cucumber (with peel) is 95% water, provides of food energy, and supplies low content of essential nutrients, as it is notable only for vitamin K at 16% of the Daily Value (table). Depending on variety, cucumbers may have a mild melon aroma and flavor, in part resulting from unsaturated aldehydes, such as, and the \"cis\"- and \"trans\"- isomers of 2-nonenal. The slightly bitter taste of cucumber rind results from cucurbitacins. In 2009, an international team of researchers announced they had sequenced the cucumber genome.", "In general cultivation, cucumbers are classified into three main cultivar groups: sliced, pickled, and seedless/burpless.", "Cucumbers grown to eat fresh are called \"slicing cucumbers\". The main varieties of slicers mature on vines with large leaves that provide shading. They are mainly eaten in the unripe green form, as the ripe yellow form normally becomes bitter and sour. Smaller slicing cucumbers can also be pickled. Slicers grown commercially for the North American market are generally longer, smoother, more uniform in color, and have much tougher skin. In contrast, those in other countries, often called European cucumbers, are smaller and have thinner, more delicate skin, often with fewer seeds, thus being sold in plastic skin for protection. This variety may also be called a telegraph cucumber, particularly in Australasia.", "Pickling with brine, sugar, vinegar, and spices creates various flavored products from cucumbers and other foods. Although any cucumber can be pickled, commercial pickles are made from cucumbers specially bred for uniformity of length-to-diameter ratio and lack of voids in the flesh. Those cucumbers intended for pickling, called picklers, grow to about long and wide. Compared to slicers, picklers tend to be shorter, thicker, less-regularly shaped, and have bumpy skin with tiny white or black-dotted spines. Color can vary from creamy yellow to pale or dark green.", "Gherkins, also called cornichons, or baby pickles, are small cucumbers, typically those in length, often with bumpy skin, which are typically used for pickling. The word \"gherkin\" comes from the early modern Dutch \"gurken\" or \"augurken\" ('small pickled cucumber'). The term is also used in the name for \"Cucumis anguria,\" the \"West Indian gherkin\", a closely related species.", "Burpless cucumbers are sweeter and have a thinner skin than other varieties of cucumber. They are reputed to be easy to digest and to have a pleasant taste. They can grow as long as, are nearly seedless, and have a delicate skin. Most commonly grown in greenhouses, these parthenocarpic cucumbers are often found in grocery markets, shrink-wrapped in plastic. They are marketed as either burpless or seedless, as the seeds and skin of other varieties of cucumbers are said to give some people gas.", "Several other cultivars are sold commercially:", "Cultivated for at least 3,000 years, the cucumber originated from in India, where a great many varieties have been observed, along with its closest living relative, \"Cucumis hystrix\". and was probably introduced to other parts of Europe by the Greeks or Romans. Records of cucumber cultivation appear in France in the 9th century, England in the 14th century, and in North America by the mid-16th century.", "According to Pliny the Elder, the Emperor Tiberius had the cucumber on his table daily during summer and winter. In order to have it available for his table every day of the year, the Romans reportedly used artificial methods of growing (similar to the greenhouse system), whereby \"mirrorstone\" refers to Pliny's \"lapis specularis\", believed to have been sheet mica: Reportedly, they were also cultivated in \"specularia\", cucumber houses glazed with oiled cloth. Pliny describes the Italian fruit as very small, probably like a gherkin. He also describes the preparation of a medication known as \"elaterium\". However, some scholars believe that he was instead referring to \"Ecballium elaterium\", known in pre-Linnean times as \"Cucumis silvestris\" or \"Cucumis\" \"asininus\" ('wild cucumber' or 'donkey cucumber'), a species different from the common cucumber. Pliny also writes about several other varieties of cucumber, including the cultivated cucumber, and remedies from the different types (9 from the cultivated; 5 from the \"anguine;\" and 26 from the \"wild\"). The Romans are reported to have used cucumbers to treat scorpion bites and bad eyesight, and to scare away mice. Wives wishing for children wore them around their waists. They were also carried by midwives, and thrown away when the child was born.", "Charlemagne had cucumbers grown in his gardens in the 8th/9th century. They were reportedly introduced into England in the early 14th century, lost, then reintroduced approximately 250 years later. The Spaniards (through the Italian Christopher Columbus) brought cucumbers to Haiti in 1494. In 1535, Jacques Cartier, a French explorer, found “very great cucumbers” grown on the site of what is now Montreal.", "Throughout the 16th century, European trappers, traders, bison hunters, and explorers bartered for the products of American Indian agriculture. The tribes of the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains learned from the Spanish how to grow European crops. The farmers on the Great Plains included the Mandan and Abenaki. They obtained cucumbers and watermelons from the Spanish, and added them to the crops they were already growing, including several varieties of corn and beans, pumpkins, squash, and gourd plants. The Iroquois were also growing them when the first Europeans visited them. In 1630, the Reverend Francis Higginson produced a book called \"New-Englands Plantation\" in which, describing a garden on Conant’s Island in Boston Harbor known as \"The Governor’s Garden\", he states:The countrie aboundeth naturally with store of roots of great and good to eat. Our turnips, parsnips, and carrots are here both bigger and sweeter than is ordinary to be found in England. Here are store of pompions, cowcumbers, and other things of that nature which I know not...In \"New England Prospect\" (1633, England), William Wood published observations he made in 1629 in America:", "In the later 17th century, a prejudice developed against uncooked vegetables and fruits. A number of articles in contemporary health publications stated that uncooked plants brought on summer diseases and should be forbidden to children. The cucumber kept this reputation for an inordinate period of time, \"fit only for consumption by cows,\" which some believe is why it gained the name, \"cowcumber\". A copper etching made by Maddalena Bouchard between 1772 and 1793 shows this plant to have smaller, almost bean-shaped fruits, and small yellow flowers. The small form of the cucumber is figured in Herbals of the 16th century, however stating that \"[i]f hung in a tube while in blossom, the Cucumber will grow to a most surprising length.\" Samuel Pepys wrote in his diary on 22 August 1663: \"[T]his day Sir W. Batten tells me that Mr. Newburne is dead of eating cowcumbers, of which the other day I heard of another, I think.\" In \"The Greenstone Door\", William Satchell notes that \"Te Moanaroa was dead – of a surfeit of cucumbers,\" having eaten four of the \"prickly\" melons. (Chapter XX, \"The Storm Cloud\").", "In May 2011, cucumbers infected with \"E. coli\" were claimed to have caused the deaths of at least ten people, leading to some retailers withdrawing cucumbers from sale in Germany, Austria and the Czech Republic. The cucumbers were initially thought to have come from Spain. However, subsequent testing failed to show contamination in imported Spanish cucumbers, which led to the Spanish Government demanding compensation for Spanish farmers who had been forced to destroy huge quantities of cucumbers. After the outbreak, the World Health Organization stated that it was a completely new strain of the bacterium involved. In 2016, world production of cucumbers and gherkins was 80.6 million tonnes, led by China with nearly 77% of the total." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Classification.", "Physical characteristics.", "Behavior.", "Diet.", "Social and cultural structure.", "Habitat.", "Mating.", "Life history.", "Threats.", "Intelligence.", "Self-awareness.", "Theory of mind.", "Relationship with humans." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"capuchin\" derives from a group of friars named the Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an offshoot from the Franciscans, who wear brown robes with large hoods. When Portuguese explorers reached the Americas in the 15th century, they found small monkeys whose coloring resembled these friars, especially when in their robes with hoods down, and named them capuchins. When the scientists described a specimen (thought to be a golden-bellied capuchin) they noted that: \"his muzzle of a tanned color... with the lighter color around his eyes that melts into the white at the front, his cheeks..., give him the looks that involuntarily reminds us of the appearance that historically in our country represents ignorance, laziness, and sensuality.\" The scientific name of the genus, \"Cebus\" comes from the Greek word\" kêbos\", meaning a long-tailed monkey.", "The species-level taxonomy of this genus remains highly controversial, and alternative treatments than the one listed below have been suggested. In 2011, Jessica Lynch Alfaro \"et al.\" proposed that the robust capuchins (formerly the \"C. apella\" group) be placed in a separate genus, \"Sapajus\", from the gracile capuchins (formerly the \"C. capucinus\" group) which retain the genus \"Cebus\". Other primatologists, such as Paul Garber, have begun using this classification. According to genetic studies led by Lynch Alfaro in 2011, the gracile and robust capuchins diverged approximately 6.2 million years ago. Lynch Alfaro suspects that the divergence was triggered by the creation of the Amazon River, which separated the monkeys in the Amazon north of the Amazon River, who then evolved into the gracile capuchins. Those in the Atlantic Forest south of the river evolved into the robust capuchins. Gracile capuchins have longer limbs relative to their body size than robust capuchins, and have rounder skulls, whereas robust capuchins have jaws better adapted for opening hard nuts. Robust capuchins have crests and the males have beards. <nowiki>*</nowiki> Rediscovered species.", "Capuchins are black, brown, buff or whitish, but their exact color and pattern depends on the species involved. Capuchin monkeys are usually dark brown with a cream/off white coloring around their necks. They reach a length of, with tails that are just as long as the body. On average, they weigh from 1.4 to 4 kg (3 to 9 pounds) and live up to 25 years old in their natural habitats.", "Like most New World monkeys, capuchins are diurnal and arboreal. With the exception of a midday nap, they spend their entire day searching for food. At night, they sleep in the trees, wedged between branches. They are undemanding regarding their habitat and can thus be found in many differing areas.", "The capuchin monkey feeds on a vast range of food types, and is more varied than other monkeys in the family Cebidae. They are omnivores, and consume a variety of plant parts such as leaves, flower and fruit, seeds, pith, woody tissue, sugarcane, bulb, and exudates, as well as arthropods, molluscs, a variety of vertebrates, and even primates. Recent findings of old stone tools in Capuchin habitats have suggested that recently the Capuchins have switched from small nuts, such as cashews, to larger and harder nuts. Capuchins have been observed to also be particularly good at catching frogs. They are characterized as innovative and extreme foragers because of their ability to acquire sustenance from a wide collection of unlikely food, which may assure them survival in habitats with extreme food limitation. Capuchins living near water will also eat crabs and shellfish by cracking their shells with stones.", "Capuchin monkeys often live in large groups of 10 to 35 individuals within the forest, although they can easily adapt to places colonized by humans. The Capuchins have discreet hierarchies that are distinguished by age and sex. Usually, a single male will dominate the group, and they have primary rights to mate with the females of their group. However, the white-headed capuchin groups are led by both an alpha male and an alpha female. Each group will cover a large territory, since members must search for the best areas to feed. These primates are territorial animals, distinctly marking a central area of their territory with urine and defending it against intruders, though outer areas may overlap. The stabilization of group dynamics is served through mutual grooming, and communication occurs between the monkeys through various calls. Their vocal communications have various meanings such as creating contact with one another, warning about a predator, and forming new groups. The social experience of the Capuchins directly influences the development of attention in society. They create new social behaviors within multiple groups that signify different types of interactions. These include; tests of friendship, displays against enemies, infant and sexual intimacy. This creates social rituals that are designed to test the strength of social bonds and a reliance on social learning.", "Capuchins prefer environments that give them access to shelter and easy food, such as low-lying forests, mountain forests and rain forests. They are particularly abundant in Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Honduras, Paraguay and Peru. They use these areas for the shelter at night and food access during the day. The canopy of the trees allow for protection from threats above, and the Capuchin Monkeys innate ability to climb trees with ease allows for them to escape and hide from predators on the jungle floor. This environment is mutually beneficial for the Capuchins and for the ecosystem in which they inhabit. This is because they spread their seed leftovers and fecal matter across the forest floor which helps new plants to grow, therefore adding to the already abundant foliage that shelters the Capuchin.", "Capuchin females often direct most of their proceptive and mating behavior towards the alpha male. However, when the female reaches the end of her proceptive period, she may sometimes mate with up to six different subordinate males in one day. Strictly targeting the alpha male does not happen every time, as some females have been observed to mate with three to four different males. When an alpha female and a lower-ranking female want to mate with an alpha male, the more dominant female will get rights to the male over the lower-ranking one.", "Ancestors of the Capuchin monkey, known as Panamacebus Transitus, is a newly discovered species of monkey found in Panama that seems to have lived 21 million years ago. It is the earliest known discovery of monkey to travel between South and North America, although it is still unknown as to how this species traveled from continent. Researcher Lynch Alfaro stated that the gracille Capuchin Monkey genera arose about 6.2 million years ago, and the modern Capuchin culture emerged within the last century. It is this early species that set the stage for the Capuchin to thrive in Central American forests today. The Capuchin has been known to roam these forests these forests for years and their population has boomed, the area in which they inhabit allows for the Capuchin offspring to thrive. the reproduction of these particular monkeys does not differ much from its fellow primates. Capuchins are polygamous, and the females mate throughout the year, but only go through a gestation period once every 2 years between December and April. Females bare young every two years following a 160- to 180-day gestation. The young cling to their mother's chest until they are larger, then they move to her back. Adult male Capuchin rarely take part in caring for the young. Juveniles become fully mature within four years for females and eight years for males. In captivity, individuals have reached an age of 50 years, although natural life expectancy is only 15 to 25 years. Capuchins live in groups of 6-40 members, consisting of related females, their offspring and several males.", "Capuchin monkeys are clever and easy to train. As a result, they are used to help people who are quadriplegics in many developed countries. They have also become popular pets and attractions for street entertainment, and are hunted for meat by local people. Since they have a high reproductive rate and can easily adapt to their living environment, loss of the forest does not negatively impact the Capuchin monkey populations as much as other species, although habitat fragmentation is still a threat. Natural predators include jaguars, cougars, jaguarundis, coyotes, tayras, snakes, crocodiles and birds of prey. The main predator of the tufted capuchin is the harpy eagle, which has been seen bringing several Capuchin back to its nest.", "The capuchin is considered to be the most intelligent New World monkey and is often used in laboratories. The tufted monkey is especially noted for its long-term tool usage, one of the few examples of primate tool use other than by apes. Upon seeing macaws eating palm nuts, cracking them open with their beaks, this monkey will select a few of the ripest fruits, nip off the tip of the fruit and drink down the juice, then seemingly discard the rest of the fruit with the nut inside. When these discarded fruits have hardened and become slightly brittle, the Capuchin will gather them up again and take them to a large flat boulder where they have previously gathered a few river stones from up to a mile away. They will then use these stones, some of them weighing as much as the monkeys, to crack open the fruit to get to the nut inside. Young Capuchins will watch this process to learn from the older, more experienced adults but it takes them 8 years to master this. The learning behavior of Capuchins has been demonstrated to be directly linked to a reward rather than curiosity. In 2005, experiments were conducted on the ability of Capuchins to use money. After several months of training, the monkeys began exhibiting behaviors considered to reflect understanding of the concept of a medium of exchange that were previously believed to be restricted to humans (such as responding rationally to price shocks). They showed the same propensity to avoid perceived losses demonstrated by human subjects and investors. During the mosquito season, they crush millipedes and rub the result on their backs. This acts as a natural insect repellent.", "When presented with a reflection, Capuchin monkeys react in a way that indicates an intermediate state between seeing the mirror as another individual and recognizing the image as self. Most animals react to seeing their reflection as if encountering another individual they do not recognize. An experiment with Capuchins shows that they react to a reflection as a strange phenomenon, but not as if seeing a strange Capuchin. In the experiment, Capuchins were presented with three different scenarios: With scenario 1, females appeared anxious and avoided eye-contact, while males made threatening gestures. In scenario 2, there was little reaction by either males or females. When presented with a reflection, females gazed into their own eyes and made friendly gestures, such as lip-smacking and swaying. Males made more eye contact than with strangers or familiar monkeys, but reacted with signs of confusion or distress, such as squealing, curling up on the floor, or trying to escape from the test room.", "The question of whether capuchin monkeys have a theory of mind—whether they can understand what another creature may know or think—has been neither proven nor disproven conclusively. If confronted with a \"knower-guesser\" scenario, where one trainer can be observed to know the location of food and another trainer merely guesses the location of food, capuchin monkeys can learn to rely on the knower. This has, however, been repudiated as conclusive evidence for a theory of mind as the monkeys may have learned to discriminate knower and guess by other means. Until recently it was believed that non-human great apes did not possess a theory of mind either, although recent research indicates this may not be correct. Human children commonly develop a theory of mind around the ages 3 and 4.", "Easily recognized as the \"organ grinder\" or \"greyhound jockey\" monkeys, capuchins are sometimes kept as exotic pets. Sometimes they plunder fields and crops and are seen as troublesome by nearby human populations. In some regions, they have become rare due to the destruction of their habitat. They are also used as service animals, sometimes being called \"nature's butlers\". One organization has been training capuchin monkeys to assist quadriplegics as monkey helpers in a manner similar to mobility assistance dogs. After being socialized in a human home as infants, the monkeys undergo extensive training before being placed with a quadriplegic. Around the house, the monkeys help out by doing tasks including fetching objects, turning lights on and off, and opening drink bottles. In 2010, the U.S. federal government revised its definition of service animal under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Non-human primates are no longer recognized as service animals under the ADA. The American Veterinary Medical Association does not support the use of nonhuman primates as assistance animals because of animal welfare concerns, the potential for serious injury to people, and risks that primates may transfer dangerous diseases to humans. Capuchin monkeys are the most common featured monkeys in the movies \"Outbreak\", \"\" (and its sequels), \"Zookeeper\", \"George of the Jungle\", and \"The Hangover Part II\". Ross Geller (David Schwimmer) on the NBC sitcom \"Friends\" had a capuchin monkey named Marcel. Crystal the Monkey is the famous monkey actress." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "16th–18th centuries.", "Disuse, fire and the museum.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The natural rock formation known as \"castle cliff\" – a limy spur 112 meters (367 ft) high, surrounded by the river Orava and its right tributary stream – has been inhabited since primeval times. During its history a wooden rampart became a strong walled castle of which the first written record dates back to 1267. At that time only the ground floor was built of stone, while the upper floors were made of wood. In 1370 as part of the Hungarian Kingdom the castle became the center of Árva county. A tetrahedral multi-story towerntury was built here in the 14th century, probably on older foundations, as a donjon – the place of \"last defense\" within the castle. After 1474, King Matthias Corvinus gave orders to build a square and a residence-wing in the Middle Castle. The buildings were situated in front of the castle. In 1534 John of Dubovec obtained the castle and became head of the county. He started to rebuild the castle and to make new fortifications. He ordered the building of a half-round tower in the Upper Castle that in 1539 was followed by two large round fortifications for cannons in the Middle Castle. The middle platform was also configured for cannon firing. In the years 1539 to 1543 John of Dubovec built a five-story palace in the empty space between the tower and the stone wall of the Upper Castle. The was the reason for building these new fortifications. A new gate with a ditch and drawbridge in the Lower Castle was completed in 1543. The \"Tower of the Archives\" was built against the castle walls.", "After the death of John of Dubovec, his heirs quarreled over the inheritance and the situation became so bad that the castle even became a store-house. It was paid for by the mine owner Ferenc Thurzó. A lot of building activity took place at the castle following this time period. The wooden stairs in the Upper Castle were replaced by stone stairs. The same was done to the stairs between the Middle and the Upper Castle with the drawbridge. A cellar was also dug out of the stone of the castle court and a single-story residence-wing was built in the lower castle near the west wall. György Thurzó also carried out some important repairs. One of the first was the building of a tunnel between both castle gates, above which was formed a large terrace. After this was all done he moved the living-quarters and the building of the chapel started using parts of some old architecture. The interior furnishing of the chapel was later arranged in a taste which suited the new owners of the castle. One of the most well-known features is the Renaissance grave tomb of György Thurzó from the beginning of the 17th century and the Baroque altar from 1751–1752.", "After the death of Erzsébet Czobor, the widow of György Thurzó, the castle became the property of Thurzó's daughters, who entrusted its administration to an elected administrator. Because of changes in politics, society and the economy, the castle gradually lost its important functions. Only a few clerks stayed on and the uninhabited and disused parts of the castle gradually deteriorated. The greatest catastrophe affected the castle in 1800, when a gigantic fire destroyed all the wooden parts of the castle. Some objects from the Lower Castle were recovered after the fire because they had been covered by the roof shingles. However, the objects from the Middle and Upper Castle were not reconstructed until 1861. To find a use for the historical object, Ödön Zichy, the administrator of the property (as administrator of Veszprém County), organized a foundation which had the aim of founding a regional museum of Orava. The first exhibition took place at the Thurzo Palace in 1868. Nowadays, the Orava Museum is one of the oldest in Slovakia. Its most attractive expositions are those of the Castle Chapel, the Knights' Room, and several rooms with period-style furnishing. Further highlights include the Painting Gallery, the Weapon room, and the scientific, ethnographic and archaeological collections.", "Many scenes of the 1922 film \"Nosferatu\" were filmed here, the castle representing Count Orlok's Transylvanian castle; In their 2020 TV adaptation of Bram Stoker's novel \"Dracula\", Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat also used Orava as their Castle Dracula. Orava Castle was also used by the Polish video game company CD Projekt as inspiration for the fictional Kaer Morhen, fortress for the witchers of the Wolf School in Andrzej Sapkowski's \"The Witcher\" book series." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Pre-Hoabinian technology.", "History of definitions.", "Geographical distribution.", "The Hoabinhian and plant domestication.", "Hoabinhian stone artefact technology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hà Văn Tấn outlined in his paper his definition of a lithic technology that occurred before the Hoabinian. He found primitive flakes in stratigraphy below Hoabinian pebble tools across several sites in Southeast Asia which led him to name the flake technology, Nguomian — named after a large assembly of flakes found at the Nguom rockshelter in the Bac Thai province in Vietnam. Hoabininhian technology is also claimed to be a continuation of the Sonvian technology.", "In 1927 Madeleine Colani published some details of her nine excavations in the northern Vietnamese province of Hòa Bình. As a result of her work the First Congress of Prehistorians of the Far East in 1932 agreed to define the Hoabinhian as a culture composed of implements that are in general flaked with somewhat varied types of primitive workmanship. It is characterised by tools often worked only on one face, by hammerstones, by implements of sub-triangular section, by discs, short axes and almond shaped artefacts, with an appreciable number of bone tools (Matthews 1966). Despite the general terms of the definition, Colani's Hoabinhian is an elaborate typology as indicated by the 82 artefacts from Sao Dong that Colani classified into 28 types (Matthews 1966). The original typology is so complicated that most Hoabinhian sites are identified simply by the presence of sumatraliths (White & Gorman 1979). The chronology of Hoabinhian artifacts was assumed to be Holocene because of the extant fauna found in the assemblages and the absence of extinct fauna by Colani and others working before the availability of radiocarbon dating methods in the 1950s. Problems with Colani's typology were exposed by Matthews (1964) who analysed metric and technological attributes of unifacially flaked cobble artifacts from Hoabinhian levels at Sai Yok Rockshelter, Kanchanaburi Province, west-central Thailand. His aim was to determine if Hoabinhian artefact types described by Colani could be defined as clusters of constantly recurring attributes such as length, width, thickness, mass, length-width ratio and cortex amount and distribution. Matthews found that Hoabinhian types did not exist and instead Hoabinhian artifacts reflect a continuous range of shapes and sizes. Following his archaeological excavation and surveys in Mae Hong Son Province, northwest Thailand, Chester Gorman (1970) proposed a more detailed definition as follows Gorman's work included a number of radiocarbon dates that confirmed the Holocene age of the Hoabinhian. Gorman's carbon-14 dates place Hoabinhian levels at spirit cave between 12,000 and 8000 BP, these levels have also produced cord-marked ceramics. The term was redefined in 1994 by archaeologists attending a conference held in Hanoi. At this conference Vietnamese archaeologists presented evidence of Hoabinhian artifacts dating to 17,000 years before the present. A vote was held where it was agreed that", "Since the term was first used to describe assemblages from sites in Vietnam, many sites throughout mainland and island Southeast Asia have been described as having Hoabinhian components. The apparent concentration of more than 120 Hoabinhian sites in Vietnam reflects intensive research activities in this area rather the location of a centre of the prehistoric Hoabinhian activity. The oldest Hoabinhian complex was discovered at Xiaodong, a large rockshelter in Yunnan, China, from the Burmese border. It is the only Hoabinhian site discovered in China. Archaeological sites in Terengganu, Sumatra, Thailand, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia have been identified as Hoabinhian, although the quality and quantity of descriptions vary and the relative significance of the Hoabinhian component at these sites can be difficult to determine. Recent archaeological research indicates that variation in Hoabinhian artifacts across regions are largely influenced by local, region-specific proximity to resources and changes in environmental conditions. Beyond this core area, some archaeologists argue that there are isolated inventories of stone artifacts displaying Hoabinhian elements in Nepal, South China, Taiwan and Australia (Moser 2001).", "Gorman (1971) claimed that Spirit Cave included remains of \"Prunus\" (almond), \"Terminalia\", \"Areca\" (betel), \"Vicia\" (broadbean) or \"Phaseolus\", \"Pisum\" (pea) or \"Raphia Lagenaria\" (bottle gourd), \"Trapa\" (water caltrop), \"Piper\" (pepper), \"Madhuca\" (butternut), \"Canarium\", \"Aleurites\" (candle nut), and \"Cucumis\" (a cucumber type) in layers dating to c. 9800-8500 BP. None of the recovered specimens differed from their wild phenotypes. He suggested that these may have been used as foods, condiments, stimulants, for lighting and that the leguminous plants in particular 'point to a very early use of domesticated plants' (Gorman 1969:672). He later wrote (1971:311) that 'Whether they are definitely early cultigens (see Yen n.d.:12) remains to be established... What is important, and what we can say definitely, is that the remains indicate the early, quite sophisticated use of particular species which are still culturally important in Southeast Asia.' In 1972 W. G. Solheim, as the director of the project of which Spirit Cave was part, published an article in \"Scientific American\" discussing the finds from Spirit Cave. While Solheim noted that the specimens may'merely be wild species gathered from the surrounding countryside', he claimed that the inhabitants at Spirit Cave had 'an advanced knowledge of horticulture'. Solheim's chronological chart suggests that 'incipient agriculture' began at about 20,000 BC in southeast Asia. He also suggests that ceramic technology was invented at 13,000 BC although Spirit Cave does not have ceramics until after 6800 BC. Although Solheim concludes that his reconstruction is 'largely hypothetical', his overstatement of the results of Gorman's excavation has led to inflated claims of Hoabinhian agriculture. These claims have detracted from the significance of Spirit Cave as a site with well-preserved evidence of human subsistence and palaeoenvironmental conditions during the Hoabinhian. Viet (2004), however, focuses on mainly Hoabinhians in Viet Nam. Within his wide range of study of this area, Da But is a site he works on that is dated to about fifth to sixth millennium BC to the end of the third millennium BC. Within this site, Viet sees that the food Hoabinhians mostly focus on are mountainous shellfish, nuts, and fruit. Interesting enough, the site even shows a new shellfish species that they consumed: an as-yet-unnamed species of freshwater clam of \"Corbicula spp\"; species are known to live in swampy areas and lakes. The general food sources of Hoabinhians were gathered from the follow environmental conditions:", "An experimental Hoabinhian assemblage was created and analyzed by Marwick (2008), which identified variables and methods that are the most useful in analyzing Hoabinhian assemblages. In particular he advocated for the use of a new method involving the dorsal cortex location of a flake. This method in particular was found to be especially useful in determining reduction intensity and may prove instrumental in answering broader archaeological questions involving subsistence, geographic range, and domestication. Based on Marwick's own research and Shoocongdej's (2000, 2006), behavioral ecological models were applied to examine human behavior through lithic assemblages which found in Tham Lod and Ban Rai rockshelters. In theory, high frequencies of pre-processing should reflect logistical mobility strategy. However, at Tham Lod, a high frequencies of pre-processing (CPM) but a residential mobility strategy (ODM) and a low intensity of occupation (PCM) was observed: We can see an internal conflict between models. An multiple optima model is proposed to explain this contradictory result. Multiple optima model allows more than one optimal scenario and is valid to explain high time-devoting lithic technology (i.e., pre-processing of lithic) and more residential mobility strategy in the same time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "First sojourn in France.", "In the United States.", "In Britain.", "Political education in France.", "In the Soviet Union and China.", "Independence movement.", "Becoming president.", "The Vietnam War.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "International influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hồ Chí Minh was born as Nguyễn Sinh Cung in 1890 in the village of Hoàng Trù (the name of the local temple near Làng Sen), his mother's village. Although 1890 is generally accepted as his birth year, at various times he used four other birth years: 1891, 1892, 1894 and 1895. From 1895, he grew up in his father Nguyễn Sinh Sắc (Nguyễn Sinh Huy)'s village of Làng Sen, Kim Liên, Nam Đàn, and Nghệ An Province. He had three siblings: his sister Bạch Liên (Nguyễn Thị Thanh), a clerk in the French Army; his brother Nguyễn Sinh Khiêm (Nguyễn Tất Đạt), a geomancer and traditional herbalist; and another brother (Nguyễn Sinh Nhuận), who died in infancy. As a young child, Cung (Ho) studied with his father before more formal classes with a scholar named Vuong Thuc Do. He quickly mastered Chinese writing, a prerequisite for any serious study of Confucianism, while honing his colloquial Vietnamese writing. In addition to his studies, he was fond of adventure and loved to fly kites and go fishing. Following Confucian tradition, his father gave him a new name at the age of 10: \"Nguyễn Tất Thành\" (\"Nguyễn the Accomplished\"). His father was a Confucian scholar and teacher and later an imperial magistrate in the small remote district of Binh Khe (Qui Nhơn). He was demoted for abuse of power after an influential local figure died several days after having received 102 strokes of the cane as punishment for an infraction. His father was eligible to serve in the imperial bureaucracy, but he refused because it meant serving the French. This exposed Thành (Ho) to rebellion at a young age and seemed to be the norm for the province. Nevertheless, he received a French education, attending \"Collège Quốc học\" (\"lycée\" or secondary education) in Huế. His disciples, Phạm Văn Đồng and Võ Nguyên Giáp, also attended the school, as did Ngô Đình Diệm, the future President of South Vietnam (and political rival).", "Previously, it was believed that Thành (Ho) was involved in an anti-slavery (anti-\"corvée\") demonstration of poor peasants in Huế in May 1908, which endangered his student status at \"Collège Quốc học\". However, a document from the Centre des archives d'Outre-mer in France shows that he was admitted to \"Collège Quốc học\" on 8 August 1908, which was several months after the anti-\"corvée\" demonstration (9–13 April 1908). The exaggeration of revolutionary credentials was common among Vietnamese Communist leaders, as shown in North Vietnamese President Tôn Đức Thắng's falsified participation in the 1919 Black Sea revolt. Later in life, he claimed the 1908 revolt had", "While working as the cook's helper on a ship in 1912, Thành (Ho) traveled to the United States. From 1912 to 1913, he may have lived in New York City (Harlem) and Boston, where he claimed to have worked as a baker at the Parker House Hotel. The only evidence that he was in the United States is a letter to French colonial administrators dated 15 December 1912 and postmarked New York City (he gave as his address Poste Restante in Le Havre and", "At various points between 1913 and 1919, Thành (Ho) claimed to have lived in West Ealing and later in Crouch End, Hornsey. He reportedly worked as either a chef or dish washer (reports vary) at the Drayton Court Hotel in West Ealing. Claims", "From 1919 to 1923, Thành (Ho) began to show an interest in politics while living in France, being influenced by his friend and Socialist Party of France comrade Marcel Cachin. Thành claimed to have arrived in Paris from London in 1917, but the French police only had documents recording his arrival in June 1919. In Paris he joined the \"Groupe des Patriotes Annamites\" (The Group of Vietnamese Patriots) that included Phan Chu Trinh, Phan Văn Trường, Nguyễn Thế Truyền and Nguyễn An Ninh. They had been publishing newspaper articles advocating for Vietnamese independence under the pseudonym Nguyễn Ái Quốc (\"Nguyễn the Patriot\") prior to Thành's arrival in Paris. The group petitioned for recognition of the civil rights of the Vietnamese people in French Indochina to the Western powers at the Versailles peace talks, but they were ignored. Citing the principle of self-determination outlined prior to the peace accords, they requested the allied powers to end French colonial rule of Vietnam and ensure the formation of an independent government. Prior to the conference, the group sent their letter to allied leaders, including Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau and President Woodrow Wilson. They were unable to obtain consideration at Versailles, but the episode would later help establish the future Hồ Chí Minh as the symbolic leader of the anti-colonial movement", "In 1923, Quốc (Ho) left Paris for Moscow carrying a passport with the name Chen Vang, a Chinese merchant, where he was employed by the Comintern, studied at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East and participated in the in June 1924 before arriving in Canton (present-day Guangzhou), China in November 1924 using the name Ly Thuy. In 1925–1926, he organized \"Youth Education Classes\" and occasionally gave socialist lectures to Vietnamese revolutionary young people living in Canton at the Whampoa Military Academy. These young people would become the seeds of a new revolutionary, pro-communist movement in Vietnam several years later. According to William Duiker, he lived with a Chinese woman, Zeng Xueming (Tăng Tuyết Minh), whom he married on 18 October 1926. When his comrades objected to the match, he told them: \"I will get married despite your disapproval because I need a woman to teach me the language and keep house\". She was 21 and he was 36. They married in the same place where Zhou Enlai had married earlier and then lived in the residence of a Comintern agent, Mikhail Borodin. Hoàng Văn Chí argued that in June 1925 he betrayed Phan Bội Châu, the famous leader of a rival revolutionary faction and his father's old friend, to French Secret Service agents in Shanghai for 100,000 piastres. A source states that he later claimed he did it because he expected Châu's trial to stir up", "In 1941, Hồ Chí Minh returned to Vietnam to lead the Việt Minh independence movement. The Japanese occupation of Indochina that year, the first step toward invasion of the rest of Southeast Asia, created an opportunity for patriotic Vietnamese. The so-called \"men in black\" were a 10,000 member guerrilla force that operated with the Việt Minh. He oversaw many successful military actions against the Vichy France and Japanese occupation of Vietnam during World War II, supported closely yet clandestinely by the United States Office of Strategic Services and later against the French bid to reoccupy the country (1946–1954). He was jailed in China by Chiang Kai-shek's local authorities before being rescued by Chinese Communists. Following his release in 1943, he returned to Vietnam. It was during this time that he began regularly using the name Hồ Chí Minh, a Vietnamese name combining a common Vietnamese surname (Hồ, 胡) with a given name meaning \"Bright spirit\" or \"Clear will\" (from Sino-Vietnamese 志 明: Chí meaning \"will\" or \"spirit\" and Minh meaning \"bright\"). His new name is a tribute to General Hou Zhiming (侯志明), Chief Commissar of the 4th Military Region of the National Revolutionary Army, who helped releasing him from KMT prison in 1943. In April 1945, he met with the OSS agent Archimedes Patti and offered to provide intelligence to the allies provided that he could have \"a line of communication\" with the Allies. The OSS agreed to this and later sent a military team of OSS members to train his men and Hồ Chí Minh himself was treated for malaria and dysentery by an OSS doctor. Following the August Revolution (1945) organized by the Việt Minh, Hồ Chí Minh became Chairman of the Provisional Government (Premier of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Although he convinced Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate, his government was not recognized by any country. He repeatedly petitioned President Harry S. Truman for support for Vietnamese independence, citing the Atlantic Charter, but Truman never responded. In 1946, future Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion and Hồ Chí Minh became acquainted when they stayed at the same hotel in Paris. He offered Ben-Gurion a Jewish home-in-exile in Vietnam. Ben-Gurion declined, telling him: \"I am certain we shall be able to establish a Jewish Government in Palestine\". In 1946, when he traveled outside of the country, his subordinates imprisoned 2,500 non-Communist nationalists and forced 6,000 others to flee. Hundreds of political opponents were jailed or exiled in July 1946, notably members of the Nationalist Party of Vietnam and the Dai Viet National Party after a failed attempt to raise a coup against the Viet Minh government. All rival political parties were hereafter banned and local governments were purged to minimize opposition later on. However, it was noted that the Democratic Republic of Vietnam's first Congress had over two-thirds of its members come from non-Việt Minh political factions, some without an election. Nationalist Party of Vietnam leader Nguyễn Hải Thần was named vice president. They also held four out of ten ministerial positions.", "The 1954 Geneva Accords concluded between France and the Việt Minh, allowing the latter's forces to regroup in the North whilst anti-Communist groups settled in the South. His Democratic Republic of Vietnam relocated to Hanoi and became the government of North Vietnam, a Communist-led one-party state. Following the Geneva Accords, there was to be a 300-day period in which people could freely move between the two regions of Vietnam, later known as South Vietnam and North Vietnam. During the 300 days, Diệm and CIA adviser Colonel Edward Lansdale staged a campaign to convince people to move to South Vietnam. The campaign was particularly focused on Vietnam's Catholics, who were to provide Diệm's power base in his later years, with the use of the slogan \"God has gone south\". Between 800,000 and 1,000,000 people migrated to the South, mostly Catholics. At the start of 1955, French Indochina was dissolved, leaving Diệm in temporary control of the South. All the parties at Geneva called for reunification elections, but they could not agree on the details. Recently appointed Việt Minh acting foreign minister Pham Van Dong proposed elections under the supervision of \"local commissions\". The United States, with the support of Britain and the Associated States of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, suggested United Nations supervision. This plan was rejected by Soviet representative Vyacheslav Molotov, who argued for a commission composed of an equal number of communist and non-communist members, which could determine \"important\" issues only by unanimous agreement. The negotiators were unable to agree on a date for the elections for reunification. North Vietnam argued that the elections should be held within six months of the", "As early as June 1956 the idea of overthrowing the South Vietnamese government was presented at a politburo meeting. In 1959, Hồ Chí Minh began urging the Politburo to send aid to the Việt Cộng in South Vietnam and a \"people's war\" on the South was approved at a session in January 1959 and this decision was confirmed by the Politburo in March. North Vietnam invaded Laos in July 1959 aided by the Pathet Lao and used 30,000 men to build a network of supply and reinforcement routes running through Laos and Cambodia that became known as the Hồ Chí Minh trail. It allowed the North to send manpower and materiel to the Việt Cộng with much less exposure to South Vietnamese forces, achieving a considerable advantage. To counter the accusation that North Vietnam was violating the Geneva Accord, the independence of the Việt Cộng was stressed in Communist propaganda. North Vietnam created the National Liberation Front of South Vietnam in December 1960 as a \"united front\", or political branch of the Viet Cong intended to encourage the participation of non-Communists. At the end of 1959, conscious that the national election would never be held and that Diem intended to purge opposing forces (mostly ex Việt Minh) from the South Vietnamese society, Hồ Chí Minh informally chose Lê Duẩn to become the next party leader. This was interpreted by Western analysts as a loss of influence for Hồ, who was said to actually have preferred the more moderate Võ Nguyên Giáp for the position. From 1959 onward, the elderly Ho began increasing worried about the prospect of his death, and that year he wrote down his will. Lê Duẩn was officially named party leader in 1960, leaving Hồ to function in a secondary role as head of state and member of the Politburo. He nevertheless maintained considerable influence in the government. Lê Duẩn, Tố Hữu, Trường Chinh and Phạm Văn Đồng often shared dinner with Hồ, and all of them remained key figures throughout and after the war. In the early 1960s, the North Vietnamese Politburo was divided the \"North first\" faction who favored focusing on the economic development of North Vietnam, and the \"South first\" faction, who favored a guerrilla war in South Vietnam to reunite Vietnam in the near future. Between 1961 and 1963, 40,000 Communist soldiers infiltrated into South Vietnam from the North. In 1963, Hồ purportedly corresponded with South Vietnamese President Diem in hopes of achieving a negotiated peace. During the so-called \"Maneli Affair\" of 1963, a French diplomatic initiative was launched with the aim of achieving a federation of the two Vietnams, which would be neutral in the Cold War. The four principle diplomats involved in the \"Maneli affair\" were Ramchundur Goburdhun, the Indian Chief Commissioner of the ICC; Mieczysław Maneli, the Polish Commissioner to the ICC; Roger Lalouette, the French ambassador to South Vietnam; and Giovanni d'Orlandi, the Italian ambassador to South Vietnam. Maneli reported that Ho was very interested in the signs of a split between President Diem and President Kennedy and that his attitude was: \"Our real enemies are the Americans. Get rid them, and we can cope with Diem and Nhu afterward\". At a meeting in Hanoi held in French, Ho told Goburdhun that Diem was \"in his own way a patriot\", noting that Diem had opposed French rule over Vietnam, and ended the meeting saying that the next time Goburdhun met Diem \"shake hands with him for me\". The North Vietnamese Premier Phạm Văn Đồng, speaking on behalf of Ho, told Maneli he was interested in the peace plan, saying that just as long as the American advisers left South Vietnam \"we can come to an agreement with any Vietnamese\". On 2 September 1963, Maneli met with Ngô Đình Nhu, the younger brother and right-hand man to Diem to discuss the French peace plan. It remains unclear if the Ngo brothers were serious about the French peace plan or were merely using the possibility of accepting it to blackmail the United States into supporting them at a time when the Buddhist crisis had seriously strained relations between Saigon and Washington. Supporting the latter theory is the fact that Nhu promptly leaked his meeting with Maneli to the American columnist Joseph Alsop, who publicized it in a column entitled \"Very Ugly Stuff\". The mere possibility that the Ngo brothers might accept the peace plan helped persuade the Kennedy administration to support the coup against them. On 1 November 1963, a coup overthrow Diem, who was killed the next day together with his brother. Diem had followed a policy of \"deconstructing the state\" by creating a number of overlapping agencies and departments who were encouraged to feud with one another in order to disorganize the South Vietnamese state to such an extent that he hoped that it would make a coup against him impossible. When Diem was overthrown and killed, without any kind of arbiter between the rival arms of the South Vietnamese state, South Vietnam promptly disintegrated. The American Defense Secretary Robert McNamara reported after visiting South Vietnam in December 1963 that \"there is no organized government worthy of the name\" in Saigon. At a meeting of the plenum of the Politburo in December 1963, Lê' Duẩn's \"South first\" faction triumphed with the Politburo passing a resolution calling for North Vietnam to complete the overthrow of the regime in Saigon as", "In addition to being a politician, Hồ Chí Minh was also a writer, journalist, poet and polyglot. His father was a scholar and teacher who received a high degree in the Nguyễn dynasty Imperial examination. Hồ was taught to master Classical Chinese at a young age. Before the August Revolution, he often wrote poetry in Chữ Hán (the Vietnamese name for the Chinese writing system). One of those is \"Poems from the Prison Diary\", written when he was imprisoned by the police of the Republic of China. This poetry chronicle is Vietnam National Treasure No. 10 and was translated into many languages. It is used in Vietnamese high schools. After Vietnam gained independence from France, the new government exclusively promoted Chữ Quốc Ngữ (Vietnamese writing system in Latin characters) to eliminate illiteracy. Hồ started to create more poems in the modern Vietnamese language for dissemination to a wider range of readers. From when he became president until the appearance of serious health problems, a short poem of his was regularly published in the newspaper \"Nhân Dân\" Tết (Lunar new year) edition to encourage his people in working, studying or fighting Americans in the new year. Because he was in exile for nearly 30 years, Hồ could speak fluently as well as read and write professionally in", "With the outcome of the Vietnam War still in question, Hồ Chí Minh died of heart failure at his home in Hanoi at 9:47 on the morning of 2 September 1969; he was 79 years old. His embalmed body is currently on display in a mausoleum in Ba Đình Square in Hanoi despite his will which stated that he wanted to be cremated. The North Vietnamese government originally announced Ho's death as 3 September. A week of mourning for his death was decreed nationwide in North Vietnam from 4 to 11 September 1969. His funeral was attended by about 250,000 people and 5,000 official guests, which included many international mourners. Among the dignitaries to attend were :", "The Vietnamese Socialist Republic has sustained the personality cult of Uncle Ho (\"Bác Hồ\"), the Bringer of Light (\"Chí Minh\"). It is comparable in many ways to that of Mao Zedong in China and of Kim il-sung and Kim Jong-il in North Korea. There is the embalmed body on view in a massive mausoleum, the ubiquity of his image featured in every public building and schoolroom, and other displays of reverence, some unofficial, that verge on \"worship\". (Ho Chi Minh's image appears on some family altars, and there is at least one temple dedicated to him, built in then-Việt-Cộng-controlled Vĩnh Long shortly after his death in 1970). The regime is sensitive to anything that might question the official hagiography. This includes references to Ho Chi Minh's personal life that might detract from the image of the dedicated \"the father of the revolution\", the \"celibate married only to the cause of revolution\". William Duiker's \"Ho Chi Minh: A Life\" (2000) was candid on the matter of Ho Chi Minh's liaisons. The government sought cuts in a Vietnamese translation and banned distribution of an issue of the \"Far Eastern Economic Review\" which carried a small item about the controversy. In an earlier work, \"The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam\" (1982) Duiker suggested that the cult of Ho Chi Minh was indicative of a larger legacy, one that drew on \"elements traditional to the exercise of control and authority in Vietnamese society.\" Duiker is drawn to an \"irresistible and persuasive\" comparison with China. As in China, leading party cadres were \"most likely to be intellectuals descended [like Ho Chi Minh] from rural scholar-gentry families\" in the interior (the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin). Conversely, the pioneers of constitutional nationalism tended to be from the more \"Westernised\" coastal south (Saigon and surrounding French direct-rule Cochinchina) and to be from \"commercial families without a traditional Confucian background\". In", "Hồ Chí Minh is considered one of the most influential leaders in the world. \"Time\" magazine listed him in the list of (\"Time\" 100) in 1998. His thought and revolution inspired many leaders and people on a global scale in Asia, Africa and Latin America during the decolonization movement which occurred after World War II. As a communist, he was one of the international figures who were highly praised in the Communist world. Various places, boulevards and squares are named after him around the world, especially in Socialist states and former Communist states. In Russia, there is a Hồ Chí Minh square and monument in Moscow, in Saint Petersburg and Hồ Chí Minh square in Ulyanovsk (the birthplace of Vladimir Lenin, a sister city of Vinh, the birthplace of Hồ Chí Minh). During the Vietnam War the then West Bengal government, in the hands of CPI(M), renamed Harrington Street to Ho Chi Minh Sarani, which is also the location of the Consulate General of the United States of America in Kolkata. According to the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affairs, as many as 20 countries across Asia, Europe, America and Africa have erected statues in remembrance of President Hồ Chí Minh. Busts, statues and memorial plaques and exhibitions are displayed in destinations on his extensive world journey in exile from 1911 to 1941 including France, Great Britain, Russia, China and Thailand. Many activists and musicians wrote songs about Hồ Chí Minh and his revolution in different languages during the Vietnam War to demonstrate against the United States. Spanish songs were composed by Félix Pita Rodríguez, Carlos Puebla and Alí Primera. In addition, the Chilean folk singer Víctor Jara referenced Hồ Chí Minh in his anti-war song \"El derecho de vivir en paz\" (\"The Right to Live in Peace\"). In English, Ewan MacColl wrote \"The Ballad of Hồ Chí Minh\" and Pete Seeger wrote \"Teacher Uncle Ho\". Russian songs about him were written by Vladimir Fere and German songs about him were written by Kurt Demmler. In 1987, UNESCO officially recommended that its member states \"join in the commemoration of the centenary of the birth of President Hồ Chí Minh by organizing various events as a tribute to his memory\", considering \"the important and many-sided contributions of President Hồ Chí Minh to the fields of culture, education and the arts\" who \"devoted his whole life to the national liberation of the Vietnamese people, contributing to the common struggle of peoples for peace, national independence, democracy and social progress\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Music.", "Reception.", "Sequels.", "\"Turrican II: The Final Fight\".", "\"Mega Turrican\"/\"Turrican 3: Payment Day\".", "\"Super Turrican\" (NES).", "\"Super Turrican\" and \"Super Turrican 2\" (SNES).", "Unreleased games.", "Fan projects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Turrican\" can be described as a cross between \"Metroid\" and \"Psycho-Nics Oscar\". While the huge levels and the morph-ball function were inspired by \"Metroid\", the overall graphics design and weapons were inspired by \"Psycho-Nics Oscar\". Unlike many other action games of its time, \"Turrican\" did not force the player to complete a linear level. Instead, the player can explore each level and uncover secrets.", "The lost colony of Alterra is a completely man-made world in a nearby galaxy, abandoned long ago. Alterra consists of five self-contained habitats, separately bio-engineered by a powerful ecosystem generation network known as a Multiple Organism Unit Link, or MORGUL for short. Early colonists used MORGUL to render Alterra inhabitable, but a cataclysmic quake severed all system interface functions, and MORGUL murderously rebelled. The few colonists lucky enough to escape told a grim tale of a higher intelligence gone berserk. For generations, mankind sought a return to Alterra. Finally, genetic science created a saviour: Turrican, a mutant warrior, bio-engineered for the task of planetary reclamation. In the meantime, MORGUL has diligently twisted Alterran life forms to his brutal, destructive purposes. Thus, Turrican's challenges consist of eliminating hostile organisms from Alterra's five multi-level worlds and, finally, destroying the three faces of MORGUL.", "The series started in 1989 on the Commodore 64 with a demo level of the full game which was released in 1990. \"Turrican\" became popular due to its high technical achievements, demonstrating graphics which many did not believe to be possible on a C64. \"Turrican\" was developed mainly by Manfred Trenz and published by Rainbow Arts. \"Turrican\" was released for the Amiga, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum and CDTV. Factor 5 handled the Amiga, Atari ST and CDTV versions, while the Amstrad CPC and ZX Spectrum were developed by Probe Software. While all of these versions were published in Europe, the Commodore versions were the only computer versions to be published in North America, by Innerprise Software. The Spectrum version of the game went to number 2 in the UK sales charts, behind \"Shadow Warriors\". In 1991, console ports for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis, TurboGrafx-16 and Game Boy were handled by The Code Monkeys and published by Accolade in North America, with the Mega Drive and Game Boy versions being also released in Europe. A conversion of the game for the Atari Jaguar was under discussion by German studio Softgold, but work on the port was never stated beyond the discussional phase.", "Chris Huelsbeck composed music for the Amiga conversions of \"Turrican\", \"Turrican II\" and \"Turrican 3\", as well as \"Mega Turrican\" for the Mega Drive and \"Super Turrican\" and \"Super Turrican 2\" for the SNES. Music from \"Turrican II\" was performed live by a full orchestra at the second Symphonic Game Music Concert in 2004. The event took place in Leipzig, Germany. The music from \"Turrican\" was released in the \"Turrican Soundtrack Anthology\" on November 24, 2013 as a 4-volume digital download. In addition, \"Subsong 2\" from the Commodore 64 version of \"Turrican\", arranged by Ramiro Vaca, was copied from the song \"Escape\" of \"\". The title screen of \"Turrican\" is based upon the Manowar album cover \"Kings of Metal.\"", "The Spectrum version was voted number 36 in the \"Your Sinclair Readers' Top 100 Games of All Time\".", "", "\"Turrican II: The Final Fight\" was released in 1991. The Amiga version, done by Factor 5, was finished before the C64 version, but Manfred Trenz cites the C64 version as the original design. The game was also released for the CDTV, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, ZX Spectrum and PC (MS-DOS), and also for the Mega Drive/Genesis, Game Boy and SNES rebranded as \"Universal Soldier\".", "\"Mega Turrican\" was an original Factor 5 game initially designed for the Mega Drive/Genesis, and later followed by an Amiga port under the title of \"Turrican 3: Payment Day\". PC (MS-DOS), Acorn Archimedes and Amiga CD32 versions were also planned and developed, but they were never released and only some enemy sprite designs have surfaced.", "Released for the NES, this \"Turrican\" game was created by Manfred Trenz alone. It is based roughly on the levels of the first two \"Turrican\" games.", "The \"Super Turrican\" games were developed for the SNES by Factor 5. They were released in 1993 and 1995, respectively.", "\"Turrican 3D\" was intended to introduce 3D graphics in the \"Turrican\" series, but was not released because publisher THQ stopped development. The game was intended for PC (Windows) and Dreamcast. Screenshots and videos show how the world of \"Turrican\" would have looked. In an interview, Manfred Trenz, creator of \"Turrican\", \"Turrican II\", \"Super Turrican\" (NES) and co-developer of \"Turrican 3D\", stated that many members of the project were far too profit-oriented, and the project failed as a result. \"Thornado\" is another never-released \"Turrican\" spin-off. Handled by the US branch of Factor 5, they did not use the name \"Turrican\" because of legal issues. It was developed first for the Nintendo 64 and later for the GameCube. All that is available from this game is a piece of preliminary music composed by Chris Huelsbeck and some art assets that were reused in \"\", such as the Golden Gate-looking bridge. The \"Thornado Demo\" track which was released as a teaser for the then-upcoming GameCube game, was in fact running on the older Nintendo 64 sound hardware using Factor 5's new proprietary MusyX software sound engine. The \"Thornado\" demo, although not available on Factor 5's website anymore, can still be found on Chris Huelsbeck's page at GarageBand.com. \"Next-gen Turrican\" in April 2007, a Gamasutra article revealed that Factor 5 was working on concepts for a new \"Turrican\" game. The game did not have a title yet and was known as \"Turrican\" or \"Project cyclone\". Since the game was being planned once again by the US branch of Factor 5 and they went bankrupt not long after, this game was not released.", "\"Hurrican\" is an independent freeware sequel released for Windows in 2007. In the past there were already several other more or less extensive fan-made remakes of \"Turrican\" including \"T2002\", \"T4 Funeral\" and a \"Turrican\" table for \"Visual Pinball\", but \"Hurrican\" is particularly notable for its 2nd place in the 2008 Indie Game Showcase contest. As the source code of \"Hurrican\" was released in 2012, source ports to other platforms are now possible." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hypotheses.", "Orvieto.", "Bagnoregio.", "Tuscania.", "Viterbo.", "Montefiascone.", "Latera.", "Valentano.", "Bolsena.", "San Lorenzo Nuovo.", "Bisentina island.", "Pitigliano.", "Farnese.", "Tarquinia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The most credited hypothesis places the shrine in Orvieto. The \"Urbs Vetus\" of the Middle Ages is identified with the Etruscan Velzna by scholars, the Latin Volsinii, conquered by the Romans in 264 BC. Livy, Pliny, Florus, Horace, Metrodorus of Scepsis, all belonging to the 2nd century BC, clearly speak of ancient Volsinii, but never in relation to the Fanum Voltumnae. In the late 19th-century archaeologists uncovered parts of the walls and found large quantities of earthenware, and based on these findings in 1930s the archeologist Geralberto Buccolini set out the hypothesis that the Fanum was situated at the foot of Orvieto's tuff In particular, the Temple of Belvedere was discovered and identified as the Temple of Nortia. In September 2006, Simonetta Stopponi, professor of Italic Archaeology and Etruscology at Macerata University (Italy), after extensive digs (begun in 2000 and financed by the Monte dei Paschi di Siena Bank, with ministerial permission) at a site near the hill town of Orvieto (esplanade \"Arcone\", former \"Campo della Fiera\", smallholding \"Giardino della Regina\") announced that the site at the feet of the Umbrian town probably was the location of the Fanum Voltumnae. \"It has all the characteristics of a very important shrine, and of that shrine in particular\" she said. Listing some of those characteristics, she mentioned \"the scale of the construction, its intricate structure and layout, the presence of wells and fountains and the central temple building\". Structures of various periods have been identified, distributed over a very large area (a retaining wall in polygonal masonry, a paved street, etc.), and many fragments of architectural terracottas have been recovered (among which are some similar to those in Berlin), datable from Late Archaic period to Hellenistic times. Also supporting the claim that this is the Fanum Voltumnae is the fact that the area was used continuously for religious purposes right from the 6th century BC up to the 15th century. Roman temples were built on it in later centuries and the last church was erected there in the 12th century. In November 2014, archaeologist Simonetta Stopponi announced finding a polychrome terracotta male head of an Etruscan god in the area of Orvieto. \"The head is very nice and well kept,\" said Stopponi, \"An important discovery as well as that of the temple\" that measures. A main temple and a sacred way have also been excavated.", "Some modern scholars have hypothesized that the location of Fanum Voltumnae was at Bagnoregio (probably on the hill of Civita di Bagnoregio), past possession of Orvieto and Etruscan walled town.", "Before the discoveries in the Orvieto area, the archaeological site of Guado Cinto, a necropolis including the \"Tomb of the Queen\" near Tuscania, was one of the most credited locations of Fanum Voltumnae.", "This hypothesis, presented in the 1950s by Mario Signorelli (1905–1990), an Italian music teacher, identified the sacred wood of the Etruscans in the peripheral areas of Viterbo named \"Riello\" and \"Macchia grande\". This area was central to the sacred wood, protected by four guardian towns which prevented it from being disclosed to the profane. The four towns were: Ferente (i.e. Ferentium), Axia (i.e. Castel d'Asso), Vrcle (Orcla, the centre of today's Norchia), Luserna (i.e. Musarna). The works of Signorelli followed the writings of the fifteenth-century forger Annio da Viterbo (1432–1502), who devoted his life to collecting legends and traditions ascribed to the Etruscans, and to inventing documents to support his histories. Viterbo's heraldic badges are surrounded by the letters FAVL (read as FAUL), which appear like a ciphered globe. It is unclear what they refer to, but some claim that they are the initials of the guardian towns and some others that they are in reference to the initial syllables of Fanum Voltumnae. The latter was affirmed in the nineteenth century by Francesco Orioli, who also surmised that the Viterbo Cathedral was built on the site of the Fanum, in the Roman settlement Castrum Herculis. Viterbo, inasmuch as it contains a church named Santa Maria in Volturna, may be considered as having some claims to the Fanum.", "Annio of Viterbo, in his 17 volumes of \"Antiquities\" (published in 1498) attributed the foundation of the Etruscan Fanum Voltumnae to the ancient population known as Falisci (allies of the Etruscans, along with Capenates, at the time of the wars between Rome and Veii, 406–396 BC). The town Montefiascone was named after them (\"Mons Faliscorum\", that is, Mountain of the Falisci). The British explorer George Dennis, though without any documentary evidence, supported Montefiascone as the sacred site where the states of the Etruscan league met periodically to discuss military and political affairs and choose a \"lucumo\" (the equivalent of \"Pontifex Maximus\").", "In spring 1988, news was published that Fanum Voltumnae was at last discovered on the volcanic ridge of Lake Bolsena. The hill (633 m a.s.l.), known as \"Poggio Evangelista\" (commune of Latera), retains the ruins of a temple, visibly located on a strategic place, with a wide view over Umbria, Lazio and Tuscany (Berlingo and Timperi, 1995). It is likely a sacred Etruscan place of worship dating back to the 6th – 4th centuries BC.", "In 1976 and 1977, Danish excavations were carried out at \"Monte Becco\" (at 556 m a.s.l.), in the area of Valentano, near to the Lake Mezzano (ancient Lacus Statoniensis). Traces of the Etruscan presence, including walls, bronze tools, and roof tiles were found during the study mission. One of the tiles was found to be incised with all the characters of the Etruscan alphabet. This site has been also indicated as one of the possible locations of the Fanum.", "This hypothesis is supported by Angelo Timperi, inspector and archeologist of \"Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Etruria Meridionale\", with roles and responsibilities for the eastern side of Lake Bolsena and the archaeological area of \"Poggio Moscini\" in Bolsena. His idea is that Fanum Voltumnae was a large area centred on the ancient Etruscan, and later Roman town of Velzna, situated on the shore of \"Lacus Volsiniensis\" (modern Lake Bolsena). This conclusion is based on both archaeological and epigraphical discoveries, also supported by stratigraphic reconstructions and archival records.", "Another hypothesis suggests that the federal shrine of the Etruscans was located to the northern coast of Lake Bolsena, in a place known as \"Civita di Grotte di Castro\", a plain area close to the church of San Giovanni in Val di Lago (currently in the commune of San Lorenzo Nuovo). This hypothesis (also supported by Luigi Catena) comes out of another study based on the so-called \"Rescritto di Spello\" (Rescript of Hispellum) issued by emperor Constantine I in a date between 333 and 337 AD to authorize the Umbrians' annual celebration: This is the first document that allows one to situate the Fanum at Volsinii – or at least in the Volsiniese territory. It is said in the document that the annual Etruscan feast (\"concilium principum Etruriae\") was celebrated near \"Volsinios\", including games and combats of gladiators, and election of the federal \"sacerdos\". The document dates 4th century AD, thus the geographical indication in it can only refer to \"Volsinii Novi\", i.e. Bolsena, and not to Velzna (Latinized to \"Volsinii Veteres\", currently Orvieto), the town the Romans had conquered and destroyed more than five centuries earlier. New light is being brought into this area by British and Danish studies. The sacred rescript, found in 1733, was claimed false by the Italian historian Ludovico Antonio Muratori in his \"Novus Thesaurus Veterum Inscriptionum\" (pp. 1791–1795). New discoveries from ongoing excavations have been made in location \"Alfina\" and \"Monte Landro\" by a team coordinated by Adriano Maggiani (teacher of Etruscology and Italic Archaeology at Ca' Foscari University of Venice), which may shed new lights on Etruscan culture at San Lorenzo Nuovo [e.g. Maccarino's tomb and other Etruscan tombs at San Lorenzo Nuovo]. An Etruscan mirror exhibited in the British Museum was found in a tomb on the territory of San Lorenzo Nuovo.", "Within Lake Bolsena, the Bisentina island (commune of Capodimonte) is also regarded as a sacred isle of the Etruscans, possible site for the Fanum, and gate to the underground world of Agharti. A sanctuary located on an island not situated at the sea would have been accessible to priests and kings of the 12 cities (with their closest entourages), their protection being granted during the religious and political meetings by a handful of armed men. An Italian television program Voyager (1 October 2003) supported this hypothesis, suggesting for the Etruscans a parallelism to the Incas populations, who had also chosen one of Lake Titicaca's islands as their omphalos. Indeed, not only the Incas but, for the same reasons, various peoples have decided to erect their most eminent sanctuary on sacred islands: the Egyptians at Philae; the Greeks at Delos; the Germans at Helgoland in the North Sea and on the island of the goddess Nerthus, in the Baltic; the Celts at Gavrinis, near to the Breton coast in France, at Iona in Scotland, etc. This hypothesis finds a type of confirmation in the poem the Theogony, by the Greek oral poet Hesiod (8th–7th century BC) : \"They ruled over the famous Tyrenians, very far off in a recess of the holy islands\".", "In \"Geografia sacra\", Giovanni Feo presents his studies conducted over the Fiora River valley, in the comune of Pitigliano. A set of megalithic relics with astronomic functions was found out here, along with engraved rocky structures for cultural use. Such discoveries testify of the existence of a sacred area, originally developed by a pre-etruscan civilization settled down near to Lake Bolsena and later elected by the Etruscans as their religious centre. Giovanni Feo also pointed out the borders of this sacred area, which delimited the Fanum, divided into four parts centred around the intersection point between the earth and heaven gods.", "In the commune of Farnese, deep in the \"Selva del Lamone\", location Voltone is assumed to get its name from the sacred temple dedicated to Voltumna. The Voltone is surrounded by numerous archaeological sites, such as Sovana, Castro, Vulci, and Tarquinia, which testify of the culture of the Etruscans.", "According to Alberto Palmucci, the Fanum Voltumnae could be the renowned temple of \"\", the biggest temple of Etruria, consecrated to Tinia, god of the sky and the highest god in Etruscan mythology (equivalent to the Roman Jupiter and the Greek Zeus). The only representation of this god is one on a mirror, showing him attending the lesson in divination (haruspicy) given, in Tarquinia, to the culture hero Tarchon by prophet Tages. Greek historian Strabo supports that symbols of Etruscan federal power were transferred to Rome from Tarquinia. In the archaeological museum of Tarquinia is an Etruscan vessel (early seventh century BC) with a dedication to god Vertun (Latin: Vertumnus, Voltumna). It comes from the nearly Etruscan cemetery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The programming group which would eventually become Factor 5 had originally formed in the 1980s, in what cofounder Julian Eggebrecht described as a culture of hacking and multimedia programming on the local demo scene. Eggebrecht attended the Filmhochschule in Munich to become a movie director, and all the other members studied computer science. While its founders were still university students, Factor 5 started out in game development as a part-time activity under partnership with Rainbow Arts for the Amiga computer. There, they had their earliest moderate success with \"Katakis\", an \"R-Type\" clone of impressive technical performance. Due to the game's obvious similarity to \"R-Type\", rights holder Activision Europe delivered an ultimatum: either Factor 5 accept a contract to perform the official \"R-Type\" conversion for the Amiga home computer, or receive a lawsuit for rights infringement. According to Julian Eggebrecht, this was because \"Activision couldn't find any programmers\" however the opportunity was \"a dream come true\". Their first important success, however, came with \"Turrican\", a game designed by Rainbow Arts designer Manfred Trenz. Factor 5 handled the Amiga and Atari ST versions of the game; and together with the original Commodore 64 version and several others, \"Turrican\" was a major hit across Europe in 1990. In 1991, faced with the prospect of corporate formalities imposed by the video game console industry, the company founders quit school in favor of full-time corporate careers. Eggebrecht explained, \"[t]he moment you go into console programming, you won't get a development system from Nintendo unless you have a reputable company.\" After they finished work on \"\" for the Amiga and Atari ST in 1991, Factor 5 built their own development kits and software environments for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and Mega Drive/Genesis, codenamed Pegasus SNES and Pegasus Mega Drive. Subsequently, they decided to focus their efforts towards console game development in 1992 with several projects for the SNES and Mega Drive/Genesis, including new \"Turrican\" games and other titles contracted by companies like LucasArts, Hudson Soft and Konami, the latter of which had also Game Boy development contracts with them. In 1993, Factor 5 produced their last Amiga effort, an Amiga conversion of \"Mega Turrican\" handled with programming support from fellow company Neon Studios. They would develop games for the SNES, Mega Drive/Genesis, and Game Boy until 1996, when they switched their efforts to the PlayStation. With the development of PlayStation games for LucasArts, the personnel located in Germany experienced communication difficulties in working with their North American partner due to the distance between both countries and the Internet speeds of that time being insufficient for the requirements of console development. This, together with legal assistance offered by LucasArts, resulted in a new Factor 5 branch in California. There, the core of the development team from Germany was established after they finished work on their PlayStation games in late 1996. For a long time, the North American branch of Factor 5 was an exclusive, prominent development partner with both LucasArts and Nintendo, developing both game titles for the former and middleware tools for the latter. During that time, the studio gained considerable critical and commercial praise for its technical proficiency, producing what are often cited as some of the most visually advanced titles on the Nintendo 64 and the Nintendo GameCube, all based on LucasArts properties. Two high-profile middleware tools were also developed by the company for Nintendo: MusyX, a sound system produced in cooperation with Dolby Laboratories; and the DivX For Games SDK, integrating the functionality of the popular video codec into Nintendo's development tools. In late December 2008, several online media outlets reported that Brash Entertainment (Factor 5's publisher of their current project) would close at the end of the month after encountering financial problems. This sudden interruption in funding left Factor 5 with their own funding difficulties, eventually causing its closure in May 2009. Factor 5 had been involved in litigation with its former employees in the defunct North American Factor 5 company. The suit alleges that Factor 5 did not pay its employees for work during November and December, that employees were laid off without the required notice by law, that employees did not receive their vacation pay, and that the company misled the employees. The suit was filed in Marin Superior Court." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Distribution.", "Description.", "Ecology.", "Related species.", "\"Pinus albicaulis\".", "\"Pinus monticola\".", "Diseases.", "Cultivation.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The largest part of the limber pine's range is in the Rocky Mountains, from southwest Alberta and southeastern British Columbia south through Colorado and New Mexico into the northern states of Mexico. It is also found through the Great Basin states of Nevada and Utah, in the eastern Sierra Nevada and White Mountains of Northern California, and in the San Bernardino and San Gabriel Mountains of the Transverse Ranges in Southern California. Continuing south the species is found in the San Jacinto Mountains, Santa Rosa Mountains, and Hot Springs Mountain of the Peninsular Ranges. There are small disjunct populations in eastern Washington and Oregon, in western North Dakota and Nebraska, and in the Black Hills of South Dakota. It is found at a wide range of altitudes depending on the latitude, from. In the northern half of its range, it grows in the montane zone near the lower tree line; in the middle of its range between the 45th and 40th parallels, it grows on windswept sites in the montane and subalpine zones; and in the southern part of its range, it grows mainly at high elevations in the subalpine zone near the upper tree line.", "Its pliant branches gives it the common name \"limber\" and specific epithet \"flexilis\". Its long needles are a dark, blueish green, its bark is heavily creased and dark grey. Its pale wood is lightweight and soft. \"Pinus flexilis\" is typically a high-elevation pine, often marking the tree line either on its own, or with whitebark pine (\"Pinus albicaulis\"), either of the bristlecone pines, or lodgepole pine (\"Pinus contorta\"). In favourable conditions, it makes a tree to, rarely tall. However, on exposed treeline sites, mature trees are much smaller, reaching heights of only. In steeply-sloping, rocky, and windswept terrain in the Rocky Mountains of southern Alberta, limber pine is even more stunted, occurring in old stands where mature trees are consistently less than in height. One of the world's oldest living Limber Pine trees grows on the banks of the upper North Saskatchewan River at Whirlpool Point in Alberta. Recent measurements give a maximum girth of 185\". In 1986 a core sample 10 cm was retrieved by two researchers who counted 400 rings. Extrapolating his data gives an age close to 3000 years.", "\"Pinus flexilis\" is an important source of food for several species, including red squirrels and Clark's nutcrackers. American black bears may raid squirrel caches for limber pine nuts. Squirrels, Northern flickers, and mountain bluebirds often nest in the trees. There is some evidence that \"P. flexilis\" has a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria that inhabit the needles.", "\"Pinus flexilis\" is a member of the white pine group, \"Pinus\" subgenus \"Strobus\", and like all members of that group, the leaves ('needles') are in fascicles (bundles) of five, with a deciduous sheath. This distinguishes it from the lodgepole pine, with two needles per fascicle, and the bristlecone pines, which share five needles per fascicle but have a semi-persistent sheath.", "Distinguishing limber pine from the related whitebark pine (\"P. albicaulis\"), also a white pine, is very much more difficult, and can only easily be done by the cones. In limber pine, the cones are long where the species overlap, green when immature, and open to release the seeds; the scales are not fragile. In whitebark pine, the cones are long, dark purple when immature, and do not open on drying, but are fragile and are pulled apart by birds (see below) to release the seeds. A useful clue is that whitebark pines almost never have intact old cones lying under them, whereas limber pines usually do.", "In the absence of cones, limber pine can also be hard to tell from Western white pine (\"P. monticola\") where they occur together in the northern Rockies and the Sierra Nevada east slope. The most useful clue here is that limber pine needles are entire (smooth when rubbed gently in both directions), whereas Western white pine needles are finely serrated (feeling rough when rubbed gently from tip to base). Limber pine needles are also usually shorter, long, while western white pine needles are, though the ranges overlap.", "Limber pine is susceptible to white pine blister rust, caused by \"Cronartium ribicola\", a fungus that was introduced accidentally from Europe. Limber pine mortality is high in many areas throughout its range, except Arizona, where it has not yet been found. However, there is little hope of controlling the blister rust in existing trees. Research is under way, locating and breeding from the occasional naturally resistant limber pines, and by studying the resistance mechanisms of the European and Asian white pines (e.g. Swiss pine, Macedonian pine), which are strongly resistant to the disease.", "The popular cultivar \"P. flexilis\" 'Vanderwolf's Pyramid' is widely available as an ornamental tree for gardens. 'Vanderwolf's Pyramid' derives from \"P. reflexa\", though it is usually listed in nursery catalogs under \"P. flexilis\". The Southwestern white pine is popular as a windbreak tree or an ornamental tree due to its drought tolerance. It is also grown as a Christmas tree, liked for the soft needles but with stiffer branches than an Eastern white pine.", "The large seeds are edible, and consumed by birds and mammals, especially squirrels." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemical composition.", "Visible and invisible particles of combustion.", "Dangers.", "Corrosion.", "Measurement.", "Health benefits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The composition of smoke depends on the nature of the burning fuel and the conditions of combustion. Fires with high availability of oxygen burn at a high temperature and with a small amount of smoke produced; the particles are mostly composed of ash, or with large temperature differences, of condensed aerosol of water. High temperature also leads to production of nitrogen oxides. Sulfur content yields sulfur dioxide, or in case of incomplete combustion, hydrogen sulfide. Carbon and hydrogen are almost completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. Fires burning with lack of oxygen produce a significantly wider palette of compounds, many of them toxic. Partial oxidation of carbon produces carbon monoxide, while nitrogen-containing materials can yield hydrogen cyanide, ammonia, and nitrogen oxides. Hydrogen gas can be produced instead of water. Contents of halogens such as chlorine (e.g. in polyvinyl chloride or brominated flame retardants) may lead to the production of hydrogen chloride, phosgene, dioxin, and chloromethane, bromomethane and other halocarbons. Hydrogen fluoride can be formed from fluorocarbons, whether fluoropolymers subjected to fire or halocarbon fire suppression agents. Phosphorus and antimony oxides and their reaction products can be formed from some fire retardant additives, increasing smoke toxicity and corrosivity. Pyrolysis of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), e.g. from burning older transformer oil, and to lower degree also of other chlorine-containing materials, can produce 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin, a potent carcinogen, and other polychlorinated dibenzodioxins. Pyrolysis of fluoropolymers, e.g. teflon, in presence of oxygen yields carbonyl fluoride (which hydrolyzes readily to HF and CO); other compounds may be formed as well, e.g. carbon tetrafluoride, hexafluoropropylene, and highly toxic perfluoroisobutene (PFIB). Pyrolysis of burning material, especially incomplete combustion or smoldering without adequate oxygen supply, also results in production of a large amount of hydrocarbons, both aliphatic (methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene) and aromatic (benzene and its derivates, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; e.g. benzo[a]pyrene, studied as a carcinogen, or retene), terpenes. Heterocyclic compounds may be also present. Heavier hydrocarbons may condense as tar; smoke with significant tar content is yellow to brown. Presence of such smoke, soot, and/or brown oily deposits during a fire indicates a possible hazardous situation, as the atmosphere may be saturated with combustible pyrolysis products with concentration above the upper flammability limit, and sudden inrush of air can cause flashover or backdraft. Presence of sulfur can lead to formation of e.g. hydrogen sulfide, carbonyl sulfide, sulfur dioxide, carbon disulfide, and thiols; especially thiols tend to get adsorbed on surfaces and produce a lingering odor even long after the fire. Partial oxidation of the released hydrocarbons yields in a wide palette of other compounds: aldehydes (e.g. formaldehyde, acrolein, and furfural), ketones, alcohols (often aromatic, e.g. phenol, guaiacol, syringol, catechol, and cresols), carboxylic acids (formic acid, acetic acid, etc.). The visible particulate matter in such smokes is most commonly composed of carbon (soot). Other particulates may be composed of drops of condensed tar, or solid particles of ash. The presence of metals in the fuel yields particles of metal oxides. Particles of inorganic salts may also be formed, e.g. ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate, or sodium chloride. Inorganic salts present on the surface of the soot particles may make them hydrophilic. Many organic compounds, typically the aromatic hydrocarbons, may be also adsorbed on the surface of the solid particles. Metal oxides can be present when metal-containing fuels are burned, e.g. solid rocket fuels containing aluminium. Depleted uranium projectiles after impacting the target ignite, producing particles of uranium oxides. Magnetic particles, spherules of magnetite-like ferrous ferric oxide, are present in coal smoke; their increase in deposits after 1860 marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. (Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles can be also produced in the smoke from meteorites burning in the atmosphere.) Magnetic remanence, recorded in the iron oxide particles, indicates the strength of Earth's magnetic field when they were cooled beyond their Curie temperature; this can be used to distinguish magnetic particles of terrestrial and meteoric origin. Fly ash is composed mainly of silica and calcium oxide. Cenospheres are present in smoke from liquid hydrocarbon fuels. Minute metal particles produced by abrasion can be present in engine smokes. Amorphous silica particles are present in smokes from burning silicones; small proportion of silicon nitride particles can be formed in fires with insufficient oxygen. The silica particles have about 10 nm size, clumped to 70-100 nm aggregates and further agglomerated to chains. Radioactive particles may be present due to traces of uranium, thorium, or other radionuclides in the fuel; hot particles can be present in case of fires during nuclear accidents (e.g. Chernobyl disaster) or nuclear war. Smoke particulates, like other aerosols, are categorized into three modes based on particle size: Most of the smoke material is primarily in coarse particles. Those undergo rapid dry precipitation, and the smoke damage in more distant areas outside of the room where the fire occurs is therefore primarily mediated by the smaller particles. Aerosol of particles beyond visible size is an early indicator of materials in a preignition stage of a fire. Burning of hydrogen-rich fuel produces water; this results in smoke containing droplets of water vapor. In absence of other color sources (nitrogen oxides, particulates...), such smoke is white and cloud-like. Smoke emissions may contain characteristic trace elements. Vanadium is present in emissions from oil fired power plants and refineries; oil plants also emit some nickel. Coal combustion produces emissions containing aluminium, arsenic, chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, mercury, selenium, and uranium. Traces of vanadium in high-temperature combustion products form droplets of molten vanadates. These attack the passivation layers on metals and cause high temperature corrosion, which is a concern especially for internal combustion engines. Molten sulfate and lead particulates also have such effect. Some components of smoke are characteristic of the combustion source. Guaiacol and its derivatives are products of pyrolysis of lignin and are characteristic of wood smoke; other markers are syringol and derivates, and other methoxy phenols. Retene, a product of pyrolysis of conifer trees, is an indicator of forest fires. Levoglucosan is a pyrolysis product of cellulose. Hardwood vs softwood smokes differ in the ratio of guaiacols/syringols. Markers for vehicle exhaust include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hopanes, steranes, and specific nitroarenes (e.g. 1-nitropyrene). The ratio of hopanes and steranes to elemental carbon can be used to distinguish between emissions of gasoline and diesel engines. Many compounds can be associated with particulates; whether by being adsorbed on their surfaces, or by being dissolved in liquid droplets. Hydrogen chloride is well absorbed in the soot particles. Inert particulate matter can be disturbed and entrained into the smoke. Of particular concern are particles of asbestos. Deposited hot particles of radioactive fallout and bioaccumulated radioisotopes can be reintroduced into the atmosphere by wildfires and forest fires; this is a concern in e.g. the Zone of alienation containing contaminants from the Chernobyl disaster. Polymers are a significant source of smoke. Aromatic side groups, e.g. in polystyrene, enhance generation of smoke. Aromatic groups integrated in the polymer backbone produce less smoke, likely due to significant charring. Aliphatic polymers tend to generate the least smoke, and are non-self-extinguishing. However presence of additives can significantly increase smoke formation. Phosphorus-based and halogen-based flame retardants decrease production of smoke. Higher degree of cross-linking between the polymer chains has such effect too.", "The naked eye detects particle sizes greater than 7 μm (micrometres). Visible particles emitted from a fire are referred to as smoke. Invisible particles are generally referred to as gas or fumes. This is best illustrated when toasting bread in a toaster. As the bread heats up, the products of combustion increase in size. The fumes initially produced are invisible but become visible if the toast is burnt. An ionization chamber type smoke detector is technically a product of combustion detector, not a smoke detector. Ionization chamber type smoke detectors detect particles of combustion that are invisible to the naked eye. This explains why they may frequently false alarm from the fumes emitted from the red-hot heating elements of a toaster, before the presence of visible smoke, yet they may fail to activate in the early, low-heat smoldering stage of a fire. Smoke from a typical house fire contains hundreds of different chemicals and fumes. As a result, the damage caused by the smoke can often exceed that caused by the actual heat of the fire. In addition to the physical damage caused by the smoke of a fire – which manifests itself in the form of stains – is the often even harder to eliminate problem of a smoky odor. Just as there are contractors that specialize in rebuilding/repairing homes that have been damaged by fire and smoke, fabric restoration companies specialize in restoring fabrics that have been damaged in a fire.", "Smoke from oxygen-deprived fires contains a significant concentration of compounds that are flammable. A cloud of smoke, in contact with atmospheric oxygen, therefore has the potential of being ignited – either by another open flame in the area, or by its own temperature. This leads to effects like backdraft and flashover. Smoke inhalation is also a danger of smoke that can cause serious injury and death. Many compounds of smoke from fires are highly toxic and/or irritating. The most dangerous is carbon monoxide leading to carbon monoxide poisoning, sometimes with the additive effects of hydrogen cyanide and phosgene. Smoke inhalation can therefore quickly lead to incapacitation and loss of consciousness. Sulfur oxides, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen fluoride in contact with moisture form sulfuric, hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid, which are corrosive to both lungs and materials. When asleep the nose does not sense smoke nor does the brain, but the body will wake up if the lungs become enveloped in smoke and the brain will be stimulated and the person will be awoken. This does not work if the person is incapacitated or under the influence of drugs and/or alcohol. Cigarette smoke is a major modifiable risk factor for lung disease, heart disease, and many cancers. Smoke can also be a component of ambient air pollution due to the burning of coal in power plants, forest fires or other sources, although the concentration of pollutants in ambient air is typically much less than that in cigarette smoke. One day of exposure to PM2.5 at a concentration of 880 μg/m3, such as occurs in Beijing, China, is the equivalent of smoking one or two cigarettes in terms of particulate inhalation by weight. The analysis is complicated, however, by the fact that the organic compounds present in various ambient particulates may have a higher carcinogenicity than the compounds in cigarette smoke particulates. Secondhand tobacco smoke is the combination of both sidestream and mainstream smoke emissions from a burning tobacco product. These emissions contain more than 50 carcinogenic chemicals. According to the Surgeon General's 2006 report on the subject, \"Short exposures to secondhand [tobacco] smoke can cause blood platelets to become stickier, damage the lining of blood vessels, decrease coronary flow velocity reserves, and reduce heart variability, potentially increasing the risk of a heart attack\". The American Cancer Society lists \"heart disease, lung infections, increased asthma attacks, middle ear infections, and low birth weight\" as ramifications of smoker's emission. Smoke can obscure visibility, impeding occupant exiting from fire areas. In fact, the poor visibility due to the smoke that was in the Worcester Cold Storage Warehouse fire in Worcester, Massachusetts was the reason why the trapped rescue firefighters couldn't evacuate the building in time. Because of the striking similarity that each floor shared, the dense smoke caused the firefighters to become disoriented.", "Smoke contains a wide variety of chemicals, many of them aggressive in nature. Examples are hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid, produced from halogen-containing plastics and fire retardants, hydrofluoric acid released by pyrolysis of fluorocarbon fire suppression agents, sulfuric acid from burning of sulfur-containing materials, nitric acid from high-temperature fires where nitrous oxide gets formed, phosphoric acid and antimony compounds from P and Sb based fire retardants, and many others. Such corrosion is not significant for structural materials, but delicate structures, especially microelectronics, are strongly affected. Corrosion of circuit board traces, penetration of aggressive chemicals through the casings of parts, and other effects can cause an immediate or gradual deterioration of parameters or even premature (and often delayed, as the corrosion can progress over long time) failure of equipment subjected to smoke. Many smoke components are also electrically conductive; deposition of a conductive layer on the circuits can cause crosstalks and other deteriorations of the operating parameters or even cause short circuits and total failures. Electrical contacts can be affected by corrosion of surfaces, and by deposition of soot and other conductive particles or nonconductive layers on or across the contacts. Deposited particles may adversely affect the performance of optoelectronics by absorbing or scattering the light beams. Corrosivity of smoke produced by materials is characterized by the corrosion index (CI), defined as material loss rate (angstrom/minute) per amount of material gasified products (grams) per volume of air (m). It is measured by exposing strips of metal to flow of combustion products in a test tunnel. Polymers containing halogen and hydrogen (polyvinyl chloride, polyolefins with halogenated additives, etc.) have the highest CI as the corrosive acids are formed directly with water produced by the combustion, polymers containing halogen only (e.g. polytetrafluoroethylene) have lower CI as the formation of acid is limited to reactions with airborne humidity, and halogen-free materials (polyolefins, wood) have the lowest CI. However, some halogen-free materials can also release significant amount of corrosive products. Smoke damage to electronic equipment can be significantly more extensive than the fire itself. Cable fires are of special concern; low smoke zero halogen materials are preferable for cable insulation. When smoke comes into contact with the surface of any substance or structure, the chemicals contained in it are transferred to it. The corrosive properties of the chemicals cause the substance or structure to decompose at a rapid rate. Certain materials or structures absorb these chemicals, which is why clothing, unsealed surfaces, potable water, piping, wood, etc., are replaced in most cases of structural fires.", "As early as the 15th century Leonardo da Vinci commented at length on the difficulty of assessing smoke, and distinguished between black smoke (carbonized particles) and white'smoke' which is not a smoke at all but merely a suspension of harmless water particulates. Smoke from heating appliances is commonly measured in one of the following ways: In-line capture. A smoke sample is simply sucked through a filter which is weighed before and after the test and the mass of smoke found. This is the simplest and probably the most accurate method, but can only be used where the smoke concentration is slight, as the filter can quickly become blocked. The ASTM smoke pump is a simple and widely used method of in-line capture where a measured volume of smoke is pulled through a filter paper and the dark spot so formed is compared with a standard. Filter/dilution tunnel. A smoke sample is drawn through a tube where it is diluted with air, the resulting smoke/air mixture is then pulled through a filter and weighed. This is the internationally recognized method of measuring smoke from combustion. Electrostatic precipitation. The smoke is passed through an array of metal tubes which contain suspended wires. A (huge) electrical potential is applied across the tubes and wires so that the smoke particles become charged and are attracted to the sides of the tubes. This method can over-read by capturing harmless condensates, or under-read due to the insulating effect of the smoke. However, it is the necessary method for assessing volumes of smoke too great to be forced through a filter, i.e., from bituminous coal. Ringelmann scale. A measure of smoke color. Invented by Professor Maximilian Ringelmann in Paris in 1888, it is essentially a card with squares of black, white and shades of gray which is held up and the comparative grayness of the smoke judged. Highly dependent on light conditions and the skill of the observer it allocates a grayness number from 0 (white) to 5 (black) which has only a passing relationship to the actual quantity of smoke. Nonetheless, the simplicity of the Ringelmann scale means that it has been adopted as a standard in many countries. Optical scattering. A light beam is passed through the smoke. A light detector is situated at an angle to the light source, typically at 90°, so that it receives only light reflected from passing particles. A measurement is made of the light received which will be higher as the concentration of smoke particles becomes higher. Optical obscuration. A light beam is passed through the smoke and a detector opposite measures the light. The more smoke particles are present between the two, the less light will be measured. Combined optical methods. There are various proprietary optical smoke measurement devices such as the 'nephelometer' or the 'aethalometer' which use several different optical methods, including more than one wavelength of light, inside a single instrument and apply an algorithm to give a good estimate of smoke. It has been claimed that these devices can differentiate types of smoke and so their probable source can be inferred, though this is disputed. Inference from carbon monoxide. Smoke is incompletely burned fuel, carbon monoxide is incompletely burned carbon, therefore it has long been assumed that measurement of CO in flue gas (a cheap, simple and very accurate procedure) will provide a good indication of the levels of smoke. Indeed, several jurisdictions use CO measurement as the basis of smoke control. However it is far from clear how accurate the correspondence is.", "Throughout recorded history, humans have used the smoke of medicinal plants to cure illness. A sculpture from Persepolis shows Darius the Great (522–486 BC), the king of Persia, with two censers in front of him for burning Peganum harmala and/or sandalwood Santalum album, which was believed to protect the king from evil and disease. More than 300 plant species in 5 continents are used in smoke form for different diseases. As a method of drug administration, smoking is important as it is a simple, inexpensive, but very effective method of extracting particles containing active agents. More importantly, generating smoke reduces the particle size to a microscopic scale thereby increasing the absorption of its active chemical principles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Role.", "List of Chairpersons.", "Bureau." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In 2002, South African President Thabo Mbeki served as the inaugural chairman of the union. The post rotates annually amongst the five geographic regions of Africa; and over the years it has assumed the following order: East, North, Southern, Central and West Africa. In January 2007, the assembly elected Ghanaian President John Kufuor over Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir due to the ongoing Conflict in Darfur. The government of Chad threatened to withdraw its membership if Sudan assumed the chair. Some had suggested Tanzania as a compromise candidate from the East African region. By consensus, Ghana was elected instead as it was celebrating its 50th independence anniversary that year. In January 2010, Libyan Leader Muammar Gaddafi unsuccessfully tried to extend his tenure by an additional year, saying more time was needed in order to implement his vision for a United States of Africa - of which he was a strong proponent. Libya was at the time one of the largest financial supporters of the AU. The election of Equatoguinean President Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo in January 2011 was criticized by human rights activists as it undermined the AU's commitment to democracy. Congolese Republic President Denis Sassou Nguesso and Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe have both led the AU and its predecessor, the Organisation of African Unity during the terms 1986–88 and 2006–07, and 1997–98 and 2015–16 respectively. In February 2019, South Africa was elected as the incoming chair and will take over in 2020. It was later agreed that South African President Cyril Ramaphosa will assume the position of AU Chairperson in January 2020.", "The incumbent is the ceremonial head of the AU and in this capacity, chairs the biannual summits and represents the continent in various international fora such as TICAD, FOCAC, G8 and G20 summits.", "", "The Chairperson is assisted by a bureau of four vice chairpersons including a rapporteur." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Demise.", "Brand revival." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Accolade's revenues grew from $1.5 million in 1985 to $5 million in 1986. It developed for most 1980s-era home computers, including the Commodore 64, Atari 400 & 800, the Amiga, Apple II and the PC. Some of their first titles include \"Law of the West\", \"Psi-5 Trading Company\", \"The Dam Busters\", \"Mean 18 Golf\", \"Test Drive\", and \"HardBall!\". \"Test Drive\" and \"HardBall!\" went on to become two of Accolade's longest-running franchises. As the popularity of other systems waned, Accolade focused on PC and console development, including the Nintendo Entertainment System, Sega Genesis, Super NES and PlayStation. All of Accolade's initial titles were developed in-house. But being a publisher as well as a developer, Accolade began to publish titles produced by other developers as well. By the mid-1990s, most of Accolade's game development was done by third-party developers. In October 1991, Accolade was served with a lawsuit regarding copyright infringement, that eventually led to the concept of reverse engineering for interoperability purposes. Sega wanted to keep a hold on their consoles, and wanted all its games exclusive to Sega. Unwilling to conform to single platform games, Accolade engineers reverse engineered the Genesis console and created their own development systems; until then, game developers \"had\" to obtain the systems from Sega in order to develop games for the platform. Sega sued Accolade over the practice and won an initial injunction, forcing Accolade to remove all Genesis product from store shelves. Accolade, however, won on appeal and reached an out of court settlement with Sega that allowed Accolade to continue building their own Genesis cartridges, but as an official licensee.", "The company had marginal successes during the early 1990s. \"Bubsy\" for the Genesis and Super NES sold well and was the company's best-selling game until \"Test Drive 4\" came out in 1997. \"Star Control 2\" for the PC (1992, MS-DOS) is still very well regarded and was one of the highest rated games of its time. During a conference of management and producers, Accolade decided to focus only on sports and action games. Accolade already had several franchises based in these categories. Franchises in the sports genre included \"HardBall!\", \"Unnecessary Roughness\" and \"Jack Nicklaus\". In the broad \"action\" category they had the long-running franchise \"Test Drive\". Bob Whitehead left Accolade in 1992; Alan Miller left in 1995. Before Miller left, the position of CEO was taken over by Peter Harris, who was placed there by Prudential Investments (Prudential had made a US$10 million investment in the company). Harris was on the board of directors and was formerly the CEO of FAO Schwarz and after Accolade, became the president of the San Francisco 49ers. Harris left the fate of the company in the hands of video game industry neophyte, Jim Barnett. Under Barnett's direction, Accolade was rebuilt around action games and published \"Test Drive 4\", \"5\" and \"6\" as well as \"Test Drive Offroad\", all of which sold millions of units and become part of Sony's greatest hits program. In 1997 Electronic Arts took over the distribution of all of Accolade's games. Accolade was purchased by French publisher Infogrames in 1999, right after publishing their last game \"Redline\". Accolade was the entry point for Infogrames' North America expansion and was merged with Infogrames' other operations and moved to Los Angeles. In 2013 Accolade's assets were purchased by Tommo except for the \"Test Drive\" franchise, which is currently owned by Bigben Interactive.", "In June 2017, Hong Kong-based holding company Billionsoft announced that they had acquired the \"Accolade\" branding, and, together with developer Black Forest Games and publisher Tommo, announced the upcoming release of a fifth installment in the \"Bubsy\" franchise, \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biology and sociology.", "Politics and relations with other species.", "General Products.", "Foreign policy.", "Homeworld—The Fleet of Worlds.", "Appearances in Known Space works.", "Novels." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The sobriquet \"Pierson's\" comes from the name of the human who made first contact in the early 26th century in the \"Known Space\" timeline. According to the Niven story \"The Soft Weapon\", Pierson was a crewman aboard a spaceship at a time when there was a camp revival of the ancient \"Time for Beany\" TV show featuring Cecil the Seasick Sea Serpent, an animated character based on a hand puppet; Pierson accordingly described the alien he had met as a Puppeteer, given some resemblance of the head and neck with Cecil. Puppeteers dealing with humans usually give themselves the names of centaurs and other figures in Greek mythology, such as Nessus, Nike and Chiron. Puppeteers' names for themselves are reportedly highly complex, and unpronounceable by humans. The group name they use for their own species translates as \"Citizens\". Pierson's Puppeteers are described by Niven as having two forelegs and a single hindleg ending in hoofed feet, and two snake-like heads instead of a humanoid upper body. The heads are small, containing a forked tongue, rubbery lips rimmed with finger-like knobs, and a single eye per head. The Puppeteer brain is housed not in the heads, but in the \"thoracic\" cavity well protected beneath the mane-covered hump from which the heads emerge. They use the \"mouths\" to manipulate objects, as a humanoid uses hands. The Puppeteer's native language sounds like highly complex orchestral music, but they seem to be able to reproduce human language without difficulty or device, as well as the Heroes' Tongue (Kzinti), suggesting their vocal arrangement may resemble a pair of avian-like syrinxes rather than vocal cords. Biologically, Puppeteers are highly intelligent herbivores; a herd animal, Puppeteers prefer the company (and smell) of their own kind. Their cycle of reproduction is similar to that of Earth's digger wasps: the Puppeteers consider themselves to have three genders (two male, one female): the two \"male\" genders are the equivalent of human female and male (one has an ovipositor, the other produces sperm) and the \"female\" is a (non-sentient) parasitized host into which the ovum and spermatozoon are deposited. Puppeteers are very long-lived. The exact length of a Puppeteer's lifespan is unknown, but it is at least several centuries—Nessus, the most prominent individual Puppeteer in the works, is over 300 years old during the events of the original \"Ringworld\" novel. This, together with a total lack of contraceptives (except major surgery) for their species, is responsible for extreme crowding: the Puppeteer homeworld has a population of over a trillion, and four farming worlds are dedicated entirely to supplying the population with food. Even then, grown food is a luxury reserved for only the highest-ranking, with synthesizers feeding the vast majority. While contraception is forbidden, access to brides (the host'sex') is strictly controlled. Technologically, the Puppeteers are very advanced, centuries or millennia ahead of most other species (including humans). For example, humans in Niven's universe invented (actually purchased from the Puppeteers) a method of cheap teleportation in the twenty-fifth century called a transfer booth, which requires an enclosed space at either end of the transmission. Puppeteers use a much more elegant and sophisticated booth-less \"open\" version in the form of stepping disks, which require no enclosure. They transformed their home world, and several other astronomical bodies, into a Klemperer rosette, in order to flee a galactic catastrophe. Puppeteers appear to lack generalized empathy towards other intelligent species. They are highly manipulative, and appear to feel no psychological distress when their actions cause harm to others. They perform interstellar-scale manipulation of other species, inducing and directing large scale wars in order to achieve the goal of their own safety. They do not appear to be disturbed when required to make choices that result in the deaths of billions or trillions. From what little interaction is shown between Puppeteers, it seems their lack of empathy extends to their own species. Mate selection seems to be largely status-based, with higher status mates being more desirable. The Puppeteer Nessus finds comfort in having his living space produce simulated proximity to his species: the smells, sounds, and sights of other Puppeteers. However, he appears to have little need or desire for social interaction with others of his kind. Socially, two notable traits of Puppeteers are their racial/cultural penchant for cowardice and their tendency to congregate in herds. The cowardice is thought in Puppeteer society to originate with the Puppeteer instinct for turning one's back on danger. However, the trait is thought by many to actually originate from their herd instinct, as the instinct to turn one's back is linked to an instinct to kick the hind hoof at an attacker. In \"Ringworld\", when Nessus and the expeditionaries are threatened, the Puppeteer defends himself quite effectively: All in one motion, the puppeteer had spun on his forelegs and lashed out with his single hind leg. His heads were turned backwards and spread wide, Louis remembered, to triangulate on his target. Nessus had accurately kicked a man's heart out through his splintered spine. (\"Ringworld\", Chapter 13, published 1970.) Another behavioral trait is the coma state, broadly a cognate of the human fetal position–in the same way that ostriches are said to bury their heads in the sand, Puppeteers fold up into a ball, tucking their three legs and two heads underneath the padded cranial bulge. This is, in part, an explosion reflex, learned during childhood. Their cowardice is also reflected in their architecture and object design, as all the Puppeteer-designed rooms and vessels have no sharp edges, everything curves into everything else, giving a \"half-melted\" look and meaning that objects are less likely to damage someone inadvertently, through their own carelessness. In \"Ringworld\", Nessus, a Puppeteer, explains how his race's cowardice is partly a result of a science experiment (the details of which are not given) that proves the Puppeteers have nothing equivalent to an immortal soul, and therefore death is, for their species, eternal oblivion. As a result, the Puppeteer race is fanatically devoted to its own safety. It is worth noting that this explanation is a form of diplomatic, post hoc rationalizing, as their cowardice is a biologically ingrained trait and not actually a rational choice. It is diplomatic, in that it validates in other species what Puppeteers consider to be irrationally insane bravery, although it is doubtful that the Puppeteers genuinely accept other species' claims to having souls. A courageous Puppeteer is regarded as insane by his species, and actually shows symptoms associated with human mental illness, such as bipolar disorder, clinical depression and so on. However, aside from the crew of the \"Explorer\" (in the novel \"Fleet of Worlds\"), no human has ever met a completely sane Puppeteer, as no sane Puppeteer would ever leave the safety of the Fleet of Worlds (see below). On occasion a Puppeteer will express its amusement by facing its two heads towards each other, in effect, looking at itself. This is described by Niven to be the closest to laughter a Puppeteer comes.", "Politically, the Puppeteers have a form of democracy with two major parties: the Conservatives and the Experimentalists. The Conservatives have held power for a majority of Puppeteer history; Experimentalist regimes only take power when a crisis threatens the safety of the Puppeteer race, and action is considered less dangerous than inaction. The leader of the Puppeteers is known as the Hindmost. Since Pierson's Puppeteers are foremost concerned with their own safety and the survival of their species, the most important Puppeteer is considered to be behind, or protected by, every other member of the species. It is a shortening from the more literal \"the one who leads from behind\". A maddened, deposed Hindmost is responsible for Louis Wu's return to the Ringworld in the book \"The Ringworld Engineers\".", "The Puppeteers' renown for honesty in trading allowed the species to accumulate an expansive mercantile empire called General Products; since the human Bronze Age, the Puppeteers have ruled this empire including every race in the 60-LY sphere of Known Space. One of the most important items sold by General Products is the General Products Hull for spaceships. As one might expect from a Puppeteer, such a hull is completely impervious to everything except antimatter (which is not highly advertised but covered by a company warranty); the hull is transparent to visible light which can be alleviated by polarization or complete opacity; tidal forces and extreme gees will not affect the hull but can kill the occupants, unless nullified by variable cabin gravity. The hulls are advertised as being capable of flying through the upper atmosphere of a star unscathed, although the contents will be cooked; as a protection against this particular contingency, the Puppeteers also provide a stasis field. Exposure to antimatter is the only known method for destroying a General Products hull until the 2007 novel \"Fleet of Worlds\". In the story \"Flatlander\", a GP Hull is exposed to a constant stream of diffuse antimatter during a visit to a star system with some exotic qualities. Whereas a conventional hull made of metal, for example, would simply have ablated under these conditions, the General Products hull instead simply unravelled. This was due to the fact that a GP Hull essentially consisted of a single incredibly large, highly complex molecule. Once a sufficient number of the atoms which constituted the molecule were annihilated by the antimatter, the molecule could not remain stable, and thus degenerated into a selection of less complex compounds and elements, effectively causing the hull to vanish in an instant. Fortunately, the vessel's pilot was sufficiently cautious to be wearing a vacuum suit at the time, and survived, as did the owner of the ship. In \"Fleet of Worlds\", the characters tour a General Product factory and ask innocent-seeming questions of their tour guide, Baedeker. Baedeker reveals (apparently unintentionally) that the manufacturing process is extremely sensitive to gravity and impurities, that the hulls are constructed from a single super-molecule constructed using nanotech, and their strength is reinforced by an embedded power plant that reinforces the inter-atomic bonds. These facts provide the clues that allow them to later destroy a GP Hull from the inside and survive. In \"Destroyer of Worlds\", a captured Pak Protector analyzes the hull, deducing that it comprises a dynamically reinforced molecular structure and how to siphon energy from the structure.", "The general foreign policy of Puppeteers consists of attempts to control the universe around them to ensure their own safety. As Puppeteers try to expose themselves to as little risk as possible, they try to use other beings as agents, utilizing a combination of bribes and blackmail to encourage cooperation. Blackmail is not immoral to a Puppeteer and Puppeteers have an established code of conduct surrounding the practice, making it perfectly safe for both the blackmailer and the victim, including that the blackmailer must turn over all their evidence against the victim and submit to a partial memory wipe, so they cannot betray the blackmail deal. The Puppeteers also use more personal manipulation; for instance, Puppeteers who have dealt with human males have utilized a voice that sounds like that of a seductive human female, and the Puppeteer Nessus utilized an implanted tasp, a device which could stimulate the pleasure center of the brain, thus allowing him to subliminally condition those he dealt with. In \"Ringworld\", it is revealed that the Puppeteer government meddled in human and Kzinti gene pools. They started a series of wars (the Man–Kzin Wars) between the warlike Kzinti and humans, and guaranteed that the Kzinti lose each time, not least by using a starseed lure to guide an Outsider ship into human space, introducing faster-than-light travel to humanity. This was a mechanism to cause rapid Kzinti evolution, since the most aggressive Kzinti would die in battle, leaving the more docile individuals to breed, eventually suppressing their racial instinct for aggression. Another Puppeteer breeding experiment was the \"Lucky Human Project\". The puppeteer government concluded that humans' most notable quality was luck, and decided to improve this trait. Manipulating politics on Earth through bribery and blackmail, the Puppeteers caused 'Birth Lotteries' on Earth around 2650, biasing human genetic selection (controlled, in the Known Space universe, by the \"Fertility Board of the United Nations\") towards encouraging luck. The character Teela Brown, who journeys to the Ringworld, is an outcome of this Lucky Human Project, though not quite the outcome the Puppeteers would have liked. Her luck was highly selective, bending probability so that the outcome most beneficial to her or her descendants would come to pass, without regard to its effects on those around her — which was contrary to the interest of the rest of the Ringworld expedition on more than one occasion. The Puppeteers also influenced species on the Ringworld. After discovering the Ringworld, the Puppeteers sent probes with room-temperature superconductor destroying fungus on board in an attempt to gain a tactical advantage over the Ringworld. These fungi cause all superconductors (with the exception of those buried in Scrith) to rust into powder. The lack of a suitable alternative superconductor causes the fall of advanced civilization on the Ringworld.", "The Fleet of Worlds are the home planets of the Pierson's Puppeteer race. They consist of the native homeworld, called \"Hearth\", and its five agricultural worlds, arranged in a 'Kemplerer rosette' (sometimes wrongly called a Klemperer rosette which is a different thing). The number of worlds has varied; at maximum (at the opening of the novel \"Fleet of Worlds\") the Fleet comprised six worlds. By two Earth centuries later, in Niven's novel \"Ringworld\", the Fleet contains five worlds. The Puppeteers first moved their worlds into this formation when their home star turned into a red giant, using an inertialess, reactionless drive purchased at great price from the Outsiders. After the discovery that the core of the galaxy is exploding, the Puppeteers turned the fleet towards the Magellanic Clouds, gradually reaching a speed of 80% lightspeed. Although the Puppeteers have Faster-than-light technology they prefer to travel at safer, sub-light speeds. For centuries, the location of the Puppeteer homeworld was a great mystery. No entity in Known Space outside the Puppeteer race was aware of the location, despite extensive surveys, with the probable exception of Jinx-born pirate Captain Kidd. In the short story \"A Relic of the Empire\", he discovered the Puppeteer home system by accident, and returned in the ship \"Puppet Master\" to rob inbound Puppeteer vessels, rather than pursuing a formal blackmail arrangement. Kidd claimed the Puppeteers' home planet orbited a \"red giant, undersized\" star (known as \"Giver Of Life\"), in the vicinity of coordinates 23.6, 70.1, 6.0 (using an unnamed coordinate system). Before dying, he passed this location along to Richard Shultz-Mann, of the planet Wunderland. Puppeteers were willing to pay large sums of hush money in order to suppress even trivial details about their homeworld. In 2641 AD, it was discovered that the Puppeteers' homeworld had no moon, information deduced as a result of the solving of the mystery of the deaths of a crew of a ship investigating a neutron star. The ship, based on a General Products hull, was impervious to tidal forces but the crew were not. Because the Puppeteers seemingly have no experience of tides, they were unable to anticipate the deadly tidal forces. (As told in Niven's short story, \"Neutron Star\") \"Crashlander\" reveals that the Puppeteers may have feigned their ignorance of tidal forces. The Puppeteers had to make some drastic alterations to their home system, during their history, as waste heat due to overindustrialisation was rapidly making their planet uninhabitable. They moved their home planet further from their sun, to lessen the effects of global warming, but overindustrialisation forced them to move five other planets closer to their world and terraform them into \"farming worlds\", arranging all the planets into a 'Kemplerer rosette'. (Before Ringworld opens, one of the worlds has left the formation, as part of the central conflict in Niven and Edward M. Lerner's \"Fleet of Worlds\".) Nessus explains some of this background to Louis Wu and the crew of the \"Long Shot\" thus: \"I had explained,\" said Nessus, \"that our civilization was dying in its own waste heat. Total conversion of energy had rid us of all waste products of civilization, save that one. We had no choice but to move our world outward from its primary.\" \"Was that not dangerous?\" \"Very. There was much madness that year. For that reason it is famous in our history. But we had purchased a reactionless, inertialess drive from the Outsiders. You may have guessed their price. We are still paying in installments. We had moved two agricultural worlds; we had experimented with other, useless worlds of our system using the Outsider drive. In any case, we did it. We moved our world. \"In short, we found that a sun was a liability rather than an asset. We moved our world to a tenth of a light year's distance, keeping the primary only as an anchor. We needed the farming worlds and it would have been dangerous to let our world wander randomly through space. Otherwise we would not have needed a sun at all. \"We had brought suitable worlds from nearby systems, increasing our agricultural worlds to four, and setting them in a Kemplerer Rosette.\" <br> Eventually, their sun converted from a yellow dwarf to a red giant, so the Puppeteers moved the \"Fleet of Worlds\", the five planets, to their system's Oort cloud. This is one of the reasons the Puppeteers were so successful at keeping the location of their homeworld a secret—explorers would be looking for a yellow dwarf (as one could surmise that Puppeteers had evolved around a yellow dwarf from their biology and that they were comfortable on Earth-like planets without pressure suits) when their planet(s) were actually near a red giant. In the short story \"At the Core\", Beowulf Shaeffer, who made the discovery about tidal forces five years previously, in \"Neutron Star\", discovers that the Galactic Core is exploding. This news prompts the Puppeteer Exodus, where the Fleet of Worlds flee the galaxy at just under light speed for the Magellanic Clouds, in the hope that by the time the explosion reaches the Fleet of Worlds, the Puppeteers will have found a way to protect their civilization. This exodus prompts a major stock market crash in human society; in 2864, the Fleet of Worlds leaves Known Space. Beowulf notes, however, that the speed at which the Fleet of Worlds is moving (0.8c) would cause nearly as much damage as the Core explosion itself. This suggests radiation may not be the primary danger the Puppeteers flee, also that Puppeteers may, in fact, have a means to deal with radiation affecting entire worlds. In \"Crashlander\" it is speculated that the Puppeteers are planning on moving to the now-uninhabited Core, isolated from potentially dangerous species - which would have either fled the galaxy entirely or been destroyed. Their initial path is revealed to be out of the plane of the galaxy, but no mention is made of Louis Wu noticing trajectory when flying there on the \"Long Shot\" in \"Ringworld\".", "", "In in-universe chronological order:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Geographical divisions.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms era.", "Spread of Islam.", "Trade and foreign colonisation.", "Chinese.", "European.", "Japanese.", "Indian.", "American.", "Contemporary history.", "Geography.", "Boundaries.", "Climate.", "Environment.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Ethnic groups.", "Religion.", "Languages.", "Culture.", "Influences.", "Arts.", "Music.", "Writing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "The region, together with part of South Asia, was well known by Europeans as the East Indies or simply the Indies until the 20th century. Chinese sources referred the region as \"南洋\" (\"Nanyang\"), which literally means the \"Southern Ocean.\" The mainland section of Southeast Asia was referred to as Indochina by European geographers due to its location between China and the Indian subcontinent and its having cultural influences from both neighboring regions. In the 20th century, however, the term became more restricted to territories of the former French Indochina (Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam). The maritime section of Southeast Asia is also known as the Malay Archipelago, a term derived from the European concept of a Malay race. Another term for Maritime Southeast Asia is \"Insulindia\" (Indian Islands), used to describe the region between Indochina and Australasia. The term \"Southeast Asia\" was first used in 1839 by American pastor Howard Malcolm in his book \"Travels in South-Eastern Asia\". Malcolm only included the Mainland section and excluded the Maritime section in his definition of Southeast Asia. The term was officially used in the midst of World War II by the Allies, through the formation of South East Asia Command (SEAC) in 1943. SEAC popularised the use of the term \"Southeast Asia,\" although what constituted Southeast Asia was not fixed; for example, SEAC excluded the Philippines and a large part of Indonesia while including Ceylon. However, by the late 1970s, a roughly standard usage of the term \"Southeast Asia\" and the territories it encompasses had emerged. Although from a cultural or linguistic perspective the definitions of \"Southeast Asia\" may vary, the most common definitions nowadays include the area represented by the countries (sovereign states and dependent territories) listed below. Ten of the eleven states of Southeast Asia are members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), while East Timor is an observer state. Papua New Guinea has stated that it might join ASEAN, and is currently an observer. Sovereignty issues exist over some territories in the South China Sea.", "Southeast Asia is geographically divided into two subregions, namely Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina) and Maritime Southeast Asia (or the similarly defined Malay Archipelago) (). Mainland Southeast Asia includes: Maritime Southeast Asia includes: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India are geographically considered part of Maritime Southeast Asia. Eastern Bangladesh and Northeast India have strong cultural ties with Southeast Asia and are sometimes considered both South Asian and Southeast Asian. Sri Lanka has on some occasions", "", "The region was already inhabited by \"Homo erectus\" from 1,000,000 years ago during the Middle Pleistocene age. \"Homo sapiens\", the ancestors of modern Australo-Melanesians, reached the region by around 45,000 years ago, having moved eastwards from the Indian subcontinent. Rock art (parietal art) dating from 40,000 years ago (which is currently the world's oldest) has been discovered in the caves of Borneo. \"Homo floresiensis\" also lived in the area up until 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct. In the late Neolithic, the Austronesian peoples, who form the majority of the modern population in Brunei, Indonesia, East Timor, Malaysia, and the Philippines, migrated to Southeast Asia from Taiwan in the first seaborne human migration known as the Austronesian Expansion. They arrived in the northern Philippines in 2200 BC and rapidly spread further into the Northern Mariana Islands and Borneo by 1500 BC; Island", "After the region came under contacts with Indian subcontinent circa 400 BCE, it began a gradual process of Indianisation where Indian ideas such as religions, cultures, architectures and political administrations were brought by traders and religious figures and adopted by local rulers. In turn, Indian Brahmins and monks were invited by local rulers to live in their realms and help transforming local polities to become more Indianised, blending Indian and indigenous traditions. Sanskrit and Pali became the elite language of the region, which effectively made Southeast Asia part of the Indosphere. Most of the region had been Indianised during the first centuries, while the Philippines later Indianised circa 9th century when Kingdom of Tondo was established in Luzon. Vietnam, especially its northern part, was never fully Indianised due to the many periods of Chinese domination it experienced. The first Indian-influenced polities established in the region were the Pyu city-states that", "Islam began to make contacts with Southeast Asia in the 8th-century CE, when the Umayyads established trade with the region via sea routes. However its spread into the region happened centuries later. In the 11th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia. The Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah); the capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked too. Soon after that, the king of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith, and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in 1267, the King of Malacca", "Trade among Southeast Asian countries has a long tradition. The consequences of colonial rule, struggle for independence and in some cases war influenced the economic attitudes and policies of each country until today.", "From 111 BC to 938 AD northern Vietnam was under Chinese rule. Vietnam was successfully governed by a series of Chinese dynasties including the Han, Eastern Han, Eastern Wu, Cao Wei, Jin, Liu Song, Southern Qi, Liang, Sui, Tang, and Southern Han. Records from Magellan's voyage show that Brunei possessed more cannon than European ships, so the Chinese must have been trading with them. Malaysian legend has it", "Western influence started to enter in the 16th century, with the arrival of the Portuguese in Malacca, Maluku and the Philippines, the latter being settled by the Spanish years later. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch established the Dutch East Indies; the French Indochina; and the British Strait Settlements. By the 19th century, all Southeast Asian countries were colonised except for Thailand. European explorers were reaching Southeast Asia from the west and from the east. Regular trade between the ships sailing east from", "During World War II, Imperial Japan invaded most of the former western colonies. The Shōwa occupation regime committed violent actions against civilians such as the Manila massacre and the implementation of a system of forced labour, such as the one", "Gujarat, India had a flourishing trade relationship with Southeast Asia in the 15th", "The United States took the Philippines from Spain in 1898. It became a forward base for American trade with Asia.", "Most countries in the region enjoy national autonomy. Democratic forms of government and the recognition of human rights are taking root. ASEAN provides a framework for the integration of commerce, and regional responses to international concerns. China has asserted broad claims over the", "Indonesia is the largest country in Southeast Asia and it also the largest archipelago in the world by size (according to the CIA World Factbook). Geologically. the Indonesian archipelago is one of the most volcanically active regions in the world. Geological uplifts in the region have also produced some impressive mountains, culminating in Puncak Jaya in Papua, Indonesia at, on the island of New Guinea; it is the only place where ice glaciers can be found in Southeast Asia. The highest mountain in Southeast Asia is Hkakabo Razi at and can be found in northern Burma sharing the same range of its parent peak, Mount Everest. The South China Sea is the major body of water within Southeast Asia. The Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, and Singapore, have integral rivers that flow into the South China Sea. Mayon Volcano, despite being dangerously active, holds the record of the world's most perfect cone which is built from past and continuous eruption.", "Southeast Asia is bounded to the southeast by the Australian continent, a boundary which runs through Indonesia. But a", "The climate in Southeast Asia is mainly tropical–hot and humid all year round with plentiful rainfall. Northern Vietnam and the Myanmar Himalayas are the only regions in Southeast Asia that feature a subtropical climate, which has a cold winter with snow. The majority of Southeast Asia has a wet and dry season caused by seasonal shift in winds or monsoon. The tropical rain belt causes additional rainfall during the monsoon season. The rain forest is", "The vast majority of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be characterised as monsoonal. The animals of Southeast Asia are diverse; on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the orangutan, the Asian elephant, the Malayan tapir, the Sumatran rhinoceros and the Bornean clouded leopard can also be found. Six subspecies of the binturong or \"bearcat\" exist in the region, though the one endemic to the island of Palawan is now classed as vulnerable. Tigers of three different subspecies are found on the island of Sumatra (the Sumatran tiger), in peninsular Malaysia (the Malayan tiger), and in Indochina (the Indochinese tiger); all of which are endangered species. The Komodo dragon is the largest living species of lizard and inhabits the islands", "Even prior to the penetration of European interests, Southeast Asia was a critical part of the world trading system. A wide range of commodities originated in the region, but especially important were spices such as pepper, ginger, cloves, and nutmeg. The spice trade initially was developed by Indian and Arab merchants, but it also brought Europeans to the region. First Spaniards (Manila galleon) who sailed from the Americas and Portuguese, then the Dutch, and finally the British and French became involved in this enterprise in various countries. The penetration of European commercial interests gradually evolved into annexation of territories, as traders lobbied for an extension of control to protect and expand their activities. As a result, the Dutch moved into Indonesia, the British into Malaya and parts of Borneo, the French into Indochina, and the Spanish and the US into the Philippines. An economic effect of this imperialism was the shift in the production of commodities. For example, the rubber plantations of Malaysia, Java, Vietnam and Cambodia, the tin mining of Malaya, the rice fields of the Mekong Delta in Vietnam and Irrawaddy River delta in Burma, were a response to powerful market demands. The overseas Chinese community has played a large role in the development of the economies in the region. The origins of Chinese influence can be traced to the 16th century, when Chinese migrants from southern China settled in Indonesia, Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries. Chinese populations in the region saw a rapid increase following the Communist Revolution in 1949, which forced many refugees to emigrate outside of China. The region's economy greatly depends on agriculture;", "Southeast Asia has an area of approximately. As of, around million people live in the region, more than a fifth live (143 million) on the Indonesian island of Java, the most densely populated large island in the world. Indonesia is the most populous country with million people, and also the 4th most populous country in the world. The distribution of the religions and people is diverse in Southeast Asia and varies by country. Some 30 million overseas Chinese also live in Southeast Asia, most prominently in Christmas Island, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, and also as the Hoa in Vietnam. People of Southeast Asian origins are known as Southeast Asians or Aseanites.", "The Aslians and Negritos were believed as one of the earliest inhabitant in the region. They are genetically related to the Papuans in Eastern Indonesia, East Timor and Australian Aborigines. In modern times, the Javanese are the largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia, with more than 100 million people, mostly concentrated in Java, Indonesia. The second largest ethnic group in Southeast Asia is Vietnamese (Kinh people) with around 86 million population, mainly inhabiting in Vietnam, thus forming a significant minority in neighboring Cambodia and Laos. The Thais is also a significant ethnic group with around 59 million population forming the majority in Thailand. In Burma, the Burmese account for more than two-thirds of the ethnic stock in this country. Indonesia is clearly dominated by the", "Countries in Southeast Asia practice many different religions. By population, Islam is the most practised faith, numbering approximately 240 million adherents, or about 40% of the entire population, concentrated in Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Southern Thailand and in the Southern Philippines. Indonesia is the most populous Muslim-majority country around the world. There are approximately 205 million Buddhists in Southeast Asia, making it the second largest religion in the region, after Islam. Approximately 38% of the global Buddhist population resides in Southeast Asia. Buddhism is predominant in Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Burma and Singapore. Ancestor worship and Confucianism are also widely practised in Vietnam and Singapore. Christianity is predominant in the Philippines, eastern Indonesia, East Malaysia and East Timor. The Philippines has the largest Roman Catholic population in Asia. East Timor is also predominantly Roman Catholic due to a history of Portuguese rule. No individual Southeast Asian country", "Each of the languages have been influenced by cultural pressures due to trade, immigration, and historical colonization as", "The culture in Southeast Asia is very diverse: on mainland Southeast Asia, the culture is a mix of Burmese, Cambodian, Laotian and Thai (Indian) and Vietnamese (Chinese) cultures. While in Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia the culture is a mix of indigenous Austronesian, Indian, Islamic, Western, and Chinese cultures. Also Brunei shows a strong influence from Arabia. Vietnam and Singapore show more Chinese influence in that Singapore, although being geographically a Southeast Asian nation, is home to a large Chinese majority and Vietnam was in China's sphere of influence for much of its history. Indian influence in Singapore is only evident through the Tamil migrants, which influenced, to some extent, the cuisine of Singapore. Throughout Vietnam's history, it has had no direct influence from India – only through contact with the Thai, Khmer and Cham peoples. Moreover, Vietnam is also categorized under the East Asian cultural sphere along with China, Korea, and Japan due to the large amount of Chinese influence embedded in their culture and lifestyle. Rice paddy agriculture has existed in Southeast Asia for thousands of years, ranging across the subregion. Some dramatic examples of these rice paddies populate the Banaue Rice Terraces in the mountains of Luzon in the Philippines. Maintenance of these paddies is very labour-intensive. The rice paddies are well-suited to the monsoon climate of the region. Stilt houses can be found all over Southeast Asia, from Thailand and Vietnam, to Borneo, to Luzon in the Philippines, to Papua New Guinea. The region has diverse metalworking, especially in Indonesia. This include weaponry, such as the distinctive kris, and musical instruments, such as the gamelan.", "The region's chief cultural influences have been from some combination of Islam, India, and China. Diverse cultural influence is pronounced in the Philippines, derived particularly from the period of the Spanish and American rule, contact with Indian-influenced cultures, and", "The arts of Southeast Asia have affinity with the arts of other areas. Dance in much of Southeast Asia includes movement of the hands as well as the feet, to express the dance's emotion and meaning of the story that the ballerina is going to tell the audience. Most of Southeast Asia introduced dance into their court; in particular, Cambodian royal ballet represented them in the early 7th century before the Khmer Empire, which was highly influenced by Indian Hinduism. Apsara Dance, famous for strong hand and feet movement, is a great example of Hindu symbolic dance. Puppetry and shadow plays were also a favoured form of entertainment in past centuries, a famous one being Wayang from Indonesia. The arts and literature in some of Southeast Asia is quite influenced by Hinduism, which was brought to them centuries ago. Indonesia, despite conversion to Islam which opposes certain forms of art, has retained many forms of Hindu-influenced practices, culture, art and literature. An example is the Wayang Kulit (Shadow Puppet) and literature like the Ramayana. The wayang kulit show has been recognized by UNESCO on 7 November 2003, as a Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity. It has been pointed out that Khmer and Indonesian classical arts were concerned with depicting the life of the gods, but to the Southeast Asian mind the life of the gods was the life of the peoples themselves—joyous, earthy, yet divine. The Tai, coming late into Southeast Asia, brought with them some Chinese artistic traditions, but they soon shed them in favour of the Khmer and Mon traditions, and the only indications of their earlier contact with Chinese arts were in the style of their temples, especially the tapering roof, and in their lacquerware.", "Traditional music in Southeast Asia is as varied as its many ethnic and cultural divisions. Main styles of traditional music can be seen: Court music, folk music, music styles of smaller ethnic groups, and music influenced by genres outside the geographic region. Of the court and folk genres, gong-chime ensembles and orchestras make up the majority (the exception being lowland areas", "The history of Southeast Asia has led to a wealth of different authors, from both within and without writing about the region. Originally, Indians were the ones who taught the native inhabitants about writing. This is shown through Brahmic forms of writing present in the region such as the Balinese script shown on split palm leaf called \"lontar\" (see image to the left — magnify the image to see the writing on the flat side, and the decoration on the reverse side). The antiquity of this form of writing extends before the invention of paper around the year 100 in China. Note each palm leaf section was only several lines, written longitudinally across the leaf, and bound by twine to the other sections. The outer portion was decorated." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Church career.", "Cardinalate.", "Papacy.", "Papal election.", "First actions.", "Society of Jesus.", "Gallican and Febronian protests.", "Kingdom of Naples.", "Other activities.", "French Revolution.", "Deposition and death under Napoleon.", "Reburial.", "Representation in literature." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Giovanni Angelo Braschi was born in Cesena on Christmas in 1717 as the eldest of eight children to Count Marco Aurelio Tommaso Braschi and Ana Teresa Bandi. His siblings were Felice Silvestro, Giulia Francesca, Cornelio Francesco, Maria Olimpia, Anna Maria Costanza, Giuseppe Luigi and Maria Lucia Margherita. He was baptized in Cesena on the following 27 December and was given the baptismal name of Angelo Onofrio Melchiorre Natale Giovanni Antonio. After completing his studies in the Jesuit college of Cesena and receiving his doctorate of both canon and civil law in 1734, Braschi continued his studies at the University of Ferrara.", "Braschi became the private secretary of papal legate Cardinal Tommaso Ruffo. Bishop of Ostia and Velletri. Cardinal Ruffo took him as his conclavist at the 1740 papal conclave and when the latter became the Dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals in 1740, Braschi was appointed as his auditor, a post he held until 1753. His skill in the conduct of a mission to the court of Naples won him the esteem of Pope Benedict XIV. In 1753, following the death of Cardinal Ruffo, Benedict appointed Braschi one of his secretaries. In 1755, the pope appointed him as a canon of St Peter's Basilica in 1755. In 1758, putting an end to an engagement to be married, he was ordained to the priesthood. Braschi was also appointed as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura in 1758 and held that position until 1759. He also became the auditor and secretary of Cardinal Carlo Rezzonico, the nephew of Pope Clement XIII. In 1766, he was appointed as the treasurer of the camera apostolica by Pope Clement XIII.", "Those who suffered under his conscientious economics had managed to convince Pope Clement XIV to elevate him into the cardinalate. Braschi was elevated on 26 April 1773 in Rome as the Cardinal-Priest of Sant'Onofrio. This was a promotion which rendered him innocuous for a brief period of time. He then retired to the Abbey of Subiaco, of which he was commendatory abbot.", "", "Pope Clement XIV died in 1774 and this triggered a conclave to choose a successor. Spain, France and Portugal dropped all objections to the election of Braschi, who was one of the more moderate opponents of the anti-Jesuit stance of the late pope. Braschi received support from those who disliked the Jesuits and were of the belief he would continue the actions of Clement XIV and hold true to Clement's brief \"Dominus ac Redemptor\" (1773) which saw the dissolution of the order. But the zelanti faction - pro-Jesuit - believed that he was in secret sympathetic towards the Jesuits and expected reparation for the wrongs suffered in the previous reign. As a result, Braschi - as pope - was led into situations where he gave little satisfaction to either side. Cardinal Braschi was elected to the pontificate on 15 February 1775 and took the pontifical name of \"Pius VI\". He was consecrated into the episcopate on 22 February 1775 by Cardinal Gian Francesco Albani and was crowned that same day by the Cardinal Protodeacon Alessandro Albani.", "Pius VI first opened a jubilee his predecessor convoked and it initiated the 1775 Jubilee Year. The earlier acts of Pius VI gave fair promise of reformist rule and tackled the problem of corruption in the Papal States. Though he was usually benevolent, Pius VI sometimes showed discrimination. He appointed his uncle Giovanni Carlo Bandi as Bishop of Imola in 1752, and then as a member of the Roman Curia, cardinal in the consistory on 29 May 1775, but did not proffer any other members of his family. He reprimanded prince Potenziani, the governor of Rome, for failing to adequately deal with corruption in the city, appointed a council of cardinals to remedy the state of the finances and relieve the pressure of imposts, called to account Nicolò Bischi for the spending of funds intended for the purchase of grain, reduced the annual disbursements by denying pensions to many prominent people, and adopted a reward system to encourage agriculture.", "Upon his election, Pius VI ordered the release of Lorenzo Ricci, Superior General of the Society of Jesus, who was held prisoner in the Castel Sant'Angelo, but the general died before the decree of liberation arrived. It is perhaps due to Pius VI, that the Jesuits managed to escape dissolution in White Ruthenia and Silesia. In 1792, the pope considered the universal re-establishment of the Society of Jesus as a bulwark against the ideas of the French Revolution, but this did not happen.", "Besides facing dissatisfaction with this temporising policy, Pius VI met with practical protests tending to the limitation of papal authority. Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim, writing under the pseudonym of \"Febronius\", the chief German literary exponent of Gallican ideas of national Catholic Churches, was himself induced (not without scandal) publicly to retract his positions; but they were adopted in Austria nevertheless. There the social and ecclesiastical reforms which had been undertaken by Emperor Joseph II and his minister Kaunitz, as a way of influencing appointments within the Catholic hierarchy, touched the supremacy of Rome so nearly that in the hope of staying them Pius VI adopted the exceptional course of visiting Vienna in person. He left Rome on 27 February 1782 and, though magnificently received by the Emperor, his mission proved a fiasco; he was, however, able a few years later to curb those German archbishops who, in 1786 at the Congress of Ems, had shown a tendency towards independence.", "In the Kingdom of Naples difficulties necessitating certain concessions in respect of feudal homage were raised by the liberal minister Tanucci, and more serious disagreements arose with Leopold II, later emperor, and Scipione de' Ricci, bishop of Pistoia and Prato, upon the questions of reform in Tuscany. The papal bull Auctorem fidei issued on 28 August 1794, is a condemnation of the Gallican and Jansenist acts and tendencies of the Synod of Pistoia (1786).", "On 17 August 1775, Pope Pius VI promulgated with a Papal Decree the authenticity of Our Lady of Šiluva. Pius VI saw the development of the Catholic Church in the United States of America. He released the American clergy from the jurisdiction of the Vicar Apostolic in England, and erected the first American episcopal see, the Diocese of Baltimore in November of 1789. Pius VI elevated 73 cardinals in 23 consistories. He canonized no saints but he beatified a total of 39 individuals that included Lawrence of Brindisi and Amato Ronconi. The pope also set the Pontifical States' finances on much steadier ground. Pius is best remembered in connection with the expansion of the Pio-Clementine Museum, which was begun at the suggestion of his predecessor Clement XIV; and with an attempt to drain the Pontine Marshes, but Pius VI did successfully drain the marshes near Citta della Pieve, Perugia, and Spoleto. He also restored the Via Appia. Pius VI also deepened and expanded the harbors of Terracina and Porto d'Anizo, a major center of Pontifical trade. Pius was a great patron of the arts and humanities; he also added a new sacristy to St. Peter's Basilica.", "At the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, Pius VI witnessed the suppression of the old Gallican Church as well as the confiscation of pontifical and ecclesiastical possessions in France. It also saw an effigy of himself burnt by the Parisians at the Palais Royal. He saw the events as a sign of opposition against the social order ordained by God and also viewed it as a conspiracy against the church. The pope condemned both the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and supported a league against the revolution. He issued two briefs - \"Quod aliquantum\" (1791) and \"Caritas\" (1791) - to condemn the ecclesiastical reforms that were proposed. 1791 marked the end of diplomatic relations with France and the papal nuncio, Antonio Dugnani, was recalled to Rome as a result. One of the reasons for the breach was the seizure by the revolutionaries of the Comtat Venaissin, ending 516 years of Papal rule in Avignon. King Louis XVI of France was executed via guillotine on 21 January 1793, and his daughter Marie Thérèse petitioned Rome for the canonization of her father. Pius VI hailed the late king as a martyr on 17 June 1793 in a meeting with cardinals, giving hope to a potential possibility of sainthood. In 1820, two decades following the death of Pius VI, the Congregation of Rites put an end to the possible sainthood since it was impossible to prove the king died for religious reasons rather than political ones. Pius VI argued that the main thrust of the revolution was against the Catholic religion and Louis XVI himself.", "In 1796 French Republican troops under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy and defeated the papal troops. The French occupied Ancona and Loreto. Pius VI sued for peace which was granted at Tolentino on 19 February 1797; but on 28 December 1797, in a riot blamed by papal forces on some Italian and French revolutionists, the popular brigadier-general Mathurin-Léonard Duphot, who had gone to Rome with Joseph Bonaparte as part of the French embassy, was killed and a new pretext was furnished for invasion. General Berthier marched to Rome, entered it unopposed on 10 February 1798, and, proclaiming a Roman Republic, demanded of the pope the renunciation of his temporal authority. Upon his refusal, Pius was taken prisoner, and on 20 February was escorted from the Vatican to Siena, and thence to the Certosa near Florence. The French declaration of war against Tuscany led to his removal (he was escorted by the Spaniard Pedro Gómez Labrador, Marquis of Labrador) by way of Parma, Piacenza, Turin and Grenoble to the citadel of Valence, the chief town of Drôme where he died six weeks after his arrival, on 29 August 1799, having then reigned longer than any pope. Pius VI's body was embalmed, but was not buried until 30 January 1800 after Napoleon saw political advantage to burying the deceased Pope in efforts to bring the Catholic Church back into France. His entourage insisted for some time that his last wishes were to be buried in Rome, then behind the Austrian lines. They also prevented a Constitutional bishop from presiding at the burial, as the laws of France then required, so no burial service was held. This return of the investiture conflict was settled by the Concordat of 1801. Pius VI's body was removed from Valence on 24 December 1801 and buried at Rome 19 February 1802, when Pius VI was given a Catholic funeral, attended by Pope Pius VII, his successor.", "By decree of Pope Pius XII in 1949, the remains of Pius VI were moved to the Chapel of the Madonna below St. Peter's in the Vatican grottos. His remains were placed in an ancient marble sarcophagus. The inscription on the wall above the container reads: \"The mortal remains of Pius VI, consumed in unjust exile, by order of Pius XII were placed fittingly here and decorated by a marble ornament most excellent for its art and history in 1949\".", "A long audience with Pius VI is one of the most extensive scenes in the Marquis de Sade's narrative \"Juliette\", published in 1798. Juliette shows off her learning to the Pope (whom she most often addresses as \"Braschi\") with a verbal catalogue of alleged immoralities committed by his predecessors." ] }

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{ "title": [ "PL/SQL program unit.", "PL/SQL anonymous block.", "Function.", "Procedure.", "Package.", "Trigger.", "Purpose of triggers.", "Data types.", "Numeric variables.", "Character variables.", "Date variables.", "Exceptions.", "Datatypes for specific columns.", "Conditional statements.", "Array handling.", "Associative arrays (index-by tables).", "Nested tables.", "Varrays (variable-size arrays).", "Cursors.", "Looping.", "LOOP statements.", "FOR loops.", "Cursor FOR loops.", "Dynamic SQL.", "Similar languages." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The main feature of SQL (non-procedural) is also a drawback of SQL: one cannot use control statements (decision-making or iterative control) if only SQL is to be used. PL/SQL is basically a procedural language, which provides the functionality of decision making, iteration and many more features like other procedural programming languages. A PL/SQL program unit is one of the following: PL/SQL anonymous block, procedure, function, package specification, package body, trigger, type specification, type body, library. Program units are the PL/SQL source code that is compiled, developed and ultimately executed on the database.", "The basic unit of a PL/SQL source program is the block, which groups together related declarations and statements. A PL/SQL block is defined by the keywords DECLARE, BEGIN, EXCEPTION, and END. These keywords divide the block into a declarative part, an executable part, and an exception-handling part. The declaration section is optional and may be used to define and initialize constants and variables. If a variable is not initialized then it defaults to NULL value. The optional exception-handling part is used to handle run time errors. Only the executable part is required. A block can have a label. For example: «label» -- this is optional DECLARE -- this section is optional BEGIN -- this section is mandatory, must contain at least one executable statement EXCEPTION -- this section is optional END; The symbol codice_1 functions as an assignment operator to store a value in a variable. Blocks can be nested – i.e., because a block is an executable statement, it can appear in another block wherever an executable statement is allowed. A block can be submitted to an interactive tool (such as SQL*Plus) or embedded within an Oracle Precompiler or OCI program. The interactive tool or program runs the block once. The block is not stored in the database, and for that reason, it is called an anonymous block (even if it has a label).", "The purpose of a PL/SQL function is generally used to compute and return a single value. This returned value may be a single scalar value (such as a number, date or character string) or a single collection (such as a nested table or array). User-defined functions supplement the built-in functions provided by Oracle Corporation. The PL/SQL function has the form: CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION <function_name> [(input/output variable declarations)] RETURN return_type [AUTHID <CURRENT_USER | DEFINER>] <IS|AS> -- heading part amount number; -- declaration block BEGIN -- executable part [Exception END; Pipe-lined table functions return collections and take the form: CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION <function_name> [(input/output variable declarations)] RETURN return_type [AUTHID <CURRENT_USER | DEFINER>] [<AGGREGATE | PIPELINED>] <IS|USING> BEGIN [Exception END; A function should only use the default IN type of parameter. The only out value from the function should be the value it returns.", "Procedures resemble functions in that they are named program units that can be invoked repeatedly. The primary difference is that functions can be used in a SQL statement whereas procedures cannot. Another difference is that the procedure can return multiple values whereas a function should only return a single value. The procedure begins with a mandatory heading part to hold the procedure name and optionally the procedure parameter list. Next come the declarative, executable and exception-handling parts, as in the PL/SQL Anonymous Block. A simple procedure might look like this: CREATE PROCEDURE create_email_address ( -- Procedure heading part begins ) -- Procedure heading part ends AS -- Declarative part begins (optional) error_message VARCHAR2(30) := 'Email address is too long.'; BEGIN -- Executable part begins (mandatory) EXCEPTION -- Exception-handling part begins (optional) WHEN VALUE_ERROR THEN END create_email_address; The example above shows a standalone procedure - this type of procedure is created and stored in a database schema using the CREATE PROCEDURE statement. A procedure may also be created in a PL/SQL package - this is called a Package Procedure. A procedure created in a PL/SQL anonymous block is called a nested procedure. The standalone or package procedures, stored in the database, are referred to as \"stored procedures\". Procedures can have three types of parameters: IN, OUT and IN OUT. PL/SQL also supports external procedures via the Oracle database's standard codice_2 process.", "Packages are groups of conceptually linked functions, procedures, variables, PL/SQL table and record TYPE statements, constants, cursors, etc. The use of packages promotes re-use of code. Packages are composed of the package specification and an optional package body. The specification is the interface to the application; it declares the types, variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and subprograms available. The body fully defines cursors and subprograms, and so implements the specification. Two advantages of packages are:", "A database trigger is like a stored procedure that Oracle Database invokes automatically whenever a specified event occurs. It is a named PL/SQL unit that is stored in the database and can be invoked repeatedly. Unlike a stored procedure, you can enable and disable a trigger, but you cannot explicitly invoke it. While a trigger is enabled, the database automatically invokes it—that is, the trigger fires—whenever its triggering event occurs. While a trigger is disabled, it does not fire. You create a trigger with the CREATE TRIGGER statement. You specify the triggering event in terms of triggering statements, and the item they act on. The trigger is said to be created on or defined on the item—which is either a table, a view, a schema, or the database. You also specify the timing point, which determines whether the trigger fires before or after the triggering statement runs and whether it fires for each row that the triggering statement affects. If the trigger is created on a table or view, then the triggering event is composed of DML statements, and the trigger is called a DML trigger. If the trigger is created on a schema or the database, then the triggering event is composed of either DDL or database operation statements, and the trigger is called a system trigger. An INSTEAD OF trigger is either: A DML trigger created on a view or a system trigger defined on a CREATE statement. The database fires the INSTEAD OF trigger instead of running the triggering statement.", "Triggers can be written for the following purposes:", "The major datatypes in PL/SQL include NUMBER, CHAR, VARCHAR2, DATE and TIMESTAMP.", "variable_name number([P, S]) := 0; To define a numeric variable, the programmer appends the variable type NUMBER to the name definition. To specify the (optional) precision (P) and the (optional) scale (S), one can further append these in round brackets, separated by a comma. (\"Precision\" in this context refers to the number of digits the variable can hold, and \"scale\" refers to the number of digits that can follow the decimal point.) A selection of other data-types for numeric variables would include: binary_float, binary_double, dec, decimal, double precision, float, integer, int, numeric, real, small-int, binary_integer.", "variable_name varchar2(20) := 'Text'; -- e.g.: address varchar2(20) := 'lake view road'; To define a character variable, the programmer normally appends the variable type VARCHAR2 to the name definition. There follows in brackets the maximum number of characters the variable can store. Other datatypes for character variables include: varchar, char, long, raw, long raw, nchar, nchar2, clob, blob, and bfile.", "variable_name date := to_date('01-01-2005 14:20:23', 'DD-MM-YYYY hh24:mi:ss'); Date variables can contain date and time. The time may be left out, but there is no way to define a variable that only contains the time. There is no DATETIME type. And there is a TIME type. But there is no TIMESTAMP type that can contain fine-grained timestamp up to millisecond or nanosecond. Oracle Datatypes The codice_3 function can be used to convert strings to date values. The function converts the first quoted string into a date, using as a definition the second quoted string, for example: or To convert the dates to strings one uses the function codice_4. PL/SQL also supports the use of ANSI date and interval literals. The following clause gives an 18-month range: WHERE dateField BETWEEN DATE '2004-12-30' - INTERVAL '1-6' YEAR TO MONTH", "Exceptions—errors during code execution—are of two types: user-defined and predefined. \"User-defined\" exceptions are always raised explicitly by the programmers, using the codice_5 or codice_6 commands, in any situation where they determine it is impossible for normal execution to continue. The codice_5 command has the syntax: RAISE <exception name>; Oracle Corporation has \"predefined\" several exceptions like codice_8, codice_9, \"etc.\" Each exception has an SQL error number and SQL error message associated with it. Programmers can access these by using the codice_10 and codice_11 functions.", "Variable_name Table_name.Column_name%type; This syntax defines a variable of the type of the referenced column on the referenced tables. Programmers specify user-defined datatypes with the syntax: type data_type is record (field_1 type_1 := xyz, field_2 type_2 := xyz,..., field_n type_n := xyz); For example: declare begin end; This sample program defines its own datatype, called \"t_address\", which contains the fields \"name, street, street_number\" and \"postcode\". So according to the example, we are able to copy the data from the database to the fields in the program. Using this datatype the programmer has defined a variable called \"v_address\" and loaded it with data from the ADDRESS table. Programmers can address individual attributes in such a structure by means of the dot-notation, thus:", "The following code segment shows the IF-THEN-ELSIF-ELSE construct. The ELSIF and ELSE parts are optional so it is possible to create simpler IF-THEN or, IF-THEN-ELSE constructs. IF x = 1 THEN ELSIF x = 2 THEN ELSIF x = 3 THEN ELSIF x = 4 THEN ELSIF x = 5 THEN ELSE END IF; The CASE statement simplifies some large IF-THEN-ELSIF-ELSE structures. CASE END CASE; CASE statement can be used with predefined selector: CASE x END CASE;", "PL/SQL refers to arrays as \"collections\". The language offers three types of collections: Programmers must specify an upper limit for varrays, but need not for index-by tables or for nested tables. The language includes several collection methods used to manipulate collection elements: for example FIRST, LAST, NEXT, PRIOR, EXTEND, TRIM, DELETE, etc. Index-by tables can be used to simulate associative arrays, as in this example of a memo function for Ackermann's function in PL/SQL.", "With index-by tables, the array can be indexed by numbers or strings. It parallels a Java \"map\", which comprises key-value pairs. There is only one dimension and it is unbounded.", "With nested tables the programmer needs to understand what is nested. Here, a new type is created that may be composed of a number of components. That type can then be used to make a column in a table, and nested within that column are those components.", "With Varrays you need to understand that the word \"variable\" in the phrase \"variable-size arrays\" doesn't apply to the size of the array in the way you might think that it would. The size the array is declared with is in fact fixed. The number of elements in the array is variable up to the declared size. Arguably then, variable-sized arrays aren't that variable in size.", "A cursor is a mechanism, pointer to a private SQL area that stores information coming from a SELECT or data manipulation language (DML) statement (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, or MERGE). A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The set of rows the cursor holds is referred to as the active set. A cursor can be explicit or implicit. In a FOR loop, an explicit cursor shall be used if the query will be reused, otherwise an implicit cursor is preferred. If using a cursor inside a loop, use a FETCH is recommended when needing to bulk collect or when needing dynamic SQL.", "As a procedural language by definition, PL/SQL provides several iteration constructs, including basic LOOP statements, WHILE loops, FOR loops, and Cursor FOR loops. Since Oracle 7.3 the REF CURSOR type was introduced to allow recordsets to be returned from stored procedures and functions. Oracle 9i introduced the predefined SYS_REFCURSOR type, meaning we no longer have to define our own REF CURSOR types.", "«parent_loop» LOOP END LOOP parent_loop; Loops can be terminated by using the codice_12 keyword, or by raising an exception.", "DECLARE BEGIN END; Output:", "FOR RecordIndex IN (SELECT person_code FROM people_table) LOOP END LOOP; Cursor-for loops automatically open a cursor, read in their data and close the cursor again. As an alternative, the PL/SQL programmer can pre-define the cursor's SELECT-statement in advance to (for example) allow re-use or make the code more understandable (especially useful in the case of long or complex queries). DECLARE BEGIN END; The concept of the person_code within the FOR-loop gets expressed with dot-notation (\".\"): RecordIndex.person_code", "While programmers can readily embed Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements directly into PL/SQL code using straightforward SQL statements, Data Definition Language (DDL) requires more complex \"Dynamic SQL\" statements in the PL/SQL code. However, DML statements underpin the majority of PL/SQL code in typical software applications. In the case of PL/SQL dynamic SQL, early versions of the Oracle Database required the use of a complicated Oracle codice_13 package library. More recent versions have however introduced a simpler \"Native Dynamic SQL\", along with an associated codice_14 syntax.", "PL/SQL works analogously to the embedded procedural languages associated with other relational databases. For example, Sybase ASE and Microsoft SQL Server have Transact-SQL, PostgreSQL has PL/pgSQL (which emulates PL/SQL to an extent), MariaDB includes a PL/SQL compatibility parser,and IBM DB2 includes SQL Procedural Language, which conforms to the ISO SQL’s SQL/PSM standard. The designers of PL/SQL modeled its syntax on that of Ada. Both Ada and PL/SQL have Pascal as a common ancestor, and so PL/SQL also resembles Pascal in most aspects. However, the structure of a PL/SQL package does not resemble the basic Object Pascal program structure as implemented by a Borland Delphi or Free Pascal unit. Programmers can define public and private global data-types, constants, and static variables in a PL/SQL package. PL/SQL also allows for the definition of classes and instantiating these as objects in PL/SQL code. This resembles usage in object-oriented programming languages like Object Pascal, C++ and Java. PL/SQL refers to a class as an \"Abstract Data Type\" (ADT) or \"User Defined Type\" (UDT), and defines it as an Oracle SQL data-type as opposed to a PL/SQL user-defined type, allowing its use in both the Oracle SQL Engine and the Oracle PL/SQL engine. The constructor and methods of an Abstract Data Type are written in PL/SQL. The resulting Abstract Data Type can operate as an object class in PL/SQL. Such objects can also persist as column values in Oracle database tables. PL/SQL is fundamentally distinct from Transact-SQL, despite superficial similarities. Porting code from one to the other usually involves non-trivial work, not only due to the differences in the feature sets of the two languages, but also due to the very significant differences in the way Oracle and SQL Server deal with concurrency and locking. The \"StepSqlite\" product is a PL/SQL compiler for the popular small database SQLite which supports a subset of PL/SQL syntax. Oracle's Berkeley DB 11g R2 release added support for SQL based on the popular SQLite API by including a version of SQLite in Berkeley DB. Consequently, StepSqlite can also be used as a third-party tool to run PL/SQL code on Berkeley DB..plsql contains dynamic sql to execute queries at runtime." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Life.", "Early years.", "Maturity.", "Peak.", "Decline.", "Works.", "Criticism.", "In popular culture.", "Statistics.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The spelling and pronunciation of the composer's name has caused some confusion. The family name derives from a 15th- or 16th-century ancestor, Roman Vasilyevich Monastyryov, who appears in the Velvet Book, the 17th-century genealogy of Russian boyars. Roman Vasilyevich bore the nickname \"Musorga\", and was the grandfather of the first Mussorgsky. The composer could trace his lineage to Rurik, the legendary 9th-century founder of the Russian state. In Mussorgsky family documents the spelling of the name varies: \"Musarskiy\", \"Muserskiy\", \"Muserskoy\", \"Musirskoy\", \"Musorskiy\", and \"Musurskiy\". The baptismal record gives the composer's name as \"Muserskiy\". In early (up to 1858) letters to Mily Balakirev, the composer signed his name \"Musorskiy\" (). The \"g\" made its first appearance in a letter to Balakirev in 1863. Mussorgsky used this new spelling (, \"Musorgskiy\") to the end of his life, but occasionally reverted to the earlier \"Musorskiy\". The addition of the \"g\" to the name was likely initiated by the composer's elder brother Filaret to obscure the resemblance of the name's root to an unsavory Russian word: Mussorgsky apparently did not take the new spelling seriously, and played on the \"rubbish\" connection in letters to Vladimir Stasov and to Stasov's family, routinely signing his name \"Musoryanin\", roughly \"garbage-dweller\" (compare \"dvoryanin\": \"nobleman\"). The first syllable of the name originally received the stress (i.e., MÚS-ər-skiy), and does so to this day in Russia and in the composer's home district. The mutability of the second-syllable vowel in the versions of the name mentioned above gives evidence that this syllable did not receive the stress. The addition of the \"g\" and the accompanying shift in stress to the second syllable (i.e., Mu-SÓRK-skiy), sometimes described as a Polish variant, was supported by Filaret Mussorgsky's descendants until his line ended in the 20th century. Their example was followed by many influential Russians, such as Fyodor Shalyapin, Nikolay Golovanov, and Tikhon Khrennikov, who, perhaps dismayed that the great composer's name was \"reminiscent of garbage\", supported the erroneous second-syllable stress that has also become entrenched in the West. The Western convention of doubling the first \"s\", which is not observed in scholarly literature (e.g., \"The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\"), likely arose because in many Western European languages a single intervocalic /s/ often becomes voiced to /z/ (as in \"music\"), unlike in Slavic languages where the intervocalic /s/ is always unvoiced. Doubling the consonant thus reinforces its voiceless sibilant /s/ sound. 'Modest' is the Russian form of the name 'Modestus' which means'moderate' or'restrained' in Late Latin. He was called 'Modinka' (), diminutive form with the stressed O, by his close friends and relatives.", "", "Mussorgsky was born in Karevo, Toropets Uyezd, Pskov Governorate, Russian Empire, south of Saint Petersburg. His wealthy and land-owning family, the noble family of Mussorgsky, is reputedly descended from the first Ruthenian ruler, Rurik, through the sovereign princes of Smolensk. At age six, Mussorgsky began receiving piano lessons from his mother, herself a trained pianist. His progress was sufficiently rapid that three years later he was able to perform a John Field concerto and works by Franz Liszt for family and friends. At 10, he and his brother were taken to Saint Petersburg to study at the elite German language Petrischule (St. Peter's School). While there, Modest studied the piano with the noted Anton Gerke. In 1852, the 12-year-old Mussorgsky published a piano piece titled \"Porte-enseigne Polka\" at his father's expense. Mussorgsky's parents planned the move to Saint Petersburg so that both their sons would renew the family tradition of military service. To this end, Mussorgsky entered the Cadet School of the Guards at age 13. Sharp controversy had arisen over the educational attitudes at the time of both this institute and its director, a General Sutgof. All agreed the Cadet School could be a brutal place, especially for new recruits. More tellingly for Mussorgsky, it was likely where he began his eventual path to alcoholism. According to a former student, singer and composer Nikolai Kompaneisky, Sutgof \"was proud when a cadet returned from leave drunk with champagne.\" Music remained important to him, however. Sutgof's daughter was also a pupil of Gerke, and Mussorgsky was allowed to attend lessons with her. His skills as a pianist made him much in demand by fellow-cadets; for them he would play dances interspersed with his own improvisations. In 1856 Mussorgsky – who had developed a strong interest in history and studied German philosophy – graduated from the Cadet School. Following family tradition he received a commission with the Preobrazhensky Regiment, the foremost regiment of the Russian Imperial Guard.", "In October 1856 the 17-year-old Mussorgsky met the 22-year-old Alexander Borodin while both men served at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg. The two were soon on good terms. Borodin later remembered, More portentous was Mussorgsky's introduction that winter to Alexander Dargomyzhsky, at that time the most important Russian composer after Mikhail Glinka. Dargomyzhsky was impressed with Mussorgsky's pianism. As a result, Mussorgsky became a fixture at Dargomyzhsky's soirées. There, critic Vladimir Stasov later recalled, he began \"his true musical life.\" Over the next two years at Dargomyzhsky's, Mussorgsky met several figures of importance in Russia's cultural life, among them Stasov, César Cui (a fellow officer), and Mily Balakirev. Balakirev had an especially strong impact. Within days he took it upon himself to help shape Mussorgsky's fate as a composer. He recalled to Stasov, \"Because I am not a theorist, I could not teach him harmony (as, for instance Rimsky-Korsakov now teaches it)... [but] I explained to him the form of compositions, and to do this we played through both Beethoven symphonies [as piano duets] and much else (Schumann, Schubert, Glinka, and others), analyzing the form.\" Up to this point Mussorgsky had known nothing but piano music; his knowledge of more radical recent music was virtually non-existent. Balakirev started filling these gaps in Mussorgsky's knowledge. In 1858, within a few months of beginning his studies with Balakirev, Mussorgsky resigned his commission to devote himself entirely to music. He also suffered a painful crisis at this time. This may have had a spiritual component (in a letter to Balakirev the young man referred to \"mysticism and cynical thoughts about the Deity\"), but its exact nature will probably never be known. In 1859, the 20-year-old gained valuable theatrical experience by assisting in a production of Glinka's opera \"A Life for the Tsar\" on the Glebovo estate of a former singer and her wealthy husband; he also met Konstantin Lyadov (father of Anatoly Lyadov) and enjoyed a formative visit to Moscow – after which he professed a love of \"everything Russian\". In spite of this epiphany, Mussorgsky's music leaned more toward foreign models; a four-hand piano sonata which he produced in 1860 contains his only movement in sonata form. Nor is any 'nationalistic' impulse easily discernible in the incidental music for Vladislav Ozerov's play \"Oedipus in Athens\", on which he worked between the ages of 19 and 22 (and then abandoned unfinished), or in the \"Intermezzo in modo classico\" for piano solo (revised and orchestrated in 1867). The latter was the only important piece he composed between December 1860 and August 1863: the reasons for this probably lie in the painful re-emergence of his subjective crisis in 1860 and the purely objective difficulties which resulted from the emancipation of the serfs the following year – as a result of which the family was deprived of half its estate, and Mussorgsky had to spend a good deal of time in Karevo unsuccessfully attempting to stave off their looming impoverishment. By this time, Mussorgsky had freed himself from the influence of Balakirev and was largely teaching himself. In 1863 he began an opera – \"Salammbô\" – on which he worked between 1863 and 1866 before losing interest in the project. During this period he had returned to Saint Petersburg and was supporting himself as a low-grade civil-servant while living in a six-man \"commune\". In a heady artistic and intellectual atmosphere, he read and discussed a wide range of modern artistic and scientific ideas – including those of the provocative writer Chernyshevsky, known for the bold assertion that, in art, \"form and content are opposites\". Under such influences he came more and more to embrace the ideal of artistic realism and all that it entailed, whether this concerned the responsibility to depict life \"as it is truly lived\"; the preoccupation with the lower strata of society; or the rejection of repeating, symmetrical musical forms as insufficiently true to the unrepeating, unpredictable course of \"real life\". \"Real life\" affected Mussorgsky painfully in 1865, when his mother died; it was at this point that the composer had his first serious bout of alcoholism, which forced him to leave the commune to stay with his brother. The 26-year-old was, however, on the point of writing his first realistic songs (including \"Hopak\" and \"Darling Savishna\", both of them composed in 1866 and among his first \"real\" publications the following year). The year 1867 was also the one in which he finished the original orchestral version of his \"Night on Bald Mountain\" (which, however, Balakirev criticised and refused to conduct, with the result that it was never performed during Mussorgsky's lifetime).", "Mussorgsky's career as a civil servant was by no means stable or secure: though he was assigned to various posts and even received a promotion in these early years, in 1867 he was declared'supernumerary' – remaining 'in service', but receiving no wages. Decisive developments were occurring in his artistic life, however. Although it was in 1867 that Stasov first referred to the 'kuchka' ('The Five') of Russian composers loosely grouped around Balakirev, Mussorgsky was by then ceasing to seek Balakirev's approval and was moving closer to the older Alexander Dargomyzhsky. Since 1866 Dargomyzhsky had been working on his opera \"The Stone Guest\", a version of the \"Don Juan\" story with a Pushkin text that he declared would be set \"just as it stands, so that the inner truth of the text should not be distorted\", and in a manner that abolished the 'unrealistic' division between aria and recitative in favour of a continuous mode of syllabic but lyrically heightened declamation somewhere between the two. Under the influence of this work (and the ideas of Georg Gottfried Gervinus, according to whom \"the highest natural object of musical imitation is emotion, and the method of imitating emotion is to mimic speech\"), Mussorgsky in 1868 rapidly set the first eleven scenes of Nikolai Gogol's \"The Marriage\" (\"Zhenitba\"), with his priority being to render into music the natural accents and patterns of the play's naturalistic and deliberately humdrum dialogue. This work marked an extreme position in Mussorgsky's pursuit of naturalistic word-setting: he abandoned it unorchestrated after reaching the end of his 'Act 1', and though its characteristically 'Mussorgskyian' declamation is to be heard in all his later vocal music, the naturalistic mode of vocal writing more and more became merely one expressive element among many. A few months after abandoning \"Zhenitba\", the 29-year-old Mussorgsky was encouraged to write an opera on the story of Boris Godunov. This he did, assembling and shaping a text from Pushkin's play and Karamzin's history. He completed the large-scale score the following year while living with friends and working for the Forestry Department. In 1871, however, the finished opera was rejected for theatrical performance, apparently because of its lack of any 'prima donna' role. Mussorgsky set to work producing a revised and enlarged'second version'. During the next year, which he spent sharing rooms with Rimsky-Korsakov, he made changes that went beyond those requested by the theatre. In this version the opera was accepted, probably in May 1872, and three excerpts were staged at the Mariinsky Theatre in 1873. It is often asserted that in 1872 the opera was rejected a second time, but no specific evidence for this exists. By the time of the first production of \"Boris Godunov\" in February 1874, Mussorgsky had taken part in the ill-fated \"Mlada\" project (in the course of which he had made a choral version of his \"Night on Bald Mountain\") and had begun \"Khovanshchina\". Though far from being a critical success – and in spite of receiving only a dozen or so performances – the popular reaction in favour of \"Boris\" made this the peak of Mussorgsky's career.", "From this peak a pattern of decline becomes increasingly apparent. Already the Balakirev circle was disintegrating. Mussorgsky was especially bitter about this. He wrote to Vladimir Stasov, \"[T]he Mighty Handful has degenerated into soulless traitors.\" In drifting away from his old friends, Mussorgsky had been seen to fall victim to 'fits of madness' that could well have been alcoholism-related. His friend Viktor Hartmann had died, and his relative and recent roommate Arseny Golenishchev-Kutuzov (who furnished the poems for the song-cycle \"Sunless\" and would go on to provide those for the \"Songs and Dances of Death\") had moved away to get married. Mussorgsky engaged a new and prominent personal private physician about 1870, Dr. George Leon Carrick, sometime Secretary and later President of the St. Petersburg Physicians' Society and a cousin of Sir Harry Lauder. While Mussorgsky suffered personally from alcoholism, it was also a behavior pattern considered typical for those of Mussorgsky's generation who wanted to oppose the establishment and protest through extreme forms of behavior. One contemporary notes, \"an intense worship of Bacchus was considered to be almost obligatory for a writer of that period. It was a showing off, a 'pose,' for the best people of the [eighteen-]sixties.\" Another writes, \"Talented people in Russia who love the simple folk cannot but drink.\" Mussorgsky spent day and night in a Saint Petersburg tavern of low repute, the Maly Yaroslavets, accompanied by other bohemian dropouts. He and his fellow drinkers idealized their alcoholism, perhaps seeing it as ethical and aesthetic opposition. This bravado, however, led to little more than isolation and eventual self-destruction. For a time Mussorgsky was able to maintain his creative output: his compositions from 1874 include \"Sunless\", the \"Khovanshchina\" Prelude, and the piano suite \"Pictures at an Exhibition\" (in memory of Hartmann); he also began work on another opera based on Gogol, \"The Fair at Sorochyntsi\" (for which he produced another choral version of \"Night on Bald Mountain\"). In the years that followed, Mussorgsky's decline became increasingly steep. Although now part of a new circle of eminent personages that included singers, medical men and actors, he was increasingly unable to resist drinking, and a succession of deaths among his closest associates caused him great pain. At times, however, his alcoholism would seem to be in check, and among the most powerful works composed during his last six years are the four \"Songs and Dances of Death\". His civil service career was made more precarious by his frequent 'illnesses' and absences, and he was fortunate to obtain a transfer to a post (in the Office of Government Control) where his music-loving superior treated him with great leniency – in 1879 even allowing him to spend three months touring twelve cities as a singer's accompanist. The decline could not be halted, however. In 1880 he was finally dismissed from government service. Aware of his destitution, one group of friends organised a stipend designed to support the completion of \"Khovanshchina\"; another group organised a similar fund to pay him to complete \"The Fair at Sorochyntsi\". However, neither work was completed (although \"Khovanshchina\", in piano score with only two numbers uncomposed, came close to being finished). In early 1881 a desperate Mussorgsky declared to a friend that there was 'nothing left but begging', and suffered four seizures in rapid succession. Also, Modest suffered from delirium tremens during this period. Though he found a comfortable room in a good hospital – and for several weeks even appeared to be rallying – the situation was hopeless. Repin painted the famous red-nosed portrait in what were to be the last days of the composer's life: a week after his 42nd birthday, he was dead. He was interred at the Tikhvin Cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Monastery in Saint Petersburg. Mussorgsky, like others of 'The Five', was perceived as extremist by the Emperor and much of his court. This may have been the reason Tsar Alexander III personally crossed off \"Boris Godunov\" from the list of proposed pieces for the Imperial Opera in 1888.", "Mussorgsky's works, while strikingly novel, are stylistically Romantic and draw heavily on Russian musical themes. He has been the inspiration for many Russian composers, including most notably Dmitri Shostakovich (in his late symphonies) and Sergei Prokofiev (in his operas). In 1868/1869 he composed the opera \"Boris Godunov\", about the life of the Russian tsar, but it was rejected by the Mariinsky Opera. Mussorgsky thus edited the work, making a final version in 1874. The early version is considered darker and more concise than the later version, but also more crude. Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov re-orchestrated the opera in 1896 and revised it in 1908. The opera has also been revised by other composers, notably Shostakovich, who made two versions, one for film and one for stage. The opera \"Khovanshchina\" was unfinished and unperformed when Mussorgsky died, but it was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and received its premiere in 1886 in Saint Petersburg. This opera, too, was revised by Shostakovich. \"The Fair at Sorochyntsi\", another opera, was left incomplete at his death but a dance excerpt, the Gopak, is frequently performed. Mussorgsky's most imaginative and frequently performed work is the cycle of piano pieces describing paintings in sound called \"Pictures at an Exhibition\". This composition, best known through an orchestral arrangement by Maurice Ravel, was written in commemoration of his friend, the architect Viktor Hartmann. Mussorgsky's single-movement orchestral work \"Night on Bald Mountain\" enjoyed broad popular recognition in the 1940s when it was featured, in tandem with Schubert's 'Ave Maria', in the 1940 Walt Disney animated film \"Fantasia\". Among the composer's other works are a number of songs, including three song cycles: \"The Nursery\" (1872), \"Sunless\" (1874) and \"Songs and Dances of Death\" (1877); plus \"Mephistopheles' Song of the Flea\" and many others. Important early recordings of songs by Mussorgsky were made by tenor Vladimir Rosing in the 1920s and 1930s. Other recordings have been made by Boris Christoff between 1951 and 1957 and by Sergei Leiferkus in 1993.", "Contemporary opinions of Mussorgsky as a composer and person varied from positive to ambiguous to negative. Mussorgsky's eventual supporters, Vladimir Stasov and Mily Balakirev, initially registered strongly negative impressions of the composer. Stasov wrote Balakirev, in an 1863 letter, \"I have no use for Mussorgsky. His views may tally with mine, but I have never heard him express an intelligent idea. All in him is flabby, dull. He is, it seems to me, a thorough idiot\", and Balakirev agreed: \"Yes, Mussorgsky is little short of an idiot.\" Mixed impressions are recorded by Rimsky-Korsakov and Tchaikovsky, colleagues of Mussorgsky who, unlike him, made their living as composers. Both praised his talent while expressing disappointment with his technique. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote that Mussorgsky's scores included While preparing an edition of \"Sorochintsï Fair\", Anatoly Lyadov remarked: \"It is easy enough to correct Mussorgsky's irregularities. The only trouble is that when this is done, the character and originality of the music are done away with, and the composer's individuality vanishes.\" Tchaikovsky, in a letter to his patroness Nadezhda von Meck, was also critical of Mussorgsky: Western perceptions of Mussorgsky changed with the European premiere of \"Boris Godunov\" in 1908. Before the premiere, he was regarded as an eccentric in the west. Critic Edward Dannreuther, wrote, in the 1905 edition of \"The Oxford History of Music\", \"Mussorgsky, in his vocal efforts, appears wilfully eccentric. His style impresses the Western ear as barbarously ugly.\" However, after the premiere, views on Mussorgsky's music changed drastically. Gerald Abraham, a musicologist, and an authority on Mussorgsky: \"As a musical translator of words and all that can be expressed in words, of psychological states, and even physical movement, he is unsurpassed; as an absolute musician he was hopelessly limited, with remarkably little ability to construct pure music or even a purely musical texture.\"", "Mussorgsky's tone poem \"Night On Bald Mountain\" was used in the 1940 animated film \"Fantasia\", accompanied by an animation of Chernobog summoning evil spirits on a mountain. It segues into \"Ave Maria\" by Franz Schubert. The progressive rock band Emerson, Lake & Palmer performed and recorded an arrangement of Mussorgsky's \"Pictures At An Exhibition\", featuring lyrics by Greg Lake, and released it as a live album of the same name.", "According to Operabase for 15 seasons 2004-2018, Mussorgsky's operas were performed worldwide 1288 times and his non-opera works were publicly demonstrated in theatres 11 times.", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Malay term \"Tanah Melayu\" is derived from the word \"Tanah\" (land) and \"Melayu\" (Malays), thus it means \"the Malay land\". The term can be found in various Malay texts, of which the oldest dating back to the early 17th century. It is frequently mentioned in the \"Hikayat Hang Tuah\", a well known classic tales associated with the legendary heroes of Malacca Sultanate. \"Tanah Melayu\" in the text is consistently employed to refer to the area under Malaccan dominance. In the early 16th century, Tomé Pires, a Portuguese apothecary who stayed in Malaca from 1512 to 1515, writes an almost identical term, \"Terra de Tana Malaio\" which he referred to the southeastern part of Sumatra, where the deposed Sultan of Malacca, Mahmud Shah established his exiled government. The 17th century's account of Portuguese historian, Emanuel Godinho de Erédia, noted on the region of \"Malaios\" surrounded by the Andaman Sea in the north, the entire Malacca Strait in the centre, a part of Sunda Strait in the south, and the western part of South China Sea in the east. Prior to the foundation of Malacca, ancient and medieval references to a Malay peninsula exist in various foreign sources. According to several Indian scholars, the word \"Malayadvipa\" (\"mountain-insular continent\"), mentioned in the ancient Indian text, \"Vayu Purana\", may possibly refer to the Malay Peninsula. Another Indian source, an inscription on the south wall of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, recorded the word \"Malaiur\", referring to a kingdom in the Malay Peninsula that had \"a strong mountain for its rampart\". The Greek source, \"Geographia\", written by Ptolemy, labelled a geographical part of \"Golden Chersonese\" as \"Maleu-kolon\", a term thought to derive from Sanskrit \"malayakolam\" or \"malaikurram\". While the Chinese chronicle of Yuan dynasty mentioned the word \"Ma-li-yu-er\", referring to a nation of the Malay Peninsula that was threatened by the southward expansion of the Sukhothai Kingdom under King Ram Khamhaeng. During the same era, Marco Polo made a reference to \"Malauir\" in his travelogue, as a kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula, possibly similar to the one mentioned in Yuan chronicle.. The Malay Peninsula was conflated with Persia in old Japan, and was known by the same name. In the early 20th century, the term \"Tanah Melayu\" was generally used by the Malays of the peninsula during the rise of Malay nationalism to describe uniting all Malay states on the peninsula under one Malay nation, although this ambition was largely realised with the formation of \"Persekutuan Tanah Melayu\" (Malay for \"Federation of Malaya\") in 1948.", "The Malay Peninsula is covered with tropical moist forests. Lowland forests are dominated by dipterocarp trees, while montane forests are home to evergreen trees in the beech family (Fagaceae), Myrtle family (Myrtaceae), laurel family (Lauraceae), tropical conifers, and other plant families. The peninsula's forests are home to thousands of species of animals and plants. Several large endangered mammals inhabit the peninsula – Asian elephant (\"Elephas maximus\"), gaur (\"Bos gaurus\"), tiger (\"Panthera tigris\"), sun bear (\"Helarctos malayanus\"), Malayan tapir (\"Tapirus indicus\"), clouded leopard (\"Neofelis nebulosa\"), and siamang (\"Symphalangus syndactylus\"). The Sumatran rhinoceros (\"Dicerorhinus sumatrensis\") once inhabited the forests, but Malaysia's last rhinoceroses died in 2019, and the species' few remaining members survive only in Sumatra. The peninsula is home to several distinct ecoregions. The Tenasserim-South Thailand semi-evergreen rain forests cover the northern peninsula, including the Tenasserim Hills and the Isthmus of Kra, and extend to the coast on both sides of the isthmus. The Kangar-Pattani floristic boundary crosses the peninsula in southern Thailand and northernmost Malaysia, marking the boundary between the large biogeographic regions of Indochina to the north and Sundaland and Malesia to the south. The forests north of the boundary are characterized by seasonally-deciduous trees, while the Sundaland forests have more year-round rainfall and the trees are mostly evergreen. Peninsular Malaysia is home to three terrestrial ecoregions. The Peninsular Malaysian montane rain forests ecoregion covers the mountains above 1000 meters elevation. The lowlands and hills are in the Peninsular Malaysian rain forests ecoregion. The Peninsular Malaysian peat swamp forests include distinctive waterlogged forests in the lowlands on both sides of the peninsula. Extensive mangroves line both coasts. The Myanmar Coast mangroves are on the western shore of the peninsula, and the Indochina mangroves on the eastern shore." ] }

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{ "title": [ "National accounts.", "Market value.", "Output.", "Expenditure.", "Gross domestic product and gross national product.", "National income and welfare." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Arriving at a figure for the total production of goods and services in a large region like a country entails a large amount of data-collection and calculation. Although some attempts were made to estimate national incomes as long ago as the 17th century, the systematic keeping of national accounts, of which these figures are a part, only began in the 1930s, in the United States and some European countries. The impetus for that major statistical effort was the Great Depression and the rise of Keynesian economics, which prescribed a greater role for the government in managing an economy, and made it necessary for governments to obtain accurate information so that their interventions into the economy could proceed as well-informed as possible.", "In order to count a good or service, it is necessary to assign value to it. The value that the measures of national income and output assign to a good or service is its market value – the price it fetches when bought or sold. The actual usefulness of a product (its use-value) is not measured – assuming the use-value to be any different from its market value. Three strategies have been used to obtain the market values of all the goods and services produced: the product (or output) method, the expenditure method, and the income method. The product method looks at the economy on an industry-by-industry basis. The total output of the economy is the sum of the outputs of every industry. However, since an output of one industry may be used by another industry and become part of the output of that second industry, to avoid counting the item twice we use not the value output by each industry, but the value-added; that is, the difference between the value of what it puts out and what it takes in. The total value produced by the economy is the sum of the values-added by every industry. The expenditure method is based on the idea that all products are bought by somebody or some organisation. Therefore, we sum up the total amount of money people and organisations spend in buying things. This amount must equal the value of everything produced. Usually, expenditures by private individuals, expenditures by businesses, and expenditures by government are calculated separately and then summed to give the total expenditure. Also, a correction term must be introduced to account for imports and exports outside the boundary. The income method works by summing the incomes of all producers within the boundary. Since what they are paid is just the market value of their product, their total income must be the total value of the product. Wages, proprietor's incomes, and corporate profits are the major subdivisions of income.", "The output approach focuses on finding the total output of a nation by directly finding the total value of all goods and services a nation produces. Because of the complication of the multiple stages in the production of a good or service, only the final value of a good or service is included in the total output. This avoids an issue often called 'double counting', wherein the total value of a good is included several times in national output, by counting it repeatedly in several stages of production. In the example of meat production, the value of the good from the farm may be $10, then $30 from the butchers, and then $60 from the supermarket. The value that should be included in final national output should be $60, not the sum of all those numbers, $100. The values added at each stage of production over the previous stage are respectively $10, $20, and $30. Their sum gives an alternative way of calculating the value of final output. Key formulae are:", "The expenditure approach is basically an output accounting method. It focuses on finding the total output of a nation by finding the total amount of money spent. This is acceptable to economists, because, like income, the total value of all goods is equal to the total amount of money spent on goods. The basic formula for domestic output takes all the different areas in which money is spent within the region, and then combines them to find the total output. formula_1 where: C = household consumption expenditures / personal consumption expenditures I = gross private domestic investment G = government consumption and gross investment expenditures X = gross exports of goods and services M = gross imports of goods and services Note: (X - M) is often written as X or less commonly as NX, both stand for \"net exports\" The names of the measures consist of one of the words \"Gross\" or \"Net\", followed by one of the words \"National\" or \"Domestic\", followed by one of the words \"Product\", \"Income\", or \"Expenditure\". All of these terms can be explained separately. Note that all three counting methods should in theory give the same final figure. However, in practice minor differences are obtained from the three methods for several reasons, including changes in inventory levels and errors in the statistics. One problem for instance is that goods in inventory have been produced (therefore included in Product), but not yet sold (therefore not yet included in Expenditure). Similar timing issues can also cause a slight discrepancy between the value of goods produced (Product) and the payments to the factors that produced the goods (Income), particularly if inputs are purchased on credit, and also because wages are collected often after a period of production.", "Gross domestic product (GDP) is defined as \"the value of all final goods and services produced in a country in 1 year\". Gross national product (GNP) is defined as \"the market value of all goods and services produced in one year by labour and property supplied by the residents of a country.\" As an example, the table below shows some GDP and GNP, and NNI data for the United States:", "GDP per capita (per person) is often used as a measure of a person's welfare. Countries with higher GDP may be more likely to also score high on other measures of welfare, such as life expectancy. However, there are serious limitations to the usefulness of GDP as a measure of welfare: Because of this, other measures of welfare such as the Human Development Index (HDI), Index of Sustainable Economic Welfare (ISEW), Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), gross national happiness (GNH), and sustainable national income (SNI) are used." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "In a French colony of Northern Africa, Captain Hector Servadac works as a cartographer for the French army. He falls into the sea while mapping the area and is saved by the beautiful Angelica, a young woman on the run from Spanish captors. The Spaniards are helping the Arabian king, who is leading an uprising in the colony. While the French and Arabian army are preparing to battle, a comet touches Earth's surface and carries the territory away. French, Spaniards and Arabians are trapped together on the comet, but are still intent on continuing to fight. Hector returns to his commander, who orders all non-French people arrested. This includes the Spaniards as well as Angelica's brothers, who, unaware of her escape, are trying to save her. Angelica herself is hidden away by shopkeepers in a town that was carried away with the soldiers. The Arabians, who lost their weapons during the comet's impact, are waiting for the opportunity to get armed. The colony is attacked by a group of dinosaurs, and the French general orders Hector to lead a counterattack. It is unsuccessful, and Hector has to run for his life. He meets Angelica in the town, where she is helping shopkeepers pack their metal pots in a carriage. He tries to convince her to run away with him but the horses are scared by the noise of falling pots and run towards the dinosaurs. Hector tries to catch up with the carriage, but the dinosaurs run away when they hear the noise made by the pots. The French general, seeing the dinosaurs retreat, decides to replace his army's weapons with pots. The Arabians take advantage of this decision, stocking up on the weapons the French throw away. The Arabian army then attacks the French, but before they can defeat it, planet Mars appears in the sky. Both armies decide to stop the conflict, as they believe that the comet will hit the planet and that everyone will die in the impact. This prediction proves untrue as the comet misses Mars. Hector convinces them to keep the peace and start a new peaceful society on the comet. Their happiness is interrupted by Angelica's brothers who, believing Hector is her kidnapper, ambush him. They kidnap Angelica and set off homeward, unaware that they have left Earth. The Spaniards offer their ship to save Angelica and Hector goes after her. During the sea voyage, the Spanish ship comes across what seems to be a coast. It is revealed to be a giant serpent. The Spaniards and Hector are shocked, but are able to scare it off with pots. They also come across an island full of prehistoric creatures, and witness life evolving from the sea. Hector eventually finds Angelica and they plan to get married. Earth appears in the sky during the wedding which leads everybody to return to their old conflicts. When the comet touches Earth, everybody starts fighting again. The French and Spaniards are defeated by Arabs, and Angelica is once again kidnapped by her brothers. Hector runs after them but falls to the sea. Hector wakes up on the coast, saved by his adjutant, who reveals that the adventure was all a dream." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Laboratory preparations.", "Properties.", "Uses.", "As an acid.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Perchloric acid is produced industrially by two routes. The traditional method exploits the high aqueous solubility of sodium perchlorate (209 g/100 mL of water at room temperature). Treatment of such solutions with hydrochloric acid gives perchloric acid, precipitating solid sodium chloride: The concentrated acid can be purified by distillation. The alternative route, which is more direct and avoids salts, entails anodic oxidation of aqueous chlorine at a platinum electrode.", "Treatment of barium perchlorate with sulfuric acid precipitates barium sulfate, leaving perchloric acid. It can also be made by mixing nitric acid with ammonium perchlorate and boiling while adding hydrochloric acid. The reaction gives nitrous oxide and perchloric acid due to a concurrent reaction involving the ammonium ion and can be concentrated and purified significantly by boiling off the remaining nitric and hydrochloric acids.", "Anhydrous perchloric acid is an unstable oily liquid at room temperature. It forms at least five hydrates, several of which have been characterized crystallographically. These solids consist of the perchlorate anion linked via hydrogen bonds to HO and HO centers Perchloric acid forms an azeotrope with water, consisting of about 72.5% perchloric acid. This form of the acid is stable indefinitely and is commercially available. Such solutions are hygroscopic. Thus, if left open to the air, concentrated perchloric acid dilutes itself by absorbing water from the air. Dehydration of perchloric acid gives the anhydride dichlorine heptoxide:", "Perchloric acid is mainly produced as a precursor to ammonium perchlorate, which is used in rocket fuel. The growth in rocketry has led to increased production of perchloric acid. Several million kilograms are produced annually. Perchloric acid is one of the most proven materials for etching of liquid crystal displays and critical electronics applications as well as ore extraction and has unique properties in analytical chemistry. Additionally it is a useful component in etching of chrome", "Perchloric acid, a superacid, is one of the strongest Brønsted–Lowry acids. That its p\"K\" is lower than −9 is evidenced by the fact that its monohydrate contains discrete hydronium ions and can be isolated as a stable, crystalline solid, formulated as [HO][ClO]. The most recent estimate of its aqueous p\"K\" is –15.2 ± 2.0. It provides strong acidity with minimal interference because perchlorate is weakly nucleophilic (explaining the high acidity of HClO). Other acids of noncoordinating anions, such as fluoroboric acid and hexafluorophosphoric acid are susceptible to hydrolysis, whereas perchloric acid is not. Despite hazards associated with the explosiveness of its salts, the acid is often preferred in certain syntheses. For similar reasons, it is a useful eluent in ion-exchange chromatography. It is also used for electropolishing or etching of aluminium, molybdenum, and other metals.", "Given its strong oxidizing properties, perchloric acid is subject to extensive regulations. It is highly reactive with metals (e.g., aluminium) and organic matter (wood, plastics). Work conducted with perchloric acid must be conducted in fume hoods with a wash-down capability to prevent accumulation of oxidisers in the ductwork. On February 20, 1947, in Los Angeles, California, 17 people were killed and 150 injured when a bath, consisting of over 1000 litres of 75% perchloric acid and 25% acetic anhydride by volume, exploded. The O'Connor Electro-Plating plant, 25 other buildings, and 40 automobiles were obliterated, and 250 nearby homes were damaged. The bath was being used to electro-polish aluminium furniture. In addition, organic compounds were added to the overheating bath when an iron rack was replaced with one coated with cellulose acetobutyrate (Tenit-2 plastic). A few minutes later the bath exploded." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Sections.", "Tributaries.", "Navigability.", "Fish.", "Towns and population.", "Hydroelectric dams.", "Cultural significance.", "Controversial diversion project (under construction)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The river is named after Saint Francis of Assisi, from its first discovery by Europeans on his feast day (4 October) in 1501. The river was called Kaleshí in the now extinct Tuxá language, and Opára in the extinct Natú language.", "Tuxá, Truká, Natú, Kariri languages, eastern Maxakalían languages, Jê languages, and various unclassified extinct languages were spoken in the São Francisco River basin. The Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci first saw the river on 4 October 1501. In 1865 the British explorer and diplomat Richard Francis Burton was transferred to Santos in Brazil. He explored the central highlands, canoeing down the São Francisco river from its source to the falls of Paulo Afonso.", "The course of the river, running through five states, may be divided into four sections, as follows:", "The river obtains water from 168 rivers and streams, of which 90 are on the right bank and 78 on the left bank. The main tributaries are:", "The São Francisco is naturally navigable all through the year between Pirapora (Minas Gerais) and the twin cities of Petrolina (Pernambuco) and Juazeiro (Bahia), a length of. However, there are large variations in depth depending on the rainfall. Because of the diversity of physical characteristics over the course of the navigable stretch, it may be divided into three substretches, as follows: Until recent years, the São Francisco was regularly navigated by a type of passenger boat called \"gaiola\" (Portuguese for \"cage\"). These were paddle-wheel steamboats, some of them having been Mississippi riverboats and dating from the time of the American Civil War. After the Sobradinho dam was built in Bahia, the conditions of navigability were altered considerably, since the reservoir's large size allowed for the formation of short waves of considerable height. Although the dam has a navigation lock, the waves and currents made traversing the lake difficult for the \"gaiolas\". At the same time, deforestation and excessive agricultural use of the upper-course waters of the São Francisco and its tributaries greatly reduced the water flow in the middle course, creating sand banks and islands that hindered navigation. In a short time, conditions were such that navigation became impossible for the large \"gaiolas\", although still possible for smaller boats. The shells of those old riverboats can still be seen on the river at Pirapora. As of 2009, a single boat, the \"Benjamim Guimarães\", remains in activity, making short-distance tourist cruises from Pirapora to São Romão and back.", "More than 200 fish species are known from the São Francisco River basin and it is expected that several additional species will be discovered in the future, especially from the relatively poorly known upper parts of the river. About 10% of the fish species known from the river basin are threatened and about 13% are important in fisheries. About 64% of the fish species known from the basin are endemic, including \"Conorhynchos conirostris\" (a catfish of uncertain taxonomic affinities), \"Lophiosilurus alexandri\" (a flattened catfish), \"Franciscodoras marmoratus\" (an armoured catfish), \"Pygocentrus piraya\" (the largest species of piranha), \"Orthospinus franciscensis\" (a characin and the only member of its genus), \"Hasemania nana\" (a small tetra that often is kept in aquariums), and \"Salminus franciscanus\" (a relative of the golden dorado). More than 40 annual killifish species are found in the São Francisco River basin, especially from the genera \"Cynolebias\" and \"Hypsolebias\". Dams (preventing fish migrations on the river) and pollution do present a problem to the species in the river, and fish mass deaths have been recorded.", "The area crossed by the river is vast and sparsely populated, but several towns lie on the river. Beginning in Minas Gerais, the river passes by Pirapora, São Francisco, Januária, Bom Jesus da Lapa, the twin cities of Petrolina and Juazeiro, and Paulo Afonso. The hinterland is arid and underpopulated, so most of the towns are small and isolated. Only Petrolina and Juazeiro have grown into medium-sized cities and have become prosperous because of fruit production based on irrigation.", "The river's hydroelectric potential started being harnessed in 1955, when the Paulo Afonso dam was built between Bahia and Alagoas. The Paulo Afonso plant now provides electric power for the whole of Northeastern Brazil. Four other large hydroelectric plants were later built: Três Marias in Minas Gerais, built in 1961, Sobradinho in Bahia, built in 1977, Luiz Gonzaga (Itaparica), between Bahia and Pernambuco, in 1988 and the Xingó near Piranhas in 1994. The Sobradinho reservoir is one of the largest artificial lakes in the world, with an area of. The section of dramatic canyons between the Paulo Afonso and Xingó dams, including part of the Xingó reservoir, is protected by the Rio São Francisco Natural Monument.", "The São Francisco has great importance in history and particularly in folklore. That history is celebrated in song, legend and souvenirs based on the carrancas, a kind of gargoyle placed on the prow of the \"gaiola\" boats and intended to scare away river demons from the boat. Tourist shops far from the river have modernized replicas and miniatures of the vanishing originals. The stories of river demons and monsters persist today. From Paulo Afonso to the historic town of Penedo (Alagoas), the river lies at the bottom of a gorge or steep sided valley. Piranhas, a nearby town, was once the terminus of a railroad. The town has a number of abandoned historical buildings from that period. They have been restored and are emerging as a tourist attraction.", "In 2005, the Brazilian government proposed a controversial water diversion project that will bring water from the river to semiarid areas of four Brazilian states (Ceará, Pernambuco, Paraíba and Rio Grande do Norte). Environmentalists argue that the project will do more harm than good, benefitting only large landowners and a very small population, while bringing considerable ecological impact. The government insists that the project will give the people in the four states a much-needed water supply. The diversion project intake point is located at Cabrobó." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education (1733–1755).", "Daventry Academy.", "Needham Market and Nantwich (1755–1761).", "Warrington Academy (1761–1767).", "Educator and historian.", "History of electricity.", "Leeds (1767–1773).", "Minister of Mill Hill Chapel.", "Religious controversialist.", "Defender of Dissenters and political philosopher.", "Natural philosopher: electricity, \"Optics\", and carbonated water.", "Calne (1773–1780).", "Materialist philosopher.", "Founder of British Unitarianism.", "Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air.", "Birmingham (1780–1791).", "Chemical Revolution.", "Defender of English Dissenters and French revolutionaries.", "Birmingham riots of 1791.", "Hackney (1791–1794).", "Pennsylvania (1794–1804).", "Legacy.", "References.", "Biographies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Priestley was born to an established English Dissenting family (i.e. they did not conform to the Church of England) in Birstall, near Batley in the West Riding of Yorkshire. He was the oldest of six children born to Mary Swift and Jonas Priestley, a finisher of cloth. To ease his mother's burdens, Priestley was sent to live with his grandfather around the age of one. He returned home, five years later, after his mother died. When his father remarried in 1741, Priestley went to live with his aunt and uncle, the wealthy and childless Sarah and John Keighley, from Fieldhead. Because Priestley was precocious—at the age of four he could flawlessly recite all 107 questions and answers of the Westminster Shorter Catechism—his aunt sought the best education for the boy, intending him for the ministry. During his youth, Priestley attended local schools where he learned Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. Around 1749, Priestley became seriously ill and believed he was dying. Raised as a devout Calvinist, he believed a conversion experience was necessary for salvation, but doubted he had had one. This emotional distress eventually led him to question his theological upbringing, causing him to reject election and to accept universal salvation. As a result, the elders of his home church, the Independent Upper Chapel of Heckmondwike, refused him admission as a full member. Priestley's illness left him with a permanent stutter and he gave up any thoughts of entering the ministry at that time. In preparation for joining a relative in trade in Lisbon, he studied French, Italian, and German in addition to Aramaic, and Arabic. He was tutored by the Reverend George Haggerstone, who first introduced him to higher mathematics, natural philosophy, logic, and metaphysics through the works of Isaac Watts, Willem's Gravesande, and John Locke.", "Priestley eventually decided to return to his theological studies and, in 1752, matriculated at Daventry, a Dissenting academy. Because he had already read widely, Priestley was allowed to skip the first two years of coursework. He continued his intense study; this, together with the liberal atmosphere of the school, shifted his theology further leftward and he became a Rational Dissenter. Abhorring dogma and religious", "Robert Schofield, Priestley's major modern biographer, describes his first \"call\" in 1755 to the Dissenting parish in Needham Market, Suffolk, as a \"mistake\" for both Priestley and the congregation. Priestley yearned for urban life and theological debate, whereas Needham Market was a small, rural town with a congregation wedded to tradition. Attendance and donations dropped sharply when they discovered the extent of his heterodoxy. Although Priestley's aunt had promised her support if he became a minister, she refused any further assistance when she realised he was no longer a Calvinist. To earn extra money, Priestley proposed opening a school, but local families informed him that", "In 1761, Priestley moved to Warrington and assumed the post of tutor of modern languages and rhetoric at the town's Dissenting academy, although he would have preferred to teach mathematics and natural philosophy. He fitted in well at Warrington, and made friends quickly. These included John Aikin, his sister Anna Laetitia Aikin, and Josiah Wedgwood. Wedgwood met Priestley in 1762, after a fall from his horse. Wedgwood and Priestley met rarely, but exchanged letters, advice on chemistry, and laboratory equipment. Wedgwood eventually created a medallion of Priestley in cream-on-blue jasperware. On 23 June 1762, Priestley married Mary Wilkinson of Wrexham. Of his marriage, Priestley wrote: This proved a very suitable and happy connexion, my wife being a woman of an excellent understanding, much improved by reading, of great fortitude and strength of mind, and of a temper in the highest degree affectionate and generous; feeling strongly for others, and little for herself. Also, greatly excelling in every thing relating to household affairs, she entirely relieved me of all concern of that kind, which allowed me to give all my time to the prosecution of my studies, and the other duties of my station. On 17 April 1763, they had a daughter, whom they named Sarah after Priestley's aunt.", "All of the books Priestley published while at Warrington emphasised the study of history; Priestley considered it essential for worldly success as well as religious growth. He wrote histories of science and Christianity in an effort to reveal the progress of humanity and, paradoxically, the loss of a pure, \"primitive Christianity\". In his \"Essay on a Course of Liberal Education for Civil and Active Life\" (1765), \"Lectures on History and General Policy\" (1788), and other works, Priestley argued that the education of the young should anticipate their future practical needs. This principle of utility guided his unconventional curricular choices for Warrington's aspiring middle-class students. He recommended modern languages instead of classical languages and modern rather than ancient history. Priestley's lectures on history were particularly revolutionary; he narrated a providentialist and naturalist account of", "The intellectually stimulating atmosphere of Warrington, often called the \"Athens of the North\" (of England) during the 18th century, encouraged Priestley's growing interest in natural philosophy. He gave lectures on anatomy and performed experiments regarding temperature with another tutor at Warrington, his friend John Seddon. Despite Priestley's busy teaching schedule, he decided to write a history of electricity. Friends introduced him to the major experimenters in the field in Britain—John Canton, William Watson, and the visiting Benjamin Franklin—who encouraged Priestley to perform the experiments he wanted to include in his history. In the process of replicating others' experiments, Priestley became intrigued by unanswered questions and was prompted to undertake experiments of his own design. (Impressed with his \"Charts\" and the manuscript of his history of electricity, Canton, Franklin, Watson, and Richard Price nominated Priestley for a fellowship in the Royal Society; he was accepted in 1766.) In 1767, the 700-page \"The History and Present State of Electricity\" was published to positive reviews. The first half of the text is a history of the study of", "Perhaps prompted by Mary Priestley's ill health, or financial problems, or a desire to prove himself to the community that had rejected him in his childhood, Priestley moved with his family from Warrington to Leeds in 1767, and he became Mill Hill Chapel's minister. Two sons were born to the Priestleys in Leeds: Joseph junior on 24 July 1768 and William three years later. Theophilus Lindsey, a rector at Catterick, Yorkshire, became one of Priestley's few friends in Leeds, of whom he wrote: \"I never chose to publish any thing of moment relating to theology, without consulting him.\" Although Priestley had extended family living around Leeds, it does not appear that they communicated. Schofield conjectures that they considered him a heretic. Each year Priestley travelled to London to consult with his close friend and publisher, Joseph Johnson, and to attend meetings of the Royal Society.", "When Priestley became its minister, Mill Hill Chapel was one of the oldest and most respected Dissenting congregations in England; however, during the early 18th century the congregation had fractured along doctrinal lines, and was losing members to the charismatic Methodist movement. Priestley believed that by educating the young, he could strengthen the bonds of the congregation. In his magisterial three-volume \"Institutes of Natural and Revealed Religion\" (1772–74), Priestley outlined his theories of religious instruction. More importantly, he laid out his belief in Socinianism. The doctrines he explicated would become the standards for Unitarians in Britain. This work marked a change in Priestley's theological thinking that is critical to understanding his later writings—it paved the way for his materialism and necessitarianism (the belief that a divine being acts in accordance with necessary metaphysical laws). Priestley's", "Priestley engaged in numerous political and religious pamphlet wars. According to Schofield, \"he entered each controversy with a cheerful conviction that he was right, while most of his opponents were convinced, from the outset, that he was willfully and maliciously wrong. He was able, then, to contrast his sweet reasonableness to their personal rancor\", but as Schofield points out Priestley rarely altered his opinion as a result of these debates. While at Leeds he", "Many of Priestley's political writings supported the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, which restricted the rights of Dissenters. They could not hold political office, serve in the armed forces, or attend Oxford and Cambridge unless they subscribed to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Dissenters repeatedly petitioned Parliament to repeal the Acts, arguing that they were being treated as second-class citizens. Priestley's friends, particularly other Rational Dissenters, urged him to publish a work on the injustices experienced by Dissenters; the result was his \"Essay on the First Principles of Government\" (1768). An early work of modern liberal political theory and Priestley's most thorough treatment of the subject, it—unusually for the time—distinguished political rights from civil rights", "Although Priestley claimed that natural philosophy was only a hobby, he took it seriously. In his \"History of Electricity\", he described the scientist as promoting the \"security and happiness of mankind\". Priestley's science was eminently practical and he rarely concerned himself with theoretical questions; his model was Benjamin Franklin. When he moved to Leeds, Priestley continued his electrical and chemical experiments (the latter aided by a steady supply of carbon dioxide from a neighbouring brewery). Between 1767 and 1770, he presented five papers to the Royal Society from these initial experiments; the first four papers explored coronal discharges and other phenomena related to electrical discharge, while the fifth reported on the conductivity of charcoals from different sources. His subsequent experimental work focused on chemistry and pneumatics. Priestley published the first volume of his projected history of experimental philosophy, \"The History and Present State of Discoveries Relating to Vision, Light and Colours\" (referred to as his \"Optics\"), in 1772. He paid careful attention to the history of optics and presented excellent explanations of early optics experiments, but his mathematical deficiencies caused him to dismiss several important", "In 1773, the Priestleys moved to Calne in Wiltshire, and a year later Lord Shelburne and Priestley took a tour of Europe. According to Priestley's close friend Theophilus Lindsey, Priestley was \"much improved by this view of mankind at large\". Upon their return, Priestley easily fulfilled his duties as librarian and tutor. The workload was intentionally light, allowing him time to pursue his scientific investigations and theological interests. Priestley also became a political adviser to Shelburne, gathering information on parliamentary issues and serving as a liaison between Shelburne and the Dissenting and American interests. When the Priestleys' third son was born on 24 May 1777, they named him Henry at the lord's request.", "Priestley wrote his most important philosophical works during his years with Lord Shelburne. In a series of major metaphysical texts published between 1774 and 1780—\"An Examination of Dr. Reid's Inquiry into the Human Mind\" (1774), \"Hartley's Theory of the Human Mind on the Principle of the Association of Ideas\" (1775), \"Disquisitions relating to Matter and Spirit\" (1777), \"The Doctrine of Philosophical Necessity Illustrated\" (1777), and \"Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever\" (1780)—he argues for a philosophy that incorporates four concepts: determinism, materialism, causation, and necessitarianism. By studying the natural world, he argued, people would learn how to become more compassionate, happy, and prosperous. Priestley strongly suggested that there is no mind-body duality, and put forth a materialist philosophy in these works; that is, one founded on the principle that everything in the universe is made of matter that we can perceive. He also contended that discussing the soul is impossible because it is made of a divine substance, and humanity cannot perceive the divine. Despite his separation of the divine from the mortal, this position shocked and angered many of his readers, who believed that such a duality was necessary for", "When Priestley's friend Theophilus Lindsey decided to found a new Christian denomination that would not restrict its members' beliefs, Priestley and others hurried to his aid. On 17 April 1774, Lindsey held the first Unitarian service in Britain, at the newly formed Essex Street Chapel in London; he had even designed his own liturgy, of which many were critical. Priestley", "Priestley's years in Calne were the only ones in his life dominated by scientific investigations; they were also the most scientifically fruitful. His experiments were almost entirely confined to \"airs\", and out of this work emerged his most important scientific texts: the six volumes of \"Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air\" (1774–86). These experiments helped repudiate the last vestiges of the theory of four elements, which Priestley attempted to replace with his own variation of phlogiston theory. According to that 18th-century theory, the combustion or oxidation of a substance corresponded to the release of a material substance, \"phlogiston\". Priestley's work on \"airs\" is not easily classified. As historian of science Simon Schaffer writes, it \"has been seen as a branch of physics, or chemistry, or natural philosophy, or some highly idiosyncratic version of Priestley's own invention\". Furthermore, the volumes were both a scientific and a political enterprise for Priestley, in which he argues that science could destroy \"undue and usurped authority\" and that government has \"reason to tremble", "In 1780 the Priestleys moved to Birmingham and spent a happy decade surrounded by old friends, until they were forced to flee in 1791 by religiously motivated mob violence in what became known as the Priestley Riots. Priestley accepted the ministerial position at New Meeting on the condition that he be required to preach and teach only on Sundays, so that he would have time for his writing and scientific experiments. As in Leeds, Priestley established classes for the youth of his parish and by 1781, he was teaching 150 students. Because Priestley's New Meeting salary was only 100 guineas, friends and patrons donated money and goods to help continue his investigations. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782.", "Many of the friends that Priestley made in Birmingham were members of the Lunar Society, a group of manufacturers, inventors, and natural philosophers who assembled monthly to discuss their work. The core of the group included men such as the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, the chemist and geologist James Keir, the inventor and engineer James Watt, and the botanist, chemist, and geologist William Withering. Priestley was asked to join this unique society and contributed much to the work of its members. As a result of this stimulating intellectual environment, he published several important scientific papers, including \"Experiments relating to Phlogiston, and the seeming Conversion of", "Although Priestley was busy defending phlogiston theory from the \"new chemists\", most of what he published in Birmingham was theological. In 1782 he published the fourth volume of his \"Institutes\", \"An History of the Corruptions of Christianity\", describing how he thought the teachings of the early Christian church had been \"corrupted\" or distorted. Schofield describes the work as \"derivative, disorganized, wordy, and repetitive, detailed, exhaustive, and devastatingly argued\". The text addresses issues ranging from the divinity of Christ to the proper form for the Lord's Supper. Priestley followed up in 1786 with the provocatively titled book, \"An History of Early Opinions concerning Jesus Christ, compiled from Original Writers, proving that the", "The animus that had been building against Dissenters and supporters of the American and French Revolutions exploded in July 1791. Priestley and several other Dissenters had arranged to have a celebratory dinner on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, a provocative action in a country where many disapproved of the French Revolution and feared that it might spread to Britain. Amid fears of violence, Priestley was convinced by his friends not to attend. Rioters gathered outside the hotel during the banquet and attacked the attendees as they left. The rioters moved on to the New Meeting and Old Meeting churches—and burned", "Unable to return to Birmingham, the Priestleys eventually settled in Lower Clapton, a district in Hackney, Middlesex where he gave a series of lectures on history and natural philosophy at the Dissenting academy, the New College at Hackney. Friends helped the couple rebuild their lives, contributing money, books, and laboratory equipment. Priestley tried to obtain restitution from the government for the destruction of his Birmingham property, but he was never fully reimbursed. He also published \"An Appeal to the Public on the Subject of the Riots in Birmingham\" (1791), which indicted the people of Birmingham for allowing the riots to occur and for \"violating the principles of English government\". The couple's friends urged them to leave Britain and emigrate to either France or the new United States, even though Priestley had received an appointment to preach for the Gravel Pit Meeting congregation. Priestley was minister between 1793 and 1794 and the sermons he preached there, particularly the two Fast Sermons, reflect his growing millenarianism, his belief that the end of the world was fast approaching. After comparing Biblical prophecies to recent history, Priestley concluded that the French Revolution was a harbinger of the Second Coming of Christ. Priestley's works had always had a millennial cast, but after the beginning of the French Revolution, this", "The Priestleys arrived in New York City on 4 June 1794, where they were fêted by various political factions vying for Priestley's endorsement. Priestley declined their entreaties, hoping to avoid political discord in his new country. Before travelling to a new home in the backwoods of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania, at Point township (now the Borough of Northumberland), Dr and Mrs Priestley lodged in Philadelphia, where Priestley gave a series of sermons which led to the founding of the First Unitarian Church of Philadelphia. Priestley turned down an opportunity to teach chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania. Priestley's son Joseph Priestley Jr. was a leading member of a consortium that had purchased 300,000 acres of virgin woodland between the forks of Loyalsock Creek, which they intended to lease or sell in 400-acre plots, with payment deferred to seven annual instalments, with interest. His brothers, William and Henry, bought a 284-acre plot of woodland which they attempted to transform into a farm, later called \"Fairhill\", felling and uprooting trees, and making lime to sweeten the soil by building their own lime kilns. Henry Priestley died 11 December 1795, possibly of malaria which he may have contracted after landing at New York. Mary Priestley's health, already poor, deteriorated further; although William's wife, Margaret Foulke-Priestley, moved in with the couple to nurse Mary twenty-four hours a day, Mary Priestley died 17 September 1796. Dr Priestley now moved in with his elder son, Joseph Jr., and his wife Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley. Thomas Cooper, whose son, Thomas Jr., was living with the Priestleys, was a frequent visitor. Since his arrival in America, Priestley had continued to defend his Christian Unitarian beliefs; now, falling increasingly under the influence of Thomas Cooper and Elizabeth Ryland-Priestley, he was unable to avoid becoming embroiled in political controversy. In 1798, when, in response to the Pinckney affair, a belligerent President Adams sought to enlarge the navy and mobilise the militia into what Priestley and Cooper saw as a'standing army', Priestley published an anonymous newspaper article: \"Maxims of political arithmetic\", which attacked Adams, defended free trade, and advocated a form of Jeffersonian isolationism. In the same year, a small package, addressed vaguely: \"Dr Priestley in America,\" was seized by the Royal Navy on board a neutral Danish boat. It was found to contain three letters, one of which was signed by the radical printer John Hurford Stone. These intercepted letters were published in London, and copied in numerous papers in America. One of the letters", "By the time he died in 1804, Priestley had been made a member of every major scientific society in the Western world and he had discovered numerous substances. The 19th-century French naturalist George Cuvier, in his eulogy of Priestley, praised his discoveries while at the same time lamenting his refusal to abandon phlogiston theory, calling him \"the father of modern chemistry [who] never acknowledged his daughter\". Priestley published more than 150 works on topics ranging from political philosophy to education to theology to natural philosophy. He led and inspired British radicals during the 1790s, paved the way for utilitarianism, and helped found Unitarianism. A wide variety of philosophers, scientists, and poets became associationists as a result of his redaction of David Hartley's \"Observations on Man\", including Erasmus Darwin, Coleridge, William Wordsworth, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, and Herbert Spencer. Immanuel Kant praised Priestley in his \"Critique of Pure Reason\" (1781), writing that he \"knew how to combine his paradoxical teaching with the interests of religion\". Indeed, it was Priestley's aim to \"put the most 'advanced' Enlightenment ideas into the service of a rationalized though heterodox Christianity, under the guidance of the basic principles of scientific method\". Considering the extent of Priestley's influence, relatively little scholarship has been devoted to him. In the early 20th century, Priestley was most often described as a conservative and dogmatic scientist who was nevertheless a political and religious reformer. In a historiographic review essay, historian of science Simon Schaffer describes the two dominant portraits of Priestley: the first depicts him as \"a playful innocent\" who stumbled across his discoveries; the second portrays him as innocent", "", "The most exhaustive biography of Priestley is Robert Schofield's recent two-volume work; several one-volume treatments exist, all somewhat older:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nasal vowels.", "Nasal consonants.", "Nasalized consonants.", "True nasal fricatives.", "Denasalization.", "Contextual nasalization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nasal vowels are found in over 20% of the languages around the world, such as French, Polish, Portuguese, Breton, Gheg Albanian, Hindi, Bengali, Oriya, Hmong, Hokkien, Urdu, Yoruba and Cherokee. Those nasal vowels contrast with their corresponding oral vowels. Nasality is usually seen as a binary feature, although surface variation in different degrees of nasality caused by neighboring nasal consonants has been observed. There are occasional languages, such as in Palantla Chinantec, where vowels seem to exhibit three contrastive degrees of nasality, although Ladefoged and Maddieson believe that the slightly nasalized vowels are better described as an oro-nasal diphthong.", "By far the most common nasal sounds are nasal consonants such as, or. Most nasal consonants are occlusives, and airflow through the mouth is blocked and redirected through the nose. Their oral counterparts are the stops.", "Nasalized versions of other consonant sounds also exist but are much rarer than either nasal occlusives or nasal vowels. Some South Arabian languages use phonemic nasalized fricatives, such as, which sounds something like a simultaneous and. The Middle Chinese consonant 日 (; in modern Standard Chinese) has an odd history; for example, it has evolved into and (or and respectively, depending on accents) in Standard Chinese; / and in Hokkien; / and / while borrowed into Japan. It seems likely that it was once a nasalized fricative, perhaps a palatal. In Coatzospan Mixtec, fricatives and affricates are nasalized before nasal vowels even when they are voiceless. In the Hupa, the velar nasal often has the tongue not make full contact, resulting in a nasalized approximant,. That is cognate with a nasalized palatal approximant] in other Athabaskan languages. In Umbundu, phonemic contrasts with the (allophonically) nasalized approximant and so is likely to be a true fricative rather than an approximant. In Old and Middle Irish, the lenited was a nasalized bilabial fricative. Sundanese has an allophonic nasalized glottal stop ; nasalized stops can occur only with pharyngeal articulation or lower, or they would be simple nasals. Nasal flaps are common allophonically. Many West African languages have a nasal flap (or ) as an allophone of before a nasal vowel; Pashto, however, has a phonemic nasal retroflex lateral flap. Other languages, such as the Khoisan languages of Khoekhoe and Gǀui, as well as several of the!Kung languages, include nasal click consonants. Nasalization of the phonemes is denoted with a superscript preceding the consonant (for example, ). Nasalized laterals such as are easy to produce but rare or nonexistent as phonemes; often when is nasalized, it becomes.", "Besides nasalized oral fricatives, there are true nasal fricatives, previously called \"nareal fricatives\". They are sometimes produced by people with disordered speech. The turbulence in the airflow characteristic of fricatives is produced not in the mouth but in the nasal cavity. A tilde and trema diacritic (two dots representing the nostrils) is used for this in the extensions to the IPA: is a voiced alveolar nasal fricative, with no airflow out of the mouth, and is the voiceless equivalent; is an oral fricative with simultaneous nasal frication. No known language makes use of nasal fricatives in non-disordered speech.", "Nasalization may be lost over time. There are also denasal sounds, which sound like nasals spoken with a head cold. They may be found in non-pathological speech as a language loses nasal consonants, as in Korean.", "Vowels assimilate to surrounding nasal consonants in many languages, such as Thai, creating nasal vowel allophones. Some languages exhibit a nasalization of segments adjacent to phonemic or allophonic nasal vowels, such as Apurinã. Contextual nasalization can lead to the addition of nasal vowel phonemes to a language. That happened in French, most of whose final consonants disappeared, but its final nasals made the preceding vowels become nasal, which introduced a new distinction into the language. An example is \"vin blanc\" ('white wine'), ultimately from Latin \"vinum\" and \"blancum\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Act I.", "Act II.", "Act III.", "Act IV.", "Act V.", "Sources.", "Date and context.", "Themes.", "Jealousy.", "Iago versus Othello.", "Race.", "Religious and philosophical.", "The hero.", "Performance history.", "Pre-20th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Adaptations and cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Roderigo, a wealthy and dissolute gentleman, complains to his friend Iago, an ensign, that Iago has not told him about the secret marriage between Desdemona, the daughter of a senator named Brabantio, and Othello, a Moorish general in the Venetian army. Roderigo is upset because he loves Desdemona and had asked her father, Brabantio, for her hand in marriage. Iago hates Othello for promoting a younger man named Cassio above him, whom Iago considers a less capable soldier than himself, and tells Roderigo that he plans to exploit Othello for his own advantage. Iago convinces Roderigo to wake Brabantio and tell him about his daughter's elopement. Meanwhile, Iago sneaks away to find Othello and warns him that Brabantio is coming for him. Brabantio, provoked by Roderigo, is enraged and will not", "The party arrives in Cyprus to find that a storm has destroyed the Turkish fleet. Othello orders a general celebration and leaves to consummate his marriage with Desdemona. In his absence, Iago gets Cassio drunk, and then persuades Roderigo to draw Cassio into", "Iago now persuades Othello to be suspicious of Cassio and Desdemona. When Desdemona drops a handkerchief (the first gift given to her by Othello), Emilia finds it, and gives it to her husband Iago, at his request, unaware of what he plans to do with", "Iago plants the handkerchief in Cassio's lodgings, then tells Othello to watch Cassio's reactions while Iago questions him. Iago goads Cassio on to talk about his affair with Bianca, a local courtesan, but whispers her name so quietly that Othello believes the two men are talking about Desdemona. Later, Bianca accuses Cassio of giving her a", "Roderigo, having been manipulated by Iago, attacks Cassio in the street after Cassio leaves Bianca's lodgings. Cassio wounds Roderigo. During the scuffle, Iago comes from behind Cassio and badly cuts his leg. In the darkness, Iago manages to hide his identity, and when Lodovico and Gratiano hear Cassio's cries for help, Iago joins them. When Cassio identifies Roderigo as one of his attackers, Iago secretly stabs Roderigo to stop him revealing the plot. Iago then accuses Bianca of the failed conspiracy to kill Cassio. Othello confronts Desdemona, and then strangles her in their bed.", "\"Othello\" is an adaptation of the Italian writer Cinthio's tale \"Un Capitano Moro\" (\"A Moorish Captain\") from his \"Gli Hecatommithi\" (1565), a collection of one hundred tales in the style of Giovanni Boccaccio's \"Decameron.\" No English translation of Cinthio was available in Shakespeare's lifetime, and verbal echoes in \"Othello\" are closer to the Italian original than to Gabriel Chappuy's 1584 French translation. Cinthio's tale may have been based on an actual incident occurring in Venice about 1508. It also resembles an incident described in the earlier tale of \"The Three Apples\", one of the stories narrated in the \"One Thousand and One Nights\" (\"Arabian Nights\"). Desdemona is the only named character in Cinthio's tale, with his few other characters identified only as the \"Moor\", the \"Squadron Leader\", the \"Ensign\", and the \"Ensign's Wife\" (corresponding to the play's Othello, Cassio, Iago and Emilia). Cinthio drew a moral (which he placed in the mouth of Desdemona) that it is unwise for European women to marry the temperamental men of other nations. Cinthio's tale has been described as a \"partly racist warning\" about the dangers of miscegenation. While Shakespeare closely followed Cinthio's tale in composing \"Othello\", he departed from it in some details. Brabantio, Roderigo, and several minor characters are not found in Cinthio, for example, and Shakespeare's Emilia takes part in the handkerchief mischief while her counterpart in Cinthio does not. Unlike in \"Othello\", in Cinthio, the \"Ensign\" (the play's Iago) lusts after Desdemona and is spurred to revenge when she rejects him. Shakespeare's opening scenes are unique to", "The earliest mention of the play is found in a 1604 Revels Office account, which records that on \"Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar... the Kings Maiesties plaiers\" performed \"A Play in the Banketinghouse at Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis.\" The work is attributed to \"Shaxberd.\" The Revels account was", "", "\"Othello\" is renowned amongst literary scholars for the way it portrays the human emotion of jealousy. Throughout the play, good-natured characters make rash decisions based on the jealousy that they feel, most notably Othello. In the early acts, Othello is depicted as a typical heroic figure and holds admirable qualities, written with the intention of winning over the favour of the audience; however, as the play goes on, jealousy will manipulate his decisions and lead him into sin. While the majority of the evil that Othello", "Although its title suggests that the tragedy belongs primarily to Othello, Iago plays an important role in the plot. He reflects the archetypal villain and has the biggest share of the dialogue. In \"Othello\", it is Iago who manipulates all other characters at will, controlling their movements", "Although characters described as \"Moors\" appear in two other Shakespeare plays (\"Titus Andronicus\" and \"The Merchant of Venice\"), such characters were a rarity in contemporary theatre, and it was unknown for them to take centre stage. There is no consensus over Othello's ethnic origin. E. A. J. Honigmann, the editor of the Arden Shakespeare edition, concluded that Othello's race is ambiguous. \"Renaissance representations of the Moor were vague, varied, inconsistent, and contradictory. As critics have established, the term 'Moor' referred to dark-skinned people in general, used interchangeably with terms such as 'African', 'Somali', 'Ethiopian', 'Negro', 'Arab', 'Berber', and even 'Indian' to designate a figure from Africa (or beyond).\" Various uses of the word \"black\" (for example, \"Haply for I am black\") are insufficient evidence for any accurate racial classification, Honigmann argues, since \"black\" could simply mean \"swarthy\" to Elizabethans. Iago twice uses the word \"Barbary\" or \"Barbarian\" to refer to Othello, seemingly referring to the Barbary coast inhabited by Berbers. Roderigo calls Othello \"the thicklips\", which seems to refer to Sub-Saharan African physiognomy, but Honigmann counters", "The title \"Moor\" implies a religious \"other\" of North African or Middle Eastern descent. Though the actual racial definition of the term is murky, the implications are religious as well as racial. Many critics have noted", "There have been many differing views on the character of Othello over the years. A.C. Bradley calls Othello the \"most romantic of all of Shakespeare's heroes\" (by \"hero\" Bradley means protagonist) and \"the greatest", "", "\"Othello\" possesses an unusually detailed performance record. The first certainly known performance occurred on 1 November 1604, at Whitehall Palace in London, being mentioned in a Revels account on \"Hallamas Day, being the first of Nouembar\", 1604, when \"the Kings Maiesties plaiers\" performed \"A Play in the Banketinge house at Whit Hall Called The Moor of Venis\". The play is there attributed to \"Shaxberd\". Subsequent performances took place on Monday, 30 April 1610 at the Globe Theatre, and at Oxford in September 1610. On 22 November 1629, and on 6 May 1635, it played at the Blackfriars Theatre. \"Othello\" was also one of the twenty plays performed by the King's Men during the winter of 1612, in celebration of", "The most notable American production may be Margaret Webster's 1943 staging starring Paul Robeson as Othello and José Ferrer as Iago. This production was the first ever in America to feature a black actor playing Othello with an otherwise all-white cast (there had been all-black productions of the play before). It ran for 296 performances, almost twice as long as any other Shakespearean play ever produced on Broadway. Although it was never filmed, it was the first lengthy performance of a Shakespeare play released on records, first on a multi-record 78 RPM set and then on a 3-LP one. Robeson had first played the role in London in 1930 in a cast that included Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona and Ralph Richardson as Roderigo, and would return to it in 1959 at Stratford on Avon with co-stars Mary Ure, Sam Wanamaker and Vanessa Redgrave. The critics had mixed reactions to the \"flashy\" 1959 production which included mid-western accents and rock-and roll drumbeats but gave Robeson primarily good reviews. W. A. Darlington of \"The Daily Telegraph\" ranked Robeson's", "\"Othello\" opened at the Donmar Warehouse in London on 4 December 2007, directed by Michael Grandage, with Chiwetel Ejiofor as Othello, Ewan McGregor as Iago, Tom Hiddleston as Cassio, Kelly Reilly as Desdemona and Michelle Fairley as Emillia. Ejiofor, Hiddleston and Fairley all received nominations for Laurence Olivier Awards, with Ejiofor winning. Stand-up comedian Lenny Henry played Othello in 2009 produced by Northern Broadsides in collaboration with West Yorkshire Playhouse. In March 2016 the historian Onyeka produced", "Othello as a literary character has appeared in many representations within popular culture over several centuries. There also have been over a dozen film adaptations of \"Othello\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Voiceless nasals.", "Other kinds of nasal consonant.", "Languages without nasals.", "Lack of phonemic nasals.", "Lack of phonetic nasals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Nearly all nasal consonants are nasal occlusives, in which air escapes through the nose but not through the mouth, as it is blocked (occluded) by the lips or tongue. The oral cavity still acts as a resonance chamber for the sound. Rarely, non-occlusive consonants may be nasalized. Most nasals are voiced, and in fact, the nasal sounds and are among the most common sounds cross-linguistically. Voiceless nasals occur in a few languages such as Burmese, Welsh, Icelandic and Guaraní. (Compare oral stops, which block off the air completely, and fricatives, which obstruct the air with a narrow channel. Both stops and fricatives are more commonly voiceless than voiced, and are known as obstruents.) In terms of acoustics, nasals are sonorants, which means that they do not significantly restrict the escape of air (as it can freely escape out the nose). However, nasals are also obstruents in their articulation because the flow of air through the mouth is blocked. This duality, a sonorant airflow through the nose along with an obstruction in the mouth, means that nasal occlusives behave both like sonorants and like obstruents. For example, nasals tend to pattern with other sonorants such as and, but in many languages, they may develop from or into stops. Acoustically, nasals have bands of energy at around 200 and 2,000 Hz. 1. The symbol is commonly used to represent the dental nasal as well, rather than, as it is rarely distinguished from the alveolar nasal. Examples of languages containing nasal occlusives: The voiced retroflex nasal is is a common sound in Languages of India. The voiced palatal nasal is a common sound in European languages, such as: Spanish, French and Italian, Catalan and Hungarian, Czech and Slovak, Polish, Occitan and Portuguese, and (before a vowel) Modern Greek. Many Germanic languages, including German, Dutch, English and Swedish, as well as varieties of Chinese such as Mandarin and Cantonese, have, and. Tamil has a six-fold distinction between,,,, and. Catalan, Occitan, Spanish, and Italian have,, as phonemes, and and as allophones. Nevertheless, in several American dialects of Spanish, there is no palatal nasal but only a palatalized nasal,, as in English \"canyon\". In Brazilian Portuguese and Angolan Portuguese, written, is typically pronounced as, a nasal palatal approximant, a nasal glide (in Polish, this feature is also possible as an allophone). Semivowels in Portuguese often nasalize before and always after nasal vowels, resulting in and. What would be coda nasal occlusives in other West Iberian languages is only slightly pronounced before dental consonants. Outside this environment the nasality is spread over the vowel or become a nasal diphthong (\"mambembe\", outside the final, only in Brazil, and \"mantém\" in all Portuguese dialects). The Japanese syllabary kana ん, typically romanized as \"n\" and occasionally \"m\", can manifest as one of several different nasal consonants depending on what consonant follows it; this allophone, colloquially written in IPA as, is known as the moraic nasal, per the language's moraic structure. Welsh has a set of voiceless nasals, [m̥], [n̥] and [ŋ̊], which occur predominantly as a result of nasal mutation of their voiced counterparts ([m], [n] and [ŋ]). The Mapos Buang language of New Guinea has a phonemic uvular nasal, [ɴ], which contrasts with a velar nasal. It is extremely rare for a language to have [ɴ] as a phoneme. Yanyuwa is highly unusual in that it has a seven-way distinction between [m], [n̪], [n], [ɳ], [ṉ] (palato-alveolar), [ŋ̟] (front velar), and [ŋ̠] (back velar). This may be the only language in existence that contrasts nasals at seven distinct points of articulation. The term 'nasal occlusive' (or 'nasal stop') is generally abbreviated to \"nasal\". However, there are also nasalized fricatives, nasalized flaps, nasal glides, and nasal vowels, as in French, Portuguese, and Polish. In the, nasal vowels and nasalized consonants are indicated by placing a tilde (~) over the vowel or consonant in question: French \"sang\", Portuguese \"bom\".", "A few languages have phonemic voiceless nasal occlusives. Among them are Icelandic, Faroese, Burmese, Jalapa Mazatec, Kildin Sami, Welsh, and Central Alaskan Yup'ik. Iaai of New Caledonia has an unusually large number of them, with, along with a number of voiceless approximants.", "Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) distinguish purely nasal consonants, the nasal occlusives such as \"m n ng\" in which the airflow is purely nasal, from partial nasal consonants such as prenasalized consonants and nasal pre-stopped consonants, which are nasal for only part of their duration, as well as from nasalized consonants, which have simultaneous oral and nasal airflow. In some languages, such as Portuguese, a nasal consonant may have occlusive and non-occlusive allophones. In general, therefore, a nasal consonant may be:", "A few languages, perhaps 2%, contain no phonemically distinctive nasals. This led Ferguson (1963) to assume that all languages have at least one primary nasal occlusive. However, there are exceptions.", "When a language is claimed to lack nasals altogether, as with several Niger–Congo languages or the Pirahã language of the Amazon, nasal and non-nasal or prenasalized consonants usually alternate allophonically, and it is a theoretical claim on the part of the individual linguist that the nasal is not the basic form of the consonant. In the case of some Niger–Congo languages, for example, nasals occur before only nasal vowels. Since nasal vowels are phonemic, it simplifies the picture somewhat to assume that nasalization in occlusives is allophonic. There is then a second step in claiming that nasal vowels nasalize oral occlusives, rather than oral vowels denasalizing nasal occlusives, that is, whether are phonemically without full nasals, or without prenasalized stops. Postulating underlying oral or prenasalized stops rather than true nasals helps to explain the apparent instability of nasal correspondences throughout Niger–Congo compared with, for example, Indo-European. This analysis comes at the expense, in some languages, of postulating either a single nasal consonant that can only be syllabic, or a larger set of nasal vowels than oral vowels, both typologically odd situations. The way such a situation could develop is illustrated by a Jukunoid language, Wukari. Wukari allows oral vowels in syllables like \"ba, mba\" and nasal vowels in \"bã, mã\", suggesting that nasals become prenasalized stops before oral vowels. Historically, however, *mb became **mm before nasal vowels, and then reduced to *m, leaving the current asymmetric distribution. In older speakers of the Tlingit language, and are allophones. Tlingit is usually described as having an unusual, perhaps unique lack of despite having five lateral obstruents; the older generation could be argued to have but at the expense of having no nasals.", "Several of languages surrounding Puget Sound, such as Quileute (Chimakuan family), Lushootseed (Salishan family), and Makah (Wakashan family), are truly without any nasalization whatsoever, in consonants or vowels, except in special speech registers such as baby talk or the archaic speech of mythological figures (and perhaps not even that in the case of Quileute). This is an areal feature, only a few hundred years old, where nasals became voiced stops ( became, etc.) after colonial contact. For example, \"Snohomish\" is currently pronounced \"sdohobish\", but was transcribed with nasals in the first English-language records. The only other places in the world where this is known to occur is in Melanesia. In the central dialect of the Rotokas language of Bougainville Island, nasals are only used when imitating foreign accents. (A second dialect has a series of nasals.) The Lakes Plain languages of West Irian are similar. The unconditioned loss of nasals, as in Puget Sound, is unusual. However, currently in Korean, word-initial and are shifting to and. This started out in nonstandard dialects and was restricted to the beginning of prosodic units (a common position for fortition), but has expanded to many speakers of the standard language to the beginnings of common words even within prosodic units." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Cause.", "Notable observations.", "Julius Caesar.", "Zheng He.", "Robert Burton.", "John Davis.", "William Noah.", "James Braid.", "Charles Darwin.", "Richard Henry Dana.", "Nikola Tesla.", "Mark Heald.", "William L. Laurence.", "In literature.", "In television.", "In music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "St. Elmo's fire is a bright blue or violet glow, appearing like fire in some circumstances, from tall, sharply pointed structures such as masts, spires, and chimneys, and on aircraft wings or nose cones. St. Elmo's fire can also appear on leaves and grass, and even at the tips of cattle horns. Often accompanying the glow is a distinct hissing or buzzing sound. It is sometimes confused with ball lightning.", "St. Elmo's fire is a form of plasma. The electric field around the object in question causes ionization of the air molecules, producing a faint glow easily visible in low-light conditions. Conditions that can generate St. Elmo's fire are present during thunderstorms, when high voltage differentials are present between clouds and the ground underneath. A local electric field of approximately 100 kV/m is required to induce a discharge in air. The magnitude of the electric field depends greatly on the geometry (shape and size) of the object. Sharp points lower the necessary voltage because electric fields are more concentrated in areas of high curvature, so discharges preferentially occur and are more intense at the ends of pointed objects. The nitrogen and oxygen in the Earth's atmosphere cause St. Elmo's fire to fluoresce with blue or violet light; this is similar to the mechanism that causes neon lights to glow. In 1751, Benjamin Franklin hypothesized that a pointed iron rod would light up at the tip during a lightning storm, similar in appearance to St. Elmo's fire.", "", "References to St. Elmo's fire can be found in the works of Julius Caesar (\"De Bello Africo\", 47), Pliny the Elder (\"Naturalis Historia\", book 2, par. 101), Alcaeus frag. 34, and Antonio Pigafetta's journal of his voyage with Ferdinand Magellan. St. Elmo's fire, also known as \"corposants\" or \"corpusants\" from the Portuguese \"corpo santo\" (\"holy body\"), was a phenomenon described in \"The Lusiads\". Earlier, Xenophanes of Colophon had alluded to the phenomenon.", "In 15th-century Ming China, Admiral Zheng He and his associates composed the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions, the two epitaphs of the treasure voyages where they made a reference to St. Elmo's fire as a divine omen of Tianfei (天妃), the goddess of sailors and seafarers.", "Robert Burton wrote of St. Elmo's fire in his \"Anatomy of Melancholy\": \"Radzivilius, the Lithuanian duke, calls this apparition Sancti Germani sidus; and saith moreover that he saw the same after in a storm, as he was sailing, 1582, from Alexandria to Rhodes\". This refers to the voyage made by Mikołaj Krzysztof \"the Orphan\" Radziwiłł in 1582–1584.", "On 9 May 1605, while on the second voyage of John Davis commanded by Sir Edward Michelborne to the East Indies, an unknown writer aboard the \"Tiger\" describes the phenomenon; \"In the extremity of our storm appeared to us in the night, upon our maine Top-mast head, a flame about the bigness of a great Candle, which the Portugals call Corpo Sancto, holding it a most divine token that when it appeareth the worst is past. As, thanked be God, we had better weather after it\".", "William Noah, a silversmith convicted in London of stealing 2,000 pounds of lead, while en route to Sydney, New South Wales on the convict transport ship, recorded two such observations in his detailed daily journal. The first was in the Southern Ocean midway between Cape Town and Sydney and the second was in the Tasman Sea, a day out of Port Jackson: While the exact nature of these weather phenomena cannot be certain, they appear to be mostly about two observations of St. Elmo's fire with perhaps some ball lightning and even a direct lightning strike to the ship thrown into the mix.", "On 20 February 1817, during a severe electrical storm, James Braid, surgeon at Lord Hopetoun's mines at Leadhills, Lanarkshire, had an extraordinary experience whilst on horseback: Weeks earlier, reportedly on 17 January 1817, a luminous snowstorm occurred in Vermont and New Hampshire. Saint Elmo's fire appeared as static discharges on roof peaks, fence posts, and the hats and fingers of people. Thunderstorms prevailed over central New England.", "Charles Darwin noted the effect while aboard the \"Beagle\". He wrote of the episode in a letter to J. S. Henslow that one night when the \"Beagle\" was anchored in the estuary of the Río de la Plata:", "In \"Two Years Before the Mast\", Richard Henry Dana, Jr. describes seeing a corposant in the Horse latitudes of the northern Atlantic Ocean. However, he may have been talking about ball lightning; as mentioned earlier it is often erroneously identified as St. Elmo's fire:", "Nikola Tesla created St. Elmo's fire in 1899 while testing a Tesla coil at his laboratory in Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States. St. Elmo's fire was seen around the coil and was said to have lit up the wings of butterflies with blue halos as they flew around.", "A minute before the crash of the Luftschiffbau Zeppelin's \"LZ 129 Hindenburg\" on 6 May 1937, Professor Mark Heald (1892–1971) of Princeton saw St. Elmo's Fire flickering along the airship's back. Standing outside the main gate to the Naval Air Station, he watched, together with his wife and son, as the airship approached the mast and dropped her bow lines. A minute thereafter, by Heald's estimation, he first noticed a dim \"blue flame\" flickering along the backbone girder about one-quarter the length abaft the bow to the tail. There was time for him to remark to his wife, \"Oh, heavens, the thing is afire,\" for her to reply, \"Where?\" and for him to answer, \"Up along the top ridge\" – before there was a big burst of flaming hydrogen from a point he estimated to be about one-third the ship's length from the stern.", "St. Elmo's fire was reported by New York Times reporter William L. Laurence on August 9, 1945 as he was aboard Bockscar on the way to Nagasaki.", "One of the earliest references to the phenomenon appears in Alcaeus's Fragment 34a about the Dioscuri, or Castor and Pollux. It is also referenced in Homeric Hymn 33 to the Dioscuri who were from Homeric times associated with it. Whether the Homeric Hymn antedates the Alcaeus fragment is unknown. St. Elmo's Fire is also mentioned in the novel, \"Castaways of the Flying Dutchman\" by Brian Jacques. The phenomenon appears to be described first in the \"Gesta Herwardi\", written around 1100 and concerning an event of the 1070s. However, one of the earliest direct references to St. Elmo's fire made in fiction can be found in Ludovico Ariosto's epic poem \"Orlando Furioso\" (1516). It is located in the 17th canto (19th in the revised edition of 1532) after a storm has punished the ship of Marfisa, Astolfo, Aquilant, Grifon, and others, for three straight days, and is positively associated with hope: In Shakespeare's \"The Tempest\" (c. 1623), Act I, Scene II, St. Elmo's fire acquires a more negative association, appearing as evidence of the tempest inflicted by Ariel according to the command of Prospero: The fires are also mentioned as \"death fires\" in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's \"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner\": Later in 18th century and 19th century, literature associated St. Elmo's fire with bad omen or divine judgment, coinciding with the growing conventions of Romanticism and the Gothic novel. For example, in Ann Radcliffe's \"The Mysteries of Udolpho\" (1794), during a thunderstorm above the ramparts of the castle: In the 1864 novel Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne, the author describes the fire occurring while sailing during a subterranean electrical storm (Chapter 35, Page 191): In Herman Melville's novel \"Moby-Dick\", Starbuck points out \"corpusants\" during a thunder storm in the Japanese sea in chapter 119 \"The Candles\". St. Elmo's fire makes an appearance in \"The Adventures of Tintin\" comic, \"Tintin in Tibet\", by Hergé. Tintin recognizes the phenomenon on Captain Haddock's ice-axe. In Kurt Vonnegut's \"Slaughterhouse-Five\", Billy Pilgrim sees the phenomenon on soldiers' helmets and on rooftops. Vonnegut's \"The Sirens of Titan\" also notes the phenomenon affecting Winston Niles Rumfoord's dog, Kazak, the Hound of Space, in conjunction with solar disturbances of the chrono-synclastic infundibulum. In \"On The Banks of Plum Creek\" by Laura Ingalls Wilder St. Elmo's fire is seen by the girls and Ma during one of the blizzards. It was described as coming down the stove pipe and rolling across the floor following Ma's knitting needles; it didn't burn the floor (pages 309-310). The phenomenon as described, however, is more similar to ball lightning. In \"Voyager,\" the third major novel in Diana Gabaldon's popular Outlander series, the primary characters experience St. Elmo's fire while lost at sea in a thunderstorm between Hispaniola and coastal Georgia.", "On the children's television series \"The Mysterious Cities of Gold\" (1982), Episode 4 shows St. Elmo's Fire affecting the ship as it sailed past the Strait of Magellan. The real-life footage at the end of the episode has snippets of an interview with Japanese sailor Fukunari Imada, whose comments were translated to \"Although I've never seen St. Elmo's Fire, I'd certainly like to. It was often considered a bad omen as it played havoc with compasses and equipment\". The TV series also referred to St. Elmo's Fire as being a bad omen during the cartoon. The footage was captured as part of his winning solo yacht race in 1981. On the American television series \"Rawhide\", in a 1959 episode titled \"Incident of the Blue Fire\", cattle drovers on a stormy night see St. Elmo's Fire glowing on the horns of their steers, which the men regard as a deadly omen. St. Elmo's Fire is also referenced in a 1965 episode of \"Bonanza\" in which religious pilgrims staying on the Cartwright property believe an experience with St. Elmo's Fire is the work of Satan.", "Brian Eno's third studio album \"Another Green World\" (1975) contains a song titled \"St. Elmo's Fire\" in which guesting King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp (credited with playing \"Wimshurst guitar\" in the liner notes) improvises a lightning-fast solo that would imitate an electrical charge between two poles on a Wimshurst high voltage generator. Michael Frank's song \"St Elmo's Fire\" was released on his album \"The Art of Tea\" in 1976. His song has since been sampled various times by artists like Absolutely Fabolous, & more. The first song in Susumu Hirasawa's album \"Aurora\", \"Stone Garden\" (石の庭 \"Ishi no Niwa\"), contains a line which translates to <poem>That day when I melted away into the sky Burning like St. Elmo's sacred fire</poem> \"St. Elmo's Fire (Man in Motion)\" is a song recorded by John Parr. It hit number one on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on September 7, 1985, remaining there for two weeks. It was the main theme for Joel Schumacher's 1985 film \"St. Elmo's Fire\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "In Roman culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After Zeus impregnated Antiope, Antiope fled in shame to King Epopeus of Sicyon, but was brought back by Lycus through force, giving birth to the twins Amphion and Zethus on the way. Lycus gave Antiope to Dirce. Dirce hated Antiope and treated her cruelly, until Antiope, in time, escaped. In Euripides' lost play \"Antiope\", Antiope flees back to the cave where she gave birth to Amphion and Zethus; they are now living there as young men. They disbelieve her claim to be their mother and refuse her pleas for sanctuary, but when Dirce comes to find Antiope and orders her to be killed, the twins are convinced by the shepherd who raised them that Antiope is their mother. They kill Dirce by tying her to the horns of a bull. Dirce was devoted to the god Dionysus. He caused a spring to flow where she died, either at Mount Cithaeron or at Thebes, and it was a local tradition for the outgoing Theban hipparch to swear in his successor at her tomb. In Statius' \"Thebaid\", the spring is a symbol of Thebes, and its name is often used metonymically to refer to the city itself.", "The death of Dirce is depicted in a marble statue known as the Farnese Bull, which is now in the collections of the National Archaeological Museum in Naples. The colossal piece, a first-century-AD Roman copy of a second-century-BC Hellenistic Greek original, was first excavated in the 16th century in the Baths of Caracalla. Some scholars identify it with the statue group mentioned in Pliny's \"Natural History\", but this is disputed. This scene was recreated in spectacles in the Roman arena. Clement, in his First Letter to the Corinthians, recounts how Christian women were martyred." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Cooperating with the Nazis.", "Scientific contribution.", "Persistent vegetative state and sensitive paranoia research.", "Types of physique.", "Asthenic type.", "Athletic type.", "Pyknic type.", "The temperaments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Kretschmer was born in Wüstenrot near Heilbronn. He attended Cannstatt Gymnasium, one of the oldest Latin schools in Stuttgart area. From 1906 to 1912 he studied theology, medicine, and philosophy at the universities of Tübingen, Munich and Hamburg. From 1913 he was assistant of Robert Gaupp in Tübingen, where he received his habilitation in 1918. He continued as assistant medical director until 1926. In 1926 he became the director of the psychiatric clinic at Marburg University. Kretschmer was a founding member of the International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy (AÄGP) which was founded on January 12, 1927. He was the president of AÄGP from 1929. In 1933 he resigned from the AÄGP for political reasons. From 1946 until 1959, Kretschmer was the director of the psychiatric clinic of the University of Tübingen. He died, aged 75, in Tübingen.", "After he resigned from the AÄGP, he started to support the SS and signed the \"Vow of allegiance of the professors of the German universities and high-schools to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialistic state.\" ().", "", "Kretschmer was the first to describe the persistent vegetative state which has also been called \"Kretschmer's syndrome\". Another medical term coined after him is \"Kretschmer’s sensitive paranoia.\" This classification has the merit of singling out \"a type of paranoia that was unknown\" prior to Kretschmer, and which \"does not resemble the stereotypical image [...] of sthenic paranoia\". Furthermore, between 1915 and 1921 he developed a differential diagnosis between schizophrenia and manic depression.", "Kretschmer is also known for developing a classification system that can be seen as one of the earliest exponents of a constitutional (the total plan or philosophy on which something is constructed) approach. His classification system was based on four main body types: The concept of two great psychopathological types of manic-depressive or 'circular' insanity and dementia praecox (i. e. schizophrenia) was developed by Emil Kraepelin. Each of these body types was associated by Kretschmer with certain personality traits and, in a more extreme form, mental disorders. He wrote that there is only a weak relation between Schizophrenics and pyknic body type on the one hand, and between Circulars (with the tendency to circular type of manic-depressive psychosis) and asthenics, athletics, and dysplastics on the other. Among the schizophrenics also the asthenico–athletic types are very prevalent. Kretschmer believed that pyknic persons were friendly, interpersonally dependent, and gregarious. In a more extreme version of these traits, this would mean for example that the obese are predisposed toward manic-depressive illness. Thin types were associated with introversion and timidity. This was seen as a milder form of the negative symptoms exhibited by withdrawn schizophrenics. However, the idea of the association of body types with personality traits is no longer influential in personality psychology.", "The essential characteristic of the asthenic type, in Kretschmer's words, \"a deficiency in thickness combined with an average unlessened length\". The deficiency is present in all parts of body: muscle, bone, neck, face, trunk, extremities, and in all the tissues skin. The average weight as well as the other body measurements are below the general value for males. We have, consequently, in the clearest cases a lean narrowly-built man: with narrow shoulders, with thin muscles, delicately boned hands, with a narrow, long, flat chest, on which we can usually see the ribs. The asthenic female are not only thin, but also of very small height. In their general appearance they're the same as asthenic men.", "The male athletic type is characterized by the strong development of the musculature, skeleton, and also the skin. We have, therefore, in the clearest cases the following general impression: a man with a middle-sized to tall man, with a superb chest, wide projecting shoulders (\"particularly the hypertrophied shoulders\" as Kretschmer said), firm stomach, magnificent legs. The expression \"hypertrophied\" meaning a development which oversteps the average, not in the sense of a pathological disturbance. The athletic type among female corresponds to the male form. The certain characteristic deviation is the development of fat, it's rich, but not electively abnormal as with pyknics. Besides of these athletic type women with feminine rounded figure, there are also those women which have outstanding musculature in body face and face. In many cases, athletic type women are actually masculine in muscle relief.", "The pyknic type is characterized by the peripheral development of the body cavities (breast, head, and stomach), and a tendency to a distribution of fat about the torso. They also have a more graceful construction of the motor apparatus (limbs and shoulders). The characteristics of the well-developed cases: rounded figure, middle height, a soft broad face on a short massive neck, sitting between the shoulders, shoulders are not broad; soft, rounded, and displaying little muscle relief limbs, the hands soft, rather wide and short. The pyknic type tend emphatically to a covering of fat. The obesity of the pyknic is restricted within moderate limits for the most part. The female pyknics covering of fat is more strongly concentrated over the hips and chest. The ratio of chest to shoulder of the female pyknics is the same as in the male pyknics.", "Kretschmer divided the temperaments into the two \"constitutional groups\": schizothymic, which contain a \"psychæsthetic proportion\" between sensitive and cold poles, and cyclothymes which contain a \"diathetic\" proportion between raised (happy) and sad. The modern term for light version of 'circular' insanity is cyclothymia. Psychic tempo of schizothymic people is between unstable and tenacious and they have alternation mode of feeling and thought, and cyclothymes psychic tempo is between mobile and comfortable. Schizothymic's psychomotility is often inadequate to stimulus: inhibited, restrained, lamed, stiff, etc., and psychomotility of cyclothymes is adequate to stimulus and natural. Cyclothymes are often pyknics, schizothymes – athletic, asthenic, dysplastic, and their mixtures. The Schizoids consist of the hyperæsthetic (sensitive) and anæsthetic (cold) characters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "New Testament.", "Early Church.", "Post-Nicene Christianity.", "Pre-Reformation Western Church accusers.", "Protestant Reformation.", "Counter Reformation.", "Christian views.", "Roman Catholicism.", "Popes.", "Speculation.", "Eastern Orthodox.", "Old Believers.", "Age of Enlightenment.", "Mormonism.", "Seventh-day Adventists.", "Other Christian interpretations.", "Martin Wight.", "As \"man of lawlessness\".", "As \"being in league with other figures\".", "As Satan.", "Non-Christian views.", "Judaism.", "Islam.", "Ahmadiyya.", "Baha'i.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Antichrist\" is translated from the combination of two ancient Greek words (anti + Christos). In Greek, means \"anointed one\" and the word Christ derives from it. \"\" means not only anti in the sense of \"against\" and \"opposite of\", but also \"in place of\". Therefore, an antichrist opposes Christ by substituting himself for Christ.", "", "Whether the New Testament contains an individual Antichrist is disputed. The Greek term \"antikhristos\" originates in 1 John. The similar term \"pseudokhristos\" (\"False Messiah\") is also first found in the New Testament, but never used by Josephus in his accounts of various false messiahs. The concept of an \"antikhristos\" is not found in Jewish writings in the period 500 BC–50 AD. However, Bernard McGinn conjectures that the concept may have been generated by the frustration of Jews subject to often-capricious Seleucid or Roman rule, who found the nebulous Jewish idea of a Satan who is more of an opposing angel of God in the heavenly court insufficiently humanised and personalised to be a satisfactory incarnation of evil and threat. The five uses of the term \"antichrist\" or \"antichrists\" in the Johannine epistles do not clearly present a single latter-day individual Antichrist. The articles \"the deceiver\" or \"the antichrist\" are usually seen as marking out a certain category of persons, rather than an individual. Consequently, attention for an individual Antichrist figure focuses on the second chapter of 2 Thessalonians. However, the term \"antichrist\" is never used in this passage: Although the word \"antichrist\" (Greek \"antikhristos\") is used only in the Epistles of John, the similar word \"pseudochrist\" (Greek \"pseudokhristos\", meaning \"false messiah\") is used by Jesus in the Gospels:", "The only one of the late 1st/early 2nd century Apostolic Fathers to use the term is Polycarp (c. 69 – c. 155) who warned the Philippians that everyone who preached false doctrine was an antichrist. His use of the term Antichrist follows that of the New Testament in not identifying a single personal Antichrist, but a class of people. Irenaeus (2nd century AD – c. 202) wrote \"Against Heresies\" to refute the teachings of the Gnostics. In Book V of \"Against Heresies\" he addresses the figure of the Antichrist referring to him as the \"recapitulation of apostasy and rebellion.\" He uses \"666\", the Number of the Beast from Revelation 13:18, to numerologically decode several possible names. Some names that he loosely proposed were \"Evanthos\", \"Lateinos\" (\"Latin\" or pertaining to the Roman Empire). In his exegesis of Daniel 7:21, he stated that the ten horns of the beast will be the Roman empire divided into ten kingdoms before the Antichrist's arrival. However, his readings of the Antichrist were more in broader theological terms rather than within a historical context. The non-canonical Ascension of Isaiah presents a detailed exposition of the Antichrist as Belial and Nero. Tertullian (c. 160 – c. 220 AD) held that the Roman Empire was the restraining force written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7–8. The fall of the Western Roman Empire and the disintegration of the ten provinces of the Roman Empire into ten kingdoms were to make way for the Antichrist. Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170 – c. 236) held that the Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan and would rebuild the Jewish temple on the Temple Mount in order to reign from it. He identified the Antichrist with the Beast out of the Earth from the book of Revelation. Origen (185–254) refuted Celsus' view of the Antichrist. Origen utilized Scriptural citations from Daniel, Paul, and the Gospels. He argued:", "Cyril of Jerusalem, in the mid-4th century, delivered his 15th Catechetical lecture about the Second Coming of Jesus Christ, in which he also lectures about the Antichrist, who will reign as the ruler of the world for three and a half years, before he is killed by Jesus Christ right at the end of his three-and-a-half-year reign, shortly after which the Second Coming of Jesus Christ will happen. Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 298–373) wrote that Arius of Alexandria is to be associated with the Antichrist, saying, \"And ever since [the Council of Nicaea] has Arius's error been reckoned for a heresy more than ordinary, being known as Christ's foe, and harbinger of Antichrist.\" John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) warned against speculating about the Antichrist, saying, \"Let us not therefore enquire into these things\". He preached that by knowing Paul's description of the Antichrist in 2 Thessalonians, Christians would avoid deception. Jerome (c. 347–420) warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the \"synagogue of the Antichrist\". \"He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist\", he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that \"the mystery of lawlessness\" written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when \"every one chatters about his views.\" To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of lawlessness was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: In his \"Commentary on Daniel\", Jerome noted, \"Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form.\" Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made \"himself out to be like God.\" He refuted Porphyry's idea that the \"little horn\" mentioned in Daniel chapter 7 was Antiochus IV Epiphanes by noting that the \"little horn\" is defeated by an eternal, universal ruler, right before the final judgment. Instead, he advocated that the \"little horn\" was the Antichrist: Circa 380, an apocalyptic pseudo-prophecy falsely attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl describes Constantine as victorious over Gog and Magog. Later on, it predicts: Augustine of Hippo (354–430) wrote \"it is uncertain in what temple [the Antichrist] shall sit, whether in that ruin of the temple which was built by Solomon, or in the Church.\" Pope Gregory I wrote to the Byzantine Emperor Maurice in A.D. 597, concerning the titles of bishops, \"I say with confidence that whoever calls or desires to call himself 'universal priest' in self-exaltation of himself is a precursor of the Antichrist.\" By the end of the tenth century, Adso of Montier-en-Der, a Benedictine monk, compiled a biography of Antichrist based on a variety of exegetical and Sibylline sources; his account became one of the best-known descriptions of Antichrist in the Middle Ages.", "Arnulf, archbishop of Reims disagreed with the policies and morals of Pope John XV. He expressed his views while presiding over the Council of Reims in A.D. 991. Arnulf accused John XV of being the Antichrist while also using the 2 Thessalonians passage about the \"man of lawlessness\" (or \"lawless one\"), saying: \"Surely, if he is empty of charity and filled with vain knowledge and lifted up, he is Antichrist sitting in God's temple and showing himself as God.\" This incident is history's earliest record of anyone identifying a pope with the Antichrist (see Christian Historicism). Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015 or 1029 – 1085), struggled against, in his own words, \"a robber of temples, a perjurer against the Holy Roman Church, notorious throughout the whole Roman world for the basest of crimes, namely, Wilbert, plunderer of the holy church of Ravenna, Antichrist, and arch-heretic.\" Cardinal Benno, on the opposite side of the Investiture Controversy, wrote long descriptions of abuses committed by Gregory VII, including necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and even burning it. Benno held that Gregory VII was \"either a member of Antichrist, or Antichrist himself.\" Eberhard II von Truchsees, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1241, denounced Pope Gregory IX at the Council of Regensburg as \"that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot err.\" He argued that the ten kingdoms that the Antichrist is involved with were the \"Turks, Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, French, English, Germans, Sicilians, and Italians who now occupy the provinces of Rome.\" He held that the papacy was the \"little horn\" of Daniel 7:8:", "Protestant Reformers, including John Wycliffe, Martin Luther, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, John Thomas, John Knox, Roger Williams, Cotton Mather, and John Wesley, as well as most Protestants of the 16th-18th centuries, felt that the Early Church had been led into the Great Apostasy by the Papacy and identified the Pope with the Antichrist. Luther declared that not just a pope from time to time was Antichrist, but the Papacy was Antichrist because they were \"the representatives of an institution opposed to Christ\". The Centuriators of Magdeburg, a group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg headed by Matthias Flacius, wrote the 12-volume \"Magdeburg Centuries\" to discredit the Catholic Church and lead other Christians to recognize the Pope as the Antichrist. So, rather than expecting a single Antichrist to rule the earth during a future Tribulation period, Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other Protestant Reformers saw the Antichrist as a present feature in the world of their time, fulfilled in the Papacy. Among the others who interpreted the biblical prophecy historically there were many Church Fathers; Justin Martyr wrote about the Antichrist: \"He Whom Daniel foretells would have dominion for a time and times and an half, is even now at the door\". Irenaeus wrote in \"Against Heresies\" about the coming of the Antichrist: \"This Antichrist shall... devastate all things... But then, the Lord will come from Heaven on the clouds... for the righteous\". Tertullian looking to the Antichrist wrote: \"He is to sit in the temple of God, and boast himself as being god. In our view, he is Antichrist as taught us in both the ancient and the new prophecies; and especially by the Apostle John, who says that 'already many false-prophets are gone out into the world' as the fore-runners of Antichrist\". Hippolytus of Rome in his \"Treatise on Christ and Antichrist\" wrote: \"As Daniel also says (in the words) 'I considered the Beast, and look! There were ten horns behind it – among which shall rise another (horn), an offshoot, and shall pluck up by the roots the three (that were) before it.' And under this, was signified none other than Antichrist.\" Athanasius of Alexandria clearly hold to the historical view in his many writings; in \"The Deposition of Arius\", he wrote: \"I addressed the letter to Arius and his fellows, exhorting them to renounce his impiety... There have gone forth in this diocese at this time certain lawless men – enemies of Christ – teaching an apostasy which one may justly suspect and designate as a forerunner of Antichrist\". Jerome wrote: \"Says the apostle [Paul in the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians], 'Unless the Roman Empire should first be desolated, and antichrist proceed, Christ will not come.'\" He also identifies the Little horn of and which \"He shall speak as if he were God.\" Some Franciscans had considered the Emperor Frederick II a positive Antichrist who would purify the Catholic Church from opulence, riches and clergy. Historicist interpretations of Book of Revelation usually included the identification of one or more of the following: The Protestant Reformers tended to hold the belief that the Antichrist power would be revealed so that everyone would comprehend and recognize that the Pope is the real, true Antichrist and not the vicar of Christ. Doctrinal works of literature published by the Lutherans, the Reformed Churches, the Presbyterians, the Baptists, the Anabaptists, and the Methodists contain references to the Pope as the Antichrist, including the Smalcald Articles, Article 4 (1537), the \"Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope\" written by Philip Melanchthon (1537), the Westminster Confession, Article 25.6 (1646), and the 1689 Baptist Confession of Faith, Article 26.4. In 1754, John Wesley published his \"Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament\", which is currently an official Doctrinal Standard of the United Methodist Church. In his notes on the Book of Revelation (chapter 13), he commented: \"The whole succession of Popes from Gregory VII are undoubtedly Antichrists. Yet this hinders not, but that the last Pope in this succession will be more eminently the Antichrist, the Man of Sin, adding to that of his predecessors a peculiar degree of wickedness from the bottomless pit.\" The identification of the Pope with the Antichrist was so ingrained in the Reformation Era, that Luther himself stated it repeatedly: John Calvin similarly wrote: John Knox wrote on the Pope: Thomas Cranmer on the Antichrist wrote: John Wesley, speaking of the identity given in the Bible of the Antichrist, wrote: Roger Williams wrote about the Pope: The identification of the Roman Catholic Church as the apostate power written of in the Bible as the Antichrist became evident to many as the Reformation began, including John Wycliffe, who was well known throughout Europe for his opposition to the doctrine and practices of the Catholic Church, which he believed had clearly deviated from the original teachings of the early Church and to be contrary to the Bible. Wycliffe himself tells (\"Sermones\", III. 199) how he concluded that there was a great contrast between what the Church was and what it ought to be, and saw the necessity for reform. Along with John Hus, they had started the inclination toward ecclesiastical reforms of the Catholic Church. When the Swiss Reformer Huldrych Zwingli became the pastor of the Grossmünster in Zurich (1518) he began to preach ideas on reforming the Catholic Church. Zwingli, who was a Catholic priest before he became a Reformer, often referred to the Pope as the Antichrist. He wrote: \"I know that in it works the might and power of the Devil, that is, of the Antichrist\". The English Reformer William Tyndale held that while the Roman Catholic realms of that age were the empire of Antichrist, any religious organization that distorted the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments also showed the work of Antichrist. In his treatise \"The Parable of the Wicked Mammon\", he expressly rejected the established Church teaching that looked to the future for an Antichrist to rise up, and he taught that Antichrist is a present spiritual force that will be with us until the end of the age under different religious disguises from time to time. Tyndale's translation of 2 Thessalonians, chapter 2, concerning the \"Man of Lawlessness\" reflected his understanding, but was significantly amended by later revisers, including the King James Bible committee, which followed the Vulgate more closely. In 1973, the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops' Committee on Ecumenical and Interreligious Affairs and the USA National Committee of the Lutheran World Federation in the official Catholic–Lutheran dialogue officially signed an agreement on \"Papal Primacy and the Universal Church,\" including this passage: In 1988 Ian Paisley, Evangelical minister and founder of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, made headlines in an infamous manner by accusing Pope John Paul II as the Antichrist during one of the pope's speeches before the European Parliament, which at the time Paisley was member of. His accusation, and the reactions of both Pope John Paul II and other members of the European Parliament, was recorded on video. The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states about the Pope and the Catholic Church: Currently, many Protestant and Restorationist denominations still officially maintain that the Papacy is the Antichrist, such as the conservative Lutheran Churches and the Seventh-day Adventists.", "In the Counter-Reformation, the views of Preterism and Futurism were advanced by Catholic Jesuits beginning in the 16th century in response to the identification of the Papacy as Antichrist. These were rival methods of prophetic interpretation: the futurist and the preterist systems both are in conflict with the historicist method of interpretation. Historically, preterists and non-preterists have agreed that the Jesuit Luis de Alcasar (1554–1613) wrote the first systematic preterist exposition of prophecy—\"Vestigatio arcani sensus in Apocalypsi\" (published in 1614)—during the Counter-Reformation.", "", "From the Fifth Council of the Lateran, the Catholic Church teaches that priests may not \"preach or declare a fixed time for...the coming of antichrist...\" The church also teaches that it must undergo trials before the Second Coming, and that the church's ultimate trial will be the mystery of iniquity. In Judaism, iniquity is a sin done out of moral failing. The mystery of iniquity, according to the church, will be a religious deception: Christians receiving alleged solutions to their problems at the cost of apostasy. The supreme religious deception, according to the church, will be the Antichrist's messianism: mankind glorifying himself rather than God and Jesus. The church teaches that this supreme deception is committed by people who claim to fulfill Israel's messianic hopes, such as millenarianism and secular messianicism.", "Pope Pius IX in the encyclical \"Quartus Supra\", quoting Cyprian, said Satan disguises the Antichrist with the title of Christ. Pope Pius X in the encyclical \"E Supremi\" said that the distinguishing mark of the Antichrist is claiming to be God and taking his place. Pope John Paul II, in his August 18, 1985 address on his apostolic journey to Africa, said 1 John 4:3 (\"Every spirit which does not confess Jesus is not of God. This is the spirit of antichrist\") evokes the danger of theology divorced from holiness and theological culture divorced from serving Christ. Pope Benedict XVI said in the Sunday Angelus of March 11, 2012 that violence is the tool of the Antichrist. In the General Audience of November 12, 2008, Benedict XVI said Christian tradition had come to identify the son of perdition as the Antichrist. Pope Francis, in his morning meditation of February 2, 2014, said that Christian faith is not an ideology, but that \"the Apostle James says that ideologues of the faith are the Antichrist.\" In his morning meditation of September 19, 2014, Francis said the Antichrist must come before the final resurrection. In his morning meditation of January 7, 2016, he said the evil spirit spoken of in 1 John 4:6 is the Antichrist. In his morning meditation on November 11, 2016, Francis said whoever says the criteria of Christian love is not the Incarnation is the Antichrist.", "The \"Prophecy of the Popes\" claims Rome will be destroyed during the pontificate of the last Pope, implying a connection to the Antichrist. Fulton J. Sheen, a Catholic bishop, wrote in 1951:", "In a Christmas 2018 interview on Russian state television, Patriarch Kirill of Moscow warned that \"The Antichrist is the person that will be at the head of the world wide web controlling all of humanity. That means that the structure itself poses a danger. There shouldn't be a single centre, at least not in the foreseeable future, if we don't want to bring on the apocalypse.\" He exhorted listeners not to \"fall into slavery to what's in your hands\"...\"You should remain free inside and not fall under any addiction, not to alcohol, not to narcotics, not to gadgets.\"", "After Patriarch Nikon of Moscow reformed the Russian Orthodox Church during the second half of the 17th century, a large number of Old Believers held that Peter the Great, the Tsar of the Russian Empire until his death in 1725, was the Antichrist because of his treatment of the Orthodox Church, namely subordinating the church to the state, requiring clergymen to conform to the standards of all Russian civilians (shaved beards, being fluent in French), and requiring them to pay state taxes.", "Bernard McGinn noted that complete denial of the Antichrist was rare until the Age of Enlightenment. Following frequent use of \"Antichrist\" laden rhetoric during religious controversies in the 17th century, the use of the concept declined during the 18th century due to the rule of enlightened absolutists, who as European rulers of the time wielded significant influence over official state churches. These efforts to cleanse Christianity of \"legendary\" or \"folk\" accretions effectively removed the Antichrist from discussion in mainstream Western churches.", "In Mormonism, the \"Antichrist\" is anyone or anything that counterfeits the true gospel or plan of salvation and that openly or secretly is set up in opposition to Christ. The great antichrist is Lucifer, but he has many assistants both as spirit beings and as mortals.\" Latter-day Saints use the New Testament scriptures, 1 John 2:18, 22; 1 John 4:3–6; 2 John 1:7 and the Book of Mormon, Jacob 7:1–23, Alma 1:2–16, Alma 30:6–60, in their exegesis or interpretation of the Antichrist.", "Seventh-day Adventists teach that the \"Little Horn Power\", which (as predicted in the Book of Daniel) rose after the break-up of the Roman Empire, is the Papacy. The Western Roman Empire collapsed in the late 5th century. In 533, Justinian I, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire (which historians have labelled the Byzantine Empire), legally recognized the bishop (pope) of Rome as the head of all the Christian churches. Because of the Arian domination of some of the Roman Empire by barbarian tribes, the bishop of Rome could not fully exercise such authority. In 538, Belisarius, one of Justinian's generals, succeeded in withstanding a siege of the city of Rome by Arian Ostrogoth besiegers, and the bishop of Rome could begin establishing universal civil authority. So, by the military intervention of the Eastern Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome became all-powerful throughout the area of the old Roman Empire. The Ostrogoths promptly re-captured the city of Rome eight years later in 546, and again in 550. Seventh-day Adventists understand the 1260 years as lasting AD 538 to 1798 as the (supposed) duration of the papacy's domination over Rome. This period is seen as starting from one of the defeats of the Ostrogoths by the general Belisarius and as ending with the successes of French general Napoleon Bonaparte, specifically, with the capture of Pope Pius VI by general Louis Alexandre Berthier in 1798. Like many Reformation-era Protestant leaders, the Adventist pioneer Ellen G. White (1827–1915) spoke of the Catholic Church as a fallen church in preparation for its nefarious eschatological role as the antagonist against God's true church; she saw the pope as the Antichrist. Protestant reformers such as Martin Luther, John Knox, William Tyndale and others held similar beliefs about the Catholic Church and the papacy when they broke away from the Catholic Church during the Reformation. Ellen White writes, Seventh-day Adventists view the length of time the apostate church's unbridled power was permitted to rule as shown in Daniel 7:25: \"The little horn would rule a time and times and half a time\" - or 1,260 years. They regard papal rule as supreme in Europe from 538 (when the Arian Ostrogoths retreated from Rome into temporary oblivion) until 1798 (when the French general Louis-Alexandre Berthier took Pope Pius VI captive)—a period of 1,260 years - including the 67 years of the Avignon Captivity (1309-1376).", "", "Devout Christian and political theorist Martin Wight, writing immediately after World War Two, favoured the revival of the Antichrist doctrine; not as a person, but as a recurrent situation featuring 'demonic concentrations of power'.", "The Antichrist has been equated with the \"man of lawlessness\" or \"lawless one\" of 2 Thessalonians 2:3, though commentaries on the identity of the \"man of lawlessness\" greatly vary. The \"man of lawlessness\" has been identified with Caligula, Nero, and the end times Antichrist. Some scholars believe that the passage contains no genuine prediction, but represents a speculation of the apostle's own, based on contemporary ideas of the Antichrist.", "Several American evangelical and fundamentalist theologians, including Cyrus Scofield, have identified the Antichrist as being in league with (or the same as) several figures in the Book of Revelation including the Dragon (or Serpent), the Beast, the False Prophet, and the Whore of Babylon. Voices in the Emerging Church, such as Rob Bell, reject the identification of the Antichrist with any one person or group. They believe a loving Christ would not view anyone as an enemy.", "Bernard McGinn described multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan. In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just as God became incarnate in Jesus. However, in Orthodox Christian thought, this view was problematic because it was too similar to Christ's incarnation. Instead, the \"indwelling\" view became more accepted. It stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan, since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's. Luca Signorelli's fresco, \"The Sermon and Deeds of the Antichrist\" (see above), depicts the indwelling view. Satan whispers in the ear of this Christlike figure and his left arm is slipped through the Antichrist's garment as if he is manipulating him. Similar to the whore of Babylon's clothing (Rev. 17:4), the Antichrist's robe is purple.", "", "There are warnings against false prophets in the Hebrew Bible, but no personal anti-Messiah figure. A parodic anti-Messiah type figure known as Armilus, said to be the offspring of Satan and a virgin, appears in some non-legalistic, philosophical schools of Jewish eschatology, such as the 7th century CE Sefer Zerubbabel and 11th century CE Midrash Vayosha (also: \"\"Midrash wa-Yosha\"\"). He is described as \"a monstrosity, bald-headed, with one large and one small eye, deaf in the right ear and maimed in the right arm, while the left arm is two and one-half ells long.\" Being Gog's successor, his inevitable destruction by a \"Messiah ben Joseph\" (Messiah, son of Joseph (son of Jacob)), symbolizes the ultimate victory of good over evil in the Messianic Age. This is confronted with the medieval Christian Antichrist and Islamic Dajjal, who will conquer Jerusalem and persecute the Jews.", "\"Al-Masih ad-Dajjal\" (, literally \"The Deceiving Messiah\"), is an important figure in Islamic eschatology. Absent in the Quran, this figure is mentioned and described in the Hadith. Like in Christianity, the Dajjal is said to emerge out the east, the specific location varies among the sources. He will try to imitate the miracles performed by Jesus, such as healing the sick and raising the dead, the latter done with aid of demons (\"Shayatin\"). He will deceive many people, such as weavers, magicians, half-castes and children of prostitutes, but the majority of his followers will be Jews. Eventually the Dajjal will be killed by 'Isa (Jesus), who upon seeing the Dajjal will cause him to slowly dissolve (like salt in water). Jesus will eventually kill him at the gate of Ludd.", "Prophecies concerning the emergence of the Antichrist (\"Al-Masīḥ ad-Dajjāl\") are interpreted in Ahmadiyya teachings as designating a specific group of nations centred upon a false theology (or Christology) instead of an individual, with the reference to the Antichrist as an individual indicating its unity as a class or system rather than its personal individuality. As such, Ahmadis identify the Antichrist collectively with the missionary expansion and colonial dominance of European Christianity throughout the world that was propelled by the Industrial Revolution. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad wrote extensively on this topic, identifying the Antichrist principally with colonial missionaries who, according to him, were to be countered through argumentation rather than by physical warfare and whose power and influence was to gradually disintegrate, ultimately allowing for the recognition and worship of God along Islamic ideals to prevail throughout the world in a period similar to the period of time it took for nascent Christianity to rise through the Roman Empire. The teaching that Jesus was a mortal man who survived crucifixion and died a natural death, as propounded by Ghulam Ahmad, has been seen by some scholars in this regard as a move to neutralise Christian soteriologies of Jesus and to project the superior rationality of Islam.", "The Antichrist is considered to subvert the religion of God from the inner reality of man as 'Abdu'l-Baha narrates: \"Christ was a divine Center of unity and love. Whenever discord prevails instead of unity, wherever hatred and antagonism take the place of love and spiritual fellowship, Antichrist reigns instead of Christ.\"", "In February 1900, the Christian Russian philosopher and mystic Vladimir Solovyov published the apocalyptic \"A Short Tale of the Antichrist\", showing his prophetic vision about the oncoming 20th century and the end of the human history. It is prophesied that the antichrist will be a lawyer who will present himself to the whole humanity like a pacifist, ecologist and ecumenist, \"will convoke an ecumenical council and will seek the consensus of all the Christian confessions, granting something to each one.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Basic concepts.", "Special principle of relativity.", "In Newtonian mechanics.", "In special relativity.", "General principle of relativity.", "General relativity.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Certain principles of relativity have been widely assumed in most scientific disciplines. One of the most widespread is the belief that any law of nature should be the same at all times; and scientific investigations generally assume that laws of nature are the same regardless of the person measuring them. These sorts of principles have been incorporated into scientific inquiry at the most fundamental of levels. Any principle of relativity prescribes a symmetry in natural law: that is, the laws must look the same to one observer as they do to another. According to a theoretical result called Noether's theorem, any such symmetry will also imply a conservation law alongside. For example, if two observers at different times see the same laws, then a quantity called energy will be conserved. In this light, relativity principles make testable predictions about how nature behaves, and are not just statements about how scientists should write laws.", "According to the first postulate of the special theory of relativity: This postulate defines an inertial frame of reference. The special principle of relativity states that physical laws should be the same in every inertial frame of reference, but that they may vary across non-inertial ones. This principle is used in both Newtonian mechanics and the theory of special relativity. Its influence in the latter is so strong that Max Planck named the theory after the principle. The principle requires physical laws to be the same for any body moving at constant velocity as they are for a body at rest. A consequence is that an observer in an inertial reference frame cannot determine an absolute speed or direction of travel in space, and may only speak of speed or direction relative to some other object. The principle does not extend to non-inertial reference frames because those frames do not, in general experience, seem to abide by the same laws of physics. In classical physics, fictitious forces are used to describe acceleration in non-inertial reference frames.", "The special principle of relativity was first explicitly enunciated by Galileo Galilei in 1632 in his \"Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\", using the metaphor of Galileo's ship. Newtonian mechanics added to the special principle several other concepts, including laws of motion, gravitation, and an assertion of an absolute time. When formulated in the context of these laws, the special principle of relativity states that the laws of mechanics are \"invariant\" under a Galilean transformation.", "Joseph Larmor and Hendrik Lorentz discovered that Maxwell's equations, the cornerstone of electromagnetism, were invariant only by a certain change of time and length units. This left some confusion among physicists, many of whom thought that a luminiferous aether was incompatible with the relativity principle, in the way it was defined by Henri Poincaré: In their 1905 papers on electrodynamics, Henri Poincaré and Albert Einstein explained that with the Lorentz transformations the relativity principle holds perfectly. Einstein elevated the (special) principle of relativity to a postulate of the theory and derived the Lorentz transformations from this principle combined with the principle of the independence of the speed of light (in vacuum) from the motion of the source. These two principles were reconciled with each other (in Einstein's treatment, though not in Poincaré's) by a re-examination of the fundamental meanings of space and time intervals. The strength of special relativity lies in its derivation from simple, basic principles, including the invariance of the laws of physics under a shift of inertial reference frames and the invariance of the speed of light in a vacuum. (See also: Lorentz covariance.) It is possible to derive the form of the Lorentz transformations from the principle of relativity alone. Using only the isotropy of space and the symmetry implied by the principle of special relativity, one can show that the space-time transformations between inertial frames are either Galilean or Lorentzian. Whether the transformation is actually Galilean or Lorentzian must be determined with physical experiments. It is not possible to conclude that the speed of light \"c\" is invariant by mathematical logic alone. In the Lorentzian case, one can then obtain relativistic interval conservation and the constancy of the speed of light.", "The general principle of relativity states: That is, physical laws are the same in \"all\" reference frames—inertial or non-inertial. An accelerated charged particle might emit synchrotron radiation, though a particle at rest doesn't. If we consider now the same accelerated charged particle in its non-inertial rest frame, it emits radiation at rest. Physics in non-inertial reference frames was historically treated by a coordinate transformation, first, to an inertial reference frame, performing the necessary calculations therein, and using another to return to the non-inertial reference frame. In most such situations, the same laws of physics can be used if certain predictable fictitious forces are added into consideration; an example is a uniformly rotating reference frame, which can be treated as an inertial reference frame if one adds a fictitious centrifugal force and Coriolis force into consideration. The problems involved are not always so trivial. Special relativity predicts that an observer in an inertial reference frame doesn't see objects he would describe as moving faster than the speed of light. However, in the non-inertial reference frame of Earth, treating a spot on the Earth as a fixed point, the stars are observed to move in the sky, circling once about the Earth per day. Since the stars are light years away, this observation means that, in the non-inertial reference frame of the Earth, anybody who looks at the stars is seeing objects which appear, to them, to be moving faster than the speed of light. Since non-inertial reference frames do not abide by the special principle of relativity, such situations are not self-contradictory.", "General relativity was developed by Einstein in the years 1907 - 1915. General relativity postulates that the global Lorentz covariance of special relativity becomes a local Lorentz covariance in the presence of matter. The presence of matter \"curves\" spacetime, and this curvature affects the path of free particles (and even the path of light). General relativity uses the mathematics of differential geometry and tensors in order to describe gravitation as an effect of the geometry of spacetime. Einstein based this new theory on the general principle of relativity, and he named the theory after the underlying principle.", "See the special relativity references and the general relativity references." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "European contact.", "Acadia.", "Colonial wars.", "American Revolution.", "19th century.", "Major population centres.", "Climate.", "Society and culture.", "Economy.", "Present status.", "Historical.", "Growth.", "Reputed Golden Age.", "Economic decline.", "Industries.", "Nova Scotia.", "Prince Edward Island.", "New Brunswick.", "Politics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word maritime is an adjective that means \"of the sea\", thus any land associated with the sea can be considered a maritime state or province (all provinces of Canada except Alberta and Saskatchewan border the sea). But the term \"Maritimes\" has", "The prehistory of the Canadian Maritimes begins after the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation over 10,000 years ago; human settlement by First Nations began in the Maritimes with Paleo-Indians during the \"Early Period\", ending around 6,000 years ago. The \"Middle Period\", starting 6,000 years ago, and ending 3,000 years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is also when what is called the \"Laurentian tradition\" started among Archaic Indians, the term used for First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the Saint John River valley has been uncovered. The \"Late Period\" extended from 3,000 years ago until first contact with European settlers. This period was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the Algonquian-speaking Abenaki Nation, which occupied territory largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the Mi'kmaq Nation, which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian Maliseet Nation settled throughout the Saint John River and Allagash River valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The Passamaquoddy Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day Bay of Fundy. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also believed to have crossed the present-day Cabot Strait at around this time to settle on the south coast of Newfoundland, but they were a minority compared to the Beothuk Nation.", "After Newfoundland, the Maritimes were the second area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is evidence that Viking explorers discovered and settled in the Vinland region around 1000 AD, which is when the L'Anse aux Meadows settlement in Newfoundland and Labrador has been dated. They may have made further exploration into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. Both Giovanni Caboto (John Cabot) and Giovanni da Verrazzano are reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for England and France, respectively. Several Portuguese explorers/cartographers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely Diogo Homem.", "Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called \"Acadie\", led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the Bay of Fundy being populated by French immigrants who called themselves \"Acadien\". The Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Île-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Île-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies. Early examples of Acadian fishing settlements developed in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Île-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of Newfoundland, the Gaspé Peninsula, and the present-day Côte-Nord region of Quebec. Most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the much larger seasonal European fishing fleets that were based out of Newfoundland and took advantage of proximity to the Grand Banks. The growing English colonies along", "Over 74 years (1689–1763) there were six colonial wars, which involved continuous warfare between New England and Acadia (see the French and Indian Wars reflecting English and French tensions in Europe, as well as Father Rale's War and Father Le Loutre's War). Throughout these wars, New England was allied with the Iroquois Confederacy based around the southern Great Lakes and west of the Hudson River. Acadian settlers were allied with the Wabanaki Confederacy. In the first war, King William's War (the North American theater of the Nine Years' War), natives from the Maritime region participated in numerous attacks with the French on the Acadia/ New England border in southern Maine (e.g., Raid on Salmon Falls). New England retaliatory raids on Acadia, such as the Raid on Chignecto (1696), were conducted by Benjamin Church. In the second war, Queen Anne's War (the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession), the British conducted the Conquest of Acadia, while the region remained primarily in control of Maliseet militia, Acadia militia and Mi'kmaq militia. In 1719, to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large fortress at Louisbourg on Île-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of privateers staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks.", "Following the Seven Years' War, empty Acadian lands were settled first by 8,000 New England Planters and then by immigrants brought from Yorkshire. Île-Royale was renamed Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia. Some of the Acadians who had been deported came back but went to New Brunswick. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were affected by the American Revolutionary War, largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders. Charlottetown, the capital of the new colony of St. John's Island, was ransacked in 1775 with the provincial secretary kidnapped and the Great Seal stolen. The largest military action in the Maritimes during the revolutionary war was the attack on Fort Cumberland (the renamed Fort Beausejour) in 1776 by a force of American sympathizers led by Jonathan Eddy. The fort was partially overrun after a month-long siege, but", "In 1820, the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government. British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late 18th century and into the 19th century with significant immigration to the region as a result of Scottish migrants displaced by the Highland Clearances and Irish escaping the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849). As a result, significant portions", "The major communities of the region include Halifax and Cape Breton", "In spite of its name, The Maritimes has a humid continental climate of the warm-summer subtype. Especially in coastal Nova Scotia, differences between summers and winters are narrow compared to the rest of Canada. The inland climate of New Brunswick is in stark contrast during winter, resembling", "Maritime society is based upon a mixture of traditions and class backgrounds. Predominantly rural until recent decades, the region traces many of its cultural activities to those rural resource-based economies of fishing, agriculture, forestry, and coal mining. While Maritimers are predominantly of west European heritage (Scottish, Irish, English, and Acadian), immigration to Industrial Cape Breton during the heyday of coal mining and steel manufacturing brought people from eastern Europe as well as from Newfoundland. The Maritimes also have a black population who are mostly descendants of African American loyalists or refugees from the War of 1812, largely concentrated in Nova Scotia but also in various communities throughout southern New Brunswick, Cape Breton (where the black population is largely of West Indian descent), and Prince Edward Island. The Mi'kmaq Nation's reserves throughout Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and eastern New Brunswick dominate aboriginal culture in the region, compared to the much smaller population of the Maliseet Nation in western New Brunswick. New Brunswick, in general, differs", "", "Given the small population of the region (compared with the Central Canadian provinces or the New England states), the regional economy is a net exporter of natural resources, manufactured goods, and services. The regional economy has long been tied to natural resources such as fishing, logging, farming, and mining activities. Significant industrialization in the second half of the 19th century brought steel to Trenton, Nova Scotia, and subsequent creation of a widespread industrial base to take advantage of the region's large underground coal deposits. After Confederation, however, this industrial base withered with technological change, and trading links to Europe and the U.S. were reduced in", "", "While the economic underperformance of the Maritime economy has been long lasting, it has not always been present. The mid-19th century, especially the 1850s and 1860s, has long been seen as a \"Golden Age\" in the Maritimes. Growth was strong, and the region had one of British North America's most extensive manufacturing sectors as well as a large international shipping industry. The question of why the Maritimes fell from being a centre of Canadian manufacturing", "Several scholars have explored the so-called \"golden age\" of the Maritimes in the years just before Confederation. In Nova Scotia, the population grew steadily from 277,000 in 1851 to 388,000 in 1871, mostly from natural increase since immigration was slight. The era has been called a golden age, but that was a myth created in the 1930s to lure tourists to a romantic era of tall ships and antiques. Recent historians using census data have shown that is a fallacy. In 1851–1871 there", "The cause of economic malaise in the Maritimes is an issue of great debate and controversy among historians, economists, and geographers. The differing opinions can approximately be divided into the \"structuralists,\" who argue that poor policy decisions are to blame, and the others, who argue that unavoidable technological and geographical factors caused the decline. The exact date that the Maritimes began to fall behind the rest of Canada is difficult to determine. Historian Kris Inwood places the date very early, at least in Nova Scotia, finding clear signs that the Maritimes \"Golden Age\" of the mid-19th century was over by 1870, before Confederation or the National Policy could have had any significant impact. Richard Caves places the date closer to 1885. T.W. Acheson takes a similar view and provides considerable evidence that the early 1880s were in fact a booming period in Nova Scotia and this growth was only undermined towards the end of that decade. David Alexander argues that any earlier declines were simply part of the global Long Depression, and that the Maritimes first fell behind the rest of Canada when the great boom period of the early 20th century had little effect on the region. E.R. Forbes, however, emphasizes that the precipitous decline did not occur until after the First World War during the 1920s when new railway policies were implemented. Forbes also contends that significant Canadian defence spending during the Second World War favoured powerful political interests in Central Canada such as C.D. Howe, when major Maritime shipyards and factories, as well as Canada's largest steel mill, located in Cape Breton Island, fared poorly. One of the most important changes, and one that almost certainly had an effect, was the revolution in transportation that occurred at this time. The Maritimes were connected to central Canada by the Intercolonial Railway in the 1870s, removing a longstanding barrier to trade. For the first time this placed the Maritime manufacturers in direct competition with those of Central Canada. Maritime trading patterns shifted considerably from mainly trading with New England, Britain, and the Caribbean, to being focused on commerce with the Canadian interior, enforced by the federal government's tariff policies. Coincident with the construction of railways in the region, the age of the wooden sailing ship began to come to an end, being replaced by larger and faster steel steam ships. The Maritimes had long been a centre for shipbuilding, and this industry was hurt by the change. The larger ships were also less likely to call on the smaller population centres such as Saint John and Halifax, preferring to travel to cities like New York and Montreal. Even the Cunard Line, founded by Maritime-born Samuel Cunard, stopped making more than a single ceremonial voyage to Halifax each year. More controversial than the role of technology is the argument over the role of politics in the origins of the region's decline. Confederation and the tariff and railway freight policies that followed have often been blamed for having a deleterious effect on the Maritime economies. Arguments have been made that the Maritimes' poverty was caused by control over policy by Central Canada which used the national structures for its own enrichment. This was the central view of the Maritime Rights Movement of", "The maritime provinces' main industry is fishing. Fishing can be found in any maritime province. This includes fishing for lobster, mackerel, tuna, salmon and many more kinds of fish. Oysters and salmonid aquiculture is also increasingly important economically.", "Nova Scotia is very", "Tourism is important to the economy of PEI. \"Anne of Green Gables\" was written in PEI. Because of this, every year it", "Agriculture and forestry are two prominent industries found in New Brunswick. Despite having an extensive coastline, New Brunswick's industrial sector has never been entirely reliant on the", "Maritime conservatism since the Second World War has been very much part of the Red Tory tradition, key influences being former Premier of Nova Scotia and federal Progressive Conservative Party leader Robert Stanfield and New Brunswick Tory strategist Dalton Camp. In recent years, the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected Members of Parliament (MPs) from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (and later NDP) MPs, and even produced many early members of the Communist Party of Canada in the pre-World War II era. In the 2004 federal election, the NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province. In the 2009 provincial election the NDP formed a majority government, the first in the region. The Maritimes are generally socially conservative but unlike Alberta, they also have fiscally socialist tendencies. It is because of the lack of support for fiscal conservatism that federal parties such as the Canadian Alliance never had much success in the region, In the 2004 federal election, the Conservatives had one of the worst showings in the region for a right-wing party, going back to Confederation, with the exception of the 1993 election. The Conservative party improved its seat count in the 2008 and elected 13 MPs in the 2011 election. However, in the 2015 election the Liberal Party won every seat in the region, defeating all of the Conservative (and NDP) challengers. An area within the region where both fiscal and social conservatism coincide and where the federal Reform Party and Canadian Alliance had some success is in central-western part of New Brunswick, in the Saint John River valley north of Saint John and south of Grand Falls. Contributing demographics include a predominantly Anglophone population residing in a largely rural agrarian setting. One influence might be proximity to the Canada–US border and the state of Maine. The valley is also settled by descendants of United Empire Loyalists whose influence continues in the area. There are also a large number of active and retired military personnel located in the Fredericton and Oromocto area as a result of the large military base at CFB Gagetown. Another area in the region with smatterings of coinciding fiscal and social conservatism is the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia. The Liberal Party of Canada has done well in the Maritimes in the past because of its interventionist policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick, long dependent upon seasonal employment in the Gulf of St. Lawrence fishery, tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for this reason. In the 1997 federal election, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to unemployment benefits for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several Canadian Forces Bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the Goods and Services Tax, cutbacks to provincial equalization payments, health care, post-secondary education and regional transportation infrastructure such as airports, fishing harbours, seaports, and railways. The Liberals held onto seats in Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely, the second time in history (the only other time being the Diefenbaker sweep). In 2015 the Liberals won every seat in The Maritimes, defeating Conservative and NDP incumbents. The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia – 11, New Brunswick – 10, Prince Edward Island – 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia and New Brunswick – 10 each, Prince Edward Island – 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the 20th century has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000–120,000 people. The Senate of Canada is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however, such a move would entail constitutional changes. Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a constitutional amendment in the early 20th century mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has senators. This court decision resulted from a complaint by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early 20th century. Senators being appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal government, and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the 1989 budget, which saw a fillibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the Goods and Services Tax, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney \"stacked\" the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure and Leadership.", "History.", "Policies.", "Electoral history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "SWANU has a president, a vice-president, and a secretary-general. As many other socialist parties, it has a Politburo of 22 members, and a Central Committee of 52. The first President of SWANU was Fanuel Kozonguizi, who led from its formation in 1959 until 1966. Rihupisa Justus Kandando was the President from 1998, followed by Usutuaije Maamberua who served until 2017 and was replaced by Tangeni Iijambo.", "SWANU had its roots in the South West African Student Bureau (SWASB), an association of Namibian students studying at South African universities during the 1950s. The students had been radicalised by their firsthand exposure to apartheid in South Africa, and the active resistance to that system by the African National Congress (ANC). In 1955, the SWASB became a political party in its own right in 1955, when its members renamed it the South West African Progressive Association (SWAPA) and appointed Uatja Kaukuetu as its first chairman. SWAPA possessed little support outside academia, however, and in an attempt to expand its support base it united with the Ovamboland People's Congress (later the \"Ovamboland People's Organisation\", or OPO), which represented Ovambo migrant labourers in Cape Town, to form the South West African National Union (SWANU) on 27 September 1959. However, SWANU's leadership and agenda remained dominated by former SWAPA members, and OPO retained its autonomy under the partnership. Fanuel Jariretundu Kozonguizi was named the first president of SWANU, with Kaukuetu, the chairman of SWAPA, being appointed vice president. The party eventually came under the direct sponsorship of the South African Communist Party and became increasingly radical as a result. Throughout late 1959, SWANU and the Herero Chiefs' Council organised a bus boycott in Windhoek's Old Location, in response to forced evictions being undertaken by the South African Police. The police opened fire on the protesters, killing or wounding up to sixty. The Old Location shootings was the first of several political developments which ushered in a period of decline for SWANU. In the controversy surrounding the incident, the Herero Chiefs' Council disavowed SWANU and denied involvement with the Old Location protests. In July 1960, the OPO dissolved its affiliation with SWANU and issued its own party constitution. It also rebranded itself as the South West African People's Organisation (SWAPO) and opened its ranks to Namibians of all ethnic backgrounds. SWAPO's agenda was virtually identical to SWANU's: both called for an end to colonialism and imperialism, promoted pan-African ideals, and called for the economic, cultural, and social advancement of the Namibian people. However, SWANU placed a disproportionate emphasis on self-reliance, while SWAPO acknowledged the importance of external actors and the role of the United Nations in securing Namibian independence from South Africa. Both organisations competed for international recognition and support, and the relationship between SWAPO and SWANU's leadership grew increasingly frigid. SWANU was the only one of the two parties formally represented in the All-African People's Conference, the Afro-Asian People's Solidarity Organisation, and the Anti-Apartheid Movement. It had established a political headquarters in Dar es Salaam and political offices in Accra and Cairo. Both SWANU and SWAPO received formal recognition from the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963. They also succeeded in establishing bilateral relations with the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China. The growing severity of the Sino-Soviet split drove a rift between the two parties, however, with SWANU becoming more influenced ideologically and politically by China, and SWAPO by the Soviet Union. By 1966, the OAU had raised £20,000 in obligatory contributions from OAU member states for funding nationalist movements in Namibia. Kozonguizi was initially confident the money would be awarded to SWANU due to its international prominence and the fact that many of its members had been educated at prestigious institutions, namely in the United States and Western Europe. However, the OAU's official policy was to base its support for anti-colonial movements on their willingness to use force if necessary. The money was offered to both SWANU and SWAPO for the express purposes of undertaking an armed struggle against South African rule. Kozonguizi refused to make a commitment to armed struggle; whether this was due to his personal preference for passive resistance or whether he was simply skeptical about the wisdom of taking up arms against the well-equipped South African security forces is disputed. The repercussions of his decision were politically catastrophic for SWANU. SWAPO was able to argue that its willingness to initiate armed struggle gave it legitimacy in the eyes of the Namibian people that SWANU lacked. The OAU immediately withdrew recognition from SWANU and awarded the £20,000 to SWAPO. It also recognised SWAPO as the sole authentic representative of the Namibian people. This doomed any remaining prospects SWANU held for receiving assistance from the OAU or any black African government. The following year, SWANU was expelled from the Afro-Asian People's Conference. Its continued affiliation with the People's Republic of China made it unpopular, as both the Western nations and the Soviet bloc came to regard it as a Chinese proxy. Tanzanian authorities closed SWANU's headquarters in Dar es Salaam and ordered the party to leave Tanzania. Zambia, another country which had been initially sympathetic to SWANU, began refusing to accept Namibian refugees who were members of that party. With SWANU exiles considered prohibited immigrants in both Zambia and Tanzania, they were forced to settle almost solely in Botswana. Botswana was willing to accept Namibian refugees, but forbade them from engaging in politics. From 1968 onward the party declined into political obscurity and played no major role in the Namibian independence process. SWANU did make a belated attempt to raise its own guerrilla army, which was not formally established until 1975. The OAU was unimpressed and declared it would sanction only one guerrilla army in Namibia. It urged SWANU guerrillas to join the People's Liberation Army of Namibia (PLAN), SWAPO's armed wing, instead. Aside from China and initially, Egypt, no countries were willing to supply training or arms to SWANU. SWANU's requests for military aid from various socialist states in the Soviet sphere such as Nicaragua and Vietnam were rejected. Most of these states had already offered support to PLAN, and the negative examples of Angola and Zimbabwe, where rival guerrilla armies ultimately fought each other, were frequently cited as a pretext for declining aid to SWANU. SWANU did establish one guerrilla training camp in Botswana at Dukwe, where it succeeded in smuggling some weapons. However, most of its preparations for armed struggle were purely theoretical in nature and due to Botswana's refusal to endorse guerrilla camps on its soil, all training had to be conducted on a covert basis. For the duration of the South African Border War, SWANU insurgents were confined to the Dukwe camp and did not participate in the hostilities.", "SWANU is a democratic socialist and nationalist party. In January 2009, SWANU condemned Israel for their actions during the 2008–2009 Israel–Gaza conflict. Calling for an immediate ceasefire and withdrawal from the Palestinian territories, the party called for the severing of Namibian trade and diplomatic relations with Israel. On the issue of land reform, SWANU advocated for state intervention to bring about reform more quickly. It also criticised the Ministry of Lands and Resettlement for allegedly resettling politicians on land acquired for redistribution instead of the \"poorest of the poor\". It also called for greater political will for land reform.", "For 1999 elections it formed a \"Socialist Alliance\" with the Workers' Revolutionary Party and got 0.35% of the vote. In the 2004 elections it finished last with 3,610 votes and 0.44% of the vote." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Priesthood and cardinalate.", "Election to the papacy.", "Pressures.", "Election.", "Pontificate.", "Relations with the Jews.", "Suppression of the Jesuits.", "Mozart.", "Activities.", "Death and burial." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Ganganelli was born in Santarcangelo di Romagna in 1705 as the second child of Lorenzo Ganganelli and Angela Serafina Maria Mazza. He received the sacrament of baptism on 2 November 1705. He initially studied at Verucchio but later received his education from the Society of Jesus at Rimini from 1717. He also studied with the Piarists of Urbino. Ganganelli entered the Order of Friars Minor Conventual on 15 May 1723 in Forlì and taking the name to Lorenzo Francesco. He did his novitiate in Urbino where his cousin Vincenzo was a friar. He was professed as a full member of that order on 18 May 1724. He was sent to the convents of Pesaro, Fano and Recanati from 1724 to 1728 where he did his theological studies. He continued his studies in Rome under Antonio Lucci and obtained his doctorate in theology in 1731.", "He was ordained around this time after he received his doctorate and he taught philosophy and theology for almost a decade in Ascoli, Bologna and Milan. He later returned to Rome as the regent of the college that he studied in and was later elected as the Definitor General of the order in 1741. In the general chapters of his order in 1753 and 1756, he declined the generalship of his order and some rumored it was due to his desire of a higher office. Ganganelli became a friend of Pope Benedict XIV, who in 1758 appointed him to investigate the issue of the traditional blood libel regarding the Jews, which Ganganelli found to be untrue. Pope Clement XIII elevated Ganganelli to the cardinalate on 24 September 1759 and appointed him as the Cardinal-Priest of San Lorenzo in Panisperna. His elevation came at the insistence of Lorenzo Ricci, who was the Superior-General of the Society of Jesus. Ganganelli opted to become the Cardinal-Priest of Ss. XII Apostoli in 1762. In 1768 he was named the \"ponens\" of the cause of beatification of Juan de Palafox y Mendoza.", "", "The papal conclave in 1769 was almost completely dominated by the problem of the Society of Jesus. During the previous pontificate, the Jesuits had been expelled from Portugal and from all the courts of the House of Bourbon, which included France, Spain, Naples, and Parma. In January, 1769, these powers made a formal demand for the dissolution of the Society. Clement XIII had planned a consistory to discuss the matter, but died on 2 February, the night before it was to be held. Now the general suppression of the order was urged by the faction called the \"court cardinals\", who were opposed by the diminished pro-Jesuit faction, the \"Zelanti\" (\"zealous\"), who were generally opposed to the encroaching secularism of the Enlightenment. Much of the early activity was \"pro forma\" as the members waited for the arrival of those cardinals who had indicated that they would attend. The conclave had been sitting since 15 February 1769, heavily influenced by the political maneuvers of the ambassadors of Catholic sovereigns who were opposed to the Jesuits. Some of the pressure was subtle. On 15 March, Emperor Joseph II (1765–90) visited Rome to join his brother Leopold, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, who had arrived on 6 March. The next day, after touring St. Peter's Basilica, they took advantage of the conclave doors being opened to admit Cardinal Girolamo Spinola to enter as well. They were shown, upon the Emperor's request, the ballots, the chalice into which they would be placed, and where they would later be burned. That evening Gaetano Duca Cesarini hosted a party. It was the middle of Passion Week. The minister of King Louis XV of France (1715–74), the duc de Choiseul, had former experience of Rome as the French ambassador and was Europe's most skilled diplomat. \"When one has a favour to ask of a Pope\", he wrote, \"and one is determined to obtain it, one must ask for two\". Choiseul's suggestion was advanced to the other ambassadors and it was that they should press, in addition to the Jesuit issue, territorial claims upon the Patrimony of Saint Peter, including the return of Avignon and the Comtat Venaissin to France, the duchies of Benevento and Pontecorvo to Spain, an extension of territory adjoining the Papal States to Naples, and an immediate and final settlement of the vexed question of Parma and Piacenza that had occasioned a diplomatic rift between Austria and Pope Clement XIII.", "By 18 May, the court coalition appeared to be unravelling as the respective representatives began to negotiate separately with different cardinals. The French ambassador had earlier suggested that any acceptable candidate be required to put in writing that he would abolish the Jesuits. The idea was largely dismissed as a violation of canon law. Spain still insisted that a firm commitment should be given, though not necessarily in writing. However, such concessions could be immediately nullified by the pope upon election. On 19 May 1769, Cardinal Ganganelli was elected as a compromise candidate largely due to support of the Bourbon courts, which had expected that he would suppress the Society of Jesus. Ganganelli, who had been educated by Jesuits, gave no commitment, but indicated that he thought the dissolution was possible. He took the pontifical name of \"Clement XIV\". Ganganelli first received episcopal consecration in the Vatican on 28 May 1769 by Cardinal Federico Marcello Lante and was crowned as pope on 4 June 1769 by the cardinal protodeacon Alessandro Albani. He was replaced as Cardinal-Priest by Buenaventura Fernández de Córdoba Spínola.", "Clement XIV's policies were calculated from the outset to smooth the breaches with the Catholic Crowns that had developed during the previous pontificate. The dispute between the temporal and the spiritual Catholic authorities was perceived as a threat by Church authority, and Clement XIV worked towards reconciliation among the European sovereigns. By yielding the Papal claims to Parma, Clement XIV obtained the restitution of Avignon and Benevento and in general he succeeded in placing the relations of the spiritual and the temporal authorities on a friendlier footing. The pontiff went on to suppress the Jesuits, writing the decree to this effect in November 1772 and signing it on 21 July 1773.", "His accession was welcomed by the Jewish community who trusted that the man who, as councilor of the Holy Office, declared them, in a memorandum issued 21 March 1758, innocent of the slanderous blood accusation, would be no less just and humane toward them on the throne of Catholicism. Assigned by Pope Benedict XIV to investigate a charge against the Jews of Yanopol, Poland, Ganganelli not only refuted the claim, but showed that most of the similar claims since the thirteenth century were groundless. He deferred somewhat on the already sainted Simon of Trent, in 1475, and Andreas of Rinn, but noted the length of time before their canonizations as indicative that the veracity of the accusations raised significant doubts. Ganganelli concluded his memorandum by reminding the Christians that they themselves were once accused by the heathen of the same crime, as attested by Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Theodoret, and Rufinus. Two months after his accession, Clement XIV withdrew the Roman Jews from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and placed them under that of the \"Vicariato di Roma\" (5 Aug. 1769).", "The Jesuits had been expelled from Brazil (1754), Portugal (1759), France (1764), Spain and its colonies (1767), and Parma (1768). With the accession of a new pope, the Bourbon monarchs pressed for the Society's total suppression. Clement XIV tried to placate their enemies by apparent unfriendly treatment of the Jesuits: he refused to meet the superior general, Lorenzo Ricci, removed it from the administration of the Irish and Roman Colleges, and ordered them not to receive novices, etc. The pressure kept building up to the point that Catholic countries were threatening to break away from the Church. Clement XIV ultimately yielded \"in the name of peace of the Church and to avoid a secession in Europe\" and suppressed the Society of Jesus by the brief \"Dominus ac Redemptor\" of 21 July 1773. However, in non-Catholic nations, particularly in Prussia and Russia, where papal authority was not recognized, the order was ignored. It was a result of a series of political moves rather than a theological controversy.", "Pope Clement XIV and the customs of the Catholic Church in Rome are described in letters of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and of his father Leopold Mozart, written from Rome in April and May 1770 during their tour of Italy. Leopold found the upper clergy offensively haughty, but was received, with his son, by the pope, where Wolfgang demonstrated an amazing feat of musical memory. The papal chapel was famous for performing a \"Miserere mei, Deus\" by the 17th-century composer Gregorio Allegri, whose music was not to be copied outside of the chapel on pain of excommunication. The 14-year-old Wolfgang was able to transcribe the composition in its entirety after a single hearing. Clement made young Mozart a knight of the Order of the Golden Spur.", "Clement XIV elevated sixteen new cardinals into the cardinalate in twelve consistories including Giovanni Angelo Braschi, who succeeded him. The pope held no canonizations in his pontificate but he beatified a number of individuals.", "The last months of Clement XIV's life were embittered by his failures and he seemed always to be in sorrow because of this. His work was hardly accomplished before Clement XIV, whose usual constitution was quite vigorous, fell into a languishing sickness, generally attributed to poison. No conclusive evidence of poisoning was ever produced. The claims that the Pope was poisoned were denied by those closest to him, and as the Annual Register for 1774 stated, he was over 70 and had been in ill health for some time. On 10 September 1774, he was bedridden and received Extreme Unction on 21 September 1774. It is said that St. Alphonsus Liguori assisted Clement XIV in his last hours by the gift of Bilocation. Clement XIV died on 22 September 1774, execrated by the Ultramontane party but widely mourned by his subjects for his popular administration of the Papal States. When his body was opened for the autopsy, the doctors ascribed his death to scorbutic and hemorrhoidal dispositions of long standing that were aggravated by excessive labour and the habit of provoking artificial perspiration even in the greatest heat. His Neoclassical style tomb was designed and sculpted by Antonio Canova, and it is found in the church of Santi Apostoli in Rome. To this day, he is best remembered for his suppression of the Jesuits. The \"Monthly Review\" spoke highly of Ganganelli. In a review of a \"Sketch of the Life and Government of Pope Clement XIV\", the 1786 \"English Review\" said it was clearly written by an ex-Jesuit and noted the malignant characterization of a man it described as \"...a liberal, affable, ingenious man;...a politician enlarged in his views, and equally bold and dexterous iin the means by which he executed his designs.\" The 1876 Encyclopædia Britannica says that: Jacques Cretineau-Joly, however, wrote a critical history of the Pope's administration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Motives.", "Detection.", "Camouflage.", "Disguise.", "Dazzle.", "Deception used by governments.", "Simulation.", "Mimicry.", "Fabrication.", "Distraction.", "In romantic relationships.", "Infidelity.", "In online dating.", "In social research.", "In psychological research.", "In philosophy.", "In religion.", "Christianity.", "Islam.", "In law.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the whole truth. Examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. For example, a claim that'sunflower oil is beneficial to brain health due to the presence of omega-3 fatty acids' may be misleading, as it leads the receiver to believe sunflower oil will benefit brain health more so than other foods. In fact, sunflower oil is relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and is not particularly good for brain health, so while this claim is technically true, it leads the receiver to infer false information. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal or nonverbal messages so that the message receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception. Intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges. Some forms of deception include: Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced.", "Buller and Burgoon (1996) have proposed three taxonomies to distinguish motivations for deception based on their Interpersonal Deception Theory:", "Deception detection between relational partners is extremely difficult unless a partner tells a blatant or obvious lie or contradicts something the other partner knows to be true. While it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no known completely reliable indicators of deception and because people often reply on a truth-default state. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver. He or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally. Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. The interpersonal deception theory posits that interpersonal deception is a dynamic, iterative process of mutual influence between a sender, who manipulates information to depart from the truth, and a receiver, who attempts to establish the validity of the message. A deceiver's actions are interrelated to the message receiver's actions. It is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit. Some research has found that there are some cues that may be correlated with deceptive communication, but scholars frequently disagree about the effectiveness of many of these cues to serve as reliable indicators. Noted deception scholar Aldert Vrij even states that there is no nonverbal behavior that is uniquely associated with deception. As previously stated, a specific behavioral indicator of deception does not exist. There are, however, some nonverbal behaviors that have been found to be correlated with deception. Vrij found that examining a \"cluster\" of these cues was a significantly more reliable indicator of deception than examining a single cue. Mark Frank proposes that deception is detected at the cognitive level. Lying requires deliberate conscious behavior, so listening to speech and watching body language are important factors in detecting lies. If a response to a question has a lot disturbances, less talking time, repeated words, and poor logical structure, then the person may be lying. Vocal cues such as frequency height and variation may also provide meaningful clues to deceit. Fear specifically causes heightened arousal in liars, which manifests in more frequent blinking, pupil dilation, speech disturbances, and a higher pitched voice. The liars that experience guilt have been shown to make attempts at putting distance between themselves and the deceptive communication, producing “nonimmediacy cues” These can be verbal or physical, including speaking in more indirect ways and showing an inability to maintain eye contact with their conversation partners. Another cue for detecting deceptive speech is the tone of the speech itself. Streeter, Krauss, Geller, Olson, and Apple (1977) have assessed that fear and anger, two emotions widely associated with deception, cause greater arousal than grief or indifference, and note that the amount of stress one feels is directly related to the frequency of the voice.", "The camouflage of a physical object often works by breaking up the visual boundary of that object. This usually involves colouring the camouflaged object with the same colours as the background against which the object will be hidden. In the realm of deceptive half-truths, camouflage is realized by 'hiding' some of the truths. Military camouflage as a form of visual deception is a part of military deception.", "A disguise is an appearance to create the impression of being somebody or something else; for a well-known person this is also called incognito. Passing involves more than mere dress and can include hiding one's real manner of speech. Example: In a more abstract sense, 'disguise' may refer to the act of disguising the nature of a particular proposal in order to hide an unpopular motivation or effect associated with that proposal. This is a form of political spin or propaganda. \"See also\": rationalisation and transfer within the techniques of propaganda generation. Example:", "Example:", "The term \"deception\" as used by a government is typically frowned upon unless it's in reference to military operations. The terms for the means by which governments employ deception are:", "Simulation consists of exhibiting false information. There are three simulation techniques: mimicry (copying another model or example, such as non-poisonous snakes which have the colours and markings of poisonous snakes), fabrication (making up a new model), and distraction (offering an alternative model)", "In the biological world, mimicry involves \"unconscious\" deception by similarity to another organism, or to a natural object. Animals for example may deceive predators or prey by visual, auditory or other means.", "To make something that appears to be something that it is not, usually for the purpose of encouraging an adversary to reveal, endanger, or divert that adversary's own resources (\"i.e.\", as a decoy). For example, in World War II, it was common for the Allies to use hollow tanks made out of wood to fool German reconnaissance planes into thinking a large armor unit was on the move in one area while the real tanks were well hidden and on the move in a location far from the fabricated \"dummy\" tanks. Mock airplanes and fake airfields have also been created.", "To get someone's attention from the truth by offering bait or something else more tempting to divert attention away from the object being concealed. For example, a security company publicly announces that it will ship a large gold shipment down one route, while in reality take a different route. A military unit trying to maneuver out of a dangerous position may make a feint attack or fake retreat, to make the enemy think they are doing one thing, while in fact they have another goal. A seventeenth-century story collection, Zhang Yingyu's \"The Book of Swindles\" (ca. 1617), offers multiple examples of the bait-and-switch and fraud techniques involving the stimulation of greed in Ming-dynasty China.", "Deception is particularly common within romantic relationships, with more than 90% of individuals admitting to lying or not being completely honest with their partner at one time. There are three primary motivations for deception in relationships. Deception impacts the perception of a relationship in a variety of ways, for both the deceiver and the deceived. The deceiver typically perceives less understanding and intimacy from the relationship, in that they see their partner as less empathetic and more distant. The act of deception can also result in feelings of distress for the deceiver, which become worse the longer the deceiver has known the deceived, as well as in longer-term relationships. Once discovered, deception creates feelings of detachment and uneasiness surrounding the relationship for both partners; this can eventually lead to both partners becoming more removed from the relationship or deterioration of the relationship. In general, discovery of deception can result in a decrease in relationship satisfaction and commitment level, however, in instances where a person is successfully deceived, relationship satisfaction can actually be positively impacted for the person deceived, since lies are typically used to make the other partner feel more positive about the relationship. In general, deception tends to occur less often in relationships with higher satisfaction and commitment levels and in relationships where partners have known each other longer, such as long-term relationships and marriage. In comparison, deception is more likely to occur in casual relationships and in dating where commitment level and length of acquaintanceship is often much lower.", "Unique to exclusive romantic relationships is the use of deception in the form of infidelity. When it comes to the occurrence of infidelity, there are many individual difference factors that can impact this behavior. Infidelity is impacted by attachment style, relationship satisfaction, executive function, sociosexual orientation, personality traits, and gender. Attachment style impacts the probability of infidelity and research indicates that people with an insecure attachment style (anxious or avoidant) are more likely to cheat compared to individuals with a secure attachment style, especially for avoidant men and anxious women. Insecure attachment styles are characterized by a lack of comfort within a romantic relationship resulting in a desire to be overly independent (avoidant attachment style) or a desire to be overly dependent on their partner in an unhealthy way (anxious attachment style). Those with an insecure attachment style are characterized by not believing that their romantic partner can/will support and comfort them in an effective way, either stemming from a negative belief regarding themselves (anxious attachment style) or a negative belief regarding romantic others (avoidant attachment style). Women are more likely to commit infidelity when they are emotionally unsatisfied with their relationship whereas men are more likely to commit infidelity if they are sexually unsatisfied with their current relationship. Women are more likely to commit emotional infidelity than men while men are more likely to commit sexual infidelity than women; however, these are not mutually exclusive categories as both men and women can and do engage in emotional or sexual infidelity. Executive control is a part of executive functions that allows for individuals to monitor and control their behavior through thinking about and managing their actions. The level of executive control that an individual possesses is impacted by development and experience and can be improved through training and practice. Those individuals that show a higher level of executive control can more easily influence/control their thoughts and behaviors in relation to potential threats to an ongoing relationship which can result in paying less attention to threats to the current relationship (other potential romantic mates). Sociosexual orientation is concerned with how freely individuals partake in casual sex outside of a committed relationship and their beliefs regarding how necessary it is to be in love in order to engage in sex with someone. Individuals with a less restrictive sociosexual orientation (more likely to partake in casual sex) are more likely to engage in infidelity. Individuals that have personality traits including (high) neuroticism, (low) agreeableness, and (low) conscientiousness are more likely to commit infidelity. Men are generally speculated to cheat more than women, but it is unclear if this is a result of socialization processes where it is more acceptable for men to cheat compared to women or due to an actual increase in this behavior for men. Research conducted by Conley and colleagues (2011) suggests that the reasoning behind these gender differences stems from the negative stigma associated with women who engage in casual sex and inferences about the sexual capability of the potential sexual partner. In their study, men and women were equally likely to accept a sexual proposal from an individual who was speculated to have a high level of sexual prowess. Additionally, women were just as likely as men to accept a casual sexual proposal when they did not anticipate being subjected to the negative stigma of sexually permissible women as slutty.", "Research on the use of deception in online dating has shown that people are generally truthful about themselves with the exception of physical attributes to appear more attractive. According to the Scientific American, \"nine out of ten online daters will fib about their height, weight, or age\" such that men were more likely to lie about height while women were more likely to lie about weight. In a study conducted by Toma and Hancock, \"less attractive people were found to be more likely to have chosen a profile picture in which they were significantly more attractive than they were in everyday life\". Both genders used this strategy in online dating profiles, but women more so than men. Additionally, less attractive people were more likely to have \"lied about objective measures of physical attractiveness such as height and weight\". In general, men are more likely to lie on dating profiles the one exception being that women are more likely to lie about weight.", "Some methodologies in social research, especially in psychology, involve deception. The researchers purposely mislead or misinform the participants about the true nature of the experiment. In an experiment conducted by Stanley Milgram in 1963 the researchers told participants that they would be participating in a scientific study of memory and learning. In reality the study looked at the participants' willingness to obey commands, even when that involved inflicting pain upon another person. After the study, the subjects were informed of the true nature of the study, and steps were taken in order to ensure that the subjects left in a state of well being. Use of deception raises many problems of research ethics and it is strictly regulated by professional bodies such as the American Psychological Association.", "Psychological research often needs to deceive the subjects as to its actual purpose. The rationale for such deception is that humans are sensitive to how they appear to others (and to themselves) and this self-consciousness might interfere with or distort from how they actually behave outside of a research context (where they would not feel they were being scrutinized). For example, if a psychologist is interested in learning the conditions under which students cheat on tests, directly asking them, \"how often do you cheat?,\" might result in a high percent of \"socially desirable\" answers and the researcher would in any case be unable to verify the accuracy of these responses. In general, then, when it is unfeasible or naive to simply ask people directly why or how often they do what they do, researchers turn to the use of deception to distract their participants from the true behavior of interest. So, for example, in a study of cheating, the participants may be told that the study has to do with how intuitive they are. During the process they might be given the opportunity to look at (secretly, they think) another participant's [presumably highly intuitively correct] answers before handing in their own. At the conclusion of this or any research involving deception, all participants must be told of the true nature of the study and why deception was necessary (this is called debriefing). Moreover, it is customary to offer to provide a summary of the results to all participants at the conclusion of the research. Though commonly used and allowed by the ethical guidelines of the American Psychological Association, there has been debate about whether or not the use of deception should be permitted in psychological research experiments. Those against deception object to the ethical and methodological issues involved in its use. Dresser (1981) notes that, ethically, researchers are only to use subjects in an experiment after the subject has given informed consent. However, because of its very nature, a researcher conducting a deception experiment cannot reveal its true purpose to the subject, thereby making any consent given by a subject misinformed (p. 3). Baumrind (1964), criticizing the use of deception in the Milgram (1963) obedience experiment, argues that deception experiments inappropriately take advantage of the implicit trust and obedience given by the subject when the subject volunteers to participate (p. 421). From a practical perspective, there are also methodological objections to deception. Ortmann and Hertwig (1998) note that \"deception can strongly affect the reputation of individual labs and the profession, thus contaminating the participant pool\" (p. 806). If the subjects in the experiment are suspicious of the researcher, they are unlikely to behave as they normally would, and the researcher's control of the experiment is then compromised (p. 807). Those who do not object to the use of deception note that there is always a constant struggle in balancing \"the need for conducting research that may solve social problems and the necessity for preserving the dignity and rights of the research participant\" (Christensen, 1988, p. 670). They also note that, in some cases, using deception is the only way to obtain certain kinds of information, and that prohibiting all deception in research would \"have the egregious consequence of preventing researchers from carrying out a wide range of important studies\" (Kimmel, 1998, p. 805). Additionally, findings suggest that deception is not harmful to subjects. Christensen's (1988) review of the literature found \"that research participants do not perceive that they are harmed and do not seem to mind being misled\" (p. 668). Furthermore, those participating in experiments involving deception \"reported having enjoyed the experience more and perceived more educational benefit\" than those who participated in non-deceptive experiments (p. 668). Lastly, it has also been suggested that an unpleasant treatment used in a deception study or the unpleasant implications of the outcome of a deception study may be the underlying reason that a study using deception is perceived as unethical in nature, rather than the actual deception itself (Broder, 1998, p. 806; Christensen, 1988, p. 671).", "Deception is a recurring theme in modern philosophy. In 1641 Descartes published his meditations, in which he introduced the notion of the Deus deceptor, a posited being capable of deceiving the thinking ego about reality. The notion was used as part of his hyperbolic doubt, wherein one decides to doubt everything there is to doubt. The Deus deceptor is a mainstay of so-called skeptical arguments, which purport to put into question our knowledge of reality. The punch of the argument is that all we know might be wrong, since we might be deceived. Stanley Cavell has argued that all skepticism has its root in this fear of deception.", "Deception is a common topic in religious discussions. Some sources focus on how religious texts deal with deception. But, other sources focus on the deceptions created by the religions themselves. For example, Ryan McKnight is the founder of an organization called FaithLeaks. He stated that the organizations \"goal is to reduce the amount of deception and untruths and unethical behaviors that exist in some facets of religion\".", "In its purest form, Christianity encourages the pursuit of truth. But, in practice, many Christians are criticized as being deceptive and otherwise problematic. The prominent political speech writer Michael Gerson said that evangelicals were \"associating evangelicalism with bigotry, selfishness and deception.\" His comments were directed specifically towards those evangelicals who support Donald Trump.", "In Islam the concept of Taqiyya is often interpreted as legitimized deception. But, many Muslims view Taqiyya as a necessary means of alleviating religious persecution. In the city of Basking Ridge, New Jersey the town's residents used the concept of Taqivya to block a mosque from being built. The dispute went on for years. In a related story, journalist Ian Wilkie of Newsweek asserted that Taquivya provides evidence that Assad has used chemical weapons on the Syrian people.", "For legal purposes, deceit is a tort that occurs when a person makes a factual misrepresentation, knowing that it is false (or having no belief in its truth and being reckless as to whether it is true) and intending it to be relied on by the recipient, and the recipient acts to his or her detriment in reliance on it. Deceit may also be grounds for legal action in contract law (known as misrepresentation, or if deliberate, fraudulent misrepresentation), or a criminal prosecution, on the basis of fraud.", "Town Porsche of Englewood, New Jersey 07631 - also known as a new Perspective on Human Deceit." ] }